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diff --git a/15888.txt b/15888.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..9869086 --- /dev/null +++ b/15888.txt @@ -0,0 +1,3808 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Unwritten Literature of the Hopi +by Hattie Greene Lockett + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Unwritten Literature of the Hopi + +Author: Hattie Greene Lockett + +Release Date: May 24, 2005 [EBook #15888] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LITERATURE OF THE HOPI *** + + + + +Produced by David Starner, Stephanie Maschek and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team. + + + + + +Vol. IV, No. 4 +May 15, 1933 + +University of Arizona Bulletin + +SOCIAL SCIENCE BULLETIN No. 2 + + +The Unwritten Literature of the Hopi + + +BY +HATTIE GREENE LOCKETT + + +PUBLISHED BY +University of Arizona +TUCSON, ARIZONA + + + + +TABLE OF CONTENTS + +I. Introduction +General Statement +The Challenge +The Myth, Its Meaning and Function in Primitive Life + +II. The Hopi +Their Country, The People + +III. Hopi Social Organization +Government +The Clan and Marriage +Property, Lands, Houses, Divorce +Woman's Work +Man's Work + +IV. Pottery and Basket Making Traditional, Its Symbolism + +V. House Building + +VI. Myth and Folktale, General Discussion +Stability +Intrusion of Contemporary Material +How and Why Myths are Kept +Service of Myth +Hopi Story Telling + +VII. Hopi Religion +Gods and Kachinas +Religion Not for Morality + +VIII. Ceremonies, General Discussion +Belief and Ceremonial + +IX. Hopi Myths and Traditions and Some Ceremonies Based Upon Them +The Emergence Myth and the Wu-wu-che-Ma Ceremony +Some Migration Myths +Flute Ceremony and Tradition +Other Dances +The Snake Myth and the Snake Dance +A Flood and Turkey Feathers + +X. Ceremonies for Birth, Marriage, Burial +Birth +Marriage +Burial + +XI. Stories Told Today +An Ancient Feud +Memories of a Hopi Centenarian +The Coyote and the Water Plume Snake +A Bear Story +The Giant and the Twin War Gods +The Coyote and the Turtle +The Frog and the Locust + +XII. Conclusion + + + + +The Unwritten Literature of the Hopi[1] + +[Footnote 1: A thesis accepted in partial fulfillment of the +requirements for the Master of Arts degree in Archaeology, University of +Arizona, 1933. Published under the direction of the Committee on +Graduate Study, R.J. Leonard, Chairman.] + + + + +I. INTRODUCTION + +SHOWING THAT THE PRESENT-DAY SOCIAL ORGANIZATION OF THE HOPI IS THE +OUTGROWTH OF THEIR UNWRITTEN LITERATURE + + * * * * * + +GENERAL STATEMENT + +By a brief survey of present day Hopi culture and an examination into +the myths and traditions constituting the unwritten literature of this +people, this bulletin proposes to show that an intimate connection +exists between their ritual acts, their moral standards, their social +organization, even their practical activities of today, and their myths +and tales--the still unwritten legendary lore. + +The myths and legends of primitive peoples have always interested the +painter, the poet, the thinker; and we are coming to realize more and +more that they constitute a treasure-trove for the archaeologist, and +especially the anthropologist, for these sources tell us of the +struggles, the triumphs, the wanderings of a people, of their +aspirations, their ideals and beliefs; in short, they give us a twilight +history of the race. + +As the geologist traces in the rocks the clear record of the early +beginnings of life on our planet, those first steps that have led +through the succession of ever-developing forms of animal and plant life +at last culminating in man and the world as we now see them, so does the +anthropologist discover in the myths and legends of a people the dim +traces of their origin and development till these come out in the +stronger light of historical time. And it is at this point that the +ethnologist, trying to understand a race as he finds them today, must +look earnestly back into the "realm of beginnings," through this window +of so-called legendary lore, in order to account for much that he finds +in the culture of the present day. + + +=The Challenge: Need of Research on Basic Beliefs Underlying Ceremonies= + +Wissler says:[2] "It is still an open question in primitive social +psychology whether we are justified in assuming that beliefs of a basic +character do motivate ceremonies. It seems to us that such must be the +case, because we recognize a close similarity in numerous practices and +because we are accustomed to believe in the unity of the world and life. +So it may still be our safest procedure to secure better records of +tribal traditional beliefs and to deal with objective procedures as far +as possible. No one has ventured to correlate specific beliefs and +ceremonial procedures, but it is through this approach that the +motivating power of beliefs will be revealed, if such potency exists." + +[Footnote 2: Wissler, Clark, An Introduction to Social Anthropology: +Henry Holt & Co., New York, 1926, p. 266.] + +Some work has been done along this line by Kroeber for the tribes of +California, Lowie for the Crow Indians, and Junod for the Ekoi of West +Africa; but it appears that the anthropological problem of basic beliefs +and philosophies is dependent upon specific tribal studies and that more +research is called for. + + +=The Myth, Its Meaning and Function in Primitive Life= + +As a background for our discussion we shall need to consider first, the +nature and significance of mythology, since there is some, indeed much, +difference of opinion on the subject, and to arrive at some basis of +understanding as to its function. + +The so-called school of Nature-Mythology, which flourishes mainly in +Germany, maintains that primitive man is highly interested in natural +phenomena, and that this interest is essentially of a theoretic, +contemplative and poetical character. To writers of this school every +myth has as its kernel or essence some natural phenomenon or other, even +though such idea is not apparent upon the surface of the story; a deeper +meaning, a symbolic reference, being insisted upon. Such famous scholars +as Ehrenreich, Siecke, Winckler, Max Muller, and Kuhn have long given us +this interpretation of myth. + +In strong contrast to this theory which regards myth as naturalistic, +symbolic, and imaginary, we have the theory which holds a sacred tale as +a true historical record of the past. This idea is supported by the +so-called Historical school in Germany and America, and represented in +England by Dr. Rivers. We must admit that both history and natural +environment have left a profound imprint on all cultural achievement, +including mythology, but we are not justified in regarding all mythology +as historical chronicle, nor yet as the poetical musings of primitive +naturalists. The primitive does indeed put something of historical +record and something of his best interpretation of mysterious natural +phenomena into his legendary lore, but there is something else, we are +led to believe, that takes precedence over all other considerations in +the mind of the primitive (as well as in the minds of all of the rest of +us) and that is getting on in the world, a pragmatic outlook. + +It is evident that the primitive relies upon his ancient lore to help +him out in his struggle with his environment, in his needs spiritual and +his needs physical, and this immense service comes through religious +ritual, moral incentive, and sociological pattern, as laid down in the +cherished magical and legendary lore of his tribe. + +The close connection between religion and mythology, under-estimated by +many, has been fully appreciated by the great British anthropologist, +Sir James Frazer, and by classical scholars like Miss Jane Harrison. +The myth is the Bible of the primitive, and just as our Sacred Story +lives in our ritual and in our morality, as it governs our faith and +controls our conduct, even so does the savage live by his mythology. + +The myth, as it actually exists in a primitive community, even today, is +not of the nature of fiction such as our novel, but is a living reality, +believed to have once happened in primeval times when the world was +young and continuing ever since to influence the world and human +destiny. + +The mere fireside tale of the primitive may be a narrative, true or +imaginary, or a sort of fairy story, a fable or a parable, intended +mainly for the edification of the young and obviously pointing a moral +or emphasizing some useful truth or precept. And here we do recognize +symbolism, much in the nature of historical record. But the special +class of stories regarded by the primitive as sacred, his sacred myths, +are embodied in ritual, morals, and social organization, and form an +integral and active part of primitive culture. These relate back to best +known precedent, to primeval reality, by which pattern the affairs of +men have ever since been guided, and which constitute the only "safe +path." + +Malinowski[3] stoutly maintains that these stories concerning the +origins of rites and customs are not told in mere explanation of them; +in fact, he insists they are not intended as explanations at all, but +that the myth states a precedent which constitutes an _ideal_ and a +warrant for its continuance, and sometimes furnishes practical +directions for the procedure. He feels that those who consider the myths +of the savage as mere crude stories made up to explain natural +phenomena, or as historical records true or untrue, have made a mistake +in taking these myths out of their life-context and studying them from +what they look like on paper, and not from what they do in life. + +[Footnote 3: Malinowski, B., Myth in Primitive Psychology: M.W. Norton & +Co., Inc., New York, 1926, p. 19.] + +Since Malinowski's definition of myth differs radically from that of +many other writers on the subject, we would refer the reader to the +discussion of myth under the head of Social Anthropology in the +Encyclopedia Britannica, Fourteenth Edition, page 869. + + + + +II. THE HOPI + + * * * * * + +=Their Country--The People= + +The Hopi Indians live in northern Arizona about one hundred miles +northeast of Flagstaff, seventy miles north of Winslow, and seventy-five +miles north of Holbrook. + +For at least eight hundred years the Hopi pueblos have occupied the +southern points of three fingers of Black Mesa, the outstanding physical +feature of the country, commonly referred to as First, Second, and Third +Mesas. + +It is evident that in late prehistoric times several large villages were +located at the foot of First and Second Mesas, but at present, except +for two small settlements around trading posts, the villages are all on +top of the mesas. On the First Mesa we find Walpi, Sichomovi, and Hano, +the latter not Hopi but a Tewa village built about 1700 by immigrants +from the Rio Grande Valley, and at the foot of this mesa the modern +village of Polacca with its government school and trading post. On +Second Mesa are Mashongnovi, Shipaulovi, and Shungopovi, with Toreva Day +School at its foot. On Third Mesa Oraibi, Hotavilla, and Bacabi are +found, with a government school and a trading post at Lower Oraibi and +another school at Bacabi. Moencopi, an offshoot from Old Oraibi, is near +Tuba City. + +This area was once known as the old Spanish Province of Tusayan, and the +Hopi villages are called pueblos, Spanish for towns. In 1882, 2,472,320 +acres of land were set aside from the public domain as the Hopi Indian +Reservation. At present the Hopi area is included within the greater +Navajo Reservation and administered by a branch of the latter Indian +agency. + +The name Hopi or Hopitah means "peaceful people," and the name Moqui, +sometimes applied to them by unfriendly Navajo neighbors, is really a +Zuni word meaning "dead," a term of derision. Naturally the Hopi do not +like being called Moqui, though no open resentment is ever shown. Early +fiction and even some early scientific reports used the term Moqui +instead of Hopi. + +Admirers have called these peaceful pueblo dwellers "The Quaker People," +but that is a misnomer for these sturdy brown heathen who have never +asked or needed either government aid or government protection, have a +creditable record of defensive warfare during early historic times and +running back into their traditional history, and have also some accounts +of civil strife. + +The nomadic Utes, Piutes, Apaches, and Navajos for years raided the +fields and flocks of this industrious, prosperous, sedentary people; in +fact, the famous Navajo blanket weavers got the art of weaving and their +first stock of sheep through stealing Hopi women and Hopi sheep. But +there came a time when the peaceful Hopi decided to kill the Navajos who +stole their crops and their girls, and then conditions improved. Too, +soon after, came the United States government and Kit Carson to +discipline the raiding Navajos. + +The only semblance of trouble our government has had with the Hopi grew +out of the objection, in fact, refusal, of some of the more conservative +of the village inhabitants to send their children to school. The +children were taken by force, but no blood was shed, and now government +schooling is universally accepted and generally appreciated. + +A forbidding expanse of desert waste lands surrounds the Hopi mesas, +furnishing forage for Hopi sheep and goats during the wet season and +browse enough to sustain them during the balance of the year. These +animals are of a hardy type adapted to their desert environment. Our +pure blood stock would fare badly under such conditions. However, the +type of wool obtained from these native sheep lends itself far more +happily to the weaving of the fine soft blankets so long made by the +Hopi than does the wool of our high grade Merino sheep or a mixture of +the two breeds. This is so because our Merino wool requires the +commercial scouring given it by modern machine methods, whereas the Hopi +wool can be reduced to perfect working condition by the primitive hand +washing of the Hopi women. + +As one approaches the dun-colored mesas from a distance he follows their +picturesque outlines against the sky line, rising so abruptly from the +plain below, but not until one is within a couple of miles can he +discern the villages that crown their heights. And no wonder these +dun-colored villages seem so perfectly a part of the mesas themselves, +for they are literally so--their rock walls and dirt roofs having been +merely picked up from the floor and sides of the mesa itself and made +into human habitations. + +The Hopi number about 2,500 and are a Shoshonean stock. They speak a +language allied to that of the Utes and more remotely to the language of +the Aztecs in Mexico.[4] + +[Footnote 4: Colton, H.S., Days in the Painted Desert: Museum Press, +Flagstaff, 1932, p. 17.] + +According to their traditions the various Hopi clans arrived in Hopiland +at different times and from different directions, but they were all a +kindred people having the same tongue and the same fundamental +traditions. + +They did not at first build on the tops of the mesas, but at their feet, +where their corn fields now are, and it was not from fear of the +war-like and aggressive tribes of neighboring Apaches and Navajos that +they later took to the mesas, as we once supposed. A closer acquaintance +with these people brings out the fact that it was not till the Spaniards +had come to them and established Catholic Missions in the late +Seventeenth Century that the Hopi decided to move to the more easily +defended mesa tops for fear of a punitive expedition from the Spaniards +whose priests they had destroyed. + +We are told that these desert-dwellers, whose very lives have always +depended upon their little corn fields along the sandy washes that +caught and held summer rains, always challenged new-coming clans to +prove their value as additions to the community, especially as to their +magic for rain-making, for life here was a hardy struggle for existence, +with water as a scarce and precious essential. Among the first +inhabitants was the Snake Clan with its wonderful ceremonies for rain +bringing, as well as other sacred rites. Willingly they accepted the +rituals and various religious ceremonials of new-comers when they showed +their ability to help out with the eternal problem of propitiating the +gods that they conceived to have control over rain, seed germination, +and the fertility and well-being of the race. + +In exactly the same spirit they welcomed the friars. Perhaps these +priests had "good medicine" that would help out. Maybe this new kind of +altar, image, and ceremony would bring rain and corn and health; they +were quite willing to try them. But imagine their consternation when +these Catholic priests after a while, unlike any people who had ever +before been taken into their community, began to insist that the new +religion be the only one, and that all other ceremonies be stopped. How +could the Hopi, who had depended upon their old ceremonies for +centuries, dare to stop them? Their revered traditions told them of +clans that had suffered famine and sickness and war as punishment for +having dropped or even neglected their religious dances and ceremonies, +and of their ultimate salvation when they returned to their faithful +performance. + +The Hopi objected to the slavish labor of bringing timbers by hand from +the distant mountains for the building of missions and, according to +Hopi tradition, to the priests taking some of their daughters as +concubines, but the breaking point was the demand of the friars that all +their old religious ceremonies be stopped; this they dared not do. + +So the "long gowns" were thrown over the cliff, and that was that. +Certain dissentions and troubles had come upon them, and some crop +failures, so they attributed their misfortunes to the anger of the old +gods and decided to stamp out this new and dangerous religion. It had +taken a strong hold on one of their villages, Awatobi, even to the +extent of replacing some of the old ceremonies with the new singing and +chanting and praying. And so Awatobi was destroyed by representatives +from all the other villages. Entering the sleeping village just before +dawn, they pulled up the ladders from the underground kivas where all +the men of the village were known to be sleeping because of a ceremony +in progress, then throwing down burning bundles and red peppers they +suffocated their captives, shooting with bows and arrows those who tried +to climb out. Women and children who resisted were killed, the rest were +divided among the other villages as prisoners, but virtually adopted. +Thus tenaciously have the Hopi clung to their old religion--noncombatants +so long as new cults among them do not attempt to stop the old. + +There are Christian missionaries among them today, notably Baptists, but +they are quite safe, and the Hopi treat them well. Meantime the old +ceremonies are going strong, the rain falls after the Snake Dance, and +the crops grow. The Hopi realize that missionary influence will +eventually take some away from the old beliefs and practices and that +government school education is bound to break down the old traditional +unity of ideas. Naturally their old men are worried about it. Yet their +faith is strong and their disposition is kindly and tolerant, much like +that of the good old Methodist fathers who are disturbed over their +young people being led off into new angles of religious belief, yet +confident that "the old time religion" will prevail and hopeful that the +young will be led to see the error of their way. How long the old faith +can last, in the light of all that surrounds it, no one can say, but in +all human probability it is making its last gallant stand. + +These Pueblo Indians are very unlike the nomadic tribes around them. +They are a sedentary, peaceful people living in permanent villages and +presenting today a significant transitional phase in the advance of a +people from savagery toward civilization and affording a valuable study +in the science of man. + +Naturally they are changing, for easy transportation has brought the +outside world to their once isolated home. It is therefore highly +important that they be studied first-hand now for they will not long +stay as they are. + + + + +III. HOPI SOCIAL ORGANIZATION + + * * * * * + +=Government= + +In government, the village is the unit, and a genuinely democratic +government it is. There is a house chief, a Kiva chief, a war chief, the +speaker chief or town crier, and the chiefs of the clans who are +likewise chiefs of the fraternities; all these making up a council which +rules the pueblo, the crier publishing its decisions. Laws are +traditional and unwritten. Hough[5] says infractions are so few that it +would be hard to say what the penalties are, probably ridicule and +ostracism. Theft is almost unheard of, and the taking of life by force +or law is unknown. + +[Footnote 5: Hough, Walter, The Hopi: Torch Press, Cedar Rapids, 1915.] + +To a visitor encamped at bedtime below the mesa, the experience of +hearing the speaker chief or town crier for the first time is something +long to be remembered. Out of the stillness of the desert night comes a +voice from the house tops, and such a voice! From the heights above, it +resounds in a sonorous long-drawn chant. Everyone listens breathlessly +to the important message and it goes on and on. + +The writer recalls that when first she heard it, twenty years ago, she +sat up in bed and rousing the camp, with stage whispers (afraid to speak +aloud), demanded: "Do you hear that? What on earth can it mean? Surely +something awful has happened!" On and on it went endlessly. (She has +since been told that it is all repeated three times.) And not until +morning was it learned that the long speech had been merely the +announcement of a rabbit hunt for the next day. The oldest traditions of +the Hopi tell of this speaker chief and his important utterances. He is +a vocal bulletin board and the local newspaper, but his news is +principally of a religious nature, such as the announcement of +ceremonials. This usually occurs in the evening when all have gotten in +from the fields or home from the day's journey, but occasionally +announcements are made at other hours. + +The following is a poetic formal announcement of the New Fire Ceremony, +as given at sunrise from the housetop of the Crier at Walpi: + + "All people awake, open your eyes, arise, + Become children of light, vigorous, active, sprightly: + Hasten, Clouds, from the four world-quarters. + Come, Snow, in plenty, that water may abound when summer appears. + Come, Ice, and cover the fields, that after planting they may yield + abundantly. + Let all hearts be glad. + The Wuwutchimtu will assemble in four days; + They will encircle the villages, dancing and singing. + Let the women be ready to pour water upon them + That moisture may come in plenty and all shall rejoice."[6] + +[Footnote 6: Hough, Walter, Op. cit., p. 43.] + +As to the character of their government, Hewett says:[7] "We can +truthfully say that these surviving pueblo communities constitute the +oldest existing republics. It must be remembered, however, that they +were only vest-pocket editions. No two villages nor group of villages +ever came under a common authority or formed a state. There is not the +faintest tradition of a 'ruler' over the whole body of the Pueblos, nor +an organization of the people of this vast territory under a common +government." + +[Footnote 7: Hewett, E.L., Ancient Life in the American Southwest: +Bobbs-Merrill Co., Indianapolis, 1929, p. 71.] + + +=The Clan and Marriage= + +Making up the village are various clans. A clan comprises all the +descendants of a traditional maternal ancestor. Children belong to the +clan of the mother. (See Figure 1.) These clans bear the name of +something in nature, often suggested by either a simple or a significant +incident in the legendary history of the people during migration when +off-shoots from older clans were formed into new clans. Thus a migration +legend collected by Voth[8] accounts for the name of the Bear Clan, the +Bluebird Clan, the Spider Clan, and others. + +[Footnote 8: Voth, H.R., Traditions of the Hopi: Field Columbian Museum +Pub. 96, Anthropological series, vol. 8, pp. 36-38, 1905.] + +Sons and daughters are expected to marry outside the clan, and the son +must live with his wife's people, so does nothing to perpetuate his own +clan. The Hopi is monogamous. A daughter on marrying brings her husband +to her home, later building the new home adjacent to that of her +mother. Therefore many daughters born to a clan mean increase in +population. + +[Illustration: Figure 1.--Hopi Family at Shungopovi. + +--Photo by Lockett.] + +Some clans have indeed become nearly extinct because of the lack of +daughters, the sons having naturally gone to live with neighboring +clans, or in some cases with neighboring tribes. As a result, some large +houses are pointed out that have many unoccupied and even abandoned +rooms--the clan is dying out. Possibly there may be a good many men of +that clan living but they are not with or near their parents and +grandparents. They are now a part of the clan into which they have +married, and must live there, be it near or far. Why should they keep up +such a practice when possibly the young man could do better, +economically and otherwise, in his ancestral home and community? The +answer is, "It has always been that way," and that seems to be reason +enough for a Hopi. + + +=Property, Lands, Houses, Divorce= + +Land is really communal, apportioned to the several clans and by them +apportioned to the various families, who enjoy its use and hand down +such use to the daughters, while the son must look to his wife's share +of her clan allotment for his future estate. In fact, it is a little +doubtful whether he has any estate save his boots and saddle and +whatever personal plunder he may accumulate, for the house is the +property of the wife, as well as the crop after its harvest, and divorce +at the pleasure of the wife is effective and absolute by the mere means +of placing said boots and saddle, etc., outside the door and closing it. +The husband may return to his mother's house, and if he insists upon +staying, the village council will insist upon his departure. + +Again, why do they keep doing it this way? Again, "Because it has always +been done this way." And it works very well. There is little divorce and +little dissension in domestic life among the Hopi, in spite of +Crane's[9] half comical sympathy for men in this "woman-run" +commonwealth. Bachelors are rare since only heads of families count in +the body politic. An unmarried woman of marriageable age is unheard of. + +[Footnote 9: Crane, Leo, Indians of the Enchanted Mesa: Little, Brown & +Co., Boston, 1925.] + + +=Woman's Work= + +The Hopi woman's life is a busy one, the never finished grinding of corn +by the use of the primitive metate and mano taking much time, and the +universal woman's task of bearing and rearing children and providing +meals and home comforts accounting for most of her day. + +She is the carrier of water, and since it must be borne on her back from +the spring below the village mesa this is a burden indeed. She is, too, +the builder of the house, though men willingly assist in any heavy +labor when wanted. But why on earth should so kindly a people make woman +the carrier of water and the mason of her home walls? Tradition! "It has +always been this way." + +Her leisure is employed in visiting her neighbors, for the Hopi are a +conspicuously sociable people, and in the making of baskets or pottery. +One hears a great deal about Hopi pottery, but the pottery center in +Hopiland is the village of Hano, on First Mesa, and the people are not +Hopi but Tewas, whose origin shall presently be explained. + +Not until recent years has pottery been made elsewhere in Hopiland than +at Hano. At present, however, Sichomovi, the Hopi village built so close +to Hano that one scarce knows where one ends and the other begins, makes +excellent pottery as does the Hopi settlement at the foot of the hill, +Polacca. Undoubtedly this comes from the Tewa influence and in some +cases from actual Tewa families who have come to live in the new +locality. For instance, Grace, maker of excellent pottery, now living at +Polacca, is a Tewa who lived in Hano twenty years ago, when the writer +first knew her, and continued to live there until a couple of years ago. +Nampeo, most famous potter in Hopiland, is an aged Tewa woman still +living at Hano, in the first house at the head of the trail. Her +ambitious study of the fragments of the pottery of the ancients, in the +ruins of old Sikyatki, made her the master craftsman and developed a new +standard for pottery-making in her little world. + +Mention was made previously of the women employing their leisure in the +making of baskets or pottery. An interesting emphasis should be placed +upon the "or," for no village does both. The women of the three villages +mentioned at First Mesa as pottery villages make no baskets. The three +villages on Second Mesa make a particular kind of coiled basket found +nowhere else save in North Africa, and no pottery nor any other kind of +basket. The villages of Third Mesa make colorful twined or wicker +baskets and plaques, just the one kind and no pottery. They stick as +closely to these lines as though their wares were protected by some +tribal "patent right." Pottery for First Mesa, coiled baskets for Second +Mesa, and wicker baskets for Third Mesa. + +The writer has known the Hopi a long time, and has asked them many +times the reason for this. The villages are only a few miles apart, so +the same raw materials are available to all. These friends merely laugh +good naturedly and answer: "O, the only reason is, that it is just the +way we have always done it." + +Natural conservatives, these Hopi, and yet not one of them but likes a +bright new sauce-pan from the store for her cooking, and a good iron +stove, for that matter, if she can afford it. There is no tradition +against this, we are told. + +[Illustration: Figure 2.--Walpi. + +--Photo by Bortell.] + +More than two centuries ago, these Tewas came from the Rio Grande +region, by invitation of the Walpi, to help them defend this village +(See Figure 2) from their Navajo, Apache, and Piute enemies. They were +given a place on the mesa-top to build their village, at the head of the +main trail, which it was their business to guard, and fields were +allotted them in the valley below. + +They are a superior people, intelligent, friendly, reliable, and so +closely resemble the Hopi that they can not be told apart. + +The two peoples have intermarried freely, and it is hard to think of the +Tewas otherwise than as "one kind of Hopi." However, they are of a +distinctly different linguistic stock, speaking a Tewa language brought +from the Rio Grande, while the Hopi speak a dialect of the Shoshonean. + +It is an interesting fact that all Tewas speak Hopi as well as Tewa, +whereas the Hopi have never learned the Tewa language. The Hopi have a +legend accounting for this: + +"When the Hano first came, the Walpi said to them, 'Let us spit in your +mouths and you will learn our tongue,' and to this the Hano consented. +When the Hano came up and built on the mesa, they said to the Walpi, +'Let us spit in your mouths and you will learn our tongue,' but the +Walpi would not listen to this, saying it would make them vomit. This is +the reason why all the Hano can speak Hopi, and none of the Hopi can +talk Hano."[10] + +[Footnote 10: Mindeleff, Cosmos, Traditional History of Tusayan (After +A.M. Stephen): Bureau American Ethnology, vol. 8, p. 36, 1887.] + + +=Man's Work= + +The work of the men must now be accounted for lest the impression be +gained that the industry of the women leaves the males idle and +carefree. + +It is but fair to the men to say that first of all they carry the +community government on their shoulders, and the still more weighty +affairs of religion. They are depended upon to keep the seasonal and +other ceremonies going throughout the year, and the Hopi ceremonial +calendar has its major event for each of the twelve months, for all of +which elaborate preparation must be made, including the manufacture and +repair of costumes and other paraphernalia and much practicing and +rehearsing in the kivas. Someone has said much of the Hopi man's time is +taken up with "getting ready for dances, having dances, and getting over +dances." Yes, a big waste of time surely to you and me, but to the Hopi +community--men, women, and children alike--absolutely essential to their +well-being. There could be no health, happiness, prosperity, not even an +assurance of crops without these ceremonies. + +The Hopi is a good dry farmer on a small scale, and farming is a +laborious business in the shifting sands of Hopiland. Their corn is +their literal bread of life and they usually keep one year's crop +stored. These people have known utter famine and even starvation in the +long ago, and their traditions have made them wise. The man tends the +fields and flocks, makes mocassins, does the weaving of the community +(mostly ceremonial garments) and usually brings in the wood for fuel, +since it is far to seek in this land of scant vegetation, in fact +literally miles away and getting farther every year, so that the man +with team and wagon is fortunate indeed and the rest must pack their +wood on burros. Both men and women gather backloads of faggots wherever +such can be found in walking distance, and said distance is no mean +measure, for these hardy little people have always been great walkers +and great runners. + +Hough says:[11] "Seemingly the men work harder making paraphernalia and +costumes for the ceremonies than at anything else, but it should be +remembered that in ancient days everything depended, in Hopi belief, on +propitiating the deities. Still if we would pick the threads of religion +from the warp and woof of Hopi life there apparently would not be much +left. It must be recorded in the interests of truth, that Hopi men will +work at days labor and give satisfaction except when a ceremony is about +to take place at the pueblo, and duty to their religion interferes with +steady employment much as fiestas do in the easy-going countries to the +southward. Really the Hopi deserve great credit for their industry, +frugality, and provident habits, and one must commend them because they +do not shun work and because in fairness both men and women share in the +labor for the common good." + +[Footnote 11: Hough, Walter, Op. cit, pp. 156-58.] + + + + +IV. POTTERY AND BASKET MAKING TRADITIONAL; ITS SYMBOLISM + + * * * * * + +The art of pottery-making is a traditional one; mothers teach their +daughters, even as their mothers taught them. There are no recipes for +exact proportions and mixtures, no thermometer for controlling +temperatures, no stencil or pattern set down upon paper for laying out +the designs. The perfection of the finished work depends upon the +potter's sense of rightness and the skill developed by practicing the +methods of her ancestors with such variation as her own originality and +ingenuity may suggest. + +All the women of a pueblo community know how to make cooking vessels, at +least, and in spare time they gather and prepare their raw materials, +just as the Navajo woman has usually a blanket underway or the Apache a +basket started. The same is true of Hopi basketry; its methods, designs, +and symbolism are all a matter of memory and tradition. + +From those who know most of Indian sacred and decorative symbols, we +learn that two main ideas are outstanding: desire for rain and belief in +the unity of all life. Charms or prayers against drought take the form +of clouds, lightning, rain, etc., and those for fertility are expressed +by leaves, flowers, seed pods, while fantastic birds and feathers +accompany these to carry the prayers. It may be admitted that the modern +craftsman is often enough ignorant of the full early significance of the +motifs used, but she goes on using them because they express her idea of +beauty and because she knows that always they have been used to express +belief in an animate universe and with the hope of influencing the +unseen powers by such recognition in art. + +The modern craftsman may even tell you that the once meaningful symbols +mean nothing now, and this may be true, but the medicine men and the old +people still hold the traditional symbols sacred, and this reply may be +the only short and polite way of evading the troublesome stranger to +whom any real explanation would be difficult and who would quite likely +run away in the middle of the patient explanation to look at something +else. Only those whose friendship and understanding have been tested +will be likely to be told of that which is sacred lore. However, if the +tourist insists upon having a story with his basket or pottery and the +seller realizes that it's a story or no sale, he will glibly supply a +story, be he Indian or white, both story and basket being made for +tourist consumption. + +To the old time Indian everything had a being or spirit of its own, and +there was an actual feeling of sympathy for the basket or pot that +passed into the hands of unsympathetic foreigners, especially if the +object were ceremonial. The old pottery maker never speaks in a loud +tone while firing her ware and often sings softly for fear the new being +or spirit of the pot will become agitated and break the pot in trying to +escape. Nampeo, the venerable Tewa potter, is said to talk to the +spirits of her pots while firing them, adjuring them to be docile and +not break her handiwork by trying to escape. But making things to sell +is different--how could it be otherwise? + +In one generation Indian craftsmen have come to be of two classes, those +who make quantities of stuff for sale and those few who become real +artists, ambitious to save from oblivion the significance and idealism +of the old art that was done for the glory of the gods. Indian art may +survive with proper encouragement, but it must come now; after a while +will be too late. + +A notably fine example of such encouragement is the work of Mary Russell +F. Colton of Flagstaff, Arizona, in the Hopi Craftsman Exhibition held +annually at the Northern Arizona Museum of which she is art curator. At +the 1931 Exhibition, 142 native Hopi sent in 390 objects. Over $1500 +worth of material was sold and $200 awarded in prizes. The attendance +total of visitors was 1,642. From this exhibit a representative +collection of Hopi Art was assembled for the Exposition of Indian Tribal +Arts at the Grand Central Galleries, New York City, in December of the +same year. A gratifying feature of these annual exhibits is the fact +that groups of Hopi come in from their reservation 100 miles away and +modestly but happily move about examining and enjoying these lovely +samples of their own best work and that of their neighbors; and they are +quick to observe that it is the really excellent work that gets the blue +ribbon, the cash prize, and the best sale. + +Dr. Fewkes points out that while men invented and passed on the +mythology of the tribe, women wrote it down in symbols on their +handicrafts which became the traditional heritage of all. + +The sand paintings made for special ceremonies on the floors of the +various kivas, in front of the altars, are likewise designs carried only +in the memory of the officiating priest and derived from the clan +traditions. All masks and ceremonial costumes are strictly prescribed by +tradition. The corn symbol is used on everything. Corn has always been +the bread of life to the Hopi, but it has been more than food, it has +been bound up by symbolism with his ideas of all fertility and +beneficence. Hopi myths and rituals recognize the dependence of their +whole culture on corn. They speak of corn as their mother. The chief of +a religious fraternity cherishes as his symbol of high authority an ear +of corn in appropriate wrappings said to have belonged to the society +when it emerged from the underworld. The baby, when twenty days old, is +dedicated to the sun and has an ear of corn tied to its breast. + + + + +V. HOUSE BUILDING + + * * * * * + +As already stated, the house (See Figure 3) belongs to the woman. She +literally builds it, and she is the head of the family, but the men help +with the lifting of timbers, and now-a-days often lay up the masonry if +desired; the woman is still the plasterer. The ancestral home is very +dear to the Hopi heart, men, women, and children alike. + +After the stone for building has been gathered, the builder goes to the +chief of the village who gives him four small eagle feathers to which +are tied short cotton strings. These, sprinkled with sacred meal, are +placed under the four corner stones of the new house. The Hopi call +these feathers Nakiva Kwoci, meaning a breath prayer, and the ceremony +is addressed to Masauwu. Next, the door is located by placing a bowl of +food on each side of where it is to be. Likewise particles of food, +mixed with salt, are sprinkled along the lines upon which the walls are +to stand. The women bring water, clay, and earth, and mix a mud mortar, +which is used sparingly between the layers of stone. Walls are from +eight to eighteen inches thick and seven or eight feet high, above which +rafters or poles are placed and smaller poles crosswise above these, +then willows or reeds closely laid, and above all reeds or grass holding +a spread of mud plaster. When thoroughly dry, a layer of earth is added +and carefully packed down. All this is done by the women, as well as the +plastering of the inside walls and the making of the plaster floors. + +Now the owner prepares four more eagle feathers and ties them to a +little willow stick whose end is inserted in one of the central roof +beams. No home is complete without this, for it is the soul of the house +and the sign of its dedication. These feathers are renewed every year at +the feast of Soyaluna. + +The writer remembers once seeing a tourist reach up and pull off the +little tuft of breath feathers from the mid-rafter of the little house +he had rented for the night. Naturally he replaced it when the enormity +of his act was explained to him. + +Not until the breath feathers have been put up, together with particles +of food placed in the rafters as an offering to Masauwu, with due +prayers for the peace and prosperity of the new habitation, may the +women proceed to plaster the interior, to which, when it is dry, a coat +of white gypsum is applied (all with strokes of the bare hands), giving +the room a clean, fresh appearance. In one corner of the room is built a +fireplace and chimney, the latter often extended above the roof by +piling bottomless jars one upon the other, a quaint touch, reminding one +of the picturesque chimney pots of England. + +[Illustration: Figure 3.--Typical Hopi Home. + +--Courtesy Arizona State Museum.] + +The roofs are finished flat and lived upon as in Mediterranean +countries, particularly in the case of one-story structures built +against two-story buildings, the roof of the low building making the +porch or roof-garden for the second-story room lying immediately +adjacent. Here, on the roof many household occupations go on, including +often summer sleeping and cooking. + +When the new house is completely finished and dedicated, the owner gives +a feast for all members of her clan who have helped in the +house-raising, and the guests come bearing small gifts for the home. + +Formerly, the house was practically bare of furniture save for the +fireplace and an occasional stool, but the majority of the Hopi have +taken kindly to small iron cook stoves, simple tables and chairs, and +some of them have iron bedsteads. Even now, however, there are many +homes, perhaps they are still in the majority, where the family sits in +the middle of the floor and eats from a common bowl and pile of piki +(their native wafer corn bread), and sleeps on a pile of comfortable +sheep skins with the addition of a few pieces of store bedding, all of +which is rolled up against the wall to be out of the way when not in +use. + +In the granary, which is usually a low back room, the ears of corn are +often sorted by color and laid up in neat piles, red, yellow, white, +blue, black, and mottled, a Hopi study in corn color. Strings of native +peppers add to the colorful ensemble. + + + + +VI. MYTH AND FOLKTALE; GENERAL DISCUSSION + + * * * * * + +=Stability= + +Because none of this material could be written down but was passed by +word of mouth from generation to generation, changes naturally occurred. +Often a tale traveled from one tribe to another and was incorporated, in +whole or in part, into the tribal lore of the neighbor--thus adding +something. And, we may suppose, some were more or less forgotten and +thus lost; but, as Wissler[12] tells us, "tales that are directly +associated with ceremonies and, especially, if they must be recited as a +part of the procedure, are assured a long life." + +[Footnote 12: Wissler, Clark, Op. cit, p. 254.] + +Such of these tales as were considered sacred or accounted for the +origin of the people, were held in such high regard as to lay an +obligation upon the tribe to see to it that a number of individuals +learned and retained these texts, perhaps never in fixed wording, except +for songs, but as to essential details of plot. + +Many collectors have recorded several versions of certain tales, thus +giving an idea of the range of individual variation, and the writer +herself has encountered as many as three variants for some of her +stories, coming always from the narrators of different villages. But +Wissler,[13] while allowing for these variations, says: "All this +suggests instability in primitive mythology. Yet from American data, +noting such myths as are found among the successive tribes of larger +areas, it appears that detailed plots of myths may be remarkably +stable." + +[Footnote 13: Wissler, Clark, Op. cit., p. 254.] + + +=Intrusion of Contemporary Material= + +However there is another point discussed by Wissler which troubled the +writer greatly as a beginner, and that was the intrusion of new material +with old, for instance, finding an old Hopi story of how different +languages came to exist in the world and providing a language for the +_Mamona_, meaning the Mormons, who lived among the Hopi some years ago. +The writer was inclined to throw out the story, regarding the whole +thing as a modern concoction, but Wissler[14] warns us that: "From a +chronological point of view we may expect survival material in a tribal +mythology along with much that is relatively recent in origin. It is, +however, difficult to be sure of what is ancient and what recent, +because only the plot is preserved; rarely do we find mention of objects +and environments different from those of the immediate present." + +[Footnote 14: Wissler, Clark, Op. cit, p. 255.] + +A tale, to be generally understood, must often be given a contemporary +setting, and this the narrator instinctively knows, therefore the +introduction of modern material with that of undoubted age. + +Stability, then, lies in the plot rather than in the culture setting; +the former may be ancient, while the latter sometimes reflects +contemporary life. + +Boaz[15] argues that much may be learned of contemporary tribal culture +by a study of the mythology of a given people, since so much of the +setting of the ancient tale reflects the tribal life of the time of the +recording. He has made a test of the idea in his study of the Tsimshian +Indians. From this collection of 104 tales he concludes that: "In the +tales of a people those incidents of the everyday life that are of +importance to them will appear either incidentally or as the basis of a +plot. Most of the reference to the mode of life of the people will be an +accurate reflection of their habits. The development of the plot of the +story, further-more, will on the whole exhibit clearly what is +considered right and what wrong." + +[Footnote 15: Boaz, Franz, Tsimshian Mythology: Bureau American +Ethnology, vol. 35, 1916, p. 393.] + + +=How and Why Myths Are Kept= + +There are set times and seasons for story-telling among the various +Indian tribes, but the winter season, when there is likely to be most +leisure and most need of fireside entertainment, is a general favorite. +However, some tribes have myths that "can not be told in summer, others +only at night, etc."[16] Furthermore there are secret cults and +ceremonials rigidly excluding women and children, whose basic myths are +naturally restricted in their circulation, but in the main the body of +tribal myth is for the pleasure and profit of all. + +[Footnote 16: Wissler, Clark, Op. cit., p. 256.] + +Old people relate the stories to the children, not only because they +enjoy telling them and the children like listening to them, but because +of the feeling that every member of the tribe should know them as a part +of his education. + +While all adults are supposed to know something of the tribal stories, +not all are expected to be good story-tellers. Story-telling is a gift, +we know, and primitives know this too, so that everywhere we have +pointed out a few individuals who are the best story-tellers, usually an +old man, sometimes an old woman, and occasionally, as the writer has +seen it, a young man of some dramatic ability. When an important story +furnishing a religious or social precedent is called for, either in +council meeting or ceremonial, the custodian of the stories is in +demand, and is much looked up to; yet primitives rarely create an office +or station for the narrator, nor is the distinction so marked as the +profession of the medicine man and the priest. + + +=Service of Myth= + +As to the service of myth in primitive life, Wissler[17] says: "It +serves as a body of information, as stylistic pattern, as inspiration, +as ethical precepts, and finally as art. It furnishes the ever ready +allusions to embellish the oration as well as to enliven the +conversation of the fireside. Mythology, in the sense in which we have +used the term, is the carrier and preserver of the most immaterial part +of tribal culture." + +[Footnote 17: Wissler, Clark, Op. cit., p. 258.] + + +=Hopi Story-Telling= + +There comes a time in the Hopi year when crops have been harvested, most +of the heavier and more essentially important religious ceremonials have +been performed in their calendar places, and even the main supply of +wood for winter fires has been gathered. To be sure, minor dances, some +religious and some social, will be taking place from time to time, but +now there will be more leisure, leisure for sociability and for +story-telling. + +[Illustration: Figure 4.--Kiva at Old Oraibi. + +--Courtesy Arizona State Museum.] + +In the kivas (See Figure 4) the priests and old men will instruct the +boys in the tribal legends, both historical and mythological, and in the +religious ceremonies in which they are all later supposed to +participate. In the home, some good old story-telling neighbor drops in +for supper, and stories are told for the enjoyment of all present, +including the children; all kinds of stories, myths, tales of adventure, +romances, and even bed-time stories. Indian dolls of painted wood and +feathers, made in the image of the Kachinas, are given the children, who +thus get a graphic idea of the supposed appearance of the heroes of some +of these stories. + +The Hopi, like many primitive people, believe that when a bird sings he +is weaving a magic spell, and so they have songs for special magic too; +some for grinding, for weaving, for planting, others for hunting, and +still others for war; all definitely to gain the favor of the gods in +these particular occupations. + +Without books and without writing the Hopi have an extensive +literature. That a surprising degree of accuracy is observed in its oral +transmission from generation to generation is revealed by certain +comparisons with the records made by the Spanish explorers in the +sixteenth century. + + + + +VII. HOPI RELIGION + + * * * * * + +=Gods and Kachinas= + +The Hopi live, move, and have their being in religion. To them the +unseen world is peopled with a host of beings, good and bad, and +everything in nature has its being or spirit. + +Just what kind of religion shall we call this of the Hopi? Seeing the +importance of the sun in their rites, one is inclined to say Sun +Worship; but clouds, rain, springs, streams enter into the idea, and we +say Nature Worship. A study of the great Snake Cult suggests Snake +Worship; but their reverence for and communion with the spirits of +ancestors gives to this complex religious fabric of the Hopi a strong +quality of Ancestor Worship. It is all this and more. + +The surface of the earth is ruled by a mighty being whose sway extends +to the underworld and over death, fire, and the fields. This is Masauwu, +to whom many prayers are said. Then there is the Spider Woman or Earth +Goddess, Spouse of the Sun and Mother of the Twin War Gods, prominent in +all Hopi mythology. Apart from these and the deified powers of nature, +there is another revered group, the Kachinas, spirits of ancestors and +some other beings, with powers good and bad. These Kachinas are +colorfully represented in the painted and befeathered dolls, in masks +and ceremonies, and in the main are considered beneficent and are +accordingly popular. They intercede with the spirits of the other world +in behalf of their Hopi earth-relatives. + +Masked individuals represent their return to the land of the living from +time to time in Kachina dances, beginning with the Soyaluna ceremony in +December and ending with the Niman or Kachina Farewell ceremony in July. + +Much of this sort of thing takes on a lighter, theatrical flavor +amounting to a pageant of great fun and frolic. Dr. Hough says these are +really the most characteristic ceremonies of the pueblos, musical, +spectacular, delightfully entertaining, and they show the cheerful Hopi +at his best--a true, spontaneous child of nature. + +There are a great many of these Kachina dances through the winter and +spring, their nature partly religious, partly social, for with the Hopi, +religion and drama go hand in hand. Dr. Hough speaks appreciatively of +these numerous occasions of wholesome merry-making, and says these +things keep the Hopi out of mischief and give them a reputation for +minding their own business, besides furnishing them with the best round +of free theatrical entertainments enjoyed by any people in the world. +Since every ceremony has its particular costumes, rituals, songs, there +is plenty of variety in these matters and more detail of meaning than +any outsider has ever fathomed. + +The Niman, or farewell dance of the Kachinas, takes place in July. It is +one of their big nine-day festivals, including secret rites in the kivas +and a public dance at its close. + +Messengers are sent on long journeys for sacred water, pine boughs, and +other special objects for these rites. This is a home-coming festival +and a Hopi will make every effort to get home to his own town for this +event. On the ninth day there is a lovely pageant just before sunrise +and another in the afternoon. No other ceremony shows such a gorgeous +array of colorful masks and costumes. And it is a particularly happy day +for the young folk, for the Kachinas bring great loads of corn, beans, +and melons, and baskets of peaches, especially as gifts for the +children; also new dolls and brightly painted bows and arrows are given +them. The closing act of the drama is a grand procession carrying sacred +offerings to a shrine outside the village. + +This is the dance at which the brides of the year make their first +public appearance; their snowy wedding blankets add a lovely touch to +the colorful scene. + + +=Religion Not For Morality= + +The Hopi is religious, and he is moral, but there is no logical +connection between the two. + +Mrs. Coolidge says:[18] "In all that has been said concerning the gods +and the Kachinas, the spiritual unity of all animate life, the +personification of nature and the correct conduct for attaining favor +with the gods, no reference has been made to morality as their object. +The purpose of religion in the mind of the Indian is to gain the +favorable, or to ward off evil, influences which the super-spirits are +capable of bringing to the tribe or the individual. Goodness, +unselfishness, truth-telling, respect for property, family, and filial +duty, are cumulative by-products of communal living, closely connected +with religious beliefs and conduct, but not their object. The Indian, +like other people, has found by experience that honesty is the best +policy among friends and neighbors, but not necessarily so among +enemies; that village life is only tolerable on terms of mutual safety +of property and person; that industry and devotion to the family +interest make for prosperity and happiness. Moral principles are with +him the incidental product of his ancestral experience, not primarily +inculcated by the teaching of any priest or shaman. Yet the Pueblos show +a great advance over many primitive tribes in that their legends and +their priests reiterate constantly the idea that 'prayer is not +effective except the heart be good.'" + +[Footnote 18: Coolidge, Mary Roberts, The Rain-makers: Houghton Mifflin +Co., New York, 1929, p. 203.] + + + + +VIII. CEREMONIES; GENERAL DISCUSSION + + * * * * * + +=Beliefs and Ceremonials= + +The beliefs of a tribe, philosophical, religious, and magical, are, for +the most part, expressed in objective ceremonies. The formal procedure +or ritual is essentially a representation or dramatization of the main +idea, usually based upon a narrative. Often the ceremony opens with or +is preceded by the narration of the myth on which it is based, or the +leader may merely refer to it on the assumption that everyone present +knows it. + +As to the purpose of the ceremony, there are those who maintain that +entertainment is the main incentive, but the celebration or holiday +seems to be a secondary consideration according to the explanation of +the primitives themselves. + +If there chances to be a so-called educated native present to answer +your inquiry on the point, he will perhaps patiently explain to you that +just as July Fourth is celebrated for something more than parades and +firecrackers, and Thanksgiving was instituted for other considerations +than the eating of turkey, so the Hopi Snake Dance, for instance, is +given not so much to entertain the throng of attentive and respectful +Hopi, and the much larger throng of more or less attentive and more or +less respectful white visitors, as to perpetuate, according to their +traditions, certain symbolic rites in whose efficacy they have +profoundly believed for centuries and do still believe. + +Concerning the Pueblos (which include the Hopi), Hewett says:[19] "There +can be no understanding of their lives apart from their religious +beliefs and practices. The same may be said of their social structure +and of their industries. Planting, cultivating, harvesting, hunting, +even war, are dominated by religious rites. The social order of the +people is established and maintained by way of tribal ceremonials. +Through age-old ritual and dramatic celebration, practiced with +unvarying regularity, participated in by all, keeping time to the days, +seasons and ages, moving in rhythmic procession with life and all +natural forces, the people are kept in a state of orderly composure and +like-mindedness. + +[Footnote 19: Hewett, E.L., Op. cit., p. 117.] + +"The religious life of the Pueblo Indian is expressed mainly through the +community dances, and in these ceremonies are the very foundations of +the ancient wisdom...." + +Dance is perhaps hardly the right word for these ceremonies, yet it is +what the Hopi himself calls them, and he is right. But we who have used +the word to designate the social dances of modern society or the +aesthetic and interpretive dances for entertainment and aesthetic +enjoyment will have to tune our sense to a different key to be in +harmony with the Hopi dance. + +Our primitive's communion with nature and with his own spirit have +brought him to a reverent attitude concerning the wisdom of birds, +beasts, trees, clouds, sunlight, and starlight, and most of all he +clings trustingly to the wisdom of his fathers. + +"All this," according to Hewett, "is voiced in his prayers and +dramatized in his dances--rhythm of movement and of color summoned to +express in utmost brilliancy the vibrant faith of a people in the deific +order of the world and in the way the ancients devised for keeping man +in harmony with his universe. All his arts, therefore, are rooted in +ancestral beliefs and in archaic esthetic forms." + +Surely no people on earth, not even the Chinese, show a more consistent +reverence for the wisdom of the past as preserved in their myths and +legends, than do the Hopi. + + + + +IX. HOPI MYTHS AND TRADITIONS AND SOME CEREMONIES BASED UPON THEM + + * * * * * + +=The Emergence Myth and the Wu-wu-che-ma Ceremony= + +Each of the Hopi clans preserves a separate origin or emergence myth, +agreeing in all essential parts, but carrying in its details special +reference to its own clan. All of them claim, however, a common origin +in the interior of the earth, and although the place of emergence to the +surface is set in widely separated localities, they agree in maintaining +this to be the fourth plane on which mankind has existed. + +The following is an abbreviation of the version gathered by A.M. +Stephen, who lived many years among the Hopi and collected these sacred +tales from the priests and old men of all the different villages some +fifty years ago, as reported by Mindeleff.[20] + +[Footnote 20: Mindeleff, Cosmos, Traditional History of Tusayan (After +A.M. Stephen): Bureau American Ethnology, vol. 8, pp. 16-41, 1887.] + +In the beginning all men lived together in the lowest depths, in a +region of darkness and moisture; their bodies were mis-shapen and +horrible and they suffered great misery. + +By appealing to Myuingwa (a vague conception of the god of the interior) +and Baholinkonga (plumed serpent of enormous size, genius of water) +their old men obtained a seed from which sprang a magic growth of cane. + +The cane grew to miraculous height and penetrated through a crevice in +the roof overhead and mankind climbed to a higher plane. Here was dim +light and some vegetation. Another magic cane brought them to a higher +plane, with more light and vegetation, and here was the creation of the +animal kingdom. Singing was always the chief magic for creating +anything. In like manner, they rose to the fourth stage or earth; some +say by a pine tree, others say through the hollow cylinder of a great +reed or rush. + +This emergence was accompanied by singing, some say by the Magic Twins, +the two little war gods, others say by the mocking bird. At any rate, it +is important to observe that when the song ran out, no more people could +get through and many had to remain behind. + +However, the outlet through which man came has never been closed, and +Myuingwa sends through it the germs of all living things. It is still +symbolized, Stephen says, by the peculiar construction of the hatchway +of the kiva, in designs on the kiva sand altars, and by the unconnected +circle on pottery, basketry, and textiles. Doubtless the most direct +representation of this opening to the underworld is the sipapu or +ceremonial small round opening in the floor of the kiva, which all Hopi, +without exception, agree symbolizes the opening or spirit passage to the +underworld. "Out of the sipapu we all came," they say, "and back to the +underworld, through the sipapu, we shall go when we die." + +Once every year the Hopi hold an eight-day ceremony commemorating this +emergence from the underworld. It is called the Wu-wu-che-ma, occurs in +November and thus begins the series of Winter festivals. Four societies +take part, and the Da-dow-Kiam or Mocking Bird Society opens the +ceremony by singing into the kiva of the One-Horned Society this +emergence song, the very song sung by the mocking bird at the original +emergence, according to Voth.[21] This ceremony is a prayer to the +powers of the underworld for prosperity and for germination of new life, +human, animal, and vegetable. Fewkes called this the New Fire Ceremony, +and in the course of the eight-day ceremonial the kindling of new fire +with the primitive firestick does take place. But it is not hard to feel +a close relation between the idea of fire and that of germination which +stands out as the chief idea in the whole ritual, particularly in the +subtle dramatization of the underworld life and emergence as carried on +in the kivas, preceding the public "dance" on the last day. + +[Footnote 21: Voth, H.R., Op. cit, p. 11.] + +Thus we have at least three distinct points in this one myth that +account for three definite things we find the Hopi doing today: (1) +Note that it was "our old men" who got from the gods the magic seed of +the tall cane which brought relief to the people. To this day it is the +old men who are looked up to and depended upon to direct the people in +all important matters. "It was always that way." (2) While the magic +song lasted the people came through the sipapu, but when the song ended +no more could come through, and there was weeping and wailing. Singing +is today the absolutely indispensable element in all magic rites. There +may be variation in the details of some performances, but "unless you +have the right song, it won't work." The Hopi solemnly affirm they have +preserved their original emergence song, and you hear it today on the +first morning of the Wu-wu-che-ma. (3) The sipapu seen today in the +floor of the kiva or ceremonial chamber symbolizes the passage from +which all mankind emerged from the underworld, so all the Hopi agree. + +The belief of the present-day Hopi that the dead return through the +sipapu to the underworld is based firmly upon an extension of this myth, +as told to Voth,[22] for it furnishes a clear account of how the Hopi +first became aware of this immortality. + +[Footnote 22: Voth, H.R., Op. cit, p. 11.] + +It seems that soon after they emerged from the underworld the son of +their chief died, and the distressed father, believing that an evil one +had come out of the sipapu with them and caused this death, tossed up a +ball of meal and declared that the unlucky person upon whose head it +descended should be thus discovered to be the guilty party and thrown +back down into the underworld. The person thus discovered begged the +father not to do this but to take a look down through the sipapu into +the old realm and see there his son, quite alive and well. This he did, +and so it was. + +Do the Hopi believe this now? Yes, so they tell you. And Mr. Emery +Koptu, sculptor, who lived among them only a few years ago and enjoyed a +rare measure of their affection and good will, recently told the writer +of a case in point: + +On July 4, 1928, occurred the death of Supela, last of the Sun priests. +Mr. Koptu, who had done some studies of this fine Hopi head, was in +Supela's home town, Walpi, at the time of the old priest's passing. + +The people were suffering from a prolonged drouth, and since old Supela +was soon to go through the sipapu to the underworld, where live the +spirits who control rain and germination, he promised that he would +without delay explain the situation to the gods and intercede for his +people and that they might expect results immediately after his arrival +there. Since his life had been duly religious and acceptable to the +gods, it was the belief of both Supela and his friends that he would +make the journey in four days, which is record time for the trip, when +one has no obstacles in the way of atonements or punishments to work off +en-route. Supela promised this, and the people looked for its +fulfillment. Four days after Supela's death the long drouth was broken +by a terrific rain storm accompanied by heavy thunder and lightning. Did +the Hopi show astonishment? On the contrary they were aglow with +satisfaction and exchanged felicitations on the dramatic assurance of +Supela's having "gotten through" in four days. The most wonderful eulogy +possible! + +It is indicated, in the story of Supela, that the Hopi believe that only +the "pure in heart," so to speak, go straight to the abode of the +spirits, whereas some may have to take much longer because of atonements +or punishments for misdeeds. Their basis for this lies in a tradition +regarding the visit of a Hopi youth to the underworld and his return to +the earth with an account of having passed on the way many suffering +individuals engaged in painful pursuits and unable to go on until the +gods decreed they had suffered enough. He had also seen a great smoke +arising from a pit where the hopelessly wicked were totally burned up. +He was told to go back to his people and explain all these things and +tell them to make many pahos (prayer-sticks) and live straight and the +good spirits could be depended upon to help them with rain and +germination. Voth records[23] two variants of this legend. + +[Footnote 23: Voth, H.R., Op. cit, pp. 109-119 (A journey to the +skeleton house).] + + +=Some Migration Myths= + +The migration myths of the various clans are entirely too numerous and +too lengthy to be in their entirety included here. Every clan has its +own, and even today keeps the story green in the minds of its children +and celebrates its chief events, including arrival in Hopiland, with +suitable ceremony. + +We are told that when all mankind came through the sipapu from the +underworld, the various kinds of people were gathered together and given +each a separate speech or language by the mocking bird, "who can talk +every way." Then each group was given a path and started on its way by +the Twin War Gods and their mother, the Spider Woman. + +The Hopi were taught how to build stone houses, and then the various +clans dispersed, going separate ways. And after many many generations +they arrived at their present destination from all directions and at +different times. They brought corn with them from the underworld. + +It is generally agreed that the Snake people were the first to occupy +the Tusayan region. + +There are many variations in the migration myths of the Snake people, +but the most colorful version the writer has encountered is the one +given to A.M. Stephen, fifty years ago, by the then oldest member of the +Snake fraternity. A picturesque extract only is given here. + +It begins: "At the general dispersal, my people lived in snake skins, +each family occupying a separate snake-skin bag, and all were hung on +the end of a rainbow, which swung around until the end touched Navajo +Mountain, where the bags dropped from it; and wherever their bags +dropped, there was their house. After they arranged their bags they came +out from them as men and women, and they then built a stone house which +had five sides. + +"A brilliant star arose in the southwest, which would shine for a while +and then disappear. The old men said, 'Beneath that star there must be +people,' so they determined to travel toward it. They cut a staff and +set it in the ground and watched till the star reached its top, then +they started and traveled as long as the star shone; when it +disappeared they halted. But the star did not shine every night, for +sometimes many years elapsed before it appeared again. When this +occurred, our people built houses during their halt; they built both +round and square houses, and all the ruins between here and Navajo +Mountain mark the places where our people lived. They waited till the +star came to the top of the staff again, then they moved on, but many +people were left in those houses and they followed afterward at various +times. When our people reached Wipho (a spring a few miles north from +Walpi) the star disappeared and has never been seen since." + +There is more of the legend, but quoted here are only a few closing +lines relative to the coming of the Lenbaki (the Flute Clan): + +"The old men would not allow them to come in until Masauwu (god of the +face of the earth) appeared and declared them to be good Hopitah. So +they built houses adjoining ours and that made a fine large village. +Then other Hopitah came in from time to time, and our people would say, +'Build here, or build there,' and portioned the land among the +new-comers."[24] + +[Footnote 24: Mindeleff, Victor, Pueblo architecture (Myths after +Stephen): Bureau American Ethnology, vol. 8, pp. 17-18, 1887.] + +The foregoing tradition furnishes the answer to two things one asks in +Hopiland. First, why have these people, who by their traditions wandered +from place to place since the beginning of time, only building and +planting for a period sometimes short, sometimes a few generations, but +not longer, they believe--why have they remained in their present +approximate location for eight hundred years and perhaps much longer? +The answer is their story of the star that led them for "many moves and +many stops" but which never again appeared, to move them on, after they +reached Walpi. + +The second point is: The Flute Dance, which is still held on the years +alternating with the Snake Dance, is of what significance? It is the +commemoration of the arrival of this Lenbaki group, a branch of the Horn +people, and the performance of their special magic for rain-bringing, +just as they demonstrated it to the original inhabitants of Walpi, by +way of trial, before they were permitted to settle there. + + +=Flute Ceremony and Tradition= + +This Flute ceremony is one of the loveliest and most impressive in the +whole Hopi calendar. And because it is one which most clearly +illustrates this thesis, some detail of the ceremony will be given. + +From the accounts of many observers that of Hough[25] has been chosen: +"On the first day the sand altar is made and at night songs are begun. +Within the kiva the interminable rites go on, and daily the cycle of +songs accompanied with flutes is rehearsed. A messenger clad in an +embroidered kilt and anointed with honey, runs, with flowing hair, to +deposit prayer-sticks at the shrines, encircling the fields in his runs +and coming nearer the pueblo on each circuit. During the seventh and +eighth days a visit is made to three important springs where ceremonies +are held, and on the return of the priests they are received by an +assemblage of the Bear and Snake Societies, the chiefs of which +challenge them and tell them that if they are good people, as they +claim, they can bring rain. + +[Footnote 25: Hough, Walter, Op. cit., pp. 156-158.] + +"After an interesting interchange of ceremonies, the Flute priests +return to their kiva to prepare for the public dance on the morrow. When +at 3:00 a.m. the belt of Orion is at a certain place in the heavens, the +priests file into the plaza, where a cottonwood bower has been erected +over the shrine called the entrance to the underworld. Here the priests +sing, accompanied with flutes, the shrine is ceremonially opened and +prayer-sticks placed within, and they return to the kiva. At some of the +pueblos there is a race up the mesa at dawn on the ninth day, as in +other ceremonies. + +"On the evening of the ninth day the Flute procession forms and winds +down the trail to the spring in order: A leader, the Snake maiden, two +Snake youths, the priests, and in the rear a costumed warrior with bow +and whizzer. At the spring they sit on the south side of the pool, and +as one of the priests plays a flute the others sing, while one of their +number wades into the spring, dives under water, and plants a +prayer-stick in the muddy bottom. Then taking a flute he again wades +into the spring and sounds it in the water to the four cardinal points. +Meanwhile sunflowers and cornstalks have been brought to the spring by +messengers. Each priest places the sunflowers on his head and each takes +two cornstalks in his hands and the procession, two abreast, forms to +ascend the mesa. A priest draws a line on the trail with white corn meal +and across it three cloud symbols. The Flute children throw the +offerings they hold in their hands upon the symbols, followed by the +priests who sing to the sound of the flutes. + +[Illustration: Figure 5.--Flute Ceremony at Michongnovi. + +--Courtesy Arizona State Museum.] + +"The children pick the offerings from the ground with sticks held in +their hands, and the same performance is repeated till they stand again +in the plaza on the mesa before the cottonwood bower, where they sing +melodious songs then disperse." + +The foregoing description of Hough's is an account of the Walpi +ceremony, where we find only one Flute fraternity. Each of the other +villages has two fraternities, the Blue Flute and the Drab Flute. The +Flute Ceremony at Mishongnovi is perhaps the most impressive example of +this pageant as given by the double fraternity. Dr. Byron Cummings +reports this Mishongnovi ceremony as having several interesting +variations from the Walpi report given above. (See Figure 5.) + +[Illustration: Figure 6.--Flute Boy before Costuming. + +--Courtesy Arizona State Museum.] + +On the ninth day women were observed sweeping the trail to the spring +with meticulous care, in preparation for the double procession which +came down at about 1:30 in the afternoon. + +All the costuming was done at the spring--body painting, putting on of +ceremonial garments and arranging of hair. + +The fathers of the Flute maidens brushed and arranged their hair for +them and put on their blankets. If a girl had no father, her uncle did +this for her. There were two Flute Maids and a Flute Boy (See Figure 6) +who walked between them, in each of the two fraternities. Even this +ceremonial costuming was accompanied by solemn singing. + +When all was ready the priests sat on the edge of the pool with their +legs hanging over, and the two maids and the boy sat behind them on a +terrace of the bank. The Blue Flute fraternity occupied one side of the +pool and the Drab Flute fraternity another. Many songs were sung to the +strange, plaintive accompaniment of the flute players. After a while an +old priest waded into the pool and walked around it in ever-narrowing +circles till he reached the center, where he sank into the water and +disappeared for a dramatically long moment and came up with a number of +ceremonial objects in his hands, including a gourd bottle filled with +water from the depths of the spring. + +It was late afternoon by the time all the songs had been sung, and +evening when the two processions had finished their ceremonial ascent to +the mesa top, pausing again and again as the old priest went ahead and +drew his symbolic barrier of meal and the three rain clouds across the +path, which were to be covered with the pahos of the Flute children, +then taken up and moved on to the next like symbol. The old priest led +the procession, the three children behind him, then the flute players, +followed by the priests bearing emblems, and the priest with the bull +roarer at the end of the line. Each fraternity preserved its own +formation. Having reached the village plaza they marched to the Kisa and +deposited their pahos and ceremonial offerings, then dispersed. The +solemnity of the long ritual, the weird chant and the plaintive +accompaniment of the flutes running through the whole ceremony, while at +the spring, coming up the hill, and to the last act before the Kisa, +leaves the imprint of its strange musical vibration long after the scene +has closed. + +The legend back of this ceremony is a long account of the migrations of +the Horn and Flute people. It relates that when they at last reached +Walpi, they halted at a spring and sent a scout ahead to see if people +were living there. He returned and reported that he had seen traces of +other people. So the Flute people went forth to find them. When they +came in sight of the houses of Walpi, they halted at the foot of the +mesa, then began moving up the trail in ceremonial procession, with +songs and the music of the flutes. + +Now the Bear and Snake people who lived in Walpi drew a line of meal +across the trail, a warning understood by many primitives, and +challenged the new-comers as to who they were, where they were going, +and what they wanted. Then the Flute chief said, "We are of your blood, +Hopi. Our hearts are good and our speech straight. We carry on our backs +the tabernacle of the Flute Altar. We can cause rain to fall." + +Four times the demand was repeated, as the Flute people stood +respectfully before the barrier of meal, and four times did their chief +make the same reply. Then the Walpis erased the line of meal and the +Flute people entered the pueblo, set up their altars and demonstrated +their rain magic by singing their ceremonial Flute songs which resulted +in bringing the needed rain. Then said the Bear and Snake chiefs, +"Surely your chief shall be one of our chiefs." + +Thus we see that the Flute Dance as given today is a dramatization of +this legend. Dr. Fewkes, who collected this legend, tells us that the +Flute fraternity claims to be even more successful rain-makers than the +world-famous Snake fraternity.[26] + +[Footnote 26: Fewkes, J. Walter, The Walpi Flute Observance: Journal +American Folklore, vol. 7, 1894.] + +Dr. Monsen tells of seeing the Flute ceremony at Mishongnovi, a good +many years ago, and of the deeply religious feeling that pervaded the +whole scene. His words are descriptive of a dramatic moment at the close +of the day, when the procession had at last reached the public plaza on +top of the mesa.[27] + +[Footnote 27: Monsen, Frederick, Religious Dances of the Hopi: The +Craftsman, vol. 12, 1907, pp. 284-285.] + +[Illustration: Figure 7.--Hopi Girl in Butterfly Costume. + +--Photo by Lockett.] + +"By this time it was nearly dark, but the ceremony went on in the center +of the plaza where other mysterious symbols were outlined on the rocky +floor with the strewn corn meal, and numbers of supplementary chants +were sung until night closed down entirely and the moon appeared.... +Then came something so extraordinary that I am aware that it will sound +as if I were drawing on the rich stores of my imagination, for the +coincidence which closed the festival. + +"But all I can say is that to my unutterable astonishment, it happened +exactly as I tell it. At a certain stage in this part of the ceremony +there was a pause. No one left the plaza, but every one stood as still +as a graven image, and not a sound broke the hush, apparently of +breathless expectancy. The stillness was so unearthly that it became +oppressive, and a few white friends who were with me began to urge in +whispers that we leave the plaza as all was evidently at an end, and go +back to our camp below the mesa, when suddenly there rang out such a +wild, exultant shout of unrestrained, unmeasured rejoicing as only +Indians can give in moments of supreme religious exaltation--raindrops +had splashed on devout, upturned faces. + +"Their prayers had been answered. The spell of the drouth-evil had been +broken, and the long strain of the solemn ceremonial gave place to such +a carnival of rejoicing as it seldom falls to the lot of civilized man +to see.... + +"From the white man's point of view, this answer to prayer was, of +course, the merest coincidence, but not all the power of church or +government combined could convince the Hopi that their god had not heard +them ... that their devotion to the ancient faith had brought relief +from famine, and life to themselves and their flocks and herds." + +The present-day Hopi, including the most intelligent and best educated +of them, will tell you, that all their important dances and ceremonials +follow faithfully the old traditions, and are still believed to be +efficacious and necessary to the welfare of the people. And this has +been the conviction of a majority of the scientific observers who have +studied them. + + +=Other Dances= + +There is a very definite calendar arrangement of these ceremonials, some +variation in the different villages, but no deviation in the order and +essential details of the main dances. + +In December comes the Soyaluna, or winter solstice ceremony, to turn the +sun back from his path of departure and insure his return with length of +days to the Indian country. Good-will tokens are exchanged, not unlike +our idea of Christmas cards, at the end of the ceremony; they are +prayer tokens which are planted with prayers for health and prosperity. +The kiva rituals are rich in symbolism and last eight days, if young men +are to be initiated, otherwise four. The public dance at the end is a +masked pageant. + +In January comes the Buffalo Dance, with masks representing buffalo, +deer, mountain sheep, and the other big game animals. Its chief +characters are the Hunter and the Buffalo Mother, or Mother of all big +game. A prayer for plentiful big game is the idea of this dance. + +In February the Powamu, "bean sprouting," ceremony occurs, with very +elaborate ritual signifying consecration of fields for planting. Various +masks and symbolic costumes are used, and the children's initiation is +accompanied with a ceremonial "flogging"--really a switching by +kachinas. Dr. Dorsey considers this the most colorful of all Hopi +ceremonies and says that nowhere else on earth can one see in nine days +such a wealth of religious drama, such a pantheon of the gods +represented by masked and costumed actors, such elaborate altars and +beautiful sand mosaics, nor songs and myths sung and recited of such +obvious archaic character, containing many old words and phrases whose +meaning is no longer known even to the Hopi themselves. + +March brings the Palululong, "Great Plumed Serpent," a masked and +elaborately costumed mystery play given in the kiva. This shows more of +the dramatic ability and ingenuity of this people than any other of +their ceremonies; the mechanical representation of snakes as actors +being one of its astonishing features. + +One of the very pretty social dances is the Butterfly Dance, given +during the summer by the young people of marriageable age. Costumes are +colorful and tall wooden headdresses or tablets are worn. Figure 7 shows +a Hopi girl acquaintance photographed just at the close of a Butterfly +Dance that the writer witnessed in the summer of 1932 at Shungopovi. +(See Figure 8.) + +This dance is really a very popular social affair, a sort of coming out +party adopted from the Rio Grande Pueblos a good many years ago. + + +=The Snake Myth and the Snake Dance= + +The Snake Dance of the Hopi is, of course, the best known and most +spectacular of their ceremonies, and comparatively few white people have +seen any other. + +One hears from tourists on every hand, "Oh, they used to believe in +these things, but of course they know better now, and at any rate it's +all a commercial racket, a side show to attract tourists!" + +[Illustration: Figure 8.--Shungopovi, Second Mesa. + +--Photo by Lockett.] + +Anyone who says this has seen little and thought less. The Hopi women +make up extra supplies of baskets and pottery to offer for sale at the +time of the Snake Dance because they know many tourists are coming to +buy them, otherwise they get no revenue from the occasion. No admission +is charged, and the snake priests themselves seriously object to having +Hopi citizens charge anything for the use of improvised seats of boxes, +etc., on the near-by house tops. + +The writer has seen tourists so crowd the roofs of the Hopi homes +surrounding the dance plaza that she feared the roofs would give way, +and has also observed that the resident family was sometimes crowded out +of all "ring-side" seats. No wonder the small brown man of the house has +in some cases charged for the seats. What white man would not? Yet the +practice is considered unethical by the Hopi themselves and is being +discontinued. + +We know that this weird, pagan Snake Dance was performed with deadly +earnestness when white men first penetrated the forbidding wastelands +that surround the Hopi. And we have every reason to believe that it has +gone on for centuries, always as a prayer to the gods of the underworld +and of nature for rain and the germination of their crops. + +The writer has observed these ceremonies in the various Hopi villages +for the past twenty years, some with hundreds of spectators from all +over the world, others in more remote villages, with but a mere handful +of outsiders present. She is personally convinced that the Snake Dance +is no show for tourists but a deeply significant religious ceremony +performed definitely for the faithful fulfillment of traditional magic +rites that have, all down the centuries, been depended upon to bring +these desert-dwellers the life-saving rain and insure their crops. They +have long put their trust in it, and they still do so. + +Are there any unbelievers? Yes, to be sure; but not so many as you might +think. There are unbelievers in the best, of families, Methodist, +Presbyterian, and Hopi, but the surprising thing is that there are so +many believers, at least among the Hopi. + +The Snake Dance, so-called, is the culmination of an eight-days' +ceremonial, an elaborate prayer for rain and for crops. Possibly +something of the significance of parts of its complicated ritual may +have been forgotten, for some of our thirst for knowledge on these +points goes unquenched, in spite of the courteous explanations the Hopi +give when our queries are sufficiently courteous and respectful to +deserve answers. And possibly some of the things we ask about are "not +for the public" and may refer to the secret rituals that take place in +the kivas, as in connection with many of their major ceremonials. + +We do know that the dramatization of their Snake Myth constitutes part +of the program. This myth has many variations. The writer, personally, +treasures the long story told her by Dr. Fewkes, years ago, and +published in the Journal of American Ethnology and Archaeology, Vol. +IV., 1894, pages 106-110. But here shall be given the much shorter and +very adequate account of Dr. Colton,[28] as abbreviated from that of +A.M. Stephen: + +"To-ko-na-bi was a place of little rain, and the corn was weak. Tiyo, a +youth of inquiring mind, set out to find where the rain water went to. +This search led him into the Grand Canyon. Constructing a box out of a +hollow cottonwood log, he gave himself to the waters of the Great +Colorado. After a voyage of some days, the box stopped on the muddy +shore of a great sea. Here he found the friendly Spider Woman who, +perched behind his ear, directed him on his search. After a series of +adventures, among which he joined the sun in his course across the sky, +he was introduced into the kiva of the Snake people, men dressed in the +skins of snakes. The Snake Chief said to Tiyo, 'Here we have an +abundance of rain and corn; in your land there is but little; fasten +these prayers in your breast; and these are the songs that you will sing +and these are the prayer-sticks that you will make; and when you display +the white and black on your body the rain will come.' He gave Tiyo part +of everything in the kiva as well as two maidens clothed in fleecy +clouds, one for his wife, and one as a wife for his brother. With this +paraphernalia and the maidens, Tiyo ascended from the kiva. Parting from +the Spider Woman, he gained the heights of To-ko-na-bi. He now +instructed his people in the details of the Snake ceremony so that +henceforth his people would be blessed with rain. The Snake Maidens, +however, gave birth to Snakes which bit the children of To-ko-na-bi, who +swelled up and died. Because of this, Tiyo and his family were forced to +emigrate and on their travels taught the Snake rites to other clans." + +[Footnote 28: Colton, H.S., Op. cit., p. 18.] + +Most of the accounts tell us that later only human children were born to +the pair, and these became the ancestors of the Snake Clan who, in their +migrations, finally reached Walpi, where we now find them, the most +spectacular rain-makers in the world. + +Another fragment of the full Snake legend must be given here to account +for what Dr. Fewkes considers the most fearless episode of the Snake +Ceremonial--the snake washing: + +"On the fifth evening of the ceremony and for three succeeding evenings +low clouds trailed over To-ko-na-bi, and Snake people from the +underworld came from them and went into the kivas and ate corn pollen +for food, and on leaving were not seen again. Each of four evenings +brought a new group of Snake people, and on the following morning they +were found in the valleys metamorphosed into reptiles of all kinds. On +the ninth morning the Snake Maidens said: 'We understand this. Let the +Younger Brothers (The Snake Society) go out and bring them all in and +_wash their heads_, and let them dance with you.'"[29] + +[Footnote 29: Fewkes, J.W., The Snake Ceremonials at Walpi: Jour. Am. +Ethnology and Archaeology, Vol. IV, 1894, p. 116.] + +Thus we see in the ceremony an acknowledgment of the kinship of the +snakes with the Hopi, both having descended from a common ancestress. +And since the snakes are to take part in a religious ceremony, of course +they must have their heads washed or baptized in preparation, exactly as +must every Hopi who takes part in any ceremony. The meal sprinkled on +the snakes during the dance and at its close is symbolic of the Hopi's +prayers to the underworld spirits of seed germination; and thus the +Elder Brothers bear away the prayers of the people and become their +messengers to the gods, to whom the Elder Brothers are naturally closer, +being in the ground, than are the Younger Brothers, who live above +ground. + +Rather a delicately right idea, isn't it, this inviting of the Elder +Brothers, however lowly, to this great religious ceremonial which +commemorates the gift of rain-making, as bestowed by their common +ancestress, and perpetuates the old ritual so long ago taught by the +Snake Chief of the underworld to Tiyo, the Hopi youth who bravely set +out to see where all the blessed rain water _went_, and came back with +the still more blessed secrets of whence and how to make it _come_. + +Nine days before the public Snake Ceremony, the priests of the Antelope +and Snake fraternities enter their respective kivas and hang over their +hatchways the Natsi, a bunch of feathers, which, on the fifth day is +replaced by a bow decorated with eagle feathers. This first day is +occupied with the making of prayer-sticks and in the preparation of +ceremonial paraphernalia. On the next four days, ceremonial snake hunts +are conducted by the Snake men. Each day in a different quarter of the +world, first north, next day west, then south, then east. + +It is an impressive sight, this line of Snake priests, bodies painted, +pouches, snake whips, and digging sticks in hand, marching single file +from their kiva, through the village and down the steep trail that leads +from the mesa to the lowlands. + +When a snake is found under a bush or in his hole, the digging stick +soon brings him within reach of the fearless hand; then sprinkling a +pinch of corn meal on his snakeship and uttering a charm and prayer, the +priest siezes the snake easily a few inches back of the head and +deposits him in the pouch. Should the snake coil to strike, the snake +whip (two eagle feathers secured to a short stick) is gently used to +induce him to straighten out. + +At sunset they return in the same grim formation, bearing the snake +pouches to the kiva, where four jars (not at all different from their +water jars) stand ready to receive the snakes and hold them till the +final or ninth day of the ceremony. + +On the next three mornings, just before dawn, in the Antelope Kiva, is +held the symbolic marriage of Tiyo and the Snake Maiden, followed by the +singing of sixteen traditional songs. + +Just before sunset of the eighth day, the Antelope and Snake priests +give a public pageant in the plaza, known as the Antelope or Corn Dance. +It is a replica of the Snake Dance, but shorter and simpler, and here +corn is carried instead of snakes. + +On the morning of the ninth and last day occurs the Sunrise Corn Race, +when the young men of the village race from a distant spring to the mesa +top. The whole village turns out to watch from the rim of the mesa, and +great merriment attends the arrival of the racers, the winner receiving +some ceremonial object, which, placed in his corn field, should work as +a charm and insure a bumper crop. + +In 1912, Dr. Byron Cummings witnessed a more interesting sunrise race +than the writer has ever seen or heard described by any other observer. + +An aged priest stood on the edge of the mesa, before the assembled crowd +of natives and visitors, and gave a long reverberating call, apparently +the signal for which the racers were waiting, for away across the plain +below and to the right was heard an answering call, and from the left +and far away, another answer. Eagerly the crowd watched to catch the +first glimpse of the approaching racers, for there was no one in sight +for some time, from the direction of either of the answering calls. + +Finally mere specks in the distance to the right resolved themselves +into a line of six men running toward the mesa. As they came within +hailing distance they were greeted by the acclamations of the watchers. + +These runners were Snake priests, all elderly men, and as each in turn +reached the position of the aged priest at the mesa edge, he received +from that dignitary a sprinkling of sacred meal and a formal +benediction, then passed on to the Snake Kiva. + +Before the last of these had appeared, began the arrival of the young +athletes from across the plain to the left. Swiftly them came, and +gracefully, their lithe brown bodies glistening in the early sunlight, +across the level lowland, then up the steep trail, to be met at the mesa +edge by a picturesque individual carrying a cow bell and wearing a +beautiful garland of fresh yellow squash blossoms over his smooth +flowing, black hair, and a girdle of the same lovely flowers round his +waist, with a perfect blossom over each ear completing his unique +decoration. + +As the athletes, one at a time, joined him they fell into a procession +and, led by the flower bedecked individual, they moved gracefully in a +circle to the rhythmic time of a festive chant and the accompaniment of +the cow bell. When the last racer had arrived, they were led in a sort +of serpentine parade toward the plaza. But before they reached that +point they encountered a waiting group of laughing women and girls in +bright-colored shawls, whose rollicking role seemed to be that of +snatching away from the young men the stalks of green corn, squash, and +gourds they had brought up from the fields below. The scene ended in a +merry skirmish as the crowd dispersed. + +Later, Dr. Cummings unobtrusively followed the tracks of the priests +back along their sunrise trail and out across the desert for more than +two miles, to find there a simple altar and nine fresh prayer-sticks. + +About noon occurs the snake washing in the kiva. This is not for the +public gaze. If one knows no better than to try to pry into kiva +ceremonies, he is courteously but firmly told to move along. + +A few white men have been permitted to see this ceremony, among them, +Dr. Fewkes; an extract from his description of a snake washing at Walpi +follows:[30] + +[Footnote 30: Fewkes, J.W., Op. cit.] + +"The Snake priests, who stood by the snake jars which were in the east +corner of the room, began to take out the reptiles and stood holding +several of them in their hands behind Supela (the Snake Priest), so that +my attention was distracted by them. Supela then prayed, and after a +short interval, two rattlesnakes were handed him, after which venomous +snakes were passed to the others, and each of the six priests who sat +around the bowl held two rattlesnakes by the necks with their heads +elevated above the bowl. A low noise from the rattles of the priests, +which shortly after was accompanied by a melodious hum by all present, +then began. The priests who held the snakes beat time up and down above +the liquid with the reptiles, which, although not vicious, wound their +bodies around the arms of the holders. + +"The song went on and frequently changed, growing louder, and wilder, +until it burst forth into a fierce, blood-curdling yell, or war cry. At +this moment the heads of the snakes were thrust several times into the +liquid, so that even parts of their bodies were submerged, and were then +drawn out, not having left the hands of the priests, and forcibly thrown +across the room upon the sand mosaic, knocking down the crooks and other +objects placed about it. As they fell on the sand picture, three Snake +priests stood in readiness, and while the reptiles squirmed about or +coiled for defense, these men with their snake whips brushed them back +and forth in the sand of the altar. The excitement which accompanied +this ceremony cannot be adequately described. The low song, breaking +into piercing shrieks, the red-stained singers, the snakes thrown by the +chiefs and the fierce attitudes of the reptiles as they lashed on, the +sand mosaic, made it next to impossible to sit calmly down and quietly +note the events which followed one another in quick succession. The +sight haunted me for weeks afterward, and I can never forget this +wildest of all the aboriginal rites of this strange people, which showed +no element of our present civilization. It was a performance which might +have been expected in the heart of Africa rather than in the American +Union, and certainly one could not realize that he was in the United +States at the end of the nineteenth century. The low, weird song +continued while other rattlesnakes were taken in the hands of the +priests, and as the song rose again to the wild war cry, these snakes +were also plunged into the liquid and thrown upon the writhing mass +which now occupied the place of the altar. Again and again this was +repeated until all the snakes had been treated in the same way, and +reptiles, fetishes, crooks, and sand were mixed together in one confused +mass. As the excitement subsided and the snakes crawled to the corners +of the kiva, seeking vainly for protection, they were pushed back in the +mass, and brushed together in the sand in order that their bodies might +be thoroughly dried. Every snake in the collection was thus washed, the +harmless varieties being bathed after the venomous. In the destruction +of the altar by the reptiles, the snake ti-po-ni (insignia) stood +upright until all had been washed, and then one of the priests turned it +on its side, as a sign that the observance had ended. The low, weird +song of the snake men continued, and gradually died away until there was +no sound but the warning rattle of the snakes, mingled with that of the +rattles in the hands of the chiefs, and finally the motion of the snake +whips ceased, and all was silent." + +Several hours later these snakes are used in the public Snake Dance, and +until that time they are herded on the floor of the kiva by a delegated +pair of snake priests assisted by several boys of the Snake Clan, +novices, whose fearless handling of the snakes is remarkable. + +Already (on the eighth day) in the plaza has been erected the Kisa, a +tall conical tepee arrangement of green cottonwood boughs, just large +enough to conceal the man who during the dance will hand out the snakes +to the dancers. Close in front of the Kisa is a small hole made in the +ground, covered by a board. This hole symbolizes the sipapu or entrance +to the underworld. + +[Illustration: Figure 9.--Antelope Priest with Tiponi. + +--Courtesy Arizona State Museum.] + +At last comes the event for which the thronged village has been waiting +for hours, and for which some of the white visitors have crossed the +continent. Just before sundown the Antelope priests file out of their +kiva in ceremonial array--colorfully embroidered white kilts and sashes, +bodies painted a bluish color with white markings in zigzag lines +suggestive of both snakes and lightning, chins painted black with white +lines through the mouth from ear to ear, white breath feathers tied in +the top of their hair, and arm and ankle ornaments of beads, shells, +silver, and turquoise. (See Figure 9.) Led by their chief, bearing the +insignia of the Antelope fraternity and the whizzer, followed by the +asperger, with his medicine bowl and aspergill and wearing a chaplet of +green cottonwood leaves on his long, glossy, black hair, they circle the +plaza four times, each time stamping heavily on the sipapu board with +the right foot, as a signal to the spirits of the underworld that they +are about to begin the ceremony. Now they line up in front of the Kisa, +their backs toward it, and await the coming of the Snake priests, for +these Antelope priests, with song and rattle, are to furnish the music +for the Snake Dance. + +There is an expectant hush and then come the Snake priests, up from +their kiva in grim procession, marching rapidly and with warlike +determination. You would know them to be the Snake priests rather than +the Antelope fraternity by the vibration of their mighty tread alone, +even if you did not see them. Their bodies are fully painted, a reddish +brown decorated with zigzag lightning symbols and other markings in +white. The short kilt is the same red-brown color, as are their +mocassins, the former strikingly designed with the snake zigzag and +bordered above and below this with conventionalized rainbow bands. + +Soft breath feathers, stained red, are worn in a tuft on the top of the +head, and handsome tail feathers of the hawk or eagle extend down and +back over the flowing hair. A beautiful fox skin hangs from the waist in +the back. Their faces are painted black across the whole mid section and +the chins are covered with white kaolin--a really startling effect. +Necks, arms, and ankles are loaded with native jewelry and charms, +sometimes including strings of animal teeth, claws, hoofs, and even +small turtle shells for leg ornaments, from all of which comes a great +rattling as the priests enter the plaza with their energetic strides. + +Always a hushed gasp of admiration greets their entrance,--an admiration +mixed with a shudder of awe. Again the standard bearer, with his whizzer +or thunder-maker, leads, followed by the asperger, and we hear the sound +of thunder, as the whizzer (sometimes called the bull-roarer) is whirled +rapidly over the priest's head. The chapleted asperger sprinkles his +charm liquid in the four directions, first north, then west, south, and +east. + +They circle the plaza four times, each stamping mightily upon the cover +of the sipapu as they pass the Kisa. Surely, the spirits of the +underworld are thus made aware of the presence of the Snake Brotherhood +engaged in the traditional ritual. Incidentally, this Snake Dance is +carried on in the underworld on a known date in December, and at that +time the Hopi Snake men set up their altar and let the spirits know that +they are aware of their ceremony and in sympathy with them. + +[Illustration: Figure 10.--Snake Priests in Front of Kisa. + +--Courtesy Arizona State Museum.] + +Now the procession lines up facing the Antelope priests in front of the +Kisa, (See Figure 10), and the rattles of both lines of priests begin a +low whirr not unlike the rattle of snakes. All is perfectly rhythmic and +the Snake priests, with locked fingers, sway back and forth to the +music, bodies as well as feet keeping time, while the Antelopes mark +time with a rhythmic shuffle. At last they break into a low chant, which +increases in volume, and rising and falling goes on interminably. + +At last there is a pause and the Snake priests form into groups of +three, a carrier, an attendant, and a gatherer. + +Each group waits its turn before the Kisa. The carrier kneels and +receives a snake from the passer, who (with the snake bag) sits +concealed within the Kisa. As he rises, the carrier places his snake +between his lips or teeth, usually holding it well toward the neck, but +often enough near the middle, so that its head may sometimes move across +the man's face or eyes and hair, a really harrowing sight. The +attendant, sometimes called the hugger, places his left arm across the +shoulder of the first dancer and walks beside and a step behind him, +using his feather wand or snake whip to distract the attention of the +snake. (See Figure 11.) Just behind this pair walks their gatherer, who +is alertly ready to pick up the dropped snake, when it has been carried +four times around the dance circle; sometimes it is dropped sooner. + +The dance step of this first pair is a rhythmic energetic movement, +almost a stamping, with the carrier dancing with closed eyes. The +gatherer merely walks behind, and is an alertly busy man. The writer has +seen as many as five snakes on the ground at once, some of them coiling +and rattling, others darting into the surrounding crowd with lightning +rapidity, but never has she seen one escape the gatherer, and just once +has she seen a snake come near to making its escape. This was during the +ceremony at Hotavilla last summer (1932); the spectators had crowded +rather close to the circle, and several front rows sat on the ground, in +order that the dozens of rows back of them might see over their heads. +As for the writer, she sat on a neighboring housetop, well out of the +way of rattlers, red racers, rabbit snakes, and even the harmless but +fearsome-looking bull snake from 3 to 5 feet long. Often the snake +starts swiftly for the side lines, but always without seeming haste the +gatherer gets it just as the startled spectators begin a hasty retreat. +If the snakes coils, meal is sprinkled on it and the feather wand +induces it to straighten, when it is picked up. But this time the big +snake really got into the crowd, second or third row, through space +hurriedly opened for him by the frightened and more or less squealing +white visitors. The priest was unable to follow it quickly without +stepping on people, who had repeatedly been warned not to sit too close. + +[Illustration: Figure 11.--Snake Priests with Snake. + +--Photo by Bortell] + +Very quietly and without rising, a man in the third row picked up the +snake and handed it to the gatherer. The writer shuddered but did not +realize that the impromptu gatherer was her son, so bronzed by a +summer's archaeology field trip that she did not recognize him. +Afterward he merely said, "It was a harmless bull snake, and the priest +couldn't reach it; it's a shame for visitors to crowd up and get in the +way unless they are prepared to sit perfectly still, whatever happens." +Really one feels ashamed of the squealing and frightened laughter of +careless white visitors who stand or sit nearer than they should and +then make an unseemly disturbance when a snake gets too close. The +priests resent such conduct, but always go right on without paying any +attention to it. The rattles and singing voices of the Antelope priests +furnish a dignified, rhythmic accompaniment throughout the dance, and +the Snake men move in perfect time to it. + +When all the snakes have been carried and the last one has been dropped +from the mouth of the carrier, the chant ceases. A priest draws a great +round cloud symbol on the ground. Quickly the Hopi maids and women, (a +small selected group), who stand ready with baskets of meal, sprinkle +the ground within the circle. At a signal all the snakes, now in the +hands of the gatherers and the Antelope priests, are thrown upon this +emblem. The women hastily drop sacred meal on the mass of snakes, then a +second signal and the Snake priests grab up the whole writhing mass in +their hands and run in the four directions off the steep mesa, to +deposit their Elder Brothers again in the lowlands with the symbolic +sacred meal on their backs, that they may bear away to the underground +the prayers of their Younger Brothers, the Snake Clan. The Antelope +priests now circle the plaza four times, stamping on the sipapu in +passing, and then return to their own kiva, and the dance is over. The +Snake priests presently return to the village, still running, disrobe in +their kiva and promptly go to the nearest edge of the mesa, where the +women of their clan wait with huge bowls of emetic (promptly effective) +and tubs of water for bathing. This is the purification ceremony which +ends the ritual. Immediately the women of their families bring great +bowls and trays of food and place them on top of the Snake Kiva, and the +men, who have fasted all day and sometimes longer, enjoy a feast. + +A spirit of relief and happiness now pervades the village and everybody +keeps open house. + +Far more often than otherwise, rain, either a sprinkle or a downpour, +has come during or just at the close of the dance, and the people are +thankful and hopeful, for this is often the first rain of the season. +The writer has herself stood soaked to the skin by a thunder shower that +had been slowly gathering through the sultry afternoon and broke with +dramatic effect during the ceremony. The Snake priests were noticeably +affected by the incident and danced with actual fanatic frenzy. + +Those who habitually attend this ceremony from Flagstaff and Winslow and +other points within motoring distance (if there is any motoring distance +these days) have long ago learned that they would better start for home +immediately following the dance, not waiting for morning, else the dry +washes may be running bank high by that time and prevent their getting +away. + +The writer has counted more than a hundred marooned cars lined up at Old +Oraibi or Moencopi Wash, waiting, perhaps another twenty-four hours, for +the ordinarily dry wash to become fordable. One will at least be +impressed with the idea that the Snake Dance (a movable date set by the +priests from the observation of shadows on their sacred rocks) comes +just at the breaking of the summer drouth. + +The writer has seen in the Snake Dance as many as nine groups of three, +all circling the plaza at once. But in recent years the number is +smaller, in some villages not more than four, for the old priests are +dying off and not every young man who inherits the priesthood upon the +death of his maternal uncle (priest) is willing to go on, though there +are some novices almost every year. This year (1932) the eleven year old +brother of a Hopi girl in the writer's employ went into his first snake +dance, as a gatherer, and his sister (a school girl since six) was as +solicitous as the writer whenever it was a rattler that Henry had to +gather up. But we both felt that we must keep perfectly still, so our +expressions of anxiety were confined to very low whispers. Henry was not +bitten and if he had been he would not have died. It is claimed and +generally believed that no priest has ever died from snake bite, and +indeed they are seldom bitten. During the past twenty years the writer +has twice seen a priest bitten by a rattler, once a very old priest and +once a boy of fourteen. No attention was paid, and apparently nothing +came of it. + +Dr. Fewkes, Dr. Hough, and other authorities, in works already referred +to, assert that the fangs of the snakes are not removed, nor are the +snakes doped, nor "treated" in any way that could possibly render their +poison harmless. Nor is it believed that the Hopi have any antidote for +snake bite in their emetic or otherwise. + +Does their belief make them fearless and likewise immune? Or are they +wise in their handling of the snakes, so that danger is reduced to the +vanishing point? No one knows. + +The writer has made no attempt to go into the very numerous minute +details of this ceremony, such as the mixing of the liquid for snake +washing, the making of the elaborate sand painting for the Snake altar, +or descriptions of various kinds of prayer-sticks and their specific +uses. Authorities differ greatly on these points and each village uses +somewhat different paraphernalia and methods of procedure. These details +occupy hours and even days and are accompanied by much prayer and +ceremonial smoking, and the sincerity and solemnity of it all are most +impressive to any fair-minded observer. + +The Hopi year is full of major and minor ceremonies, many of them as +deeply religious as those already described at some length; others of a +secular or social order, but even these are tinged with the religious +idea and invariably based on tradition. + +If many elements of traditional significance have been forgotten, as +they undoubtedly have in some instances, nevertheless the thing is kept +going according to traditional procedure, and the majority of the +participants believe it best to keep up these time-honored rituals. +Their migration tales, partly mythical, partly historical, relate many +unhappy instances of famine, pestilence, and civil strife, which have +been brought upon various clans because of their having neglected their +old dances and ceremonies, and of relief and restored prosperity having +followed their resumption. Once, bad behavior brought on a flood. + +Here is the story, and it will explain at least partially, the +ceremonial use of turkey feathers. + + +=A Flood and Turkey Feathers= + +Turkey feathers are much prized for ceremonial uses today. If you want +to carry a little present to a Hopi friend, particularly an old man, or +an old woman, save up a collection of especially nice looking turkey +feathers. They will be put to ceremonial uses and bring blessings to +their owners. + +Here is at least one of the legends back of the idea, as collected by +Stephen and reported by Mindeleff.[31] The chief of the water people +speaks: + +"In the long ago, the Snake, Horn, and Eagle people lived here (in +Tusayan), but their corn grew only a span high, and when they sang for +rain the cloud sent only a thin mist. My people then lived in the +distant Palatkiwabi in the South. There was a very bad old man there, +who, when he met anyone, would spit in his face, blow his nose upon him, +and rub ordure upon him. He ravished the girls and did all manner of +evil. (Note: Other variants of the legend say the young men were +mischievously unkind and cruel to the old men, rather than that an old +man was bad. H.G.L.) Baholikonga (big water serpent deity) got angry at +this and turned the world upside down, and water spouted up through the +kivas and through the fireplaces in the houses. The earth was rent in +great chasms, and water covered everything except one narrow ridge of +mud; and across this the serpent deity told all the people to travel. As +they journeyed across, the feet of the bad slipped and they fell into +the dark water, but the good, after many days, reached dry land. While +the water, rising around the village, came higher, the old people got on +the tops of the houses, for they thought they could not struggle across +with the younger people. But Baholikonga clothed them with the skins of +turkeys, and they spread out their wings and floated in the air just +above the surface of the water, and in this way they got across. There +were saved of our people, Water, Corn, Lizard, Horned Toad, Sand, two +families of Rabbit, and Tobacco. The turkeys' tails dragged in the +water--hence the white on the turkey tail now. Wearing these turkey +skins is the reason why old people have dewlaps under the chin like a +turkey; it is also the reason why old people use turkey feathers at the +religious ceremonies." + +[Footnote 31: Mindeleff, Victor, Op. cit. (Myths by Cosmos Mindeleff +after Stephen), p. 31.] + +Hough[32] says that in accord with the belief that the markings on the +tail feathers were caused by the foam and slime of an ancient deluge, +the feathers are prescribed for all pahos, since through their mythical +association with water they have great power in bringing rain. + +[Footnote 32: Hough, Walter, Op. cit, p. 172.] + + + + +X. CEREMONIES FOR BIRTH, MARRIAGE, BURIAL + + * * * * * + +The story of the Hopi, who does every important thing in his life +according to a traditional pattern and accompanied by appropriate +religious ceremony, would not be complete without some account of birth, +marriage, and burial. Not having seen these ceremonies, the writer +offers the record of authoritative observers. + + +=Birth= + +Babies are welcomed and well cared for in Hopiland, and now that the +young mothers are learning to discard unripe corn, fruit, and melons as +baby food, the infant mortality, once very high, is decreasing. + +Natal ceremonies are considered important. Goddard[33] gives us a brief +picture of the usual proceedings: "The Hopi baby is first washed and +dressed by its paternal grandmother or by one of her sisters. On the day +of its birth she makes four marks with corn meal on the four walls of +the room. She erases one of these on the fifth, tenth, fifteenth, and +twentieth day of the child's life. On each of these days the baby and +its mother have their heads washed with yucca suds. On the twentieth +day, which marks the end of the lying-in period, the grandmother comes +early, bathes the baby and puts some corn meal to its lips. She utters a +prayer in which she requests that the child shall reach old age and in +this prayer gives it a name. A few of the women members of the father's +clan come in one at a time, bathe the baby and give it additional names. +After the names have been given, the paternal grandmother goes with the +mother and the child to the eastern edge of the mesa, starting so as to +arrive about sunrise. Two ears of white corn which have been lying near +the child during the twenty days, are carried with them. The grandmother +touches these ears of corn to the baby's breast and waves them to the +east. She also strews corn meal toward the sun, placing a little on the +child's mouth. As she does this, she prays, uttering in the course of +her prayer the various names which have been given to the child. The +mother goes through a similar ceremony and utters a similar prayer. + +"The names given relate in some way to the clan of the one who bestows +them. Of the various names given to the child, one, because it strikes +the fancy of the family, generally sticks ... until the individual is +initiated into some ceremony. At that time a new name is given." + +For instance, a Hopi man of middle age, known to the writer as George +(school name), tells her that his adopted father belonged to the Tobacco +Clan, so the name selected for him by the paternal aunts was +"Sackongsie" or "green tobacco plant with the blossoms on." Bessie, born +in the same family, was named "Sackhongeva" or "green tobacco plant +standing straight." The nine month's baby daughter of a Hopi girl once +in the employ of the writer is merrily called "Topsy," although formally +named Christine in honor of the school superintendent's wife. Her mother +explains that the father's clan is Tobacco, and the aunts named this +baby "Topt-si," "the red blossom on top of the tobacco plant," which +sounds so exactly like Topsy that the family sense of humor has +permitted the nickname. One of the writer's Hopi girls was named "two +straight, tall rows of corn," another, "Falling Snow." These pretty +names, too long for convenience, are nevertheless cherished, as a matter +of sentiment, by their owners. + +[Footnote 33: Goddard, P.E., Indians of the Southwest: N.Y. Amer. Mus. +Nat. Hist., Handbook Series No. 2, 1921.] + + +=Marriage= + +The following is Hough's[34] description of the wedding ceremony at +Oraibi: "When the young people decide to be married, the girl informs +her mother, who takes her daughter, bearing a tray of meal made from +white corn, to the house of the bridegroom where she is received by his +mother with thanks. During the day the girl must labor at the mealing +stones, grinding the white meal, silent and unnoticed; the next day she +must continue her task.... On the third day of this laborious trial she +grinds the dark blue corn which the Hopi call black, no doubt, glad when +the evening brings a group of friends, laden with trays of meal of +their own grinding as presents, and according to the custom, these +presents are returned in kind, the trays being sent back next day heavy +with choice ears of corn. + +"After this three days' probation ... comes the wedding. Upon that day +the mother cuts the bride's front hair at the level of her chin and +dresses the longer locks in two coils, which she must always wear in +token that she is no longer a maiden. At the dawn of the fourth day, the +relatives of both families assemble, each one bringing a small quantity +of water in a vessel. The two mothers pound up roots of the yucca, used +as soap, and prepare two bowls of foaming suds. The young man kneels +before the bowl prepared by his future mother-in-law, and the bride +before the bowl of the young man's mother, and their heads are +thoroughly washed and the relatives take part by pouring handsful of +suds over the bowed heads of the couple. While this ceremonial ... goes +on ... a great deal of jollity ensues. When the head-washing is over, +the visitors rinse the hair of the couple with the water they have +brought, and return home. Then the bridal couple take each a pinch of +corn meal and leaving the house go silently to the eastern side of the +mesa on which the pueblo of Oraibi stands. Holding the meal to their +lips, they cast the meal toward the dawn, breathing a prayer for a long +and prosperous life, and return to the house, husband and wife. + +"The ceremony over, the mother of the bride (Note: All other authorities +say groom, H.G.L.) builds a fire under the baking stone, while the +daughter prepares the batter and begins to bake a large quantity of +paper bread.... The wedding breakfast follows closely on the heels of +the wedding ceremony and the father of the young man must run through +the pueblo with a bag of cotton, handsful of which he gives to the +relatives and friends, who pick out the seeds and return the cotton to +him. This cotton is for the wedding blankets and sash which are to be +the trousseau of the bride.... + +"A few days later the crier announces the time for the spinning of the +cotton for the bride's blanket. This takes place in the kivas, where +usually all the weaving is done by the men, and with jollity and many a +story the task is soon finished. The spun cotton is handed over to the +bridegroom as a contribution from the village, to be paid for like +everything else Hopi, by a sumptuous feast, which has been prepared by +the women for the spinners. Perhaps ten sage-brush-fed sheep and goats, +tough beyond reason, are being softened in a stew, consisting mainly of +corn; stacks of paper bread have been baked, various other dishes have +been concocted, and all is ready when the crier calls in the hungry +multitude.... + +"With the spun cotton, serious work begins for the bridegroom and his +male relatives, lasting several weeks. A large white blanket ... and a +smaller one must be woven and a reed mat in which the blankets are to be +rolled. A white sash with long fringe and a pair of mocassins, each +having half a deerskin for leggings, like those worn by the women of the +Rio Grande pueblos, complete the costume. The blankets must have +elaborate tassels at the four corners. (Note: Representing rain falling +from the white cloud blanket. H.G.L.) + +"Shortly before sunrise, the bride, arrayed in her finery, performs the +last act in the drama, called 'going home.' Up to this time the bride +has remained in the house of her husband's people. Wearing the large +white blanket, picturesquely disposed over her head, and carrying the +small blanket wrapped in the reed mat in her hands, she walks to her +mother's house ... and the long ceremony is over ... for in this land of +women's rights the husband must live with his wife's relatives." + +[Footnote 34: Hough, Walter, Op. cit, p. 123.] + +The bride may not appear at a public ceremonial dance until the +following July, at the Kachina Farewell ceremony, when all the brides of +the year turn out in their lovely wedding blankets and white leggings, +the only time this blanket is ever worn after the wedding (during life), +save one the naming ceremony of her first child. + +It becomes her winding sheet when at death she wears it in her grave, +then after four days, she takes it from her shoulders and uses it as a +magic carpet when, having reached the edge of the Grand Canyon, she +steps out upon her ceremonial blanket, and like a white cloud it +descends with her to Maski, the underworld paradise of the Hopi. + +Are the Hopi married in this way today? Most certainly. Figure 12 shows +a Hopi girl who worked for the writer for three summers. She is a fine, +intelligent girl, having gone more than halfway through high school +before she returned to her home on Second Mesa to live. This is her +wedding picture taken last year at the moment of her "going home," after +just such a wedding ceremonial as described above. + +[Illustration: Figure 12.--A Hopi Bride. + +--Photo by Colton.] + +A letter from friends of the writer states that her baby is just now +going through his natal ceremonies in the good old Hopi way. If the +Snake Dance is continued till he grows up--it makes one shudder to think +of it--he is in line to be a Snake priest! + + +=Burial= + +Here we have the account of Goddard:[35] "When an adult dies, the +nearest relatives by blood wash the head, tie a feather offering to the +hair so that it will hang over the forehead, wrap the body in a good +robe and carry it to one of the graveyards which are in the valleys near +the mesas. The body is buried in a sitting position so that it faces +east. This is done within a few hours after death has occurred. The +third night, a bowl containing some food, a prayer-stick offering, and a +feather and string, are carried to the grave. The string is placed so +that it points from the grave to the west. The next morning, the fourth, +the soul is supposed to rise from the grave and proceed in the direction +indicated by the string, where it enters the 'skeleton house.' This is +believed to be situated somewhere near the Canyon of the Colorado." + +[Footnote 35: Goddard, P.E., Op. cit.] + +Any bodies of young children who have not yet been initiated into any +fraternity are not buried in the ground, but in a crevice of rock +somewhere near the mother's home and covered with stones. A string is +left hanging out, pointing to the home of the family. The spirit of the +child is believed to return and to be re-born in the next child born in +the family, or to linger about till the mother dies and then to go with +her to the underworld. + +If the adult spirit has led a good life, it goes to the abode where the +ancestral spirits feast and hold ceremonies as on earth, but if evil it +must be tried by fire and, if too bad for purification, it is +destroyed. + + + + +XI. STORIES TOLD TODAY + + * * * * * + +Fewkes, Stephen, Mindeleff, Voth, and others have collected the more +important tales of migrations and the major myths underlying both +religion and social organization among the Hopi. One gets substantially +the same versions today from the oldest story-tellers. These are the +stories that never grow old; in the kiva and at the fireside they live +on, for these are the vital things on which Hopi life is built. + +However, there is a lighter side, of which we have heard less, to this +unwritten literature of the Hopi people. These are the stories for +entertainment, so dear to the hearts of young and old alike. Even these +stories are old, some of them handed down for generations. And they +range from the historical tale, the love story, and the tale of +adventure to the bugaboo story and the fable. Space permits only a few +stories here. + +No writing of these can equal the art of the Hopi story-teller, for the +story is told with animation and with the zest that may inspire the +narrator who looks into the faces of eager listeners. + +The Hopi story-teller more or less dramatizes his story, often breaking +into song or a few dance steps or mimicking his characters in voice and +facial expression. Sometimes the writer has been so intrigued with the +performance she could scarcely wait for her interpreter (See Figure 13) +to let her into the secret. Often the neighbors gathered round to hear +the story, young and old alike, and they are good listeners. All of +these stories save one, that of Don, of Oraibi, were told in the Hopi +language, but having a Hopi friend as an interpreter has preserved, we +think, the native flavor of the stories. + +The first story, as told by Sackongsie, of Bacabi, is a legend +concerning the adventure of the son of the chief of Huckovi, a +prehistoric Hopi village whose ruins are pointed out on Third Mesa. The +writer has since heard other variants of this story. + + +=An Ancient Feud,= as told by Sackongsie + +"This is a story of the people that used to live on Wind Mountain. There +is only a ruin there now, but there used to be a big village called +Huckovi; that means wind on top of the mountain. These people finally +left this country and went far away west. We have heard that they went +to California, and the Mission Indians themselves claim they are from +this place. + +[Illustration: Figure 13.--The Author's Interpreter at Walpi and +Daughter, "Topsy."] + +"These people used to have ladder dances; that is an old kind of a +dance that nobody has now. But we are told that a long time ago these +people brought trees from far away and set them up in round holes made +on purpose in the rock along the very edge of the mesa. + +"Then the Mud heads (masked Kachinas) furnish the music and young men +dressed as leopards and mountain lion Kachinas climb into the tree tops +and swing out over the canyon rim to time of the music. You can see the +round holes in the rock there now. + +"Well--it has always been this way among Hopi--when there is a dance, +everybody goes to see. + +"Now there was a dance at Mishongnovi and the boys from Huckovi went +over to see it. + +"Now the war chief at Huckovi was a great man that everybody looked up +to, and he had only one son. This young man was so religious that he +never went to this kind of just funny dances, but this time he went +along with some friends. Long time ago the chief never goes to these +dances, nor his son who will follow his steps. + +"When they got to Mishongnovi the dance was going on and everybody +laughing and having a good time, for the clown kachinas were going round +pestering the dancing kachinas. These rough clown kachinas took turns +appearing and disappearing, and some coming, others going away, then +coming back. + +"About the middle of the afternoon, came two Kachina racers to run with +the clowns, and soon they began to call out some of the young men from +the audience, known to be the best runners. After a while the son of +Huckovi chief was chosen to run, but he was very bashful and refused to +perform. But the Kachina who had chosen him as a competitor insisted and +finally brought a gift of baked sweet corn and the young man was +embarrassed and thought he had to run or be made fun of, so he came over +and ran with this Kachina and beat him. They ran a long race, and the +Kachina never could catch up with him, but when the boy stopped, the +Kachina ran up and took hold of him and cut off his hair. The name of +this Kachina was Hair Eater, and he was supposed to cut off the hair if +he beat the boy, but he never did beat him. + +"The Hopi, in those days, took great pride in their hair and would not +cut it off for anything in the world. + +"The people who saw what had happened were so sorry that the honorable +son of the chief had been disgraced, that, to show their disapproval, +they all left while the dance was still going on. + +"When the boy got home his father was grieved to see his son coming home +scalped, as he said. The father didn't know what to do. + +"Now the chief had a daughter twelve years old. He told her to practice +running till she can beat her brother. Both the boy and the girl +practiced a long time and at last the girl can run faster and farther +than her brother. + +"Then the father said, 'I think it is good enough.' + +"Soon the chief, he was the war chief, went to visit his friend, the war +chief at Mishongnovi, and asked him to arrange a dance without letting +the village chief know, because he said he wanted to give some kind of +exhibition there. + +"So his friend arranged the dance and four nights of practice followed. +This dance was to be given by the Snow Kachinas. So that night the dance +is going to be, the father and mother of the children baked up much +sweet corn for them to take to this dance at Mishongnovi. + +"Now the chief had discovered that it was the son of the Mishongnovi +village chief (not the war chief there) that had scalped his son. + +"Being fast runners, the children went a round-about way and were still +in time for the three o'clock dance. So they approached the village from +another direction so no one would know where they had come from, and +they put on their costumes and the girl dressed exactly like the son of +the Mishongnovi village chief in his Hair Eater Kachina costume so no +one can tell who she is. + +"Now when the father started his children off, he gave them two +prayer-sticks for protection, and he said when they were pursued they +must conceal these and never let anyone touch them and they will be +protected. + +"Well, when they got there the clowns were dancing with the Kachinas. So +the daughter of the Huckovi chief goes to a house top where she can see +the pretty daughter of the Mishongnovi chief sitting with a bunch of +girls, all in their bright shawls and with their hair in whorls. + +"When these girls see a Hair Eater Kachina coming up on the house top +they run from her, remembering the old trouble when that kind of a +kachina had done such an awful thing. The girls all ran into a room and +on down into a lower room, and the Huckovi girl followed them and caught +the chief's daughter and cut off a whorl of her hair and also cut her +throat. Then she went out on the house top and shook out the whorl for +all the people to see. + +"Of course the dance stopped and everybody started to come after her, +but she and her brother ran from house top to lower house top and jumped +to the ground and ran on west by Toreva and toward home, with all the +men of Mishongnovi chasing them and shooting with bows and arrows. At +last some were coming after them on horses. Then her brother asked her +if she was too tired to run farther, fearing they would be caught. She +replied, 'No more tired than at first!' + +"By now they had come to the Oraibi Wash, and looking back they could +see some men coming on horses. + +"They remembered their two prayer-sticks, so they took them out of where +they had hidden them in their clothes and they planted them at the two +sides of the wash. + +"And immediately a great whirl wind started up from that place and grew +into a great sand storm that blotted out their tracks and made such a +thick cloud that their enemies could no longer see them. Then they +turned straight home. + +"So the children came home with the whorl and scalp attached, and the +father was satisfied. + +"But the Mishongnovi chief was terribly angry and told his people to +make much bows and arrows. + +"Then a friend of the Huckovi chief went over from Mishongnovi and told +all this to the war chief of Huckovi, who told his people to do +likewise, for now there will be war. + +"So after preparations had gone on for a long time, the Mishongnovi +chief went to the Huckovi chief and said, 'We have to divide the land +between us, and Oraibi Wash shall be the line.' (Meaning the mark past +which an enemy was not to be pursued, and each would be safe on his own +side of the line.) + +"Oraibi Wash was already the line for the same purpose between +Mishongnovi and Oraibi Village because of an older trouble. + +"Well, when the enemies came from Mishongnovi to fight them, the Huckovi +people had gathered many rocks and rolled them down from the mesa top, +and killed so many that the Mishongnovi men started for home. But the +Huckovi men came down then and followed them, and fought them every foot +of the way back to Oraibi Wash, where they had to let them go free, and +they went on running all the way home, and the Huckovi people then +returned to their homes satisfied." + + * * * * * + +The next two stories are by Dawavantsie, whose name means "sand dune." +She is a member of the Water Clan, and is the oldest woman now living in +Walpi. She is much loved by the whole village, who claim that she is +over a hundred years old. How old she really is, it would be impossible +to know, for such things were not kept track of so long ago. She speaks +no English. When asked about her age she merely shrugs her small +shrunken shoulders, draws her shawl around them, and with a pleasant +toothless smile, says: "O, I never know that, but I remember a long, +long time." + +She loves to tell stories, and enjoys quite a reputation as a +story-teller among her relatives and neighbors, who like to gather round +and listen as she sits on the floor of her second story home, her back +against the wall, bare feet curled up and quiet hands folded in her lap. +Her face, while deeply wrinkled, is fine and expressive of much +character as well as sweetness of disposition. Figure 14 shows her +posing for her picture just outside her door, on the roof of the next +lower room. Her skin and hair and dress are all clean and neat; her +little back is astonishingly straight, and her bare brown feet, so long +used to the ladders of Hopiland, are surer than mine, if slower. + +She has lived all her life, as did her mother and grandmother before +her, in this second story room, on whose clean clay floor we sat for the +visiting and story-telling. From its open door she looks out over the +roofs of Walpi and far across the valley in all directions, for hers is +the highest house, and near the end of the mesa. The ancestral home with +its additions is now housing four generations. She has always been a +woman of prominence because of her intelligence and has the marks of +good breeding--one of nature's gentlewomen. + +[Illustration: Figure 14.--Dawavantsie of Walpi.] + +The writer's friends, Dr. and Mrs. Fewkes, had told of her several +years ago, for it was in her house that they had lived for some time in +the early nineties while carrying on research work for the Bureau of +American Ethnology. The writer did not realize that this was the house +and the woman of whom she had heard till half-way through the first +story, when some mention of Dr. Fewkes, by her son-in-law (a man past +middle age) brought out the fact. When informed of the death of both Dr. +and Mrs. Fewkes, her controlled grief was touching. In speaking of our +mutual friend, the writer used the Hopi name given him by the Snake +fraternity of the old woman's village so many years ago--Nahquavi +(medicine bowl), a name always mentioned with both pride and amusement +by Dr. Fewkes. And I found that in this family, none of whom speak +English, exactly these same emotions expressed themselves in the faces +of all the older members of the family, who remembered with a good deal +of affection, it seemed, these friends of nearly forty years ago. + +Over and over, they repeated the name; it stirred memories; they laughed +eagerly, and nodded their heads, and began to talk to me in Hopi, +completely forgetting the interpreter. Then their faces sobered and +sighs and inarticulate sounds were all that broke the silence for fully +ten minutes. Then quietly the little grandmother turned to the +interpreter and asked her to say to me, "He called me his sister." +Silence again, and after a few minutes she went on with her stories. + + +=Memories of a Hopi Centenarian,= as told by Dawavantsie + +"One of the first important things I can remember was when some Spanish +soldiers came here. I don't know how old I was, but I had been married +for several years, I think, for my first child had died. I was then +living in this same old house. These Spaniards came from the direction +of Keam's Canyon, and they passed on toward Oraibi. They did not come up +onto this mesa at all, but just took corn and melons and whatever they +wanted from the fields down below. + +"It was early one morning and I had gone with two other girls, cousins +of mine, down to the spring at the foot of the mesa for water. These +men came toward us, and we ran, but they caught us and started to take +us away. I fought the man who was holding me and got loose and ran up +the mesa trail faster than he could run. + +"I rolled rocks on them when they tried to come up and so they gave it +up. I ran on up to the top of the mesa and gave the alarm and our men +went to rescue the other two girls, but the Spaniards had horses and +they got away with the girls, who have never been heard of to this day. + +"The Hopi had no horses in those days, but there were just a few burros. +So the men followed on foot, but they could never catch them. There was +a skirmish at Oraibi, too, over the stealing of girls. + +"One Walpi man in the fields was unable to keep them from taking his two +girls, so he just had to give them up and he never saw them again. The +poor father had few relations and had to go from house to house asking +for food, for he was so grieved that he could never get along after +that, but just was always worrying about his girls, and he died in less +than a year. + +"After a long time other Spaniards came, and a young man who was down +below the mesa, practicing for a race before sunrise, saw them and ran +back and got enough men to go down and capture them. They kept their +prisoners fastened in a room for a while and then the older men decided +that they would not let them be killed although some wanted to; so they +took them to some houses below the mesa--the place is still called +Spanish Seat--and kept them there. + +"After a few weeks they let them go away. Some Hopi men were bribed to +get some girls to go down off the mesa that day so these Spaniards could +take them away with them. + +"They asked me to go and a girl friend of mine, but we would not go. One +girl did go, for a famine was beginning and this poor girl thought she +was being taken to visit with the Zunis and would be better off there. +Nobody ever got track of her again. + +"Once food was so scarce that I had to go with my mother and sister to +Second Mesa, and we stayed there with our clan relations till food was +scarce, and then we went to Oraibi and stayed with our clan relations +there until summer. We could go back to Walpi then because corn and +melons were growing again; but we left my sister because she had married +there. + +"This was a two-year famine and almost everybody left Walpi and wandered +from village to village, living wherever they could get food. There had +been more rain and better crops in some of the other places. + +"Ever since then some Walpi people have scattered among other villages, +where they married, and some went as far as the Rio Grande villages, and +some perished on the way. + +"Again after many years, Spaniards came, stealing corn, and this time +they went through the houses and stole whatever they wanted. They took +away ceremonial and sacred things, that was the worst. And when they +left, they went northeast, past where Tom's store is now. + +"No, there were never any Spanish missionaries living in Walpi; those +who tell of priests living here are mistaken--too young to know. I have +heard of those at Oraibi long ago, and at Awatobi; some were killed at +those places. + +"Some of the rafters of this house, not of this room but another part, +were brought from ruins of Awatobi. An uncle of my daughter's husband +here brought some sacred things from Awatobi and revived some of the old +ceremonials that had been dropped on account of our not having the right +things to use for them. Spaniards had already been here and taken some +of those things out of the houses, so some ceremonies could never be +held any more without those things. You see, the Awatobi people had some +such things, too, and so our people wanted to save them. I think some of +our trouble with Awatobi was to get these things. + +"I remember that after the famine, when crops were good again, we had +trouble with Navajos. It was in the summer and a Hopi hoeing his field +was killed by a bunch of thieving Navajos, and that started the trouble. +This man who was killed had a crippled nephew working with him at the +time, and that boy got away and ran back to Walpi with the word, and +everybody was surprised that he could run fast enough to get away. + +"After that they made him a watchman to look out for Navajos. + +"A good while after that two Hopi boys were fired upon by prowling +Navajos who were hiding in the village of Sichomovi. For a number of +years then the Navajos plundered the fields, drove off the stock, and +killed children. Then they stopped coming here for a good while, but +later they began doing all those things again, worse than ever. So then +the Hopi decided to shoot every Navajo they saw in their fields, and +this stopped the trouble. + +"Now the Navajos are good friends, come here often, and bring meat." + + +=The Coyote and the Water Plume Snake,= by Dawavantsie + +"Once upon a time a Coyote and a Water Plume Snake got acquainted. One +day the Coyote invited his friend, the big snake, to come and visit him +at his house. The Snake was pleased to be invited, so he went that very +night. + +"The Coyote was at home waiting, and when his guest arrived, he told him +to come right in. So the Snake started in, first his head, then his long +body, and more and more of him kept coming in, so that the Coyote had to +keep crowding over against the wall to make room. By the time the Snake +was in, tail and all, the Coyote had to go up and stay outside, for his +visitor took up all the room in his house. + +"Now the Coyote could still put his head close to his door and visit +with the Snake, so that they had a very good visit. But that night was +pretty cold, and after while the Coyote was so cold he got cross and +wished the Snake would go home. + +"Well, by and by, the Snake said he must go home now, so he said +goodnight and invited the Coyote to come over to his house the next +night. + +"The Coyote said he would be sure to come over, then he went into his +house and sat by the fire and got warm and made plans how he would get +even with that big Water Plume Snake. + +"Well, next day he went and gathered a lot of cedar bark and some corn +husks and some pine gum, and he made himself a great long tail and put +lots of wool and some of his hair on the outside, so that it was a very +big tail and long, too. + +"So when evening came, he waited for it to get dark, then he started for +the kiva of the big Snake. + +"When he got there his friend was waiting and had a nice fire and +received him with good welcome and told him to come right in and get +warm. + +"Now the Water Plume Snake was sure surprised when the Coyote got in and +kept going round and round, pulling his long tail after him, and being +wise he saw just what was going on, and now he knows the Coyote is +making fun of him. So he just says nothing and makes room enough for the +Coyote by going outdoors himself. + +"So the Snake just put his head in and was very nice and polite and they +have a good visit. But the Snake got very cold and still the Coyote will +not go home and the Snake is nearly freezing. + +"At last the Coyote says he have to go and the Snake is pretty cold and +pretty mad, too. So he says good night to the Coyote and crawls right +down into his house quick as the Coyote's body is out, and when he sees +all that big tail rolling out he just holds the end of it over the +fireplace and gets it burning. + +"But the Coyote is very pleased with himself and he don't look back but +just goes right along. After a while he notices a fire behind him and +turns around and sees the grass is burning way back there. So he says to +himself, 'Well I better not go into my house for the Hopi have set fire +to the grass to drive me away, and I'll just go on, so they won't find +me at home.' + +"But soon the fire got going fast in that cedar bark and before he can +get that tail untied he is burned so bad that he just keeps running till +he gets to Bayupa (Little Colorado River). There was a great flood going +down the river and he was so weak from running that he could not swim, +so he drowned. And that is what he got for trying to get even with +somebody." + +Quentin Quahongva, who tells the next story, lives at Shungopovi, +Second Mesa. He is a good-natured, easy-going man of middle age, and +usually surrounded by a troop of children, his own and all the +neighbors'. + +[Illustration: Figure 15.--Quahongva, Story-teller of Shungopovi, and +Listeners.] + +We had no more than started our first story when the youngsters began to +appear. They squatted about on the floor and covered the door step, and +were good listeners. Their squeals of glee brought other children +scampering, as the story-teller imitated the song and dance steps of the +Eagle, in one of his stories. But the one we have chosen to record here +is a Bear story. Figure 15 shows Quahongva surrounded by those of the +children who had not been called home to supper when the stories ended. +One small girl in the foreground is carrying her doll on her back by +means of her little shawl, exactly as her mother carries her baby +brother. + +Quahongva was a good story-teller. Some of his tales were long enough to +occupy an evening. His best story took two and a half days for the +telling and recording, so can not be included here. + + +=A Bear Story,= as told by Quahongva + +"Long ago at Shipaulovi there lived a woman with her husband and two +little children, two and four years old. The husband died. For a long +time the woman stayed alone and had to do all the work herself, bring +wood and make the fire and everything. + +"One day she went to a little mesa a good ways off for wood, for there +was dry wood in that place. One of the children wanted to go with her +and cried, but the mother could not take her, she was too little. So she +told her to stay at home and play and watch for her return. + +"The two little ones were playing 'slide down' on a smooth, slanting +rock, and from quite a distance the mother looked back and saw them +still playing there. Then she went around a little hill to find her +wood. + +"She gathered a big bunch and tied it up, making a kind of rack that she +could carry on her back. Now she leaned her load up on a big rock so she +could lift it to her back, and as she turned around just ready to take +up the load, she saw a bear coming. She was terribly frightened and just +stood still, and the bear came closer and made big noise. (Note: A good +imitation was given, and the children listeners first laughed and then +became comically sober. H.G.L.) + +"She said, 'Poor me, where shall I hide! What am I going to do!' + +"She was so frightened she could not think where to go; but now she saw +a crevice under the rock where she was leaning, so she crawled in and +put the rack of wood in front of her. + +"From behind the wood she could still see the bear coming and hear his +great voice. Soon he reached the rock and tore the wood away with his +great paws. Then he reached in and pulled the woman out and ripped her +open with his terrible claws and tore her heart out and ate it up. + +"By this time the sun was nearly down; it was soon dark and the poor +children were still waiting for their mother just where she had left +them, but she never returned. Some one came to them and asked, 'What are +you doing here?' + +"'We are watching for our mother, who went for wood, and we are waiting +for her,' they said. + +"'But why does she not come when it is so late?' they said. Then they +said, 'Let's all go home; something must have happened.' So they took +the children home with them and sent some others to look for the mother. + +"They followed her tracks and found the place, the mother dead, and her +heart gone. So they came back home in the dark night. + +"Next day, they returned to the place and followed the bear tracks to +the woods where his home was, but never found the bear. So they went +home. + +"The poor little children were very lonely and not treated very well by +the neighbors, and both children died, first the younger, and then the +older; and this is a true story." (Note: One could well imagine from the +faces of the young listeners that something like a resolution to stay +pretty close around home was passing unanimously. H.G.L.) + + * * * * * + +Don Talayesva of Upper Oraibi was the only one of my story-tellers who +spoke without the aid of an interpreter. He is a tall, good-looking man +of less than forty, with an expressive face and a pair of merry dark +eyes that hold a prophesy of the rich sense of humor one soon discovers +in both his conversation and his stories. + +This particular tale rather gives away some state secrets as to how Hopi +children are persuaded to be good, and Don chuckled and paused to lower +his voice and see that his own small son was out of hearing, when +explaining certain parts of the story. + + +=The Giant and the Twin War Gods,= as told by Don Talayesva + +"Well, once upon a time more people lived here in Old Oraibi--many +people, many, many children, and the children getting pretty bad. People +tried every way to punish and correct them and at last the head governor +got tired of this business, and so he thought of best way to fix them. +They were all time throwing stones at the old people and pinning rags on +the back of somebody and don't mind their parents very good. + +"Now this head governor is very powerful and very wise. He went out to +where there is many pinon and cedar trees and he gathered much pinon +gum. Next day he called an old lady, a Spider Woman, to come and help +him out. + +"She asked what she can do. He explained about the naughty children and +their disrespect for the old people and their parents. + +"He asked her to make a Giant out of the gum. She greased her hands and +molded a big figure about a foot thick and four feet high with head and +arms and legs. Then she covered it up with a white wedding blanket, and +then she take whisk-broom and she patted with the broom, in time to her +singing, on this doll figure, and it began to live and grow larger. + +"When she finished singing he was enormously wide and tall, and he got +up and uncovered himself and he sat there and said, 'What can I do to +help you?' + +"Then the governor said, 'I hired the old lady to make you and make you +come to life so you can do a job for me. Now you go and make your home +over here near by.' + +"The governor gave him as weapons a hatchet, bow and arrow, a rabbit +stick, and a big basket to carry the children away in, and a big wooden +spear. + +"'Now you go over there,' the governor said, 'and make your home. On the +fourth day you come down and catch the first child you see playing on +trash piles.' + +"So on the fourth day the Giant came over early before sunrise and got +to Oraibi by sunrise and got up here on top of the mesa and saw two +brothers playing on the trash pile. They were facing west and he slipped +up behind and tied them together and put them in his basket and carry +them to his home. + +"At breakfast the families missed the children and traced them to where +the Giant picked them up, but saw no tracks farther. + +"Every morning he comes over looking for some more children and got away +with many before parents know where they went. + +"This kept going on till there were very few children left and the +parents were very sad. Giant leaves no tracks, so nobody knows what to +do. At last parents decide to do something. + +"The second chief decided to go to the two little War Gods, who live +with their grandmother, a Spider Woman, and see if they would help them. + +"So then the second chief cut two round pieces out of strong buckskin, +and made two big balls and stuffed them hard and painted them with a red +face, a mask like Supais. He made a strong bow and many strong arrows +and put them in a--something like an army bag. All this he made for the +Twin War Gods, who are small but powerful and their medicine too. + +"Then he took these presents and started off to the home of these two +little War Gods. + +"At early sunrise he arrived there and peeked down into their house, +which was like a big kiva, and there were the two boys playing shinney. + +"The grandmother received the man kindly and told the rough, unruly boys +to stop their playing and be quiet. But they don't stop their playing, +so she picked up a big stick and hit the boys a good lick across the +legs. Now the boys see the man and his two fine balls and sticks. They +say to each other, 'We like to have those things!' + +"After a good breakfast she asked the man, 'What can we do for you?' + +"'Yes,' he said, 'a Giant at Oraibi has been carrying away more than +half the children from our village.' + +"She said, 'Yes, we know all about this and just waiting for you to come +to ask our help. I have dreamed that you would come today for our help.' + +"Then the man gave his nice presents to the boys and said, 'Tomorrow you +come over to Oraibi and meet the Giant when he comes at sunrise for +children.' + +"The boys said, 'Sure, we kill him!' + +"But the grandmother said, 'Don't brag, just say you do your best!' + +"Next morning both boys forget all about it, but grandmother wake them +up and started them off. + +"They got to Oraibi Mesa and waited for the Giant, but they got to +playing with their balls and sticks and forgot to watch for him. + +"Soon the Giant came slipping up, but the boys saw him and they said, +'Here's that Giant, let's hit the ball hard and hit him in the head and +kill him.' So they did, and knocked him off the mesa. + +"It didn't kill him though, but he got mad, and he said, 'You wait and +see what I do to you!' And he came back and picked them up, one at a +time, and put them in his basket and started off with them. + +"As they were going along, the boys told the Giant they have to get out, +for just a minute please. So the Giant let them get out of the basket, +but he held on to the rope that he has tied around them. + +"So the boys stepped behind a big rock and untied themselves and +fastened the rope to the rock. Then the Giant got mad and pulled the +rope hard and the big rock rolled over on him and hurt his legs. + +"Then that Giant was sure mad, and he catch those boys again and he put +them in his basket and take them right home and make oven very hot for +cooking boys. + +"But the boys had some good medicine with them that their grandmother +gave them, and each took some in his mouth and when the Giant threw the +first boy in the oven, he spit a little of the medicine out into the +oven and cooled it off, so that it was just warm enough for comfort. So +the boys told stories and had fun all night. + +"Next morning the Giant made pudding to go with his meat, and he opened +the oven and there were the boys smiling. + +"Giant was very hungry, so he said, 'You come out and I challenge you to +fight it out and see who is more powerful.' + +"So the Giant threw his rabbit stick at the bigger boy, but the boy +jumped up and the stick caught fire as it passed under him. Then the +Giant threw at smaller boy just high enough to hit his head, but he +ducked down and the stick passed over his head like a streak of fire. +Then he tried bow and arrows, but nothing hurt the boys. + +"Then the Giant said, 'Well I have used all my weapons and failed, so +now you can try to kill me.' + +"So both boys threw their rabbit sticks at the same time. One broke the +Giant's legs, the other cut off his head. Then the boys smelled the pine +gum that he was made of, so they burned him up and he sure did make a +big blaze. + +"They just saved his head, and carried it to the Hopi at Oraibi. They +arrived just when the people were having breakfast, at about ten in the +morning. So they reported to the second chief and presented him with the +Giant's head. + +"The second chief was well pleased and said he was glad and very +thankful, and then he said, 'I don't know what I can give you for a +proper gift, but I have two daughters and, if you want them, you can +take them along.' + +"The boys smiled and whispered, 'They look pretty good, let's take them +for squaws.' So they said they would take them. + +"'All right,' said their father, 'come on the fourth day and get them.' + +"So they went home and told their grandmother, and on the fourth day +they came back and got their wives. + +"The Hopi always kept the head of this Giant to use as a mask in some +dances. + +"Really the most important thing we do with this kind of a mask is for +the men to wear when they go round the village and call out the children +and scare them a little bit and tell them to be good so they don't have +to come back with the basket and carry them off. Sometimes they act like +they were going to take some naughty children with them right now, and +ask the parents if they have any bad ones, and the parents are supposed +to be very worried and hide the children and tell the Giants their +children are good, and always the parents have to give these Giants that +come around some mutton and other things to eat, in order to save their +children; and then the children are very grateful to their parents. + +"You see, the parents always tell the men who are coming around, +beforehand, of a few of the things the children have been doing, so when +they come looking for bad children they mention these special things to +show the children that they know about it. And parents tell children a +Giant may come back for them if they are pretty bad, and come right down +the chimney maybe. + +"My brother is a pretty tall man, and I am the tallest man in Oraibi, so +we are sometimes chosen to act the part of Giants. Then we paint all +black and put on this kind of a mask. It is an enormous black head with +a big beak and big teeth. The time when the Giants go around and talk to +the children is in February. + +"There were a good many of these masks, very old and very funny ones. +But a beam fell, killing many giant masks and leaving only two of the +real old ones. So now we have to use some masks made of black felt; one +of these is a squaw mask. + +"I don't know if we can wait till February, or not, mine is getting +pretty bad already." (Note: This last was said with a big laugh and a +look around to see where his own boy was. And just then the tall little +son, aged eight, let out a yell exactly like any other little boy who +has cut his finger on Daddy's pocket knife. The buxom mother and two +aunts went scrambling down the ladder to see what was the matter. The +father got up, too, but laughed and remarked, "He be all right," and +came back and sat down. H.G.L.) + + * * * * * + +One of the most pleasant memories the writer has kept of her Hopi +story-tellers is that of wholesome Mother Sacknumptewa of Oraibi. She +must be middle-aged, and is surprisingly young-looking to be the mother +of her big family of grown-up sons and daughters. She wore a brand-new +dress of pretty yellow and white print, made in the full Hopi manner, +and her abundant black hair was so clean and well brushed that it was +actually glossy. Her house was spic and span and shining with a new +interior coat of white gypsum. + +Her long Indian name, Guanyanum, means "all the colors of the +butterflies." + +It was late afternoon, and she sat on the clean clay floor of her house +and husked a great pile of young green corn for supper, as she told me +the two little fables that follow. There was a poise and graciousness +about this woman, quite outstanding; yet she was a simple, smiling, +motherly person who often laughed quietly, or broke into a rhythmic +crooning song as she imitated her characters. + +Several of her grown children gathered round and laughed with hearty +approval at her impersonations, and at last her husband came in smiling +and sat near, joining in the songs of the frog and the locust, to the +great merriment of their children. + + +=The Coyote and the Turtle,= as told by Guanyanum Sacknumptewa + +"A long time ago, there were many turtles living in the Little Colorado +River near Homolovi, southeast of Winslow, where Hopi used to live. And +there was a coyote living there too, and of course, he was always +hungry. + +"Now one day the turtles decided they would climb out of the river and +go hunt some food, for there was a kind of cactus around there that they +like very much. But one of the turtles had a baby and she didn't like to +wake it up and take it with her because it was sleeping so nicely. So +they just went along and left the baby asleep. + +"After a while the little turtle woke up and he said, 'Where is my +mother? She must have gone somewhere and left me. O, I must go and find +her!' + +"So the baby turtle saw that the others had crawled up the bank, and he +followed their tracks for a little way. But he soon got tired and just +stopped under a bush and began to cry. (Note: Her imitation of the +crying was good. H.G.L.) + +"Now the coyote was coming along and he heard the poor little turtle +crying. So he came up and said, 'That's a pretty song; now go on and +sing for me.' + +"But the baby turtle said, I'm not singing, I'm crying.' + +"'Go on and sing,' said the coyote, 'I want to hear you sing.' + +"'I can't sing,' said the poor baby, 'I'm crying and I want my mother.' + +"'You'd better sing for me, or I'll eat you up,' said the big hungry +coyote. + +"'O, I can't sing--I just can't stop crying,' said the baby, and he +cried harder and harder. + +"'Well,' the big coyote said, 'if you don't sing for me I'm going to +eat you right up.' The coyote was mad, and he was very hungry. 'All +right, then, I'll just eat you,' he said. + +Now the little turtle thought of something. So he said, 'Well, I can't +sing, so I guess you'll have to eat me. But that's all right, for it +won't hurt me any; here inside of my shell I'll go right on living +inside of you.' + +"Now the coyote thought about this a little bit and didn't like the idea +very well. + +"Then the baby turtle said, 'You can do anything you want with me, just +so you don't throw me into the river, for I don't want to drown.' + +"Now the old coyote was pretty mad and he wanted to be as mean as +possible. So he just picked that baby up in his mouth and carried him +over to the river and threw him in. + +"Then the baby turtle was very happy; he stuck his little head out of +his shell and stretched out his feet and started swimming off toward the +middle of the river. And he said, 'Goodbye, Mr. Coyote, and thank you +very much for bringing me back to my house so that I didn't have to walk +back.' And the little turtle laughed at the old coyote, who got madder +and madder because he had let the little turtle go. But he couldn't get +him now, so he just went home. And the baby turtle was still laughing +when his mother got home, and she laughed too. And those turtles are +still living in that water. (Note: Here is manifest all the subtlety of +"The Tar Baby," though generations older. H.G.L.) + + +=The Frog and the Locust,= as told by Guanyanum Sacknumptewa + +"Qowakina was a place where Paqua, the frog, lived. One day he was +sitting on a little wet ground singing a prayer for rain, for it was +getting very hot and dry and that was Paqua's way of bringing the rain, +so he had a very good song like this. (Note: Here she sang a pretty +little song, very rhythmic, and her body swayed gently in time to the +music. It occurred to the writer that this would make a good bedtime +story and the little song, a lullaby, for it went on and on with +pleasing variation. H.G.L.) + +"Not far away Mahu, the locust, was sitting in a bush, and he was +singing too, for he was getting pretty dusty and the weather was very +hot, and so he, too, was praying for rain. He has a very nice song for +rain, and it goes this way. (Note: Here came a lovely little humming +song whose words could not be interpreted, since they were but syllables +and sounds having no meaning in English. However, these sounds had a +definite order and rhythm. At this point the husband smilingly joined in +the song, and the unison of both sounds and rhythm was perfect. H.G.L.) + +"By and by the locust heard the frog, so he came over and asked him what +he was doing. The frog said he was hot and wanted it to rain; that's why +he was singing. Then the locust said, 'Now isn't that strange, that's +exactly what I do to make it rain, too, and that's the best thing to +do.' So they both sang. + +"Pretty soon they noticed that the clouds had been coming up while they +were singing, and before long it rained, and they both were happy. + +"After this they were always great friends because they had found out +they both had the same idea about something." + + + + +XII. CONCLUSION + + * * * * * + +For some years the writer has been merely a friendly neighbor to these +friendly people, and this past summer she spent some time among her Hopi +friends, studying their present-day life, domestic and ceremonial, and +listening to their stories. The foregoing pages record her observations, +supplemented largely by the recordings of well-known authorities who +have studied these people. + +To her own mind it is clear that the Hopi are living today by their +age-old and amazingly primitive traditions, as shown by their planting, +hunting, house building, textile and ceramic arts, and their ceremonies +for birth, marriage, burial, rain-making, etc. Even their favorite +stories for amusement are traditional. Surely this can not last much +longer in these days when easy transportation is bringing the modern +world to their very door. Only a few years ago they were geographically +isolated and had been so for centuries. Culturally, the Hopi are not a +new, raw people, but old, mature, long a sedentary and peaceful people, +building up during the ages a vast body of traditional literature +embodying law, religion, civic and social order, with definite patterns +for the whole fabric of their life from the cradle to the grave and on +into Maskim, the home of Hopi Souls. It is because they have so long +been left alone, with their own culture so well suited to their nature +and to their environment, that we find them so satisfied to remain as +they are, friendly, even cordial, but conservative. + +The Hopi is glad to use the white man's wagon, cook stove, sugar, and +coffee, but he prefers his own religion, government, social customs--the +great things handed down in his traditions. Their very conservatism is +according to one of their oldest traditions, which is: + + +=Tradition for Walking Beside the White Man But in Footsteps of Fathers= + +In 1885, Wicki, chief of the Antelope Society at Walpi, told Mr. A.M. +Stephen one of the most complete and interesting variants ever collected +of the Snake myth. + +One of its interesting details concerns a prophesy of the manner in +which the Hopitah are to take on the White man's culture. In plain words +the Spider Woman tells Tiyo that a time will come when men with white +skins and a strange tongue shall come among the Hopitah, and the Snake +Brotherhood, having brave hearts, will be first to make friends and +learn good from them. But the Hopitah are not to follow in the white +men's footsteps but to walk _beside them_, always keeping in the +footsteps of their fathers![36] + +That is just what the Hopi are doing today. + +[Footnote 36: Stephen, A.M., Hopi Tales: Jour. Amer. Folklore, vol. 42, +1929, p. 37.] + + + + +ACKNOWLEDGMENTS + + +More than to any one else, I am indebted to Dr. Byron Cummings for +guidance in the preparation of this study; to Prof. John H. Provinse for +material and suggestion; to Dr. H.S. Colton and Mary Russell F. Colton +for the generous use of materials; and to my Hopi friends, Sackongsie of +Bacabi, Don Talayesva of Oraibi, Guanyanum Sacknumptewa of Lower Oraibi, +Quentin Quahongva of Shungopovi, Dawavantsie of Walpi, and Mother Lalo +of Sichomovi, for Hopi stories.--H.G.L. + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Unwritten Literature of the Hopi +by Hattie Greene Lockett + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LITERATURE OF THE HOPI *** + +***** This file should be named 15888.txt or 15888.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/1/5/8/8/15888/ + +Produced by David Starner, Stephanie Maschek and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team. + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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