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diff --git a/15889-h/15889-h.htm b/15889-h/15889-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..791cdbd --- /dev/null +++ b/15889-h/15889-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,4800 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> +<head> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1" /> + +<title> +The Project Gutenberg eBook of Scientific American Supplement, October 1, 1887 +</title> + +<style type="text/css"> +<!-- + body {margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; background-color: white} + p {text-align: justify;} + img {border: 0;} + h1,h2,h3 {text-align: center;} + + hr {text-align: center; width: 50%;} + hr.short {width: 25%;} + hr.long {width: 75%;} + hr.full {width: 100%;} + + .note {margin-left: 2em; margin-right: 2em; margin-bottom: 1em;} + .ind {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + + .center {text-align: center;} + div.center table {margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; } + p#title {text-align: center; + margin-left: -10%; + margin-right: -10%;} + .signature {text-align: right; } + .smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} +--> +</style> +</head> + +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No. 613, +October 1, 1887, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 613, October 1, 1887 + +Author: Various + +Release Date: May 24, 2005 [EBook #15889] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN *** + + + + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at www.pgdp.net. + + + + + + +</pre> + +<p id="title"><a href="./images/title.png"><img src="./images/title_th.png" alt="Issue Title" /></a></p> +<h1>SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 613.</h1> +<h2>NEW YORK, OCTOBER 1, 1887.</h2> +<h4>Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XXIV., No. 613.</h4> +<h4>Scientific American established 1845</h4> +<h4>Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.</h4> +<h4>Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.</h4> +<hr /> + +<table summary="Contents" border="0" cellspacing="5"> +<tr> +<th colspan="2">TABLE OF CONTENTS.</th> +</tr> +<tr><td valign="top">I.</td><td><a href="#art01"> BIOGRAPHY.—Dr. Morell Mackenzie.—Biographical note and + portrait of the great English laryngologist—the physician + of the Prussian Crown Prince.—1 illustration. </a></td><td>9794</td> +</tr> +<tr><td valign="top">II.</td><td><a href="#art02"> BOTANY.—Soudan Coffee.—The <i>Parkia biglobosa</i>.—Its + properties and appearance, with analyses of its beans.—8 + illustrations. </a></td><td>9797</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td><td><a href="#art03"> Wisconsin Cranberry Culture.—The great cranberry crop of + Wisconsin.—The Indian pickers and details of the + cultivation. </a></td><td>9796</td> +</tr> +<tr><td valign="top">III.</td><td><a href="#art04"> CHEMISTRY.—Analysis of Kola Nut.—A new article + adapted as a substitute for cocoa and chocolate to military + and other dietaries.—Its use by the French and German + governments. </a></td><td>9785</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td><td><a href="#art05"> Carbonic Acid in the Air.—By THOMAS C. VAN NUYS and + BENJAMIN F. ADAMS, Jr.—The results of eighteen analyses of + air by Van Nuys apparatus. </a></td><td>9785</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td><td><a href="#art06"> The Crimson Line of Phosphorescent Alumina.—Note on Prof. + Crooke's recent investigation of the anomalies of the oxide + of aluminum as regards its spectrum. </a></td><td>9784</td> +</tr> +<tr><td valign="top">IV.</td><td><a href="#art07"> ELECTRICITY.—Electric Time.—By M. LITTMANN.—An + abstruse research into a natural electric standard of + time.—The results and necessary formulæ. </a></td><td>9793</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td><td><a href="#art08"> New Method of Maintaining the Vibration of a + Pendulum.—Ingenious magneto-electric method of maintaining + the swinging of a pendulum. </a></td><td>9794</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td><td><a href="#art09"> The Part that Electricity Plays in Crystallization.—C. + Decharme's investigations into this much debated + question.—The results of his work described.—3 + illustrations. </a></td><td>9793</td> +</tr> +<tr><td valign="top">V.</td><td><a href="#art10"> ENGINEERING.—A New Type of Railway Car.—A car with + lateral passageways, adapted for use in Africa—2 + illustrations. </a></td><td>9792</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td><td><a href="#art11"> Centrifugal Pumps at Mare Island Navy Yard, California.—By + H.R. CORNELIUS.—The great pumps for the Mare Island dry + docks.—Their capacity and practical working. </a></td><td>9792</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td><td><a href="#art12"> Foundations of the Central Viaduct of Cleveland, + O.—Details of the foundations of this viaduct, probably + the largest of its kind ever constructed. </a></td><td>9792</td> +</tr> +<tr><td valign="top">VI.</td><td><a href="#art13"> METALLURGY.—Chapin Wrought Iron.—By W.H. SEARLES.—An + interesting account of the combined pneumatic and + mechanical treatment of pig iron, giving as product a true + wrought iron. </a></td><td>9785</td> +</tr> +<tr><td valign="top">VII.</td><td><a href="#art14"> METEOROLOGY.—On the Cause of Iridescence in + Clouds.—By G. JOHNSTONE STONEY.—An interesting theory of + the production of prismatic colors in clouds, referring it + to interference of light. </a></td><td>9798</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td><td><a href="#art15"> The Height of Summer Clouds.—A compendious statement, + giving the most reliable estimation of the elevations of + different forms of clouds. </a></td><td>9797</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td><td><a href="#art16">VIII. MISCELLANEOUS.—The British Association.—Portraits + of the president and section presidents of the late + Manchester meeting of the British Association for the + Advancement of Science, with report of the address of the + president, Sir Henry E. Roscoe.—9 illustrations. </a></td><td>9783</td> +</tr> +<tr><td valign="top">IX.</td><td><a href="#art17"> PHYSIOLOGY.—Hypnotism in France.—A valuable review of + the present status of this subject, now so much studied in + Paris. </a></td><td>9795</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td><td><a href="#art18"> The Duodenum a Siphon Trap.—By MAYO COLLIER, M.S., etc.—A + curious observation in anatomy.—The only trap found in the + intestinal canal.—Its uses.—2 illustrations. </a></td><td>9796</td> +</tr> +<tr><td valign="top">X.</td><td><a href="#art19"> TECHNOLOGY.—Apparatus for Testing Champagne Bottles and + Corks.—Ingenious apparatus due to Mr. J. Salleron, for use + especially in the champagne industry.—2 illustrations. </a></td><td>9786</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td><td><a href="#art20"> Celluloid.—Notes of the history and present method of + manufacture of this widely used substance. </a></td><td>9785</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td><td><a href="#art21"> Centrifugal Extractors.—By ROBERT F. GIBSON.—The second + installment of this extensive and important paper, giving + many additional forms of centrifugal apparatus—12 + illustrations. </a></td><td>9789</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td><td><a href="#art22"> Cotton Industries of Japan.—An interesting account of the + primitive methods of treating cotton by the Japanese.—Their + methods of ginning, carding, etc., described. </a></td><td>9788</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td><td><a href="#art23"> Gas from Oil.—Notes on a paper read by Dr. Stevenson + Macadam at a recent meeting of the British Gas Institute, + giving his results with petroleum gas. </a></td><td>9787</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td><td><a href="#art24"> Improved Biscuit Machine.—A machine having a capacity for + making 4,000 small biscuits per minute.—1 illustration. </a></td><td>9787</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td><td><a href="#art25"> Improved Cream Separator.—A centrifugal apparatus for + dairy use of high capacity.—3 illustrations. </a></td><td>9787</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td><td><a href="#art26"> The Manufacture of Salt near Middlesbrough.—By Sir + LOWTHIAN BELL, Bart., F.C.S.—The history and origin of + this industry, the methods used, and the soda ash process + as there applied.</a></td><td>9788</td> +</tr></table> +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="Page_9783" id="Page_9783"></a><a name="art16" id="art16"></a>THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION.</h2> + +<p class="center"><a href="./images/1.png"><img src="./images/1_th.png" alt="THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION AT MANCHESTER PORTRAITS OF THE" /></a> +<br />THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION AT MANCHESTER<br /> PORTRAITS OF THE +PRESIDENT AND PRESIDENTS OF SECTIONS</p> + +<p>The fifty-seventh annual meeting of the British Association was opened +on Wednesday evening, Aug. 31, 1887, at Manchester, by an address from +the president, Sir H.E. Roscoe, M.P. This was delivered in the Free +Trade Hall. The chair was occupied by Professor Williamson, who was +supported by the Bishop of Manchester, Sir F. Bramwell, Professor +Gamgee, Professor Milnes Marshall, Professor Wilkins, Professor Boyd +Dawkins, Professor Ward, and many other distinguished men. A telegram +was read from the retiring president, Sir Wm. Dawson, of Montreal, +congratulating the association and Manchester on this year's meeting. +The new president, Sir H. Roscoe, having been introduced to the +audience, was heartily applauded.</p> + +<p>The president, in his inaugural address, said Manchester, +distinguished as the birthplace of two of the greatest discoveries of +modern science, welcomed the visit of the British Association for the +third time. Those discoveries were the atomic theory of which John +Dalton was the author, and the most far-reaching scientific principle +of modern times, namely, that of the conservation of energy, which was +given to the world about the year 1842 by Dr. Joule. While the place +suggested these reminders, the time, the year of the Queen's jubilee, +excited a feeling of thankfulness that they had lived in an age which +had witnessed an advance in our knowledge of nature and a consequent +improvement in the physical, moral, and intellectual well-being of the +people hitherto unknown.</p> + +<h3>PROGRESS OF CHEMISTRY.</h3> + +<p>A sketch of that progress in the science of chemistry alone would be +the subject of his address. The initial point was the views of Dalton +and his contemporaries compared with the ideas which now prevail; and +he (the president) examined this comparison by the light which the +research of the last fifty years had thrown on the subject of the +Daltonian atoms, in the three-fold aspect of their size, +indivisibility, and mutual relationships, and their motions.</p> + +<h3>SIZE OF THE ATOM.</h3> + +<p>As to the size of the atom, Loschmidt, of Vienna, had come to the +conclusion that the diameter of an atom of oxygen or nitrogen was the +ten-millionth part of a centimeter. With the highest known magnifying +power we could distinguish the forty-thousandth part of a centimeter. +If, now, we imagine a cubic box each of whose sides had this length, +such a box, when filled with air, would contain from sixty to a +hundred millions of atoms of oxygen and nitrogen. As to the +indivisibility of the atom, the space of fifty years had completely +changed the face of the inquiry. Not only had the number of distinct, +well-established elementary bodies increased from fifty-three in 1837 +to seventy in 1887, but the properties of these elements had been +studied, and were now known with a degree of precision then undreamt +of. Had the atoms of our present <a name="Page_9784" id="Page_9784"></a>elements been made to yield? To this +a negative answer must undoubtedly be given, for even the highest of +terrestrial temperatures, that of the electric spark, had failed to +shake any one of these atoms in two. This was shown by the results +with which spectrum analysis had enriched our knowledge. Terrestrial +analysis had failed to furnish favorable evidence; and, turning to the +chemistry of the stars, the spectra of the white, which were +presumably the hottest stars, furnished no direct evidence that a +decomposition of any terrestrial atom had taken place; indeed, we +learned that the hydrogen atom, as we know it here, can endure +unscathed the inconceivably fierce temperature of stars presumably +many times more fervent than our sun, as Sirius and Vega. It was +therefore no matter for surprise if the earth-bound chemist should for +the present continue to regard the elements as the unalterable +foundation stones upon which his science is based.</p> + +<h3>ATOMIC MOTION.</h3> + +<p>Passing to the consideration of atoms in motion, while Dalton and +Graham indicated that they were in a continual state of motion, we +were indebted to Joule for the first accurate determination of the +rate of that motion. Clerk-Maxwell had calculated that a hydrogen +molecule, moving at the rate of seventy miles per minute, must, in one +second of time, knock against others no fewer than eighteen thousand +million times. This led to the reflection that in nature there is no +such thing as great or small, and that the structure of the smallest +particle, invisible even to our most searching vision, may be as +complicated as that of any one of the heavenly bodies which circle +round our sun. How did this wonderful atomic motion affect their +chemistry?</p> + +<h3>ATOMIC COMBINATION.</h3> + +<p>Lavoisier left unexplained the dynamics of combustion; but in 1843, +before the chemical section of the association meeting at Cork, Dr. +Joule announced the discovery which was to revolutionize modern +science, namely, the determination of the mechanical equivalent of +heat. Every change in the arrangement of the particles he found was +accompanied by a definite evolution or an absorption of heat. Heat was +evolved by the clashing of the atoms, and this amount was fixed and +definite. Thus to Joule we owe the foundation of chemical dynamics and +the basis of thermal chemistry. It was upon a knowledge of the mode of +arrangement of atoms, and on a recognition of their distinctive +properties, that the superstructure of modern organic chemistry +rested. We now assumed on good grounds that the atom of each element +possessed distinct capabilities of combination. The knowledge of the +mode in which the atoms in the molecule are arranged had given to +organic chemistry an impetus which had overcome many experimental +obstacles, and organic chemistry had now become synthetic.</p> + +<p>Liebig and Wohler, in 1837, foresaw the artificial production in the +laboratories of all organic substances so far as they did not +constitute a living organism. And after fifty years their prophecy had +been fulfilled, for at the present time we could prepare an artificial +sweetening principle, an artificial alkaloid, and salacine.</p> + +<h3>SYNTHESIS.</h3> + +<p>We know now that the same laws regulate the formation of chemical +compounds in both animate and inanimate nature, and the chemist only +asked for a knowledge of the constitution of any definite chemical +compounds found in the organic world in order to be able to promise to +prepare it artificially. Seventeen years elapsed between Wohler's +discovery of the artificial production of urea and the next real +synthesis, which was accomplished by Kolbe, when in 1845 he prepared +acetic acid from its elements. Since then a splendid harvest of +results had been gathered in by chemists of all nations. In 1834 Dumas +made known the law of substitution, and showed that an exchange could +take place between the constituent atoms in a molecule, and upon this +law depended in great measure the astounding progress made in the wide +field of organic synthesis.</p> + +<p>Perhaps the most remarkable result had been the production of an +artificial sweetening agent, termed saccharin, 250 times sweeter than +sugar, prepared by a complicated series of reactions from coal tar. +These discoveries were not only of scientific interest, for they had +given rise to the industry of coal tar colors, founded by our +countryman Perkin, the value of which was measured by millions +sterling annually. Another interesting application of synthetic +chemistry to the needs of everyday life was the discovery of a series +of valuable febrifuges, of which antipyrin might be named as the most +useful.</p> + +<p>An important aspect in connection with the study of these bodies was +the physiological value which had been found to attach to the +introduction of certain organic radicals, so that an indication was +given of the possibility of preparing a compound which will possess +certain desired physiological properties, or even to foretell the kind +of action which such bodies may exert on the animal economy. But now +the question might well be put, Was any limit set to this synthetic +power of the chemist? Although the danger of dogmatizing as to the +progress of science had already been shown in too many instances, yet +one could not help feeling that the barrier between the organized and +unorganized worlds was one which the chemist at present saw no chance +of breaking down. True, there were those who professed to foresee that +the day would arrive when the chemist, by a succession of constructive +efforts, might pass beyond albumen, and gather the elements of +lifeless matter into a living structure. Whatever might be said +regarding this from other standpoints, the chemist could only say that +at present no such problem lay within his province.</p> + +<p>Protoplasm, with which the simplest manifestations of life are +associated, was not a compound, but a structure built up of compounds. +The chemist might successfully synthesize any of its component +molecules, but he had no more reason to look forward to the synthetic +production of the structure than to imagine that the synthesis of +gallic acid led to the artificial production of gall nuts. Although +there was thus no prospect of effecting a synthesis of organized +material, yet the progress made in our knowledge of the chemistry of +life during the last fifty years had been very great, so much so +indeed that the sciences of physiological and of pathological +chemistry might be said to have entirely arisen within that period.</p> + + +<h3>CHEMISTRY OF VITAL FUNCTIONS.</h3> + +<p>He would now briefly trace a few of the more important steps which had +marked the recent study of the relations between the vital phenomena +and those of the inorganic world. No portion of the science of +chemistry was of greater interest or greater complexity than that +which, bearing on the vital functions both of plants and of animals, +endeavored to unravel the tangled skein of the chemistry of life, and +to explain the principles according to which our bodies live, and +move, and have their being. If, therefore, in the less complicated +problems with which other portions of our science have to deal, we +found ourselves often far from possessing satisfactory solutions, we +could not be surprised to learn that with regard to the chemistry of +the living body—whether vegetable or animal—in health or disease, we +were still farther from a complete knowledge of phenomena, even those +of fundamental importance.</p> + +<p>Liebig asked if we could distinguish, on the one hand, between the +kind of food which goes to create warmth and, on the other, that by +the oxidation of which the motions and mechanical energy of the body +are kept up. He thought he was able to do this, and he divided food +into two categories. The starchy or carbo-hydrate food was that, said +he, which by its combustion provided the warmth necessary for the +existence and life of the body. The albuminous or nitrogenous +constituents of our food, the flesh meat, the gluten, the casein out +of which our muscles are built up, were not available for the purpose +of creating warmth, but it was by the waste of those muscles that the +mechanical energy, the activity, the motions of the animal are +supplied.</p> + +<p>Soon after the promulgation of these views, J.R. Mayer warmly attacked +them, throwing out the hypothesis that all muscular action is due to +the combustion of food, and not to the destruction of muscle.</p> + +<p>What did modern research say to this question? Could it be brought to +the crucial test of experiment? It could; but how? In the first place, +we could ascertain the work done by a man or any other animal; we +could measure this work in terms of our mechanical standard, in +kilogramme-meters or foot-pounds. We could next determine what was the +destruction of nitrogenous tissue at rest and under exercise by the +amount of nitrogenous material thrown off by the body. And here we +must remember that these tissues were never completely burned, so that +free nitrogen was never eliminated. If now we knew the heat value of +the burned muscle, it was easy to convert this into its mechanical +equivalent and thus measure the energy generated. What was the result?</p> + +<p>Was the weight of muscle destroyed by ascending the Faulhorn or by +working on the treadmill sufficient to produce on combustion heat +enough when transformed into mechanical exercise to lift the body up +to the summit of the Faulhorn or to do the work on the treadmill?</p> + +<p>Careful experiment had shown that this was so far from being the case +that the actual energy developed was twice as great as that which +could possibly be produced by the oxidation of the nitrogenous +constituents eliminated from the body during twenty-four hours. That +was to say, taking the amount of nitrogenous substance cast off from +the body, not only while the work was being done, but during +twenty-four hours, the mechanical effect capable of being produced by +the muscular tissue from which this cast-off material was derived +would only raise the body half way up the Faulhorn, or enable the +prisoner to work half his time on the treadmill. Hence it was clear +that Liebig's proposition was not true.</p> + +<p>The nitrogenous constituents of the food did doubtless go to repair +the waste of muscle, which, like every other portion of the body, +needed renewal, while the function of the non-nitrogenous food was not +only to supply the animal heat, but also to furnish, by its oxidation, +the muscular energy of the body. We thus came to the conclusion that +it was the potential energy of the food which furnished the actual +energy of the body, expressed in terms either of heat or of mechanical +work.</p> + +<p>But there was one other factor which came into play in this question +of mechanical energy, and must be taken into account; and this factor +we were as yet unable to estimate in our usual terms. It concerned the +action of the mind on the body, and although incapable of exact +expression, exerted none the less an important influence on the +physics and chemistry of the body, so that a connection undoubtedly +existed between intellectual activity or mental work and bodily +nutrition. What was the expenditure of mechanical energy which +accompanied mental effort was a question which science was probably +far from answering; but that the body experienced exhaustion as the +result of mental activity was a well-recognized fact.</p> + +<h3>CHEMISTRY OF VEGETATION.</h3> + +<p>The phenomena of vegetation, no less than those of the animal world, +had, however, during the last fifty years been placed by the chemist +on an entirely new basis.</p> + +<p>Liebig, in 1860, asserted that the whole of the carbon of vegetation +was obtained from the atmospheric carbonic acid, which, though only +present in the small relative proportion of four parts in 10,000 of +air, was contained in such absolutely large quantity that if all the +vegetation on the earth's surface were burned, the proportion of +carbonic acid which would thus be thrown into the air would not be +sufficient to double the present amount. That this conclusion was +correct needed experimental proof, but such proof could only be given +by long-continued and laborious experiment.</p> + +<p>It was to our English agricultural chemists, Lawes and Gilbert, that +we owed the complete experimental proof required, and this experiment +was long and tedious, for it had taken forty-four years to give a +definite reply.</p> + +<p>At Rothamsted a plot was set apart for the growth of wheat. For +forty-four successive years that field had grown wheat without the +addition of any carbonized manure, so that the only possible source +from which the plant could obtain the carbon for its growth was the +atmospheric carbonic acid. The quantity of carbon which on an average +was removed in the form of wheat and straw from a plot manured only +with mineral matter was 1,000 lb., while on another plot, for which a +nitrogenous manure was employed, 1,500 lb. more carbon was annually +removed, or 2,500 lb. of carbon were removed by this crop annually +without the addition of any carbonaceous manure. So that Liebig's +prevision had received a complete experimental verification.</p> + +<h3>CHEMICAL PATHOLOGY.</h3> + +<p>Touching us as human beings even still more closely than the foregoing +was the influence which chemistry had exerted on the science of +pathology, and in no direction had greater progress been made than in +the study of micro-organisms in relation to health and disease. In the +complicated chemical changes to which we gave the names of +fermentation and putrefaction, Pasteur had established the fundamental +principle that these processes were inseparately connected with the +life of certain low forms of organisms. Thus was founded the science +of bacteriology, which in Lister's hands had yielded such splendid +results in the treatment of surgical cases, and in those of Klebs, +Koch, and others, had been the means of detecting the cause of many +diseases both in man and animals, the latest and not the least +important of which was the remarkable series of successful researches +by Pasteur into the nature and mode of cure of that most dreadful of +maladies, hydrophobia. The value of his discovery was greater than +could be estimated by its present utility, for it showed that it might +be possible to avert other diseases besides hydrophobia by the +adoption of a somewhat similar method of investigation and of +treatment.</p> + +<p>Here it might seem as if we had outstepped the boundaries of +chemistry, and had to do with phenomena purely vital. But recent +research indicated that this was not the case, and pointed to the +conclusion that the microscopist must again give way to the chemist, +and that it was by chemical rather than biological investigation that +the causes of diseases would be discovered, and the power of removing +them obtained. For we learned that the symptoms of infective diseases +were no more due to the microbes which constituted the infection than +alcoholic intoxication was produced by the yeast cell, but that these +symptoms were due to the presence of definite chemical compounds, the +result of the life of these microscopic organisms. So it was to the +action of these poisonous substances formed during the life of the +organism, rather than to that of the organism itself, that the special +characteristics of the disease were to be traced, for it had been +shown that the disease could be communicated by such poisons in the +entire absence of living organisms.</p> + +<p>Had time permitted, he would have wished to have illustrated the +dependence of industrial success upon original investigation, and to +have pointed out the prodigious strides which chemical industry in +this country had made during the fifty years of her Majesty's reign. +As it was, he must be content to remark how much our modern life, both +in its artistic and useful aspects, owed to chemistry, and therefore +how essential a knowledge of the principles of the science was to all +who had the industrial progress of the country at heart. The country +was now beginning to see that if she was to maintain her commercial +and industrial supremacy, the education of her people from top to +bottom must be carried out on new lines. The question how this could +be most safely and surely accomplished was one of transcendent +national importance, and the statesman who solved this educational +problem would earn the gratitude of generations yet to come.</p> + +<p>In welcoming the unprecedentedly large number of foreign men of +science who had on this occasion honored the British Association by +their presence, he hoped that that meeting might be the commencement +of an international scientific organization, the only means nowadays +existing of establishing that fraternity among nations from which +politics appeared to remove them further and further, by absorbing +human powers and human work, and directing them to purposes of +destruction. It would indeed be well if Great Britain, which had +hitherto taken the lead in so many things that are great and good, +should now direct her attention to the furthering of international +organizations of a scientific nature. A more appropriate occasion than +the present meeting could perhaps hardly be found for the inauguration +of such a movement. But whether this hope were realized or not, they +all united in that one great object, the search after truth for its +own sake, and they all, therefore, might join in re-echoing the words +of Lessing: "The worth of man lies not in the truth which he +possesses, or believes that he possesses, but in the honest endeavor +which he puts forth to secure that truth; for not by the possession of +truth, but by the search after it, are the faculties of man enlarged, +and in this alone consists his ever-growing perfection. Possession +fosters content, indolence, and pride. If God should hold in his right +hand all truth, and in his left hand the ever-active desire to seek +truth, though with the condition of perpetual error, I would humbly +ask for the contents of the left hand, saying, 'Father, give me this; +pure truth is only for thee.'"</p> + +<p>At the close of his address a vote of thanks was passed to the +president, on the motion of the Mayor of Manchester, seconded by +Professor Asa Gray, of Harvard College. The president mentioned that +the number of members is already larger than at any previous annual +meeting, namely, 3,568, including eighty foreigners.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art06" id="art06"></a>THE CRIMSON LINE OF PHOSPHORESCENT ALUMINA.</h2> + +<p>Crookes has presented to the Royal Society a paper on the color +emitted by pure alumina when submitted to the electric discharge <i>in +vacuo</i>, in answer to the statements of De Boisbaudran. In 1879 he had +stated that "next to the diamond, alumina, in the form of ruby, is +perhaps the most strikingly phosphorescent stone I have examined. It +glows with a rich, full red; and a remarkable feature is that it is of +little consequence what degree of color the earth or stone possesses +naturally, the color of the phosphorescence is nearly the same in all +cases; chemically precipitated amorphous alumina, rubies of a pale +reddish yellow, and gems of the prized 'pigeon's blood' color glowing +alike in the vacuum." These results, as well as the spectra obtained, +he stated further, corroborated Becquerel's observations. In +consequence of the opposite results obtained by De Boisbaudran, +Crookes has now re-examined this question with a view to clear up the +mystery. On examining a specimen of alumina prepared from tolerably +pure aluminum sulphate, shown <a name="Page_9785" id="Page_9785"></a>by the ordinary tests to be free from +chromium, the bright crimson line, to which the red phosphorescent +light is due, was brightly visible in its spectrum. The aluminum +sulphate was then, in separate portions, purified by various processes +especially adapted to separate from it any chromium that might be +present; the best of these being that given by Wohler, solution in +excess of potassium hydrate and precipitation of the alumina by a +current of chlorine. The alumina filtered off, ignited, and tested in +a radiant matter tube gave as good a crimson line spectrum as did that +from the original sulphate.</p> + +<p>A repetition of this purifying process gave no change in the result. +Four possible explanations are offered of the phenomena observed: "(1) +The crimson line is due to alumina, but it is capable of being +suppressed by an accompanying earth which concentrates toward one end +of the fractionations; (2) the crimson line is not due to alumina, but +is due to the presence of an accompanying earth concentrating toward +the other end of the fractionations; (3) the crimson line belongs to +alumina, but its full development requires certain precautions to be +observed in the time and intensity of ignition, degree of exhaustion, +or its absolute freedom from alkaline and other bodies carried down by +precipitated alumina and difficult to remove by washing; experience +not having yet shown which of these precautions are essential to the +full development of the crimson line and which are unessential; and +(4) the earth alumina is a compound molecule, one of its constituent +molecules giving the crimson line. According to this hypothesis, +alumina would be analogous to yttria."—<i>Nature.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art05" id="art05"></a>CARBONIC ACID IN THE AIR.</h2> + +<h3>By THOMAS C. VAN NUYS and BENJAMIN F. ADAMS, JR.</h3> + +<p>During the month of April, 1886, we made eighteen estimations of +carbonic acid in the air, employing Van Nuys' apparatus,<a name="FNanchor_1" id="FNanchor_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1"><sup>1</sup></a> recently +described in this journal. These estimations were made in the +University Park, one-half mile from the town of Bloomington. The park +is hilly, thinly shaded, and higher than the surrounding country. The +formation is sub-carboniferous and altitude 228 meters. There are no +lowlands or swamps near. The estimations were made at 10 A.M.</p> + +<p>The air was obtained one-half meter from the ground and about 100 +meters from any of the university buildings. The number of volumes of +carbonic acid is calculated at zero C. and normal pressure 760 mm.</p> + +<div class="center"> +<table border="1" summary=""> +<colgroup span="5"><col align="center" /><col align="right" span="3" /><col align="left" /></colgroup> +<tr><th colspan="2" align="center">Date.</th><th>Bar. Pressure</th><th>Vols. CO<sup>2</sup><br />in 100,000 <br />Vols. Air.</th><th>State of Weather.</th></tr> +<tr><td>April</td><td>2</td><td>743.5</td><td>28.86</td><td>Cloudy, snow on ground.</td></tr> +<tr><td>"</td><td>5</td><td>743.5</td><td>28.97</td><td align="center">"</td></tr> +<tr><td>"</td><td>6</td><td>735</td><td>28.61</td><td>Snowing.</td></tr> +<tr><td>"</td><td>7</td><td>744.5</td><td>28.63</td><td>Clear, snow on ground.</td></tr> +<tr><td>"</td><td>8</td><td>748</td><td>27.59</td><td>Clear, thawing.</td></tr> +<tr><td>"</td><td>9</td><td>747.5</td><td>28.10</td><td>"</td></tr> +<tr><td>"</td><td>12</td><td>744</td><td>28.04</td><td>Cloudy.</td></tr> +<tr><td>"</td><td>13</td><td>744</td><td>28.10</td><td>Clear.</td></tr> +<tr><td>"</td><td>14</td><td>743.5</td><td>28.98</td><td align="center">"</td></tr> +<tr><td>"</td><td>15</td><td>750.5</td><td>28.17</td><td>Raining.</td></tr> +<tr><td>"</td><td>19</td><td>748</td><td>28.09</td><td>Clear.</td></tr> +<tr><td>"</td><td>20</td><td>746</td><td>27.72</td><td align="center">"</td></tr> +<tr><td>"</td><td>21</td><td>746</td><td>28.16</td><td align="center">"</td></tr> +<tr><td>"</td><td>22</td><td>741.5</td><td>27.92</td><td align="center">"</td></tr> +<tr><td>"</td><td>23</td><td>740</td><td>28.12</td><td align="center">"</td></tr> +<tr><td>"</td><td>24</td><td>738.5</td><td>28.15</td><td align="center">"</td></tr> +<tr><td>"</td><td>25</td><td>738.5</td><td>27.46</td><td align="center">"</td></tr> +<tr><td>"</td><td>28</td><td>738</td><td>27.34</td><td align="center">"</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>The average number of volumes of carbonic acid in 100,000 volumes of +air is 28.16, the maximum number is 28.98, and the minimum 27.34. +These results agree with estimations made within the last ten or +fifteen years. Reiset<a name="FNanchor_2" id="FNanchor_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2"><sup>2</sup></a> made a great number of estimations from +September 9, 1872, to August 20, 1873, the average of which is 29.42. +Six years later<a name="FNanchor_3" id="FNanchor_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3"><sup>3</sup></a> he made many estimations from June to November, the +average of which is 29.78. The average of Schultze's<a name="FNanchor_4" id="FNanchor_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4"><sup>4</sup></a> estimations is +29 2. The results of estimations of carbonic acid in the air, made +under the supervision of Munz and Aubin<a name="FNanchor_5" id="FNanchor_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5"><sup>5</sup></a> in October, November, and +December, 1882, at the stations where observations were made of the +transit of Venus by astronomers sent out by the French government, +yield the average, for all stations north of the equator to latitude +29° 54' in Florida, 28.2 volumes carbonic acid in 100,000 volumes air, +and for all stations south of the equator 27.1 volumes. The average of +Claesson's<a name="FNanchor_6" id="FNanchor_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6"><sup>6</sup></a> estimations is 27.9 volumes, his maximum number is 32.7, +and his minimum is 23.7. It is apparent, from the results of +estimations of carbonic acid of the air of various parts of the globe, +by the employment of apparatus with which errors are avoided, that the +quantity of carbonic acid is subject to slight variation, and not, as +stated in nearly all text books of science, from 4 to 6 volumes in +10,000 volumes of air; and it is further apparent that the law of +Schloesing<a name="FNanchor_7" id="FNanchor_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7"><sup>7</sup></a> holds good. By this law the carbonic acid of an +atmosphere in contact with water containing calcium or magnesium +carbonate in solution is dissolved according to the tension of the +carbonic acid; that is, by an increased quantity its tension +increases, and more would pass in solution in the form of +bicarbonates. On the other hand, by diminishing the quantity of +carbonic acid in the atmosphere, some of the bicarbonates would +decompose and carbonic acid pass into the atmosphere.</p> + +<p>Schloesing's law has been verified by R. Engel<a name="FNanchor_8" id="FNanchor_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8"><sup>8</sup></a>.</p> + +<p>The results of estimations of bases and carbonic acid in the water of +the English Channel lead Schloesing<a name="FNanchor_9" id="FNanchor_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9"><sup>9</sup></a> to conclude that the carbonic +acid combined with normal carbonates, forming bicarbonates, dissolved +in the water of the globe is ten times greater in quantity than that +of the atmosphere, and on account of this available carbonic acid, if +the atmosphere should be deprived of some of its carbonic acid, the +loss would soon be supplied.</p> + + +<p>As, in nearly all of the methods which were employed for estimating +carbonic acid in the air, provision is not made for the exclusion of +air not measured containing carbonic acid from the alkaline fluid +before titrating or weighing, the results are generally too high and +show a far greater variation than is found by more exact methods. For +example, Gilm<a name="FNanchor_10" id="FNanchor_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10"><sup>10</sup></a> found from 36 to 48 volumes; Levy's<a name="FNanchor_11" id="FNanchor_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11"><sup>11</sup></a> average is +34 volumes; De Luna's<a name="FNanchor_12" id="FNanchor_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12"><sup>12</sup></a> 50 volumes; and Fodor's,<a name="FNanchor_13" id="FNanchor_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13"><sup>13</sup></a> 38.9 volumes. +Admitting that the quantity of carbonic acid in the air is subject to +variation, yet the results of Reiset's and Schultze's estimations go +to prove that the variation is within narrow limits.</p> + +<p class="signature"> Indiana University Chemical Laboratory,<br /> +Bloomington, Indiana.</p> + +<p>—<i>Amer. Chem. Journal.</i></p> + + +<p><a name="Footnote_1" id="Footnote_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1">[1]</a><br/><span class="note">See SCI. AM. SUPPLEMENT No. 577.</span></p> +<p><a name="Footnote_2" id="Footnote_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2">[2]</a><br /><span class="note">Comptes Rendus, 88, 1007.</span></p> +<p><a name="Footnote_3" id="Footnote_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3">[3]</a><br /><span class="note">Comptes Rendus, 90, 1144.</span></p> +<p><a name="Footnote_4" id="Footnote_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4">[4]</a><br /><span class="note">Chem. Centralblatt, 1872 and 1875.</span></p> +<p><a name="Footnote_5" id="Footnote_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5">[5]</a><br /><span class="note">Comptes Rendus, 96, 1793.</span></p> +<p><a name="Footnote_6" id="Footnote_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6">[6]</a><br /><span class="note">Berichte der deutsch chem. Gesellschaft, 9, 174.</span></p> +<p><a name="Footnote_7" id="Footnote_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7">[7]</a><br /><span class="note">Comptes Rendus, 74, 1552, and 75, 70.</span></p> +<p><a name="Footnote_8" id="Footnote_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8">[8]</a><br /><span class="note">Comptes Rendus, 101, 949.</span></p> +<p><a name="Footnote_9" id="Footnote_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9">[9]</a><br /><span class="note">Comptes Rendus, 90, 1410.</span></p> +<p><a name="Footnote_10" id="Footnote_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10">[10]</a><br /><span class="note">Sitzungsher. d. Wien. Akad. d. Wissenschaften, 34, 257.</span></p> +<p><a name="Footnote_11" id="Footnote_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11">[11]</a><br /><span class="note">Ann. d. l'Observ. d. Mountsouris, 1878 and 1879.</span></p> +<p><a name="Footnote_12" id="Footnote_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12">[12]</a><br /><span class="note">Estudios quimicos sobre el aire atmosferico, Madrid, 1860.</span></p> +<p><a name="Footnote_13" id="Footnote_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13">[13]</a><br /><span class="note">Hygien. Untersuch., 1, 10.</span></p> + + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art04" id="art04"></a>ANALYSIS OF KOLA NUT.</h2> + +<p>Alkaloids or crystallizable principles:</p> + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" summary="" > +<colgroup span="5"><col align="left" span="3"/><col span="2" align="right" /></colgroup> +<tr><td> </td><td>Per Cent.</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td colspan="2">Caffeine.</td><td>2.710</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td colspan="2">Theobromine.</td><td>0.084</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td colspan="2">Bitter principle.</td><td>0.018</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2"></td><td>Total alkaloids.</td><td>———</td><td>2.812</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="4">Fatty matters:</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td colspan="2">Saponifiable fat or oil.</td><td>0.734</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td colspan="2">Essential oil.</td><td>0.081</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2"></td><td>Total oils.</td><td>———</td><td>0.815</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td colspan="2">Resinoid matter (<i>sol. in abs. alcohol</i>)</td><td>1.012</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="4">Sugar:</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td colspan="2">Glucose (<i>reduces alkaline cuprammonium</i>).</td><td>3.312</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td colspan="2">Sucrose? (<i>red. alk. cupram. after inversion</i>)<a name="FNanchor_14" id="FNanchor_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14"><sup>1</sup></a>.</td><td>0.602</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2"></td><td>Total sugars.</td><td>———</td><td>3.914</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="4">Starch, gum, etc.:</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td colspan="2">Gum (<i>soluble in H2O at 90° F.</i>).</td><td>4.876</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td colspan="2">Starch.</td><td>28.990</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td colspan="2">Amidinous matter (<i>coloring with iodine</i>).</td><td>2.130</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2"></td><td>Total gum and fecula.</td><td>———</td><td>35.999</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="4">Albuminoid matters.</td><td>8.642</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="4">Red and other coloring matters.</td><td>3.670</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="4">Kolatannic acids.</td><td>1.204</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="4">Mineral matter:</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td colspan="2">Potassa.</td><td>1.415</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td colspan="2">Chlorine.</td><td>0.702</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td colspan="2">Phosphoric acid.</td><td>0.371</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td colspan="2">Other salts, etc.</td><td>2.330</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2"></td><td>Total ash.</td><td>———</td><td>4.818</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="4">Moisture.</td><td>9.722</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="4">Ligneous matter and loss.</td><td>27.395</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="4"></td><td>———</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="4"></td><td>100.000</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>Both the French and German governments are introducing it into their +military dietaries, and in England several large contract orders +cannot yet be filled, owing to insufficiency of supply, while a +well-known cocoa manufacturing firm has taken up the preparation of +kola chocolate upon a commercial scale.—<i>W. Lascelles-Scott, in Jour. +Soc. Arts.</i></p> + + +<p><a name="Footnote_14" id="Footnote_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14">[1]</a> +<br /><span class="note">Inverted by boiling with a 2.5 per cent. solution of +citric acid for ten minutes.</span></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art13" id="art13"></a>CHAPIN WROUGHT IRON.</h2> + +<h3>By W.H. SEARLES, Chairman of the Committee, Civil Engineers' Club +of Cleveland, O.</h3> + +<p>Notwithstanding the wonderful development of our steel industries in +the last decade, the improvements in the modes of manufacture, and the +undoubted strength of the metal under certain circumstances, +nevertheless we find that steel has not altogether met the +requirements of engineers as a structural material. Although its +breaking strain and elastic limit are higher than those of wrought +iron, the latter metal is frequently preferred and selected for +tensile members, even when steel is used under compression in the same +structure. The Niagara cantilever bridge is a notable instance of this +practice. When steel is used in tension its working strains are not +allowed to be over fifty per cent. above those adopted for wrought +iron.</p> + +<p>The reasons for the suspicion with which steel is regarded are well +understood. Not only is there a lack of uniformity in the product, but +apparently the same steel will manifest very different results under +slight provocation. Steel is very sensitive, not only to slight +changes in chemical composition, but also to mechanical treatment, +such as straightening, bending, punching, planing, heating, etc. +Initial strains may be developed by any of these processes that would +seriously affect the efficiency of the metal in service.</p> + +<p>Among the steels, those that are softer are more serviceable and +reliable than the harder ones, especially whereever shocks and +concussions or rapidly alternating strains are to be endured. In other +words, the more nearly steel resembles good wrought iron, the more +certain it is to render lasting service when used within appropriate +limits of strain. Indeed, a wrought iron of fine quality is better +calculated to endure fatigue than any steel. This is particularly +noticeable in steam hammer pistons, propeller shafts, and railroad +axles. A better quality of wrought iron, therefore, has long been a +desideratum, and it appears now that it has at last been found.</p> + +<p>Several years since, a pneumatic process of manufacturing wrought iron +was invented and patented by Dr. Chapin, and an experimental plant was +erected near Chicago. Enough was done to demonstrate, first, that an +iron of unprecedentedly good qualities was attainable from common pig; +and second, that the cost of its manufacture would not exceed that of +Bessemer steel. Nevertheless, owing to lack of funds properly to push +the invention against the jealous opposition which it encountered, the +enterprise came to a halt until quite recently, when its merits found +a champion in Gustav Lindenthal, C.E., member of this club, who is +now the general manager of the Chapin Pneumatic Iron Co., and under +whose direction this new quality of iron will soon be put upon the +market.</p> + +<p>The process of manufacture is briefly as follows: The pig metal, after +being melted in a cupola and tapped into a discharging ladle, is +delivered into a Bessemer converter, in which the metal is largely +relieved of its silicon, sulphur, carbon, etc., by the ordinary +pneumatic process. At the end of the blow the converter is turned down +and its contents discharged into a traveling ladle, and quickly +delivered to machines called ballers, which are rotary reverberatory +furnaces, each revolving on a horizontal axis. In the baller the iron +is very soon made into a ball without manual aid. It is then lifted +out by means of a suspended fork and carried to a Winslow squeezer, +where the ball is reduced to a roll twelve inches in diameter. Thence +it is taken to a furnace for a wash heat, and finally to the muck +train.</p> + +<p>No reagents are employed, as in steel making or ordinary iron +puddling. The high heat of the metal is sufficient to preserve its +fluidity during its transit from the converter to the baller; and the +cinder from the blow is kept in the ladle.</p> + +<p>The baller is a bulging cylinder having hollow trunnions through which +the flame passes. The cylinder is lined with fire brick, and this in +turn is covered with a suitable refractory iron ore, from eight to ten +inches thick, grouted with pulverized iron ore, forming a bottom, as +in the common puddling furnace. The phosphorus of the iron, which +cannot be eliminated in the intense heat of the converter, is, +however, reduced to a minimum in the baller at a much lower +temperature and on the basic lining. The process wastes the lining +very slightly indeed. As many as sixty heats have been taken off in +succession without giving the lining any attention. The absence of any +reagent leaves the iron simply pure and homogeneous to a degree never +realized in muck bars made by the old puddling process. Thus the +expense of a reheating and rerolling to refine the iron is obviated. +It was such iron as here results that Bessemer, in his early +experiments, was seeking to obtain when he was diverted from his +purpose by his splendid discoveries in the art of making steel. So +effective is the new process, that even from the poorest grades of pig +may be obtained economically an iron equal in quality to the refined +irons made from the best pig by the ordinary process of puddling.</p> + +<p>Numerous tests of the Chapin irons have been made by competent and +disinterested parties, and the results published. The samples here +noted were cut and piled only once from the muck bar.</p> + +<p>Sample A was made from No. 3 mill cinder pig.</p> + +<p>Sample B was made from No. 4 mill pig and No. 3 Bessemer pig, half and +half.</p> + +<p>Sample C was made from No. 3 Bessemer pig, with the following results:</p> + + + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" summary="" width="60%"> +<colgroup span="4"><col align="left" /><col span="3" align="center" /></colgroup> +<tr><th>Sample.</th><th>A</th><th>B</th><th>C</th></tr> +<tr><td>Tensile strength per sq. in.</td><td>56,000</td><td>60,772</td><td>64,377</td></tr> +<tr><td>Elastic limit.</td><td>34,000</td><td>....</td><td>36,000</td></tr> +<tr><td>Extension, per cent.</td><td>11.8</td><td>....</td><td>17.0</td></tr> +<tr><td>Reduction of area, per cent.</td><td>65.0</td><td>16.0</td><td>33.0</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>The tensile strength of these irons made by ordinary puddling would be +about 38,000, 40,000, and 42,000 respectively, or the gain of the iron +in tensile strength by the Chapin process is about fifty per cent. Not +only so, but these irons made in this manner from inferior pig show a +higher elastic limit and breaking strain than are commonly specified +for refined iron of best quality. The usual specifications are for +refined iron: Tensile strength, 50,000; elongation, 15 per cent.; +elastic limit, 26,000; reduction, 25 cent.</p> + +<p>Thus the limits of the Chapin iron are from 12 to 20 per cent. above +those of refined iron, and not far below those of structural steel, +while there is a saving of some four dollars per ton in the price of +the pig iron from which it can be made. When made from the best pig +metal its breaking and elastic limits will probably reach 70,000 and +40,000 pounds respectively. If so, it will be a safer material than +steel under the same working strains, owing to its greater resilience.</p> + +<p>Such results are very interesting in both a mechanical and economical +point of view. Engineers will hail with delight the accession to the +list of available building materials of a wrought iron at once fine, +fibrous, homogeneous, ductile, easily weldable, not subject to injury +by the ordinary processes of shaping, punching, etc., and having a +tensile strength and elastic limit nearly equal to any steel that +could safely be used in the same situation.</p> + +<p>A plant for the manufacture of Chapin iron is now in course of +erection at Bethlehem, Pa., and there is every reason to believe that +the excellent results attained in Chicago will be more than reached in +the new works.—<i>Proceed. Jour. Asso. of Eng. Societies</i>.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art20" id="art20"></a>CELLULOID.</h2> + +<p>Professor Sadler, of the University of Pennsylvania, has lately given +an account of the development and method of the manufacture of +celluloid. Alexander Parkes, an Englishman, invented this remarkable +substance in 1855, but after twelve years quit making it because of +difficulties in manipulation, although he made a fine display at the +Paris Exposition of 1867. Daniel Spill, also of England, began +experiments two years after Parkes, but a patent of his for dissolving +the nitrated wood fiber, or "pyroxyline," in alcohol and camphor was +decided by Judge Blatchford in a suit brought against the Celluloid +Manufacturing Company to be valueless. No further progress was made +until the Hyatt Brothers, of Albany, N.Y., discovered that gum +camphor, when finely divided, mixed with the nitrated fiber and then +heated, is a perfect solvent, giving a homogeneous and plastic mass. +American patents of 1870 and 1874 are substantially identical with +those now in use in England. In France there is only one factory, and +there is none elsewhere on the Continent, one in Hanover having been +given up on account of the explosive nature of the stuff. In this +country pure cellulose is commonly obtained from paper makers, in the +form of tissue paper, in wide rolls; this, after being nitrated by a +bath of mixed nitric and sulphuric acids, is thoroughly washed and +partially dried. Camphor is then added, and the whole is ground +together and thoroughly mixed. At this stage <a name="Page_9786" id="Page_9786"></a>coloring matter may be +put in. A little alcohol increases the plasticity of the mass, which +is then treated for some time to powerful hydraulic pressure. Then +comes breaking up the cakes and feeding the fragments between heated +rolls, by which the amalgamation of the whole is completed. Its +perfect plasticity allows it to be rolled into sheets, drawn into +tubes, or moulded into any desired shape.—<i>Jewelers' Journal.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art19" id="art19"></a>APPARATUS FOR TESTING CHAMPAGNE BOTTLES AND CORKS.</h2> + +<p>Mr. J. Salleron has devised several apparatus which are destined to +render valuable service in the champagne industry. The apparently +simple operation of confining the carbonic acid due to fermentation in +a bottle in order to blow the cork from the latter with force at a +given moment is not always successful, notwithstanding the skill and +experience of the manipulator. How could it be otherwise?</p> + +<p>Everything connected with the production of champagne wine was but +recently unknown and unexplained. The proportioning of the sugar +accurately dates, as it were, from but yesterday, and the measurement +of the absorbing power of wine for carbonic acid has but just entered +into practice, thanks to Mr. Salleron's absorptiometer. The real +strength of the bottles, and the laws of the elasticity of glass and +its variation with the temperature, are but little known. Finally, the +physical constitution of cork, its chemical composition, its +resistance to compression and the dissolving action of the wine, must +be taken into consideration. In fact, all the elements of the +difficult problem of the manufacture of sparkling wine show that there +is an urgent necessity of introducing scientific methods into this +industry, as without them work can now no longer be done.</p> + +<p>No one has had a better opportunity to show how easy it is to convert +the juice of the grape into sparkling wine through a series of simple +operations whose details are known and accurately determined, so we +believe it our duty to recommend those of our readers who are +particularly interested in this subject to read Mr. Salleron's book on +sparkling wine. We shall confine ourselves in this article to a +description of two of the apparatus invented by the author for testing +the resistance of bottles and cork stoppers.</p> + +<p>It is well, in the first place, to say that one of the important +elements in the treatment of sparkling wine is the normal pressure +that it is to produce in the bottles. After judicious deductions and +numerous experiments, Mr. Salleron has adopted for the normal pressure +of highly sparkling wines five atmospheres at the temperature of the +cellar, which does not exceed 10 degrees. But, in a defective cellar, +the bottles may be exposed to frost in winter and to a temperature of +25° in summer, corresponding to a tension of ten atmospheres. It may +naturally be asked whether bottles will withstand such an ordeal. Mr. +Salleron has determined their resistance through the process by which +we estimate that of building materials, viz., by measuring the limit +of their elasticity, or, in other words, the pressure under which they +take on a new permanent volume. In fact, glass must be assimilated to +a perfectly elastic body; and bottles expand under the internal +pressure that they support. If their resistance is insufficient, they +continue to increase in measure as the pressure is further prolonged, +and at every increase in permanent capacity, their resistance +diminishes.</p> + +<p class="center"><a href="./images/4a.png"> +<img src="./images/4a_th.png" alt=" Fig. 1.—MACHINE FOR TESTING BOTTLES." /></a> +<br /> Fig. 1.—MACHINE FOR TESTING BOTTLES.</p> + +<p>The apparatus shown in Fig. 1 is called an elasticimeter, and permits +of a preliminary testing of bottles. The bottle to be tested is put +into the receptacle, A B, which is kept full of water, and when it has +become full, its neck is played between the jaws of the clamp, <i>p</i>. +Upon turning the hand wheel, L, the bottle and the receptacle that +holds it are lifted, and the mouth of the bottle presses against a +rubber disk fixed under the support, C D. The pressure of the neck of +the bottle against this disk is such that the closing is absolutely +hermetical. The support, C D, contains an aperture which allows the +interior of the bottle to communicate with a glass tube, <i>a b</i>, which +thus forms a prolongation of the neck of the bottle. This tube is very +narrow and is divided into fiftieths of a cubic centimeter. A +microscope, <i>m</i>, fixed in front of the tube, magnifies the divisions, +and allows the position of the level of the water to be ascertained to +within about a millionth of a cubic centimeter.</p> + +<p>A force and suction pump, P, sucks in air through the tube, <i>t</i>, and +compresses it through the tube, <i>t'</i>, in the copper tube, T, which +communicates with the glass tube, <i>a b</i>, after passing through the +pressure gauge, M. This pump, then, compresses the air in the bottle, +and the gauge accurately measures its pressure.</p> + +<p>To make a test, after the bottle full of water has been fastened under +the support, C D, the cock, <i>s</i>, is opened and the liquid with which +the small reservoir, R, has been filled flows through an aperture +above the mouth of the bottle and rises in the tube, <i>a b</i>. When its +level reaches the division, O, the cock, <i>s</i>, is closed. The bottle +and its prolongation, <i>a b</i>, are now exactly full of water without any +air bubbles.</p> + +<p>The pump is actuated, and, in measure as the pressure rises, the level +of the liquid in the tube, <i>a b</i>, is seen to descend. This descent +measures the expansion or flexion of the bottle as well as the +compression of the water itself. When the pressure is judged to be +sufficient, the button, <i>n</i>, is turned, and the air compressed by the +pump finding an exit, the needle of the pressure gauge will be seen to +redescend and the level of the tube, <i>a b</i>, to rise.</p> + +<p>If the glass of the bottle has undergone no permanent deformation, the +level will rise exactly to the zero mark, and denote that the bottle +has supported the test without any modification of its structure. But +if, on the contrary, the level does not return to the zero mark, the +limit of the glass's elasticity has been extended, its molecules have +taken on a new state of equilibrium, and its resistance has +diminished, and, even if it has not broken, it is absolutely certain +that it has lost its former resistance and that it presents no +particular guarantee of strength.</p> + +<p>The vessel, A B, which must be always full of water, is designed to +keep the bottle at a constant temperature during the course of the +experiment. This is an essential condition, since the bottle thus +filled with water constitutes a genuine thermometer, of which <i>a b</i> is +the graduated tube. It is therefore necessary to avoid attributing a +variation in level due to an expansion of the water produced by a +change in temperature, to a deformation of the bottle.</p> + +<p>The test, then, that can be made with bottles by means of the +elasticimeter consists in compressing them to a pressure of ten +atmospheres when filled with water at a temperature of 25°, and in +finding out whether, under such a stress, they change their volume +permanently. In order that the elasticimeter may not be complicated by +a special heating apparatus, it suffices to determine once for all +what the pressure is that, at a mean temperature of 15°, acts upon +bottles with the same energy as that of ten atmospheres at 25°. +Experiment has demonstrated that such stress corresponds to twelve +atmospheres in a space in which the temperature remains about 15°.</p> + +<p>In addition, the elasticimeter is capable of giving other and no less +useful data. It permits of comparing the resistance of bottles and of +classifying them according to the degree of such resistance. After +numerous experiments, it has been found that first class bottles +easily support a pressure of twelve atmospheres without distortion, +while in those of an inferior quality the resistance is very variable. +The champagne wine industry should therefore use the former +exclusively.</p> + +<p>Various precautions must be taken in the use of corks. The bottles +that lose their wine in consequence of the bad quality of their corks +are many in number, and it is not long since that they were the cause +of genuine disaster to the champagne trade.</p> + +<p>Mr. Salleron has largely contributed to the improving of the quality +of corks found in the market. The physical and chemical composition of +cork bark is peculiarly favorable to the special use to which it is +applied; but the champagne wine industry requires of it an exaggerated +degree of resistance, inalterability, and elasticity. A 1¼ inch cork +must, under the action of a powerful machine, enter a ¾ inch neck, +support the dissolving action of a liquid containing 12 per cent. of +alcohol compressed to at least five atmospheres, and, in a few years, +shoot out of the bottle and assume its pristine form and color. Out of +a hundred corks of good quality, not more than ten support such a +test.</p> + +<p>In order to explain wherein resides the quality of cork, it is +necessary to refer to a chemical analysis of it. In cork bark there is +70 per cent. of suberine, which is soluble in alcohol and ether, and +is plastic, ductile, and malleable under the action of humid heat. +Mixed with suberine, cerine and resin give cork its insolubility and +inalterability. These substances are soluble in alcohol and ether, but +insoluble in water.</p> + +<p>According to the origin of cork, the wax and resin exist in it in very +variable proportion. The more resinous kinds resist the dissolving +action of wine better than those that are but slightly resinous. The +latter soon become corroded and spoiled by wine. An attempt has often +been made, but without success, to improve poor corks by impregnating +them with the resinous principle that they lack.</p> + +<p>Various other processes have been tried without success, and so it +finally became necessary simply to separate the good from the bad +corks by a practical and rapid operation. A simple examination does +not suffice. Mr. Bouché has found that corks immersed in water finally +became covered with brown spots, and, by analogy, in order to test +corks, he immersed them in water for a fortnight or a month. All those +that came out spotted were rejected. Under the prolonged action of +moisture, the suberine becomes soft, and, if it is not resinous +enough, the cells of the external layer of the cork burst, the water +enters, and the cork becomes spotted.</p> + +<p>It was left to Mr. Salleron to render the method of testing practical. +He compresses the cork in a very strong reservoir filled with water +under a pressure of from four to five atmospheres. By this means, the +but slightly resinous cork is quickly dissolved, so that, after a few +hours' immersion, the bad corks come out spotted and channeled as if +they had been in the neck of a bottle for six months. On the contrary, +good corks resist the operation, and come out of the reservoir as +white and firm as they were when they were put into it.</p> + +<p class="center"><a href="./images/4b.png"><img src="./images/4b_th.png" alt=" Fig. 2.—SALLERON'S APPARATUS FOR TESTING CORKS." /></a><br /> Fig. 2.—SALLERON'S APPARATUS FOR TESTING CORKS.</p> + +<p>Fig. 2 gives a perspective view of Mr. Salleron's apparatus for +testing corks. A reservoir, A B, of tinned copper, capable of holding +100 corks, is provided with a cover firmly held in place by a clamp. +Into the cover is screwed a pressure gauge, M, which measures the +internal pressure of the apparatus.</p> + +<p>A pump, P, sucks water from a vessel through the tubulure, <i>t'</i>, and +forces it through the tubulure, <i>t</i>, into the reservoir full of corks. +After being submitted to a pressure of five atmospheres in this +apparatus for a few hours, the corks are verified and then sorted out. +In addition to the apparatus here illustrated, there is one of larger +dimensions for industrial applications. This differs from the other +only in the arrangement of its details, and will hold as many as +10,000 corks.—<i>Revue Industrielle.</i></p> + +<hr /> + + +<h2><a name="Page_9787" id="Page_9787"></a><a name="art24" id="art24"></a>IMPROVED BISCUIT MACHINE.</h2> + +<p>The accompanying illustration represents a combined biscuit cutting, +scrapping, and panning machine, specially designed for running at high +speeds, and so arranged as to allow of the relative movements of the +various parts being adjusted while in motion. The cutters or dies, +mounted on a cross head working in a vertical guide frame, are +operated from the main shaft by eccentrics and vertical connecting +rods, as shown. These rods are connected to the lower strap of the +eccentric by long guide bolts, on which intermediate spiral springs +are mounted, and by this means, although the dies are brought quickly +down to the dough, they are suffered to remain in contact therewith, +under a gradually increasing pressure, for a sufficient length of time +to insure the dough being effectually stamped and completely cut +through.</p> + +<p class="center"><a href="./images/5a.png"><img src="./images/5a_th.png" alt=" IMPROVED BISCUIT MACHINE." /></a><br /> IMPROVED BISCUIT MACHINE.</p> + +<p>Further, the springs tend to counteract any tendency to vibration that +might be set up by the rapid reciprocation of the cross head, cutters, +and their attendant parts. Mounted also on the main shaft is one of a +pair of reversed cone drums. These, with their accompanying belt and +its adjusting gear, worked by a hand wheel and traversing screw, as +shown, serve to adjust the speed of the feed rollers, so as to suit +the different lengths of the intermediate travel or "skip" of the +dough-carrying web.</p> + +<p>Provision is made for taking up the slack of this belt by mounting the +spindle of the outer coned drum in bearings adjustable along a +circular path struck from the axis of the lower feed roller as a +center, thus insuring a uniform engagement between the teeth of the +small pinion and those of the spur wheel with which the drum and +roller are respectively provided.</p> + +<p>The webs for carrying forward the dough between the different +operations pass round rollers, which are each operated by an +adjustable silent clutch feed, in place of the usual ratchet and pawl +mechanism. Movement is given to each feed by the connecting links +shown, to each of which motion is in turn imparted by the bell crank +lever placed beside the eccentric. This lever is actuated by a crank +pin on the main shaft, working into a block sliding in a slot in the +shorter or horizontal arm of the lever, while a similar but adjustable +block, sliding in the vertical arm, serves to impart the motion of the +lever to the system of connecting links, the adjustable block allowing +of a longer or shorter stroke being given to the different feeds, as +desired.</p> + +<p>The scraps are carried over the roller in rear of the cutters, and so +to a scrap pan, while the stamped biscuits pass by a lower web into +the pans. These pans are carried by two endless chains, provided with +pins, which take hold of the pans and carry them along in the proper +position. The roller over which these chains pass is operated by a +silent clutch, and in order to give an additional motion to the chains +when a pan is full, and it is desired to bring the next pan into +position, an additional clutch is caused to operate upon the roller. +This clutch is kept out of gear with its pulley by means of a +projection upon it bearing against a disk slightly greater in diameter +than the pulley, and provided with two notches, into which the +projection passes when the additional feed is required.</p> + +<p>The makers, H. Edwards & Co., Liverpool, have run one of these +machines easily and smoothly at a hundred revolutions per minute, at +which speed, and when absorbing about 3.5 horse power, the output +would equal 4,000 small biscuits per minute.—<i>Industries.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art25" id="art25"></a>IMPROVED CREAM SEPARATOR.</h2> + +<p>A hand separator of this type was exhibited at the Royal Show at +Newcastle by the Aylesbury Dairy Company, of 31 St. Petersburg Place, +Bayswater, England.</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/5b.png" alt=" IMPROVED CREAM SEPARATOR. Fig. 1." /><br /> IMPROVED CREAM SEPARATOR. Fig. 1.</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/5c.png" alt=" IMPROVED CREAM SEPARATOR. Fig. 2." /><br /> IMPROVED CREAM SEPARATOR. Fig. 2.</p> + +<p>Fig. 1 is a perspective view of the machine, Fig. 2 being a vertical +section. The drums of these machines, which make 2,700 revolutions per +minute for the large and 4,000 for the small one, have a diameter of +27 in. and 15½ in. respectively, and are capable of extracting the +cream from 220 and 115 gallons of milk per hour. These drums are +formed by hydraulic pressure from one piece of sheet steel. To avoid +the possibility of the machines being overdriven, which might happen +through the negligence of the attendant or through the governing gear +on the engine failing to act, an ingenious controlling apparatus is +fixed to the intermediate motion of the separator as shown in Fig. 3. +This apparatus consists of a pair of governor balls pivoted near the +center of the arms and attached to the main shaft of the intermediate +gear by means of a collar fixed on it. The main shaft is bored out +sufficiently deep to admit a steel rod, against which bear the three +ends of the governor arms. The steel rod presses against the +counterbalance, which is made exactly the right weight to withstand +the force tending to raise it, when the intermediate motion is running +at its designed speed. The forks between which the belt runs are also +provided with a balance weight. This brings them to the loose pulley, +unless they are fixed by means of the ratchet. Should the number of +revolutions of the intermediate increase beyond the correct amount, +the extra centrifugal force imparted to the governor balls enables +them to overcome the balance weight, and in raising this they raise +the arm. This arm striking against the ratchet detent releases the +balance weight, and the belt is at once brought on to the loose +pulley.</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/5d.png" alt=" IMPROVED CREAM SEPARATOR. Fig. 3." /><br /> IMPROVED CREAM SEPARATOR. Fig. 3.</p> + +<p>The steel drum is fitted with an internal ring at the bottom (see Fig. +2), into which the milk flows, and from which it is delivered, by +three apertures, to the periphery of the drum, thus preventing the +milk from striking against the cone of the drum, and from mixing with +the cream which has already been separated. The upper part of the drum +is fitted with an annular flange, about 1½ in. from the top, reaching +to within one-sixteenth of an inch of the periphery. After the +separation of the skim milk from the cream, the former passes behind +and above this flange through the aperture, B, and is removed by means +of the tube, D, furnished with a steel tip projecting from the cover +of the machine into the space between the top of the drum and the +annular flange, a similar tube, F, reaching below this flange, +removing the cream which collects there. The skim milk tube is +provided with a screw regulator, the function of which is to enable +cream of any desired consistency to be obtained, varying with the +distance between the skim milk and cream points from the center of the +drum. Another point about these tubes is their use as elevating tubes +for the skim, milk and cream, as, owing to the velocity at which the +drum is rotating, the products can be delivered by these tubes at a +height of 8 or 10 feet above the machine if required, thus enabling +scalding and cooling of either to be carried on while the separator is +at work, and saving hand labor.—<i>Iron.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art23" id="art23"></a>GAS FROM OIL.</h2> + +<p>At the twenty-fourth annual meeting of the Gas Institute, which was +recently held in Glasgow, Dr. Stevenson Macadam, F.R.S.E., lecturer on +chemistry, Edinburgh, submitted the first paper, which was on "Gas +from Oil."</p> + +<p>He said that during the last seventeen years he had devoted much +attention to the photogenic or illuminating values of different +qualities of paraffin oils in various lamps, and to the production of +permanent illuminating gas from such oils. The earlier experiments +were directed to the employment of paraffin oils as oils, and the +results proved the great superiority of the paraffin oils as +illuminating agents over vegetable and animal oils, alike for +lighthouse and ordinary house service.</p> + +<p>The later trials were mainly concerned with the breaking up of the +paraffin oils into permanent illuminating gas. Experiments were made +at low heats, medium heats, and high heats, which proved that, +according to the respective qualities of the paraffin oils employed in +the trials, there was more or less tendency at the lower heats to +distill oil instead of permanent gas, while at the high heats there +was a liability to decarbonize the oil and gas, and to obtain a thin +gas of comparatively small illuminating power. When, however, a good +cherry red heat was maintained, the oils split up in large proportion +into permanent gas of high illuminating quality, accompanied by little +tarry matter, and with only a slight amount of separated carbon or +deposited soot.</p> + +<p>The best mode of splitting up the paraffin oils, and the special +arrangements of the retort or distilling apparatus, also formed, he +said, an extensive inquiry by itself. In one set of trials the oil was +distilled into gaseous vapor, and then passed through the retort. In +another set of experiments, the oil was run into or allowed to trickle +into the retorts, while both modes of introducing the oil were tried +in retorts charged with red hot coke and in retorts free from coke.</p> + +<p>Ultimately, it was found that the best results were obtained by the +more simple arrangement of employing iron retorts at a good cherry red +heat, and running in the oil as a thin stream direct into the retort, +so that it quickly impinged upon the red hot metal, and without the +intervention of any coke or other matter in the retorts. The paraffin +oils employed in the investigations were principally: (1) Crude +paraffin oil, being the oil obtained direct from the destructive +distillation of shale in retorts; (2) green paraffin oil, which is +yielded by distilling or re-running the crude paraffin oil, and +removing the lighter or more inflammable portion by fractional +distillation; and (3) blue paraffin oil, which is obtained by +rectifying the twice run oil with sulphuric acid and soda, and +distilling off the paraffin spirit, burning oil, and intermediate oil, +and freezing out the solid paraffin as paraffin scale. The best +practical trials were obtained in Pintsch's apparatus and in Keith's +apparatus.</p> + +<p>After describing both of these, Dr. Macadam went on to give in great +detail the results obtained in splitting up blue paraffin oil into gas +in each apparatus. He then said that these experimental results +demonstrated that Pintsch's apparatus yielded from the gallon of oil +in one case 90.70 cubic feet of gas of 62.50 candle power, and in the +second case 103.36 cubic feet of 59.15 candle gas, or an average of +97.03 cubic feet of 60.82 candle power gas.</p> + +<p>In both cases, the firing of the retorts was moderate, <a name="Page_9788" id="Page_9788"></a>though in the +second trial greater care was taken to secure uniformity of heat, and +the oil was run in more slowly, so that there was more thorough +splitting up of the oil into permanent gas. The gas obtained in the +two trials was of high quality, owing to its containing a large +percentage of heavy hydrocarbons, of which there were, respectively, +39.25 and 37.15 per cent., or an average of 38.2 per cent., while the +sulphureted hydrogen was nothing, and the carbonic acid a mere trace. +Besides testing the gas on the occasion of the actual trials, he had +also examined samples of the gas which he had taken from various +cylinders in which the gas had been stored for several months under a +pressure of ten atmospheres, and in all cases the gas was found to be +practically equal to the quantity mentioned, and hence of a permanent +character.</p> + +<p>By using Keith's apparatus the results obtained were generally the +same, with the exception that an average of 0.27 per cent. of carbonic +acid gas and decided proportions of sulphureted hydrogen were found to +be present in the gas. Dr. Macadam devoted some remarks to the +consideration of the question as to how far the gas obtained from the +paraffin oil represented the light power of the oil itself, and then +he proceeded to say that, taking the crude paraffin oil at 2d. a +gallon, and with a specific gravity of 850 (water = 1,000), or 8½ lb. +to the gallon, there were 264 gallons to the ton, at a cost of £2 4s. +per ton. The sperm light from the ton of oil as gas being 3,443 lb., +he reckoned that fully 6 lb. of sperm light were obtained from a +pennyworth of the crude oil as gas.</p> + +<p>Then, taking the blue paraffin oil at 4d. per gallon, and there being +255 gallons to the ton, it was found that the cost of one ton was £4 +5s., and as the sperm light of a ton of that oil as gas was 5,150 lb., +it was calculated that 5 lb. of sperm light were yielded in the gas +from a pennyworth of the blue oil. The very rich character of the oil +gas rendered it unsuitable for consumption at ordinary gas jets, +though it burned readily and satisfactorily at small burners not +larger than No. 1 jets.</p> + +<p>In practical use it would be advisable to reduce the quality by +admixture with thin and feeble gas, or to employ the oil gas simply +for enriching inferior gases derived from the more common coals. On +the question of dilution, he said that he preferred to use carbonic +oxide and hydrogen, and most of the remainder of his paper was devoted +to an explanation of the best mode of preparing those gases (water +gases).</p> + +<p>He concluded by saying: The employment of paraffin oil for gas making +has advantages in its favor, in the readiness of charging the retorts, +as the oil can be run in continuously for days at a time, and may be +discontinued and commenced again without opening, clearing out +residual products, recharging and reclosing the retorts. There is +necessarily, therefore, less labor and cost in working, and as the gas +is cleaner or freer from impurities, purifying plant and material will +be correspondingly less. Oil gas is now employed for lighthouse +service in the illumination of the lanterns on Ailsa Craig and as +motive power in the gas engines connected with the fog horns at +Langness and Ailsa Craig lighthouse stations. It is also used largely +in the lighting of railway carriages. Various populous places are now +introducing oil gas for house service, and he felt sure that the +system is one which ought to commend itself for its future development +to the careful consideration and practical skill of the members of the +Gas Institute.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art26" id="art26"></a>THE MANUFACTURE OF SALT NEAR MIDDLESBROUGH.<a name="FNanchor_15" id="FNanchor_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15"><sup>1</sup></a></h2> + +<h3>By Sir LOWTHIAN BELL, Bart., F.R.S.</h3> + +<p>The geology of the Middlesbrough salt region was first referred to, +and it was stated that the development of the salt industry in that +district was the result of accident. In 1859, Messrs. Bolckow & +Vaughan sank a deep well at Middlesbrough, in the hope of obtaining +water for steam and other purposes in connection with their iron works +in that town, although they had previously been informed of the +probably unsuitable character of the water if found. The bore hole was +put down to a depth of 1,200 feet, when a bed of salt rock was struck, +which proved to have a thickness of about 100 feet. At that time +one-eighth of the total salt production of Cheshire was being brought +to the Tyne for the chemical works on that river, hence the discovery +of salt instead of water was regarded by some as the reverse of a +disappointment. The mode of reaching the salt rock by an ordinary +shaft, however, failed, from the influx of water being too great, and +nothing more was heard of Middlesbrough salt until a dozen years +later, when Messrs. Bell Brothers, of Port Clarence, decided to try +the practicability of raising the salt by a method detailed in the +paper. A site was selected 1,314 yards distant from the well of +Messrs. Bolckow & Vaughan, and the Diamond Rock Boring Company was +intrusted with the work of putting down a hole in order to ascertain +whether the bed of salt extended under their land. This occupied +nearly two years, when the salt, 65 feet in thickness, was reached at +a depth of 1,127 feet. Other reasons induced the owners of the +Clarence iron works to continue the bore hole for 150 feet below the +bed of salt; a depth of 1,342 feet from the surface was then reached. +During the process of boring, considerable quantities of inflammable +gas were met with, which, on the application of flame, took fire at +the surface of the water in the bore hole. The origin of this gas, in +connection with the coal measures underlying the magnesian limestone, +will probably hereafter be investigated.</p> + +<p>For raising the salt, recourse was had to the method of solution, the +principle being that a column of descending water should raise the +brine nearly as far as the differences of specific gravity between the +two liquids permitted—in the present case about 997 feet. In other +words, a column of fresh water of 1,200 feet brought the brine to +within 203 feet of the surface. For the practical application of this +system a hole of say 12 inches in diameter at the surface was +commenced, and a succession of wrought iron tubes put down as the +boring proceeded, the pipes being of gradually decreasing diameter, +until the bottom of the salt bed was reached. The portion of this +outer or retaining tube, where it passed through the bed of salt, was +pierced with two sets of apertures, the upper edge of the higher set +coinciding with the top of the seam, and the other set occupying the +lower portion of the tube. Within the tube so arranged, and secured at +its lower extremity by means of a cavity sunk in the limestone, a +second tube was lowered, having an outer diameter from two to four +inches less than the interior diameter of the first tube. The latter +served for pumping the brine. The pump used was of the ordinary bucket +and clack type, but, in addition, at the surface, there was a plunger, +which served to force the brine into an air vessel for the purposes of +distribution. The bucket and clack were placed some feet below the +point to which the brine was raised by the column of fresh water +descending in the annulus formed between the two tubes. In commencing +work, water was let down the annulus until the cavity formed in the +salt became sufficiently large to admit of a few hours' pumping of +concentrated brine. On the machinery being set in motion, the stronger +brine was first drawn, which, from its greater specific gravity, +occupied the lower portion of the cavity. As the brine was raised, +fresh water flowed down. The solvent power of the newly admitted water +was of course greater than that of water partially saturated, and +being also lighter it occupied the upper portion of the excavated +space. The combined effect was to give the cavity the form of an +inverted cone. The mode of extraction thus possessed the disadvantage +of removing the greatest quantity of the mineral where it was most +wanted for supporting the roof, and had given rise to occasional +accidents to the pipes underground. These were referred to in detail, +and the question was started as to possible legal complications +arising hereafter from new bore holes put down in close proximity to +the dividing line of different properties, the pumping of brine formed +under the conditions described presenting an altogether different +aspect from the pumping of water or natural brine.</p> + +<p>The second part of the paper referred to the uses to which the brine +was applied, the chief one being the manufacture of common salt. For +this purpose the brine, as delivered from the wells, was run into a +large reservoir, where any earthy matter held in suspension was +allowed to settle. The clear solution was then run into pans sixty +feet long by twenty feet wide by two feet deep. Heat was applied at +one end by the combustion of small coal, beyond which longitudinal +walls, serving to support the pan and to distribute the heat, +conducted the products of combustion to the further extremity, where +they escaped into the chimney at a temperature of from 500° to 700° +Fahr. On the surface of the heated brine, kept at 196° Fahr., minute +cubical crystals speedily formed. On the upper surface of these, other +small cubes of salt arranged themselves in such a way that, in course +of time, a hollow inverted pyramid of crystallized salt was formed. +This ultimately sank to the bottom, where other small crystals united +with it, so that the shape became frequently completely cubical. Every +second day the salt was "fished" out and laid on drainers to permit +the adhering brine to run back into the pans. For the production of +table salt the boiling was carried on much more rapidly, and at a +higher temperature than for salt intended for soda manufacture. The +crystals were very minute, and adhered together by the solidification +of the brine, effected by exposure on heated flues. For fishery +purposes the crystals were preferred very coarse in size. These were +obtained by evaporating the brine more slowly and at a still lower +temperature than when salt for soda makers was required. At the +Clarence works experiments had been made in utilizing surplus gas from +the adjacent blast furnaces, instead of fuel, under the evaporating +pans, the furnaces supplying more gas than was needed for heating air +and raising steam for iron making. By means of this waste heat, from +200 to 300 tons of salt per week were now obtained.</p> + +<p>The paper concluded with some particulars of the soda industry. The +well-known sulphuric acid process of Leblanc had stood its ground for +three-quarters of a century in spite of several disadvantages, and +various modes of utilizing the by-products having been from time to +time introduced, it had until recent years seemed too firmly +established to fear any rivals. About seven years ago, however, Mr. +Solvay, of Brussels, revived in a practical form the ammonia process, +patented forty years ago by Messrs. Hemming & Dyar, but using brine +instead of salt, and thus avoiding the cost of evaporation. This +process consisted of forcing into the brine currents of carbonic acid +and ammoniacal gases in such proportions as to generate bicarbonate of +ammonia, which, reacting on the salt of the brine, gave bicarbonate of +soda and chloride of ammonium. The bicarbonate was placed in a +reverberatory furnace, where the heat drove off the water and one +equivalent of carbonic acid, leaving the alkali as monocarbonate. Near +Middlesbrough, the only branch of industry established in connection +with its salt trade was the manufacture of soda by an ammonia process, +invented by Mr. Schloesing, of Paris. The works were carried on in +connection with the Clarence salt works. It was believed that the +total quantity of dry soda produced by the two ammonia processes, +Solvay's and Schloesing's, in this country was something under 100,000 +tons per annum, but this make was considerably exceeded on the +Continent.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_15" id="Footnote_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15">[1]</a><br /><span class="note">Abstract of paper read before the Institution of Civil +Engineers, May 17, 1887.</span></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art22" id="art22"></a>COTTON INDUSTRIES OF JAPAN.</h2> + +<p>The cotton plant principally cultivated in Japan is of the species +known as <i>Gossypium herbaceum</i>, resembling that of India, China, and +Egypt. The plant is of short stature, seldom attaining a growth of +over two feet; the flower is deciduous, with yellow petals and purple +center, and the staple is short, but fine. It is very widely +cultivated in Japan, and is produced in thirty-seven out of the +forty-four prefectures forming the empire, but the best qualities and +largest quantities are grown in the southern maritime provinces of the +mainland and on the islands of Kiusiu and Shikoku. Vice consul +Longford, in his last report, says that the plant is not indigenous to +Japan, the seed having been first imported from China in the year +1558. There are now many varieties of the original species, and the +cultivation of the plant varies in its details in different +localities. The variations are, however, mostly in dates, and the +general grinding principles of the several operations are nearly the +same throughout the whole country. The land best suited for cotton +growing is one of a sandy soil, the admixture of earth and sand being +in the proportion of two parts earth to one of sand. During the winter +and spring months, crops of wheat or barley are raised on it, and it +is when these crops have attained their full height during the month +of May that the cotton is sown. About fifty days prior to the sowing a +manure is prepared consisting of chopped straw, straw ashes, green +grass, rice, bran, and earth from the bottom of the stagnant pools. +These ingredients are all carefully mixed together in equal +proportions, and the manure thus made is allowed to stand till +required for use. Ten days before the time fixed for sowing, narrow +trenches, about one inch in depth, are dug in the furrows, between the +rows of standing wheat or barleys and the manure is liberally +sprinkled along them by hand. For one night before sowing the seed is +steeped in water. It is then taken out, slightly mixed with straw +ashes, and sown in the trenches at intervals of a few inches. When +sown, it is covered with earth to the depth of half an inch, and +gently trampled down by foot. Four or five days after sowing, the buds +begin to appear above the earth, and almost simultaneously the wheat +or barley between which they grow is ripe for the sickle. While the +latter is being harvested, the cotton may be left to itself, but not +for very long. The buds appear in much larger numbers than the soil +could support if they were allowed to grow. They have accordingly to +be carefully thinned out, so that not more than five or six plants are +left in each foot of length. The next process is the sprinkling of a +manure composed of one part night soil and three parts water, and +again, subsequent to this, there are two further manurings; one of a +mixture of dried sardines, lees of oil, and lees of rice beer, which +is applied about the middle of June, when the plant has attained a +height of four inches; and again early in July, when the plant has +grown to a height of six or seven inches, a further manuring of night +soil, mixed with a larger proportion of water than before. At this +stage the head of the plant is pinched off with the fingers, in order +to check the excessive growth of the stem, and direct the strength +into the branches, which usually number five or six. From these +branches minor ones spring, but the latter are carefully pruned off as +they appear. In the middle of August the flowers begin to appear +gradually. They fall soon after their appearance, leaving in their +place the pod or peach (<i>momo</i>), which, after ripening, opens in +October by three or four valves and exposes the cotton to view. The +cotton is gathered in baskets, in which it is allowed to remain till a +bright, sunshiny day, when it is spread out on mats to dry and swell +in the sun for two or three days. After drying, the cotton is packed +in bags made of straw matting, and either sold or put aside until such +time as the farmer's leisure from other agricultural operations +enables him to deal with it. The average yield of cotton in good +districts in Japan is about 120 lb. to the acre, but as cotton is only +a secondary crop, this does not therefore represent the whole profit +gained by the farmer from his land. The prefectures in which the +production is largest are Aichi on the east coast, Osaka, Hiogo, +Hiroshima, and Yamaguchi on the inland sea, and Fukui and Ishikawa on +the west coast. Vice-consul Longford says that the manufacture of +cotton in Japan is still in all its stages largely a domestic one. +Gin, spindle, and loom are all found in the house of the farmer on +whose land the cotton is grown, and not only what is required for the +wants of his own family is spun and woven by the female members +thereof, but a surplus is also produced for sale.</p> + +<p>Several spinning factories with important English machinery have been +established during the last twenty years, but Consul Longford says +that he has only known of one similar cotton-weaving factory, and that +has not been a successful experiment. Other so called weaving +factories throughout the country consist only of a collection of the +ordinary hand looms, to the number of forty or fifty, scarcely ever +reaching to one hundred, in one building or shed, wherein individual +manufacturers have their own special piece goods made.</p> + +<p>The first operation in the manufacture is that of ginning, which is +conducted by means of a small implement called the <i>rokuro</i>, or +windlass. This consists of two wooden rollers revolving in opposite +directions, fixed on a frame about 12 inches high and 6 inches in +width, standing on a small platform, the dimensions of which slightly +exceed that of the frame. The operator, usually a woman, kneels on one +side of the frame, holding it firm by her weight, works the roller +with one hand, and with the other presses the cotton, which she takes +from a heap at her side, between the rollers. The cotton passes +through, falling in small lumps on the other side of the frame, while +the seeds fall on that nearest the woman. The utmost weight of +unginned cotton that one woman working an entire day of ten hours can +give is from 8 lb. to 10 lb., which gives, in the end, only a little +over 3 lb. weight of ginned cotton, and her daily earnings amount to +less than 2d. A few saw gins have been introduced into Japan during +the last fifteen years, but no effort has been made to secure their +distribution throughout the country districts. After ginning, a +certain proportion of the seed is reserved for the agricultural +requirements of the following year, and the remainder is sent to oil +factories, where it is pressed, and yields about one-eighth of its +capacity in measurement in oil, the refuse, after pressing, being used +for manure. The ginning having been finished in the country districts, +the cotton is either packed in bales and sent to the dealers in the +cities, or else the next process, that of carding, is at once +proceeded with on the spot.</p> + +<p>This process is almost as primitive as that of the ginning. A long +bamboo, sufficiently thin to be flexible, is fastened at its base to a +pillar or the corner of a small room. It slopes upward into the center +of the room, and from its upper end a hempen cord is suspended. To +this is fastened the "bow," an instrument made of oak, about five feet +in length, two inches in circumference, and shaped like a ladle. A +string of coarse catgut is tightly stretched from end to end of the +bow, and this is beaten with a small mallet made of willow, bound at +the end with a ring of iron or brass. The raw cotton, in its coarse +state, is piled on the floor just underneath the string of the bow. +The string is then rapidly beaten with the mallet, and as it rises and +falls it catches the rough cotton, cuts it to the required degree of +fineness, removes impurities from it, and flings it to the side of the +operator, where it falls on a hempen net stretched over a +four-cornered wooden frame. The spaces of the net are about +one-quarter of an inch square, and through these any particles of dust +that may still have adhered to the cotton fall to the floor, leaving +piled on top of the net the pure cotton <a name="Page_9789" id="Page_9789"></a>wool in its finished state. +This work is always performed by a man, and by assiduous toil +throughout a long day, one man can card from ten to twenty pounds +weight of raw cotton. Payment is made in proportion to the work done, +and in the less remote country districts is at the rate of about one +penny for each pound carded. As regards spinning and weaving, in the +first of these branches of cotton manufacture the Japanese have +largely had recourse to the aid of foreign machinery, but it is still +to a much greater extent a domestic industry, or at best carried on +like weaving in the establishments of cotton traders, in which a +number of workers, varying from 20 to 100 or more, each with his own +spinning wheel, are collected together. Consul Longford says the +spinning wheel used in Japan differs in no respect from that used in +the country 300 years ago or (except that bamboo forms an integral +part of the materials of which it is made) from that used in England +prior to the invention of the jenny. The cost of one of the wheels is +about 9d., it will last for five or six years, and with it a woman of +ordinary skill can spin about 1 lb. of yarn in a day of ten hours, +earning thereby about 2d. There are at present in various parts of +Japan, in all, 21 spinning factories worked by foreign machinery. Of +four of these there is no information, but of the remainder, one has +120 spindles; eleven, 2,000 spindles; two, 3,000 spindles; two, 4,000 +spindles; and one, 18,000 spindles.—<i>Journal Soc. of Arts.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<p class="center">[Continued from SUPPLEMENT, No. 612, page 9774.]</p> + +<h2><a name="art21" id="art21"></a>CENTRIFUGAL EXTRACTORS.</h2> + +<h3>By ROBERT F. GIBSON.</h3> + +<p><span class="smcap">Sugar Machines.</span>—Besides separating the crystalline sugar and +the sirup, secondary objects are to wash the crystals and to pack them +in cakes. The cleansing fluid or "white liquor" is introduced at the +center of the basket and is hurled against and passes through the +sugar wall left from draining. The basket may be divided into +compartments and the liquor guided into each. The compartments are +removable boxes and are shaped to give bars or cakes or any form +desired of sugar in mass. These boxes being removable cannot fit +tightly against the liquor guides, and the liquor is apt to escape. +This difficulty is overcome by giving the guides radial movement or by +having rubber packing around the edges.</p> + +<p>Sugar machines proper are of two kinds—those which are loaded, +drained and then unloaded and those which are continuous in their +working. The various figures preceding are of the first kind, and what +has been said of vibrations applies directly to these.</p> + +<p>The general advantages claimed for continuous working over +intermittent are—that saving is made of time and motive power +incident to introducing charge and developing velocity, in retarding +and stopping, and in discharging; that, as the power is brought into +the machine continuously, no shifting of belts or ungearing is +necessary; and that there are less of the dangers incident to variable +motion, either in the machine itself or the belting or gearing. The +magma (the mixture of crystalline sugar and sirup) is fed in +gradually, by which means it is more likely to assume a position of +equilibrium in the basket.</p> + +<p>There are two methods of discharging in continuous working—the sugar +is thrown out periodically as the basket fills, or continuously. In +neither case is the speed slackened. In the first either the upper +half of the basket has an upward motion, on the lower half a downward +motion (Pat. 252,483); and through the opening thus made the sugar is +thrown. Fig. 22 (R.B. Palmer & Sons) is a machine of this kind. The +bottom, B, with the cone distributor, <i>a</i>, have downward motion.</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/7a.png" alt=" Fig. 22." /><br /> Fig. 22.</p> + +<p>Continuous discharge of the second kind may be brought about by having +a scoop fixed to the curb (or casing), extending down into the basket +and delivering the sugar over the side (Pat. 144,319). Another method +will be described under "Beet Machines."</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Basket.</span>—The construction of the basket is exceedingly +important. Hard experience has taught this. When centrifugals were +first introduced, users were compelled by law to put them below +ground; for they frequently exploded, owing to the speed being +suddenly augmented by inequalities in the running of the engine or to +the basket being too weak to resist the centrifugal force of the +overcharge. Increasing the thickness merely adds to the centrifugal +force, and hence to the danger, as even a perfectly balanced basket +may sever.</p> + +<p>One plan for a better basket was to have more than one wall. For +example, there might be an inner wall of perforated copper, then one +of wire gauze, and then another of copper with larger perforations. +Another plan was to have an internal metallic cloth, bearing against +the internally projecting ridges of the corrugations of the basket +wall. A further complication is to give this internal gauze cylinder a +rotation relative to the basket.</p> + +<p>The basket wall has been variously constructed. In one case it +consists of wire wound round and round and fastened to uprights, +commonly known as the "wire basket;" in another case of a periphery +without perforations, but spirally corrugated and having an opening at +the bottom for the escape of the extracted liquid; in still another of +a series of narrow bars or rings, placed edgewise, packed as close as +desired. An advantage of this last style is that it is easily cleaned.</p> + +<p>The best basket consists of sheet metal with bored perforations and +having bands or flanges sprung on around the outside. The metal is +brass, if it is apt to be corroded; if not, sheet iron. The +perforations may be round, or horizontally much longer than wide +vertically. One method for the manufacture of the basket wall (Pat. +149,553) is to roll down a plate, having round perforations, to the +required thickness, causing narrowing and elongation of the holes and +at the same time hardening the plate by compacting its texture. Long +narrow slots are well adapted to catch sugar crystals, and this is not +an unimportant point. Round perforations are usually countersunk. +Instead of flanges, wire bands have been used, their lapping ends +secured by solder.</p> + +<p>As to comparative wear, it maybe remarked that one perforated basket +will outlast three wire ones.</p> + +<p>As to size, sugar baskets vary from 80 inches in diameter by 14 in. +depth to 54 by 24. They are made, however, in England as large as 6 +feet in diameter—a size which can be run only at a comparatively slow +speed.</p> + +<p>A peculiar complication of basket deserves notice (Pat. 275 874). It +had been noticed that when a charge of magma was put into a +centrifugal in one mass, the sugar wall on the side of the basket was +apt to form irregularly, too thick at base and of varied color. To +remedy this it was suggested to have within and concentric with the +basket a charger with flaring sides, into which the mixture was to be +put. When this charger reached a certain rotary velocity, the magma +would be hurled out over the edge by centrifugal force and evenly +distributed on the wall of the main basket.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Spindle.</span>—The spindle as now made is solid cast steel, and +the considerations governing its size, form, material, etc., are +identical with those for any spindle. In order that the basket might +be replaced by another after draining, the shaft has been made +telescopic, but at the expense of stability and rigidity. In Fig. 16 +is shown a device to avoid crystallizations, which are apt to occur in +large forgings, and would prove fatal should they creep into the upper +part of the spindle proper in a hanging machine. It consists of the +secondary spindle, <i>c</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Discharging.</span>—The drained sugar may either be lifted over the +top of the basket (in machines which stop to be emptied), or be cast +through openings in the bottom provided with valves. A section of the +best form of valve may be seen in Figs. 15 and 17. Fig. 23 is a plan +of the openings. The valve turns on the basket bearing. It may be +constructed to open in the same direction in which the basket turns; +so that when the brake is put on, the inertia of the valve operates to +open it and while running to keep it closed. There are many other +styles, but no other need be mentioned.</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/7b.png" alt=" Fig. 23." /><br /> Fig. 23.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Casing.</span>—The different styles of casing may be seen by +reference to the various drawings. In one machine (not described) the +casing is rigidly fixed to the basket, space enough being left between +the bottom of the basket and the bottom of the casing to hold all the +molasses from a charge. This arrangement merely adds to the bulk of +the revolving parts, and no real advantage is gained.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Bearings.</span>—The various styles of bearings can be seen by +reference to the figures. One which deserves special attention is +shown in Fig. 16 and Fig. 19. In one case it consists of loose disks, +in the other of loose washers, rotating on one another. They are +alternately of steel and hard bronze (copper and tin).</p> + +<p>"There is probably no machine so little understood or so imperfectly +constructed by the common manufacturer of sugar supplies as the high +speed separator or centrifugal." Unless the product of experience and +good workmanship, it is a dangerous thing at high velocities. Besides, +its usual fate is to have an incompetent workman assigned to it, who +does not use judgment in charging and running. So that designers and +manufacturers have been forced not only to take into account the +disturbing forces inherent in revolving bodies, but also to make +allowance for poor management in running and neglect in cleaning.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cane and Beet Machines.</span>—The first step in the process of +sugar making is the extraction of the juice from the beet or cane. +This juice is obtained by pressure. The operation is not usually, but +may be, performed in a special kind of centrifugal. One style (Pat. +239,222) consists of a conical basket with a spiral flange within on +the shaft, and turning on the shaft, and having a slight rotary motion +relative to the basket. The material is fed in and moves downward +under increased pressure, the sirup released flying out through the +perforations of the basket, the whole revolving at high velocity. The +solid portion falls out at the bottom. Another plan suggested (Pat. +343,932) is to let a loose cover of an ordinary cylindrical basket +screw itself down into the basket, by reason of its slower velocity +(owing to inertia), causing pressure on the charge.</p> + +<p>Various other applications of the different styles of sugar machines +are the defibration of raw sugar juice, freeing beet crystals of +objectionable salts, freeing various crystals of the mother liquor, +drying saltpeter.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Driers.</span>—Another important division of this first class of +centrifugals is that of driers or, as they are variously styled, +whizzers, wringers, hydro-extractors. The charge in these is never +large in weight compared to a sugar charge, and its initial +distribution can be made more symmetrical. The uses of driers are +various, such as extracting water from clothes, cloth, silk, yarns, +etc. Water may be introduced at the center of the basket from above or +below to wash the material before draining. A typical form of drier is +shown in Fig. 24. (Pat. Aug. 22, 1876—W.P. Uhlinger.) Baskets have +been made removable for use in dyeing establishments, basket and load +together going into dyeing vat. Yarn and similar material can be +drained by a method analogous to that of hanging it upon sticks in a +room and allowing the water to drip off. It is suspended from short +sticks, which are held in horizontal layers around the shaft in the +basket, and the action is such during the operation as to cause the +yarn to stand out in radial lines.</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/7c.png" alt=" Fig. 24." /><br /> Fig. 24.</p> + +<p>Driers are not materially different from sugar machines. Any of the +devices before enumerated for meeting vibrations in the latter may be +applied to the former. There is one curious invention which has been +applied to driers only (Pat. 322,762—W.H. Tolhurst). See Fig. 25. A +convex shaft-supporting step resting on a concave supporting base, +with the center of its arc of concavity at the center of the upper +universal joint, has been employed, and its movements controlled by +springs, but the step was apt to be forced from its support. The +drawing shows the improvement on this, which is to give the +shaft-supporting step a less radius of curvature.</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/7d.png" alt=" Fig. 25." /><br /> Fig. 25.</p> + +<p><a name="Page_9790" id="Page_9790"></a>An interesting form of drier has its own motor, a little steam engine, +attached to the frame of the machine. See Fig 24. This of course +demands fixed bearings. The engine is very small. One size used is 3" +× 4". When a higher velocity of basket is required, we have the +arrangement in Fig. 26.</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/7e.png" alt=" Fig. 26." /><br /> Fig. 26.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Motors.</span>—This naturally introduces the subject of motive +power. We may have the engine direct acting as above, or the power may +be brought on by belting. Fig. 27 shows a drier with pulley for +belting. Fig. 28 (W.H. Tolhurst) shows a very common arrangement of +belting and also the fast and loose pulleys. When the heaviest part of +the engine is so far from the vertical shaft as to overhang the casing +on one side, there is apt to be an objectionable tremor. To remedy +this, it is suggested to put these heavy parts as near the shaft as +possible. It has been suggested also to use the Westinghouse type of +engine, although the type shown in Fig. 24 works faultlessly in +practice.</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/8a.png" alt=" Fig. 27." /><br /> Fig. 27.</p> + +<p>One plan (Pat. 346,030), designed to combine the advantages of a +direct acting motor and an oscillating shaft, mounts the whole +machine, motor and all, on a rocking frame. The spindle is of course +in fixed bearings in the frame. However, the plan is not practical.</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/8b.png" alt=" Fig. 28." /><br /> Fig. 28.</p> + +<p>In driers the direct acting engine has many advantages over the belt. +The atmosphere is always very moist about a whizzer, and there are +frequently injurious fumes. The belt will be alternately dry and wet, +stretched and limp, and wears out rapidly and is liable to sever. In +all machines in which the shaft oscillates, if the center of +oscillation does not lie in the central plane of the belt, the tension +of the latter is not uniform. This affects badly both the belt and the +running. A reference to the various figures will show the best +position for the pulley.</p> + +<p>The greatest difficulty experienced with belting is in getting up +speed and stopping. The basket must not be started with a sudden +impulse. Its inertia will resist and something must give way. A +gradual starting can be obtained by the slipping of the belt at first, +but this is expensive. The best plan is to conduct the power through a +species of friction clutch—an iron disk between two wooden ones. This +has been found to work admirably.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Brakes.</span>—The first centrifugals had no brakes. They ran until +the friction of the bearings was sufficient to stop them. This +occasioned, however, rapid wearing and too great a loss of time. The +best material for a brake consists of soft wood into which shoe pegs +have been driven, and which is thoroughly saturated with oil. The +wooden disks referred to just above are of the same construction. The +center of oscillation ought to be in the central plane of the brake as +well as that of the pulley, but the preference is given to the pulley.</p> + +<p>Figs. 15 and 16 (I) give sectional views of a brake for hanging +machines. Figs. 19, 20, and 21 give two sections and a view of a brake +which can be used on both hanging and standing machines. A very simple +form of brake is shown in Figs. 24, 26, and 27 (A), a mere block +pressing on the rim of the basket.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Oil and fat.</span>—A machine in most respects like a whizzer is +used for the "extraction of oil and fat and oily and fatty matters +from woolen yarns and fabrics, and such other fibrous material or +mixtures of materials as are from their nature affected in color or +quality when hydrocarbons are used for the purpose of extracting such +oily or fatty matters, and are subsequently removed from the material +under treatment by the slow process of admitting steam, or using other +means of raising the temperature to the respective boiling points of +such hydrocarbons, and so driving them off by evaporation." In the +centrifugal method carbon-bisulphide, or some other volatile agent, is +admitted and is driven through the material by centrifugal force, +when the necessary reactions take place, and is allowed to escape in +the form of hydrocarbons. A machine differing only in slight +particulars from the above is used for cleansing wool.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Loose fiber.</span>—Another application is the drying of loose +fiber. Two distinctive points deserve to be noticed in the centrifugal +used for this purpose. An endless chain or belt provided with blades +moves the material vertically in the basket, and discharges it over +the edge. During its upward course the material is subjected to a +shower of water to wash it.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Oil from metal chips.</span>—Very material savings are made in many +factories by collecting the metal chips and turnings, coated and mixed +with oil, which fall from the various machines, and extracting the oil +centrifugally. The separator consists of a chip holder, having an +imperforate shell flaring upward and outward from the spindle (in +fixed bearings) to which it is attached. When filled, a cover is +placed upon it and keyed to the spindle. Between the cover and holder +there is a small annular opening through which oil, but not chips, can +escape. Fig. 29 (Pat. 225,949—C.F. Roper) is designed (like the +greater part of the drawings inserted) to show relative position of +parts merely, and not relative <i>size</i>. This style of machine can be +used for sugar separating (Pat. 345,994—F.P. Sherman) and many other +purposes, to which, however, there are other styles more especially +adapted.</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/8c.png" alt=" Fig. 29." /><br /> Fig. 29.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Filterers.</span>—There are two distinct kinds of centrifugal +filterers, working on different principles. Petroleum separators (Pat. +217,063) are of the first kind. They are in form in all respects like +a sugar machine. The flakes of paraffine, stearine, etc., which are to +be extracted, when chilled are very brittle and would be disintegrated +upon being hurled against a plain wire gauze and would escape. Even a +woven fabric presents too harsh a surface. It is necessary to have a +very elastic basket lining of wool, cotton, or other fibrous material. +The basket itself may be either wire or perforated, but must have a +perfectly smooth bottom.</p> + +<p>As the pressure of the liquor upon the filtering medium per unit of +surface depends entirely upon its radial depth, mere tubes, connecting +a central inlet with an annular compartment, will serve the purpose +quite as well as a whole basket. In this style of machine (Pat. +10,457) the filtering material constitutes a wall between two annular +compartments. The outer one is connected with a vacuum apparatus.</p> + +<p>Filterers of the second kind work on the following principle: If a +cylinder be rapidly revolved in a liquid in which solid particles are +suspended, the liquid will be drawn into a like rotation and the heavy +particles will be thrown to the outer part of the receptacle. If a +perforated cylinder is used as stirrer, the purified liquid will +escape into it through the perforations and may be conducted away. The +impurities, likewise, after falling down the sides of the receptacle, +are carried off. The advantages of this method are that no filtering +material is needed and the filtering surface is never in contact with +anything but pure liquor.</p> + +<p>Very fine sawdust is, to a considerable extent, employed in sugar +refineries as a filtering medium. By such use the sawdust becomes +mixed with sand, fine particles of cane, etc. As sawdust of such +fineness is expensive, it is desirable to purify it in order to reuse +it. A centrifugal (Pat. 353,775—J.V.V. Booraem) built on the +following principle is used for this purpose. It has been observed +that by rotating rather <i>slowly</i> small particles of various substances +in water, the finer particles will be thrown outward and deposit near +the circumference of the vessel, while the heavier and coarser +particles will deposit nearer to or at the center, their centrifugal +force not being sufficient to carry them out. A mere rod, extending +radially in both directions, serves by its rotation to set the water +in motion.</p> + +<p>Another form of filter of this second kind (Pat. 148,513) has a +rotating imperforate basket into which the impure liquor is run. +Within and concentric with it is another cylinder whose walls are of +some filtering medium. The liquid already partly purified by +centrifugal force passes through into the inner cylinder, thus +becoming further purified. Centrifugal filters are used also to +cleanse gums for varnishes.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Honey.</span>—The simplest form of honey extractor (Pat. 61,216) +consists of a square framework, symmetrical with respect to a vertical +spindle. This framework is surrounded by a wire gauze. The combs, +after having the heads of the cells cut off, are placed in +comb-holders against the wire netting on the four sides, the cells +pointing outward. The machine is turned by hand. The honey is hurled +against the walls of a receiving case and caught below. But few +improvements have been made on this. The latest machines are still +hand-driven, as a sufficiently high velocity can be obtained in this +manner. In one style the combs are placed upon a floor which rests +upon springs. The rotating box is given a slight vertical and +horizontal reciprocatory motion, by which the combs are made to grate +on the wire gauze sides, breaking the cells and liberating the honey. +Thus the labor of cutting the cells is saved. Every comb has two +sides, and to present each side in succession to the outside without +removing from the basket, several devices have been patented. In some +the comb holders are hinged in the corners of the basket, and have an +angular motion of ninety degrees. Decreasing the speed is sufficient +to swing these. The other side is then emptied by revolving in the +opposite direction. In one case each holder has a spindle of its own, +connected with the main spindle by gearing and, to present opposite +side, turns through 180°. The usual number of sides and hence of comb +holders is four, but eight have been used. There are minor differences +in details of construction, looking to the most convenient removal and +insertion of comb, the reception of the extracted honey in cups, +buckets, etc., and the best method of giving rapid rotation, which +cannot be touched upon. The product of the operation is white and +opaque, but upon heating regains its golden color and transparency.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Starch.</span>—A centrifugal to separate starch from triturated +grain, carried in suspension in water, is as follows. (Pat. +273,127—Müller & Decastro.) The starch water is led to the bottom of +a basket, and, as starch is heavier than the gluten with which it is +mixed, the former will be immediately compacted against the periphery +of the basket, lodging first in the lower corner, the starch and +gluten forming two distinct strata. A tube with a cutting edge enters +the compacted mass so deeply as to peel off the gluten and part of the +starch, which is carried through the tube to another compartment of +the basket, just above, where the same operation is performed, and so +on. There may be only one compartment, the tube carrying the gluten +directly out of the machine. These machines are continuous working, +and hence some way must be devised to carry the water off. The inner +surface of the water is, as we have seen, a cylinder. When the +diameter of this cylinder becomes too small, overflow must be allowed. +One plan is to have an overflow opening made in the bottom of the +basket in such a way that as the starch wall thickens, the opening +recedes toward the center. The starch wall is either lifted out in +cakes or put again in suspension by spraying water on it and +conducting the mixture off.</p> + +<p>A centrifugal (Pat. 74,021) to separate liquids from paints depends on +building a wall of paint on the sides of the basket and carrying the +liquids off at the center.</p> + +<p>A centrifugal (Pat. 310,469) for assorting wood pulp, paper pulp, +etc., works by massing the constituents in two or three cylindrical +strata, and after action severing and removing these separately.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Brewing.</span>—In brewing, centrifugals are quite useful. After +the wort has been boiled with hops, albuminous matters are +precipitated by the tannic acid, which must be extracted. Besides +these the mixture frequently contains husk, fiber, and gluten. The +machine (Pat. 315,876), although quite unique in construction, has the +same principle of working as a sugar centrifugal, and need not be +described. There is one point, however, which might be noticed—that +air is introduced at about the same point as the material, and has an +oxidizing and refrigerating effect.</p> + +<p>Class I. includes also centrifugals for the following purposes: The +removal of must from the grape after crushing, making butter, +extracting oils from solid fats, separating the liquid and solid parts +of sewerage, drying hides, skins, spent tan and the like, drying coils +of wire.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Horizontal Centrifugals.</span>—Only vertical machines have been +and will be dealt with. Horizontal centrifugals, that is, those whose +spindles are horizontal have been made, but the great inconvenience of +charging and discharging connected with them has occasioned their +disuse; though in other respects for liquids they are quite as good as +vertical separators. Their underlying theory is practically the same +as that hereinbefore discussed.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Class II., Creamers.</span>—Centrifugals of the second class +separate liquids from liquids. There are two main applications in this +class—to separate cream from milk and fusel oil from alcoholic +liquors. When a liquid is to be separated from a liquid, the +receptacle must be imperforate. The components of different specific +gravity become arranged in distinct concentric cylindrical strata in +the basket, and must be conducted away separately. In creamers the +particles of cream must not be broken or subjected to any concussion, +as partial churning is caused and the cream will, in consequence, sour +more rapidly.</p> + +<p>The chief cause of oscillations in machines of this class, where the +charge is liquid, is the waves which form on the inner surface. They +may be met by allowing a slight overflow over the inner edge of the +rim of the basket; or by having either horizontal partitions, or +vertical, radial ones, special cases of which will be noticed. +Oscillations may also be met in the same manner as in sugar machines, +by allowing the revolving parts to revolve about an axis through their +common center of gravity. (Pat. 360,342—J. Evans.)</p> + +<p>The crudest form of creamer contains a number of bottles, with their +necks all directed toward the spindle, filled with milk. The necks, in +which the cream collects, are graduated to tell when the operation is +complete.</p> + +<p>Many methods for introducing the milk into creamers have been devised. +It may run in from the top at the center, or emerge from a pipe at the +bottom of the basket; or the spindle may be hollow and the milk sucked +up through it from a basin below. It is usual to let the milk enter +under hydrostatic pressure (Pat. 239,900—D. M. Weston) and let the +force of expulsion of the cream be dependent on this pressure. This +renders the escape quiet, and prevents churning. Gravity, too, is made +effective in carrying the constituents off.</p> + +<p>The cream may escape through a passage in the bottom at the center, +and the skim milk at the lower outer corner; or by ingeniously managed +passages both may escape at or near center. The rate of discharge can +be managed by regulating the size of opening of exit passages.</p> + +<p>A curious method consists in having discharge pipes provided with +valves and floats at their lower ends, dipping into the liquid (Pat. +240,175). "The valves are opened and closed, or partially opened or +closed, by the floats attached to them, these floats being so +constructed and<a name="Page_9791" id="Page_9791"></a> arranged with reference to their specific gravity and +the specific gravity of the component parts of the liquids operated +upon, that they will permit only a liquid of a determinate specific +gravity to escape through the pipes to which they are respectively +attached."</p> + +<p>We may have tubes directed into the different strata with cutting +edges. (Pat. 288,782.) A remarkable fact noticed in their use is that +these edges wear as rapidly as if solids were cut instead of liquids.</p> + +<p>The separated fluids may be received into recessed rings, having +discharge pipes, the proportionate quantity discharged being regulated +by the proximity of the discharge lips to the surface of the ring, and +the centrifugal force being availed of to project the liquids through +the discharge pipes.</p> + +<p>There is a very simple device by which a very rapid circulation of the +liquid is brought about. (Pat. 358,587—C.A. Backstrom.) The basket +has radial vertical partitions, all but one having communicating +holes, alternately in upper and lower corners. The milk is delivered +into the basket on one side of this imperforate partition and must +travel the whole circuit of the basket through these communicating +holes, until it reaches the partition again, and then passes into a +discharge pipe. Thus during this long course every particle of cream +escapes to the center. As the holes are close to the walls of the +basket, the cream has not the undulatory motion of the milk, which +would injure it. The greater the number of partitions, the longer is +the travel of the milk, and the more rapid the circulation. Blades +have been devised similar to the above, having communicating passages +extending the whole width of the blade, but we see that here the cream +would circulate with the milk; which must not be allowed. Curved +blades have been used, and paddles and stirrers, to set the milk in +motion, but to them the same objection may be made.</p> + +<p class="center"><a href="./images/9a.png"><img src="./images/9a_th.png" alt=" Fig. 30" /></a><br /> Fig. 30</p> + +<p>Fig. 30 (Pat. 355,048—C.A. Backstrom) illustrates one of the latest +and best styles of creamers. The milk enters at C. The skim milk +passes into tube, T, and the cream goes to the center and passes out +of the openings in the bottom, <i>k<sup>l</sup></i>, <i>k<sup>2</sup></i>, and <i>k<sup>3</sup></i>, out of +the slit, k, and thence out through D<sup>5</sup>. The skim milk moves through +T, becoming more thoroughly separated all the while, and at each of +the radial branch tubes, T<sup>1</sup>, T<sup>2</sup>, T<sup>3</sup>, and T<sup>4</sup>, some cream +leaves it and goes to the center, while it passes down out of slit, +t<sup>3</sup>, and thence out of D<sup>6</sup>.</p> + +<p>Fig. 31 (Pat. 355,050—C.A. Backstrom) shows another very late style +of creamer. A pipe delivers the milk into P<sup>4</sup>. Passing out of the +tube separation takes place, and cream falls down the center to P<sup>2</sup> +and out of O<sup>3</sup>. When the compartment under the first shelf becomes +full of the skim milk, the latter passes up through the slot, S, +strikes a radial partition, R, and its course is reversed. Here more +cream separates and passes to center and falls directly, and so on +through the whole series of annular compartments, until the top one, +when the skim milk enters tube T<sup>2</sup> and passes out of O<sup>2</sup>. By this +operation there are substantially repeated subjections of specified +quantities of milk to the action of centrifugal force, bringing about +a thorough separation. By changing the course of the milk in +direction, its path is made longer. This machine can run at much lower +speed than many other styles, and yet do the same work.</p> + +<p class="center"><a href="./images/9b.png"><img src="./images/9b_th.png" alt=" Fig. 31" /></a><br /> Fig. 31</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Class III., Solids From Solids.</span>—As for grain machines, which +are in this class, it may be said that in centrifugal flour bolters, +bran cleaners, and middlings purifiers, though theoretically +centrifugal force plays an important part in their action, yet +practically the real separation is brought about by other agencies: in +some by brushes which rub the finer particles through wire netting as +they rotate against it.</p> + +<p>The principle exhibited in a separator of grains and seeds is very +neat. (Pat. 167,297.) See Fig. 32. That part of the machine with which +we have to do consists essentially of a horizontal revolving disk. The +mixed grains are cast on this disk, pass to the edge, and are hurled +off at a tangent. Suppose at A. Each particle is immediately acted on +by three forces. For all particles of the same size and having the +same velocity the resistance of the air may be taken the same, that +is, proportional to the area presented. The acceleration of gravity +is the same; but the inertia of the heavier grain is greater. The +resultant of the two conspiring forces R and (M<i>v</i><sup>2</sup>)/2 varies, and +is greater for a heavier grain. Therefore, the paths described in the +air will vary, especially in length; and how this is utilized the +drawing illustrates.</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/9c.png" alt=" Fig. 32." /><br /> Fig. 32.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Ore.</span>—In ore machines there is one for pulverizing and +separating coal (Pat. 306,544), in which there is a breaker provided +with helical blades or paddles, partaking of rapid rotary motion +within a stationary cylinder of wire netting. The dust, constituting +the valuable part of the product, is hurled out as fast as formed. In +this style of machine, beaters are necessary not only for pulverizing, +but to get up rotary motion for generating centrifugal force. In the +classes preceding, the friction of the basket sufficed for this latter +purpose; but here there is no rotating basket and no definite charge. +As the material falls through the machine, separation takes place. +Various kinds of ore may be treated in the same manner.</p> + +<p>An "ore concentrator" (Pat. 254,123), as it is called, consists of a +pan having rotary and oscillatory motions. Crushed ore is delivered +over the edge in water. The heavy particles of the metal are thrown by +centrifugal force against the rim of the pan, overcoming the force of +the water, which carries the sand and other impurities in toward the +center and away.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Amalgamators.</span>—The best ore centrifugal or separator is what +is called an "amalgamator." The last invention (Pat. 355,958, White) +consists essentially of a pan, a meridian section of which would give +a curve whose normal at any point is in the direction of the resultant +of the centrifugal force at that point and gravity. There is a cover +to this pan whose convexity almost fits the concavity of the pan, +leaving a space of about an inch between. Crushed ore with water is +admitted at the center between the cover and the pan, and is driven +by centrifugal force through a mass of mercury (which occupies part of +this space between the two) and out over the edge of the pan. The +particles of metal coming in contact with the mercury amalgamate, and +as the speed is regulated so that it is never great enough to hurl the +mercury out, nothing but sand, water, etc., escape. There have been +many different constructions devised, but this general principle runs +through all. By having annular flanges running down from the cover +with openings placed alternately, the mixture is compelled to follow a +tortuous course, thus giving time for all the gold or other metal to +become amalgamated. There are ridges in the pan, too, against which +the amalgam lodges. It is claimed for this machine that not a particle +of the precious metal is lost, and experiments seem to uphold the +claim.</p> + +<p>A machine for separating fine from coarse clay for porcelain or for +separating the finer quality of plumbago from the coarser for lead +pencils uses an imperforate basket, against the wall of which the +coarser part banks and catches under the rim. The finer part forms an +inner cylindrical stratum, but is allowed to spill over the edge of +the rim. The mixture is introduced at the bottom of the basket at the +center.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Class IV., Gases And Solids.</span>—There is a very simple +contrivance illustrating machines of this class used to free air from +dust or other heavy solid impurities which may be in suspension. See +Fig. 33. The air enters the passage, B (if it has no considerable +velocity of itself, it must be forced in), forms a whirlpool in the +conically shaped receptable, A, and passes up out of the passage, D. +The heavy particles are thrown on the sides and collect there and fall +through opening, C, into some closed receiver.</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/9d.png" alt=" Fig. 33" /><br /> Fig. 33</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Class V., Gases And Liquids.</span>—The occluded gases in steel and +other metal castings, if not separated, render the castings more or +less porous. This separation is effected by subjecting the molten +metal to the action of centrifugal force under exclusion of air, +producing not only the most minute division of the particles, but also +a vacuum, both favorable conditions for obtaining a dense metal +casting.</p> + +<p>Most of the devices for drying steam come under this head. Such are +those in which the steam with the water in suspension is forced to +take a circular path, by which the water is hurled by centrifugal +force against the concave side of the passage and passes back to the +water in the boiler.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Speed.</span>—The centrifugal force of a revolving particle varies, +as we have seen, as the square of the angular velocity, so that the +effort has been to obtain as high a number of revolutions per minute +as was consistent with safety and with the principle of the machine. +For example, creamers which are small and light make 4,000 revolutions +per minute, though the latest styles run much more slowly. Driers and +sugar machines vary from 600 to 2,000, while on the other hand the +necessity of keeping the mercury from hurling off in an amalgamator +prevents its turning more rapidly than sixty or eighty times a minute.</p> + +<p>However, speed in another sense, the speed with which the operation is +performed, is what especially characterizes centrifugal extractors. In +this particular a contrast between the old methods and the new is +impressive. Under the action of gravity, cream rises to the milk's +surface, but compare the hours necessary for this to the almost +instantaneous separation in a centrifugal creamer. The sugar +manufacturer trusted to gravity to drain the sirup from his crystals, +but the operation was long and at best imperfect. An average sugar +centrifugal will separate 600 pounds of magma perfectly in three +minutes. Gold quartz which formerly could not pay for its mining is +now making its owners' fortunes. It is boasted by a Southern company +that whereas they were by old methods making twenty-five <i>cents</i> per +ton of gold quartz, they now by the use of the latest amalgamator make +twenty-five <i>dollars</i>. Centrifugal force, as applied in extractors, +has opened up new industries and enlarged old ones, has lowered prices +and added to our comforts, and centrifugal extractors may well +command, as they do, the admiration of all as wonderful examples of +the way in which this busy age economizes time.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="Page_9792" id="Page_9792"></a><a name="art10" id="art10"></a>A NEW TYPE OF RAILWAY CAR.</h2> + +<p class="center"><a href="./images/10a.png"><img src="./images/10a_th.png" alt=" Fig. 1.—CAR WITH LATERAL PASSAGEWAYS." /></a><br /> Fig. 1.—CAR WITH LATERAL PASSAGEWAYS.</p> + +<p>Figs. 1 and 2 give a perspective view and plan of a new style of car +recently adopted by the Bone-Guelma Railroad Company, and which has +isolated compartments opening upon a lateral passageway. In this +arrangement, which is due to Mr. Desgranges, the lateral passageway +does not extend all along one side of the car, but passes through the +center of the latter and then runs along the opposite side so as to +form a letter S. The car consists in reality of two boxes connected +beneath the transverse passageway, but having a continuous roof and +flooring. The two ends are provided with platforms that are reached by +means of steps, and that permit one to enter the corresponding half of +the car or to pass on to the next. The length from end to end is 33 +feet in the mixed cars, comprising two first-class and four +second-class compartments, and 32 feet in cars of the third class, +with six compartments. The width of the compartments is 5.6 and 5 +feet, according to the class. The passageway is 28 inches in width in +the mixed cars, and 24 in those of the third class. The roof is so +arranged as to afford a circulation of cool air in the interior.</p> + +<p class="center"><a href="./images/10b.png"><img src="./images/10b_th.png" alt=" Fig. 2.—PLAN." /></a><br /> Fig. 2.—PLAN.</p> + +<p>The application of the zigzag passageway has the inconvenience of +slightly elongating the car, but it is advantageous to the passengers, +who can thus enjoy a view of the landscape on both sides of the +train.—<i>La Nature.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art12" id="art12"></a>FOUNDATIONS OF THE CENTRAL VIADUCT OF CLEVELAND, O.</h2> + +<p>The Central viaduct, now under construction in the city of Cleveland, +is probably the longest structure of the kind devoted entirely to +street traffic. The superstructure is in two distinct portions, +separated by a point of high ground. The main portion, extending +across the river valley from Hill street to Jennings avenue, is 2,840 +feet long on the floor line, including the river bridge, a swing 233 +feet in length; the other portion, crossing Walworth run from Davidson +street to Abbey street, is 1,093 feet long. Add to these the earthwork +and masonry approaches, 1,415 feet long, and we have a total length of +5,348 feet. The width of roadway is 40 feet, sidewalks 8 feet each. +The elevation of the roadway above the water level at the river +crossing is 102 feet. The superstructure is of wrought iron, mainly +trapezoidal trusses, varying in length from 45 feet to 150 feet. The +river piers are of first-class masonry, on pile and timber +foundations. The other supports of the viaduct are wrought iron +trestles on masonry piers, resting on broad concrete foundations. The +pressure on the material beneath the concrete, which is plastic blue +clay of varying degrees of stiffness mixed with fine sand, is about +one ton per square foot.</p> + +<p>The Cuyahoga valley, which the viaduct crosses from bluff to bluff, is +composed mainly of blue clay to a depth of over 150 feet below the +river level. No attempt is made to carry the foundation to the rock. +White oak piles from 50 to 60 feet in length and 10 inches in diameter +at small end are driven for the bridge piers either side of the river +bed, and these are cut off with a circular saw 18 feet below the +surface of the water. Excavation by dredging was made to a depth of 3 +feet below where the piles are cut off to allow for the rising of the +clay during the driving of the piles. The piles are spaced about 2 +feet 5 inches each way, center to center. The grillage or platform +covering the piles consists of 14 courses of white oak timber, 12 +inches by 12 inches, having a few pine timbers interspersed so as to +allow the mass to float during construction. The lower half of the +platform was built on shore, care being taken to keep the lower +surface of the mass of timber out of wind. The upper and lower +surfaces of each timber were dressed in a Daniels planer, and all +pieces in the same course were brought to a uniform thickness. The +timbers in adjacent courses are at right angles to each other. The +lower course is about 58 feet by 22 feet, the top course about 50 by +24 feet, thus allowing four steps of one foot each all around. The +first course of masonry is 48 feet by 21 feet 8 inches; the first +course of battered work is 41 feet 8½ inches by 16 feet 3 inches. Thus +the area of the platform on the piles is 1,856 square feet, and of the +first batter course of masonry 777.6 square feet, or in the ratio of +2.4 to 1. The height of the masonry is 78 feet above the timber, or +73½ feet above the water. The number of piles in each foundation is +312. The average load per pile is about 11 tons, and the estimated +pressure per square inch of the timber on the heads of the piles is +about 200 pounds.</p> + +<p>To prevent the submersion of the lower courses of masonry during +construction, temporary sides of timber were drift-bolted to the +margin of the upper course of the timber platform, and carried high +enough to be above the surface of the water when the platform was sunk +to the head of the piles by the increasing weight of masonry.</p> + +<p>The center pier is octagonal, and is built in the same general manner +as to foundations as the shore piers, but the piles are cut off 22 +feet below water, and there are eighteen courses of timber in the +grillage. The diameter of the platform between parallel sides is 53 +feet, while that of the lower course of battered masonry is but 37 +feet. The areas are as 2,332 to 1,147, or as 2 to 1 nearly. The +pressure per square inch of timber on the heads of the piles is about +the same as stated above for the shore piers. The number of piles +under the center pier is 483.</p> + +<p>The risks and delays by this method of constructing the foundations +were much less, and the cost also, than if an ordinary coffer dam had +been used. Also the total weight of the piers is much less, as that +portion below a point about two feet below the water adds nothing to +their weight.</p> + +<p>The piles were driven with a Cram steam hammer weighing two tons, in a +frame weighing also two tons. The iron frame rests directly upon the +head of the pile and goes down with it. The fall of the hammer is +about 40 inches before striking the pile. The total penetration of the +piles into the clay averaged 27 feet. The settlement of the pile +during the final strokes of the hammer varied from one quarter to +three quarters of an inch per blow.</p> + +<p>There are 122 masonry pedestals, of which eight are large and heavy, +carrying spans of considerable length. They will all be built upon +concrete beds, except a few near the river on the north side, where +piles are required.</p> + +<p>The four abutments with their retaining walls are of first-class +rock-faced masonry. The footing courses are stepped out liberally, so +as to present an unusually large bottom surface. They rest on beds of +concrete 4 feet thick. The foundation pits are about 50 feet below the +top of the bluffs, and are in a material common to the Cleveland +plateau, a mixture of blue sand and clay, with some water. The +estimated load of masonry on the earth at the bottom of the concrete +is one and seven tenths tons to the square foot. Two of the large +abutments were completed last season. They show an average settlement +of three eighths of an inch since the lower footing courses were laid.</p> + +<p>The facts and figures here given regarding the viaduct were kindly +furnished by the city civil engineer, C.G. Force, who has the work in +charge.—<i>Jour. Asso. of Eng. Societies.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<p>For sticking paper to zinc, use starch paste with which a little +Venice turpentine has been incorporated, or else use a dilute solution +of white gelatine or isinglass.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art11" id="art11"></a>CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS AT MARE ISLAND NAVY YARD, CALIFORNIA.<a name="FNanchor_16" id="FNanchor_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16"><sup>1</sup></a></h2> + + +<h3>By H.R. CORNELIUS.</h3> + +<p>In December, 1883, bids were asked for by the United States government +on pumping machinery, to remove the water from a dry dock for vessels +of large size.</p> + +<p>The dimensions of the dock, which is situated on San Pablo Bay, +directly opposite the city of Vallejo, are as follows:</p> + +<p>Five hundred and twenty-nine feet wide at its widest part, 36 feet +deep, with a capacity at mean tide of 9,000,000 gallons.</p> + +<p>After receiving the contract, several different sizes of pumps were +considered, but the following dimensions were finally chosen: Two 42 +inch centrifugal pumps, with runner 66 inches in diameter and +discharge pipes 42 inches, each driven direct by a vertical engine +with 28 inch diameter cylinder and 24 inch stroke.</p> + +<p>These were completed and shipped in June, 1885, on nine cars, +constituting a special train, which arrived safely at its destination +in the short space of two weeks, and the pumps were there erected on +foundations prepared by the government.</p> + +<p>From the "Report of the Chief of Bureau of Yards and Docks" I quote +the following account of the official tests:</p> + +<div class="note"> + <p>"The board appointed to make the test resolved to fill the + dock to about the level that would attain in actual service + with a naval ship of second rate in the dock, and the tide at + a stage which would give the minimum pumping necessary to + free the dock. The level of the 20th altar was considered as + the proper point, and the water was admitted through two of + the gates of the caisson until this level was reached; they + were then closed. The contents of the dock at this point is + 5,963,921 gallons.</p> + +<p> "The trial was commenced and continued to completion without + any interruption in a very satisfactory manner.</p> + +<p> "In the separate trials had of each pump, the average + discharge per minute was taken of the whole process, and + there was a singular uniformity throughout with equal piston + speed of the engine.</p> + +<p> "It was to be expected, and in a measure realized, that + during the first moments of the operations, when the level of + the water in the dock was above the center of the runner of + the pumps, that the discharge would be proportioned to the + work done, where no effort was necessary to maintain a free + and full flow through the suction pipes; but as the level + passed lower and farther away from the center there was no + apparent diminution of the flow, and no noticeable addition + to the load imposed on the engine. The variation in piston + speed, noted during the trial, was probably due to the + variation of the boiler pressure, as it was difficult to + preserve an equal pressure, as it rose in spite of great + care, owing to the powerful draught and easy steaming + qualities of the boilers.</p> + +<p> "After the trial of the second pump had been completed the + dock was again filled through the caisson, and as both pumps + were to be tried, the water was admitted to a level with the + 23d altar, containing 7,317,779 gallons, which was seven feet + above the center of the pumps; this was in favor of the pumps + for the reasons before stated. In this case all the boilers + were used.</p> + +<p> "Everything moved most admirably, and the performance of + these immense machines was almost startling. By watching the + water in the dock it could be seen to lower bodily, and so + rapidly that it could be detected by the eye without + reference to any fixed point.</p> + +<p> "The well which communicates with the suction tunnel was + open, and the water would rise and fall, full of rapid swirls + and eddies, though far above the entrance of these tunnels. + Through the man hole in the discharge culvert the issuance + from the pipes could be seen, and its volume was beyond + conception. It flowed rapidly through the culvert, and its + outfall was a solid prism of water, the full size of the + tunnel, projecting far into the river.</p> + +<p> "During a pumping period of 55 minutes, the dock had been + emptied from the twenty-third to two inches above the sixth + altar, containing 6,210,698 gallons, an average throughout of + 112,922 gallons per minute. At one time, when the revolutions + were increased to 160 per minute, the discharge was 137,797 + gallons per minute. This is almost a river, and is hardly + conceivable. After the pumps were stopped, on this occasion, + tests were made with each in succession as to the power of + the ejectors with which each is fitted to recharge the pumps.</p> + +<p> "The valves in the discharge pipe were closed and steam + admitted to the ejector, the pump being still and no water in + the gauge glass on the pump casing, which must be full before + the pumps will work. The suction pipe of the ejector is only + two and a half inches in diameter, the steam pipe one inch in + diameter. To fully charge the pumps at this point required + filling the pump casing and the suction pipe containing about + 2,000 gallons; this was accomplished in four minutes, and + when the gauge glass was full the pump operated instantly and + with certainty, discharging its full volume of water.</p> + +<p> "I went on several occasions down in the valve pits on the + ladder of the casing, and to all accessible parts while in + motion at its highest speed, and there was no undue + vibration, only a uniform murmur of well-balanced parts, and + the peculiar clash of water against the sides of the casing + as its velocity was checked by the blank spaces in the + runner.</p> + +<p> "The pumps are noisy while at work, due to the clashing of + the water just mentioned, but it affords a means of detecting + any faulty arrangements of the runner or unequal discharge + from any of its openings. While moving at a uniform speed, + this clashing has a tone whose pitch corresponds with that + velocity of discharge, and if this tone is lacking in + quality, or at all confused, there is want of equality of + discharge through the various openings of the runner. To this + part I gave close attention, and there was nothing that the + ear could detect to indicate aught but the nicest adjustment. + The bearings of the runners worked with great smoothness, and + did not become at all heated. Through a simple, novel + arrangement, these bearings are lubricated and kept cool. + There is a constant <a name="Page_9793" id="Page_9793"></a>circulation of water from the pumps by + means of a small pipe, which completes a circuit to an + annular in the bearings back to the discharge pipe while the + pump is in motion, requiring no oil and making it seemingly + impossible to heat these bearings.</p> + +<p> "The large cast steel valves placed in the embouchement of + the casing, it was thought, might act to check the free + discharge, and arrangements were provided for raising and + keeping them open by a long lever key attached to their axes + of revolution, but, to our great surprise, at the first gush + from the pumps these valves, weighing nearly 1,500 pounds, + were lifted into their recessed chambers, giving an + unobstructed opening to the flow, and they floated on its + surface unsupported, save by the swiftly flowing water, + without a movement, while the pump was in operation.</p> + +<p> "The steam-actuated valves in the suction and discharge pipes + worked very well, and the water cushion gave a slow, uniform + motion, and without shock, either in opening or closing them.</p> + +<p> "The engines worked noiselessly, without shock or labor. At + no time during the trial was the throttle valve open more + than three-eighths of an inch.</p> + +<p> "The indicator cards taken at various intervals gave 796 + horse power, and the revolutions did not exceed 160 at any + time, though it was estimated that 900 horse power and 210 + revolutions would be necessary to attain the requisite + delivery. So that there is a large reserve of power available + at any time.</p> + +<p> "The erection of this massive machinery has been admirably + done. The parts, as sent from the shops of the contractor, + have matched in all cases without interference here; and, + when lowered into place, its final adjustment was then made + without the use of chisel or file, and has never been touched + since.</p> + +<p> "The joints of the steam and water connections were perfect, + and the method of concentrating all valves, waste pipes, and + important movements at the post of the engineer in charge + gives him complete control of the whole system of each engine + and pump without leaving his place, and reduces to a minimum + the necessary attendance. All the parts are strong and of + excellent design and workmanship; simple, and without + ornamentation.</p> + +<p> "Looking down upon them from a level of the pump house + gallery, they are impressive and massive in their simplicity.</p> + +<p> "The government is well worth of congratulation in possessing + the largest pumping machinery of this type and of the + greatest capacity in the world, and the contractors have + reason to be proud of their work."—<i>Proc. Eng. Club.</i></p> +</div> + + +<p><a name="Footnote_16" id="Footnote_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16">[1]</a><br /><span class="note">Built by the Southwark Foundry and Machine Company, of +Philadelphia.</span></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art09" id="art09"></a>THE PART THAT ELECTRICITY PLAYS IN CRYSTALLIZATION.</h2> + +<p>Since the discovery of the multiplying galvanometer, we know for an +absolute certainty that in every chemical action there is a production +of electricity in a more or less notable quantity, according to the +nature of the bodies in presence. Though, in the play of <i>affinity</i>, +there is a manifestation of electricity, is it the same with +<i>cohesion</i>, which also is a chemical force?</p> + +<p>We know, on another hand, that, on causing electricity to intervene, +we bring about the crystallization of a large number of substances. +But is the converse true? Is spontaneous crystallization accompanied +with an appreciable manifestation of electricity? If we consult the +annals of science and works treating on electricity in regard to this +subject, we find very few examples and experiments proper to elucidate +the question.</p> + +<p>Mr. Mascart is content to say: "Some experiments seem to indicate that +the solidification of a body produces electricity." Mr. Becquerel does +more than doubt—he denies: "As regards the disengagement of +electricity in the changing of the state of bodies, we find none." +This assertion is too sweeping, for further along we shall cite facts +that prove, on the contrary, that in the phenomena of crystallization +(to speak of this change of state only) there is an unequivocal +production of electricity. Let us remark, in the first place, that +when a number of phenomena of physical and chemical order +incontestably testify to the very intimate correlation that exists +between the molecular motions of bodies and their electrical state, it +would not be very logical to grant that electricity is absent in +crystallization.</p> + +<p>Thus, to select an example from among physical effects, the vibratory +phenomena that occur in telephone transmissions, under the influence +of a very feeble electric current, show us that the molecular +constitution of a solid body is extremely variable, although within +slight limits. The feeblest modification in the electric current may +be shown by molecular motions capable of propagating themselves to +considerable distances in the conducting wire. Conversely, it is +logical to suppose that a modification in the molecular state of a +body must bring electricity into play. If, in the phenomena of +solidification, and particularly of crystallization, we collect but +small quantities of electricity, that may be due to the fact that, +under the experimental conditions involved, the electricity is more or +less completely absorbed by the work of crystal building.</p> + +<p>On another hand, the behavior of electricity shows in advance the +multiple role that this agent may play in the various physical, +chemical, and mechanical phenomena.</p> + +<p>There is no doubt that electricity exists immovable or in circulation +everywhere, latent or imperceptible, around us, and within ourselves, +and that it enters as a cause into the majority of the chemical, +physical, and mechanical phenomena that are constantly taking place +before our eyes. A body cannot change state, nature, temperature, +form, or place, even, without electricity being brought into play, and +without its accompanying such modifications, if it presides therein. +Like heat, it is <i>the</i> natural agent <i>par excellence</i>; it is the +invisible and ever present force which, in the ultimate particles of +matter, causes those motions, vibrations, and rotations that have the +effect of changing the properties of bodies. Upon entering their +intimate structure, it orients or groups their atoms, and separates +their molecules or brings them together. From this, would it not be +surprising if it did not intervene in the wonderful phenomenon of +crystallization? Crystallization, in fact, depends upon <i>cohesion</i>, +and, in the thermic theory, this force is not distinct from affinity, +just as solution and dissociation are not distinct from combination.</p> + +<p>On this occasion, it is necessary to say that, between affinity, heat, +and electricity there is such a correlation, such a dependency, that +physicists have endeavored to reduce to one single principle all the +causes that are now distinct. The mechanical theory of heat has made a +great stride in this direction.</p> + +<p>The equivalence of the thermic, mechanical and chemical forces has +been demonstrated; the only question hereafter will be to select from +among such forces the one that must be adopted as the sole principle, +in order to account for all the phenomena that depend upon these +causes of various orders. But in the present state of science, it is +not yet possible to explain completely by heat or electricity, taken +isolatedly, all the effects dependent upon the causes just mentioned. +We must confine ourselves for the present to a study of the relations +that exist between the principal natural forces—affinity, molecular +forces, heat, electricity, and light. But from the mutual dependence +of such forces, it is admitted that, in every natural phenomenon, +there is a more or less apparent simultaneous concurrence of these +causes.</p> + +<p>In order to explain electric or magnetic phenomena, and also those of +crystallization, it is admitted that the atoms of which bodies are +composed are surrounded, each of them, with a sort of atmosphere +formed of electric currents, owing to which these atoms are attracted +or repelled on certain sides, and produce those varied effects that we +observe under different circumstances. According to this theory, then, +atoms would be small electro-magnets behaving like genuine magnets. +Entirely free in gases, but less so in liquids and still less so in +solids, they are nevertheless capable of arranging themselves and of +becoming polarized in a regular order, special to each kind of atom, +in order to produce crystals of geometrical form characteristic of +each species. Thus, as Mr. Saigey remarks in "Physique Moderne" (p. +181): "So long as the atmospheres of the molecules do not touch each +other, no trace of cohesion manifests itself; but as soon as they come +together force is born. We understand why the temperatures of fusion +and solidification are fixed for the same body. Such effects occur at +the precise moment at which these atmospheres, which are variable with +the temperature, have reached the desired diameter."</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/11.png" alt="Figs. 1., 2., and 3." /></p> + +<p>Although the phenomenon of crystallization does not essentially depend +upon temperature, but rather upon the relative quantity of liquid that +holds the substance in solution, it will be conceived that a moment +will arrive when, the liquid having evaporated, the atmospheres will +be close enough to each other to attract each other and become +polarized and symmetrically juxtaposed, and, in a word, to +crystallize.</p> + +<p>Before giving examples of the production of electricity in the +phenomenon of crystallization, it will be well to examine, beforehand, +the different circumstances under which electricity acts as the +determining cause of crystallization or intervenes among the causes +that bring about the phenomenon. In the first place, two words +concerning crystallization itself: We know that crystallization is the +passage, or rather the result of the passage, of a body from a liquid +or gaseous state to a solid one. It occurs when the substance has lost +its cohesion through any cause whatever, and when, such cause ceasing +to act, the body slowly returns to a solid state.</p> + +<p>Under such circumstances, it may take on regular, geometrical forms +called crystalline. Such conditions are brought about by different +processes—fusion, volatilization, solution, the dry way, wet way, and +electric way. Further along, we shall give some examples of the last +named means.</p> + +<p>Let us add that crystallization may be regarded as a general property +of bodies, for the majority of substances are capable of +crystallizing. Although certain bodies seem to be amorphous at first +sight, it is only necessary to examine their fracture with a lens or +microscope to see that they are formed of a large number of small +juxtaposed crystals. Many amorphous precipitates become crystalline in +the long run.</p> + +<p>In the examination of the various crystallizations that occupy us, we +shall distinguish the following: (1) Those that are produced through +the direct intervention of the electric current; (2) those in which +electricity is manifestly produced by small voltaic couples resulting +from the presence of two different metals in the solution experimented +with; (3) those in which there are no voltaic couples, but in which it +is proved that electricity is one of the causes that concur in the +production of the phenomenon; (4) finally, those in which it is +rational, through analogy with the preceding, to infer that +electricity is not absent from the phenomenon.</p> + +<p>I. We know that, by means of voltaic electricity or induction, we can +crystallize a large number of substances.</p> + +<p>Despretz tried this means for months at a time upon carbon, either by +using the electricity from a Ruhmkorff coil or the current from a weak +Daniell's battery. In both cases, he obtained on the platinum wires a +black powder, in which were found very small octohedral crystals, +having the property of polishing rubies rapidly and perfectly—a +property characteristic of diamonds.</p> + +<p>The use of voltaic apparatus of high tension has allowed Mr. Cross to +form a large number of mineral substances artificially, and among +these we may mention carbonate of lime, arragonite, quartz, arseniate +of copper, crystalline sulphur, etc.</p> + +<p>As regards products formed with the concurrence of electricity +(oxides, sulphides, chlorides, iodides, etc.), see "Des Forces +Physico-Chimiques," by Becquerel (p. 231).</p> + +<p>There is no doubt as to the part played by electricity in the chemical +effects of electro-metallurgy, but it will not prove useless for our +subject to remark that when, in this operation, the current has become +too weak, the deposit of metal, instead of forming in a thin, +adherent, and uniform layer, sometimes occurs under the form of +protuberances and crystalline, brittle nodules. When, on the contrary, +the current is very strong, the deposit is pulverulent, that is, in a +confused crystallization or in an amorphous state.</p> + +<p>Further along, we shall find an application of this remark. We obtain, +moreover, all the intermediate effects of cohesion, form, and color of +galvanic deposits.</p> + +<p>When, into a solution of acetate of lead, we pass a current through +two platinum electrodes, we observe the formation, at the negative +pole, of numerous arborizations of metallic lead that grow under the +observer's eye (Fig. 1). The phenomenon is of a most interesting +character when, by means of solar or electric light, we project these +brilliant vegetations on a screen. One might believe that he was +witness of the rapid growth of a plant (Fig. 2). The same phenomenon +occurs none the less brilliantly with a solution of nitrate of silver. +A large number of saline solutions are adapted to these +decompositions, in which the metal is laid bare under a crystalline +form. Further along we shall see another means of producing analogous +ramifications, without the direct use of the electric current.—<i>C. +Decharme, in La Lumiere Electrique.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art07" id="art07"></a>ELECTRIC TIME.</h2> + +<h3>By M. LIPPMANN.</h3> + +<p>The unit of time universally adopted, the second, undergoes only very +slow secular variations, and can be determined with a precision and an +ease which compel its employment. Still it is true that the second is +an arbitrary and a variable unit—arbitrary, in as far as it has no +relation with the properties of matter, with physical constants; +variable, since the duration of the diurnal movement undergoes causes +of secular perturbation, some of which, such as the friction of the +tides, are not as yet calculable.</p> + +<p>We may ask if it is possible to define an absolutely invariable unit +of time; it would be desirable to determine with sufficient precision, +if only once in a century, the relation of the second to such a unit, +so that we might verify the variations of the second indirectly and +independently of any astronomical hypothesis.</p> + +<p>Now, the study of certain electrical phenomena furnishes a unit of +time which is absolutely invariable, as this magnitude is a specific +constant. Let us consider a conductive substance which may always be +found identical with itself, and to fix our ideas let us choose +mercury, taken at the temperature of 0° C., which completely fulfills +this condition. We may determine by several methods the specific +electric resistance, ρ, of mercury in absolute electrostatic +units; ρ is a specific property of mercury, and is consequently a +magnitude absolutely invariable. Moreover, ρ is <i>an interval of +time</i>. We might, therefore, take ρ as a unit of time, unless we +prefer to consider this value as an imperishable standard of time.</p> + +<p>In fact, ρ is not simply a quantity the measure of which is found +to be in relation with the measure of time. It is a concrete interval +of time, disregarding every convention established with reference to +measures and every selection of unit. It may at first sight, appear +singular that an interval of time is found in a manner hidden under +the designation <i>electric resistance</i>. But we need merely call to mind +that in the electrostatic system the intensities of the current are +speeds of efflux and that the resistances are times, <i>i.e.</i>, the times +necessary for the efflux of the electricity under given conditions. We +must, in particular, remember what is meant by the specific +resistance, ρ of mercury in the electrostatic system. If we +consider a circuit having a resistance equal to that of a cube of +mercury, the side of which = the unit of length, the circuit being +submitted to an electromotive force equal to unity, this circuit will +take a given time to be traversed by the unit quantity of electricity, +and this time is precisely ρ. It must be remarked that the +selection of the unit of length, like that of the unit of mass, is +indifferent, for the different units brought here into play depend on +it in such a manner that ρ is not affected.</p> + +<p>It is now required to bring this definition experimentally into +action, <i>i.e.</i>, to realize an interval of time which may be a known +multiple of ρ. This problem may be solved in various ways,<a name="FNanchor_17" id="FNanchor_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17"><sup>1</sup></a> and +especially by means of the following apparatus.</p> + +<p>A battery of an arbitrary electromotive force, E, actuates at the same +time the two antagonistic circuits of a differential galvanometer. In +the first circuit, which <a name="Page_9794" id="Page_9794"></a>has a resistance, R, the battery sends a +continuous current of the intensity, I; in the second circuit the +battery sends a discontinuous series of discharges, obtained by +charging periodically by means of the battery a condenser of the +capacity, C, which is then discharged through this second circuit. The +needle of the galvanometer remains in equilibrium if the two currents +yield equal quantities of electricity during one and the same time, +τ.</p> + +<p>Let us suppose this condition of equilibrium realized and the needle +remaining motionless at zero; it is easy to write the conditions of +equilibrium. During the time, τ, the continuous current yields a +quantity of electricity = (E / R)τ; on the other hand, each charge of +the condenser = CE, and during the time, τ, the +number of discharges = τ/<i>t</i>, <i>t</i> being the fixed time +between two discharges; τ and t are here supposed to be expressed +by the aid of an arbitrary unit of time; the second circuit yields, +therefore, a quantity of electricity equal to CE × (τ / <i>t</i>). +The condition of equilibrium is then (E / R) τ = CE × (τ / <i>t</i>); or, +more simply, <i>t</i> = CR.</p> + +<p>C and R are known in absolute values, <i>i.e.</i>, we know that C is equal +to <i>p</i> times the capacity of a sphere of the radius, <i>l</i>; we have, +therefore, C = <i>pl</i>; in the same manner we know that R is equal to <i>q</i> +times the resistance of a cube of mercury having l for its side. We +have, therefore, R = <i>q</i> ρ (<i>l</i> / <i>l²</i>) = <i>q</i> (ρ / <i>l</i>) +and consequently <i>t</i> = <i>pq</i>ρ.</p> + +<p>Such is the value of <i>t</i> obtained on leaving all the units +undetermined. If we express ρ as a function of the second, we have +<i>t</i> in seconds. If we take ρ = 1, we have the absolute value +Θ of the same interval of time as a function of this unit; we +have simply Θ = <i>pq</i>.</p> + +<p>If we suppose that the commutator which produces the successive +charges and discharges of the condenser consists of a vibrating tuning +fork, we see that the duration of a vibration is equal to the product +of the two abstract numbers, <i>pq</i>.</p> + +<p>It remains for us to ascertain to what degree of approximation we can +determine <i>p</i> and <i>q</i>. To find <i>q</i> we must first construct a column of +mercury of known dimensions; this problem was solved by the +International Bureau of Weights and Measures for the construction of +the legal ohm. The legal ohm is supposed to have a resistance equal to +106.00 times that of a cube of mercury of 0.01 meter, side +measurement. The approximation obtained is comprised between 1/50000 +and 1/200000. To obtain <i>p</i>, we must be able to construct a plane +condenser of known capacity. The difficulty here consists in knowing +with a sufficient approximation the thickness of the stratum of air. +We may employ as armatures two surfaces of glass, ground optically, +silvered to render them conductive, but so slightly as to obtain by +transparence Fizeau's interference rings. Fizeau's method will then +permit us to arrive at a close approximation. In fine, then, we may, +<i>a priori</i>, hope to reach an approximation of one hundred-thousandth +of the value of <i>pq</i>.</p> + +<p>Independently of the use which may be made of it for measuring time in +absolute value, the apparatus described possesses peculiar properties. +It constitutes a kind of clock which indicates, registers, and, if +needful, corrects automatically its own variations of speed. The +apparatus being regulated so that the magnetic needle may be at zero, +if the speed of the commutator is slightly increased, the equilibrium +is disturbed and the magnetic needle deviates in the corresponding +direction; if on the contrary the speed diminishes, the action of the +antagonistic circuit predominates, and the needle deviates in the +contrary direction. These deviations, when small, are proportional to +the variations of speed. They may be, in the first place, observed. +They may, further, be registered, either photographically or by +employing a Redier apparatus, like that which M. Mascart has adapted +to his quadrant electrometer; finally, we may arrange the Redier to +react upon the speed so as to reduce its variations to zero. If these +variations are not completely annulled, they will still be registered +and can be taken into account.</p> + +<p>As an indicator of variations this apparatus can be of remarkable +sensitiveness, which may be increased indefinitely by enlarging its +dimensions.</p> + +<p>With a battery of 10 volts, a condenser of a microfarad, 10 discharges +per second, and a Thomson's differential galvanometer sensitive to +10<sup>-10</sup> amperes, we obtain already a sensitiveness of 1/1000000, +<i>i.e.</i>, a variation of 1/1000000 in the speed is shown after some +seconds of a deviation of one millimeter. Even the stroboscopic method +does not admit of such sensitiveness.</p> + +<p>We may therefore find, with a very close approximation, a speed always +the same on condition that the solid parts of the apparatus (the +condenser and the resistance) are protected from causes of variation +and used always at the same temperature. Doubtless, a well-constructed +astronomical clock maintains a very uniform movement; but the electric +clock is placed in better conditions for invariability, for all the +parts are massive and immovable; they are merely required to remain +unchanged, and there is no question of the wear and tear of +wheel-work, the oxidation of oils, or the variations of weight. In +other words, the system formed by a condenser and a resistance +constitutes a standard of time easy of preservation.</p> + + +<p><a name="Footnote_17" id="Footnote_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17">[1]</a></p> +<div class="note"><p>In this system the measurement of time is not effected, +as ordinarily, by observing the movements of a material system, but by +experiments of equilibrium. All the parts of the apparatus remain +immovable, the electricity alone being in motion. Such appliances are +in a manner clepsydræ. This analogy with the clepsydræ will be +perceived if we consider the form of the following experiment: Two +immovable metallic plates constitute the armatures of a charged +condenser, and attract each other with a force, F. If the plates are +insulated, these charges remain constant, as well as the force, F. If, +on the contrary, we connect the armatures of resistance, R, their +charges diminish and the force, F, becomes a function of the time, +<i>t</i>; the time, <i>t</i>, inversely becomes a function of P. We find <i>t</i> by +the following formula:</p> + +<p class="center"> t = ρ × (<i>l</i>S / Sπ<i>es</i>) × log hyp(F<sub>0</sub>/F)</p> + + +<p>F<sub>0</sub> and F being the values of the force at the beginning and at the +end of the time, <i>t</i>. The above formula is independent of the choice +of units. If we wish <i>t</i> to be expressed in seconds, we must give +ρ the corresponding value (ρ = 1.058 × 10<sup>-16</sup>). If we take +ρ as a unit we make ρ = 1, and we find the absolute value of +the time by the expression:</p> + + +<p class="center"> (<i>l</i>S) / (8π<i>e s</i>) log hyp(F<sub>0</sub>/F)</p> + + +<p>We remark that this expression of time contains only abstract numbers, +being independent of the choice of the units of length and force. S +and <i>e</i> denote surface and the thickness of the condenser; <i>s</i> and <i>l</i> +the section and the length of a column of mercury of the resistance, +R. This form of apparatus enables us practically to measure the +notable values of <i>t</i> only if the value of the resistance, R, is +enormous, the arrangement described in the text has not the same +inconvenience.</p> +</div> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art08" id="art08"></a>NEW METHOD OF MAINTAINING THE VIBRATION OF A PENDULUM.</h2> + +<p>A recent number of the <i>Comptes Rendus</i> contains a note by M.J. +Carpentier describing a method of maintaining the vibrations of a +pendulum by means of electricity, which differs from previous devices +of the same character in that the impulse given to the pendulum at +each vibration is independent of the strength of the current employed, +and that the pendulum itself is entirely free, save at the point of +suspension. The vibrations are maintained, not by direct impulsion, +but by a slight horizontal displacement of the point of suspension in +alternate directions.</p> + +<p>This, as M. Carpentier observes, is the method which we naturally +adopt in order to maintain the amplitude of swing of a heavy body +suspended from a cord held in the hand. The required movement of the +point of suspension is effected by means of a polarized relay, through +the coils of which the current is periodically reversed by the action +of the pendulum, in a manner which will presently be explained. The +armature of the relay oscillates between two stops whose distance +apart is capable of fine adjustment.</p> + +<p>It is clear, therefore, that the impulse is independent of the +strength of the current in the relay, provided that the armature is +brought up to the stop on either side. The reversal of the current is +effected by means of a small magnet carried by the bob of the +pendulum, and which as it passes underneath the point of suspension is +brought close to a soft iron armature, which has the form of an arc of +a circle described about the point of suspension. This armature is +pivoted at its center, and thus executes vibrations synchronously with +those of the pendulum. These vibrations are adjusted to a very narrow +range, but are sufficient to close the contacts of a commutator which +reverses the current at each semi-vibration of the pendulum.</p> + +<p>The beauty and ingenuity of this device will readily be appreciated.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art01" id="art01"></a>DR. MORELL MACKENZIE.</h2> + +<p>The name of the great English laryngologist, which has long been +honored by scientists of England and the Continent, has lately become +familar to everyone, even in unprofessional circles, in Germany +because of his operations on the Crown Prince's throat. If his wide +experience and great skill enable him to permanently remove the growth +from the throat of his royal patient, if his diagnosis and prognosis +are confirmed, so that no fear need be entertained for the life and +health of the Crown Prince, the English specialist will certainly +deserve the most sincere thanks of the German nation. Every phase of +this treatment, every new development, is watched with suspense and +hope.</p> + +<p>Many have been unable to suppress the expression of regret that this +important case was not under the care of a German, and part of the +press look upon it as unjust treatment of the German specialists. But +science is international, it knows no political boundaries, and the +choice of Dr. Mackenzie by the family of the Crown Prince, whose +sympathy with England is natural, cannot be considered a slight to +German physicians when it is taken into consideration that the German +authorities pronounced the growth suspicious and advised a difficult +and doubtful operation, and that Prof. v. Bergman recommended that a +foreign authority be consulted. As Dr. Mackenzie removed the +obstruction, which had already become threatening and, in fact, +dangerous, causing a loss of voice, and promised to remove any new +growth from the inside without danger to the patient, the Crown Prince +naturally trusted him. Since Virchow has made a microscopic +examination of the part which was cut away, and has declared the new +growth to be benign, all Germans should watch the results of Dr. +Mackenzie's operations with sympathy, trusting that all further growth +will be prevented, and that the Crown Prince will be restored to the +German people in his former state of health.</p> + +<p class="center"><a href="./images/12.png"><img src="./images/12_th.png" alt=" DR. MORELL MACKENZIE." /></a><br /> DR. MORELL MACKENZIE.</p> + +<p>Dr. Morell Mackenzie has lately reached his fiftieth year, and has +attained the height of his fame as an author and practitioner. He was +born at Leytonston in 1837, and studied first in London. At the age +of twenty-two he passed his examination, then practiced as physician +in the London Hospital, and obtained his degree in 1862. A year later +he received the Jackson prize from the Royal Society of Surgeons for +his treatment of a laryngeal case.</p> + +<p>He completed his studies in Paris, Vienna (with Siegmund), and +Budapest. In the latter place he worked with Czermak, making a special +study of the laryngoscope. Later he published an excellent work on +"Diseases of the Throat and Nose," which was the fruit of twelve +years' work. The evening before the day on which this work was to have +been issued, the whole edition was destroyed by a fire which occurred +in the printing establishment, and had to be reprinted from the proof +sheets, which were saved. In 1870 his work "On Growths in the Throat" +appeared, and he has also published many articles in the <i>British +Medical Journal</i>, the <i>Lancet</i>, <i>Medical Times and Gazette</i>, etc., +which have been translated into different languages, making his name +renowned all over Europe.</p> + +<p>Since he founded the first English hospital for diseases of the throat +and chest, in London in 1863, and held the position of lecturer on +diseases of the throat in the London Medical College, his career has +been watched with interest by the public, and his practice in England +is remarkable. Therefore it is no wonder that his lately published +work "On the Hygiene of the Vocal Organs" has reached its fourth +edition already. This work is read not only by physicians, but also by +singers and lecturers.</p> + +<p>As a learned man in his profession, as an experienced diagnostician, +and as a skillful and fortunate practitioner, he is surpassed by none; +and his ability will be well known far beyond the borders of Great +Britain if fortune favors him and he restores the future Emperor of +Germany to his former strength and vigor, without which we cannot +imagine this knightly form. The certainty with which Dr. Mackenzie +speaks of permanent cures which he has effected in similar cases, +together with the clear and satisfactory report of the great +pathologist Virchow, lead us to look to the future with +confidence.—<i>Illustrirte Zeitung.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art17" id="art17"></a>HYPNOTISM IN FRANCE.<a name="FNanchor_18" id="FNanchor_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18"><sup>1</sup></a></h2> + +<p>The voluntary production of those abnormal conditions of the nerves +which to-day are denoted by the term "hypnotic researches" has +manifested itself in all ages and among most of the nations that are +known to us. Within modern times these phenomena were first reduced to +a system by Mesmer, and, on this account, for the future deserve the +attention of the scientific world. The historical description of this +department, if one intends to give a connected account of its +development, and not a series of isolated facts, must begin with a +notice of Mesmer's personality, and we must not confound the more +recent development of our subject with its past history.</p> + +<p>The period of mesmerism is sufficiently understood from the numerous +writings on the subject, but it would be a mistake to suppose that in +Braid's "Exposition of Hypnotism" the end of this subject had been +reached. In a later work I hope to show that the fundamental ideas of +biomagnetism have not only had in all periods of this century capable +and enthusiastic advocates, but that even in our day they have been +subjected to tests by French and English investigators from which they +have issued triumphant.</p> + +<p>The second division of this historical development is <a name="Page_9795" id="Page_9795"></a>carried on by +Braid, whose most important service was emphasizing the subjectivity +of the phenomena. Without any connection with him, and yet by +following out almost exactly the same experiments, Professor +Heidenhain reached his physiological explanations. A third division is +based upon the discovery of the hypnotic condition in animals, and +connects itself to the <i>experimentum mirabile</i>. In 1872 the first +writings on this subject appear from the pen of the physiologist +Czermak; and since then the investigations have been continued, +particularly by Professor Preyer.</p> + +<p>While England and Germany were led quite independently to the study of +the same phenomena, France experienced a strange development, which +shows, as nothing else could, how truth everywhere comes to the +surface, and from small beginnings swells to a flood which carries +irresistibly all opposition with it. This fourth division of the +history of hypnotism is the more important, because it forms the +foundation of a transcendental psychology, and will exert a great +influence upon our future culture; and it is this division to which we +wish to turn our attention. We have intentionally limited ourselves to +a chronological arrangement, since a systematic account would +necessarily fall into the study of single phenomena, and would far +exceed the space offered to us.</p> + +<p>James Braid's writings, although they were discussed in detail in +Littré and Robin's "Lexicon," were not at all the cause of Dr. +Philips' first books, who therefore came more independently to the +study of the same phenomena. Braid's theories became known to him +later by the observations made upon them in Béraud's "Elements of +Physiology" and in Littré's notes in the translation of Müller's +"Handbook of Physiology;" and he then wrote a second brochure, in +which he gave in his allegiance to braidism. His principal effort was +directed to withdrawing the veil of mystery from the occurrences, and +by a natural explanation relegating them to the realm of the known. +The trance caused by regarding fixedly a gleaming point produces in +the brain, in his opinion, an accumulation of a peculiar nervous +power, which he calls "electrodynamism." If this is directed in a +skillful manner by the operator upon certain points, it manifests +itself in certain situations and actions that we call hypnotic. Beyond +this somewhat questionable theory, both books contained a detailed +description of some of the most important phenomena; but with the +practical meaning of the phenomena, and especially with their +therapeutic value, the author concerned himself but slightly. Just on +account of this pathological side, however, a certain attention has +been paid to hypnotism up to the present time.</p> + +<p>In the year 1847 two surgeons in Poictiers, Drs. Ribaut and Kiaros, +employed hypnotism with great success in order to make an operation +painless. "This long and horrible work," says a journal of the day, +"was much more like a demonstration in a dissecting room than an +operation performed upon a living being." Although this operation +produced such an excitement, yet it was twelve years later before +decisive and positive official intelligence was given of these facts +by Broca, Follin, Velpeau, and Guérinau. But these accounts, as well +as the excellent little book by Dr. Azam, shared the fate of their +predecessors. They were looked upon by students with distrust, and by +the disciples of Mesmer with scornful contempt.</p> + +<p>The work of Demarquay and Giraud Teulon showed considerable advance in +this direction. The authors, indeed, fell back upon the theory of +James Braid, which they called stillborn, and of which they said, +"<i>Elle est restée accrochée en route</i>;" but they did not satisfy +themselves with a simple statement of facts, as did Gigot Suard in his +work that appeared about the same time. Through systematic experiments +they tried to find out where the line of hypnotic phenomena +intersected the line of the realm of the known. They justly recognized +that hypnotism and hysteria have many points of likeness, and in this +way were the precursors of the present Parisian school. They say that +from magnetic sleep to the hypnotic condition an iron chain can be +easily formed from the very same organic elements that we find in +historical conditions.</p> + +<p>At the same time, as if to bring an experimental proof of this +assertion, Lasigue published a report on catalepsy in persons of +hysterical tendencies, which be afterward incorporated into his larger +work. Among his patients, those who were of a quiet and lethargic +temperament, by simply pressing down the eyelids, were made to enter +into a peculiar state of languor, in which cataleptic contractions +were easily produced, and which forcibly recalled hypnotic phenomena. +"One can scarcely imagine," says the author, "a more remarkable +spectacle than that of a sick person sunk in deep sleep, and +insensible to all efforts to arouse him, who retains every position in +which he is placed, and in it preserves the immobility and rigidity of +a statue." But this impulse also was in vain, and in only a few cases +were the practical tests followed up with theoretical explanations.</p> + +<p>Unbounded enthusiasm and unjust blame alike subsided into a silence +that was not broken for ten years. Then Charles Richet, a renowned +scientist, came forward in 1875, impelled by the duty he felt he owed +as a priest of truth, and made some announcements concerning the +phenomena of somnambulism; and in countless books, all of which are +worthy of attention, he has since then considered the problem from its +various sides.</p> + +<p>He separates somnambulism into three periods. The word here is used +for this whole class of subjects as Richet himself uses it, viz., +<i>torpeur</i>, <i>excitation</i>, and <i>stupeur</i>. In the first, which is +produced by the so-called magnetic passes and the fixing of the eyes, +silence and languor come over the subject. The second period, usually +produced by constant repetition of the experiment, is characterized +chiefly by sensibility to hallucination and suggestion. The third +period has as its principal characteristics supersensibility of the +muscles and lack of sensation. Yet let it be noticed that these +divisions were not expressed in their present clearness until 1880; +while in the years between 1872 and 1880, from an entirely different +quarter, a similar hypothesis was made out for hypnotic phenomena.</p> + +<p>Jean Martin Charcot, the renowned neurologist of the Parisian +Salpetriere, without exactly desiring it, was led into the study of +artificial somnambulism by his careful experiments in reference to +hysteria, and especially by the question of <i>metallotherapie</i>, and in +the year 1879 had prepared suitable demonstrations, which were given +in public lectures at the Salpetriere. In the following years he +devoted himself to closer investigation of this subject, and was +happily and skillfully assisted by Dr. Paul Richer, with whom were +associated many other physicians, such as Bourneville, Regnard, Fere, +and Binet. The investigations of these men present the peculiarity +that they observe hypnotism from its clinical and nosographical side, +which side had until now been entirely neglected, and that they +observe patients of the strongest hysterical temperaments. "If we can +reasonably assert that the hypnotic phenomena which depend upon the +disturbance of a regular function of the organism demand for their +development a peculiar temperament, then we shall find the most marked +phenomena when we turn to an hysterical person."</p> + +<p>The inferences of the Parisian school up to this time are somewhat the +following, but their results, belonging almost entirely to the medical +side of the question, can have no place in this discussion. They +divide the phenomena of hystero-hypnotism, which they also call +<i>grande hysterie</i>, into three plainly separable classes, which Charcot +designates catalepsy, lethargy, and somnambulism.</p> + +<p>Catalepsy is produced by a sudden sharp noise, or by the sight of a +brightly gleaming object. It also produces itself in a person who is +in a state of lethargy, and whose eyes are opened. The most striking +characteristic of the cataleptic condition is immobility. The subject +retains every position in which he is placed, even if it is an +unnatural one, and is only aroused by the action of suggestion from +the rigor of a statue to the half life of an automaton. The face is +expressionless and the eyes wide open. If they are closed, the patient +falls into a lethargy.</p> + +<p>In this second condition, behind the tightly closed lids, the pupils +of the eyes are convulsively turned upward. The body is almost +entirely without sensation or power of thought. Especially +characteristic of lethargy is the hyper-excitability of the nerves and +muscles (<i>hyperexcitabilite neuromusculaire</i>), which manifests itself +at the slightest touch of any object. For instance, if the extensor +muscles of the arm are lightly touched, the arm stiffens immediately, +and is only made flexible again by a hard rubbing of the same muscles. +The nerves also react in a similar manner. The irritation of a nerve +trunk not only contracts all the small nerves into which it branches, +but also all those muscles through which it runs.</p> + +<p>Finally, the somnambulistic condition proceeds from catalepsy or from +lethargy by means of a slight pressure upon the <i>vertex</i>, and is +particularly sensitive to every psychical influence. In some subjects +the eyes are open, in others closed. Here, also, a slight irritation +produces a certain amount of rigor in the muscle that has been +touched, but it does not weaken the antagonistic muscle, as in +lethargy, nor does it vanish under the influence of the same +excitement that has produced it. In order to put an end to the +somnambulistic condition, one must press softly upon the pupil of the +eye, upon which the subject becomes lethargic, and is easily roused by +breathing upon him. In this early stage, somnambulism appears very +infrequently.</p> + +<p>Charcot's school also recognize the existence of compound conditions, +the history of whose symptoms we must not follow here. These slightly +sketched results, as well as a number of other facts, were only +obtained in the course of several years; yet in 1882 the fundamental +investigations of this school were considered virtually concluded. +Then Dumont-Pallier, the head of the Parisian Hospital Pitié, came +forward with a number of observations, drawn also exclusively from the +study of hystero-hypnotism, and yet differing widely from those +reached by the physicians of the Salpetriere. In a long series of +communications, he has given his views, which have in their turn been +violently attacked, especially by Magnin and Bérillon. I give only the +most important points.</p> + +<p>According to these men, the hyper-excitability of the nerves and +muscles is present not only in the lethargic condition, but in all +three periods; and in order to prove this, we need only apply the +suitable remedy, which must be changed for each period and every +subject. Slight irritations of the skin prove this most powerfully. A +drop of warm water or a ray of sunshine produces contractions of a +muscle whose skin covering they touch.</p> + +<p>Dumont-Pallier and Magnin accede to the theory of intermediate stages, +and have tried to lay down rules for them with as great exactness as +Charcot's school. They also are very decided about the three periods, +whose succession does not appear to them as fixed; but they discovered +a new fundamental law which regulates the production as well as the +cessation of the condition—<i>La cause qui fait, defait</i>; that is, the +stimulus which produces one of the three periods needs only to be +repeated in order to do away with that condition. From this the +following diagram of hypnotic conditions is evolved:</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/13a.png" alt="" /></p> + +<p>And, furthermore, Dumont-Pallier should be considered as the founder +of a series of experiments, for he was the first one to show in a +decisive manner that the duality of the cerebral system was proved by +these hypnotic phenomena; and his works, as well as those of Messrs. +Bérillon and Descourtis, have brought to light the following facts: +Under hypnotic conditions, the psychical activity of a brain +hemisphere may be suppressed without nullifying the intellectual +activity or consciousness. Both hemispheres may be started at the same +time in different degrees of activity; and also, when the grade is the +same, they may be independently the seat of psychical manifestations +which are in their natures entirely different. In close connection +with this and with the whole doctrine of hemi-hypnotism, which is +founded upon these facts, stand the phenomena of thought transference, +which we must consider later.</p> + +<p>As an addition to the investigations of Charcot and Dumont-Pallier, +Brémaud, in 1884, made the discovery that there was a fourth hypnotic +state, "fascination," which preceded the three others, and manifested +itself by a tendency to muscular contractions, as well as through +sensitiveness to hallucination and suggestion, but at the same time +left to the subject a full consciousness of his surroundings and +remembrance of what had taken place. Descourtis, in addition, +perceived a similar condition in the transition from hypnotic sleep to +waking, which he called <i>delire posthypnotique</i>, and, instead of using +the word "fascination" to express the opening stage, he substituted +"captation." According to him, the diagram would be the following:</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/13b.png" alt="" /></p> + +<p>This whole movement, which I have tried to sketch, and whose chief +peculiarity is that it considers hypnotism a nervous malady, and one +that must be treated clinically and nosographically, was opposed in +1880 in two directions—one source of opposition producing great +results, while the other fell to the ground. The latter joined itself +to the theory of the mesmerists, and tried, by means of exact +experiments, to measure the fluid emanating from the human body—an +undertaking which gave slight promise of any satisfactory result.</p> + +<p>Baillif in his thesis (1878) and Chevillard in his (for spiritualists) +very interesting books, tried, by means of various arguments, to +uphold the fluidic explanation. Despine also thought that by its help +he had been able to explain the phenomena; but it was Baréty who, in +the year 1881, first turned general attention in this direction. +According to him, mankind possesses a nerve force which emanates from +him in different kinds of streams. Those coming from the eyes and +fingers produce insensibility to pain, while those generated by the +breath cause hypnotic conditions. This nerve force goes out into the +ether, and there obeys the laws that govern light, being broken into +spectra, etc.</p> + +<p>Claude Perronnet has more lately advanced similar views, and his +greatest work is now in press. Frederick W.H. Myers and Edmund Gurney +sympathize with these views, and try to unite them with the mesmerist +doctrine of personal influence and their theory of telepathy. The +third champion in England of hypnotism, Prof. Hack Tuke, on the +contrary, sympathizes entirely with the Parisian school, only +differing from them in that he has experimented with satisfactory +results upon healthy subjects. In France this view has lately been +accepted by Dr. Bottey, who recognizes the three hypnotic stages in +healthy persons, but has observed other phenomena in them, and +vehemently opposes the conception of hypnotism as a malady. His +excellently written book is particularly commended to those who wish +to experiment in the same manner as the French investigator, without +using hysterical subjects.</p> + +<p>The second counter current that opposed itself to the French +neuropathologists, and produced the most lasting impression, is +expressed by the magic word "suggestion." A generation ago, Dr. +Liebault, the patient investigator and skillful physician, had +endeavored to make a remedial use of suggestion in his clinic at +Nancy. Charles Richet and others have since referred to it, but +Professor Bernheim was the first one to demonstrate its full +significance in the realm of hypnotism. According to him, +suggestion—that is, the influence of any idea, whether received +through the senses or in a hypersensible manner (<i>suggestion +mentale</i>)—is the key to all hypnotic phenomena. He has not been able +in a single case to verify the bodily phenomena of <i>grandehypnotisme</i> +without finding suggestion the primary cause, and on this account +denies the truth of the asserted physical causes. Bernheim says that +when the intense expectance of the subject has produced a compliant +condition, a peculiar capacity is developed to change the idea that +has been received into an action as well as a great acuteness of +acceptation, which together will produce all those phenomena that we +should call by the name of "pathological sleep," since they are only +separable in a gradual way from the ordinary sleep and dream +conditions. Bernheim is particularly strenuous that psychology should +appear in the foreground of hypnotism, and on this point has been +strongly upheld by men like Professors Beaunis and Richet.</p> + +<p>The possibility of suggestion in waking conditions, and also a long +time after the sleep has passed off (<i>suggestions posthypnotiques ou +suggestions a (longue) echeance</i>), as well as the remarkable capacity +of subjects to change their personality (<i>changement de la +personnalite objectivation des types</i>), have been made the subject of +careful investigation. The voluntary production of bleeding and +stigmata through spiritual influence has been asserted, particularly +by Messrs. Tocachon, Bourru, and Burot. The judicial significance of +suggestion has been discussed by Professor Liegeois and Dr. Ladame. +Professor Pitres in Bordeaux is one of the suggestionists, though +differing in many points from the Nancy school.</p> + +<p>This whole tendency brings into prominence the psychical influence, +while it denies the production of these results from purely physical +phenomena, endeavoring to explain them in a different manner. These +explanations carry us into two realms, the first of which has been +lately opened, and at present seems to abound more in enigmas than in +solutions.</p> + +<p><a name="Page_9796" id="Page_9796"></a><i>Metallotherapie</i>, which was called into existence by Dr. Burg, and +further extended by Dr. Gellé, contains a special point of +interest—the so-called transference in the case of hysterically or +hypnotically affected persons. Transference is caused by +electro-magnetism, which has this peculiarity—that in the case of +specially sensitive persons it can transfer the bodily affection from +left to right, and <i>vice versa</i>. The transference of paralysis, the +cures attempted on this plan, and the so-called "psychical +transference," which contains special interest for graphologists, are +at the present time still open questions, as well as the closely +connected theory of human polarity; and the odic experiments of Dr. +Chazarain are yet waiting for their confirmation. At present the +problem of the connection between magnetism and hypnotism is under +investigation, and in such a manner that we may hope for a speedy +solution.</p> + +<p>Still stranger than these reports are the accounts of the distant +operation of certain bodies; at least, they seem strange to those +unacquainted with psychometry and the literature of the past century +relating to this subject. Two physicians in Rochefort, Professors +Bourru and Burot, in treating a hystero-epileptic person, found that +gold, even when at a distance of fifteen centimeters, produced in him +a feeling of unbearable heat. They continued these experiments with +great care, and, after a number of trials, came to this +conclusion—that in some persons certain substances, even when +carefully separated from them by long distance, exercise exactly the +same physiological influence as if introduced into their organism. In +order to explain these phenomena, they refer to the radiating force of +Baréty, an explanation neither satisfactory to themselves nor to +others. Lately the distinguished Parisian physician, Dr. Luys, has +confirmed by his experiments the existence of these phenomena, but he +thinks the explanation referable to hyper-sensitiveness of the +"<i>regions emotives et intellectuelles de l'encephale</i>" yet even he has +not reached the kernel of the difficulty.</p> + +<p>In close connection with action at a distance is the question of +distant production of hypnotic sleep. For an answer to this problem, +they are experimenting in both France and England; and Frederick W.H. +Myers has thrown an entirely new light upon the subject by the +investigations he is making upon a purely experimental basis. In Italy +they have limited themselves to the study of isolated cases of +hystero-hypnotism, except as the phenomena of magnetic fascination +investigated by Donato have given rise to further research; but all +the books I have seen upon this subject, as well as many by French +authors, suffer from ignorance of the latest English discoveries.</p> + +<p>With this I think that I have given a slight outline of the history of +hypnotic investigation to the end of the year 1886. I shall attempt a +criticism of this whole movement at some other time, as space is not +afforded to me here; but I should like to make this statement now, +that two of the characteristic indications of this period are of the +gravest import—first the method ("Our work," says Richet, "is that of +strictly scientific <i>testing</i>, <i>observation</i>, and <i>arrangement</i>"); +and, secondly, the result. Hypnotism has been received into the realm +of scientific investigation, and with this the foundation of a true +experimental psychology has been laid.</p> + +<p class="signature">MAX DESSOIR.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_18" id="Footnote_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18">[1]</a><br /> +<span class="note">Translated for <i>Science</i> from <i>Der Spinx</i>.</span></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art18" id="art18"></a>THE DUODENUM: A SIPHON TRAP.</h2> + +<h3>By <span class="smcap">Mayo Collier</span>, M.S. Lond., F.R.C.S. Eng.; Senior +Assistant Surgeon, North-West London Hospital; Assistant Demonstrator +of Anatomy, London Hospital Medical College.</h3> + +<p>We may take it for granted that all gases generated in the jejunum, +ileum, and large intestines pass onward toward the anus, and there +sooner or later escape. Fetid gases—except those generated in the +stomach and duodenum—never pass upward, not even during vomiting due +to hernia, obstruction, and other causes. Physiologists, it would +appear, have never busied themselves to find an explanation for this +apparent breach of the laws of gravity. The intestinal canal is a tube +with various dilatations and constrictions, but at no spot except the +pylorus does the constriction completely obliterate the lumen of the +tube, and here only periodically. It is perfectly evident, then, that, +unless some system of trap exists in the canal, gases are free to +travel from below upward in obedience to the laws of gravity, and +would, as a matter of fact, sooner or later do so. From the straight, +course and vertical position of the œsophagus, a very slight +pressure of gas in the stomach easily overcomes the closure of its +cardiac sphincter and allows of escape. When the stomach has digested +its contents and the pylorus is relaxed, gases generated in the +duodenum can and do ascend into the stomach and so escape. Normally, +no fetid gases are generated in the stomach or duodenum. If we follow +the course of the intestines down, we find that the duodenum presents +a remarkable curve.</p> + +<p>Now, there are some points of great interest in connection with this +remarkable, almost circular, curve of the duodenum. In the first +place, this curve is a constant feature in all mammalians. Mr. Treves +says it is one of the most constant features in the anatomy of the +intestines in man, and, speaking of mammalians in general, that the +curve of the duodenum varies in shape, but is never absent, becoming +more complex in some of the higher primates, but seldom less distinct +than in man. In birds the duodenum always forms a long loop embracing +the pancreas.</p> + +<p>A second point of great interest is the absolute constancy and +fixation of its terminal portion at the point of junction with the +jejunum, more correctly termed second ascending or fourth portion. Mr. +Treves says that this fourth portion is never less than an inch, and +is practically constant. It extends along the side of the left crus of +the diaphragm opposite the second lumbar vertebra, and is there firmly +fixed to the front of the aorta and crus of the diaphragm by a strong +fibro-muscular band, slinging it up and absolutely retaining it in +position. This band has been termed the "musculus suspensorius +duodeni," but is chiefly composed of white fibrous tissue, and is more +of the native of a ligament than a muscle. This ligament is always +present, and its position is never altered. The curve of the duodenum +may descend as far as the iliac fossa, but the terminal portion is +always maintained by this band in its normal position.</p> + +<p>Another point of great constancy is the position of the pancreas and +its relation to the curve of the duodenum. The duodenum always curves +round the head of the pancreas and is, as it were, moulded on it and +retained in position by it. In birds the duodenum always forms a long +loop embracing the pancreas. Further, the ducts of the liver and +pancreas always open into the center Of the duodenum, either +separately or by a common opening.</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/14.png" alt="" /></p> + +<p>Now, the absolute constancy of the curve of the duodenum, the complete +fixation of its fourth portion, the position of the pancreas, and the +place of entry of the ducts of the pancreas and liver, are all +component parts of a siphon trap, whereby gases generated below the +duodenum are prevented from passing upward. A reference to the +accompanying diagrams will make this quite clear. A is a diagram of a +siphon trap copied from Parkes' hygiene. B is a very diagrammatic +outline of the stomach and duodenum, <i>a</i> is intended to mark the +position of the fibrous band, or musculus suspensorius duodeni; and +<i>b</i> the position of entry of the ducts of the liver and pancreas. The +duodenum, then, is a siphon trap, and a most efficient one. Now, the +efficiency of a siphon trap depends not only on its shape, but what is +absolutely essential is that the curve must be kept constantly full of +fluid, without which it ceases to be a trap, and would allow gases to +ascend freely. The position of the place of entry of the ducts of the +pancreas and liver assures that this <i>sine qua non</i> shall be present. +The discharge of the secretions of the pancreas and liver, although +more active during and after feeding, is practically constant, and so +insures in an admirable manner that the curve on which the efficiency +of the trap depends shall be constantly kept full not only with fluid, +but, as I would suggest, antiseptic fluid. There is no other trap in +the intestinal canal, but the peculiar position of the colon would no +doubt have more or less effect in preventing gases ascending through +the ileo-cæcal valve.—<i>Lancet.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art03" id="art03"></a>WISCONSIN CRANBERRY CULTURE.</h2> + +<p>Among the many thousands of well informed persons with whom the +cranberry is a staple article of food throughout the autumn and +winter, and who especially derive from its pungent flavor sharp relish +for their Thanksgiving and Christmas turkey, not one in ten has any +definite idea as to where the delicious fruit comes from, or of the +method of growing and harvesting it. Most people are, however, aware +that it is raised on little "truck patches" somewhere down in New +Jersey or about Cape Cod, and some have heard that it is gleaned from +the swamps in the Far West by Indians and shipped to market by white +traders. But to the great majority its real history is unknown.</p> + +<p>Yet the cranberry culture is an industry in which millions of dollars +are invested in this country, and it gives employment, for at least a +portion of each year, to many thousands of people. In the East, where +the value of an acre of even swamp land may run up into the thousands +of dollars, a cranberry marsh of five or ten acres is considered a +large one, and, cultivated in the careful, frugal style in vogue +there, may yield its owner a handsome yearly income. But in the great, +boundless West, where land, and more especially swamp land, may be had +for from $1 to $5 an acre, we do these things differently, if not +better.</p> + +<p>The State of Wisconsin produces nearly one-half of the cranberries +annually grown in the United States. There are marshes there covering +thousands of acres, whereon this fruit grows wild, having done so even +as far back as the oldest tradition of the native red man extends. In +many cases the land on which the berries grow has been bought from the +government by individuals or firms, in vast tracts, and the growth of +the fruit promoted and encouraged by a system of dikes and dams +whereby the effects of droughts, frost, and heavy rainfalls are +counteracted to almost any extent desired. Some of these holdings +aggregate many thousands of acres under a single ownership; and after +a marsh of this vast extent has been thoroughly ditched and good +buildings, water works, etc., are erected on it, its value may reach +many thousands of dollars, while the original cost of the land may +have been merely nominal.</p> + +<p>Large portions of Jackson, Wood, Monroe, Marinette, Juneau, and Green +counties are natural cranberry marshes. The Wisconsin Valley division +of the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Railway runs through a closely +continuous marsh, forty miles long and nearly as wide, as level as a +floor, which is an almost unbroken series of cranberry farms. The +Indians, who inhabited this country before the white man came, used to +congregate here every fall, many of them traveling several hundred +miles, to lay in their winter supply of berries. Many thousands of +barrels are now annually shipped from this region; and thus this vast +area, which to the stranger looking upon it would appear utterly +worthless, is as valuable as the richest farming lands in the State.</p> + +<p>In a few instances, however, this fruit is cultivated in Wisconsin in +a style similar to that practiced in the East; that is, by paring the +natural sod from the bog, covering the earth to a depth of two or +three inches with sand, and then transplanting the vines into soil +thus prepared. The weeds are then kept down for a year or two, when +the vines take full possession of the soil, and further attention is +unnecessary. The natural "stand" of the vines in the sod is so +productive, however, and the extent of country over which bountiful +nature has distributed them so vast, that few operators have thought +it necessary to incur the expense of special culture.</p> + +<p>One of the best and most perfectly equipped marshes in Wisconsin is +owned by Mr. G.B. Sackett, of Berlin. It is situated four miles north +of that village, and comprises 1,600 acres, nearly all of which is a +veritable bog, and is covered with a natural and luxuriant growth of +cranberry vines. A canal has been cut from the Fox River to the +southern limit of the marsh, a distance of 4,400 ft. It is 45 ft. +wide, and the water stands in it to a depth of nine feet, sufficient +to float fair sized steamboats. At the intersection of the canal with +the marsh steam water works have been erected, with flood gates and +dams by means of which the entire marsh may be flooded to a depth of a +foot or more when desired. There are two engines of 150 horse power +each, and two pumps that are capable of raising 80,000 gallons per +minute.</p> + +<p>When, in early autumn, the meteorological conditions indicate the +approach of frost, the pumps may he put to work in the afternoon and +the berries be effectually covered by water and thus protected before +nightfall. At sunrise the gates are opened and the water allowed to +run off again, so that the pickers may proceed with their work. The +marsh is flooded to a depth of about two feet at the beginning of each +winter and allowed to remain so until spring, the heavy body of ice +that forms preventing the upheaval that would result from freezing and +thawing—a natural process which, if permitted, works injury to the +vines.</p> + +<p>There is a three-story warehouse on the marsh, with a capacity of +20,000 barrels of berries, and four large two-story houses capable of +furnishing shelter for 1,500 pickers. The superintendent's residence +is a comfortable cottage house, surrounded by giant oaks and elms, and +stands near the warehouse on an "island," or small tract of high, dry +land near the center of the great marsh. The pickers' quarters stand +on another island about 200 yards away.</p> + +<p>A plank roadway, built on piles, about two feet above the level of the +ground, leads from the mainland to the warehouse and other buildings, +a distance of more than half a mile. Several wooden railways diverge +from the warehouse to all parts of the marsh, and on them flat cars, +propelled by hand, are sent out at intervals during the picking season +to bring in the berries from the hands of the pickers. Each picker is +provided with a crate, holding just a bushel, which is kept close at +hand. The berries are first picked into tin pans and pails, and from +these emptied into the crates, in which they are carried to the +warehouse, where an empty crate is given the picker in exchange for a +full one. Thus equipped and improved, the Sackett marsh is valued at +$150,000. Thirteen thousand barrels have been harvested from this +great farm in a single season. The selling price in the Chicago market +varies, in different seasons, from $8 to $16 per barrel. There are +several other marshes of various sizes in the vicinity.</p> + +<p>The picking season usually begins about Sept. 1, and from that time +until Oct. 1 the marshes swarm with men, women, and children, ranging +in age from six to eight years, made up from almost every nationality +under the sun. Bohemians and Poles furnish the majority of the working +force, while Germans, Irish, Swedes, Norwegians, Danes, negroes, +Indians, and Americans contribute to the motley contingent. They come +from every direction and from various distances, some of them +traveling a hundred miles or more to secure a few days' or weeks' +work. Almost every farmer or woodsman living anywhere in the region of +the marshes turns out with his entire family; and the families of all +the laboring men and mechanics of the surrounding towns and cities +join in the general hegira to the bogs, and help to harvest the fruit. +Those living within a few miles go out in the morning and return home +at night, taking their noon-day meal with them, while those from a +distance take provisions and bedding with them and camp in the +buildings provided for that purpose by the marsh owners, doing their +own cooking on the stoves and with the fuel furnished them.</p> + +<p>The wages vary from fifty cents to a dollar a bushel, owing to the +abundance or scarcity of the fruit. A good picker will gather from +three to four bushels a day where the yield is light, and five to six +bushels where it is good. The most money is made by families numbering +from half a dozen to a dozen members. Every chick and child in such +families over six years old is required to turn out and help swell the +revenue of the little household, and the frugal father often pockets +ten to twenty dollars a day as the fruits of the combined labors. The +pickers wade into the grass, weeds, and vines, however wet with dew or +rain, or however deeply flooded underneath, making not the slightest +effort to keep even their feet dry, and after an hour's work in the +morning are almost as wet as if they had swum a river. Many of them +wade in barefooted, others wearing low cowhide shoes, and their feet, +at least, are necessarily wet all day long. In many cases their bodies +are thinly clad, and they must inevitably suffer in frosty mornings +and evenings and on the raw, cold, rainy days that are frequent in the +autumn months in this latitude; yet they go about their work singing, +shouting, and jabbering as merrily as a party of comfortably clad +school children at play. How any of them avoid colds, rheumatism, and +a dozen other diseases is a mystery; and yet it is rarely that one of +them is ill from the effects of this exposure. As many as 3000 or 4000 +pickers are sometimes employed on a single marsh when there is a heavy +crop, and an army of such ragamuffins as get together for this +purpose, scattered over a bog in confusion and disorder, presents a +strange and picturesque appearance.</p> + +<p>Indians are not usually as good pickers as white people, but in the +sparsely settled districts, where many of the berry farms are +situated, it is impossible to get white help enough to take care of +the crop in the short time available for the work, and owners are +compelled to employ the aborigines. A rake, with the prongs shaped +like the letter V, is used for picking in some cases, but owing to the +large amount of grass and weeds that grow among the vines on these +wild marshes, this instrument is rarely available. After being picked +the berries are stored in warehouses for a period varying from one to +three weeks. They are washed and dried by being passed through a +fanning mill made for the purpose, and are then allowed to cure and +ripen thoroughly before they are shipped to market.</p> + +<p><a name="Page_9797" id="Page_9797"></a>From statistics gathered by the American Cranberry Growers' +Association it is learned that in 1883 Wisconsin produced 135,507 +bushels, in 1884 24,738 bushels, in 1885 264,432 bushels, and in 1886 +70,686 bushels of this fruit. By these figures it will be seen that +the yield is very irregular. This is owing, principally, to the fact +that many of the marshes are not yet provided with the means of +flooding, and of course suffer from worms, droughts, late spring or +early autumn frosts, and extensive fires started by sparks from the +engines on railroads running through the marshes. These and various +other evils are averted on the more improved farms. So that, while +handsome fortunes have in many cases been made in cranberry growing, +many thousands of dollars have, on the other hand, been sunk in the +same industry. Only the wealthier owners, who have expended vast sums +of money in improving and equipping their property, can calculate with +any degree of certainty on a paying crop of fruit every year.</p> + +<p>Chicago is the great distributing point for the berries produced in +Wisconsin, shipments being made thence to nearly every State and +Territory in the Union, to Canada, to Mexico, and to several European +countries. Berries sent to the Southern markets are put up in +watertight packages, and the casks are then filled with water, this +being the only means by which they can be kept in hot weather. Even in +this condition they can only be kept a few days after reaching hot +climates.—<i>American Magazine.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art02" id="art02"></a>SOUDAN COFFEE.</h2> + +<h3>(<i>Parkia biglobosa.</i>)</h3> + +<p>There are valuable plants on every continent. Civilized Europe no +longer counts them. Mysterious Africa is no less largely and +spontaneously favored with them than young America and the ancient +territory of Asia.</p> + +<p>The latter has given us the majority of the best fruits of our +gardens. We have already shown how useful the butter tree +(<i>Butyrospermum Parkii</i>) is in tropical Africa, and we also know how +the <i>gourou</i> (<i>Sterculia acuminata</i>) is cultivated in the same +regions. But that is not all, for the great family of Leguminosæ, +whose numerous representatives encumber this continent, likewise +furnishes the negro natives a food that is nearly as indispensable to +them as the <i>gourou</i> or the products of the baobab—another valuable +tree and certainly the most widely distributed one in torrid Africa. +This leguminous tree, which is as yet but little known in the +civilized world, has been named scientifically <i>Parkia biglobosa</i> by +Bentham. The negroes give it various names, according to the tribe; +among the Ouloffs, it is the <i>houlle</i>; among the Mandigues, <i>naytay</i>; +in Cazamance (Nalon language), it is <i>nayray</i>; in Bornou, <i>rounuo</i>; in +Haoussa, <i>doroa</i>; in Hant-fleure (Senegal), <i>nayraytou</i>. On the old +mysterious continent it plays the same role that the algarobas do in +young America. However, it is quite a common rule to find in the order +Leguminosæ, and especially in the section Mimosæ, plants whose pods +are edible. Examples of this fact are numerous. As regards the +Mediterranean region, it suffices to cite the classic carob tree +(<i>Ceratonia siliqua</i>), which also is of African nationality, but which +is wanting in the warm region of this continent.</p> + +<p>Throughout the tropical region of Africa, the aborigines love to +consume the saccharine pulp and the seed contained in the pod of the +<i>houlle</i>. Prepared in different ways, according to tribe and latitude, +these two products constitute a valuable aliment. The pulp is consumed +either just as it is or as a fermented beverage. As for the seeds, +they serve, raw or roasted, for the production of a tea-like infusion +(whence the name "Soudan coffee"), or, after fermentation in water, +for making a national condiment, which in certain places is called +<i>kinda</i>, and which is mixed with boiled rice or prepared meats. This +preparation has in most cases a pasty form or the consistency of +cohesive flour; but in order to render its carriage easier in certain +of the African centers where the trade in it is brisk, it is +compressed into tablets similar to those of our chocolate. As these +two products are very little known in Europe, it has seemed to us that +it would be of interest to give a description and chemical analysis of +them. We shall say but little of the plant, which has sufficiently +occupied botanists.</p> + +<p class="center"><a href="./images/15a.png"><img src="./images/15a_th.png" alt=" Figs. 1 TO 6.—PODS OF THE HOULLE AND MICROSCOPIC" /></a><br /> Figs. 1 TO 6.—PODS OF THE HOULLE AND MICROSCOPIC +DETAILS.</p> + +<p>The houlle (<i>Parkia biglobosa</i>) is a large tree from 35 to 50 feet in +height, with a gray bark, many branches, and large, elegant leaves. +The latter are compound, bipinnate (Fig. 7), and have fifty pairs of +leaflets, which are linear and obtuse and of a grayish green. The +inflorescence is very pleasing to the eye. The flowers, say the +authors of the <i>Floræ Senegambiæ Tentamen</i>, form balls of a dazzling +red, contracted at the base, and resembling the pompons of our +grenadiers (Fig. 8). The support of this latter consists only of male +flowers. The fruit that succeeds these flowers is supported by a +club-shaped receptacle. It consists of a large pod, which at maturity +is 13 inches in length by 10 in width (Fig. 1). This pod is chocolate +brown, quite smooth or slightly tubercular, and is swollen at the +points where the seeds are situated. The pods are straight or slightly +curved. The aborigines of Rio Nunez use the pods for poisoning the +fishes that abound in the watercourses. We do not know what the nature +of the toxic principle is that is contained in these hard pods, but we +well know the nature of the yellowish pulp and of the seeds that +entirely fill the pods.</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/15b.png" alt=" Fig. 7.—PARKIA BIGLOBOSA." /><br /> Fig. 7.—PARKIA BIGLOBOSA.</p> + +<p>Although the pulp forms a continuous whole, each seed easily separates +from the following and carries with it a part of the pulp that +surrounds it and that constitutes an independent mass (Fig. 2). This +pulpy substance, formed entirely of oval cells filled with aleurone, +consists of two distinct layers. The first, an external one of a +beautiful yellow, is from 10 to 15 times bulkier than the internal +one, which likewise is of a beautiful yellow.</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/15c.png" alt=" Fig. 8—FLOWERS OF PARKIA." /><br /> Fig. 8—FLOWERS OF PARKIA.</p> + +<p>It detaches itself easily from the seed, while the internal layer, +which adheres firmly to the exterior of the seed, can be detached only +by maceration in water. This fresh pulp has a sweet and agreeable +although slightly insipid taste. Upon growing old and becoming dry, it +takes on a still more agreeable taste, for it preserves its sweetness +and gets a perfume like that of the violet.</p> + +<p>As for the seed, which is of a brown color and provided with a hard, +shining skin, that is 0.4 inch long, 0.3 inch wide, and 0.2 inch +thick. It is oval in form, with quite a prominent beak at the hilum +(Fig. 4). The margin is blunt and the two convex sides are provided in +the center with a gibbosity limited by a line parallel with the +margin, and this has given the plant its specific name of <i>biglobosa</i>. +The mean weight of each seed is 4½ grains. The skin, though thick, is +not very strong. It consists, anatomically, of four layers (Fig. 5) of +a thick cuticle, <i>c</i>; of a zone of palissade cells, <i>z p</i>; of a zone +of cells with thick tangential walls arranged in a single row; and of +a zone tougher than the others, formed of numerous cells with thick +walls, without definite form, and filled with a blackish red coloring +matter, <i>cs</i>. This perisperm covers an exalbuminous embryo formed +almost entirely of two thick, greenish yellow cotyledons having a +strong taste of legumine.</p> + +<p>When examined under the microscope, these cotyledons, the alimentary +part of the seed, have the appearance represented in Fig. 6, where +<i>ep</i> is the epidermic layer and <i>cp</i> constitutes the uniform +parenchyma of the cotyledonary leaf. This parenchymatous mass consists +of oval cells filled with fatty matter and granules of aleurone.</p> + +<p>According to some chemical researches made by Professor +Schlagdenhauffen, the pulp has the following composition per 100 +parts:</p> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="" width="60%" > +<colgroup span="2"><col align="left" /><col align="right" /></colgroup> +<tr><td>Fatty matter</td><td>2.407</td></tr> +<tr><td>Glucose</td><td>33.92</td></tr> +<tr><td>Inverted sugar</td><td>7.825</td></tr> +<tr><td>Coloring matter and free acids</td><td>1.300</td></tr> +<tr><td>Albuminous matter</td><td>5.240</td></tr> +<tr><td>Gummy matter</td><td>19.109</td></tr> +<tr><td>Cellulose</td><td>8.921</td></tr> +<tr><td>Lignose</td><td>17.195</td></tr> +<tr><td>Salts</td><td>4.080</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td>———</td></tr> +<tr><td>Total</td><td>100.000</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>The salient point of these analytical results is the enormous quantity +of matter (nearly 60 per cent.) formed almost exclusively by sugar. It +is not surprising, from this that this product constitutes a food both +agreeable and useful.</p> + +<p>An analysis of the entire seed, made by the same chemist, has given +the following results:</p> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="60%" summary=""> +<colgroup span="2"><col align="left" /><col align="right" /></colgroup> +<tr><td>Solid fatty matter</td><td>21.145</td></tr> +<tr><td>Unreduced sugar</td><td>6.183</td></tr> +<tr><td>Undetermined matters</td><td>5.510</td></tr> +<tr><td>Gummy matters</td><td>10.272</td></tr> +<tr><td>Albuminoid matters</td><td>24.626</td></tr> +<tr><td>Cellulosic matters</td><td>5.752</td></tr> +<tr><td>Lignose and losses</td><td>20.978</td></tr> +<tr><td>Salts</td><td>5.534</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td>———</td></tr> +<tr><td>Total</td><td>100.000</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>The presence in these seeds of a large quantity of fatty matters and +sugar, and especially of albuminoid matters (very nutritive), largely +justifies the use made of them as a food. The innate instinct of the +savage peoples of Africa has thus anticipated the data of +science.—<i>La Nature.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art15" id="art15"></a>THE HEIGHT OF SUMMER CLOUDS.</h2> + +<p>A knowledge of the heights and movements of the clouds is of much +interest to science, and of especial importance in the prediction of +weather. The subject has therefore received much attention during +recent years from meteorologists, chiefly in this country and in +Sweden. In the last published report of the Meteorological Council for +1885-86 will be found an account of the steps taken by that body to +obtain cloud photographs; and in the <i>Meteorologische Zeitschrift</i> for +March last, M.M. Ekholm and Hagstrom have published an interesting +summary of the results of observations made at Upsala during the +summers of 1884-85. They determined the parallax of the clouds by +angular measurements made from two stations at the extremities of a +base of convenient length and having telephonic connection. The +instruments used were altazimuths, constructed under the direction of +Prof. Mohn, specially for measuring the parallax of the aurora +borealis. A full description of these instruments and of the +calculations will be found in the <i>Acta Reg Soc. Sc. Ups.</i>, 1884. The +results now in question are based upon nearly 1,500 measurements of +<i>heights</i>; the <i>motions</i> will form the subject of a future paper. It +was found that clouds are formed at all levels, but that they occur +most frequently at certain elevations or stages. The following are, +approximately, the mean heights, in feet, of the principal forms: +Stratus, 2,000; nimbus, 5,000; cumulus (base) 4,500, (summit) 6,000; +cumulo-stratus (base), 4,600; "false-cirrus" (a form which often +accompanies the cumulo-stratus), 12,800; cirro cumulus, 21,000; +cirrus, 29,000 (the highest being 41,000). The maximum of cloud +frequency was found to be at levels of 2,300 and 5,500 feet.</p> + +<p>Generally speaking, all the forms of cloud have a tendency to rise +during the course of the day; the change, excepting for the cumulus +form, amounting to nearly 6,500 feet. In the morning, when the cirrus +clouds are at their lowest level, the frequency of their lowest +forms—the cirro-cumulus—is greatest; and in the evening, when the +height of the cirrus is greatest, the frequency of its highest +forms—the cirro-stratus—is also greatest. With regard to the +connection between the character of the weather and the height of the +clouds, the heights of the bases of the cumulus are nearly constant in +all conditions. The summits, however, are lowest in the vicinity of a +barometric maximum. They increase in the region of a depression, and +attain their greatest height in thunderstorms, the thickness of the +cumulo stratus stretching sometimes for several miles. The highest +forms of clouds appear to float at their lowest levels in the region +of a depression. The forms of clouds are identical in all parts of the +world, as has been shown in papers lately read by the Hon. R. +Abercromby before the English and Scottish Meteorological +Societies.—<i>Nature</i>.</p> + +<hr /> + + + + +<h2><a name="Page_9798" id="Page_9798"></a><a name="art14" id="art14"></a>ON THE CAUSE OF IRIDESCENCE IN CLOUDS.</h2> + +<h3>By G. JOHNSTONE STONEY.</h3> + +<p>When the sky is occupied by light cirro-cumulus cloud, an optical +phenomenon of the most delicate beauty sometimes presents itself, in +which the borders of the clouds and their lighter portions are +suffused with soft shades of color like those of mother-of-pearl, +among which lovely pinks and greens are the most conspicuous. Usually +these colors are distributed in irregular patches, just as in +mother-of-pearl; but occasionally they are seen to form round the +denser patches of cloud a regular colored fringe, in which the several +tints are arranged in stripes following the sinuosities of the outline +of the cloud.</p> + +<p>I cannot find in any of the books an explanation of this beautiful +spectacle, all the more pleasing because it generally presents itself +in delightful summer weather. It is not mentioned in the part of +Moigno's great <i>Repertoire d'Optique</i> which treats of meteorological +optics, nor in any other work which I have consulted. It seems +desirable, therefore, to make an attempt to search out what appears to +be its explanation.</p> + +<p>At the elevation in our atmosphere at which these delicate clouds are +formed the temperature is too low, even in midsummer, for water to +exist in the liquid state; and accordingly, the attenuated vapor from +which they were condensed passed at once into a solid form. They +consist, in fact, of tiny crystals of ice, not of little drops of +water. If the precipitation has been hasty, the crystals will, though +all small, be of many sizes jumbled together, and in that case the +beautiful optical phenomenon with which we are now dealing will not +occur. But if the opposite conditions prevail (which they do on rare +occasions), if the vapor had been evenly distributed, and if the +precipitation took place slowly, then will the crystals in any one +neighborhood be little ice crystals of nearly the same form and size, +and from one neighborhood to another they will differ chiefly in +number and size, owing to the process having gone on longer or taken +place somewhat faster, or through a greater depth, in some +neighborhoods than others. This will give rise to the patched +appearance of the clouds which prevails when this phenomenon presents +itself. It also causes the tiny crystals, of which the cloud consists, +to grow larger in some places than others.</p> + +<p>Captain Scoresby, in his "Account of the Arctic Regions," gives the +best description of snow crystals formed at low temperatures with +which I am acquainted. From his observations it appears—(<i>a</i>) that +when formed at temperatures several degrees below the freezing point, +the crystals, whether simple or compound, are nearly all of +symmetrical forms; (<i>b</i>) that thin tabular crystals are extremely +numerous, consisting either of simple transverse slices of the +fundamental hexagon or, more frequently, of aggregations of these +attached edgewise and lying in one plane; and (<i>c</i>) that, according as +atmospheric conditions vary, one form of crystal or another largely +preponderates. A fuller account of these most significant observations +is given in the appendix to this paper.</p> + +<p>Let us then consider the crystals in any one neighborhood in the sky, +where the conditions that prevail are such as to produce lamellar +crystals of nearly the same thickness. The tabular plates are +subsiding through the atmosphere—in fact, falling toward the earth. +And although their descent is very slow, owing to their minute size, +the resistance of the air will act upon them as it does upon a falling +feather. It will cause them, if disturbed, to oscillate before they +settle into that horizontal position which flat plates finally assume +when falling through quiescent air. We shall presently consider what +the conditions must be, in order that the crystals may be liable to be +now and then disturbed from the horizontal position. If this +occasionally happens, the crystals will keep fluttering, and at any +one moment some of them will be turned so as to reflect a ray from the +sun to the eye of the observer from the flat surface of the crystal +which is next him. Now, if the conditions are such as to produce +crystals which are plates with parallel faces, and as they are also +transparent, part only of the sun's ray that reaches the front face of +the crystal will be reflected from it; the rest will enter the +crystal, and, falling on the parallel surface behind, a portion will +be there reflected, and passing out through the front face, will also +reach the eye of the observer.</p> + +<p>These two portions of the ray—that reflected from the front face and +that reflected from the back—are precisely in the condition in which +they can interfere with one another, so as to produce the splendid +colors with which we are familiar in soap bubbles. If the crystals are +of diverse thicknesses, the colors from the individual crystals will +be different, and the mixture of them all will produce merely white +light; but if all are nearly of the same thickness, they will transmit +the same color toward the observer, who will accordingly see this +color in the part of the cloud occupied by these crystals. The color +will, of course, not be undiluted; for other crystals will send +forward white light, and this, blended with the colored light, will +produce delicate shades in cases where the corresponding colors of a +soap bubble would be vivid.</p> + +<p>We have now only to explain how it happens that on very rare occasions +the colors, instead of lying in irregular patches, form definite +fringes round the borders of the cloudlets. The circumstances that +give rise to this special form of the phenomenon appear to be the +following: While the cloud is in the process of growth (that is, so +long as the precipitation of vapor into the crystalline state +continues to take place), so long will the crystals keep augmenting. +If, then, a cloudlet is in the process of formation, not only by the +springing up of fresh crystals around, but also by the continued +growth of the crystals within it, then will that patch of cloud +consist of crystals which are largest in its central part, and +gradually smaller as their situation approaches the outside. Here, +then, are conditions which will produce one color round the margin of +the cloud, and that color mixed with others, and so giving rise to +other tints, farther in. In this way there comes into existence that +iris-like border which is now and then seen.</p> + +<p>The occasional upsetting of the crystals, which is required to keep +them fluttering, may be produced in any of three ways. The cloudlets +may have been formed from the blending together of two layers of air +saturated at different temperatures, and moving with different +velocities or in different directions. Where these currents intermix, +a certain amount of disturbance will prevail, which, if sufficiently +slight, would not much interfere with the regularity of the crystals, +and might yet be sufficient to occasion little draughts, which would +blow them about when formed. Or, if the cold layer is above, and if it +is in a sufficient degree colder, there need not be any previous +relative motion of the two layers; the inevitable convection currents +will suffice. Another, and probably the most frequent, cause for +little breezes in the neighborhood of the cloudlets is that when the +cloudlets are formed they immediately absorb the heat of the sun in a +way that the previously clear air had not done. If they absorb enough, +they will rise like feeble balloons, and slight return currents will +travel downward round their margins, throwing all crystals in that +situation into disorder.</p> + +<p>I do not include among the causes which may agitate the crystals +another cause which must produce excessively slight currents of air, +namely, that arising from the subsidence of the cloudlets owing to +their weight. The crystals will fall faster wherein cloud masses than +in the intervening portions where the cloud is thinner. But the +subsidence itself is so slow that any relative motions to which +differences in the rate of subsidence can give rise are probably too +feeble to produce an appreciable effect. Of course, in general, more +than one of the above causes will concur; and it is the resultant of +the effects which they would have separately produced that will be +felt by the crystals.</p> + +<p>If the precipitation had taken place so very evenly over the sky that +there were no cloudlets formed, but only one uniform veil of haze, +then the currents which would flutter the crystals may be so entirely +absent that the little plates of crystals can fixedly assume the +horizontal position which is natural to them. In this event the cloud +will exhibit no iridescence, but, instead of it, a vertical circle +through the sun will present itself. This, on some rare occasions, is +a feature of the phenomenon of parhelia.</p> + +<p>It thus appears that the occasional iridescence of cirrus clouds is +satisfactorily accounted for by the concurrence of conditions, each of +which is known to have a real existence in nature....—<i>Phil. Mag., +July 1887.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<h3>THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN</h3> + +<h2>Architects and Builders Edition.</h2> + +<p class="center">$2.50 a Year. Single Copies, 25 cts.</p> + +<p>This is a Special Edition of the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, issued +monthly—on the first day of the month. 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