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diff --git a/15884-h/15884-h.htm b/15884-h/15884-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..c77ea57 --- /dev/null +++ b/15884-h/15884-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,13914 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html> +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> +<head> + <meta charset="UTF-8"> + <title> + Young Folks' Library, Volume XI (of 20) | Project Gutenberg + </title> + <link rel="icon" href="images/cover.jpg" type="image/x-cover"> + <style> /* <![CDATA[ */ + <!-- + body {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + p {text-align: justify;} + blockquote {text-align: justify;} + h1,h2,h3,h4,h5 {text-align: center;} + pre {font-size: 0.7em;} + hr {text-align: center; width: 50%;} + html>body hr {margin-right: 25%; margin-left: 25%; width: 50%;} + hr.full {width: 100%;} + html>body hr.full {margin-right: 0%; margin-left: 0%; width: 100%;} + hr.short {text-align: center; width: 20%;} + html>body hr.short {margin-right: 40%; margin-left: 40%; width: 20%;} + + .center {text-align: center;} + .footnote {font-size: 0.9em; margin-right: 10%; margin-left: 10%;} + .sc {font-variant: small-caps;} + span.pagenum + {position: absolute; left: 1%; right: 91%; font-size: 50%; color: #444; text-indent: 0;} + + .poem + {margin-left:10%; margin-right:10%; margin-bottom: 1em; text-align: left;} + .poem .stanza {margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em;} + .poem p {margin: 0; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} + .poem p.i2 {margin-left: 1em;} + .poem p.i4 {margin-left: 2em;} + .poem p.i8 {margin-left: 4em;} + .poem p.i10 {margin-left: 5em;} + .poem p.i12 {margin-left: 6em;} + .poem p.i16 {margin-left: 8em;} + .poem p.i20 {margin-left: 10em;} + .poem p.i22 {margin-left: 11em;} + .poem p.i24 {margin-left: 12em;} + .poem p.i28 {margin-left: 14em;} + .poem p.i30 {margin-left: 15em;} + .poem p.i32 {margin-left: 16em;} + + .figure, .figcenter, .figright, .figleft + {padding: 1em; margin: 0; text-align: center; font-size: 0.8em;} + .figure img, .figcenter img, .figright img, .figleft img + {border: none;} + .figure p, .figcenter p, .figright p, .figleft p + {margin: 0; padding-left: 2em; text-indent: -2em;} + .figcenter {margin: auto;} + .figright {float: right;} + .figleft {float: left;} + --> +.xbig {font-size: 2em;} +.center {text-align: center;} + + </style> +</head> +<body> +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 15884 ***</div> + +<hr class="full"> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> + <span class="pagenum"><a id="pagei"></a>[pg i]</span> + + <h1>YOUNG FOLKS'<br> + LIBRARY</h1> + + <h4>SELECTIONS FROM THE CHOICEST LITERATURE OF ALL<br> + LANDS; FOLK-LORE, FAIRY TALES, FABLES, LEGENDS,<br> + NATURAL HISTORY, WONDERS OF EARTH, SEA<br> + AND SKY, ANIMAL STORIES, SEA TALES,<br> + BRAVE DEEDS, EXPLORATIONS, STORIES<br> + OF SCHOOL AND COLLEGE LIFE,<br> + BIOGRAPHY, HISTORY, PATRIOTIC<br> + ELOQUENCE, POETRY</h4> + + <p> </p> + + <h3>THIRD EDITION</h3> + + <h5>REVISED IN CONFERENCE BY</h5> + + <h3>THOMAS BAILEY ALDRICH, EDITOR-IN-CHIEF,</h3> + + <h4>PRESIDENT WILLIAM JEWETT TUCKER,<br> + HAMILTON WRIGHT MABIE, HENRY<br> + VAN DYKE, NATHAN HASKELL DOLE</h4> + + <p> </p> + + <p class="center"><i>TWENTY + VOLUMES RICHLY + ILLUSTRATED</i></p> + + <p> </p> + + <h5>BOSTON<br> + HALL AND LOCKE COMPANY<br> + PUBLISHERS</h5> + + <p> </p><span class="pagenum"><a id="pageii"></a>[pg ii]</span> + + <h4>1902</h4> + + <p> </p> + + <h5>Stanhope Press<br> + F. H. GILSON COMPANY<br> + BOSTON, U.S.A.</h5> + + <p> </p><span class="pagenum"><a id="pageiii"></a>[pg iii]</span> + + <h3>EDITORIAL BOARD</h3> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><b>THOMAS BAILEY ALDRICH, Editor-in-chief,</b></p> + + <p>Author, poet, former editor <i>Atlantic Monthly,</i> + Boston, Mass.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><b>The HON. JOHN D. LONG,</b></p> + + <p>Secretary of the United States Navy, Boston.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><b>HAMILTON WRIGHT MABIE, LL.D.,</b></p> + + <p>Author, literarian, associate editor <i>The + Outlook</i>, New York.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><b>ERNEST THOMPSON SETON,</b></p> + + <p>Artist, author, New York.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><b>JOHN TOWNSEND TROWBRIDGE,</b></p> + + <p>Author, poet, and editor, Arlington, Mass.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><b>The REVEREND CYRUS TOWNSEND BRADY,</b></p> + + <p>Archdeacon, author, Philadelphia.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><b>JOEL CHANDLER HARRIS,</b></p> + + <p>Humorous writer, Atlanta, Ga.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><b>MARY HARTWELL CATHERWOOD,</b></p> + + <p>Historical novelist, Chicago.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><b>LAURA E. RICHARDS,</b></p> + + <p>Author, Gardiner, Me.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><b>ROSWELL FIELD,</b></p> + + <p>Author, editor <i>The Evening Post</i>, + Chicago.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><b>TUDOR JENKS,</b></p> + + <p>Author, associate editor <i>Saint Nicholas</i>, New + York.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><b>GEORGE A. HENTY,</b></p> + + <p>Traveller, author, London, England.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><b>KIRK MUNROE,</b></p> + + <p>Writer of stories for boys, Cocoanut Grove, Fla.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><b>EDITH M. THOMAS,</b></p> + + <p>Poet, West New Brighton, N.Y.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><b>CAROLINE TICKNOR,</b></p> + + <p>Author, editor, Boston.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><b>NATHAN HASKELL DOLE,</b></p> + + <p>Author, translator, literary editor <i>Current + History</i>, Boston.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><b>WILLIAM RAINEY HARPER, D.D., LL.D.,</b></p> + + <p>President Chicago University.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><b>DAVID STARR JORDAN, M.D., LL.D.,</b></p> + + <p>President Leland Stanford Junior University, + naturalist, writer,</p> + + <p>Stanford University, Cal.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><b>CHARLES ELIOT NORTON, A.M., LL.D., etc.,</b></p> + + <p>Scholar, author, Emeritus Professor of Art at + Harvard University.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><b>HENRY VAN DYKE, D.D., LL.D.,</b></p> + + <p>Clergyman, author, Professor Princeton + University.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><b>The REVEREND THOMAS J. SHAHAN,</b></p> + + <p>Dean of the Faculty of Divinity, Professor of Early + Ecclesiastical</p> + + <p>History, Catholic University, Washington, D.C.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><b>WILLIAM P. TRENT,</b></p> + + <p>Author, editor, Professor of English Literature, + Columbia University,</p> + + <p>New York City.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><b>EDWARD SINGLETON HOLDEN, A.M., LL.D.,</b></p> + + <p>Ex-president University of California, astronomer, + author,</p> + + <p>U.S. Military Academy, West Point.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><b>EDWIN ERLE SPARKS,</b></p> + + <p>Professor of American History, Chicago + University.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><b>The VERY REV. GEORGE M. GRANT, D.D., + LL.D.,</b></p> + + <p>Educator, author, vice-principal Queen's College, + Kingston, Ont.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><b>BARONESS VON BULOW,</b></p> + + <p>Educator, author, Dresden, Germany.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><b>ABBIE FARWELL BROWN,</b></p> + + <p>Author, Boston.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><b>CHARLES WELSH, Managing Editor,</b></p> + + <p>Author, lecturer, editor, Winthrop Highlands, + Mass.</p> + </div> + </div><span class="pagenum"><a id="pageiv"></a>[pg iv]</span> + + <p> </p> + + <h3>LIST OF VOLUMES</h3> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i16">VOLUME I.</p> + + <p><b>THE STORY TELLER</b></p> + + <p class="i4">Edited by CHARLES ELIOT NORTON</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i16">VOLUME II.</p> + + <p><b>THE MERRY MAKER</b></p> + + <p class="i4">Edited by JOEL CHANDLER HARRIS</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i16">VOLUME III.</p> + + <p><b>FAMOUS FAIRY TALES</b></p> + + <p class="i4">Edited by ROSWELL FIELD</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i16">VOLUME IV.</p> + + <p><b>TALES OF FANTASY</b></p> + + <p class="i4">Edited by TUDOR JENKS</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i16">VOLUME V.</p> + + <p><b>MYTHS AND LEGENDS</b></p> + + <p class="i4">Edited by THOMAS J. SHAHAN</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i16">VOLUME VI.</p> + + <p><b>THE ANIMAL STORY BOOK</b></p> + + <p class="i4">Edited by ERNEST THOMPSON SETON</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i16">VOLUME VII.</p> + + <p><b>SCHOOL AND COLLEGE DAYS</b></p> + + <p class="i4">Edited by KIRK MUNROE and MARY HARTWELL + CATHERWOOD</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i16">VOLUME VIII.</p> + + <p><b>BOOK OF ADVENTURE</b></p> + + <p class="i4">Edited by NATHAN HASKELL DOLE</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i16">VOLUME IX.</p> + + <p><b>FAMOUS EXPLORERS</b></p> + + <p class="i4">Edited by EDWIN ERLE SPARKS</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i16">VOLUME X.</p> + + <p><b>BRAVE DEEDS</b></p> + + <p class="i4">Edited by JOHN TOWNSEND TROWBRIDGE</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i16">VOLUME XI.</p> + + <p><b>WONDERS OF EARTH, SEA AND SKY</b></p> + + <p class="i4">Edited by EDWARD SINGLETON HOLDEN</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i16">VOLUME XII.</p> + + <p><b>FAMOUS TRAVELS</b></p> + + <p class="i4">Edited by GEORGE A. HENTY</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i16">VOLUME XIII.</p> + + <p><b>SEA STORIES</b></p> + + <p class="i4">Edited by CYRUS TOWNSEND BRADY</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i16">VOLUME XIV.</p> + + <p><b>A BOOK OF NATURAL HISTORY</b></p> + + <p class="i4">Edited by DAVID STARR JORDAN</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i16">VOLUME XV.</p> + + <p><b>HISTORIC SCENES IN FICTION</b></p> + + <p class="i4">Edited by HENRY VAN DYKE</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i16">VOLUME XVI.</p> + + <p><b>FAMOUS BATTLES BY LAND AND SEA</b></p> + + <p class="i4">Edited by JOHN D. LONG</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i16">VOLUME XVII.</p> + + <p><b>MEN WHO HAVE RISEN</b></p> + + <p class="i4">Edited by HAMILTON WRIGHT MABIE.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i16">VOLUME XVIII.</p> + + <p><b>BOOK OF PATRIOTISM</b></p> + + <p class="i4">Edited by</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i16">VOLUME XIX.</p> + + <p><b>LEADERS OF MEN, OR HISTORY TOLD IN + BIOGRAPHY</b></p> + + <p class="i4">Edited by WILLIAM RAINEY HARPER</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i16">VOLUME XX.</p> + + <p><b>FAMOUS POEMS</b></p>Selected by THOMAS BAILEY + ALDRICH, with Poetical Foreword by EDITH M. THOMAS. + </div> + </div> + + <p> </p><span class="pagenum"><a id="pagevi"></a>[pg vi]</span> + + <div class="figcenter" + style="width:100%;"> + <a href="images/047.jpg"><img width="300" + src="images/047sm.jpg" + alt="A GEYSER"></a><br> + A GEYSER + </div> + + <p> </p> + + <p> </p><span class="pagenum"><a id="pagevii"></a>[pg vii]</span> + + <h4><i>Young Folks' Library in Twenty Volumes</i><br> + <i>Thomas Bailey Aldrich, Editor-in-Chief</i></h4> + + <p> </p> + + <p class="center xbig">WONDERS</p> + + <h4><span class="sc">of</span></h4> + + <p class="center xbig">EARTH, SEA <span class="sc">and</span> SKY</p> + + <p> </p> + + <p> </p> + + <h4>EDITED BY</h4> + + <h3>EDWARD SINGLETON HOLDEN</h3> + + <p> </p> + + <p> </p> + + <h4><i>VOLUME XI</i></h4> + + <p> </p> + + <p> </p> + + <div class="figcenter" + style="width:200px;"> + <img width="200" + src="images/vii.png" + alt="title page decoration"> + </div> + + <p> </p> + + <p> </p> + + <h5>BOSTON<br> + HALL AND LOCKE COMPANY<br> + PUBLISHERS</h5> + + <p> </p> + + <p> </p><span class="pagenum"><a id="pageviii"></a>[pg viii]</span> + + <h4>1902</h4> + + <p> </p> + + <p> </p> + + <h5><b>Stanhope Press</b><br> + P.H. GILSON COMPANY<br> + BOSTON, U.S.A.</h5> + + <p> </p> + + <p> </p><span class="pagenum"><a id="pageix"></a>[pg ix]</span> + + <h2>CONTENTS</h2> + + <div class="sc"> + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"></div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>List of Illustrations <a href= + "#pagexi"> xi</a></p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>The Marvels of Nature <a href= + "#pagexiii"> xiii</a></p> + + <p class="i4">By Professor E.S. Holden.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>what The Earth's Crust is Made of <a href= + "#page1"> 1</a></p> + + <p class="i4">by Agnes Giberne.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>America The Old World <a href= + "#page45"> 45</a></p> + + <p class="i4">By Louis Agassiz.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Some Records of the Rocks <a href= + "#page77"> 77</a></p> + + <p class="i4">By N.S. Shaler.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>The Pitch Lake in the West Indies <a href= + "#page97"> 97</a></p> + + <p class="i4">By Charles Kingsley.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>A Stalagmite Cave <a href= + "#page111"> 111</a></p> + + <p class="i4">By Sir C. Wyville Thomson.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>The Big Trees of California <a href= + "#page119"> 119</a></p> + + <p class="i4">by Alfred Russel Wallace.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>what is Evolution? <a href= + "#page127"> 127</a></p> + + <p class="i4">By Professor Edward S. Holden.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>How the Soil is Made <a href= + "#page135"> 135</a></p> + + <p class="i4">By Charles Darwin.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>zoölogical Myths <a href= + "#page143"> 143</a></p> + + <p class="i4">By Andrew Wilson.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>On a Piece of Chalk <a href= + "#page171"> 171</a></p> + + <p class="i4">By T.H. Huxley.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>A Bit of Sponge <a href= + "#page205"> 205</a></p> + + <p class="i4">BY A. WILSON.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>The Greatest Sea-Wave Ever Known <a href= + "#page211"> 211</a></p> + + <p class="i4">By R.A. Proctor.</p><span class= + "pagenum"><a id="pagex"></a>[pg x]</span> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>The Phosphorescent Sea <a href= + "#page228"> 228</a></p> + + <p class="i4">By W.S. Dallas.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>COMETS, <a href= + "#page251"> 251</a></p> + + <p class="i4">By Camille Flammarion.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>The Total Solar Eclipse of 1883 <a href= + "#page261"> 261</a></p> + + <p class="i4">By E.S. Holden.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Halos—Parhelia—the Spectre of the + Brocken, etc. <a href= + "#page268"> 268</a></p> + + <p class="i4">By Camille Flammarion.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>The Planet Venus <a href= + "#page282"> 282</a></p> + + <p class="i4">By Agnes M. Clerke.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>The Stars <a href= + "#page296"> 296</a></p> + + <p class="i4">By Sir R.S. Ball.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Rain and Snow <a href= + "#page342"> 342</a></p> + + <p class="i4">By John Tyndall.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>The Organic World <a href= + "#page357"> 357</a></p> + + <p class="i4">By St. George Mivart.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Inhabitants of My Pool <a href= + "#page366"> 366</a></p> + + <p class="i4">By Arabella B. Buckley.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Biographical Notes <a href= + "#page387"> 387</a></p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Suggestions for Supplementary Reading + <a href="#page389"> 389</a></p> + </div> + </div> + </div> + + <h5>NOTE.</h5> + + <p>The publishers' acknowledgments are due to Messrs. Houghton, + Mifflin & Co., for permission to use "America and the Old + World," by L. Agassiz; to Messrs. D.C. Heath & Co. for + permission to use "Some Records of the Rocks," by Professor + N.S. Shaler; and to Professor E.S. Holden for permission to use + "What is Evolution?" and "An Astronomer's Voyage to Fairy + Land."</p> + + <p> </p> + + <p> </p><span class="pagenum"><a id="pagexi"></a>[pg xi]</span> + + <h2>LIST OF COLORED ILLUSTRATIONS</h2> + <hr class="short"> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><span class="sc">A Geyser.</span> + <a href="#pagevi"><i>Frontispiece,</i></a> <i>See + Page</i> <a href="#page47"> 47</a></p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="sc">View in a Cañon, <a href= + "#page12"> 12</a></p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="sc">A Volcano, <a href= + "#page48"> 48</a></p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="sc">A Stalagmite Cave, <a href= + "#page117"> 117</a></p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="sc">Where Sponges Grow, <a href= + "#page209"> 209</a></p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="sc">A Comet, <a href= + "#page254"> 254</a></p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="sc">The Spectre Of The Brocken, <a href= + "#page272"> 272</a></p> + </div> + </div> + <hr class="short"> + + <p class="sc">And One Hundred and Sixty-four Black and White + Illustrations in the Text.</p> + + <p> </p> + + <p> </p><span class="pagenum"><a id="pagexiii"></a>[pg xiii]</span> + + <h2>THE MARVELS OF NATURE</h2> + + <h4 class="sc">By</h4> + + <h3>EDWARD S. HOLDEN, M.A., Sc.D. LL.D.</h3> + <hr class="short"> + + <p>The Earth, the Sea, the Sky, and their wonders—these + are the themes of this volume. The volume is so small, and the + theme so vast! Men have lived on the earth for hundreds of thousands + of years; and its wonders have increased, not diminished, + with their experience.</p> + + <p>To our barbarous ancestors of centuries ago, all was + mystery—the thunder, the rainbow, the growing corn, the + ocean, the stars. Gradually and by slow steps they learned to + house themselves in trees, in caves, in huts, in houses; to + find a sure supply of food; to provide a stock of serviceable + clothing. The arts of life were born; tools were invented; the + priceless boon of fire was received; tribes and clans united + for defence; some measure of security and comfort was + attained.</p> + + <p>With security and comfort came leisure; and the mind of + early Man began curiously to inquire the meaning of the + mysteries with which he was surrounded. That curious inquiry + was the birth of Science. Art was born when some far-away + ancestor, in an idle hour, <span class="pagenum"><a name= + "pagexiv" + id="pagexiv"></a>[pg xiv]</span> scratched on a bone the + drawing of two of his reindeer fighting, or carved on the + walls of his cave the image of the mammoth that he had but + lately slain with his spear and arrows.</p> + + <p>In a mind that is completely ignorant there is no wonder. + Wonder is the child of knowledge—of partial and imperfect + knowledge, to be sure, but still, of knowledge. The very first + step in Science is to make an inventory of external Nature (and + by and by of the faculties of the mind that thinks). The second + step is to catalogue similar appearances together. It is a much + higher flight to seek the causes of likenesses thus + discovered.</p> + + <p>A few of the chapters of this volume are items in a mere + catalogue of wonders, and deserve their place by accurate and + eloquent description. Most of them, however, represent higher + stages of insight. In the latter, Nature is viewed not only + with the eye of the observer, but also with the mind's eye, + curious to discover the reasons for things seen. The most + penetrating inward inquiry accompanies the acutest external + observation in such chapters as those of Darwin and Huxley, + here reprinted.</p> + + <p>Now, the point not to be overlooked is this: to Darwin and + Huxley, as to their remote and uncultured ancestors, the + World—the Earth, the Sea, the Sky—is full of + wonders and of mysteries, but the wonders are of a higher + order. The problems of the thunder <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="pagexv"></a>[pg xv]</span> and of the rainbow as they + presented themselves to the men of a thousand generations + ago, have been fully solved: but the questions; what is the + veritable nature of electricity, exactly how does it differ + from light, are still unanswered. And what are simple + problems like these to the questions: what is love; why do + we feel a sympathy with this person, an antipathy for that; + and others of the sort? Science has made almost infinite + advances since pre-historic man first felt the feeble + current of intellectual curiosity amid his awe of the storm; + it has still to grow almost infinitely before anything like + a complete explanation even of external Nature is + achieved.</p> + + <p>Suppose that, at some future day, all physical and + mechanical laws should be found to be direct consequences of a + single majestic law, just as all the motions of the planets are + (but—are they?) the direct results of the single law of + gravitation. Gravitation will, probably, soon be explained in + terms of some remoter cause, but the reason of that single and + ultimate law of the universe which we have imagined would still + remain unknown. Human knowledge will always have limits, and + beyond those limits there will always be room for mystery and + wonder. A complete and exhaustive explanation of the world is + inconceivable, so long as human powers and capacities remain at + all as they now are.</p> + + <p>It is important to emphasize such truths, especially + <span class="pagenum"><a id="pagexvi"></a>[pg xvi]</span> in a book addressed to the + young. When a lad hears for the first time that an + astronomer, by a simple pointing of his spectroscope, can + determine with what velocity a star is approaching the + earth, or receding from it, or when he hears that the very + shape of the revolving masses of certain stars can be + calculated from simple measures of the sort, he is apt to + conclude that Science, which has made such astounding + advances since the days of Galileo and Newton, must + eventually reach a complete explanation of the entire + universe. The conclusion is not unnatural, but it is not + correct. There are limits beyond which Science, in this + sense, cannot go. Its scope is limited. Beyond its limits + there are problems that it cannot solve, mysteries that it + cannot explain.</p> + + <p>At the present moment, for example, the nature of Force is + unknown. A weight released from the hand drops to the earth. + Exactly what is the nature of the force with which the earth + attracts it? We do not know, but it so happens that it is more + than likely that an explanation will be reached in our own day. + Gravity will be explained in terms of some more general forces. + The mystery will be pushed back another step, and yet another + and another. But the progress is not indefinite. If all the + mechanical actions of the entire universe were to be formulated + as the results of a single law or cause, the cause of that + cause would be still to seek, as has been + said.</p><span class="pagenum"><a id="pagexvii"></a>[pg xvii]</span> + + <p>We have every right to exult in the amazing achievements of + Science; but we have not understood them until we realize that + the universe of Science has strict limits, within which all its + conquests must necessarily be confined. Humility, and not + pride, is the final lesson of scientific work and study.</p> + <hr> + + <p>The choice of the selections printed in this volume has been + necessarily limited by many hampering conditions, that of mere + space being one of the most harassing. Each of the chapters + might readily be expanded into a volume. Volumes might be added + on topics almost untouched here. It has been necessary to pass + over almost without notice matters of surpassing interest and + importance: Electricity and its wonderful and new applications; + the new Biology, with its views upon such fundamental questions + as the origins of life and death; modern Astronomy, with its + far-reaching pronouncements upon the fate of universes. All + these can only be touched lightly, if at all. It is the chief + purpose of this volume to point the way towards the most modern + and the greatest conclusions of Science, and to lay foundations + upon which the reading of a life-time can be laid.</p> + + <div class="figright" + style="width:300px;"> + <img width="300" + src="images/xvii.png" + alt="signature"> + </div><br> + + <p><span class="sc">United States Military Academy,<br> + West Point,</span> <i>January 1, + 1902</i>.</p> + <hr> + + <p> </p> + + <p> </p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page1"></a>[pg 1]</span> + + <p class="xbig center">WONDERS OF EARTH, SEA, AND SKY</p> + <hr class="short"> + + <h2>WHAT THE EARTH'S CRUST IS MADE OF</h2> + + <h4 class="sc">(From The World's Foundations.)</h4> + + <h3><span class="sc">By</span> AGNES GIBERNE.</h3> + <hr class="short"> + + <blockquote> + <p>"Stand still and consider the wondrous works of + God."</p> + </blockquote> + + <div class="figleft" + style="width:200px"> + <a href="images/001.png"><img width="200" + src="images/001.png" + alt="globe"></a> + </div> + + <p>What is the earth made of—this round earth upon which + we human beings live and move?</p> + + <p>A question more easily asked than answered, as regards a + very large portion of it. For the earth is a huge ball nearly + eight thousand miles in diameter, and we who dwell on the + outside have no means of getting down more than a very little + way below the surface. So it is quite impossible for us to + speak positively as to the inside of the earth, and what it is + made of. Some people believe the earth's inside to be hard and + solid, while others believe it to be one <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page2"></a>[pg 2]</span> enormous lake or furnace of + fiery melted rock. But nobody really knows.</p> + + <p>This outside crust has been reckoned to be of many different + thicknesses. One man will say it is ten miles thick, and + another will rate it at four hundred miles. So far as regards + man's knowledge of it, gained from mining, from boring, from + examination of rocks, and from reasoning out all that may be + learned from these observations, we shall allow an ample margin + if we count the field of geology to extend some twenty miles + downwards from the highest mountain-tops. Beyond this we find + ourselves in a land of darkness and conjecture.</p> + + <p>Twenty miles is only one four-hundredth part of the earth's + diameter—a mere thin shell over a massive globe. If the + earth were brought down in size to an ordinary large school + globe, a piece of rough brown paper covering it might well + represent the thickness of this earth-crust, with which the + science of geology has to do. And the whole of the globe, this + earth of ours, is but one tiny planet in the great Solar + System. And the centre of that Solar System, the blazing sun, + though equal in size to more than a million earths, is yet + himself but one star amid millions of twinkling stars, + scattered broadcast through the universe. So it would seem at + first sight that the field of geology is a small field compared + with that of astronomy....</p> + + <p>With regard to the great bulk of the globe little can be + said. Very probably it is formed through and through of the + same materials as the crust. This we do not know. Neither can + we tell, even if it be so formed, whether the said materials + are solid and cold <span class="pagenum"><a id="page3"></a>[pg 3]</span> like the outside crust, or + whether they are liquid with heat. The belief has been long + and widely held that the whole inside of the earth is one + vast lake or furnace of melted fiery-hot material, with only + a thin cooled crust covering it. Some in the present day are + inclined to question this, and hold rather that the earth is + solid and cold throughout, though with large lakes of liquid + fire here and there, under or in her crust, from which our + volcanoes are fed....</p> + + <p>The materials of which the crust is made are many and + various; yet, generally speaking, they may all be classed under + one simple word, and that word is—<i>Rock</i>.</p> + + <p>It must be understood that, when we talk of rock in this + geological sense, we do not only mean hard and solid stone, as + in common conversation. Rock may be changed by heat into a + liquid or "molten" state, as ice is changed by heat to water. + Liquid rock may be changed by yet greater heat to vapor, as + water is changed to steam, only we have in a common way no such + heat at command as would be needed to effect this. Rock may be + hard or soft. Rock maybe chalky, clayey, or sandy. Rock may be + so close-grained that strong force is needed to break it; or it + may be so porous—so full of tiny holes—that water + will drain through it; or it may be crushed and crumbled into + loose grains, among which you can pass your fingers.</p> + + <p>The cliffs above our beaches are rock; the sand upon our + seashore is rock; the clay used in brick-making is rock; the + limestone of the quarry is rock; the marble of which our + mantel-pieces are made is rock. The soft sandstone of South + Devon, and the hard granite of the <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page4"></a>[pg 4]</span> north of Scotland, are alike + rock. The pebbles in the road are rock; the very mould in + our gardens is largely composed of crumbled rock. So the + word in its geological sense is a word of wide meaning.</p> + + <p>Now the business of the geologist is to read the history of + the past in these rocks of which the earth's crust is made. + This may seem a singular thing to do, and I can assure you it + is not an easy task.</p> + + <p>For, to begin with, the history itself is written in a + strange language, a language which man is only just beginning + to spell out and understand. And this is only half the + difficulty with which we have to struggle.</p> + + <p>If a large and learned book were put before you and you were + set to read it through, you would perhaps, have no + insurmountable difficulty, with patience and perseverance, in + mastering its meaning.</p> + + <p>But how if the book were first chopped up into pieces, if + part of it were flung away out of reach, if part of it were + crushed into a pulp, if the numbering of the pages were in many + places lost, if the whole were mixed up in confusion, and if + <i>then</i> you were desired to sort, and arrange, and study + the volume?</p> + + <p>Picture to yourself what sort of a task this would be, and + you will have some idea of the labors of the patient + geologist.</p> + + <p>Rocks may be divided into several kinds or classes. For the + present moment it will be enough to consider the two grand + divisions—<i>Stratified rocks</i> and <i>Unstratified + rocks</i>.</p> + + <p>Unstratified rocks are those which were once, at a time more + or less distant, in a melted state from intense heat, and which + have since cooled into a half <i>crystallized</i> + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page5"></a>[pg 5]</span> state; much the same as water, + when growing colder, cools and crystallizes into ice. + Strictly speaking, ice is rock, just as much as granite and + sandstone are rock. Water itself is of the nature of rock, + only as we commonly know it in the liquid state we do not + commonly call it so.</p> + + <div class="figright" + style="width:400px;"> + <a href="images/005.png"><img width="400" + src="images/005.png" + alt= + "UNSTRATIFIED ROCK.—A VOLCANIC BLOCK."></a><br> + UNSTRATIFIED ROCK.—A VOLCANIC BLOCK. + </div> + + <p>"Crystallization" means those particular forms or shapes in + which the particles of a liquid arrange themselves, as that + liquid hardens into a solid—in other words, as it + freezes. Granite, iron, marble, are frozen substances, just as + truly as ice is a frozen substance; for with greater heat they + would all become liquid like water. When a liquid freezes, + there are always crystals formed, though these are not always + visible without the help of a microscope. Also the crystals are + of different shapes with different substances.</p> + + <p>If you examine the surface of a puddle or pond, when a thin + covering of ice is beginning to form, you will be able to see + plainly the delicate sharp needle-like forms of the ice + crystals. Break a piece of ice, and you will find that it will + not easily break just in any way that you may choose, but it + will only split along the lines of these needle-like crystals. + This particular mode of splitting in a crystallized rock is + called the <i>cleavage</i> of that rock.</p> + + <p>Crystallization may take place either slowly or + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page6"></a>[pg 6]</span> rapidly, and either in the open + air or far below ground. The lava from a volcano is an + example of rock which has crystallized rapidly in the open + air; and granite is an example of rock which has + crystallized slowly underground beneath great pressure.</p> + + <p>Stratified rocks, on the contrary, which make up a very + large part of the earth's crust, are not crystallized. Instead + of having cooled from a liquid into a solid state, they have + been slowly <i>built up</i>, bit by bit and grain upon grain, + into their present form, through long ages of the world's + history. The materials of which they are made were probably + once, long, long ago, the crumblings from granite and other + crystallized rocks, but they show now no signs of + crystallization.</p> + + <div class="figleft" + style="width:300px"> + <a href="images/006.png"><img width="300" + src="images/006.png" + alt="SECTION OF STRATIFIED ROCKS."></a><br> + SECTION OF STRATIFIED ROCKS. + + <p><i>a.</i> Conglomerate. <i>b.</i> Pebbly Sandstone, + <i>c.</i> Thin-bedded Sandstone, <i>d.</i> Shelly + Sandstone, <i>e.</i> Shale. <i>f.</i> Limestone.</p> + </div> + + <p>They are called "stratified" because they are in themselves + made up of distinct layers, and also because they lie thus one + upon another in layers, or <i>strata</i>, just as the leaves of + a book lie, or as the bricks of a house are placed.</p> + + <p>Throughout the greater part of Europe, of Asia, of Africa, + of North and South America, of Australia, these rocks are to be + found, stretching over hundreds <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page7"></a>[pg 7]</span> of miles together, north, + south, east, and west, extending up to the tops of some of + the earth's highest mountains, reaching down deep into the + earth's crust. In many parts if you could dig straight + downwards through the earth for thousands of feet, you would + come to layer after layer of these stratified rocks, one + kind below another, some layers thick, some layers thin, + here a stratum of gravel, there a stratum of sandstone, here + a stratum of coal, there a stratum of clay.</p> + + <p>But how, when, where, did the building up of all these + rock-layers take place?</p> + + <div class="figcenter" + style="width:600px;"> + <a href="images/007.png"><img width="600" + src="images/007.png" + alt= + "THE BEACH IN THE FOREGROUND IS A ROCKY SHELF,"></a> + + <p>THE BEACH IN THE FOREGROUND IS A ROCKY SHELF, THE + REMNANT OF THE CLIFF WHICH ONCE EXTENDED OUT TO THE + ISLAND.</p> + </div> + + <p>People are rather apt to think of land and water on the + earth as if they were fixed in one changeless form,—as if + every continent and every island were of exactly the same shape + and size now that it always has been and always will + be.</p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page8"></a>[pg 8]</span> + + <p>Yet nothing can be further from the truth. The earth-crust + is a scene of perpetual change, of perpetual struggle, of + perpetual building up, of perpetual wearing away.</p> + + <p>The work may go on slowly, but it does go on. The sea is + always fighting against the land, beating down her cliffs, + eating into her shores, swallowing bit by bit of solid earth; + and rain and frost and inland streams are always busily at + work, helping the ocean in her work of destruction. Year by + year and century by century it continues. Not a country in the + world which is bordered by the open sea has precisely the same + coast-line that it had one hundred years ago; not a land in the + world but parts each century with masses of its material, + washed piecemeal away into the ocean.</p> + + <p>Is this hard to believe? Look at the crumbling cliffs around + old England's shores. See the effect upon the beach of one + night's fierce storm. Mark the pathway on the cliff, how it + seems to have crept so near the edge that here and there it is + scarcely safe to tread; and very soon, as we know, it will + become impassable. Just from a mere accident, of + course,—the breaking away of some of the earth, loosened + by rain and frost and wind. But this is an accident which + happens daily in hundreds of places around the shores.</p> + + <p>Leaving the ocean, look now at this river in our + neighborhood, and see the slight muddiness which seems to color + its waters. What from? Only a little earth and sand carried off + from the banks as it flowed,—very unimportant and small + in quantity, doubtless, just at this moment and just at this + spot. But what of that little going on week after week, and + century <span class="pagenum"><a id="page9"></a>[pg 9]</span> after century, throughout the + whole course of the river, and throughout the whole course + of every river and rivulet in our whole country and in every + other country. A vast amount of material must every year be + thus torn from the land and given to the ocean. For the + land's loss here is the ocean's gain.</p> + + <p>And, strange to say, we shall find that this same ocean, so + busily engaged with the help of its tributary rivers in pulling + down land, is no less busily engaged with their help in + building it up.</p> + + <p>You have sometimes seen directions upon a vial of medicine + to "shake" before taking the dose. When you have so shaken the + bottle the clear liquid grows thick; and if you let it stand + for awhile the thickness goes off, and a fine grain-like or + dust-like substance settles down at the bottom—the + settlement or <i>sediment</i> of the medicine. The finer this + sediment, the slower it is in settling. If you were to keep the + liquid in gentle motion, the fine sediment would not settle + down at the bottom. With coarser and heavier grains the motion + would have to be quicker to keep them supported in the + water.</p> + + <p>Now it is just the same thing with our rivers and streams. + Running water can support and carry along sand and earth, which + in still water would quickly sink to the bottom; and the more + rapid the movement of the water, the greater is the weight it + is able to bear.</p> + + <p>This is plainly to be seen in the case of a mountain + torrent. As it foams fiercely through its rocky bed it bears + along, not only mud and sand and gravel, but stones and even + small rocks, grinding the latter roughly together till they are + gradually worn away, first to <span class="pagenum"><a name= + "page10" + id="page10"></a>[pg 10]</span> rounded pebbles, then to + sand, and finally to mud. The material thus swept away by a + stream, ground fine, and carried out to sea—part being + dropped by the way on the river-bed—is called + <i>detritus</i>, which simply means <i>worn-out</i> + material.</p> + + <div class="figleft" + style="width:400px;"> + <a href="images/010.png"><img width="400" + src="images/010.png" + alt="A MOUNTAIN TORRENT."></a><br> + A MOUNTAIN TORRENT. + </div> + + <p>The tremendous carrying-power of a mountain torrent can + scarcely be realized by those who have not observed it for + themselves. I have seen a little mountain-stream swell in the + course of a heavy thunderstorm to such a torrent, brown and + turbid with earth torn from the mountainside, and sweeping + resistlessly along in its career a shower of stones and + rock-fragments. That which happens thus occasionally with many + streams is more or less the work all the year round of many + more.</p> + + <p>As the torrent grows less rapid, lower down in its course, + it ceases to carry rocks and stones, though the grinding and + wearing away of stones upon the rocky bed continues, and coarse + gravel is borne still upon its <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page11"></a>[pg 11]</span> waters. Presently the + widening stream, flowing yet more calmly, drops upon its bed + all such coarser gravel as is not worn away to fine earth, + but still bears on the lighter grains of sand. Next the + slackening speed makes even the sand too heavy a weight, and + that in turn falls to line the river-bed, while the now + broad and placid stream carries only the finer particles of + mud suspended in its waters. Soon it reaches the ocean, and + the flow being there checked by the incoming ocean-tide, + even the mud can no longer be held up, and it also sinks + slowly in the shallows near the shore, forming sometimes + broad mud-banks dangerous to the mariner.</p> + + <p>This is the case only with smaller rivers. Where the stream + is stronger, the mud-banks are often formed much farther out at + sea; and more often still the river-detritus is carried away + and shed over the ocean-bed, beyond the reach of our ken. The + powerful rush of water in earth's greater streams bears + enormous masses of sand and mud each year far out into the + ocean, there dropping quietly the gravel, sand, and earth, + layer upon layer at the bottom of the sea. Thus pulling down + and building up go on ever side by side; and while land is the + theatre oftentimes of decay and loss, ocean is the theatre + oftentimes of renewal and gain.</p> + + <p>Did you notice the word "sediment" used a few pages back + about the settlement at the bottom of a medicine-vial?</p> + + <p>There is a second name given to the Stratified Rocks, of + which the earth's crust is so largely made up. They are called + also <i>Sedimentary Rocks</i>.</p><span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page12"></a>[pg 12]</span> + + <p>The reason is simply this. The Stratified Rocks of the + present day were once upon a time made up out of the sediment + stolen first from land and then allowed to settle down on the + sea-bottom.</p> + + <p>Long, long ago, the rivers, the streams, the ocean, were at + work, as they are now, carrying away rock and gravel, sand and + earth. Then, as now, all this material, borne upon the rivers, + washed to and fro by the ocean, settled down at the mouths of + rivers or at the bottom of the sea, into a sediment, one layer + forming over another, gradually built up through long ages. At + first it was only a soft, loose, sandy or muddy sediment, such + as you may see on the seashore, or in a mud-bank. But as the + thickness of the sediment increased, the weight of the layers + above gradually pressed the lower layers into firm hard rocks; + and still, as the work of building went on, these layers were, + in their turn, made solid by the increasing weight over them. + Certain chemical changes had also a share in the transformation + from soft mud to hard rock, which need not be here + considered.</p> + + <p>All this has through thousands of years been going on. The + land is perpetually crumbling away; and fresh land under the + sea is being perpetually built up, from the very same materials + which the sea and the rivers have so mercilessly stolen from + continents and islands. This is the way, if geologists rightly + judge, in which a very large part of the enormous formations of + Stratified or Sedimentary Rocks have been made.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" + style="width:300px;"> + <a href="images/031.jpg"><img width="300" + src="images/031sm.jpg" + alt="VIEW IN A CANON."></a><br> + VIEW IN A CANON. + </div> + + <p>So far is clear. But now we come to a difficulty.</p> + + <p>The Stratified Rocks, of which a very large part of the + continents is made, appear to have been built up + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page13"></a>[pg 13]</span> slowly, layer upon layer, out + of the gravel, sand, and mud, washed away from the land and + dropped on the shore of the ocean.</p> + + <div class="figright" + style="width:400px;"> + <a href="images/013.png"><img width="400" + src="images/013.png" + alt= + "SEA CLIFFS SHOWING A SERIES OF STRATIFIED ROCKS."></a><br> + SEA CLIFFS SHOWING A SERIES OF STRATIFIED ROCKS. + </div> + + <p>You may see these layers for yourself as you walk out into + the country. Look at the first piece of bluff rock you come + near, and observe the clear pencil-like markings of layer above + layer—not often indeed lying <i>flat</i>, one over + another, and this must be explained later, but however + irregularly slanting, still plainly visible. You can examine + these lines of stratification on the nearest cliff, the nearest + quarry, the nearest bare headland, in your neighborhood.</p> + + <p>But how can this be? If all these stratified rocks are built + on the floor of the ocean out of material taken <i>from</i> the + land, how can we by any possibility find such rocks <i>upon</i> + the land? In the beds of rivers we might indeed expect to see + them, but surely nowhere else save under ocean waters.</p> + + <p>Yet find them we do. Through England, through the two great + world-continents, they abound on every side. Thousands of miles + in unbroken succession are composed of such rocks.</p> + + <p>Stand with me near the seashore, and let us look around. + Those white chalk cliffs—they, at least, are + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page14"></a>[pg 14]</span> not formed of sand or earth. + True, and the lines of stratification are in them very + indistinct, if seen at all; yet they too are built up of + sediment of a different kind, dropping upon ocean's floor. + See, however, in the rough sides of yonder bluff the + markings spoken of, fine lines running alongside of one + another, sometimes flat, sometimes bent or slanting, but + always giving the impression of layer piled upon layer. Yet + how can one for a moment suppose that the ocean-waters ever + rose so high?</p> + + <p>Stay a moment. Look again at yonder white chalk cliff, and + observe a little way below the top a singular band of shingles, + squeezed into the cliff, as it were, with chalk below and earth + above.</p> + + <p>That is believed to be an old sea-beach. Once upon a time + the waters of the sea are supposed to have washed those + shingles, as now they wash the shore near which we stand, and + all the white cliff must have lain then beneath the ocean.</p> + + <p>Geologists were for a long while sorely puzzled to account + for these old sea-beaches, found high up in the cliffs around + our land in many different places.</p> + + <p>They had at first a theory that the sea must once, in far + back ages, have been a great deal higher than it is now. But + this explanation only brought about fresh difficulties. It is + quite impossible that the level of the sea should be higher in + one part of the world than in another. If the sea around + England were then one or two hundred feet higher than it is + now, it must have been one or two hundred feet higher in every + part of the world where the ocean-waters have free flow. One is + rather puzzled to know where all the <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page15"></a>[pg 15]</span> water could have come from, + for such a tremendous additional amount. Besides, in some + places remains of sea-animals are found in mountain heights, + as much as two or three thousand feet above the + sea-level—as, for instance, in Corsica. This very much + increases the difficulty of the above explanation.</p> + + <p>So another theory was started instead, and this is now + generally supposed to be the true one. What if instead of the + whole ocean having been higher, parts of the land were lower? + England at one time, parts of Europe at another time, parts of + Asia and America at other times, may have slowly sunk beneath + the ocean, and after long remaining there have slowly risen + again.</p> + + <p>This is by no means so wild a supposition as it may seem + when first heard, and as it doubtless did seem when first + proposed. For even in the present day these movements of the + solid crust of our earth are going on. The coasts of Sweden and + Finland have long been slowly and steadily rising out of the + sea, so that the waves can no longer reach so high upon those + shores as in years gone by they used to reach. In Greenland, on + the contrary, land has long been slowly and steadily sinking, + so that what used to be the shore now lies under the sea. Other + such risings and sinkings might be mentioned, as also many more + in connection with volcanoes and earthquakes, which are neither + slow nor steady, but sudden and violent.</p> + + <p>So it becomes no impossible matter to believe that, in the + course of ages past, all those wide reaches of our continents + and islands, where sedimentary rocks are to be found, were each + in turn, at one time or another, <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page16"></a>[pg 16]</span> during long periods, beneath + the rolling waters of the ocean....</p> + <hr> + + <p>These built-up rocks are not only called "Stratified," and + "Sedimentary." They have also the name of <i>Aqueous Rock</i>, + from the Latin word <i>aqua, water</i>; because they are + believed to have been formed by the action of the water.</p> + + <p>They have yet another and fourth title, which is, + <i>Fossiliferous Rocks</i>.</p> + + <p>Fossils are the hardened remains of animals and vegetables + found in rocks. They are rarely, if ever, seen in unstratified + rocks; but many layers of stratified rocks abound in these + remains. Whole skeletons as well as single bones, whole + tree-trunks as well as single leaves, are found thus embedded + in rock-layers, where in ages past the animal or plant died and + found a grave. They exist by thousands in many parts of the + world, varying in size from the huge skeleton of the elephant + to the tiny shell of the microscopic animalcule.</p> + + <div class="figleft" + style="width:200px;"> + <a href="images/016.png"><img width="200" + src="images/016.png" + alt="FOSSIL OF CARBONIFEROUS FERN."></a><br> + FOSSIL OF CARBONIFEROUS FERN. + </div> + + <p>Fossils differ greatly in kind. Sometimes the entire shell + or bone is changed into stone, losing all its animal substance, + but retaining its old outline and its natural markings. + Sometimes the fossil is merely the hardened impress of the + outside of a shell or leaf, which has dented its picture on + soft clay, and has itself disappeared, while the soft clay has + become rock, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page17"></a>[pg 17]</span> and the indented picture + remains fixed through after-centuries. Sometimes the fossil + is the cast of the inside of a shell; the said shell having + been filled with soft mud, which has taken its exact shape + and hardened, while the shell itself has vanished. The most + complete description of fossil is the first of these three + kinds. It is wonderfully shown sometimes in fossil wood, + where all the tiny cells and delicate fibres remain + distinctly marked as of old, only the whole woody substance + has changed into hard stone.</p> + + <div class="figright" + style="width:380px;"> + <a href="images/017-1.png"><img width="380" + src="images/017-1.png" + alt= + "FOOTPRINTS FROM TRIASSIC SANDSTONE OF CONNECTICUT."></a><br> + FOOTPRINTS FROM TRIASSIC SANDSTONE OF CONNECTICUT. + </div> + + <p>But although the fossil remains of quadrupeds and other + land-animals are found in large quantities, their number is + small compared with the enormous number of fossil sea-shells + and sea-animals.</p> + + <div class="figleft" + style="width:400px;"> + <a href="images/017-2.png"><img width="400" + src="images/017-2.png" + alt="FOSSIL FOOTPRINTS."></a><br> + FOSSIL FOOTPRINTS. + </div> + + <p>Land-animals can, as a rule, have been so preserved, only + when they have been drowned in ponds or rivers, or mired in + bogs and swamps, or overtaken by frost, or swept out to + sea.</p> + + <p>Sea-animals, on the contrary, have been so preserved on land + whenever that land has been under the sea; and this appears to + have been the case, at one or another past age, with the + greater part of our present <span class="pagenum"><a name= + "page18" + id="page18"></a>[pg 18]</span> continents. These fossil + remains of sea-animals are discovered in all quarters of the + world, not only on the seashore but also far inland, not + only deep down underground but also high up on the tops of + lofty mountains—a plain proof that over the summits of + those mountains the ocean must once have rolled, and this + not for a brief space only, but through long periods of + time. And not on the mountain-summit only are these fossils + known to abound, but sometimes in layer below layer of the + mountain, from top to bottom, through thousands of feet of + rock.</p> + + <div class="figleft" + style="width:300px;"> + <a href="images/018.png"><img width="300" + src="images/018.png" + alt="FOSSIL SHELLS."></a><br> + FOSSIL SHELLS. + </div> + + <p>This may well seem puzzling at first sight. Fossils of + sea-creatures on a mountain-top are startling enough; yet + hardly so startling as the thought of fossils <i>inside</i> + that mountain. How could they have found their way thither?</p> + + <p>The difficulty soon vanishes, if once we clearly understand + that all these thousands of feet of rock were built up slowly, + layer after layer, when portions of the land lay deep under the + sea. Thus <i>each separate layer</i> of mud or sand or other + material became in its turn the <i>top layer</i>, and was for + the time the floor of the ocean, until further droppings of + material out of the waters made a fresh layer, covering up the + one below.</p> + + <p>While each layer was thus in succession the top layer of the + building, and at the same time the floor <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page19"></a>[pg 19]</span> of the ocean, animals lived + and died in the ocean, and their remains sank to the bottom, + resting upon the sediment floor. Thousands of such dead + remains disappeared, crumbling into fine dust and mingling + with the waters, but here and there one was caught captive + by the half-liquid mud, and was quickly covered and + preserved from decay. And still the building went on, and + still layer after layer was placed, till many fossils lay + deep down beneath the later-formed layers; and when at + length, by slow or quick upheaval of the ground, this + sea-bottom became a mountain, the little fossils were buried + within the body of that mountain. So wondrously the matter + appears to have come about.</p> + <hr> + + <p>Another difficulty with respect to the stratified rocks has + to be thought of. All these layers or deposits of gravel, sand, + or earth, on the floor of the ocean, would naturally be + horizontal—that is, would lie flat, one upon another. In + places the ocean-floor might slant, or a crevice or valley or + ridge might break the smoothness of the deposit. But though the + layers might partake of the slant, though the valley might have + to be filled, though the ridge might have to be surmounted, + still the general tendency of the waves would be to level the + dropping deposits into flat layers.</p> + + <p>Then how is it that when we examine the strata of rocks in + our neighborhood, wherever that neighborhood may be, we do not + find them so arranged? Here, it is true, the lines for a space + are nearly horizontal, but there, a little way farther on, they + are perpendicular; here they are bent, and there curved; here + they are slanting, and there crushed and + broken.</p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page20"></a>[pg 20]</span> + + <p>This only bears out what has been already said about the + Book of Geology. It <i>has</i> been bent and disturbed, crushed + and broken.</p> + + <p>Great powers have been at work in this crust of our earth. + Continents have been raised, mountains have been upheaved, vast + masses of rock have been scattered into fragments. Here or + there we may find the layers arranged as they were first laid + down; but far more often we discover signs of later + disturbance, either slow or sudden, varying from a mere quiet + tilting to a violent overturn.</p> + + <div class="figleft" + style="width:400px;"> + <a href="images/020.png"><img width="400" + src="images/020.png" + alt= + "EXAMPLE OF DISTURBANCE OF THE EARTH'S LAYERS."></a><br> + EXAMPLE OF DISTURBANCE OF THE EARTH'S LAYERS. + </div> + + <p>So the Book of Geology is a torn and disorganized volume, + not easy to read.</p> + + <p>Yet, on the other hand, these very changes which have taken + place are a help to the geologist.</p> + + <p>It may seem at first sight as if we should have an easier + task, if the strata were all left lying just as they were first + formed, in smooth level layers, one above another. But if it + were so, we could know very little about the lower layers.</p> + + <p>We might indeed feel sure, as we do now, that the lowest + layers were the oldest and the top layers the newest, and that + any fossils found in the lower layers must belong to an age + farther back than any fossils found in the upper + layers.</p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page21"></a>[pg 21]</span> + + <p>So much would be clear. And we might dig also and burrow a + little way down, through a few different kinds of rock, where + they were not too thick. But that would be all. There our + powers would cease.</p> + + <p>Now how different. Through the heavings and tiltings of the + earth's crust, the lower layers are often pushed quite up to + the surface, so that we are able to examine them and their + fossils without the least difficulty, and very often without + digging underground at all.</p> + + <p>You must not suppose that the real order of the rocks is + changed by these movements, for generally speaking it is not. + The lower kinds are rarely if ever found placed <i>over</i> the + upper kinds; only the ends of them are seen peeping out above + ground.</p> + + <p>It is as if you had a pile of copy-books lying flat one upon + another, and were to put your finger under the lowest and push + it up. All those above would be pushed up also, and perhaps + they would slip a little way down, so that you would have a row + of <i>edges</i> showing side by side, at very much the same + height. The arrangement of the copy-books would not be changed, + for the lowest would still be the lowest in actual position; + but a general tilting or upheaval would have taken place.</p> + + <p>Just such a tilting or upheaval has taken place again and + again with the rocks forming our earth-crust. The edges of the + lower rocks often show side by side with those of higher + layers.</p> + + <p>But geologists know them apart. They are able to tell + confidently whether such and such a rock, peeping out at the + earth's surface, belongs really to a lower or + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page22"></a>[pg 22]</span> a higher kind. For there is a + certain sort of order followed in the arrangement of + rock-layers all over the earth, and it is well known that + some rocks are never found below some other rocks, that + certain particular kinds are never placed above certain + other kinds. Thus it follows that the fossils found in one + description of rock, must be the fossils of animals which + lived and died before the animals whose fossil remains are + found in another neighboring rock, just because this last + rock-layer was built upon the ocean-floor above and + therefore later than the other.</p> + + <p>All this is part of the foreign language of + geology—part of the piecing and arranging of the torn + volume. Many mistakes are made; many blunders are possible; but + the mistakes and blunders are being gradually corrected, and + certain rules by which to read and understand are becoming more + and more clear.</p> + + <p>It has been already said that unstratified rocks are those + which have been at some period, whether lately or very long + ago, in a liquid state from intense heat, and which have since + cooled, either quickly or slowly, crystallizing as they + cooled.</p> + + <p>Unstratified Rocks may be divided into two distinct + classes.</p> + + <div class="figleft" + style="width:400PX;"> + <a href="images/022.png"><img width="400" + src="images/022.png" + alt="SECTION OF A LAVA BOMB."></a><br> + SECTION OF A LAVA BOMB. + </div> + + <p>First.—Volcanic Rocks, such as lava. These have been + quickly cooled at the surface of the earth, or not far below + it.</p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page23"></a>[pg 23]</span> + + <p>Secondly.—Plutonic Rocks, such as granite. These have + been slowly cooled deep down in the earth under heavy + pressure.</p> + + <p>There is also a class of rocks, called metamorphic rocks, + including some kinds of marble. These are, strictly speaking, + crystalline rocks, and yet they are arranged in something like + layers. The word "metamorphic" simply means "transformed." They + are believed to have been once stratified rocks, perhaps + containing often the remains of animals; but intense heat has + later transformed them into crystalline rocks, and the animal + remains have almost or quite vanished.</p> + + <div class="figright" + style="width:400PX;"> + <a href="images/023.png"><img width="400" + src="images/023.png" + alt="LAVA-STREAM ON VESUVIUS."></a><br> + LAVA-STREAM ON VESUVIUS. + </div> + + <p>Just as the different kinds of Stratified Rocks are often + called Aqueous Rocks, or rocks formed by the action of + water—so these different kinds of Unstratified Rocks are + often called Igneous Rocks, or rocks formed by the action of + fire—the name being taken from the Latin word for fire. + The Metamorphic Rocks are sometimes described as + "Aqueo-igneous," since both water and fire helped in the + forming of them.</p> + + <p>It was at one time believed, as a matter of certainty, that + granite and such rocks belonged to a period much farther back + than the periods of the stratified rocks. <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page24"></a>[pg 24]</span> That is to say, it was + supposed that fire-action had come first and water-action + second; that the fire-made rocks were all formed in very + early ages, and that only water-made rocks still continued + to be formed. So the name of Primary Rocks, or First Rocks, + was given to the granites and other such rocks, and the name + of Secondary Rocks to all water-built rocks; while those of + the third class were called Transition Rocks, because they + seemed to be a kind of link or stepping-stone in the change + from the First to the Second Rocks.</p> + + <p>The chief reason for the general belief that fire-built + rocks were older than water-built ones was, that the former are + as a rule found to lie <i>lower</i> than the latter. They form, + as it were, the basement of the building, while the top-stories + are made of water-built rocks.</p> + + <p>Many still believe that there is much truth in the thought. + It is most probable, so far as we are able to judge, that the + <i>first-formed</i> crust of rocks all over the earth was of + cooled and crystallized material. As these rocks were crumbled + and wasted by the ocean, materials would have been supplied for + the building-up of rocks, layer upon layer.</p> + + <p>But this is conjecture. We cannot know with any certainty + the course of events so far back in the past. And geologists + are now able to state with tolerable confidence that, however + old many of the granites may be, yet a large amount of the + fire-built rocks are no older than the water-built rocks which + lie over them.</p> + + <p>So by many geologists the names of Primary, Transition, and + Secondary Formations are pretty well given up. It has been + proposed to give instead to the <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page25"></a>[pg 25]</span> crystallized rocks of all + kinds the name of Underlying Rocks (Hypogene Rocks).</p> + + <p>But if they really do lie under, how can they possibly be of + the same age? One would scarcely venture to suppose, in looking + at a building, that the cellars had not been finished before + the upper floors.</p> + + <p>True. In the first instance doubtless the cellars were first + made, then the ground-floor, then the upper stories.</p> + + <p>When, however, the house was so built, alterations and + improvements might be very widely carried on above and below. + While one set of workmen were engaged in remodelling the roof, + another set of workmen might be engaged in remodelling the + kitchens and first floor, pulling down, propping up, and + actually rebuilding parts of the lower walls.</p> + + <p>This is precisely what the two great fellow-workmen, Fire + and Water, are ever doing in the crust of our earth. And if it + be objected that such alterations too widely undertaken might + result in slips, cracks, and slidings, of ceilings and walls in + the upper stories, I can only say that such catastrophes + <i>have</i> been the result of underground alterations in that + great building, the earth's crust....</p> + + <p>We see therefore clearly that, although the earliest + fire-made rocks may very likely date farther back than the + earliest water-made rocks, yet the making of the two kinds has + gone on side by side, one below and the other above ground, + through all ages up to the present moment.</p> + + <p>And just as in the present day water continues its + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page26"></a>[pg 26]</span> busy work above ground of + pulling down and building up, so also fire continues its + busy work underground of melting rocks which afterwards cool + into new forms, and also of shattering and upheaving parts + of the earth-crust.</p> + + <p>For there can be no doubt that fiery heat does exist as a + mighty power within our earth, though to what extent we are not + able to say.</p> + + <p>These two fellow-workers in nature have different modes of + working. One we can see on all sides, quietly progressing, + demolishing land patiently bit by bit, building up land + steadily grain by grain. The other, though more commonly hidden + from sight, is fierce and tumultuous in character, and shows + his power in occasional terrific outbursts.</p> + + <p>We can scarcely realize what the power is of the imprisoned + fiery forces underground, though even we are not without some + witness of their existence. From time to time even our firm + land has been felt to tremble with a thrill from some far-off + shock; and even in our country is seen the marvel of scalding + water pouring unceasingly from deep underground....</p> + + <p>Think of the tremendous eruptions of Vesuvius, of Etna, of + Hecla, of Mauna Loa. Think of whole towns crushed and buried, + with their thousands of living inhabitants. Think of rivers of + glowing lava streaming up from regions below ground, and + pouring along the surface for a distance of forty, fifty, and + even sixty miles, as in Iceland and Hawaii. Think of red-hot + cinders flung from a volcano-crater to a height of ten thousand + feet. Think of lakes of liquid fire in other craters, five + hundred to a thousand feet across, huge <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page27"></a>[pg 27]</span> cauldrons of boiling rock. + Think of showers of ashes from the furnace below of yet + another, borne so high aloft as to be carried seven hundred + miles before they sank to earth again. Think of millions of + red-hot stones flung out in one eruption of Vesuvius. Think + of a mass of rock, one hundred cubic yards in size, hurled + to a distance of eight miles or more out of the crater of + Cotopaxi.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" + style="width:600px;"> + <a href="images/027.png"><img width="600" + src="images/027.png" + alt="HOT WELLS."></a><br> + HOT WELLS. + </div> + + <p>Think also of earthquake-shocks felt through twelve hundred + miles of country. Think of fierce tremblings and heavings + lasting in constant succession through days and weeks of + terror. Think of hundreds of miles of land raised several feet + in one great upheaval. Think of the earth opening in scores of + wide-lipped cracks, to swallow men and beasts. Think of hot + mud, boiling water, scalding stream, liquid rock, bursting + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page28"></a>[pg 28]</span> from such cracks, or pouring + from rents in a mountain-side.</p> + + <p>Truly these are signs of a state of things in or below the + solid crust on which we live, that may make us doubt the + absolute security of "Mother Earth."</p> + + <p>Different explanations have been put forward to explain this + seemingly fiery state of things underground.</p> + + <p>Until lately the belief was widely held that our earth was + one huge globe of liquid fire, with only a slender cooled crust + covering her, a few miles in thickness.</p> + + <p>This view was supported by the fact that heat is found to + increase as men descend into the earth. Measurements of such + heat-increase have been taken, both in mines and in borings for + wells. The usual rate is about one degree more of heat, of our + common thermometer, for every fifty or sixty feet of descent. + If this were steadily continued, water would boil at a depth of + eight thousand feet below the surface; iron would melt at a + depth of twenty-eight miles; while at a depth of forty or fifty + miles no known substance upon earth could remain solid.</p> + + <p>The force of this proof is, however, weakened by the fact + that the rate at which the heat increases differs very much in + different places. Also it is now generally supposed that such a + tremendous furnace of heat—a furnace nearly eight + thousand miles in diameter—could not fail to break up and + melt so slight a covering shell.</p> + + <p>Many believe, therefore, not that the whole interior of + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page29"></a>[pg 29]</span> the earth is liquid with + heat, but that enormous fire-seas or lakes of melted rock + exist here and there, under or in the earth-crust. From + these lakes the volcanoes would be fed, and they would be + the cause of earthquakes and land-upheavals or + land-sinkings. There are strong reasons for supposing that + the earth was once a fiery liquid body, and that she has + slowly cooled through long ages. Some hold that her centre + probably grew solid first from tremendous pressure; that her + crust afterwards became gradually cold; and that between the + solid crust and the solid inside or "nucleus," a sea of + melted rock long existed, the remains of which are still to + be found in these tremendous fiery reservoirs.</p> + + <p>The idea accords well with the fact that large numbers of + extinct or dead volcanoes are scattered through many parts of + the earth. If the above explanation be the right one, doubtless + the fire-seas in the crust extended once upon a time beneath + such volcanoes, but have since died out or smouldered low in + those parts.</p> + + <p>A somewhat curious calculation has been made, to illustrate + the different modes of working of these two mighty + powers—Fire and Water.</p> + + <p>The amount of land swept away each year in mud, and borne to + the ocean by the River Ganges, was roughly reckoned, and also + the amount of land believed to have been upheaved several feet + in the great Chilian earthquake.</p> + + <p>It was found that the river, steadily working month by + month, would require some four hundred years to carry to the + sea the same weight of material, which in <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page30"></a>[pg 30]</span> one tremendous effort was + upheaved by the fiery underground forces.</p> + + <p>Yet we must not carry this distinction too far. Fire does + not always work suddenly, or water slowly; witness the slow + rising and sinking of land in parts of the earth, continuing + through centuries; and witness also the effects of great floods + and storms.</p> + + <p>The crust of the earth is made of rock. But what is rock + made of?</p> + + <p>Certain leading divisions of rocks have been already + considered:</p> + + <p>The Water-made Rocks;</p> + + <p>The Fire-made Rocks, both Plutonic and Volcanic;</p> + + <p>The Water-and-Fire-made Rocks.</p> + + <p>The first of these—Water-made Rocks—may be + subdivided into three classes. These are,—</p> + + <p>I. <i>Flint Rocks</i>; II. <i>Clay Rocks</i>; III. <i>Lime + Rocks</i>.</p> + + <p>This is not a book in which it would be wise to go closely + into the mineral nature of rocks. Two or three leading thoughts + may, however, be given.</p> + + <p>Does it not seem strange that the hard and solid rocks + should be in great measure formed of the same substances which + form the thin invisible air floating around us?</p> + + <p>Yet so it is. There is a certain gas called Oxygen Gas. + Without that gas you could not live many minutes. Banish it + from the room in which you are sitting, and in a few minutes + you will die.</p> + + <p>This gas makes up nearly one-quarter by weight of the + atmosphere round the whole earth.</p><span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page31"></a>[pg 31]</span> + + <p>The same gas plays an important part in the ocean; for more + than three-quarters of water is <i>oxygen</i>.</p> + + <p>It plays also an important part in rocks; for about half the + material of the entire earth's crust is oxygen.</p> + + <p>Another chief material in rocks is <i>silicon</i>. This + makes up one-quarter of the crust, leaving only one-quarter to + be accounted for. Silicon mixed with oxygen makes silica or + quartz. There are few rocks which have not a large amount of + quartz in them. Common flint, sandstones, and the sand of our + shores, are made of quartz, and therefore belong to the first + class of Silicious or Flint Rocks. Granites and lavas are about + one-half quartz. The beautiful stones, amethyst, agate, + chalcedony, and jasper, are all different kinds of quartz.</p> + + <p>Another chief material in rocks is a white metal called + <i>aluminium</i>. United to oxygen it becomes alumina, the + chief substance in clay. Rocks of this kind—such as + clays, and also the lovely blue gem, sapphire—are called + Argillaceous Rocks, from the Latin word for clay, and belong to + the second class. Such rocks keep fossils well.</p> + + <p>Another is <i>calcium</i>. United to oxygen and carbonic + acid, it makes carbonate of lime, the chief substance in + limestone; so all limestones belong to the third class of + Calcareous or Lime Rocks.</p> + + <p>Other important materials may be mentioned, such as + <i>magnesium, potassium, sodium, iron, carbon, sulphur, + hydrogen, chlorine, nitrogen</i>. These, with many more, not so + common, make up the remaining quarter of the earth-crust.</p> + + <p>Carbon plays as important a part in animal and vegetable + life as silicon in rocks. Carbon is most <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page32"></a>[pg 32]</span> commonly seen in three + distinct forms—as charcoal, as black-lead, and as the + pure brilliant diamond. Carbon united, in a particular + proportion, to oxygen, forms carbonic acid; and carbonic + acid united, in a particular proportion, to lime, forms + limestone.</p> + + <p><i>Hydrogen</i> united to oxygen forms water. Each of these + two gases is invisible alone, but when they meet and mingle + they form a liquid.</p> + + <p><i>Nitrogen</i> united to oxygen and to a small quantity of + carbonic acid gas forms our atmosphere.</p> + + <p>Rocks of pure flint, pure clay, or pure lime, are rarely or + never met with. Most rocks are made up of several different + substances melted together.</p> + <hr> + + <p>In the fire-built rocks no remains of animals are found, + though in water-built rocks they abound. Water-built rocks are + sometimes divided into two classes—those which only + contain occasional animal remains, and those which are more or + less built up of the skeletons of animals.</p> + + <div class="figleft" + style="width:250px;"> + <a href="images/032.png"><img width="250" + src="images/032.png" + alt= + "AMIBA PRINCEPS, ONE OF THE MANY ORDERS OF THE RHIZOPODA CLASS, MAGNIFIED ONE HUNDRED TIMES."></a><br> + + <p>AMIBA PRINCEPS, ONE OF THE MANY ORDERS OF THE RHIZOPODA + CLASS, MAGNIFIED ONE HUNDRED TIMES.</p> + </div> + + <p>There are some exceedingly tiny creatures inhabiting the + ocean, called Rhizopods. They live in minute shells, the + largest of which may be almost the size of a grain of wheat, + but by far the greater number are invisible as shells without a + microscope, and merely show as fine dust. The + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page33"></a>[pg 33]</span> rhizopods are of different + shapes, sometimes round, sometimes spiral, sometimes having + only one cell, sometimes having several cells. In the latter + case a separate animal lives in each cell. The animal is of + the very simplest as well as the smallest kind. He has not + even a mouth or a stomach but can take in food at any part + of his body.</p><br> + + <div class="figright" + style="width:300px;"> + <a href="images/033.png"><img width="300" + src="images/033.png" + alt="RHIZOPODS (MAGNIFIED)."></a><br> + RHIZOPODS (MAGNIFIED). + </div> + + <p>These rhizopods live in the oceans in enormous numbers. Tens + of millions are ever coming into existence, living out their + tiny lives, dying, and sinking to the bottom.</p> + + <p>There upon the ocean-floor gather their remains, a heaped-up + multitude of minute skeletons or shells, layer forming over + layer.</p> + + <p>It was long suspected that the white chalk cliffs of England + were built up in some such manner as this through past ages. + And now at length proof has been found, in the shape of mud + dredged up from the ocean-bottom—mud entirely composed of + countless multitudes of these little shells, dropping there by + myriads, and becoming slowly joined together in one mass.</p> + + <p>Just so, it is believed, were the white chalk cliffs + built—gradually prepared on the ocean-floor, and then + slowly or suddenly upheaved, so as to become a part of the dry + land.</p> + + <p>Think what the enormous numbers must have been of tiny + living creatures, out of whose shells the wide + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page34"></a>[pg 34]</span> reaches of white chalk cliffs + have been made. Chalk cliffs and chalk layers extend from + Ireland, through England and France, as far as to the + Crimea. In the south of Russia they are said to be six + hundred feet thick. Yet one cubic inch of chalk is + calculated to hold the remains of more than one million + rhizopods. How many countless millions upon millions must + have gone to the whole structure! How long must the work of + building up have lasted!</p> + + <div class="figleft" + style="width:250px;"> + <a href="images/034-1.png"><img width="250" + src="images/034-1.png" + alt="THREE POLYPS OF CORAL."></a><br> + THREE POLYPS OF CORAL. + </div> + + <p>These little shells do not always drop softly and evenly to + the ocean-floor, to become quietly part of a mass of shells. + Sometimes, where the ocean is shallow enough for the waves to + have power below, or where land currents can reach, they are + washed about, and thrown one against another, and ground into + fine powder; and the fine powder becomes in time, through + different causes, solid rock.</p> + + <div class="figright" + style="width:250px;"> + <a href="images/034-2.png"><img width="250" + src="images/034-2.png" + alt="CORAL POLYP."></a><br> + CORAL POLYP. + </div> + + <p>Limestone is made in another way also. In the warm waters of + the South Pacific Ocean there are many islands, large and + small, which have <span class="pagenum"><a id="page35"></a>[pg 35]</span> been formed in a wonderful + manner by tiny living workers. The workers are soft + jelly-like creatures, called polyps, who labor together in + building up great walls and masses of coral.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" + style="width:600px"> + <a href="images/035-1.png"><img width="600" + src="images/035-1.png" + alt="CORAL ISLAND."></a><br> + CORAL ISLAND. + </div> + + <div class="figright" + style="width:400px;"> + <a href="images/035-2.png"><img width="400" + src="images/035-2.png" + alt="YOUNG CORAL POLYP ATTACHED TO A ROCK"></a><br> + YOUNG CORAL POLYP ATTACHED TO A ROCK AND EXPANDED. + </div> + + <p>They never carry on their work above the surface of the + water, for in the air they would die. But the waves break the + coral, and heap it up above high-water mark, and carry earth + and seeds to drop there till at length a small low-lying island + is formed.</p> + + <p>The waves not only heap up broken coral, but they grind the + coral into fine powder, and from this powder limestone rock is + made, just as it is from the powdered <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page36"></a>[pg 36]</span> shells of rhizopods. The + material used by the polyps in building the coral is chiefly + lime, which they have the power of gathering out of the + water, and the fine coral-powder, sinking to the bottom, + makes large quantities of hard limestone. Soft chalk is + rarely, if ever, found near the coral islands.</p> + + <div class="figleft" + style="width:300px;"> + <a href="images/036.png"><img width="300" + src="images/036.png" + alt= + "WHITE CORAL. 2. PORTION OF A BRANCH (MAGNIFIED)."></a><br> + WHITE CORAL. 2. PORTION OF A BRANCH (MAGNIFIED). + </div> + + <p>Limestones are formed in the same manner from the grinding + up of other sea-shells and fossils, various in kind; the powder + becoming gradually united into solid rock.</p> + + <p>There is yet another way in which limestone is made, quite + different from all these. Sometimes streams of water have a + large quantity of lime in them; and these as they flow will + drop layers of lime which harden into rock. Or a lime-laden + spring, making its way through the roof of an underground + cavern, will leave all kinds of fantastic arrangements of + limestone wherever its waters can trickle and drip. Such a + cavern is called a "stalactite cave."</p> + <hr> + + <p>So there are different kinds of fossil rock-making. There + may be rocks made of other materials, with fossil simply buried + in them. There may be rocks <span class="pagenum"><a name= + "page37" + id="page37"></a>[pg 37]</span> made entirely of fossils, + which have gathered in masses as they sank to the + sea-bottom, and have there become simply and lightly joined + together. There may be rocks made of the ground-up powder of + fossils, pressed into a solid substance or united by some + other substance.</p> + + <p>Rocks are also often formed of whole fossils, or stones, or + shells, bound into one by some natural soft sticky cement, + which has gathered round them and afterwards grown hard, like + the cement which holds together the stones in a wall.</p> + + <p>The tiny rhizopods (meaning root foot) which have so large a + share in chalk and limestone making, are among the smallest and + simplest known kinds of animal life.</p> + + <p>There are also some very minute forms of vegetable life, + which exist in equally vast numbers, called Diatoms. For a long + while they were believed to be living animals, like the + rhizopods. Scientific men are now, however, pretty well agreed + that they really are only vegetables or plants.</p> + + <p>The diatoms have each one a tiny shell or shield, not made + of lime like the rhizopod-shells, but of flint. Some think that + common flint may be formed of these tiny shells.</p> + + <p>Again, there is a kind of rock called Mountain Meal, which + is entirely made up of the remains of diatoms. Examined under + the microscope, thousands of minute flint shields of various + shapes are seen. This rock, or earth, is very abundant in many + places, and is sometimes used as a polishing powder. In Bohemia + there is a layer of it no less than fourteen feet thick. Yet so + minute are the shells of which it is composed, that one square + inch of rock is said to contain about four <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page38"></a>[pg 38]</span> thousand millions of them. + Each one of these millions is a separate distinct + fossil....</p> + <hr> + + <div class="figleft" + style="width:250px"> + <a href="images/038.png"><img width="250" + src="images/038.png" + alt= + "SUCCESSION OF BURIED COAL-GROWTHSAND ERECT TREE-STUMPS. SYDNEY, CAPE BRETON."></a> + + <p>SUCCESSION OF BURIED COAL-GROWTHS AND ERECT TREE-STUMPS. + SYDNEY, CAPE BRETON.</p> + + <p><i>a.</i> Sandstone, <i>b.</i> Shales, <i>c.</i> + Coal-seams, <i>d.</i> Bed containing Roots and Stumps <i>in + situ</i>.</p> + </div> + + <p>If you examine carefully a piece of coal, you will find, + more or less clearly, markings like those which are seen in a + piece of wood. Sometimes they are very distinct indeed. Coal + abounds in impressions of leaves, ferns, and stems, and fossil + remains of plants and tree-trunks are found in numbers in + coal-seams.</p> + + <p>Coal is a vegetable substance. The wide coal-fields of + Britain and other lands are the <i>fossil</i> remains of vast + forests.</p> + + <p>Long ages ago, as it seems, broad and luxuriant forests + flourished over the earth. In many parts generation after + generation of trees lived and died and decayed, leaving no + trace of their existence, beyond a little layer of black mould, + soon to be carried away by wind and water. Coal could only be + formed where there were bogs and quagmires.</p> + + <p>But in bogs and <span class="pagenum"><a id="page39"></a>[pg 39]</span> quagmires, and in shallow + lakes of low-lying lands, there were great gatherings of + slowly-decaying vegetable remains, trees, plants, and ferns + all mingling together. Then after a while the low lands + would sink and the ocean pouring in would cover them with + layers of protecting sand or mud; and sometimes the land + would rise again, and fresh forests would spring into life, + only to be in their turn overwhelmed anew, and covered by + fresh sandy or earthy deposits.</p> + + <p>These buried forests lay through the ages following, slowly + hardening into the black and shining coal, so useful now to + man.</p> + + <p>The coal is found thus in thin or thick seams, with other + rock-layers between, telling each its history of centuries long + past. In one place no less than sixteen such beds of coal are + found, one below another, each divided from the next above and + the next underneath by beds of clay or sand or shale. The + forests could not have grown in the sea, and the earth-layers + could not have been formed on land, therefore many land-risings + and sinkings must have taken place. Each bed probably tells the + tale of a succession of forests....</p> + <hr> + + <p>Before going on to a sketch of the early ages of the Earth's + history—ages stretching back long long before the time of + Adam—it is needful to think yet for a little longer about + the manner in which that history is written, and the way in + which it has to be read.</p> + + <p>For the record is one difficult to make out, and its style + of expression is often dark and mysterious. There is scarcely + any other volume in the great Book of Nature, which the student + is so likely to misread as this <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page40"></a>[pg 40]</span> one. It is very needful, + therefore, to hold the conclusions of geologists with a + light grasp, guarding each with a "perhaps" or a "may be." + Many an imposing edifice has been built, in geology, upon a + rickety foundation which has speedily given way.</p> + + <p>In all ages of the world's history up to the present day, + rock-making has taken place—fire-made rocks being + fashioned underground, and water-made rocks being fashioned + above ground though under water.</p> + + <p>Also in all ages different kinds of rocks have been + fashioned side by side—limestone in one part of the + world, sandstone in another, chalk in another, clay in another, + and so on. There have, it is true, been ages when one kind + seems to have been the <i>chief</i> kind—an age of + limestone, or an age of chalk. But even then there were + doubtless more rock-buildings going on, though not to so great + an extent. On the other hand, there may have been ages during + which no limestone was made, or no chalk, or no clay. As a + general rule, however, the various sorts of rock-building have + probably gone on together. This was not so well understood by + early geologists as it is now.</p> + + <p>The difficulty is often great of disentangling the different + strata, and saying which was earlier and which later + formed.</p> + + <p>Still, by close and careful study of the rocks which compose + the earth's crust, a certain kind of order is found to exist, + more or less followed out in all parts of the world. + <i>When</i> each layer was formed in England or in America, the + geologist cannot possibly say. He can, however, assert, in + either place, that a certain mass of rock was formed before a + certain other mass <span class="pagenum"><a id="page41"></a>[pg 41]</span> in that same place, even + though the two may seem to lie side by side; for he knows + that they were so placed only by upheaval, and that once + upon a time the one lay beneath the other.</p> + + <p>The geologist can go further. He can often declare that a + certain mass of rock in America and a certain mass of rock in + England, quite different in kind, were probably built up at + about the same time. How long ago that time was he would be + rash to attempt to say; but that the two belong to the same age + he has good reason for supposing.</p> + + <p>We find rocks piled upon rocks in a certain order, so that + we may generally be pretty confident that the lower rocks were + first made, and the upper rocks the latest built. Further than + this, we find in all the said layers of water-built rocks signs + of past life.</p> + + <p>As already stated, much of this life was ocean-life, though + not all.</p> + + <p>Below the sea, as the rock-layers were being formed, bit by + bit, of earth dropping from the ocean to the ocean's floor, + sea-creatures lived out their lives and died by thousands, to + sink to that same floor. Millions passed away, dissolving and + leaving no trace behind; but thousands were + preserved—shells often, animals sometimes.</p> + + <p>Nor was this all. For now and again some part of the + sea-bottom was upheaved, slowly or quickly, till it became dry + land. On this dry land animals lived again, and thousands of + them, too, died, and their bones crumbled into dust. But here + and there one was caught in bog or frost, and his remains were + preserved till, through lapse of ages, they turned to + stone.</p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page42"></a>[pg 42]</span> + + <p>Yet again that land would sink, and over it fresh layers + were formed by the ocean-waters, with fresh remains of + sea-animals buried in with the layers of sand or lime; and once + more the sea-bottom would rise, perhaps then to continue as dry + land, until the day when man should discover and handle these + hidden remains.</p> + + <p>Now note a remarkable fact as to these fossils, scattered + far and wide through the layers of stratified rock.</p> + + <p>In the uppermost and latest built rocks the animals found + are the same, in great measure, as those which now exist upon + the earth.</p> + + <p>Leaving the uppermost rocks, and examining those which lie a + little way below, we find a difference. Some are still the + same, and others, if not quite the same, are very much like + what we have now; but here and there a creature of a different + form appears.</p> + + <p>Go deeper still, and the kinds of animals change further. + Fewer and fewer resemble those which now range the earth; more + and more belong to other species.</p> + + <p>Descend through layer after layer till we come to rocks + built in earliest ages and not one fossil shall we find + precisely the same as one animal living now.</p> + + <p>So not only are the rocks built in successive order, stratum + after stratum belonging to age after age in the past, but + fossil-remains also are found in successive order, kind after + kind belonging to past age after age.</p> + + <p>Although in the first instance the succession of fossils was + understood by means of the succession of <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page43"></a>[pg 43]</span> rock-layers, yet in the + second place the arrangement of rock-layers is made more + clear by the means of these very fossils.</p> + + <p>A geologist, looking at the rocks in America, can say which + there were first-formed, which second-formed, which + third-formed. Also, looking at the rocks in England, he can say + which there were first-formed, second-formed, third-formed. He + would, however, find it very difficult, if not impossible, to + say which among any of the American rocks was formed at about + the same time as any particular one among the English rocks, + were it not for the help afforded him by these fossils.</p> + + <p>Just as the regular succession of rock-strata has been + gradually learned, so the regular succession of different + fossils is becoming more and more understood. It is now known + that some kinds of fossils are always found in the oldest + rocks, and in them only; that some kinds are always found in + the newest rocks, and in them only; that some fossils are + rarely or never found lower than certain layers; that some + fossils are rarely or never found higher than certain other + layers.</p> + + <p>So this fossil arrangement is growing into quite a history + of the past. And a geologist, looking at certain rocks, pushed + up from underground, in England and in America, can say: "These + are very different kinds of rocks, it is true, and it would be + impossible to say how long the building up of the one might + have taken place before or after the other. But I see that in + both these rocks there are exactly the same kinds of + fossil-remains, differing from those in the rocks above and + below. I conclude therefore that the two rocks belong to about + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page44"></a>[pg 44]</span> the same great age in the + world's past history, when the same animals were living upon + the earth."</p> + + <p>Observing and reasoning thus, geologists have drawn up a + general plan or order of strata; and the whole of the vast + masses of water-built rocks throughout the world have been + arranged in a regular succession of classes, rising step by + step from earliest ages up to the present time.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" + style="width:500px;"> + <a href="images/044.png"><img width="500" + src="images/044.png" + alt="Water built rocks."></a> + </div> + + <p> </p> + + <p> </p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page45"></a>[pg 45]</span> + + <h2>AMERICA THE OLD WORLD</h2> + + <h4 class="sc">(From Geological Sketches.)</h4> + + <h3><span class="sc">By</span> L. AGASSIZ.</h3> + <hr class="short"> + + <div class="figleft" + style="width:250px;"> + <a href="images/045.png"><img width="250" + src="images/045.png" + alt="Globe of Americas"></a> + </div> + + <p>First-born among the Continents, though so much later in + culture and civilization than some of more recent birth, + America, so far as her physical history is concerned, has been + falsely denominated the <i>New World</i>. Hers was the first + dry land lifted out of the waters, hers the first shore washed + by the ocean that enveloped all the earth beside; and while + Europe was represented only by islands rising here and there + above the sea, America already stretched an unbroken line of + land from Nova Scotia to the Far West.</p> + + <p>In the present state of our knowledge, our conclusions + respecting the beginning of the earth's history, the way in + which it took form and shape as a distinct, separate planet, + must, of course, be very vague and <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page46"></a>[pg 46]</span> hypothetical. Yet the + progress of science is so rapidly reconstructing the past + that we may hope to solve even this problem; and to one who + looks upon man's appearance upon the earth as the crowning + work in a succession of creative acts, all of which have had + relation to his coming in the end, it will not seem strange + that he should at last be allowed to understand a history + which was but the introduction to his own existence. It is + my belief that not only the future, but the past also, is + the inheritance of man, and that we shall yet conquer our + lost birthright.</p> + + <p>Even now our knowledge carries us far enough to warrant the + assertion that there was a time when our earth was in a state + of igneous fusion, when no ocean bathed it and no atmosphere + surrounded it, when no wind blew over it and no rain fell upon + it, but an intense heat held all its materials in solution. In + those days the rocks which are now the very bones and sinews of + our mother Earth—her granites, her porphyries, her + basalts, her syenites—were melted into a liquid mass. As + I am writing for the unscientific reader, who may not be + familiar with the facts through which these inferences have + been reached, I will answer here a question which, were we + talking together, he might naturally ask in a somewhat + sceptical tone. How do you know that this state of things ever + existed, and, supposing that the solid materials of which our + earth consists were ever in a liquid condition, what right have + you to infer that this condition was caused by the action of + heat upon them? I answer, Because it is acting upon them still; + because the earth we tread is but a thin crust floating on a + liquid sea of molten <span class="pagenum"><a id="page47"></a>[pg 47]</span> materials; because the + agencies that were at work then are at work now, and the + present is the logical sequence of the past. From artesian + wells, from mines, from geysers, from hot springs, a mass of + facts has been collected, proving incontestably the heated + condition of all substances at a certain depth below the + earth's surface; and if we need more positive evidence, we + have it in the fiery eruptions that even now bear fearful + testimony to the molten ocean seething within the globe and + forcing its way but from time to time. The modern progress + of Geology has led us by successive and perfectly connected + steps back to a time when what is now only an occasional and + rare phenomenon was the normal condition of our earth; when + the internal fires were enclosed by an envelope so thin that + it opposed but little resistance to their frequent outbreak, + and they constantly forced themselves through this crust, + pouring out melted materials that subsequently cooled and + consolidated on its surface. So constant were these + eruptions, and so slight was the resistance they + encountered, that some portions of the earlier rock-deposits + are perforated with numerous chimneys, narrow tunnels as it + were, bored by the liquid masses that poured <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page48"></a>[pg 48]</span> out through them and greatly + modified their first condition.</p> + + <div class="figright" + style="width:350px;"> + <a href="images/047.png"><img width="350" + src="images/047.png" + alt="IDEAL SECTION OF A VOLCANO IN ACTION."></a><br> + IDEAL SECTION OF A VOLCANO IN ACTION. + </div> + + <p>The question at once suggests itself, How was even this thin + crust formed? what should cause any solid envelope, however + slight and filmy when compared to the whole bulk of the globe, + to form upon the surface of such a liquid mass? At this point + of the investigation the geologist must appeal to the + astronomer; for in this vague and nebulous border-land, where + the very rocks lose their outlines and flow into each other, + not yet specialized into definite forms and + substances,—there the two sciences meet. Astronomy shows + us our planet thrown off from the central mass of which it once + formed a part, to move henceforth in an independent orbit of + its own. That orbit, it tells us, passed through celestial + spaces cold enough to chill this heated globe, and of course to + consolidate it externally. We know, from the action of similar + causes on a smaller scale and on comparatively insignificant + objects immediately about us, what must have been the effect of + this cooling process upon the heated mass of the globe. All + substances when heated occupy more space than they do when + cold. Water, which expands when freezing, is the only exception + to this rule. The first effect of cooling the surface of our + planet must have been to solidify it, and thus to form a film + or crust over it. That crust would shrink as the cooling + process went on; in consequence of the shrinking, wrinkles and + folds would arise upon it, and here and there, where the + tension was too great, cracks and fissures would be produced. + In proportion as the surface cooled, the masses within would be + affected by the change of <span class="pagenum"><a name= + "page49" + id="page49"></a>[pg 49]</span> temperature outside of them, + and would consolidate internally also, the crust gradually + thickening by this process.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" + style="width:300px;"> + <a href="images/069.jpg"><img width="300" + src="images/069sm.jpg" + alt="A VOLCANO."></a><br> + A VOLCANO. + </div> + + <p>But there was another element without the globe, equally + powerful in building it up. Fire and water wrought together in + this work, if not always harmoniously, at least with equal + force and persistency. I have said that there was a time when + no atmosphere surrounded the earth; but one of the first + results of the cooling of its crust must have been the + formation of an atmosphere, with all the phenomena connected + with it,—the rising of vapors, their condensation into + clouds, the falling of rains, the gathering of waters upon its + surface. Water is a very active agent of destruction, but it + works over again the materials it pulls down or wears away, and + builds them up anew in other forms. As soon as an ocean washed + over the consolidated crust of the globe, it would begin to + abrade the surfaces upon which it moved, gradually loosening + and detaching materials, to deposit them again as sand or mud + or pebbles at its bottom in successive layers, one above + another. Thus, in analyzing the crust of the globe, we find at + once two kinds of rocks, the respective work of fire and water: + the first poured out from the furnaces within, and cooling, as + one may see any mass of metal cool that is poured out from a + smelting-furnace to-day, in solid crystalline masses, without + any division into separate layers or leaves; and the latter in + successive beds, one over another, the heavier materials below, + the lighter above, or sometimes in alternate layers, as special + causes may have determined successive deposits of lighter or + heavier materials at some given spot.</p><span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page50"></a>[pg 50]</span> + + <p>There were many well-fought battles between geologists + before it was understood that these two elements had been + equally active in building up the crust of the earth. The + ground was hotly contested by the disciples of the two + geological schools, one of which held that the solid envelope + of the earth was exclusively due to the influence of fire, + while the other insisted that it had been accumulated wholly + under the agency of water. This difference of opinion grew up + very naturally; for the great leaders of the two schools lived + in different localities, and pursued their investigations over + regions where the geological phenomena were of an entirely + opposite character,—the one exhibiting the effect of + volcanic eruptions, the other that of stratified deposits. It + was the old story of the two knights on opposite sides of the + shield, one swearing that it was made of gold, the other that + it was made of silver; and almost killing each other before + they discovered that it was made of both. So prone are men to + hug their theories and shut their eyes to any antagonistic + facts, that it is related of Werner, the great leader of the + Aqueous school, that he was actually on his way to see a + geological locality of especial interest, but, being told that + it confirmed the views of his opponents, he turned round and + went home again, refusing to see what might force him to change + his opinions. If the rocks did not confirm his theory, so much + the worse for the rocks,—he would none of them. At last + it was found that the two great chemists, fire and water, had + worked together in the vast laboratory of the globe, and since + then scientific men have decided to work together also; and if + they still have a passage <span class="pagenum"><a name= + "page51" + id="page51"></a>[pg 51]</span> at arms occasionally over + some doubtful point, yet the results of their investigations + are ever drawing them nearer to each other,—since men + who study truth, when they reach their goal, must always + meet at last on common ground.</p> + + <p>The rocks formed under the influence of heat are called, in + geological language, the Igneous, or, as some naturalists have + named them, the Plutonic rocks, alluding to their fiery origin, + while the others have been called Aqueous or Neptunic rocks, in + reference to their origin under the agency of water. A simpler + term, however, quite as distinctive, and more descriptive of + their structure, is that of the stratified and massive or + unstratified rocks. We shall see hereafter how the relative + position of these two classes of rocks and their action upon + each other enable us to determine the chronology of the earth, + to compare the age of her mountains, and, if we have no + standard by which to estimate the positive duration of her + continents, to say at least which was the first-born among + them, and how their characteristic features have been + successfully worked out. I am aware that many of these + inferences, drawn from what is called "the geological record," + must seem to be the work of the imagination. In a certain sense + this is true,—for imagination, chastened by correct + observation, is our best guide in the study of Nature. We are + too apt to associate the exercise of this faculty with works of + fiction, while it is in fact the keenest detective of + truth.</p> + + <div class="figleft" + style="width:350px;"> + <a href="images/052.png"><img width="350" + src="images/052.png" + alt="DIKES."></a><br> + DIKES. + </div> + + <p>Besides the stratified and massive rocks, there is still a + third set, produced by the contact of these two, and called, in + consequence of the changes thus brought <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page52"></a>[pg 52]</span> about, the Metamorphic rocks. + The effect of heat upon clay is to bake it into slate; + limestone under the influence of heat becomes quick-lime, + or, if subjected afterwards to the action of water, it is + changed to mortar; sand under the same agency is changed to + a coarse kind of glass. Suppose, then, that a volcanic + eruption takes place in a region of the earth's surface + where successive layers of limestone, of clay, and of + sandstone, have been previously deposited by the action of + water. If such an eruption has force enough to break through + these beds, the hot, melted masses will pour out through the + rent, flow over its edges, and fill all the lesser cracks + and fissures produced by such a disturbance. What will be + the effect upon the stratified rocks? Wherever these liquid + masses, melted by a heat more intense than can be produced + by any artificial means, have flowed over them or cooled in + immediate contact with them, the clays will be changed to + slate, the limestone will have assumed a character more like + marble, while the sandstone will be vitrified. This is + exactly what has been found to be the case, wherever the + stratified rocks have been penetrated by the melted masses + from beneath. They have been themselves partially melted by + the contact, and when they have cooled again, their + stratification, though still perceptible, has been partly + obliterated, and their substance changed. Such effects + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page53"></a>[pg 53]</span> may often be traced in dikes, + which are only the cracks in rocks filled by materials + poured into them at some period of eruption when the melted + masses within the earth were thrown out and flowed like + water into any inequality or depression of the surface + around. The walls enclosing such a dike are often found to + be completely altered by contact with its burning contents, + and to have assumed a character quite different from the + rocks of which they make a part; while the mass itself which + fills the fissure shows by the character of its + crystallization that it has cooled more quickly on the + outside, where it meets the walls, than at the centre.</p> + + <p>The first two great classes of rocks, the unstratified and + stratified rocks, represent different epochs in the world's + physical history: the former mark its revolutions, while the + latter chronicle its periods of rest. All mountains and + mountain-chains have been upheaved by great convulsions of the + globe, which rent asunder the surface of the earth, destroyed + the animals and plants living upon it at the time, and were + then succeeded by long intervals of repose, when all things + returned to their accustomed order, ocean and river deposited + fresh beds in uninterrupted succession, the accumulation of + materials went on as before, a new set of animals and plants + were introduced, and a time of building up and renewing + followed the time of destruction. These periods of revolution + are naturally more difficult to decipher than the periods of + rest; for they have so torn and shattered the beds they + uplifted, disturbing them from their natural relations to each + other, that it is not easy to reconstruct the parts and give + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page54"></a>[pg 54]</span> them coherence and + completeness again. But within the last half-century this + work has been accomplished in many parts of the world with + an amazing degree of accuracy, considering the disconnected + character of the phenomena to be studied; and I think I + shall be able to convince my readers that the modern results + of geological investigation are perfectly sound logical + inferences from well-established facts. In this, as in so + many other things, we are but "children of a larger growth." + The world is the geologist's great puzzle-box; he stands + before it like the child to whom the separate pieces of his + puzzle remain a mystery till he detects their relation and + sees where they fit, and then his fragments grow at once + into a connected picture beneath his hand....</p> + + <p>When geologists first turned their attention to the physical + history of the earth, they saw at once certain great features + which they took to be the skeleton and basis of the whole + structure. They saw the great masses of granite forming the + mountains and mountain-chains, with the stratified rocks + resting against their slopes; and they assumed that granite was + the first primary agent, and that all stratified rocks must be + of a later formation. Although this involved a partial error, + as we shall see hereafter when we trace the upheavals of + granite even into comparatively modern periods, yet it held an + important geological truth also; for, though granite formations + are by no means limited to those early periods, they are + nevertheless very characteristic of them, and are indeed the + foundation-stones on which the physical history of the globe is + built.</p> + + <p>Starting from this landmark, the earlier geologists + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page55"></a>[pg 55]</span> divided the world's history + into three periods. As the historian recognizes Ancient + History, the Middle Ages, and Modern History as distinct + phases in the growth of the human race, so they + distinguished between what they called the Primary period, + when, as they believed, no life stirred on the surface of + the earth; the Secondary or middle period, when animals and + plants were introduced, and the land began to assume + continental proportions; and the Tertiary period, or + comparatively modern geological times, when the physical + features of the earth as well as its inhabitants were + approaching more nearly to the present condition of things. + But as their investigations proceeded, they found that every + one of these great ages of the world's history was divided + into numerous lesser epochs, each of which had been + characterized by a peculiar set of animals and plants, and + had been closed by some great physical convulsion, + disturbing and displacing the materials accumulated during + such a period of rest.</p> + + <p>The further study of these subordinate periods showed that + what had been called Primary formations, namely, the volcanic + or Plutonic rocks formerly believed to be confined to the first + geological ages, belonged to all the periods, successive + eruptions having taken place at all times, pouring up through + the accumulated deposits, penetrating and injecting their + cracks, fissures, and inequalities, as well as throwing out + large masses on the surface. Up to our own day there has never + been a period when such eruptions have not taken place, though + they have been constantly diminishing in frequency and extent. + In consequence of this discovery, that rocks of igneous + character were by no <span class="pagenum"><a id="page56"></a>[pg 56]</span> means exclusively + characteristic of the earliest times, they are now + classified together upon very different grounds from those + on which geologists first united them; though, as the name + <i>Primary</i> was long retained, we still find it applied + to them, even in geological works of quite recent date. This + defect of nomenclature is to be regretted, as likely to + mislead the student, because it seems to refer to time; + whereas it no longer signifies the age of the rocks, but + simply their character. The name Plutonic or Massive rocks + is, however, now almost universally substituted for that of + Primary.</p> + + <p>A wide field of investigation still remains to be explored + by the chemist and the geologist together, in the mineralogical + character of the Plutonic rocks, which differs greatly in the + different periods. The earlier eruptions seem to have been + chiefly granitic, though this must not be understood in too + wide a sense, since there are granite formations even as late + as the Tertiary period; those of the middle periods were mostly + porphyries and basalts; while in the more recent ones, lavas + predominate. We have as yet no clew to the laws by which this + distribution of volcanic elements in the formation of the earth + is regulated; but there is found to be a difference in the + crystals of the Plutonic rocks belonging to different ages, + which, when fully understood may enable us to determine the age + of any Plutonic rock by its mode of crystallization; so that + the mineralogist will as readily tell you by its crystals + whether a bit of stone of igneous origin belongs to this or + that period of the world's history, as the palæontologist will + tell you by its fossils whether a piece of rock + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page57"></a>[pg 57]</span> of aqueous origin belongs to + the Silurian or Devonian or Carboniferous deposits.</p> + + <p>Although subsequent investigations have multiplied so + extensively not only the number of geological periods, but also + the successive creations that have characterized them, yet the + first general division into three great eras was nevertheless + founded upon a broad and true generalization. In the first + stratified rocks in which any organic remains are found, the + highest animals are fishes, and the highest plants are + cryptogams; in the middle periods reptiles come in, accompanied + by fern and moss forests; in later times quadrupeds are + introduced, with a dicotyledonous vegetation. So closely does + the march of animal and vegetable life keep pace with the + material progress of the world, that we may well consider these + three divisions, included under the first general + classification of its physical history, as the three Ages of + Nature; the more important epochs which subdivide them may be + compared to so many great dynasties, while the lesser periods + are the separate reigns contained therein. Of such epochs there + are ten, well known to geologists; of the lesser periods about + sixty are already distinguished, while many more loom up from + the dim regions of the past, just discerned by the eye of + science, though their history is not yet unravelled.</p> + + <p>Before proceeding further, I will enumerate the geological + epochs in their succession, confining myself, however, to such + as are perfectly well established, without alluding to those of + which the limits are less definitely determined, and which are + still subject to doubts and discussions among geologists. As I + do not propose to <span class="pagenum"><a id="page58"></a>[pg 58]</span> make here any treatise of + Geology, but simply to place before my readers some pictures + of the old world, with the animals and plants that have + inhabited it at various times, I shall avoid, as far as + possible, all debatable ground, and confine myself to those + parts of my subject which are best known, and can therefore + be more clearly presented.</p> + + <div class="figleft" + style="width:250px"> + <a href="images/058.png"><img width="250" + src="images/058.png" + alt="FOSSIL SCORPION.--SILURIAN PERIOD."></a><br> + FOSSIL SCORPION.—SILURIAN PERIOD. + </div> + + <p>First, we have the Azoic period, <i>devoid of life</i>, as + its name signifies,—namely, the earliest stratified + deposits upon the heated film forming the first solid surface + of the earth, in which no trace of living thing has ever been + found. Next comes the Silurian period, when the crust of the + earth had thickened and cooled sufficiently to render the + existence of animals and plants upon it possible, and when the + atmospheric conditions necessary to their maintenance were + already established. Many of the names given to these periods + are by no means significant of their character, but are merely + the result of accident: as, for instance, that of Silurian, + given by Sir Roderick Murchison to this set of beds, because he + first studied them in that part of Wales occupied by the + ancient tribe of the Silures. The next period, the Devonian, + was for a similar reason <span class="pagenum"><a id="page59"></a>[pg 59]</span> named after the country of + Devonshire in England, where it was first investigated. Upon + this follows the Carboniferous period, with the immense + deposits of coal from which it derives its name. Then comes + the Permian period, named, again, from local circumstances, + the first investigation of its deposits having taken place + in the province of Permia in Russia. Next in succession we + have the Triassic period, so called from the trio of rocks, + the red sandstone, Muschel Kalk (shell-limestone), and + Keuper (clay), most frequently combined in its formations; + the Jurassic, so amply illustrated in the chain of the Jura, + where geologists first found the clew to its history; and + the Cretaceous period, to which the chalk cliffs of England + and all the extensive chalk deposits belong. Upon these + follow the so-called Tertiary formations, divided into three + periods, all of which have received most characteristic + names in this epoch of the world's history we see the first + approach to a condition of things resembling that now + prevailing, and Sir Charles Lyell has most fitly named + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page60"></a>[pg 60]</span> its three divisions, the + Eocene, Miocene, and Pliocene. The termination of the three + words is made from the Greek word <i>Kainos</i>, recent; + while <i>Eos</i> signifies dawn, <i>Meion</i> less, and + <i>Pleion</i> more. Thus Eocene indicates the dawn of recent + species, Pliocene their increase, while Miocene, the + intermediate term, means less recent. Above these deposits + comes what has been called in science the present + period,—<i>the modern times</i> of the + geologist,—that period to which man himself belongs, + and since the beginning of which, though its duration be + counted by hundreds of thousands of years, there has been no + alteration in the general configuration of the earth, + consequently no important modification of its climatic + conditions, and no change in the animals and plants + inhabiting it.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" + style="width:250px"> + <a href="images/059-1.png"><img width="250" + src="images/059-1.png" + alt="CRUSTACEA.--DEVONIAN PERIOD."></a><br> + CRUSTACEA.—DEVONIAN PERIOD. + </div> + + <div class="figcenter" + style="width:500px;"> + <a href="images/059-2.png"><img width="500" + src="images/059-2.png" + alt="FISH OF THE DEVONIAN PERIOD."></a><br> + FISH OF THE DEVONIAN PERIOD. + </div> + + <div class="figcenter" + style="width:500px;"> + <a href="images/060-1.png"><img width="500" + src="images/060-1.png" + alt="FISH OF THE CARBONIFEROUS PERIOD."></a><br> + FISH OF THE CARBONIFEROUS PERIOD. + </div> + + <div class="figcenter" + style="width:300px;"> + <a href="images/060-2.png"><img width="300" + src="images/060-2.png" + alt= + "FOSSIL VEGETATION OF CARBONIFEROUS PERIOD."></a><br> + FOSSIL VEGETATION OF CARBONIFEROUS PERIOD. + </div> + + <div class="figleft" + style="width:300px;"> + <a href="images/060-3.png"><img width="300" + src="images/060-3.png" + alt="FISH OF THE PERMIAN PERIOD."></a><br> + FISH OF THE PERMIAN PERIOD. + </div> + + <p>I have spoken of the first of these periods, the Azoic, + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page61"></a>[pg 61]</span> as having been absolutely + devoid of life, and I believe this statement to be strictly + true; but I ought to add that there is a difference of + opinion among geologists upon this point, many believing + that the first surface of our globe may have been inhabited + by living beings, but that all traces of their existence + have been obliterated by the eruptions of melted materials, + which not only altered the character of those earliest + stratified rocks, but destroyed all the organic remains + contained in them. It will be my object to show, not only + that the absence of the climatic and atmospheric conditions + essential to organic life, as we understand it, must have + rendered the previous existence of any living beings + impossible, but also that the completeness of the Animal + Kingdom in those deposits where we first find organic + remains, its intelligible and coherent connections with the + successive creations of all geological times and with the + animals now living, afford the strongest internal evidence + that we have indeed found in the lower Silurian formations, + immediately following the Azoic, the beginning of life upon + earth. When a story seems to us complete <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page62"></a>[pg 62]</span> and consistent from the + beginning to the end, we shall not seek for a first chapter, + even though the copy in which we have read it be so torn and + defaced as to suggest the idea that some portion of it may + have been lost. The unity of the work, as a whole, is an + incontestable proof that we possess it in its original + integrity. The validity of this argument will be recognized, + perhaps, only by those naturalists to whom the Animal + Kingdom has begun to appear as a connected whole. For those + who do not see order in Nature it can have no value.</p> + + <table> + <tr> + <td> + <div class="figleft" + style="width:300px;"> + <a href="images/061-1.png"><img width="300" + src="images/061-1.png" + alt= + "FOSSILS OF TRIASSIC VEGETATION."></a><br> + FOSSILS OF TRIASSIC VEGETATION. + </div> + </td> + + <td> + <div class="figright" + style="width:300px;"> + <a href="images/061-2.png"><img width="300" + src="images/061-2.png" + alt= + "BIRD OF THE JURASSIC PERIOD.(The Oldest Bird.)"></a><br> + BIRD OF THE JURASSIC PERIOD.(The Oldest Bird.) + </div> + </td> + </tr> + </table><br> + + <div class="figcenter" + style="width:300px;"> + <a href="images/062-1.png"><img width="300" + src="images/062-1.png" + alt= + "SKELETON OF BIRD OF THE CRETACEOUS PERIOD."></a><br> + SKELETON OF BIRD OF THE CRETACEOUS PERIOD. + </div><br> + + <div class="figleft" + style="width:350px;"> + <a href="images/062-2.png"><img width="350" + src="images/062-2.png" + alt= + "SKELETON OF ANIMAL OF THE EOCENE PERIOD."></a><br> + SKELETON OF ANIMAL OF THE EOCENE PERIOD. + </div> + + <p>For a table containing the geological periods in their + succession, I would refer to any modern text-book of Geology, + or to an article in the <i>Atlantic Monthly</i> for March, + 1862, upon "Methods of Study in Natural History," where they + are given in connection with the order of introduction of + animals upon earth.</p> + + <p>Were these sets of rocks found always in the regular + sequence in which I have enumerated them, their relative age + would be <span class="pagenum"><a id="page63"></a>[pg 63]</span> easily determined, for their + superposition would tell the whole story: the lowest would, + of course, be the oldest, and we might follow without + difficulty the ascending series, till we reached the + youngest and uppermost deposits. But their succession has + been broken up by frequent and violent alterations in the + configuration of the globe. Land and water have changed + their level,—islands have been transformed to + continents,—sea-bottoms have become dry land, and dry + land has sunk to form sea-bottoms,—Alps and Himalayas, + Pyrenees and Apennines, Alleghanies and Rocky Mountains, + have had their stormy birthdays since many of these beds + have been piled one above another, and there are but few + spots on the earth's surface where any number of them may be + found in their original order and natural position. When we + remember that Europe, which lies before us on the map as a + continent, was once an archipelago of islands,—that, + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page64"></a>[pg 64]</span> where the Pyrenees raise + their rocky barrier between France and Spain, the waters of + the Mediterranean and Atlantic met,—that, where the + British Channel flows, dry land united England and France, + and Nature in those days made one country of the lands + parted since by enmities deeper than the waters that run + between,—when we remember, in short, all the fearful + convulsions that have torn asunder the surface of the earth, + as if her rocky record had indeed been written on paper, we + shall find a new evidence of the intellectual unity which + holds together the whole physical history of the globe in + the fact that through all the storms of time the + investigator is able to trace one unbroken thread of thought + from the beginning to the present hour.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" + style="width:400px;"> + <a href="images/063-1.png"><img width="400" + src="images/063-1.png" + alt= + "SKELETON OF ANIMAL OF THE MIOCENE PERIOD."></a><br> + SKELETON OF ANIMAL OF THE MIOCENE PERIOD. + </div> + + <div class="figleft" + style="width:300px;"> + <a href="images/063-2.png"><img width="300" + src="images/063-2.png" + alt= + "SKELETON OF ANIMAL OF THE PLIOCENE PERIOD."></a><br> + SKELETON OF ANIMAL OF THE PLIOCENE PERIOD. + </div> + + <p>The tree is known by its fruits,—and the fruits of + chance are incoherence, incompleteness, unsteadiness, the + stammering utterance of blind, unreasoning force. A coherence + that binds all the geological ages in one chain, a stability of + purpose that completes in the beings born to-day an intention + expressed in the first creatures that swam in the Silurian + ocean or crept upon its shores, a steadfastness of thought, + practically recognized by man, if not acknowledged by him, + whenever he traces the intelligent connection between the facts + of Nature and combines them into what he is pleased to call his + system of Geology, or Zoölogy, or Botany,—these things + are not the fruits of chance or of an unreasoning force, but + the legitimate results of intellectual power. There is a + singular lack of logic, as it seems to me, in the views of the + materialistic naturalists. While they consider classification, + or, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page65"></a>[pg 65]</span> in other words, their + expression of the relations between animals or between + physical facts of any kind, as the work of their + intelligence, they believe the relations themselves to be + the work of physical causes. The more direct inference + surely is, that, if it requires an intelligent mind to + recognize them, it must have required an intelligent mind to + establish them. These relations existed before man was + created; they have existed ever since the beginning of time; + hence, what we call the classification of facts is not the + work of his mind in any direct original sense, but the + recognition of an intelligent action prior to his own + existence.</p> + + <p>There is, perhaps, no part of the world, certainly none + familiar to science, where the early geological periods can be + studied with so much ease and precision as in the United + States. Along their northern borders, between Canada and the + United States, there runs the low line of hills known as the + Laurentian Hills. Insignificant in height, nowhere rising more + than fifteen hundred or two thousand feet above the level of + the sea, these are nevertheless the first mountains that broke + the uniform level of the earth's surface and lifted themselves + above the waters. Their low stature, as compared with that of + other more lofty mountain-ranges, is in accordance with an + invariable rule, by which the relative age of mountains may be + estimated. The oldest mountains are the lowest, while the + younger and more recent ones tower above their elders, and are + usually more torn and dislocated also. This is easily + understood, when we remember that all mountains and + mountain-chains are the result of upheavals, and that + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page66"></a>[pg 66]</span> the violence of the outbreak + must have been in proportion to the strength of the + resistance. When the crust of the earth was so thin that the + heated masses within easily broke through it, they were not + thrown to so great a height, and formed comparatively low + elevations, such as the Canadian hills or the mountains of + Bretagne and Wales. But in later times, when young, vigorous + giants, such as the Alps, the Himalayas, or, later still, + the Rocky Mountains, forced their way out from their fiery + prison-house, the crust of the earth was much thicker, and + fearful indeed must have been the convulsions which attended + their exit.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" + style="width:500px;"> + <a href="images/066.png"><img width="500" + src="images/066.png" + alt="A PHYSICAL MAP OF THE UNITED STATES."></a><br> + A PHYSICAL MAP OF THE UNITED STATES. + </div> + + <p>The Laurentian Hills form, then, a granite range, stretching + from Eastern Canada to the Upper Mississippi, and immediately + along its base are gathered the Azoic deposits, the first + stratified beds, in which the absence of life need not surprise + us, since they were <span class="pagenum"><a id="page67"></a>[pg 67]</span> formed beneath a heated + ocean. As well might we expect to find the remains of fish + or shells or crabs at the bottom of geysers or of boiling + springs, as on those early shores bathed by an ocean of + which the heat must have been so intense. Although, from the + condition in which we find it, this first granite range has + evidently never been disturbed by any violent convulsion + since its first upheaval, yet there has been a gradual + rising of that part of the continent; for the Azoic beds do + not lie horizontally along the base of the Laurentian Hills + in the position in which they must originally have been + deposited, but are lifted and rest against their slopes. + They have been more or less dislocated in this process, and + are greatly metamorphized by the intense heat to which they + must have been exposed. Indeed, all the oldest stratified + rocks have been baked by the prolonged action of heat.</p> + + <p>It may be asked how the materials for those first stratified + deposits were provided. In later times, when an abundant and + various soil covered the earth, when every river brought down + to the ocean, not only its yearly tribute of mud or clay or + lime, but the débris of animals and plants that lived and died + in its waters or along its banks, when every lake and pond + deposited at its bottom in successive layers the lighter or + heavier materials floating in its waters and settling gradually + beneath them, the process by which stratified materials are + collected and gradually harden into rock is more easily + understood. But when the solid surface of the earth was only + just beginning to form, it would seem that the floating matter + in the sea can hardly have been in sufficient quantity to form + any extensive <span class="pagenum"><a id="page68"></a>[pg 68]</span> deposits. No doubt there was + some abrasion even of that first crust; but the more + abundant source of the earliest stratification is to be + found in the submarine volcanoes that poured their liquid + streams into the first ocean. At what rate these materials + would be distributed and precipitated in regular strata it + is impossible to determine; but that volcanic materials were + so deposited in layers is evident from the relative position + of the earliest rocks. I have already spoken of the + innumerable chimneys perforating the Azoic beds, narrow + outlets of Plutonic rock, protruding through the earliest + strata. Not only are such funnels filled with the + crystalline mass of granite that flowed through them in a + liquid state, but it has often poured over their sides, + mingling with the stratified beds around. In the present + state of our knowledge, we can explain such appearances only + by supposing that the heated materials within the earth's + crust poured out frequently, meeting little + resistance,—that they then scattered and were + precipitated in the ocean around, settling in successive + strata at its bottom,—that through such strata the + heated masses within continued to pour again and again, + forming for themselves the chimney-like outlets above + mentioned.</p> + + <p>Such, then, was the earliest American land,—a long, + narrow island, almost continental in its proportions, since it + stretched from the eastern borders of Canada nearly to the + point where now the base of the Rocky Mountains meets the plain + of the Mississippi Valley. We may still walk along its ridge + and know that we tread upon the ancient granite that first + divided the waters into a northern and southern ocean; and if + our <span class="pagenum"><a id="page69"></a>[pg 69]</span> imaginations will carry us so + far, we may look down toward its base and fancy how the sea + washed against this earliest shore of a lifeless world. This + is no romance, but the bald, simple truth; for the fact that + this granite band was lifted out of the waters so early in + the history of the world, and has not since been submerged, + has, of course, prevented any subsequent deposits from + forming above it. And this is true of all the northern part + of the United States. It has been lifted gradually, the beds + deposited in one period being subsequently raised, and + forming a shore along which those of the succeeding one + collected, so that we have their whole sequence before us. + In regions where all the geological deposits (Silurian, + Devonian, carboniferous, permian, triassic, etc.) are piled + one upon another, and we can get a glimpse of their internal + relations only where some rent has laid them open, or where + their ragged edges, worn away by the abrading action of + external influences, expose to view their successive layers, + it must, of course, be more difficult to follow their + connection. For this reason the American continent offers + facilities to the geologist denied to him in the so-called + Old World, where the earlier deposits are comparatively + hidden, and the broken character of the land, intersected by + mountains in every direction, renders his investigation + still more difficult. Of course, when I speak of the + geological deposits as so completely unveiled to us here, I + do not forget the sheet of drift which covers the continent + from north to south, and which we shall discuss hereafter, + when I reach that part of my subject. But the drift is only + a superficial and recent addition to the soil, resting + loosely above <span class="pagenum"><a id="page70"></a>[pg 70]</span> the other geological + deposits, and arising, as we shall see, from very different + causes.</p> + + <p>In this article I have intended to limit myself to a general + sketch of the formation of the Laurentian Hills with the Azoic + stratified beds resting against them. In the Silurian epoch + following the Azoic we have the first beach on which any life + stirred; it extended along the base of the Azoic beds, widening + by its extensive deposits the narrow strip of land already + upheaved. I propose ... to invite my readers to a stroll with + me along that beach.</p> + + <p>With what interest do we look upon any relic of early human + history! The monument that tells of a civilization whose + hieroglyphic records we cannot even decipher, the slightest + trace of a nation that vanished and left no sign of its life + except the rough tools and utensils buried in the old site of + its towns or villages, arouses our imagination and excites our + curiosity. Men gaze with awe at the inscription on an ancient + Egyptian or Assyrian stone; they hold with reverential touch + the yellow parchment-roll whose dim, defaced characters record + the meagre learning of a buried nationality; and the + announcement, that for centuries the tropical forests of + Central America have hidden within their tangled growth the + ruined homes and temples of a past race, stirs the civilized + world with a strange, deep wonder.</p> + + <p>To me it seems, that to look on the first land that was ever + lifted above the waste of waters, to follow the shore where the + earliest animals and plants were created when the thought of + God first expressed itself in organic forms, to hold in one's + hand a bit of stone from an old sea-beach, hardened into rock + thousands of <span class="pagenum"><a id="page71"></a>[pg 71]</span> centuries ago, and studded + with the beings that once crept upon its surface or were + stranded there by some retreating wave, is even of deeper + interest to men than the relies of their own race, for these + things tell more directly of the thoughts and creative acts + of God.</p> + + <p>Standing in the neighborhood of Whitehall, near Lake George, + one may look along such a seashore, and see it stretching + westward and sloping gently southward as far as the eye can + reach. It must have had a very gradual slope, and the waters + must have been very shallow; for at that time no great + mountains had been uplifted, and deep oceans are always the + concomitants of lofty heights. We do not, however, judge of + this by inference merely; we have an evidence of the + shallowness of the sea in those days in the character of the + shells found in the Silurian deposits, which shows that they + belonged in shoal waters.</p> + + <p>Indeed, the fossil remains of all times tell us almost as + much of the physical condition of the world at different epochs + as they do of its animal and vegetable population. When + Robinson Crusoe first caught sight of the footprint on the + sand, he saw in it more than the mere footprint, for it spoke + to him of the presence of men on his desert island. We walk on + the old geological shores, like Crusoe along his beach, and the + footprints we find there tell us, too, more than we actually + see in them. The crust of our earth is a great cemetery, where + the rocks are tombstones on which the buried dead have written + their own epitaphs. They tell us not only who they were and + when and where they lived, but much also of the circumstances + under which they lived. We ascertain the prevalence of certain + physical <span class="pagenum"><a id="page72"></a>[pg 72]</span> conditions at special epochs + by the presence of animals and plants whose existence and + maintenance required such a state of things, more than by + any positive knowledge respecting it. Where we find the + remains of quadrupeds corresponding to our ruminating + animals, we infer not only land, but grassy meadows also, + and an extensive vegetation; where we find none but marine + animals, we know the ocean must have covered the earth; the + remains of large reptiles, representing, though in gigantic + size, the half aquatic, half terrestrial reptiles of our own + period, indicate to us the existence of spreading marshes + still soaked by the retreating waters; while the traces of + such animals as live now in sand and shoal waters, or in + mud, speak to us of shelving sandy beaches and of mud-flats. + The eye of the Trilobite tells us that the sun shone on the + old beach where he lived; for there is nothing in nature + without a purpose, and when so complicated an organ was made + to receive the light, there must have been light to enter + it. The immense vegetable deposits in the Carboniferous + period announce the introduction of an extensive terrestrial + vegetation; and the impressions left by the wood and leaves + of the trees show that these first forests must have grown + in a damp soil and a moist atmosphere. In short, all the + remains of animals and plants hidden in the rocks have + something to tell of the climatic conditions and the general + circumstances under which they lived, and the study of + fossils is to the naturalist a thermometer by which he reads + the variations of temperature in past times, a plummet by + which he sounds the depths of the ancient oceans,—a + register, in fact, of all the important physical changes the + earth has undergone.</p><span class="pagenum"><a name= + "page73" + id="page73"></a>[pg 73]</span> + + <p>But although the animals of the early geological deposits + indicate shallow seas by their similarity to our shoal-water + animals, it must not be supposed that they are by any means the + same. On the contrary, the old shells, crustacea, corals, etc., + represent types which have existed in all times with the same + essential structural elements, but under different specific + forms in the several geological periods. And here it may not be + amiss to say something of what are called by naturalists + <i>representative types</i>.</p> + + <p>The statement that different sets of animals and plants have + characterized the successive epochs is often understood as + indicating a difference of another kind than that which + distinguishes animals now living in different parts of the + world. This is a mistake. There are so-called representative + types all over the globe, united to each other by structural + relations and separated by specific differences of the same + kind as those that unite and separate animals of different + geological periods. Take, for instance, mud-flats or sandy + shores in the same latitudes of Europe and America; we find + living on each, animals of the same structural character and of + the same general appearance, but with certain specific + differences, as of color, size, external appendages, etc. They + represent each other on the two continents. The American + wolves, foxes, bears, rabbits, are not the same as the + European, but those of one continent are as true to their + respective types as those of the other; under a somewhat + different aspect they represent the same groups of animals. In + certain latitudes, or under conditions of nearer proximity, + these differences may be less marked. It is well + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page74"></a>[pg 74]</span> known that there is a great + monotony of type, not only among animals and plants, but in + the human races also, throughout the Arctic regions; and + some animals characteristic of the high North reappear under + such identical forms in the neighborhood of the snow-fields + in lofty mountains, that to trace the difference between the + ptarmigans, rabbits, and other gnawing animals of the Alps, + for instance, and those of the Arctics, is among the most + difficult problems of modern science.</p> + + <p>And so it is also with the animated world of past ages; in + similar deposits of sand, mud, or lime, in adjoining regions of + the same geological age, identical remains of animals and + plants may be found; while at greater distances, but under + similar circumstances, representative species may occur. In + very remote regions, however, whether the circumstances be + similar or dissimilar, the general aspect of the organic world + differs greatly, remoteness in space being thus in some measure + an indication of the degree of affinity between different + faunæ. In deposits of different geological periods immediately + following each other, we sometimes find remains of animals and + plants so closely allied to those of earlier or later periods + that at first sight the specific differences are hardly + discernible. The difficulty of solving these questions, and of + appreciating correctly the differences and similarities between + such closely allied organisms, explains the antagonistic views + of many naturalists respecting the range of existence of + animals, during longer or shorter geological periods; and the + superficial way in which discussions concerning the transition + of species are carried on, is mainly owing to an ignorance of + the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page75"></a>[pg 75]</span> conditions above alluded to. + My own personal observation and experience in these matters + have led me to the conviction that every geological period + has had its own representatives, and that no single species + has been repeated in successive ages.</p> + + <p>The laws regulating the geographical distribution of + animals, and their combination into distinct zoölogical + provinces called faunæ, with definite limits, are very + imperfectly understood as yet; but so closely are all things + linked together from the beginning that I am convinced we shall + never find the clew to their meaning till we carry on our + investigations in the past and the present simultaneously. The + same principle according to which animal and vegetable life is + distributed over the surface of the earth now, prevailed in the + earliest geological periods. The geological deposits of all + times have had their characteristic faunæ under various zones, + their zoölogical provinces presenting special combinations of + animal and vegetable life over certain regions, and their + representative types reproducing in different countries, but + under similar latitudes, the same groups with specific + differences.</p> + + <p>Of course, the nearer we approach the beginning of organic + life, the less marked do we find the differences to be, and for + a very obvious reason. The inequalities of the earth's surface, + her mountain-barriers protecting whole continents from the + Arctic winds, her open plains exposing others to the full force + of the polar blasts, her snug valleys and her lofty heights, + her tablelands and rolling prairies, her river-systems and her + dry deserts, her cold ocean-currents pouring down from the high + North on some of her shores, while warm <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page76"></a>[pg 76]</span> ones from tropical seas carry + their softer influence to others,—in short, all the + contrasts in the external configuration of the globe, with + the physical conditions attendant upon them, are naturally + accompanied by a corresponding variety in animal and + vegetable life.</p> + + <p>But in the Silurian age, when there were no elevations + higher than the Canadian hills, when water covered the face of + the earth, with the exception of a few isolated portions lifted + above the almost universal ocean, how monotonous must have been + the conditions of life! And what should we expect to find on + those first shores? If we are walking on a sea-beach to-day, we + do not look for animals that haunt the forests or roam over the + open plains, or for those that live in sheltered valleys or in + inland regions or on mountain-heights. We look for Shells, for + Mussels and Barnacles, for Crabs, for Shrimps, for Marine + Worms, for Star-Fishes and Sea-Urchins, and we may find here + and there a fish stranded on the sand or tangled in the + seaweed.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" + style="width:400px;"> + <a href="images/076.png"><img width="400" + src="images/076.png" + alt="Hills."></a> + </div><span class="pagenum"><a id="page77"></a>[pg 77]</span> + + <p> </p> + + <p> </p> + + <h2>SOME RECORDS OF THE ROCKS</h2> + + <h4 class="sc">(From A First Book in Geology.)</h4> + + <h3><span class="sc">By</span> N.S. SHALER, S.D.<a id="footnotetag1"></a><a href="#footnote1"><sup>1</sup></a></h3> + <hr class="short"> + + <div class="figleft" + style="width:250px;"> + <a href="images/077.png"><img width="250" + src="images/077.png" + alt="Figures on Rocks."></a> + </div> + + <p>The geologist cannot find his way back in the record of the + great stone book, to the far-off day when life began. The + various changes that come over rocks from the action of heat, + of water, and of pressure, have slowly modified these ancient + beds, so that they no longer preserve the frames of the animals + that were buried in them.</p> + + <p>These old rocks, which are so changed that we cannot any + longer make sure that any animals lived in them, are called the + "archæan," which is Greek for ancient. They were probably mud + and sand and limestone when first made, but they have been + changed to mica schists, gneiss, granite, marble, and other + crystalline rocks. When any rock becomes crystalline, the + fossils dissolve and disappear, as coins lose their stamp + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page78"></a>[pg 78]</span> and form when they are melted + in the jeweller's gold-pot.</p> + + <p>These ancient rocks that lie deepest in the earth are very + thick, and must have taken a great time in building; great + continents must have been worn down by rain and waves in order + to supply the waste out of which they were made. It is + tolerably certain that they took as much time during their + making as has been required for all the other times since they + were formed. During the vast ages of this archæan the life of + our earth began to be. We first find many certain evidences of + life in the rocks which lie on top of the archæan rock, and are + known as the Cambriani and Silurian periods. There we have + creatures akin to our corals and crabs and worms, and others + that are the distant kindred of the cuttle-fishes and of our + lamp-shells. There were no backboned animals, that is to say, + no land mammals, reptiles, or fishes at this stage of the + earth's history. It is not likely that there was any land life + except of plants and those forms like the lowest ferns, and + probably mosses. Nor is it likely that there were any large + continents as at the present time, but rather a host of islands + lying where the great lands now are, the budding tops of the + continents just appearing above the sea.</p> + + <p>Although the life of this time was far simpler than at the + present day, it had about as great variety as we would find on + our present sea-floors. There were as many different species + living at the same time on a given surface.</p> + + <p>The Cambrian and Silurian time—the time before the + coming of the fishes—must have endured for + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page79"></a>[pg 79]</span> many million years without + any great change in the world. Hosts of species lived and + died; half a dozen times or more the life of the earth was + greatly changed. New species came much like those that had + gone before, and only a little gain here and there was + perceptible at any time. Still, at the end of the Silurian, + the life of the world had climbed some steps higher in + structure and in intelligence.</p> + + <div class="figright" + style="width:250px;"> + <a href="images/079.png"><img width="250" + src="images/079.png" + alt="FIG. 1. NORTH AMERICA IN CAMBRIAN TIME."></a><br> + FIG. 1. NORTH AMERICA IN CAMBRIAN TIME. + </div> + + <p>The next set of periods is known as the Devonian. It is + marked by the rapid extension of the fishes; for, although the + fishes began in the uppermost Silurian, they first became + abundant in this time. These, the first strong-jawed tyrants of + the sea, came all at once, like a rush of the old Norman + pirates into the peaceful seas of Great Britain. They made a + lively time among the sluggish beings of that olden sea. + Creatures that were able to meet feebler enemies were swept + away or compelled to undergo great changes, and all the life of + the oceans seems to have a spur given to it by these + quicker-formed and quicker-willed animals. In this Devonian + section of our rocks we have proofs that the lands were + extensively covered with forests of low fern trees, and we find + the first trace of air-breathing animals in certain insects + akin to our dragon-flies. In this stage of the earth's history + the fishes grew constantly more plentiful, and the seas had a + great <span class="pagenum"><a id="page80"></a>[pg 80]</span> abundance of corals and + crinoids. Except for the fishes, there were no very great + changes in the character of the life from that which existed + in the earlier time of the Cambrian and Silurian. The + animals are constantly changing, but the general nature of + the life remains the same as in the earlier time.</p> + + <div class="figleft" + style="width:350px;"> + <a href="images/080.png"><img width="350" + src="images/080.png" + alt= + "FIG. 2. RANICEPS LYELLI--COAL TIME SALAMANDER."></a><br> + FIG. 2. RANICEPS LYELLI—COAL TIME SALAMANDER. + </div> + + <p>In the Carboniferous or coal-bearing age, we have the second + great change in the character of the life on the earth. Of the + earlier times, we have preserved only the rocks formed in the + seas. But rarely do we find any trace of the land life or even + of the life that lived along the shores. In this Carboniferous + time, however, we have very extensive sheets of rocks which + were formed in swamps in the way shown in the earlier part of + this book. They constitute our coal-beds, which, though much + worn away by rain and sea, still cover a large part of the land + surface. These beds of coal grew in the air, and, although the + swamps where they were formed had very little animal life in + them, we find some fossils which tell us that the life of the + land was making great progress; there are new insects, + including beetles, cockroaches, spiders, and scorpions, and, + what is far more important, there are some air-breathing, + back-boned animals, akin to the salamanders and water-dogs of + the present day. These were nearly as large as alligators, and + of much the same shape, but they were <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page81"></a>[pg 81]</span> probably born from the egg in + the shape of tadpoles and lived for a time in the water as + our young frogs, toads, and salamanders do. This is the + first step upwards from the fishes to land vertebrates; and + we may well be interested in it, for it makes one most + important advance in creatures through whose lives our own + existence became possible. Still, these ancient woods of the + coal period must have had little of the life we now + associate with the forests; there were still no birds, no + serpents, no true lizards, no suck-giving animals, no + flowers, and no fruits. These coal-period forests were + sombre wastes of shade, with no sound save those of the + wind, the thunder, and the volcano, or of the running + streams and the waves on the shores.</p> + + <p>In the seas of the Carboniferous time, we notice that the + ancient life of the earth is passing away. Many creatures, such + as the trilobites, die out, and many other forms such as the + crinoids or sea lilies become fewer in kind and of less + importance. These marks of decay in the marine life continue + into the beds just after the Carboniferous, known as the + Permian, which are really the last stages of the coal-bearing + period.</p> + + <p>When with the changing time we pass to the beds known as the + Triassic, which were made just after the close of the + Carboniferous time, we find the earth undergoing swift changes + in its life. The moist climate and low lands that caused the + swamps to grow so rapidly have ceased to be, and in their place + we appear to have warm, dry air, and higher lands.</p> + + <p>On these lands of the Triassic time the air-breathing + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page82"></a>[pg 82]</span> life made very rapid + advances. The plants are seen to undergo considerable + changes. The ferns no longer make up all the forests, but + trees more like the pines began to abound, and insects + became more plentiful and more varied.</p> + + <div class="figleft" + style="width:200px;"> + <a href="images/082.png"><img width="200" + src="images/082.png" + alt= + "CYCAS CIRCINALIS, AKIN TO HIGHEST PLANTS OF COAL TIME."></a> + + <p>FIG. 3. CYCAS CIRCINALIS, AKIN TO HIGHEST PLANTS OF COAL + TIME.</p> + </div> + + <p>Hitherto the only land back-boned animal was akin to our + salamanders. Now we have true lizards in abundance, many of + them of large size. Some of them were probably plant-eaters, + but most were flesh-eaters; some seem to have been tenants of + the early swamps, and some dwelt in the forests.</p> + + <p>The creatures related to the salamanders have increased in + the variety of their forms to a wonderful extent. We know them + best by the tracks which they have left on the mud stones + formed on the borders of lakes or the edge of the sea. In some + places these footprints are found in amazing numbers and + perfection. The best place for them is in the Connecticut + Valley, near Turner's Falls, Mass. At this point the red + sandstone and shale beds, which are composed of thin layers + having a total thickness of several hundred feet, are often + stamped over by these footprints like the mud of a barnyard. + From the little we can determine from these footprints, the + creatures seem to have been somewhat related to our frogs, but + they generally had tails, and, though provided with four legs, + were in the habit of walking on the hind ones alone like the + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page83"></a>[pg 83]</span> kangaroo. A few of these + tracks are shown in the figure on this page.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" + style="width:500px;"> + <a href="images/083-1.png"><img width="500" + src="images/083-1.png" + alt= + "FIG. 4. FOOT-PRINTS, CONNECTICUT SANDSTONES."></a><br> + FIG. 4. FOOT-PRINTS, CONNECTICUT SANDSTONES. + </div> + + <p>These strange creatures were of many different species. Some + of them must have been six or seven feet high, for their steps + are as much as three feet apart, and seem to imply a creature + weighing several hundred pounds. Others were not bigger than + robins. Strangely enough, we have never found their bones nor + the creatures on which they fed, and but for the formation of a + little patch of rocks here and there we should not have had + even these footprints to prove to us that such creatures had + lived in the Connecticut Valley in this far-off time.</p> + + <div class="figleft" + style="width:200px;"> + <a href="images/083-2.png"><img width="200" + src="images/083-2.png" + alt="FIG. 5. FOOT-PRINT,"></a> + + <p>FIG. 5. FOOT-PRINT, TURNER'S FALLS.</p> + </div> + + <p>But these wonderful forms are less interesting than two or + three little fossil jaw-bones that prove to us that in this + Triassic time the earth now bore another animal more akin to + ourselves, in the shape of a little creature that gave suck to + its young. Once more life takes a long upward step in this + little opossum-like <span class="pagenum"><a id="page84"></a>[pg 84]</span> animal, perhaps the first + creature whose young was born alive. These little creatures + called Microlestes or Dromatherium, of which only one or two + different but related species have been found in England and + in North Carolina, appear to have been insect-eaters of + about the size and shape of the Australian creature shown in + Fig. 7. So far we know it in but few + specimens,—altogether only an ounce or two of + bones,—but they are very precious monuments of the + past.</p> + + <div class="figleft" + style="width:500px;"> + <a href="images/084-1.png"><img width="500" + src="images/084-1.png" + alt= + "FIG. 6. DROMATHERIUM SYLVESTRE AND TEETH OF MICROLESTES ANTIQUUS."></a><br> + FIG. 6. DROMATHERIUM SYLVESTRE AND TEETH OF MICROLESTES + ANTIQUUS. + </div> + + <p>In this Triassic time the climate appears to have been + rather dry, for in it we have many extensive deposits of salt + formed by the evaporation of closed lakes, of seas, such as are + now forming on the bottom of the Dead Sea, and the Great Salt + Lake of Utah, and a hundred or more other similar basins of the + present day.</p> + + <div class="figright" + style="width:300px;"> + <a href="images/084-2.png"><img width="300" + src="images/084-2.png" + alt="FIG. 7. MYRMECOBIUS."></a><br> + FIG. 7. MYRMECOBIUS. + </div> + + <p>In the sea animals of this time we find many changes. + Already some of the giant lizard-like animals, which first took + shape on the land, are becoming swimming-animals. They changed + their feet to paddles, which, with the help of a flattened + tail, force them through the water.</p> + + <p>The fishes on which these great swimming lizards preyed are + more like the fishes of our present day than <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page85"></a>[pg 85]</span> they were before. The + trilobites are gone, and of the crinoids only a remnant is + left. Most of the corals of the earlier days have + disappeared, but the mollusks have not changed more than + they did at several different times in the earliest stages + of the earth's history.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" + style="width:500px;"> + <a href="images/085.png"><img width="500" + src="images/085.png" + alt="FIG. 8. ICHTHYOSAURUS AND PLESIOSAURUS."></a><br> + FIG. 8. ICHTHYOSAURUS AND PLESIOSAURUS. + </div> + + <p>After the Trias comes a long succession of ages in which the + life of the world is steadily advancing to higher and higher + planes; but for a long time there is no such startling change + as that which came in the passage from the coal series of rocks + to the Trias. This long set of periods is known to geologists + as the age of reptiles. It is well named, for the kindred of + the lizards then had the control of the land. There were then + none of our large fish to dispute their control, so they shaped + themselves to suit all the occupations that could give them a + chance for a living. Some remained beasts of prey like our + alligators, but grew to larger size; some took to eating the + plants, and came to walk on their four legs as our ordinary + beasts do, no longer dragging themselves on their bellies as do + the lizard and alligator, their lower kindred. Others became + flying creatures like our bats, only vastly larger, often + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page86"></a>[pg 86]</span> with a spread of wing of + fifteen or twenty feet. Yet others, even as strangely + shaped, dwelt with the sharks in the sea.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" + style="width:500px;"> + <a href="images/086.png"><img width="500" + src="images/086.png" + alt="FIG. 9. REPTILES OF JURASSIC PERIOD."></a><br> + FIG. 9. REPTILES OF JURASSIC PERIOD. + </div> + + <p>In this time of the earth's history we have the first + bird-like forms. They were feathered creatures, with bills + carrying true teeth, and with strong wings; but they were + reptiles in many features, having long, pointed tails such as + none of our existing birds have. They show us that the birds + are the descendants of reptiles, coming off from them as a + branch does from the parent tree. The tortoises began in this + series of rocks. At first they are marine or swimming forms, + the box-turtles coming later. Here too begin many of the higher + insects. Creatures like moths and bees appear, and the forests + are enlivened with all the important kinds of insects, though + the species were very different from those now living.</p> + + <p>In the age of reptiles the plants have made a considerable + advance. Palms are plenty; forms akin to our pines and firs + abound, and the old flowerless group of ferns begins to shrink + in size, and no longer spreads its feathery foliage over all + the land as before. Still <span class="pagenum"><a name= + "page87" + id="page87"></a>[pg 87]</span> there were none of our common + broad-leaved trees; the world had not yet known the oaks, + birches, maples, or any of our hard-wood trees that lose + their leaves in autumn; nor were the flowering plants, those + with gay blossoms, yet on the earth. The woods and fields + were doubtless fresh and green, but they wanted the grace of + blossoms, plants, and singing-birds. None of the animals + could have had the social qualities or the finer instincts + that are so common among animals of the present day. There + were probably no social animals like our ants and bees, no + merry singing creatures; probably no forms that went in + herds. Life was a dull round of uncared-for birth, cruel + self-seeking, and of death. The animals at best were clumsy, + poorly-endowed creatures, with hardly more intelligence than + our alligators.</p> + + <p>The little thread of higher life begun in the Microlestes + and Dromatherium, the little insect-eating mammals of the + forest, is visible all through this time. It held in its warm + blood the powers of the time to come, but it was an + insignificant thing among the mighty cold-blooded reptiles of + these ancient lands. There are several species of them, but + they are all small, and have no chance to make headway against + the older masters of the earth.</p> + + <p>The Jurassic or first part of the reptilian time shades + insensibly into the second part, called the Cretaceous, which + immediately follows it. During this period the lands were + undergoing perpetual changes; rather deep seas came to cover + much of the land surfaces, and there is some reason to believe + that the climate of the earth became much colder than it had + been, at least in those <span class="pagenum"><a id="page88"></a>[pg 88]</span> regions where the great + reptiles had flourished. It may be that it is due to a + colder climate that we owe the rapid passing away of this + gigantic reptilian life of the previous age. The reptiles, + being cold-blooded, cannot stand even a moderate winter + cold, save when they are so small that they can crawl deep + into crevices in the rocks to sleep the winter away, guarded + from the cold by the warmth of the earth. At any rate these + gigantic animals rapidly ceased to be, so that by the middle + of the Cretaceous period they were almost all gone, except + those that inhabited the sea; and at the end of this time + they had shrunk to lizards in size. The birds continue to + increase and to become more like those of our day; their + tails shrink away, their long bills lose their teeth; they + are mostly water-birds of large size, and there are none of + our songsters yet; still they are for the first time perfect + birds, and no longer half-lizard in their nature.</p> + + <p>The greatest change in the plants is found in the coming of + the broad-leaved trees belonging to the families of our oaks, + maples, etc. Now for the first time our woods take on their + aspect of to-day; pines and other cone-bearers mingle with the + more varied foliage of nut-bearing or large-seeded trees. + Curiously enough, we lose sight of the little mammals of the + earlier time. This is probably because there is very little in + the way of land animals of this period preserved to us. There + are hardly any mines or quarries in the beds of this age to + bring these fossils to light. In the most of the other rocks + there is more to tempt man to explore them for coal ores or + building stones.</p> + + <p>In passing from the Cretaceous to the Tertiary, we + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page89"></a>[pg 89]</span> enter upon the threshold of + our modern world. We leave behind all the great wonders of + the old world, the gigantic reptiles, the forests of tree + ferns, the seas full of ammonites and belemnites, and come + among the no less wonderful but more familiar modern forms. + We come at once into lands and seas where the back-boned + animals are the ruling beings. The reptiles have shrunk to a + few low forms,—the small lizards, the crocodiles and + alligators, the tortoises and turtles, and, as if to mark + more clearly the banishment of this group from their old + empire, the serpents, which are peculiarly degraded forms of + reptiles which have lost the legs they once had, came to be + the commonest reptiles of the earth.</p> + + <p>The first mammals that have no pouches now appear. In + earlier times, the suck-giving animals all belonged to the + group that contains our opossums, kangaroos, etc. These + creatures are much lower and feebler than the mammals that have + no pouches. Although they have probably been on the earth two + or three times as long as the higher mammals, they have never + attained any eminent success whatever; they cannot endure cold + climates; none of them are fitted for swimming as are the seals + and whales, or for flying as the bats, or for burrowing as the + moles; they are dull, weak things, which are not able to + contend with their stronger, better-organized, higher kindred. + They seem not only weak, but unable to fit themselves to many + different kinds of existence.</p> + + <p>In the lower part of the Tertiary rocks, we find at once a + great variety of large beasts that gave suck to their young. It + is likely that these creatures had come <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page90"></a>[pg 90]</span> into existence in a somewhat + earlier time in other lands, where we have not been able to + study the fossils; for to make their wonderful forms slowly, + as we believe them to have been made, would require a very + long time. It is probable that during the Cretaceous time, + in some land where we have not yet had a chance to study the + rocks, these creatures grew to their varied forms, and that + in the beginning of the Tertiary time, they spread into the + regions where we find their bones.</p> + + <p>Beginning with the Tertiary time, we find these lower + kinsmen of man, through whom man came to be. The mammals were + marked by much greater simplicity and likeness to each other + than they now have. There were probably no monkeys, no horses, + no bulls, no sheep, no goats, no seals, no whales, and no bats. + All these animals had many-fingered feet. There were no cloven + feet like those of our bulls, and no solid feet as our horses + have. Their brains, which by their size give us a general idea + of the intelligence of the creature, are small; hence we + conclude that these early mammals were less intelligent than + those of our day.</p> + + <p>It would require volumes to trace the history of the growth + of these early mammals, and show how they, step by step, came + to their present higher state. We will take only one of the + simplest of these changes, which happens to be also the one + which we know best. This is the change that led to the making + of our common horses, which seem to have been brought into life + on the continent of North America. The most singular thing + about our horses is that the feet have but one large toe or + finger, the hoof, the hard covering of which is the nail of + that extremity. Now it seems <span class="pagenum"><a name= + "page91" + id="page91"></a>[pg 91]</span> hard to turn the weak, + five-fingered feet of the animals of the lower + Tertiary—feet which seem to be better fitted for + tree-climbing than anything else—into feet such as we + find in the horse. Yet the change is brought about by easy + stages that lead the successive creatures from the weak and + loose-jointed foot of the ancient forms to the solid, + single-fingered horse's hoof, which is wonderfully + well-fitted for carrying a large beast at a swift speed, and + is so strong a weapon of defence that an active donkey can + kill a lion with a well-delivered kick.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" + style="width:600px;"> + <a href="images/091.png"><img width="600" + src="images/091.png" + alt="FIG. 10. FEET OF TERTIARY MAMMALS."></a><br> + FIG. 10. FEET OF TERTIARY MAMMALS. + </div> + + <p>The oldest of these creatures that lead to the horses is + called <i>Eohippus</i> or beginning horse. This fellow had on + the forefeet four large toes, each with a small hoof and fifth + imperfect one, which answered to the thumb. The hind feet had + gone further in the change, for they each had but three toes, + each with hoofs, the middle-toed hoof larger and longer than + the others. A little later toward our day we find another + advance in the <i>Orohippus</i>, when the little imperfect + thumb has disappeared, and there are only four toes on the + forefeet and three on the hind.</p><span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page92"></a>[pg 92]</span> + + <p>Yet later we have the <i>Mesohippus</i> or half-way horse. + There are still three toes on the hind foot, but one more of + the fingers of the forefeet has disappeared. This time it is + the little finger that goes, leaving only a small bone to show + that its going was by a slow shrinking. The creature now has + three little hoofs on each of its feet.</p> + + <p>Still nearer our own time comes the <i>Miohippus</i>, which + shows the two side hoofs on each foot shrinking up so that they + do not touch the ground, but they still bear little hoofs. + Lastly, about the time of man's coming on the earth, appears + his faithful servant, the horse, in which those little side + hoofs have disappeared, leaving only two little "splint" bones + to mark the place where these side hoofs belong. Thus, step by + step, our horses' feet were built up; while these parts were + changing, the other parts of the animals were also slowly + altering. They were at first smaller than our + horses,—some of them not as large as an ordinary + Newfoundland dog; others as small as foxes.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" + style="width:600px;"> + <a href="images/092.png"><img width="600" + src="images/092.png" + alt="FIG. 11. DEVELOPMENT OF HORSES'S FOOT."></a><br> + FIG. 11. DEVELOPMENT OF HORSES'S FOOT. + </div> + + <p>As if to remind us of his old shape, our horses now and + then, but rarely, have, in place of the little splint bones + above the hoof, two smaller hoofs, just like the + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page93"></a>[pg 93]</span> foot of <i>Miohippus</i>. + Sometimes these are about the size of a silver dollar, on + the part that receives the shoe when horses are shod.</p> + + <p>In this way, by slow-made changes, the early mammals pass + into the higher. Out of one original part are made limbs as + different as the feet of the horse, the wing of a bat, the + paddle of a whale, and the hand of man. So with all the parts + of the body the forms change to meet the different uses to + which they are put.</p> + + <p>At the end of this long promise, which was written in the + very first animals, comes man himself, in form closely akin to + the lower animals, but in mind immeasurably apart from them. We + can find every part of man's body in a little different shape + in the monkeys, but his mind is of a very different quality. + While his lower kindred cannot be made to advance in + intelligence any more than man himself can grow a horse's foot + or a bat's wing, he is constantly going higher and higher in + his mental and moral growth.</p> + + <p>So far we have found but few traces of man that lead us to + suppose that he has been for a long geological time on the + earth, yet there is good evidence that he has been here for a + hundred thousand years or more. It seems pretty clear that he + has changed little in his body in all these thousands of + generations. The earliest remains show us a large-brained + creature, who used tools and probably had already made a + servant of fire, which so admirably aids him in his work.</p> + + <p>Besides the development of this wonderful series of animals, + that we may call in a certain way our kindred, there have been + several other remarkable advances in this Tertiary time, this + age of crowning wonders in the <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page94"></a>[pg 94]</span> earth's history. The birds + have gone forward very rapidly; it is likely that there were + no songsters at the first part of this period, but these + singing birds have developed very rapidly in later times. + Among the insects the most remarkable growth is among the + ants, the bees, and their kindred. These creatures have very + wonderful habits; they combine together for the making of + what we may call states, they care for their young, they + wage great battles, they keep slaves, they domesticate other + insects, and in many ways their acts resemble the doings of + man. Coming at about the same time as man, these + intellectual insects help to mark this later stage of the + earth as the intellectual period in its history. Now for the + first time creatures are on the earth which can form + societies and help each other in the difficult work of + living.</p> + + <p>Among the mollusks, the most important change is in the + creation of the great, strong swimming squids, the most + remarkable creatures of the sea. Some of these have arms that + can stretch for fifty feet from tip to tip.</p> + + <p>Among the plants, the most important change has been in the + growth of flowering plants, which have been constantly becoming + more plenty, and the plants which bear fruits have also become + more numerous. The broad-leaved trees seem to be constantly + gaining on the forests of narrow-leaved cone-bearers, which had + in an earlier day replaced the forests of ferns.</p> + + <p>In these Tertiary ages, as in the preceding times of the + earth, the lands and seas were much changed in their shape. It + seems that in the earlier ages the land had been mostly in the + shape of large islands grouped <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page95"></a>[pg 95]</span> close together where the + continents now are. In this time, these islands grew + together to form the united lands of Europe, Asia, Africa, + Australia, and the twin American continents; so that, as + life rose higher, the earth was better fitted for it. Still + there were great troubles that it had to undergo. There were + at least two different times during the Tertiary age termed + glacial periods, times when the ice covered a large part of + the northern continents, compelling life of all sorts to + abandon great regions, and to find new places in more + southern lands. Many kinds of animals and plants seem to + have been destroyed in these journeys; but these times of + trial, by removing the weaker and less competent creatures, + made room for new forms to rise in their places. All advance + in nature makes death necessary, and this must come to races + as well as to individuals if the life of the world is to go + onward and upward.</p> + + <p>Looking back into the darkened past, of which we yet know + but little compared with what we would like to know, we can see + the great armies of living beings led onward from victory to + victory toward the higher life of our own time. Each age sees + some advance, though death overtakes all its creatures. Those + that escape their actual enemies or accident, fall a prey to + old age: volcanoes, earthquakes, glacial periods, and a host of + other violent accidents sweep away the life of wide regions, + yet the host moves on under a control that lies beyond the + knowledge of science. Man finds himself here as the crowning + victory of this long war. For him all this life appears to have + striven. In his hands lies the profit of all its toil and pain. + Surely <span class="pagenum"><a id="page96"></a>[pg 96]</span> this should make us feel that + our duty to all these living things, that have shared in the + struggle that has given man his elevation, is great, but + above all, great is our duty to the powers that have been + placed in our bodies and our minds.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" + style="width:500px"> + <a href="images/096.png"><img width="500" + src="images/096.png" + alt="A GLACIER."></a><br> + A GLACIER. + </div> + + <p> </p> + + <p> </p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page97"></a>[pg 97]</span> + + <h2>THE PITCH LAKE IN THE WEST INDIES</h2> + + <h4 class="sc">(From At Last.)</h4> + + <h3><span class="sc">By</span> C. KINGSLEY.</h3> + <hr class="short"> + + <div class="figleft" + style="width:250px;"> + <a href="images/097.png"><img width="250" + src="images/097.png" + alt="COOLIE AND NEGRO."></a><br> + COOLIE AND NEGRO. + </div> + + <p>The Pitch Lake, like most other things, owes its appearance + on the surface to no convulsion or vagary at all, but to a most + slow, orderly, and respectable process of nature, by which + buried vegetable matter, which would have become peat, and + finally brown coal, in a temperate climate, becomes, under the + hot tropic soil, asphalt and oil, continually oozing up beneath + the pressure of the strata above it . . . .</p> + <hr> + + <p>As we neared the shore, we perceived that the beach was + black with pitch; and the breeze being off the land, the + asphalt smell (not unpleasant) came off to welcome us. We rowed + in, and saw in front of a little row of wooden houses a tall + mulatto, in blue policeman's dress, gesticulating and shouting + to us. He was <span class="pagenum"><a id="page98"></a>[pg 98]</span> the ward policeman, and I + found him (as I did all the colored police) able and + courteous, shrewd and trusty. These police are excellent + specimens of what can be made of the negro, or half-negro, + if he be but first drilled, and then given a responsibility + which calls out his self-respect. He was warning our crew + not to run aground on one or other of the pitch reefs, which + here take the place of rocks. A large one, a hundred yards + off on the left, has been almost all dug away, and carried + to New York or to Paris to make asphalt-pavement.</p> + + <div class="figleft" + style="width:300px;"> + <a href="images/098.png"><img width="300" + src="images/098.png" + alt="THE POLICE STATION."></a><br> + THE POLICE STATION. + </div> + + <p>The boat was run ashore, under his directions, on a spit of + sand between the pitch; and when she ceased bumping up and down + in the muddy surf, we scrambled out into a world exactly the + hue of its inhabitants of every shade, from jet black to + copper-brown. The pebbles on the shore were pitch. A tide-pool + close by was enclosed in pitch; a four-eyes was swimming about + in it, staring up at us; and when we hunted him, tried to + escape, not by diving, but by jumping on shore on the pitch, + and scrambling off between our legs. While the policeman, after + profoundest courtesies, was gone to get a mule-cart to take us + up to the lake, and planks <span class="pagenum"><a name= + "page99" + id="page99"></a>[pg 99]</span> to bridge its water channels, + we took a look round at this oddest of corners of the + earth.</p> + + <p>In front of us was the unit of civilization,—the + police-station, wooden, on wooden stilts (as all well-built + houses are here), to insure a draught of air beneath them. We + were, of course, asked to come in and sit down, but preferred + looking about, under our umbrellas; for the heat was intense. + The soil is half pitch, half brown earth, among which the pitch + sweals in and out as tallow sweals from a candle. It is always + in slow motion under the heat of the tropic sun; and no wonder + if some of the cottages have sunk right and left in such a + treacherous foundation. A stone or brick house could not stand + here; but wood and palm-thatch are both light and tough enough + to be safe, let the ground give way as it will.</p> + + <p>The soil, however, is very rich. The pitch certainly does + not injure vegetation, though plants will not grow actually in + it. The first plants which caught our eyes were pine-apples, + for which La Brea is famous. The heat of the soil, as well as + the air, brings them to special perfection. They grow about + anywhere, unprotected by hedge or fence; for the negroes here + seem honest enough, at least toward each other; and at the + corner of the house was a bush worth looking at, for we had + heard of it for many a year. It bore prickly, heart-shaped pods + an inch long, filled with seeds coated with a red waxy + pulp.</p> + + <p>This was a famous plant—<i>Bixa orellana Roucou</i>; + and that pulp was the well-known annotto dye of commerce. In + England and Holland it is used merely, I believe, to color + cheeses, but in the Spanish Main to <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page100"></a>[pg 100]</span> color human beings. The + Indian of the Orinoco prefers paint to clothes; and when he + has "roucoued" himself from head to foot, considers himself + in full dress, whether for war or dancing. Doubtless he + knows his own business best from long experience. Indeed, as + we stood broiling on the shore, we began somewhat to regret + that European manners and customs prevented our adopting the + Guaraon and Arrawak fashion.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" + style="width:500px;"> + <a href="images/100.png"><img width="500" + src="images/100.png" + alt="THE MULE-CART."></a><br> + THE MULE-CART. + </div> + + <p>The mule-cart arrived; the lady of the party was put into it + on a chair, and slowly bumped and rattled past the corner of + Dundonald Street—so named after the old sea-hero, who + was, in his life-time, full of projects for utilizing this same + pitch—and up in pitch road, with a pitch gutter on each + side.</p> + + <p>The pitch in the road has been, most of it, laid down by + hand, and is slowly working down the slight incline, leaving + pools and ruts full of water, often invisible, because covered + with a film of brown pitch-dust, and so letting in the unwary + walker over his shoes. The <span class="pagenum"><a name= + "page101" + id="page101"></a>[pg 101]</span> pitch in the gutter-bank is + in its native place, and as it spues slowly out of the soil + into the ditch in odd wreaths and lumps, we could watch, in + little, the process which has produced the whole + deposit—probably the whole lake itself.</p> + + <p>A bullock-cart, laden with pitch, came jolting down past us, + and we observed that the lumps, when the fracture is fresh, + have all a drawn out look; that the very air bubbles in them, + which are often very numerous, are all drawn out likewise, long + and oval, like the air-bubbles in some ductile lavas.</p> + + <p>On our left, as we went on, the bush was low, all of yellow + cassia and white Hibiscus, and tangled with lovely + convolvulus-like creepers, Ipomoea and Echites, with white, + purple or yellow flowers. On the right were negro huts and + gardens, fewer and fewer as we went on,—all rich with + fruit trees, especially with oranges, hung with fruit of every + hue; and beneath them, of course, the pine-apples of La Brea. + Everywhere along the road grew, seemingly wild here, that + pretty low tree, Cashew, with rounded yellow-veined leaves and + little green flowers, followed by a quaint pink and red-striped + pear, from which hangs, at the larger and lower end, a + kidney-shaped bean, which bold folk eat when roasted; but woe + to those who try it when raw; for the acrid oil blisters the + lips, and even while the beans are roasting the fumes of the + oil will blister the cook's face if she holds it too near the + fire.</p> + + <p>As we went onward up the gentle slope (the rise is one + hundred and thirty-eight feet in rather more than a mile), the + ground became more and more full of pitch, <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page102"></a>[pg 102]</span> and the vegetation poorer + and more rushy, till it resembled, on the whole, that of an + English fen. An Ipomoea or two, and a scarlet flowered dwarf + Heliconia, kept up the tropic type, as does a stiff brittle + fern about two feet high. We picked the weeds, which looked + like English mint or basil, and found that most of them had + three longitudinal nerves in each leaf, and were really + Melastomas, though dwarfed into a far meaner habit than that + of the noble forms we saw at Chaguanas, and again on the + other side of the lake. On the right, too, in a hollow, was + a whole wood of Groogroo palms, gray stemmed, gray leaved, + and here and there a patch of white or black Roseau rose + gracefully eight or ten feet high among the reeds.</p> + + <p>The plateau of pitch now widened out, and the whole ground + looked like an asphalt pavement, half overgrown with + marsh-loving weeds, whose roots feed in the sloppy water which + overlies the pitch. But, as yet, there was no sign of the lake. + The incline, though gentle, shuts off the view of what is + beyond. This last lip of the lake has surely overflowed, and is + overflowing still, though very slowly. Its furrows all curve + downward; and it is, in fact, as one of our party said, "a + black glacier." The pitch, expanding under the burning sun of + day, must needs expand most toward the line of least + resistance—that is, downhill; and when it contracts again + under the coolness of night, it contracts, surely, from the + same cause, more downhill than uphill; and so each particle + never returns to the spot whence it started, but rather drags + the particles above it downward toward itself. At least, so it + seemed to us. Thus may be explained the common mistake which is + noticed <span class="pagenum"><a id="page103"></a>[pg 103]</span> by Messrs. Wall and Sawkins + in their admirable description of the lake.</p> + + <p>"All previous descriptions refer the bituminous matter + scattered over the La Brea district, and especially that + between the village and the lake, to streams which have issued + at some former epoch from the lake, and extended into the sea. + This supposition is totally incorrect, as solidification would + probably have ensued before it had proceeded one-tenth of the + distance; and such of the asphalt as has undoubtedly escaped + from the lake has not advanced more than a few yards, and + always presents the curved surfaces already described, and + never appears as an extended sheet."</p> + + <p>Agreeing with this statement as a whole, I nevertheless + cannot but think it probable that a great deal of the asphalt, + whether it be in large masses or in scattered veins, may be + moving very slowly down hill, from the lake to the sea, by the + process of expansion by day and contraction by night, and may + be likened to a caterpillar, or rather caterpillars + innumerable, progressing by expanding and contracting their + rings, having strength enough to crawl down hill, but not + strength enough to back up hill again.</p> + + <p>At last we surmounted the last rise, and before us lay the + famous lake—not at the bottom of a depression, as we + expected, but at the top of a rise, whence the ground slopes + away from it on two sides, and rises from it very slightly on + the two others. The black pool glared and glittered in the sun. + A group of islands, some twenty yards wide, were scattered + about the middle of it. Beyond it rose a double forest of + Moriche fan-palms; and to the right of them high + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page104"></a>[pg 104]</span> wood with giant Mombins and + undergrowth of Cocorite—a paradise on the other side + of the Stygian pool.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" + style="width:500px;"> + <a href="images/104.png"><img width="500" + src="images/104.png" + alt="THE PITCH LAKE."></a><br> + THE PITCH LAKE. + </div> + + <p>We walked, with some misgivings, on to the asphalt, and + found it perfectly hard. In a few steps we were stopped by a + channel of clear water, with tiny fish and water-beetles in it; + and, looking round, saw that the whole lake was intersected + with channels, so unlike anything which can be seen elsewhere + that it is not easy to describe them.</p> + + <p>Conceive a crowd of mushrooms, of all shapes, from ten to + fifty feet across, close together side by side, their tops + being kept at exactly the same level, their rounded rims + squeezed tight against each other; then conceive water poured + on them so as to fill the parting seams, and in the wet season, + during which we visited it, to overflow the tops somewhat. Thus + would each mushroom represent, tolerably well, one of + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page105"></a>[pg 105]</span> the innumerable flat + asphalt bosses, which seem to have sprung up each from a + separate centre, while the parting seams would be of much + the same shape as those in the asphalt, broad and shallow + atop, and rolling downward in a smooth curve, till they are + at bottom mere cracks from two to ten feet deep. Whether + these cracks actually close up below, and the two contiguous + masses of pitch become one, cannot be seen. As far as the + eye goes down, they are two, though pressed close to each + other. Messrs. Wall and Sawkins explain the odd fact clearly + and simply. The oil, they say, which the asphalt contains + when it rises first, evaporates in the sun, of course most + on the outside of the heap, leaving a thorough coat of + asphalt, which has, generally, no power to unite with the + corresponding coat of the next mass. Meanwhile Mr. Manross, + an American gentleman, who has written a very clever and + interesting account of the lake, seems to have been so far + deceived by the curved and squeezed edges of these masses + that he attributes to each of them a revolving motion, and + supposes that the material is continually passing from the + centre to the edges, when it "rolls under," and rises again + in the middle. Certainly the strange stuff looks, at the + first glance, as if it were behaving in this way; and + certainly, also, his theory would explain the appearance of + sticks and logs in the pitch. But Messrs. Wall and Sawkins + say that they have observed no such motion: nor did we; and + I agree with them, that it is not very obvious to what + force, or what influence, it could be attributable. We must, + therefore, seek some other way of accounting for the + sticks—which utterly <span class="pagenum"><a name= + "page106" + id="page106"></a>[pg 106]</span> puzzled us, and which Mr. + Manross well describes as "numerous pieces of wood, which, + being involved in the pitch, are constantly coming to the + surface. They are often several feet in length, and five or + six inches in diameter. On reaching the surface they + generally assume an upright position, one end being detained + in the pitch, while the other is elevated by the lifting of + the middle. They may be seen at frequent intervals over the + lake, standing up to the height of two or even three feet. + They look like stumps of trees protruding through the pitch; + but their parvenu character is curiously betrayed by a + ragged cap of pitch which invariably covers the top, and + hangs down like hounds' ears on either side."</p> + + <p>Whence do they come? Have they been blown on to the lake, or + left behind by man? or are they fossil trees, integral parts of + the vegetable stratum below which is continually rolling + upward? or are they of both kinds? I do not know. Only this is + certain, as Messrs. Wall and Sawkins have pointed out, that not + only "the purer varieties of asphalt, such as approach or are + identical with asphalt glance, have been observed" (though not, + I think, in the lake itself) "in isolated masses, where there + was little doubt of their proceeding from ligneous substances + of larger dimensions, such as roots and pieces of trunks and + branches," but, moreover, that "it is also necessary to admit a + species of conversion by contact, since pieces of wood included + accidentally in the asphalt, for example, by dropping from + overhanging vegetation, are often found partially transformed + into the material." This is a statement which we verified again + and again, as we <span class="pagenum"><a id="page107"></a>[pg 107]</span> did the one which follows, + namely, that the hollow bubbles which abound on the surface + of the pitch "generally contain traces of the lighter + portion of vegetation," and "are manifestly derived from + leaves, etc., which are blown about the lake by the wind, + and are covered with asphalt, and, as they become asphalt + themselves, give off gases which form bubbles round + them."</p> + + <p>But how is it that those logs stand up out of the asphalt, + with asphalt caps and hounds' ears (as Mr. Manross well phrases + it) on the tops of them?</p> + + <p>We pushed on across the lake, over the planks which the + negroes laid down from island to island. Some, meanwhile, + preferred a steeple-chase with water-jumps, after the fashion + of the midshipmen on a certain second visit to the lake. How + the negroes grinned delight and surprise at the vagaries of + English lads—a species of animal altogether new to them; + and how they grinned still more when certain staid and portly + dignitaries caught the infection, and proved by more than one + good leap that they too had been English + school-boys—alas! long, long ago.</p> + + <p>So, whether by bridging, leaping, or wading, we arrived at + the little islands, and found them covered with a thick, low + scrub; deep sedge, and among them Pinguins, like huge + pine-apples without the apple; gray wild-pines, parasites on + Matapalos, which, of course, have established themselves, like + robbers and vagrants as they are, everywhere; a true holly, + with box-like leaves; and a rare cocoa-plum, very like the + holly in habit, which seems to be all but confined to these + little patches of red earth, afloat on the pitch. Out of the + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page108"></a>[pg 108]</span> scrub, when we were there, + flew off two or three night-jars, very like our English + species, save that they had white in the wings; and on the + second visit one of the midshipmen, true to the English + boy's bird's-nesting instinct, found one of their eggs, + white-spotted, in a grass nest.</p> + + <p>Passing these little islands, which are said (I know not how + truly) to change their places and number, we came to the very + fountains of Styx, to that part of the lake where the asphalt + is still oozing up.</p> + + <p>As the wind set toward us, we soon became aware of an evil + smell—petroleum and sulphureted hydrogen at + once—which gave some of us a headache. The pitch here is + yellow and white with sulphur foam; so are the water-channels; + and out of both water and pitch innumerable bubbles of gas + arise, loathsome to the smell. We became aware that the pitch + was soft under our feet. We left the impression of our boots; + and if we had stood still awhile, we should soon have been + ankle-deep. No doubt there are spots where, if a man stayed + long enough, he would be slowly and horribly engulfed. "But," + as Mr. Manross says truly, "in no place is it possible to form + those bowl-like depressions round the observer described by + former travellers." What we did see is that the fresh pitch + oozes out at the lines of least resistance, namely, in the + channels between the older and more hardened masses, usually at + the upper ends of them, so that one may stand on pitch + comparatively hard, and put one's hand into pitch quite liquid, + which is flowing softly out, like some ugly fungoid growth, + such as may be seen in old wine-cellars, into the water. One + such pitch-fungus had grown <span class="pagenum"><a name= + "page109" + id="page109"></a>[pg 109]</span> several yards in length in + the three weeks between our first and second visit; and on + another, some of our party performed exactly the same feat + as Mr. Manross.</p> + + <p>"In one of the star-shaped pools of water, some five feet + deep, a column of pitch had been forced perpendicularly up from + the bottom. On reaching the surface of the water it had formed + a sort of centre-table, about four feet in diameter, but + without touching the sides of the pool. The stem was about a + foot in diameter. I leaped out on this table, and found that it + not only sustained my weight, but that the elasticity of the + stem enabled me to rock it from side to side. Pieces torn from + the edges of this table sank readily, showing that it had been + raised by pressure, and not by its buoyancy."</p> + + <p>True, though strange; but stranger still did it seem to us + when we did at last what the negroes asked us, and dipped our + hands into the liquid pitch, to find that it did not soil the + fingers. The old proverb that one cannot touch pitch without + being defiled happily does not stand true here, or the place + would be intolerably loathsome. It can be scraped up, moulded + into any shape you will, wound in a string (as was done by one + of the midshipmen) round a stick, and carried off; but nothing + is left on the hand save clean gray mud and water. It may be + kneaded for an hour before the mud be sufficiently driven out + of it to make it sticky. This very abundance of earthy matter + it is which, while it keeps the pitch from soiling, makes it + far less valuable than it would be were it pure.</p> + + <p>It is easy to understand whence this earthy matter (twenty + or thirty per cent) comes. Throughout the <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page110"></a>[pg 110]</span> neighborhood the ground is + full, to the depth of hundreds of feet, of coaly and + asphaltic matter. Layers of sandstone or of shale containing + this decayed vegetable alternate with layers which contain + none; and if, as seems probable, the coaly matter is + continually changing into asphalt and oil, and then working + its way upward through every crack and pore, to escape from + the enormous pressure of the superincumbent soil, it must + needs carry up with it innumerable particles of the soils + through which it passes.</p> + + <p>In five minutes we had seen, handled, and smelt enough to + satisfy us with this very odd and very nasty vagary of tropic + nature; and as we did not wish to become faint and ill between + the sulphureted hydrogen and the blaze of the sun reflected off + the hot black pitch, we hurried on over the water-furrows, and + through the sedge-beds to the farther shore—to find + ourselves, in a single step, out of an Inferno into a + Paradise.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" + style="width:500px;"> + <a href="images/110.png"><img width="500" + src="images/110.png" + alt="Pitch pool."></a> + </div> + + <p> </p> + + <p> </p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page111"></a>[pg 111]</span> + + <h2>A STALAGMITE CAVE</h2> + + <h4 class="sc">(From the Voyage of the Challenger.)</h4> + + <h3><span class="sc">By</span> SIR C. WYVILLE THOMSON, KT., + LL.D., ETC.</h3> + <hr class="short"> + + <div class="figleft" + style="width:150px"> + <a href="images/111.png"><img width="150" + src="images/111.png" + alt="Painter's Vale cave"></a> + </div> + + <p>I think the Painter's Vale cave is the prettiest of the + whole. The opening is not very large. It is an arch over a + great mass of débris forming a steep slope into the cave, as if + part of the roof of the vault had suddenly fallen in. At the + foot of the bank of débris one can barely see in the dim light + the deep clear water lying perfectly still and reflecting the + roof and margin like a mirror. We clambered down the slope, and + as the eye became more accustomed to the obscurity the lake + stretched further back. There was a crazy little punt moored to + the shore, and after lighting candles Captain Nares rowed the + Governor back into the darkness, the candles throwing a dim + light for a <span class="pagenum"><a id="page112"></a>[pg 112]</span> time—while the voices + became more hollow and distant—upon the surface of the + water and the vault of stalactite, and finally passing back + as mere specks into the silence.</p><br> + + <div class="figright" + style="width:225px;"> + <a href="images/112.png"><img width="225" + src="images/112.png" + alt="A GUIDE."></a><br> + A GUIDE. + </div> + + <p>After landing the Governor on the opposite side, Captain + Nares returned for me, and we rowed round the weird little + lake. It was certainly very curious and beautiful; evidently a + huge cavity out of which the calcareous sand had been washed or + dissolved, and whose walls, still to a certain extent + permeable, had been hardened and petrified by the constant + percolation of water charged with carbonate of lime. From the + roof innumerable stalactites, perfectly white, often several + yards long and coming down to the delicacy of knitting-needles, + hung in clusters; and wherever there was any continuous crack + in the roof or wall, a graceful, soft-looking curtain of white + stalactite fell, and often ended, much to our surprise. Deep in + the water Stalagmites also rose up in pinnacles and fringes + through the water, which was so exquisitely still and clear + that it was something difficult to tell where the solid marble + tracery ended, and its reflected image began. In this cave, + which is a considerable distance from the sea, there is a + slight change of level with the tide sufficient + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page113"></a>[pg 113]</span> to keep the water perfectly + pure. The mouth of the cave is overgrown with foliage, and + every tree is draped and festooned with the fragrant + <i>Jasminum gracile</i>, mingled not unfrequently with the + "poison ivy" (<i>Rhus toxicodendron</i>). The Bermudians, + especially the dark people, have a most exaggerated horror + of this bush. They imagine that if one touch it or rub + against it he becomes feverish, and is covered with an + eruption. This is no doubt entirely mythical. The plant is + very poisonous, but the perfume of the flower is rather + agreeable, and we constantly plucked and smelt it without + its producing any unpleasant effect. The tide was with us + when we regained the Flats Bridge, and the galley shot down + the rapid like an arrow, the beds of scarlet sponges and the + great lazy trepangs showing perfectly clearly on the bottom + at a fathom depth.</p> + + <div class="figleft" + style="width:300px;"> + <a href="images/113.png"><img width="300" + src="images/113.png" + alt= + "FIG. 1. CALCAREOUS CONCRETION SIMULATING A FOSSIL PALM-STEM, BOAZ ISLAND, BERMUDAS."></a> + + <p>FIG. 1. CALCAREOUS CONCRETION SIMULATING A FOSSIL + PALM-STEM, BOAZ ISLAND, BERMUDAS.</p> + </div> + + <p>Every here and there throughout the islands there are groups + of bodies of very peculiar form projecting from the surface of + the limestone where it has been weathered. These have usually + been regarded as fossil palmetto stumps, the roots of trees + which have been overwhelmed with sand and whose organic matter + has been entirely removed and replaced by carbonate of lime. + Fig. 1 represents one of the most characteristic + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page114"></a>[pg 114]</span> of these from a group on + the side of the road in Boaz Island. It is a cylinder a foot + in diameter and six inches or so high; the upper surface + forms a shallow depression an inch deep surrounded by a + raised border; the bottom of the cup is even, and pitted + over with small depressions like the marks of rain-drops on + sand; the walls of the cylinder seem to end a few inches + below the surface of the limestone in a rounded boss, and + all over this there are round markings or little cylindrical + projections like the origins of rootlets. The object + certainly appears to agree even in every detail with a + fossil palm-root, and as the palmetto is abundant on the + islands and is constantly liable to be destroyed by and + ultimately enveloped in a mass of moving sand, it seemed + almost unreasonable to question its being one. Still + something about the look of these things made me doubt, with + General Nelson, whether they were fossil palms, or indeed + whether they were of organic origin at all; and after + carefully examining and <span class="pagenum"><a name= + "page115" + id="page115"></a>[pg 115]</span> pondering over several + groups of them, at Boaz Island, on the shore at Mount + Langton, and elsewhere, I finally came to the conclusion + that they were not fossils, but something totally + different.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" + style="width:300px;"> + <a href="images/114-1.png"><img width="300" + src="images/114-1.png" + alt= + "FIG. 2. CALCAREOUS CONCRETION IN AEOLIAN LIMESTONE, BERMUDAS."></a> + + <p>FIG. 2. CALCAREOUS CONCRETION IN AEOLIAN LIMESTONE, + BERMUDAS.</p> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter" + style="width:350px;"> + <a href="images/114-2.png"><img width="350" + src="images/114-2.png" + alt= + "FIG. 3. CALCAREOUS CONCRETION IN AEOLIAN LIMESTONE, BERMUDAS."></a> + + <p>FIG. 3. CALCAREOUS CONCRETION IN AEOLIAN LIMESTONE, + BERMUDAS.</p> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter" + style="width:350px;"> + <a href="images/115-1.png"><img width="350" + src="images/115-1.png" + alt="FIG. 4. CALCAREOUS CONCRETION, BERMUDAS."></a> + + <p>FIG. 4. CALCAREOUS CONCRETION, BERMUDAS.</p> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter" + style="width:275px;"> + <a href="images/115-2.png"><img width="275" + src="images/115-2.png" + alt= + "FIG. 5. CALCAREOUS CONCRETION IN AEOLIAN LIMESTONE, BERMUDAS."></a> + + <p>FIG. 5. CALCAREOUS CONCRETION IN AEOLIAN LIMESTONE, + BERMUDAS.</p> + </div> + + <p>The form given in Fig. 1 is the most characteristic, and + probably by far the most common; but very frequently one of a + group of these, one which is evidently essentially the same as + the rest and formed in the same way, has an oval or an + irregular shape (Figs. 2, 3, and 4). In these we have the same + raised border, the same scars on the outside, the same origins + of root-like fibres, and the same pitting of the bottom of the + shallow cup; but their form precludes the possibility of their + being tree-roots. In some cases (Fig. 5), a group of so-called + "palm-stems" is inclosed in a space surrounded by a ridge, and + on examining it closely this outer ridge is found to show the + same leaf-scars and traces of rootlets as the "palm-stems" + themselves. In some cases very irregular honey-combed figures + are produced which the examination <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page116"></a>[pg 116]</span> of a long series of + intermediate forms shows to belong to the same category + (Fig. 6).</p> + + <div class="figleft" + style="width:400px;"> + <a href="images/116.png"><img width="400" + src="images/116.png" + alt="FIG. 6. CONCRETIONS IN AEOLIAN ROCKS,"></a> + + <p>FIG. 6. CONCRETIONS IN AEOLIAN ROCKS, BERMUDAS.</p> + </div> + + <p>In the caves in the limestone, owing to a thread of water + having found its way in a particular direction through the + porous stone of the roof, a drop falls age after age on one + spot on the cave-floor, accurately directed by the stalactite + which it is all the time creating. The water contains a certain + proportion of carbonate of lime, which is deposited as + stalagmite as the water evaporates, and thus a ring-like crust + is produced at a little distance from the spot where the drop + falls. When a ring is once formed, it limits the spread of the + drop, and determines the position of the wall bounding the + little pool made by the drop. The floor of the cave gradually + rises by the accumulation of sand and travertine, and with it + rise the walls and floor of the cup by the deposit of + successive layers of stalagmite produced by the drop + percolating into the limestone of the floor which hardens it + still further, but in this peculiar symmetrical way. From the + floor and sides of the cup the water oozes into the softer + limestone around and beneath; but, as in all these limestones, + it does not ooze indiscriminately, but follows certain more + free paths. These become soon lined and finally blocked with + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page117"></a>[pg 117]</span> stalagmite, and it is these + tubes and threads of stalagmite which afterwards in the + pseudo-fossil represent the diverging rootlets.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" + style="width:400px;"> + <a href="images/139.jpg"><img width="400" + src="images/139sm.jpg" + alt="A STALAGMITE CAVE."></a><br> + A STALAGMITE CAVE. + </div> + + <p>Sometimes when two or more drops fall from stalactites close + to one another the cups coalesce (Figs. 2, 3, and 4); sometimes + one drop or two is more frequent than the other, and then we + have the form shown in Figs. 3 and 4; sometimes many drops + irregularly scattered form a large pool with its raised border, + and a few drops more frequent and more constant than the rest + grow their "palmetto stems" within its limit (Fig. 5); and + sometimes a number of drops near one another make a curious + regular pattern, with the partitions between the recesses quite + straight (Fig. 6).</p> + + <p>I have already referred to the rapid denudation which is + going on in these islands, and to the extent to which they have + been denuded within comparatively recent times. The floors of + caves, from their being cemented into a nearly homogeneous mass + by stalagmitic matter, are much harder than the ordinary porous + blown limestone; and it seems that in many cases, after the + rocks forming the walls and roof have been removed, + disintegration has been at all events temporarily arrested by + the floor. Where there is a flat surface of rock exposed + anywhere on the island, it very generally bears traces of + having been at one time the floor of a cave; and as the + weather-wearing of the surface goes on, the old concretionary + structures are gradually brought out again, the parts specially + hardened by a localized slow infiltration of lime resist + integration longest and project above the general surface. + Often <span class="pagenum"><a id="page118"></a>[pg 118]</span> a surface of weathered rock + is so studded with these symmetrical concretions, that it is + hard to believe that one is not looking at the calcified + stumps of a close-growing grove of palms.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" + style="width:500px;"> + <a href="images/118.png"><img width="500" + src="images/118.png" + alt="Stlagmite cave."></a> + </div> + + <p> </p> + + <p> </p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page119"></a>[pg 119]</span> + + <h2>THE BIG TREES OF CALIFORNIA</h2> + + <h4 class="sc">(From Studies Scientific and Social.)</h4> + + <h3><span class="sc">By</span> ALFRED RUSSEL WALLACE.</h3> + <hr class="short"> + + <div class="figleft" + style="width:200px;"> + <a href="images/119.png"><img width="200" + src="images/119.png" + alt="Big trees."></a> + </div> + + <p>In the popular accounts of these trees it is usual to dwell + only on the dimensions of the very largest known specimens, and + sometimes even to exaggerate these. Even the smaller full-grown + trees, however, are of grand dimensions, varying from fourteen + to eighteen feet in diameter, at six feet above the ground, and + keeping nearly the same thickness for perhaps a hundred feet. + In the south Calaveras grove, where there are more than a + thousand trees, the exquisite beauty of the trunks is well + displayed by the numerous specimens in perfect health and + vigor. The bark of these trees, seen at a little distance, is + of a bright orange brown tint, delicately mottled with darker + shades, and with a curious silky or plush-like gloss, which + gives them a richness of color far beyond that of any other + conifer. The tree which was cut down soon after the first + discovery of the species, the <span class="pagenum"><a name= + "page120" + id="page120"></a>[pg 120]</span> stump of which is now + covered with a pavilion, is twenty-five feet in diameter at + six feet above the ground, but this is without the thick + bark, which would bring it to twenty-seven feet when alive. + A considerable portion of this tree still lies where it + fell, and at one hundred and thirty feet from the base I + found it to be still twelve and a half feet in diameter (or + fourteen feet with the bark), while at the extremity of the + last piece remaining, two hundred and fifteen feet from its + base, it is six feet in diameter, or at least seven feet + with the bark. The height of this tree when it was cut down + is not recorded, but as one of the living trees is more than + three hundred and sixty feet high, it is probable that this + giant was not much short of four hundred + feet.</p><br> + + <div class="figleft" + style="width:300px;"> + <a href="images/120.png"><img width="300" + src="images/120.png" + alt="THE 'MOTHER OF THE FOREST.'"></a><br> + THE "MOTHER OF THE FOREST." + </div> + + <p>In the accompanying picture the dead tree in the centre is + that from which the bark was stripped, which was erected in the + Crystal Palace and unfortunately destroyed by fire. It is + called the "Mother of the <span class="pagenum"><a name= + "page121" + id="page121"></a>[pg 121]</span> Forest." The two trees + nearer the foreground are healthy, medium-sized trees, about + fifteen feet diameter at six feet above the ground.</p> + + <p>The huge decayed trunk called "Father of the Forest," which + has fallen perhaps a century or more, exhibits the grandest + dimensions of any known tree. By measuring its remains, and + allowing for the probable thickness of the bark, it seems to + have been about thirty-five feet diameter near the ground, at + ninety feet up fifteen feet, and even at a height of two + hundred and seventy feet, it was nine feet in diameter. It is + within the hollow trunk of this tree that a man on horse-back + can ride—both man and horse being rather small; but the + dimensions undoubtedly show that it was considerably larger + than the "Pavilion tree," and that it carried its huge + dimensions to a greater altitude; and although this does not + prove it to have been much taller, yet it was in all + probability more than four hundred feet in + height.</p><br> + + <div class="figcenter" + style="width:400px;"> + <a href="images/122.png"><img width="400" + src="images/122.png" + alt="Tunnel through tree."></a> + </div> + + <p>Very absurd statements are made to visitors as to the + antiquity of these trees, three or four thousand years being + usually given as their age. This is founded on the fact that + while many of the large Sequoias are greatly damaged by fire, + the large pines and firs around them are quite uninjured. As + many of these pines are assumed to be near a thousand years + old, the epoch of the "great fire" is supposed to be earlier + still, and as the Sequoias have not outgrown the fire-scars in + all that time, they are supposed to have then arrived at their + full growth. But the simple explanation of these trees alone + having suffered so much from fire is, that their bark is + unusually thick, dry, soft, and fibrous, <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page122"></a>[pg 122]</span> and it thus catches fire + more easily and burns more readily and for a longer time + than that of the other coniferæ. Forest fires occur + continually, and the visible damage done to these trees has + probably all occurred in the present century. Professor C.B. + Bradley, of the University of California, has carefully + counted the rings of annual growth on the stump of the + "Pavilion tree," and found them to be twelve hundred and + forty; and after considering all that has been alleged as to + the uncertainty of this mode of estimating <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page123"></a>[pg 123]</span> the age of a tree, he + believes that in the climate of California, in the zone of + altitude where these trees grow, the seasons of growth and + repose are so strongly marked that the number of annual + rings gives an accurate result.</p> + + <p>Other points that have been studied by Professor Bradley + are, the reason why there are so few young trees in the groves, + and what is the cause of the destruction of the old trees. To + take the last point first, these noble trees seem to be + singularly free from disease or from decay due to old age. All + the trees that have been cut down are solid to the heart, and + none of the standing trees show any indications of natural + decay. The only apparent cause for their overthrow is the wind, + and by noting the direction of a large number of fallen trees + it is found that the great majority of them lie more or less + towards the south. This is not the direction of the prevalent + winds, but many of the tallest trees lean towards the south, + owing to the increased growth of their topmost branches towards + the sun. They are then acted upon by violent gales, which + loosen their roots, and whatever the direction of the wind that + finally overthrows them, they fall in the direction of the + over-balancing top weight. The young trees grow spiry and + perfectly upright, but as soon as they overtop the surrounding + trees and get the full influence of the sun and wind, the + highest branches grow out laterally, killing those beneath + their shade, and thus a dome-shaped top is produced. Taking + into consideration the health and vigor of the largest trees, + it seems probable that, under favorable conditions of shelter + from violent winds, and from a number of trees + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page124"></a>[pg 124]</span> around them of nearly equal + height, big trees might be produced far surpassing in height + and bulk any that have yet been discovered. It is to be + hoped that if any such are found to exist in the extensive + groves of these trees to the south of those which are alone + accessible to tourists, the Californian Government will take + steps to reserve a considerable tract containing them, for + the instruction and delight of future generations.</p> + + <p>The scarcity of young Sequoias strikes every visitor, the + fact being that they are only to be found in certain favored + spots. These are, either where the loose débris of leaves and + branches which covers the ground has been cleared away by fire, + or on the spots where trees have been uprooted. Here the young + trees grow in abundance, and serve to replace those that fall. + The explanation of this is, that during the long summer drought + the loose surface débris is so dried up that the roots of the + seedling Sequoias perish before they can penetrate the earth + beneath. They require to germinate on the soil itself, and this + they are enabled to do when the earth is turned up by the fall + of a tree, or where a fire has cleared off the débris. They + also flourish under the shade of the huge fallen trunks in + hollow places, where moisture is preserved throughout the + summer. Most of the other conifers of these forests, especially + the pines, have much larger seeds than the Sequoias, and the + store of nourishment in these more bulky seeds enables the + young plants to tide over the first summer's drought. It is + clear, therefore, that there are no indications of natural + decay in these forest giants. In every stage of their growth + they are vigorous <span class="pagenum"><a id="page125"></a>[pg 125]</span> and healthy, and they have + nothing to fear except from the destroying hand of man.</p> + + <div class="figright" + style="width:350px;"> + <a href="images/125.png"><img width="350" + src="images/125.png" + alt="REDWOOD TREE WITH TRIPLE TRUNK."></a><br> + REDWOOD TREE WITH TRIPLE TRUNK. + </div> + + <p>Destruction from this cause is, however, rapidly diminishing + both the giant Sequoia and its near ally the noble redwood + (<i>Sequoia sempervirens</i>), a tree which is more beautiful + in foliage and in some other respects more remarkable than its + brother species, while there is reason to believe that under + favorable conditions it reaches an equally phenomenal size. It + once covered almost all the coast ranges of central and + northern California, but has been long since cleared away in + the vicinity of San Francisco, and greatly diminished + elsewhere. A grove is preserved for the benefit of tourists + near Santa Cruz, the largest tree being two hundred and + ninety-six feet high, twenty-nine feet diameter at the ground + and fifteen feet at six feet above it. One of these trees + having a triple trunk is here figured from a photograph. Much + larger trees, however, exist in the great forests of this tree + in the northern part of the State; but <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page126"></a>[pg 126]</span> these are rapidly being + destroyed for the timber, which is so good and durable as to + be in great demand. Hence Californians have a saying that + the redwood is too good a tree to live. On the mountains a + few miles east of the Bay of San Francisco, there are a + number of patches of young redwoods, indicating where large + trees have been felled, it being a peculiarity of this tree + that it sends up vigorous young plants from the roots of old + ones immediately around the base. Hence in the forests these + trees often stand in groups arranged nearly in a circle, + thus marking out the size of the huge trunks of their + parents. It is from this quality that the tree has been + named <i>sempervirens</i>, or ever flourishing. Dr. Gibbons, + of Alameda, who has explored all the remains of the redwood + forests in the neighborhood of Oakland, kindly took me to + see the old burnt-out stump of the largest tree he had + discovered. It is situated about fifteen hundred feet above + the sea, and is thirty-four feet in diameter at the ground. + This is as large as the very largest specimens of the + <i>Sequoia gigantea</i>, but it may have spread out more at + the base and have been somewhat smaller above, though this + is not a special characteristic of the + species.</p><br> + + <div class="figcenter" + style="width:500px;"> + <a href="images/126.png"><img width="500" + src="images/126.png" + alt="Sequoias."></a> + </div> + + <p> </p> + + <p> </p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page127"></a>[pg 127]</span> + + <h2>WHAT IS EVOLUTION?</h2> + + <h4>(<span class="sc">From The Atlantic Monthly, March, + '93.</span>)</h4> + + <h3><span class="sc">By</span> PROFESSOR E.S. HOLDEN.</h3> + <hr class="short"> + + <div class="figleft" + style="width:150px;"> + <a href="images/127.png"><img width="150" + src="images/127.png" + alt="Oak tree."></a> + </div> + + <p>I was once trying to tell a boy, a friend of mine, what the + scientific men mean by the long word <i>Evolution</i>, and to + give him some idea of the plan of the world. I wanted an + illustration of something that had grown—evolved, + developed—from small beginnings up through more and more + complicated forms, till it had reached some very complete form. + I could think of no better example than the railway by which we + were sitting. The trains were running over the very track where + a wagon-road had lately been, and before that a country + cart-track, and before that a bridle-path, and before that + again a mere trail for cattle. So I took the road for an + example, and tried to show my boy how it had grown from little + things by slow degrees according to laws; and if you like, I + will try to tell it again.</p> + + <p>Just as one can go further and further back, and always find + a bird to be the parent of the egg, and an egg to be the parent + of that bird, so in the history of <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page128"></a>[pg 128]</span> this road of ours; we may + go back and back into the past, always finding something + earlier, which is the cause of the something later. The + earth, the planets, and the sun were all a fiery mist long + ago. And in that mist, and in what came before it, we may + look for the origin of things as they are. But we must begin + somewhere. Let us begin with the landscape as we see it + now,—hills, valleys, streams, mountains, + grass,—but with only a single tree.</p> + + <p>We will not try to say how the tree came there. At least, we + will not try just yet. When we are through with the story you + can say just as well as I can.</p> + + <p>Suppose, then, a single oak-tree stood just on that hillside + thousands and thousands of years ago. Grass was growing + everywhere, and flowers, too. The seeds came with the winds. + Year after year the oak-tree bore its acorns, hundreds and + hundreds of them, and they fell on the grass beneath and rolled + down the smooth slopes, and sprouted as best they + could,—most of them uselessly so far as producing trees + were concerned,—but each one did its duty and furnished + its green sprout, and died if it found no nourishment.</p> + + <p>All the hundreds of acorns rolled down the slopes, Not one + rolled up; and here was a <i>law</i>,—the law of + gravitation,—in full activity. There were scores of other + laws active, too; for evolution had gone a long way when we had + an earth fit to be lived on, and hills in their present shape, + and a tree bearing acorns that would reproduce their kind. But + ever since the fiery mist this simple law of gravitation has + been acting, binding the whole universe together, making a + relationship between each clod and every other clod, and + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page129"></a>[pg 129]</span> forcing every stone, every + acorn, and every rain-drop to move down and not up.</p> + + <p>Just as this law operates,—continuously, silently, + inexorably,—so every other law makes itself felt in its + own sphere. Gravitation is simple. The law according to which + an acorn makes an oak—and not a pine-tree is complex. But + the laws of Nature are all alike, and if we understand the + simple ones, we can at least partly comprehend the more + complex. They are nothing but fixed habits on a large + scale.</p> + + <p>So the acorns fell year by year and sprouted; and one out of + a thousand found good soil, and was not wasted, and made a + tree. And so all around (below) the tree with which we started + there grew a grove of oaks like it, in fact its children; and + finally the original trees died, but not without having left + successors.</p> + + <p>First of all, the green hillside is smooth and untrodden. + There is nothing but grass and flowers, borne there by the + winds, which leave no track. There is no animal life even in + this secluded spot save the birds, and they too leave no track. + By and by there comes a hard winter, or a dearth of food, and a + pair of stray squirrels emigrate from their home in the valley + below; and the history of our hill and its woods begins. Mere + chance decides the choice of the particular oak-tree in which + the squirrels make their home. From the foot of this tree they + make excursions here and there for their store of winter + food,—acorns and the like,—and they leave little + paths on the hillside from tree to tree.</p> + + <p>The best-marked paths run to the places where there are the + most acorns. A little later on there are more squirrels in the + colony,—the young of the parent pair, <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page130"></a>[pg 130]</span> and other colonists from + the valley. The little tracks become plainer and + plainer.</p> + + <p>Later still come other wild animals in search of + food,—squirrels will do. The wild animals do not remain + in the colony (there are too few squirrels, and they are too + hard to catch), but they pass through it, sometimes by day but + oftenest by night.</p> + + <p>You might think it was perfectly a matter of chance along + which path a bear or a wolf passed, but it was not. He + <i>could</i> walk anywhere on the hillside; and sometimes he + would be found far out of the paths that the squirrels had + begun. But usually, when he was in no haste, he took the + easiest path. The easiest one was that which went between the + bushes and not through them; along the hillside and not + straight up it; around the big rocks and not over them. The + wolves and bears and foxes have new and different wants when + they come; and they break new paths to the springs where they + drink, to the shade where they lie, to the hollow trees where + the bees swarm and store the wild honey.</p> + + <p>But the squirrels were the first surveyors of these tracks. + The bears and wolves are the engineers, who change the early + paths to suit their special convenience.</p> + + <p>By and by the Indian hunter comes to follow the wild game. + He, too, takes the easiest trail, the path of least resistance; + and he follows the track to the spring that the deer have made, + and he drinks there. He is an animal as they are, and he + satisfies his animal wants according to the same law that + governs them.</p> + + <p>After generations of hunters, Indians, and then white men, + there comes a man on horseback looking for a <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page131"></a>[pg 131]</span> house to live in. He, too, + follows along the easiest paths and stops at the spring; and + near by he finds the place he is looking for. Soon he + returns, driving before him herds of cattle and flocks of + sheep, which spread over the grassy glades to feed. But + everywhere they take the easiest place, the old paths, from + the shady tree to the flowing spring. After awhile the + hillside is plainly marked with these sheep trails. You can + see them now whenever you go into the country, on every + hillside.</p> + + <p>Soon there are neighbors who build their homes in the next + valley, and a good path must be made between the different + houses.</p> + + <p>A few days' work spent in moving the largest stones, in + cutting down trees, and in levelling off a few steep slopes, + makes a trail along which you can gallop your horse.</p> + + <p>Things move fast now,—history begins to be made + quickly as soon as man takes a hand in it. Soon the trail is + not enough: it must be widened so that a wagon-load of boards + for a new house can be carried in (for the settler has found a + wife). After the first cart-track is made to carry the boards + and shingles in, a better road will be needed to haul firewood + and grain out (for the wants of the new family have increased, + and things must be bought in the neighboring village with + money, and money can only be had by selling the products of the + farm). By and by the neighborhood is so well inhabited that it + is to the advantage of the villages all around it to have good + and safe and easy roads there; and the road is declared a + public one, and it is regularly kept in repair and improved at + the public <span class="pagenum"><a id="page132"></a>[pg 132]</span> expense. Do not forget the + squirrels of long ago. They were the projectors of this + road. Their successors use it now,—men and squirrels + alike,—and stop at the spring to drink, and under the + huge oaks to rest.</p> + + <p>A few years more, and it becomes to the advantage of all to + have a railway through the valley and over the hillside. Then a + young surveyor, just graduated from college, comes with his + chain-men and flag-men, and finds that the squirrels, and + bears, and hunters, and all the rest have picked out the + easiest way for him long centuries ago. He makes his map, and + soon the chief enigneer and the president of the road drive + along in a buggy with a pair of fast horses (frightening the + little squirrels off their road-way and into their holes), and + the route of the Bear Valley and Quercus Railway is finally + selected, and here it is. See! there comes a train along the + track. This is the way a railway route grew out of a squirrel + path. There are thousands of little steps, but you can trace + them, or imagine them, as well as I can tell you.</p> + + <p>It is the same all over the world. Stanley cut a track + through the endless African forests. But it lay between the + Pygmy villages, along the paths they had made, and through the + glades where they fought their battles with the storks.</p> + + <p>Sometimes the first road is a river—the track is + already cut. Try to find out where the settlements in America + were in the very early days—before 1800. You will find + them along the Hudson, the Juanita, the St. Lawrence, the + James, the Mississippi Rivers. But when these are left, men + follow the squirrel-tracks and <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page133"></a>[pg 133]</span> bear-tracks, or the paths + of hunters, or the roads of Roman soldiers. It is a standing + puzzle to little children why all the great rivers flow past + the great towns. (Why do they?) The answer to that question + will tell you why the great battles are fought in the same + regions; why Egypt has been the coveted prize of a dozen + different conquerors (it is the gateway of the East); why + our Civil War turned on the possession of the Mississippi + River. It is the roadways we fight for, the ways in and out, + whether they be land or water. Of course, we really fought + for something better than the mere possession of a roadway, + but to get what we fought for we had to have the roadway + first.</p> + + <p>The great principle at the bottom of everything in Nature is + that the fittest survives: or, as I think it is better to say + it, in any particular conflict or struggle that thing survives + which is the fittest to survive <i>in this particular + struggle</i>. This is Mr. Darwin's discovery,—or one of + them,—and the struggle for existence is a part of the + great struggle of the whole universe, and the laws of it make + up the methods of Evolution—of Development.</p> + + <p>It is clear now, is it not, how the railway route is the + direct descendant of the tiny squirrel track between two oaks? + The process of development we call Evolution, and you can trace + it all around you. Why are your skates shaped in a certain way? + Why is your gun rifled? Why have soldiers two sets of (now) + useless buttons on the skirts of their coats? (I will give you + three guesses for this, and the hint that you must think of + cavalry soldiers.) Why are eagles' wings of just the size that + they are? These and millions <span class="pagenum"><a name= + "page134" + id="page134"></a>[pg 134]</span> of like questions are to be + answered by referring to the principle of development.</p> + + <p>Sometimes it is hard to find the clew. Sometimes the + development has gone so far, and the final product has become + so complex and special, that it takes a good deal of thinking + to find out the real reasons. But they <i>can</i> be found, + whether they relate to a fashion, to one of the laws of our + country, or to the colors on a butterfly's wing.</p> + + <p>There is a little piece of verse intended to be comic, + which, on the contrary, is really serious and philosophical, if + you understand it. Learn it by heart, and apply it to all kinds + and conditions of things, and see if it does not help you to + explain them to yourself....</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>"And Man grew a thumb for that he had need of + it,</p> + + <p>And developed capacities for prey.</p> + + <p>For the fastest men caught the most animals,</p> + + <p>And the fastest animals got away from the most + men.</p> + + <p>Whereby all the slow animals were eaten,</p> + + <p>And all the slow men starved to death."</p> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter" + style="width:500px;"> + <a href="images/134.png"><img width="500" + src="images/134.png" + alt="Train engine."></a> + </div> + + <p> </p> + + <p> </p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page135"></a>[pg 135]</span> + + <h2>HOW THE SOIL IS MADE</h2> + + <h4>(<span class="sc">From the Formation of Vegetable + Mould.</span>)</h4> + + <h3><span class="sc">By</span> CHARLES DARWIN.</h3> + <hr class="short"> + + <div class="figleft" + style="width:200px;"> + <a href="images/135.png"><img width="200" + src="images/135.png" + alt="Worms."></a> + </div> + + <p>Worms have played a more important part in the history of + the world than most persons would at first suppose. In almost + all humid countries they are extraordinarily numerous, and for + their size possess great muscular power. In many parts of + England a weight of more than ten tons (10,516 kilogrammes) of + dry earth annually passes through their bodies and is brought + to the surface on each acre of land; so that the whole + superficial bed of vegetable mould passes through their bodies + in the course of every few years. From the collapsing of the + old burrows the mould is in constant though slow movement, and + the particles composing it are thus rubbed together. By these + means fresh surfaces are continually exposed to the action of + the carbonic acid in the soil, and of the humus-acids which + appear to be still more efficient in the decomposition of + rocks. The generation of the humus-acids is probably hastened + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page136"></a>[pg 136]</span> during the digestion of the + many half-decayed leaves which worms consume. Thus the + particles of earth, forming the superficial mould, are + subjected to conditions eminently favorable for their + decomposition and disintegration. Moreover, the particles of + the softer rocks suffer some amount of mechanical + trituration in the muscular gizzards of worms, in which + small stones serve as mill-stones.</p><br> + + <div class="figleft" + style="width:175px;"> + <a href="images/136.png"><img width="175" + src="images/136.png" + alt= + "DIAGRAM OF THE ALIMENTARY CANAL OF AN EARTH-WORM."></a><br> + DIAGRAM OF THE ALIMENTARY CANAL OF AN EARTH-WORM. + </div> + + <p>The finely levigated castings, when brought to the surface + in a moist condition, flow during rainy weather down any + moderate slope; and the smaller particles are washed far down + even a gently inclined surface. Castings when dry often crumble + into small pellets and these are apt to roll down any sloping + surface. Where the land is quite level and is covered with + herbage, and where the climate is humid so that much dust + cannot be blown away, it appears at first sight impossible that + there should be any appreciable amount of sub-aerial + denudation; but worm castings are blown, especially while moist + and viscid, in one uniform direction by the prevalent winds + which are accompanied by rain. By these several means the + superficial mould is prevented from accumulating to a great + thickness; and a thick bed of mould checks in many ways the + disintegration of the underlying rocks and fragments of + rock.</p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page137"></a>[pg 137]</span> + + <div class="figright" + style="width:250px;"> + <a href="images/137.png"><img width="250" + src="images/137.png" + alt="A WORM CASTING, FROM NICE."></a> + + <p>A WORM CASTING, FROM NICE. (Natural Size.)</p> + </div> + + <p>The removal of worm-castings by the above means leads to + results which are far from insignificant. It has been shown + that a layer of earth,.2 of an inch in thickness, is in many + places annually brought to the surface per acre; and if a small + part of this amount flows, or rolls, or is washed, even for a + short distance, down every inclined surface, or is repeatedly + blown in one direction, a great effect will be produced in the + course of ages. It was found by measurements and calculations + that on a surface with a mean inclination of 9° 26', 2.4 cubic + inches of earth which had been ejected by worms crossed, in the + course of a year, a horizontal line one yard in length; so that + two hundred and forty cubic inches would cross a line one + hundred yards in length. This latter amount in a damp state + would weigh eleven and one-half pounds. Thus, a considerable + weight of earth is continually moving down each side of every + valley, and will in time reach its bed. Finally, this earth + will be transported by the streams flowing in the valleys into + the ocean, the great receptacle for all matter denuded from the + land. It is known from the amount of sediment annually + delivered into the sea by the Mississippi, <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page138"></a>[pg 138]</span> that its enormous + drainage-area must on an average be lowered.00263 of an inch + each year; and this would suffice in four and a half million + years to lower the whole drainage-area to the level of the + seashore. So that if a small fraction of the layer of fine + earth,.2 of an inch in thickness, which is annually brought + to the surface by worms, is carried away, a great result + cannot fail to be produced within a period which no + geologist considers extremely long.</p> + + <div class="figleft" + style="width:400px;"> + <a href="images/138.png"><img width="400" + src="images/138.png" + alt= + "SECTION THROUGH ONE OF THE DRUIDICAL STONES AT STONEHENGE, SHOWING HOW MUCH IT HAD SUNK INTO THE GROUND."></a> + + <p>SECTION THROUGH ONE OF THE DRUIDICAL STONES AT + STONEHENGE, SHOWING HOW MUCH IT HAD SUNK INTO THE + GROUND.</p>(Scale, ½ inch to 1 foot.) + </div> + + <p>Archaeologists ought to be grateful to worms, as they + protect and preserve for an indefinitely long period every + object, not liable to decay, which is dropped on the surface of + the land, by burying it beneath their castings. Thus, also, + many elegant and curious tesselated pavements and other ancient + remains have been preserved; though no doubt the worms have in + these cases been largely aided by earth washed and blown from + the adjoining land, especially when cultivated. The old + tesselated pavements have, however, often suffered by having + subsided unequally from being unequally undermined by the + worms. Even old massive walls may be undermined and subside; + and no building is in this respect safe, unless the foundations + lie six or seven feet beneath the surface, at a depth at which + worms cannot work. It is probable that many <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page139"></a>[pg 139]</span> monoliths and some old + walls have fallen down from having been undermined by + worms.</p> + + <p>Worms prepare the ground in an excellent manner for the + growth of fibrous-rooted plants and for seedlings of all kinds. + They periodically expose the mould to the air, and sift it so + that no stones larger than the particles which they can swallow + are left in it. They mingle the whole intimately together, like + a gardener who prepares fine soil for his choicest plants. In + this state it is well fitted to retain moisture and to absorb + all soluble substances, as well as for the process of + nitrification. The bones of dead animals, the harder parts of + insects, the shells of land mollusks, leaves, twigs, etc., are + before long all buried beneath the accumulated castings of + worms, and are thus brought in a more or less decayed state + within reach of the roots of plants. Worms likewise drag an + infinite number of dead leaves and other parts of plants into + their burrows, partly for the sake of plugging them up and + partly as food.</p> + + <p>The leaves which are dragged into the burrows as food, after + being torn into the finest shreds, partially digested and + saturated with the intestinal and urinary secretions, are + commingled with much earth. This earth forms the dark-colored, + rich humus which almost everywhere covers the surface of the + land with a fairly well-defined layer or mantle. Von Hensen + placed two worms in a vessel eighteen inches in diameter, which + was filled with sand, on which fallen leaves were strewed; and + these were soon dragged into their burrows to a depth of three + inches. After about six weeks an almost uniform layer of sand, + a centimetre <span class="pagenum"><a id="page140"></a>[pg 140]</span> (.4 inch) in thickness, was + converted into humus by having passed through the alimentary + canals of these two worms. It is believed by some persons + that worm-burrows, which often penetrate the ground almost + perpendicularly to a depth of five or six feet, materially + aid in its drainage; notwithstanding that the viscid + castings piled over the mouths of the burrows prevent or + check the rain-water directly entering them. They allow the + air to penetrate deeply into the ground. They also greatly + facilitate the downward passage of roots of moderate size; + and these will be nourished by the humus with which the + burrows are lined. Many seeds owe their germination to + having been covered by castings; and others buried to a + considerable depth beneath accumulated castings lie dormant, + until at some future time they are accidentally uncovered + and germinate.</p> + + <div class="figleft" + style="width:300px;"> + <a href="images/140.png"><img width="300" + src="images/140.png" + alt="A WORM CASTING FROM SOUTH INDIA."></a> + + <p>A WORM CASTING FROM SOUTH INDIA.</p>(Natural Size.) + </div> + + <p>Worms are poorly provided with sense-organs, for they cannot + be said to see, although they can just distinguish between + light and darkness; they are completely deaf, and have only a + feeble power of smell; the sense of touch alone is well + developed. They can, therefore, learn little about the outside + world, and it is surprising that they should exhibit some skill + in lining <span class="pagenum"><a id="page141"></a>[pg 141]</span> their burrows with their + castings and with leaves, and in the case of some species in + piling up their castings into tower-like constructions. But + it is far more surprising that they should apparently + exhibit some degree of intelligence instead of a mere blind, + instinctive impulse, in their manner of plugging up the + mouths of their burrows. They act in nearly the same manner + as would a man, who had to close a cylindrical tube with + different kinds of leaves, petioles, triangles of paper, + etc., for they commonly seize such objects by their pointed + ends. But with thin objects a certain number are drawn in by + their broader ends. They do not act in the same unvarying + manner in all cases, as do most of the lower animals; for + instance, they do not drag in leaves by their foot-stalks, + unless the basil part of the blade is as narrow as the apex, + or narrower than it.</p> + <hr> + + <p>When we behold a wide, turf-covered expanse, we should + remember that its smoothness, on which so much of its beauty + depends, is mainly due to all the inequalities having been + slowly levelled by worms. It is a marvellous reflection that + the whole of the superficial mould over any such expanse has + passed, and will again pass, every few years through the bodies + of worms. The plough is one of the most ancient and most + valuable of man's inventions; but long before he existed the + land was in fact regularly ploughed, and, still continues to be + thus ploughed by earth-worms. It may be doubted whether there + are many other animals which have played so important a part in + the history of the world, as have these lowly organized + creatures. Some <span class="pagenum"><a id="page142"></a>[pg 142]</span> other animals, however, + still more lowly organized, namely, corals, have done far + more conspicuous work in having constructed innumerable + reefs and islands in the great oceans; but these are almost + confined to the tropical zones.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" + style="width:500px;"> + <a href="images/142.png"><img width="500" + src="images/142.png" + alt="Mountain peak."></a> + </div> + + <p> </p> + + <p> </p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page143"></a>[pg 143]</span> + + <h2>ZOÖLOGICAL MYTHS</h2> + + <h4>(<span class="sc">From Facts and Fictions of + Zoölogy.</span>)</h4> + + <h3><span class="sc">By</span> ANDREW WILSON.</h3> + <hr class="short"> + + <div class="figleft" + style="width:250px;"> + <a href="images/143.png"><img width="250" + src="images/143.png" + alt="Mermaid."></a> + </div> + + <p>When the country swain, loitering along some lane, comes to + a standstill to contemplate, with awe and wonder, the spectacle + of a mass of the familiar "hair-eels" or "hair-worms" wriggling + about in a pool, he plods on his way firmly convinced that, as + he has been taught to believe, he has just witnessed the + results of the transformation of some horse's hairs into living + creatures. So familiar is this belief to people of professedly + higher culture than the countryman, that the transformation + just alluded to has to all, save a few thinking persons and + zoölogists, become a matter of the most commonplace kind. When + some quarrymen, engaged in splitting up the rocks, have + succeeded in dislodging some huge mass of stone, there may + sometimes be seen to hop from among the débris a lively toad or + frog, which comes to be regarded by the excavators with + feelings akin to those of <span class="pagenum"><a name= + "page144" + id="page144"></a>[pg 144]</span> superstitious wonder and + amazement. The animal may or may not be captured; but the + fact is duly chronicled in the local newspapers, and people + wonder for a season over the phenomenon of a veritable Rip + Van Winkle of a frog, which to all appearance, has lived for + "thousands of years in the solid rock." Nor do the hair-worm + and the frog stand alone in respect of their marvellous + origin. Popular zoölogy is full of such marvels. We find + unicorns, mermaids, and mermen; geese developed from the + shell-fish known as "barnacles"; we are told that crocodiles + may weep, and that sirens can sing—in short, there is + nothing so wonderful to be told of animals that people will + not believe the tale. Whilst, curiously enough, when they + are told of veritable facts of animal life, heads begin to + shake and doubts to be expressed, until the zoölogist + despairs of educating people into distinguishing fact from + fiction, and truth from theories and unsupported beliefs. + The story told of the old lady, whose youthful acquaintance + of seafaring habits entertained her with tales of the + wonders he had seen, finds, after all, a close application + in the world at large. The dame listened with delight, + appreciation, and belief, to accounts of mountains of sugar + and rivers of rum, and to tales of lands where gold and + silver and precious stones were more than plentiful. But + when the narrator descended to tell of fishes that were able + to raise <span class="pagenum"><a id="page145"></a>[pg 145]</span> themselves out of the water + in flight, the old lady's credulity began to fancy itself + imposed upon; for she indignantly repressed what she + considered the lad's tendency to exaggeration, saying, + "Sugar mountains may be, and rivers of rum may be, but fish + that flee ne'er can be!" Many popular beliefs concerning + animals partake of the character of the old lady's opinions + regarding the real and fabulous; and the circumstance tells + powerfully in favor of the opinion that a knowledge of our + surroundings in the world, and an intelligent conception of + animal and plant life, should form part of the + school-training of every boy and girl, as the most effective + antidote to superstitions and myths of every kind.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" + style="width:400px;"> + <a href="images/144.png"><img width="400" + src="images/144.png" + alt="FLYING FISH."></a><br> + FLYING FISH. + </div> + + <p>The tracing of myths and fables is a very interesting task, + and it may, therefore, form a curious study, if we endeavor to + investigate very briefly a few of the popular and erroneous + beliefs regarding lower animals. The belief regarding the + origin of the hair-worms is both widely spread and ancient. + Shakespeare tells us that</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i22">"Much, is breeding</p> + + <p>Which, like the courser's hair, hath, yet but + life,</p> + + <p>And not a serpent's poison."</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>The hair-worms certainly present the appearance of long, + delicate black hairs, which move about with great activity + amidst the mud of pools and ditches. These worms, in the early + stages of their existence, inhabit the bodies of insects, and + may be found coiled up within the grasshopper, which thus gives + shelter to a guest exceeding many times the length of the body + of its host. Sooner or later the hair-worm, or <i>Gordius</i> + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page146"></a>[pg 146]</span> <i>aquaticus</i> as the + naturalist terms it, leaves the body of the insect, and lays + its eggs, fastened together in long strings, in water. From + each egg a little creature armed with minute hooks is + produced, and this young hair-worm burrows its way into the + body of some insect, there to repeat the history of its + parent. Such is the well-ascertained history of the + hair-worm, excluding entirely the popular belief in its + origin. There certainly does exist in science a theory known + as that of "spontaneous generation," which, in ancient + times, accounted for the production of insects and other + animals by assuming that they were produced in some + mysterious fashion out of lifeless matter. But not even the + most ardent believer in the extreme modification of this + theory which holds a place in modern scientific belief, + would venture to maintain the production of a hair-worm by + the mysterious vivification of an inert substance such as a + horse's hair.</p> + + <p>The expression "crocodile's tears" has passed into common + use, and it therefore may be worth while noting the probable + origin of this myth. Shakespeare, with that wide extent of + knowledge which enabled him to draw similes from every + department of human thought, says that</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i22">"Gloster's show</p> + + <p>Beguiles him, as the mournful crocodile</p> + + <p>With sorrow snares relenting passengers."</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>The poet thus indicates the belief that not only do + crocodiles shed tears, but that sympathizing passengers, + turning to commiserate the reptile's woes, are seized and + destroyed by the treacherous creatures. That quaint and + credulous old author—the earliest writer + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page147"></a>[pg 147]</span> of English prose—Sir + John Mandeville, in his "Voiage," or account of his + "Travile," published about 1356—in which, by the way, + there are to be found accounts of not a few wonderful things + in the way of zoölogical curiosities—tells us that in + a certain "contre and be all yonde, ben great plenty of + Crokodilles, that is, a manner of a long Serpent as I have + seyed before." He further remarks that "these Serpents slew + men," and devoured them, weeping; and he tells us, too, that + "whan thei eaten thei meven (move) the over jowe (upper + jaw), and nought the nether (lower) jowe: and thei have no + tonge (tongue)." Sir John thus states two popular beliefs of + his time and of days prior to his age, namely, that + crocodiles move their upper jaws, and that a tongue was + absent in these animals.</p> + + <div class="figright" + style="width:400px;"> + <a href="images/147.png"><img width="400" + src="images/147.png" + alt="CROCODILE."></a><br> + CROCODILE. + </div> + + <p>As regards the tears of the crocodile, no foundation of fact + exists for the belief in such sympathetic exhibitions. But a + highly probable explanation may be given of the manner in which + such a belief originated. These reptiles unquestionably emit + very loud and singularly plaintive cries, compared by some + travellers to the mournful howling of dogs. The earlier and + credulous <span class="pagenum"><a id="page148"></a>[pg 148]</span> travellers would very + naturally associate tears with these cries, and, once begun, + the supposition would be readily propagated, for error and + myth are ever plants of quick growth. The belief in the + movement of the upper jaw rests on apparent basis of fact. + The lower jaw is joined to the skull very far back on the + latter, and the mouth-opening thus comes to be singularly + wide; whilst, when the mouth opens, the skull and upper jaw + are apparently observed to move. This is not the case, + however; the apparent movement arising from the manner in + which the lower jaw and the skull are joined together. The + belief in the absence of the tongue is even more readily + explained. When the mouth is widely opened, no tongue is to + be seen. This organ is not only present, but is, moreover, + of large size; it is, however, firmly attached to the floor + of the mouth, and is specially adapted, from its peculiar + form and structure, to assist these animals in the capture + and swallowing of their prey.</p> + + <p>One of the most curious fables regarding animals which can + well be mentioned, is that respecting the so-called "Bernicle" + or "Barnacle Geese," which by the naturalists and educated + persons of the Middle Ages were believed to be produced by + those little Crustaceans named "Barnacles." With the + "Barnacles" every one must be familiar who has examined the + floating driftwood of the sea-beach, or who has seen ships + docked in a seaport town. A barnacle is simply a kind of crab + enclosed in a triangular shell, and attached by a fleshy stalk + to fixed objects. If the barnacle is not familiar to readers, + certain near relations of these animals must be well known, by + sight at least, as amongst the most <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page149"></a>[pg 149]</span> familiar denizens of our + sea-coast. These latter are the "Sea-Acorn," or Balani, + whose little conical shells we crush by hundreds as we walk + over the rocks at low-water mark; whilst every wooden pile + immersed in the sea becomes coated in a short time with a + thick crust of the "Sea-Acorns." If we place one of these + little animals, barnacle, or sea-acorn—the latter + wanting the stalk of the former—in its native waters, + we shall observe a beautiful little series of feathery + plumes to wave backward and forward, and ever and anon to be + quickly withdrawn into the secure recesses of the shell. + These organs are the modified feet of the animal, which not + only serve for sweeping food-particles into the mouth, but + act also as breathing-organs. We may, therefore, find it a + curious study to inquire through what extraordinary + transformation and confusion of ideas such an animal could + be credited with giving origin to a veritable goose; and the + investigation of the subject will also afford a singularly + apt illustration of the ready manner in which the fable of + one year or period becomes transmitted and transformed into + the secure and firm belief of the next.</p> + + <p>We may begin our investigation by inquiring into some of the + opinions which were entertained on this subject and ventilated + by certain old writers. Between 1154 and 1189 Giraldus + Cambrensis, in a work entitled "Topographia Hiberniae," written + in Latin, remarks concerning "many birds which are called + Bernacae: against nature, nature produces them in a most + extraordinary way. They are like marsh geese, but somewhat + smaller. They are produced from fir timber tossed along the + sea, and are at first like gum. Afterward <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page150"></a>[pg 150]</span> they hang down by their + beaks, as if from a seaweed attached to the timber, + surrounded by shells, in order to grow more freely," + Giraldus is here evidently describing the barnacles + themselves. He continues: "Having thus, in process of time, + been clothed with a strong coat of feathers, they either + fall into the water or fly freely away into the air. They + derive their food and growth from the sap of the wood or the + sea, by a secret and most wonderful process of alimentation. + I have frequently, with my own eyes, seen more than a + thousand of these small bodies of birds, hanging down on the + seashore from one piece of timber, enclosed in shells, and + already formed." Here, again, our author is speaking of the + barnacles themselves, with which he naturally confuses the + geese, since he presumes the Crustaceans are simply geese in + an undeveloped state. He further informs his readers that, + owing to their presumably marine origin, "bishops and + clergymen in some parts of Ireland do not scruple to dine + off these birds at the time of fasting, because they are not + flesh, nor born of flesh," although for certain other and + theological reasons, not specially requiring to be discussed + in the present instance, Giraldus disputes the legality of + this practice of the Hibernian clerics.</p> + + <p>In the year 1527 appeared "The Hystory and Croniclis of + Scotland, with the cosmography and dyscription thairof, + compilit be the noble Clerk Maister Hector Boece, Channon of + Aberdene." Boece's "History" was written in Latin; the title we + have just quoted being that of the English version of the work + (1540), which title further sets forth that Boece's work was + "Translait laitly in our vulgar and commoun langage be + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page151"></a>[pg 151]</span> Maister Johne Bellenden, + Archedene of Murray, And Imprentit in Edinburgh, be me + Thomas Davidson, prenter to the Kyngis nobyll grace." In + this learned work the author discredits the popular ideas + regarding the origin of the geese. "Some men belevis that + thir clakis (geese) growis on treis be the nebbis (bills). + Bot thair opinoun is vane. And becaus the nature and + procreatioun of thir clakis is strange, we have maid na + lytyll laboure and deligence to serche ye treuth and verite + yairof, we have salit (sailed) throw ye seis quhare thir + clakis ar bred, and I fynd be gret experience, that the + nature of the seis is mair relevant caus of thair + procreatioun than ony uthir thyng." According to Boece, + then, "the nature of the seis" formed the chief element in + the production of the geese, and our author proceeds to + relate how "all treis (trees) that ar casein in the seis be + proces of tyme apperis first wormeetin (worm-eaten), and in + the small boris and hollis (holes) thairof growis small + worms." Our author no doubt here alludes to the ravages of + the Teredo, or ship-worm, which burrows into timber, and + with which the barnacles themselves are thus confused. Then + he continues, the "wormis" first "schaw (show) thair heid + and feit, and last of all thay schaw thair plumis and + wyngis. Finaly, quhen thay ar cumyn to the just mesure and + quantite of geis, thay fle in the aire as othir fowlis dois, + as was notably provyn, in the yeir of God ane thousand iii + hundred lxxxx, in sicht of mony pepyll, besyde the castell + of Petslego." On the occasion referred to, Boece tells us + that a great tree was cast on shore, and was divided, by + order of the "laird" of the ground, by means of a saw. + Wonderful to relate, the tree was found not <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page152"></a>[pg 152]</span> merely to be riddled with a + "multitude of wormis," throwing themselves out of the holes + of the tree, but some of the "wormis" had "baith heid, feit, + and wyngis," but, adds the author, "they had no fedderis + (feathers)."</p> + + <p>Unquestionably, either "the scientific use of the + imagination" had operated in this instance in inducing the + observers to believe that in this tree, riddled by the + ship-worms and possibly having barnacles attached to it, they + beheld young geese; or Boece had construed the appearances + described as those representing the embryo stages of the + barnacle geese.</p> + + <p>Boece further relates how a ship named the Christofir was + brought to Leith, and was broken down because her timbers had + grown old and failing. In these timbers were beheld the same + "wormeetin" appearances, "all the hollis thairof" being "full + of geis." Boece again most emphatically rejects the idea that + the "geis" were produced from the wood of which the timbers + were composed, and once more proclaims his belief that the + "nature of the seis resolvit in geis" may be accepted as the + true and final explanation of their origin. A certain "Maister + Alexander Galloway" had apparently strolled with the historian + along the sea-coast, the former giving "his mynd with maist + ernist besynes to serche the verite of this obscure and mysty + dowtis." Lifting up a piece of tangle, they beheld the seaweed + to be hanging full of mussel-shells from the root to the + branches. Maister Galloway opened one of the mussel-shells, and + was "mair astonis than afore" to find no fish therein, but a + perfectly shaped "foule, smal and gret," as corresponded to the + "quantity of the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page153"></a>[pg 153]</span> shell." And once again + Boece draws the inference that the trees or wood on which + the creatures are found have nothing to do with the origin + of the birds; and that the fowls are begotten of the + "occeane see, quhilk," concludes our author, "is the caus + and production of mony wonderful thingis."</p> + + <p>More than fifty years after the publication of Boece's + "History," old Gerard of London, the famous "master in + chirurgerie" of his day, gave an account of the barnacle goose, + and not only entered into minute particulars of its growth and + origin, but illustrated its manner of production by means of + the engraver's art of his day. Gerard's "Herball," published in + 1597, thus contains, amongst much that is curious in medical + lore, a very quaint piece of zoölogical history. He tells us + that "in the north parts of Scotland, and the Hands adjacent, + called Orchades (Orkneys)," are found "certaine trees, whereon + doe growe certaine shell fishes, of a white colour tending to + russet; wherein are conteined little living creatures: which + shels in time of maturitie doe open, and out of them grow those + little living foules whom we call Barnakles, in the north of + England Brant Geese, and in Lancashire tree Geese; but the + other that do fall upon the land, perish, and come to nothing: + thus much by the writings of others, and also from the mouths + of people of those parts, which may," concludes Gerard, "very + well accord with truth."</p> + + <p>Not content with hearsay evidence, however, Gerard relates + what his eyes saw and hands touched. He describes how on the + coasts of a certain "small Hand in Lancashire called Pile of + Foulders" (probably Peel <span class="pagenum"><a name= + "page154" + id="page154"></a>[pg 154]</span> Island), the wreckage of + ships is cast up by the waves, along with the trunks and + branches "of old and rotten trees." On these wooden + rejectamenta "a certaine spume or froth" grows, according to + Gerard. This spume "in time breedeth unto certaine shels, in + shape like those of the muskle, but sharper pointed, and of + a whitish color." This description, it may be remarked, + clearly applies to the barnacles themselves. Gerard then + continues to point out how, when the shell is perfectly + formed, it "gapeth open, and the first thing that appeereth + is the foresaid lace or string"—the substance + described by Gerard as contained within the + shell—"next come the legs of the Birde hanging out; + and as it groweth greater, it openeth the shell by degrees, + till at length it is all come forth, and hangeth only by the + bill; in short space after it commeth to full maturitie, and + falleth into the sea, where it gathereth feathers, and + groweth to a foule, bigger than a Mallard, and lesser than a + Goose, having blacke legs and bill or beake, and feathers + blacke and white ... which the people of Lancashire call by + no other name than a tree Goose."</p> + + <div class="figleft" + style="width:250px;"> + <a href="images/154.png"><img width="250" + src="images/154.png" + alt="FIG. 1. THE BARNACLE TREE."></a><br> + FIG. 1. THE BARNACLE TREE.<br> + (From Gerard's "Herball.") + </div> + + <p>Accompanying this description is the engraving of the + barnicle tree (Fig. 1) bearing its geese progeny. From the open + shells in two cases, the little geese are seen protruding, + whilst several of the fully-fledged fowls <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page155"></a>[pg 155]</span> are disporting themselves + in the sea below. Gerard's concluding piece of information, + with its exordium, must not be omitted. "They spawne," says + the wise apothecary, "as it were, in March or Aprill; the + Geese are found in Maie or June, and come to fulnesse of + feathers in the moneth after. And thus hauing, through God's + assistance, discoursed somewhat at large of Grasses, Herbes, + Shrubs, Trees, Mosses, and certaine excrescences of the + earth, with other things moe incident to the Historic + thereof, we conclude and end our present volume, with this + woonder of England. For which God's name be euer honored and + praised." It is to be remarked that Gerard's description of + the goose-progeny of the barnacle tree exactly corresponds + with the appearance of the bird known to ornithologists as + the "barnacle-goose"; and there can be no doubt that, + skilled as was this author in the natural history lore of + his day, there was no other feeling in his mind than that of + firm belief in and pious wonder at the curious relations + between the shells and their fowl-offspring. Gerard thus + attributes the origin of the latter to the barnacles. He + says nothing of the "wormeetin" holes and burrows so + frequently mentioned by Boece, nor would he have agreed with + the latter in crediting the "nature of the occeane see" with + their production, save in so far as their barnacle-parents + lived and existed in the waters of the ocean.</p> + + <p>The last account of this curious fable which we may allude + to in the present instance is that of Sir Robert Moray, who, in + his work entitled "A Relation concerning Barnacles," published + in the <i>Philosophical Transactions</i> of the Royal Society + in 1677-78, gives a <span class="pagenum"><a id="page156"></a>[pg 156]</span> succinct account of these + crustaceans and their bird-progeny. Sir Robert is described + as "lately one of his Majesties Council for the Kingdom of + Scotland," and we may therefore justly assume his account to + represent that of a cultured, observant person of his day + and generation. The account begins by remarking that the + "most ordinary trees" found in the western islands of + Scotland "are Firr and Ash." "Being," continues Sir Robert, + "in the Island of East (Uist), I saw lying upon the shore a + cut of a large Firr tree of about 2-1/2 foot diameter, and 9 + or 10 foot long; which had lain so long out of the water + that it was very dry: And most of the shells that had + formerly cover'd it, were worn or rubb'd off. Only on the + parts that lay next the ground, there still hung multitudes + of little Shells; having within them little Birds, perfectly + shap'd, supposed to be Barnacles." Here again the + description applies to the barnacles; the "little birds" + they are described as containing being of course the bodies + of the shell-fish.</p> + + <p>"The Shells," continues the narrator, "hang at the Tree by a + Neck longer than the Shell;" this "neck" being represented by + the stalk of the barnacle. The neck is described as being + composed "of a kind of filmy substance, round, and hollow, and + creased, not unlike the Wind-pipe of a Chicken; spreading out + broadest where it is fastened to the Tree, from which it seems + to draw and convey the matter which serves for the growth and + vegetation of the Shell and the little Bird within it." Sir + Robert Moray therefore agrees in respect of the manner of + nourishment of the barnacles with the opinion of Giraldus + already quoted. The <span class="pagenum"><a id="page157"></a>[pg 157]</span> author goes on to describe + the "Bird" found in every shell he opened; remarking that + "there appeared nothing wanting as to the internal parts, + for making up a perfect Sea-fowl: every little part + appearing so distinctly, that the whole looked like a large + Bird seen through a concave or diminishing Glass, colour and + feature being everywhere so clear and neat." The "Bird" is + most minutely described as to its bill, eyes, head, neck, + breast, wings, tail, and feet, the feathers being + "everywhere perfectly shaped, and blackish-coloured. All + being dead and dry," says Sir Robert, "I did not look after + the Internal parts of them," a statement decidedly + inconsistent with his previous assertion as to the perfect + condition of the "internal parts"; and he takes care to add, + "nor did I ever see any of the little Birds alive, nor met + with anybody that did. Only some credible persons," he + concludes, "have assured me they have seen some as big as + their fist."</p> + + <div class="figright" + style="width:400px;"> + <a href="images/157.png"><img width="400" + src="images/157.png" + alt="FIG. 2. BARNACLE TREE."></a><br> + FIG. 2. BARNACLE TREE.<br> + (From Munster's "Cosmography.") + </div> + + <p>This last writer thus avers that he saw little birds within + the shells he clearly enough describes as those of the + barnacles. We must either credit Sir Robert <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page158"></a>[pg 158]</span> with describing what he + never saw, or with misconstruing what he did see. His + description of the goose corresponds with that of the + barnacle goose, the reputed progeny of the shells; and it + would, therefore, seem that this author, with the myth at + hand, saw the barnacles only with the eyes of a credulous + observer, and thus beheld, in the inside of each + shell—if, indeed, his research actually extended thus + far—the reproduction in miniature of a goose, with + which, as a mature bird, he was well acquainted.</p> + + <p>On p. 157 is a woodcut, copied from Munster's "Cosmography" + (1550), a very popular book in its time, showing the tree with + its fruit, and the geese which are supposed to have just + escaped from it.</p> + + <p>This historical ramble may fitly preface what we have to say + regarding the probable origin of the myth. By what means could + the barnacles become credited with the power of producing the + well-known geese? Once started, the progress and growth of the + myth are easily accounted for. The mere transmission of a fable + from one generation or century to another is a simply explained + circumstance, and one exemplified by the practices of our own + times. The process of accretion and addition is also well + illustrated in the perpetuation of fables; since the tale is + certain to lose nothing in its historical journey, but, on the + contrary, to receive additional elaboration with increasing + age. Professor Max Müller, after discussing various theories of + the origin of the barnacle myth, declares in favor of the idea + that confusion of language and alteration of names lie at the + root of the error. The learned author of the "Science of + Language" argues that the true barnacles <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page159"></a>[pg 159]</span> were named, properly + enough, Bernaculae, and lays stress on the fact that + Bernicle geese were first caught in Ireland. That country + becomes <i>Hibernia</i> in Latin, and the Irish geese were + accordingly named Hibernicae, or Hiberniculae. By the + omission of the first syllable—no uncommon operation + for words to undergo—we obtain the name Berniculae for + the geese, this term being almost synonymous with the name + Bernaculae already applied, as we have seen, to the + barnacles. Bernicle geese and bernicle shells, confused in + name, thus became confused in nature; and, once started, the + ordinary process of growth was sufficient to further + intensify, and render more realistic, the story of the + bernicle tree and its wonderful progeny.</p> + + <p>By way of a companion legend to that of the barnacle tree, + we may select the story of the "Lamb Tree" of Cathay, told by + Sir John Mandeville, whose notes of travel regarding + crocodiles' tears, and other points in the conformation of + these reptiles, have already been referred to. Sir John, in + that chapter of his work which treats "Of the Contries and Yles + that ben bezonde the Lond of Cathay; and of the Frutes there," + etc., relates that in Cathay "there growethe a manner of Fruyt, + as thoughe it were Gowrdes: and whan thei ben rype, men kutten + (cut) hem a to (them in two), and men fyndem with inne a + lytylle Best (beast), in Flessche in Bon and Blode (bone and + blood) as though it were a lytylle Lomb (lamb) with outen wolle + (without wool). And men eaten both the Frut and the Best; and + that," says Sir John, "is a great marveylle. Of that frut," he + continues, "I have eten; alle thoughe it were + wondirfulle"—this being added, no doubt, from an idea + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page160"></a>[pg 160]</span> that there might possibly + be some stay-at-home persons who would take Sir John's + statement <i>cum grano salis</i>. "But," adds this worthy + "knyght of Ingolond," "I knowe wel that God is marveyllous + in His Werkes." Not to be behind the inhabitants of Cathay + in a tale of wonders, the knight related to these Easterns + "als gret a marveylle to hem that is amonges us; and that + was of the Bernakes. For I tolde him hat in oure Countree + weren Trees that beren a Fruyt, that becomen Briddes (birds) + fleeynge: and tho that fellen in the Water lyven (live); and + thei that fallen on the Erthe dyen anon: and thei ben right + gode to mannes mete (man's meat). And here had thei als gret + marvayle," concludes Sir John, "that sume of hem trowed it + were an impossible thing to be." Probably the inhabitants of + Cathay, knowing their own weakness as regards the lamb tree, + might possess a fellow-feeling for their visitor's + credulity, knowing well, from experience, the readiness with + which a "gret marvayle" could be evolved and sustained.</p> + + <p>Passing from the sphere of the mythical and marvellous as + represented in mediaeval times, we may shortly discuss a + question, which, of all others, may justly claim a place in the + records of zoölogical curiosities—namely, the famous and + oft-repeated story of the "Toad from the solid rock," as the + country newspapers style the incident. Regularly, year by year, + and in company with the reports of the sea-serpent's + reappearance, we may read of the discoveries of toads and frogs + in situations and under circumstances suggestive of a singular + vitality on the part of the amphibians, of more than usual + credulity on the part of the hearers, <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page161"></a>[pg 161]</span> or of a large share of + inventive genius in the narrators of such tales. The + question possesses for every one a certain degree of + interest, evoked by the curious and strange features + presented on the face of the tales. And it may therefore not + only prove an interesting but also a useful study, if we + endeavor to arrive at some just and logical conceptions of + these wonderful narrations.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" + style="width:600px;"> + <a href="images/161.png"><img width="600" + src="images/161.png" + alt="Discovering toad."></a> + </div> + + <p>Instances of the discovery of toads and frogs in solid rocks + need not be specially given; suffice it to say, that these + narratives are repeated year by year with little variation. A + large block of stone or face of rock is detached from its site, + and a toad or frog is seen hereafter to be hopping about in its + usual lively manner. The conclusion to which the bystanders + invariably come is that the animal must have been contained + within the rock, and that it was liberated by the dislodgement + of the mass. Now, in many instances, cases of the appearance of + toads during quarrying <span class="pagenum"><a id="page162"></a>[pg 162]</span> operations have been found, + on close examination, to present no evidence whatever that + the appearance of the animals was due to the dislodgement of + the stones. A frog or toad may be found hopping about among + some recently formed débris, and the animal is at once + seized upon and reported as having emerged from the rocks + into the light of day. There is in such a case not the + slightest ground for supposing any such thing; and the + animal may more reasonably be presumed to have simply hopped + into the débris from its ordinary habitat. But laying aside + narratives of this kind, which lose their plausibility under + a very commonplace scrutiny, there still exist cases, + reported in an apparently exact and truthful manner, in + which these animals have been alleged to appear from the + inner crevices of rocks after the removal of large masses of + the formations. We shall assume these latter tales to + contain a plain, unvarnished statement of what was observed, + and deal with the evidence they present on this footing.</p> + + <div class="figleft" + style="width:250px;"> + <a href="images/162.png"><img width="250" + src="images/162.png" + alt="A TOAD."></a><br> + A TOAD. + </div> + + <p>One or two notable examples of such verified tales are + related by Smellie, in his "Philosophy of Natural History." + Thus, in the "Memoirs of the French Academy of Sciences" for + 1719, a toad is described as having been found in the heart of + an elm tree; and another is stated to have been found in the + heart of an old oak tree, in 1731, near Nantz. The condition + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page163"></a>[pg 163]</span> of the trees is not + expressly stated, nor are we afforded any information + regarding the appearance of the toads—particulars of + considerable importance in view of the suggestions and + explanations to be presently brought forward. Smellie + himself, while inclined to be sceptical in regard to the + truth or exactness of many of the tales told of the vitality + of toads, regards the matter as affording food for + reflection, since he remarks, "But I mean not to persuade, + for I cannot satisfy myself; all I intend is, to recommend + to those gentlemen who may hereafter chance to see such rare + phenomena, a strict examination of every circumstance that + can throw light upon a subject so dark and mysterious; for + the vulgar, ever inclined to render uncommon appearances + still more marvellous, are not to be trusted."</p> + + <p>This author strikes the key-note of the inquiry in his + concluding words, and we shall find that the explanation of the + matter really lies in the clear understanding of what are the + probabilities, and what the actual details, of the cases + presented for consideration. We may firstly, then, glance at a + few of the peculiarities of the frogs and toads, regarded from + a zoölogical point of view. As every one knows, these animals + emerge from the egg in the form of little fish-like "tadpoles," + provided with outside gills, which are soon replaced by inside + gills, resembling those of fishes. The hind legs are next + developed, and the fore limbs follow a little later; whilst, + with the development of lungs, and the disappearance of the + gills and tail, the animal leaves the water, and remains for + the rest of its life an air-breathing, terrestrial animal. + Then, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page164"></a>[pg 164]</span> secondly, in the adult frog + or toad, the naturalist would point to the importance of the + skin as not only supplementing, but, in some cases, actually + supplanting the work of the lungs as the breathing organ. + Frogs and toads will live for months under water, and will + survive the excision of the lungs for like periods; the skin + in such cases serving as the breathing surface. A third + point worthy of remembrance is included in the facts just + related, and is implied in the information that these + animals can exist for long periods without food, and with + but a limited supply of air. We can understand this + toleration on the part of these animals when we take into + consideration their cold-blooded habits, which do not + necessitate, and which are not accompanied by, the amount of + vital activity we are accustomed to note in higher animals. + And, as a last feature in the purely scientific history of + the frogs and toads, it may be remarked that these animals + are known to live for long periods. One pet toad is + mentioned by a Mr. Arscott as having attained, to his + knowledge, the age of thirty-six years; and a greater age + still might have been recorded of this specimen, but for the + untoward treatment it sustained at the hands, or rather + beak, of a tame raven. In all probability it may be safely + assumed that, when the conditions of life are favorable, + these creatures may attain a highly venerable + age—regarding the lapse of time from a purely human + and interested point of view.</p> + + <p>We may now inquire whether or not the foregoing + considerations may serve to throw any light upon the tales of + the quarryman. The first point to which attention may be + directed is that involved in the statement <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page165"></a>[pg 165]</span> that the amphibian has been + imprisoned in a <i>solid</i> rock. Much stress is usually + laid on the fact that the rock was solid; this fact being + held to imply the great age, not to say antiquity, of the + rock and its supposed tenant. The impartial observer, after + an examination of the evidence presented, will be inclined + to doubt greatly the justification for inserting the + adjective "solid"; for usually no evidence whatever is + forthcoming as to the state of the rock prior to its + removal. No previous examination of the rock is or can be + made, from the circumstance that no interest can possibly + attach to its condition until its removal reveals the + apparent wonder it contained, in the shape of the live toad. + And it is equally important to note that we rarely, if ever, + find mention of any examination of the rock being made + subsequently to the discovery. Hence, a first and grave + objection may be taken to the validity of the supposition + that the rock was solid, and it may be fairly urged that on + this supposition the whole question turns and depends. For + if the rock cannot be proved to have been impermeable to and + barred against the entrance of living creatures, the + objector may proceed to show the possibility of the toad + having gained admission, under certain notable + circumstances, to its prison-house.</p> + + <p>The frog or toad in its young state, and having just entered + upon its terrestrial life, is a small creature, which could, + with the utmost ease, wriggle into crevices and crannies of a + size which would almost preclude such apertures being noticed + at all. Gaining access to a roomier crevice or nook within, and + finding there a due supply of air, along with a dietary + consisting chiefly <span class="pagenum"><a id="page166"></a>[pg 166]</span> of insects, the animal + would grow with tolerable rapidity, and would increase to + such an extent that egress through its aperture of entrance + would become an impossibility. Next, let us suppose that the + toleration of the toad's system to starvation and to a + limited supply of air is taken into account, together with + the fact that these creatures will hibernate during each + winter, and thus economize, as it were, their vital activity + and strength; and after the animal has thus existed for a + year or two—no doubt under singularly hard + conditions—let us imagine that the rock is split up by + the wedge and lever of the excavator. We can then readily + enough account for the apparently inexplicable story of "the + toad in the rock." "There is the toad and here is the solid + rock," say the gossips. "There is an animal which has + singular powers of sustaining life under untoward + conditions, and which, in its young state, could have gained + admittance to the rock through a mere crevice," says the + naturalist in reply. Doubtless, the great army of the + unconvinced may still believe in the tale as told them; for + the weighing of evidence and the placing <i>pros</i> and + <i>cons</i> in fair contrast are not tasks of congenial or + wonted kind in the ordinary run of life. Some people there + will be who will believe in the original solid rock and its + toad, despite the assertion of the geologists that the + earliest fossils of toads appear in almost the last-formed + rocks, and that a live toad in rocks of very ancient + age—presuming, according to the popular belief, that + the animal was enclosed when the rock was formed—would + be as great an anomaly and wonder as the mention, as an + historical fact, of an express train or the telegraph in the + days of the patriarchs. <span class="pagenum"><a name= + "page167" + id="page167"></a>[pg 167]</span> In other words, the live + toad which hops out of an Old Red Sandstone rock must be + presumed, on the popular belief, to be older by untold ages + than the oldest fossil frogs and toads. The reasonable mind, + however, will ponder and consider each feature of the case, + and will rather prefer to countenance a supposition based on + ordinary experience, than an explanation brought ready-made + from the domain of the miraculous; whilst not the least + noteworthy feature of these cases is that included in the + remark of Smellie, respecting the tendency of uneducated and + superstitious persons to magnify what is uncommon, and in + his sage conclusion that as a rule such persons in the + matter of their relations "are not to be trusted."</p> + + <p>But it must also be noted that we possess valuable evidence + of a positive and direct kind bearing on the duration of life + in toads under adverse circumstances. As this evidence tells + most powerfully against the supposition that the existence of + those creatures can be indefinitely prolonged, it forms of + itself a veritable court of appeal in the cases under + discussion. The late Dr. Buckland, curious to learn the exact + extent of the vitality of the toad, caused, in the year 1825, + two large blocks of stone to be prepared. One of the blocks was + taken from the oölite limestone, and in this first stone twelve + cells were excavated. Each cell was one foot deep and five + inches in diameter. The mouth of each cell was grooved so as to + admit of two covers being placed over the aperture; the first + or lower cover being of glass, and the upper one of slate. Both + covers were so adapted that they could be firmly luted down + with clay or putty; the object of this double protection + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page168"></a>[pg 168]</span> being that the slate cover + could be raised so as to inspect the contained object + through the closed glass cover without admitting air. In the + second or sandstone block, a series of twelve cells was also + excavated; these latter cells being, however, of smaller + size than those of the limestone block, each cell being only + six inches in depth by five inches in diameter. These cells + were likewise fitted with double covers.</p> + + <p>On November 26th, 1825, a live toad—kept for some time + previously to insure its being healthy—was placed in each + of the twenty-four cells. The largest specimen weighed 1185 + grains, and the smallest 115 grains. The stones and the immured + toads were buried on the day mentioned, three feet deep, in Dr. + Buckland's garden. There they lay until December 10th, 1826, + when they were disinterred and their tenants examined. All the + toads in the smaller cells of the sandstone block were dead, + and from the progress of decomposition it was inferred that + they had succumbed long before the date of disinterment. The + majority of the toads in the limestone block were alive, and, + curiously enough, one or two had actually increased in weight. + Thus, No. 5, which at the commencement of its captivity had + weighed 1185 grains, had increased to 1265 grains; but the + glass cover of No. 5's cell was found to be cracked. Insects + and air must therefore have obtained admittance and have + afforded nourishment to the imprisoned toad; this supposition + being rendered the more likely by the discovery that in one of + the cells, the covers of which were also cracked and the tenant + of which was dead, numerous insects were found. No. 9, weighing + originally 988 grains, had <span class="pagenum"><a name= + "page169" + id="page169"></a>[pg 169]</span> increased during its + incarceration to 1116 grains; but No. 1, which in the year + 1825 had weighed 924 grains, was found in December, 1826, to + have decreased to 698 grains; and No. 11, originally + weighing 936 grains, had likewise disagreed with the + imprisonment, weighing only 652 grains when examined in + 1826.</p> + + <p>At the period when the blocks of stone were thus prepared, + four toads were pinned up in holes five inches deep and three + inches in diameter, cut in the stem of an apple-tree; the + holes being firmly plugged with tightly fitting wooden plugs. + These four toads were found to be dead when examined along with + the others in 1826; and of four others enclosed in basins made + of plaster of Paris, and which were also buried in Dr. + Buckland's garden, two were found to be dead at the end of a + year, their comrades being alive, but looking starved and + meagre. The toads which were found alive in the limestone block + in December, 1826, were again immured and buried, but were + found to be dead, without leaving a single survivor, at the end + of the second year of their imprisonment.</p> + + <p>These experiments may fairly be said to prove two points. + They firstly show that under circumstances even of a favorable + kind when compared with the condition popularly believed + in—namely, that of being enclosed in a <i>solid</i> + rock—the limit of the toad's life may be assumed to be + within two years; this period being no doubt capable of being + extended when the animal gains a slight advantage, exemplified + by the admission of air and insect-food. Secondly, we may + reasonably argue that these experiments show that toads when + rigorously treated, like other animals, <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page170"></a>[pg 170]</span> become starved and meagre, + and by no means resemble the lively, well-fed animals + reported as having emerged from an imprisonment extending, + in popular estimation, through periods of inconceivable + duration.</p> + + <p>These tales are, in short, as devoid of actual foundation as + are the modern beliefs in the venomous properties of the toad, + or the ancient beliefs in the occult and mystic powers of + various parts of its frame when used in incantations. + Shakespeare, whilst attributing to the toad venomous qualities, + has yet immortalized it in his famous simile by crediting it + with the possession of a "precious jewel." But even in the + latter case the animal gets but scant justice; for science + strips it of its poetical reputation, and in this, as in other + respects, shows it, despite fable and myth, to be zoölogically + an interesting, but otherwise a commonplace member of the + animal series.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" + style="width:500px;"> + <a href="images/170.png"><img width="500" + src="images/170.png" + alt="Toads."></a> + </div> + + <p> </p> + + <p> </p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page171"></a>[pg 171]</span> + + <h2>ON A PIECE OF CHALK</h2> + + <h3><i>A LECTURE TO WORKING MEN</i>.</h3> + + <h4>(Delivered in England.)</h4> + + <h3><span class="sc">By</span> T.H. HUXLEY.</h3> + <hr class="short"> + + <div class="figleft" + style="width:300px;"> + <a href="images/171.png"><img width="300" + src="images/171.png" + alt="A CHALK CLIFF."></a><br> + A CHALK CLIFF. + </div> + + <p>If a well were to be sunk at our feet in the midst of the + city of Norwich, the diggers would very soon find themselves at + work in that white substance almost too soft to be called rock, + with which we are all familiar as "chalk."</p> + + <p>Not only here, but over the whole county of Norfolk, the + well-sinker might carry his shaft down many hundred feet + without coming to the end of the chalk; and, on the sea-coast, + where the waves have pared away the face of the land which + breasts them, the scarped faces of the high cliffs are often + wholly formed of the same material. Northward, the chalk may be + followed as far as Yorkshire; on the <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page172"></a>[pg 172]</span> south coast it appears + abruptly in the picturesque western bays of Dorset, and + breaks into the Needles of the Isle of Wight; while on the + shores of Kent it supplies that long line of white cliffs to + which England owes her name of Albion.</p> + + <p>Were the thin soil which covers it all washed away, a curved + band of white chalk, here broader, and there narrower, might be + followed diagonally across England from Lulworth in Dorset, to + Flamborough Head in Yorkshire—a distance of over two + hundred and eighty miles as the crow flies.</p> + + <p>From this band to the North Sea, on the east, and the + Channel, on the south, the chalk is largely hidden by other + deposits; but, except in the Weald of Kent and Sussex, it + enters into the very foundation of all the south-eastern + counties.</p> + + <p>Attaining, as it does in some places, a thickness of more + than a thousand feet, the English chalk must be admitted to be + a mass of considerable magnitude. Nevertheless, it covers but + an insignificant portion of the whole area occupied by the + chalk formation of the globe, which has precisely the same + general character as ours, and is found in detached patches, + some less, and others more extensive, than the English.</p> + + <p>Chalk occurs in north-west Ireland; it stretches over a + large part of France—the chalk which underlies Paris + being, in fact, a continuation of that of the London basin; it + runs through Denmark and Central Europe, and extends southward + to North Africa; while eastward, it appears in the Crimea and + in Syria, and may be traced as far as the shores of the Sea of + Aral, in Central Asia.</p><span class="pagenum"><a name= + "page173" + id="page173"></a>[pg 173]</span> + + <p>If all the points at which true chalk occurs were + circumscribed, they would lie within an irregular oval about + three thousand miles in long diameter—the area of which + would be as great as that of Europe, and would many times + exceed that of the largest existing inland sea—the + Mediterranean.</p> + + <p>Thus the chalk is no unimportant element in the masonry of + the earth's crust, and it impresses a peculiar stamp, varying + with the conditions to which it is exposed, on the scenery of + the districts in which it occurs. The undulating downs and + rounded coombs, covered with sweet-grassed turf, of our inland + chalk country, have a peacefully domestic and mutton-suggesting + prettiness, but can hardly be called either grand or beautiful. + But on our southern coasts, the wall-sided cliffs, many hundred + feet high, with vast needles and pinnacles standing out in the + sea, sharp and solitary enough to serve as perches for the wary + cormorant, confer a wonderful beauty and grandeur upon the + chalk headlands. And in the East, chalk has its share in the + formation of some of the most venerable of mountain ranges, + such as the Lebanon.</p> + <hr> + + <p>What is this wide-spread component of the surface of the + earth? and whence did it come?</p> + + <p>You may think this no very hopeful inquiry. You may not + unnaturally suppose that the attempt to solve such problems as + these can lead to no result, save that of entangling the + inquirer in vague speculations, incapable of refutation and of + verification.</p> + + <p>If such were really the case, I should have selected some + other subject than a "piece of chalk" for my <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page174"></a>[pg 174]</span> discourse. But, in truth, + after much deliberation, I have been unable to think of any + topic which would so well enable me to lead you to see how + solid is the foundation upon which some of the most + startling conclusions of physical science rest.</p> + + <p>A great chapter of the history of the world is written in + the chalk. Few passages in the history of man can be supported + by such an overwhelming mass of direct and indirect evidence as + that which testifies to the truth of the fragment of the + history of the globe, which I hope to enable you to read, with + your own eyes, to-night.</p> + + <div class="figleft" + style="width:400px;"> + <a href="images/174.png"><img width="400" + src="images/174.png" + alt="MICROSCOPIC SECTION OF CHALK."></a><br> + MICROSCOPIC SECTION OF CHALK.<br> + (Magnified nearly 300 times.)<br> + 1. Textularia. 2. Globigerina. 3. Rotalia. 4. Coccoliths. + </div> + + <p>Let me add, that few chapters of human history have a more + profound significance for ourselves. I weigh my words well when + I assert, that the man who should know the true history of the + bit of chalk which every carpenter carries about in his + breeches' pocket, though ignorant of all other history, is + likely, if he will think his knowledge out to its ultimate + results, to have a truer, and therefore a better, conception of + this wonderful universe, and of man's relation to it, than the + most learned student who <span class="pagenum"><a name= + "page175" + id="page175"></a>[pg 175]</span> is deep-read in the records + of humanity and ignorant of those of nature.</p> + + <p>The language of the chalk is not hard to learn, not nearly + so hard as Latin, if you only want to get at the broad features + of the story it has to tell; and I propose that we now set to + work to spell that story out together.</p> + + <p>We all know that if we "burn" chalk, the result is + quicklime. Chalk, in fact, is a compound of carbonic acid gas + and lime; and when you make it very hot, the carbonic acid + flies away and the lime is left.</p> + + <p>By this method of procedure we see the lime, but we do not + see the carbonic acid. If, on the other hand, you were to + powder a little chalk and drop it into a good deal of strong + vinegar, there would be a great bubbling and fizzing, and, + finally, a clear liquid, in which no sign of chalk would + appear. Here you see the carbonic acid in the bubbles; the + lime, dissolved in the vinegar, vanishes from sight. There are + a great many other ways of showing that chalk is essentially + nothing but carbonic acid and quicklime. Chemists enunciate the + result of all the experiments which prove this, by stating that + chalk is almost wholly composed of "carbonate of lime."</p> + + <p>It is desirable for us to start from the knowledge of this + fact, though it may not seem to help us very far toward what we + seek. For carbonate of lime is a widely-spread substance, and + is met with under very various conditions. All sorts of + limestones are composed of more or less pure carbonate of lime. + The crust which is often deposited by waters which have drained + through limestone rocks, in the form of what are called + stalagmites and stalactites, is carbonate of <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page176"></a>[pg 176]</span> lime. Or, to take a more + familiar example, the fur on the inside of a tea-kettle is + carbonate of lime; and, for anything chemistry tells us to + the contrary, the chalk might be a kind of gigantic fur upon + the bottom of the earth-kettle, which is kept pretty hot + below.</p> + + <p>Let us try another method of making the chalk tell us its + own history. To the unassisted eye chalk looks simply like a + very loose and open kind of stone. But it is possible to grind + a slice of chalk down so thin that you can see through + it—until it is thin enough, in fact, to be examined with + any magnifying power that may be thought desirable. A thin + slice of the fur of a kettle might be made in the same way. If + it were examined microscopically, it would show itself to be a + more or less distinctly laminated mineral substance, and + nothing more.</p> + + <p>But the slice of chalk presents a totally different + appearance when placed under the microscope. The general mass + of it is made up of very minute granules; but, imbedded in this + matrix, are innumerable bodies, some smaller and some larger, + but, on a rough average, not more than a hundredth of an inch + in diameter, having a well-defined shape and structure. A cubic + inch of some specimens of chalk may contain hundreds of + thousands of these bodies, compacted together with incalculable + millions of the granules.</p> + + <div class="figleft" + style="width:250px;"> + <a href="images/176.png"><img width="250" + src="images/176.png" + alt="CHALK."></a><br> + CHALK.<br> + (Magnified nearly 100 diameters.) + </div> + + <p>The examination of a transparent slice gives a good notion + of the manner in which the components of the <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page177"></a>[pg 177]</span> chalk are arranged, and of + their relative proportions. But, by rubbing up some chalk + with a brush in water and then pouring off the milky fluid, + so as to obtain sediments of different degrees of fineness, + the granules and the minute rounded bodies may be pretty + well separated from one another, and submitted to + microscopic examination, either as opaque or as transparent + objects. By combining the views obtained in these various + methods, each of the rounded bodies may be proved to be a + beautifully-constructed calcareous fabric, made up of a + number of chambers, communicating freely with one another. + The chambered bodies are of various forms. One of the + commonest is something like a badly-grown raspberry, being + formed of a number of nearly globular chambers of different + sizes congregated together. It is called Globigerina, and + some specimens of chalk consist of little else than + Globigerinæ and granules.</p> + + <div class="figright" + style="width:150px;"> + <a href="images/177.png"><img width="150" + src="images/177.png" + alt="GLOBIGERINA."></a><br> + GLOBIGERINA. + </div> + + <p>Let us fix our attention upon the Globigerina. It is the + spoor of the game we are tracking. If we can learn what it is + and what are the conditions of its existence, we shall see our + way to the origin and past history of the chalk.</p> + + <p>A suggestion which may naturally enough present itself is, + that these curious bodies are the result of some process of + aggregation which has taken place in the carbonate of lime; + that, just as in winter, the rime on our windows simulates the + most delicate and elegantly arborescent foliage—proving + that the mere mineral matter may, under certain conditions, + assume the outward form of organic bodies—so this mineral + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page178"></a>[pg 178]</span> substance, carbonate of + lime, hidden away in the bowels of the earth, has taken the + shape of these chambered bodies. I am not raising a merely + fanciful and unreal objection. Very learned men, in former + days, have even entertained the notion that all the formed + things found in rocks are of this nature; and if no such + conception is at present held to be admissible, it is + because long and varied experience has now shown that + mineral matter never does assume the form and structure we + find in fossils. If anyone were to try to persuade you that + an oyster-shell (which is also chiefly composed of carbonate + of lime) had crystallized out of sea-water, I suppose you + would laugh at the absurdity. Your laughter would be + justified by the fact that all experience tends to show that + oyster-shells are formed by the agency of oysters, and in no + other way. And if there were no better reasons, we should be + justified, on like grounds, in believing that Globigerina is + not the product of anything but vital activity.</p> + + <p>Happily, however, better evidence in proof of the organic + nature of the Globigerinæ than that of analogy is forthcoming. + It so happens that calcareous skeletons, exactly similar to the + Globigerinæ of the chalk, are being formed, at the present + moment, by minute living creatures, which flourish in + multitudes, literally more numerous than the sands of the + sea-shore, over a large extent of that part of the earth's + surface which is covered by the ocean.</p> + + <p>The history of the discovery of these living Globigerinæ, + and of the part which they play in rock-building, is singular + enough. It is a discovery which, like others of no less + scientific importance, has arisen, <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page179"></a>[pg 179]</span> incidentally, out of work + devoted to very different and exceedingly practical + interests.</p> + + <p>When men first took to the sea, they speedily learned to + look out for shoals and rocks; and the more the burthen of + their ships increased, the more imperatively necessary it + became for sailors to ascertain with precision the depth of the + waters they traversed. Out of this necessity grew the use of + the lead and sounding-line; and, ultimately, marine-surveying, + which is the recording of the form of coasts and of the depth + of the sea, as ascertained by the sounding-lead, upon + charts.</p> + + <p>At the same time, it became desirable to ascertain and to + indicate the nature of the sea-bottom, since this circumstance + greatly affects its goodness as holding ground for anchors. + Some ingenious tar, whose name deserves a better fate than the + oblivion into which it has fallen, attained this object by + "arming" the bottom of the lead with a lump of grease, to which + more or less of the sand or mud, or broken shells, as the case + might be, adhered, and was brought to the surface. But, however + well adapted such an apparatus might be for rough nautical + purposes, scientific accuracy could not be expected from the + armed lead, and to remedy its defects (especially when applied + to sounding in great depths) Lieutenant Brooke, of the American + Navy, some years ago invented a most ingenious machine, by + which a considerable portion of the superficial layer of the + sea-bottom can be scooped out and brought up, from any depth to + which the lead descends.</p> + + <p>In 1853, Lieutenant Brooke obtained mud from the bottom of + the North Atlantic, between Newfoundland and the Azores, at a + depth of more than ten thousand <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page180"></a>[pg 180]</span> feet, or two miles, by the + help of this sounding apparatus. The specimens were sent for + examination to Ehrenberg of Berlin, and to Bailey of West + Point, and those able microscopists found that this deep-sea + mud was almost entirely composed of the skeletons of living + organisms—the greater proportion of these being just + like the Globigerinæ already known to occur in chalk.</p> + + <p>Thus far, the work had been carried on simply in the + interests of science, but Lieutenant Brooke's method of + sounding acquired a high commercial value, when the enterprise + of laying down the telegraph-cable between this country and the + United States was undertaken. For it became a matter of immense + importance to know, not only the depth of the sea over the + whole line, along which the cable was to be laid, but the exact + nature of the bottom, so as to guard against chances of cutting + or fraying the strands of that costly rope. The Admiralty + consequently ordered Captain Dayman, an old friend and shipmate + of mine, to ascertain the depth over the whole line of the + cable, and to bring back specimens of the bottom. In former + days, such a command as this might have sounded very much like + one of the impossible things which the young prince in the + Fairy Tales is ordered to do before he can obtain the hand of + the princess. However, in the months of June and July, 1857, my + friend performed the task assigned to him with great expedition + and precision, without, so far as I know, having met with any + reward of that kind. The specimens of Atlantic mud which he + procured were sent to me to be examined and reported upon.</p> + + <p>The result of all these operations is, that we know + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page181"></a>[pg 181]</span> the contours and the nature + of the surface-soil covered by the North Atlantic, for a + distance of seventeen hundred miles from east to west, as + well as we know that of any part of the dry land.</p> + + <p>It is a prodigious plain—one of the widest and most + even plains in the world. If the sea were drained off, you + might drive a wagon all the way from Valentia, on the west + coast of Ireland, to Trinity Bay in Newfoundland. And, except + upon one sharp incline about two hundred miles from Valentia, I + am not quite sure that it would even be necessary to put the + skid on, so gentle are the ascents and descents upon that long + route. From Valentia the road would lie down-hill for about two + hundred miles to the point at which the bottom is now covered + by seventeen hundred fathoms of sea-water. Then would come the + central plain, more than a thousand miles wide, the + inequalities of the surface of which would be hardly + perceptible, though the depth of water upon it now varies from + ten thousand to fifteen thousand feet; and there are places in + which Mont Blanc might be sunk without showing its peak above + water. Beyond this, the ascent on the American side commences, + and gradually leads, for about three hundred miles, to the + Newfoundland shore.</p> + + <p>Almost the whole of the bottom of this central plain (which + extends for many hundred miles in a north and south direction) + is covered by a fine mud, which, when brought to the surface, + dries into a grayish white friable substance. You can write + with this on a black-board, if you are so inclined; and, to the + eye, it is quite like very soft, grayish chalk. Examined + chemically, it proves to be composed almost wholly of + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page182"></a>[pg 182]</span> carbonate of lime; and if + you make a section of it, in the same way as that of the + piece of chalk was made, and view it with the microscope, it + presents innumerable Globigerinæ embedded in a granular + matrix.</p> + + <p>Thus this deep-sea mud is substantially chalk. I say + substantially, because there are a good many minor differences; + but as these have no bearing on the question immediately before + us—which is the nature of the Globigerinæ of the + chalk—it is unnecessary to speak of them.</p> + + <p>Globigerinæ of every size, from the smallest to the largest, + are associated together in the Atlantic mud, and the chambers + of many are filled by a soft animal matter. This soft substance + is, in fact, the remains of the creature to which the + Globigerina shell, or rather skeleton, owes its + existence—and which is an animal of the simplest + imaginable description. It is, in fact, a mere particle of + living jelly, without defined parts of any kind—without a + mouth, nerves, muscles, or distinct organs, and only + manifesting its vitality to ordinary observation by thrusting + out and retracting from all parts of its surface long + filamentous processes, which serve for arms and legs. Yet this + amorphous particle, devoid of everything which, in the higher + animals, we call organs, is capable of feeding, growing, and + multiplying; of separating from the ocean the small proportion + of carbonate of lime which is dissolved in sea-water; and of + building up that substance into a skeleton for itself, + according to a pattern which can be imitated by no other known + agency.</p> + + <p>The notion that animals can live and flourish in the sea, at + the vast depths from which apparently living <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page183"></a>[pg 183]</span> Giobigerinæ have been + brought up, does not agree very well with our usual + conceptions respecting the conditions of animal life; and it + is not so absolutely impossible as it might at first sight + appear to be, that the Globigerinæ of the Atlantic + sea-bottom do not live and die where they are found.</p> + + <div class="figright" + style="width:400px;"> + <a href="images/183.png"><img width="400" + src="images/183.png" + alt= + "DIATOM OOZE DREDGED FROM A DEPTH OF 1950"></a><br> + DIATOM OOZE DREDGED FROM A DEPTH OF 1950 FEET.<br> + (Magnified nearly 300 diameters.) + </div> + + <p>As I have mentioned, the soundings from the great Atlantic + plain are almost entirely made up of Globigerinæ, with the + granules which have been mentioned, and some few other + calcareous shells; but a small percentage of the chalky + mud—perhaps at most some five per cent of it—is of + a different nature, and consists of shells and skeletons + composed of silex, or pure flint. These siliceous bodies belong + partly to the lowly vegetable organisms which are called + Diatomaceæ, and partly to the minute and extremely simple + animals, termed Radiolaria. It is quite certain that these + creatures do not live at the bottom of the ocean, but at its + surface—where they may be obtained in prodigious numbers + by the use of a properly constructed net. Hence it follows that + these siliceous organisms, though they are not heavier than the + lightest dust, must have fallen, in some cases, through fifteen + thousand feet of water, before they reached their final + resting-place on the ocean floor. And, considering how + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page184"></a>[pg 184]</span> large a surface these + bodies expose in proportion to their weight, it is probable + that they occupy a great length of time in making their + burial journey from the surface of the Atlantic to the + bottom.</p> + + <div class="figleft" + style="width:400px;"> + <a href="images/184.png"><img width="400" + src="images/184.png" + alt="RADIOLARIA."></a><br> + RADIOLARIA.<br> + (<i>a.</i> Natural size. <i>b.</i> One-third natural size.) + </div> + + <p>But if the Radiolaria and Diatoms are thus rained upon the + bottom of the sea, from the superficial layer of its waters in + which they pass their lives, it is obviously possible that the + Globigerinæ may be similarly derived; and if they were so, it + would be much more easy to understand how they obtain their + supply of food than it is at present. Nevertheless, the + positive and negative evidence all points the other way. The + skeletons of the full-grown, deep-sea Globigerinæ are so + remarkably solid and heavy in proportion to their surface as to + seem little fitted for floating; and, as a matter of fact, they + are not to be found along with the Diatoms and Radiolaria, in + the uppermost stratum of the open ocean.</p> + + <p>It has been observed, again, that the abundance of + Globigerinæ, in proportion to other organisms of like kind, + increases with the depth of the sea; and that deep-water + Globigerinæ are larger than those which live in the shallower + parts of the sea; and such facts negative the supposition that + these organisms have been swept by currents from the shallows + into the deeps of the Atlantic.</p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page185"></a>[pg 185]</span> + + <p>It therefore seems to be hardly doubtful that these + wonderful creatures live and die at the depths in which they + are found.<a id="footnotetag2"></a><a href="#footnote2"><sup>2</sup></a></p> + + <p>However, the important points for us are, that the living + Globigerinæ are exclusively marine animals, the skeletons of + which abound at the bottom of deep seas; and that there is not + a shadow of reason for believing that the habits of the + Globigerinæ of the chalk differed from those of the existing + species. But if this be true, there is no escaping the + conclusion that the chalk itself is the dried mud of an ancient + deep sea.</p> + + <p>In working over the soundings collected by Captain Dayman, I + was surprised to find that many of what I have called the + "granules" of that mud were not, as one might have been tempted + to think at first, the mere powder and waste of Globigerinæ, + but that they had a definite form and size. I termed these + bodies "<i>coccoliths</i>" and doubted their organic nature. + Dr. Wallich verified my observation, and added the interesting + discovery that, not unfrequently, bodies similar to these + "coccoliths" were aggregated together into spheroids, which he + termed "<i>coccospheres</i>." So far as we knew, these bodies, + the nature of which is extremely <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page186"></a>[pg 186]</span> puzzling and problematical, + were peculiar to the Atlantic soundings.</p> + + <p>But, a few years ago, Mr. Sorby, in making a careful + examination of the chalk by means of thin sections and + otherwise, observed, as Ehrenberg had done before him, that + much of its granular basis possesses a definite form. Comparing + these formed particles with those in the Atlantic soundings, he + found the two to be identical; and thus proved that the chalk, + like the soundings, contains these mysterious coccoliths and + coccospheres. Here was a further and a most interesting + confirmation, from internal evidence, of the essential identity + of the chalk with modern deep-sea mud. Globigerinæ, coccoliths, + and coccospheres are found as the chief constituents of both, + and testify to the general similarity of the conditions under + which both have been formed.<a id="footnotetag3"></a><a href="#footnote3"><sup>3</sup></a></p> + + <p>The evidence furnished by the hewing, facing, and + superposition of the stones of the Pyramids, that these + structures were built by men, has no greater weight than the + evidence that the chalk was built by Globigerinæ; and the + belief that those ancient pyramid-builders were terrestrial and + air-breathing creatures like ourselves, is not better based + than the conviction that the chalk-makers lived in the sea.</p> + + <p>But as our belief in the building of the Pyramids by men is + not only grounded on the internal evidence afforded by these + structures, but gathers strength from multitudinous collateral + proofs, and is clinched by the <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page187"></a>[pg 187]</span> total absence of any reason + for a contrary belief; so the evidence drawn from the + Globigerinæ that the chalk is an ancient sea-bottom, is + fortified by innumerable independent lines of evidence; and + our belief in the truth of the conclusion to which all + positive testimony tends, receives the like negative + justification from the fact that no other hypothesis has a + shadow of foundation.</p> + + <p>It may be worth while briefly to consider a few of these + collateral proofs that the chalk was deposited at the bottom of + the sea.</p> + + <p>The great mass of the chalk is composed, as we have seen, of + the skeletons of Globigerinæ, and other simple organisms, + imbedded in granular matter. Here and there, however, this + hardened mud of the ancient sea reveals the remains of higher + animals which have lived and died, and left their hard parts in + the mud, just as the oysters die and leave their shells behind + them, in the mud of the present seas.</p> + + <div class="figright" + style="width:300px;"> + <a href="images/187.png"><img width="300" + src="images/187.png" + alt="UPPER SILURIAN CORALS AND CRUSTACEANS."></a><br> + UPPER SILURIAN CORALS AND CRUSTACEANS. + </div> + + <p>There are, at the present day, certain groups of animals + which are never found in fresh waters, being unable to live + anywhere but in the sea. Such are the corals; those corallines + which are called Polyzoa; those creatures which fabricate the + lamp-shells, and are called Brachiopoda; the pearly Nautilus, + and all animals allied to it; and all the forms of sea-urchins + and star-fishes.</p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page188"></a>[pg 188]</span> + + <p>Not only are all these creatures confined to salt water at + the present day, but, so far as our records of the past go, the + conditions of their existence have been the same: hence, their + occurrence in any deposit is as strong evidence as can be + obtained, that that deposit was formed in the sea. Now the + remains of animals of all the kinds which have been enumerated + occur in the chalk, in greater or less abundance; while not one + of those forms of shell-fish which are characteristic of fresh + water has yet been observed in it.</p> + + <p>When we consider that the remains of more than three + thousand distinct species of aquatic animals have been + discovered among the fossils of the chalk, that the great + majority of them are of such forms as are now met with only in + the sea, and that there is no reason to believe that any one of + them inhabited fresh water—the collateral evidence that + the chalk represents an ancient sea-bottom acquires as great + force as the proof derived from the nature of the chalk itself. + I think you will now allow that I did not overstate my case + when I asserted that we have as strong grounds for believing + that all the vast area of dry land at present occupied by the + chalk was once at the bottom of the sea, as we have for any + matter of history whatever; while there is no justification for + any other belief.</p> + + <div class="figleft" + style="width:250px;"> + <a href="images/188.png"><img width="250" + src="images/188.png" + alt="CRETACEOUS NAUTILUS."></a>CRETACEOUS NAUTILUS. + </div> + + <p>No less certain is it that the time during which the + countries we now call southeast England, France, Germany, + Poland, Russia, Egypt, Arabia, Syria, were more + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page189"></a>[pg 189]</span> or less completely covered + by a deep sea, was of considerable duration.</p> + + <p>We have already seen that the chalk is, in places, more than + a thousand feet thick. I think you will agree with me that it + must have taken some time for the skeletons of the animalcules + of a hundredth of an inch in diameter to heap up such a mass as + that. I have said that throughout the thickness of the chalk + the remains of other animals are scattered. These remains are + often in the most exquisite state of preservation. The valves + of the shell-fishes are commonly adherent; the long spines of + some of the sea-urchins, which would be detached by the + smallest jar, often remain in their places. In a word, it is + certain that these animals have lived and died when the place + which they now occupy was the surface of as much of the chalk + as had then been deposited; and that each has been covered up + by the layer of Globigerina mud, upon which the creatures + imbedded a little higher up have, in like manner, lived and + died. But some of these remains prove the existence of reptiles + of vast size in the chalk sea. These lived their time, and had + their ancestors and descendants, which assuredly implies time, + reptiles being of slow growth.</p> + + <p>There is more curious evidence, again, that the process of + covering up, or, in other words, the deposit of Globigerina + skeletons, did not go on very fast. It is demonstrable that an + animal of the cretaceous sea might die, that its skeleton might + lie uncovered upon the sea-bottom long enough to lose all its + outward coverings and appendages by putrefaction; and that, + after this had happened, another animal might attach itself + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page190"></a>[pg 190]</span> to the dead and naked + skeleton, might grow to maturity, and might itself die + before the calcareous mud had buried the whole.</p> + + <p>Cases of this kind are admirably described by Sir Charles + Lyell. He speaks of the frequency with which geologists find in + the chalk a fossilized sea-urchin to which is attached the + lower valve of a Crania. This is a kind of shell-fish, with a + shell composed of two pieces, of which, as in the oyster, one + is fixed and the other free.</p> + + <p>"The upper valve is almost invariably wanting, though + occasionally found in a perfect state of preservation in the + white chalk at some distance. In this case, we see clearly that + the sea-urchin first lived from youth to age, then died and + lost its spines, which were carried away. Then the young Crania + adhered to the bared shell, grew and perished in its turn; + after which, the upper valve was separated from the lower, + before the Echinus became enveloped in chalky mud."</p> + + <p>A specimen in the Museum of Practical Geology, in London, + still further prolongs the period which must have elapsed + between the death of the sea-urchin and its burial by the + Globigeringæ. For the outward face of the valve of a Crania, + which is attached to a sea-urchin (Micrastor), is itself + overrun by an incrusting coralline, which spreads thence over + more or less of the surface of the sea-urchin. It follows that, + after the upper valve of the Crania fell off, the surface of + the attached valve must have remained exposed long enough to + allow of the growth of the whole coralline, since corallines do + not live imbedded in the mud.</p> + + <p>The progress of knowledge may, one day, enable us + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page191"></a>[pg 191]</span> to deduce from such facts + as these the maximum rate at which the chalk can have + accumulated, and thus to arrive at the minimum duration of + the chalk period. Suppose that the valve of the Crania upon + which a coralline has fixed itself in the way just described + is so attached to the sea-urchin that no part of it is more + than an inch above the face upon which the sea-urchin rests. + Then, as the coralline could not have fixed itself if the + Crania had been covered up with chalk-mud, and could not + have lived had itself been so covered, it follows, that an + inch of chalk mud could not have accumulated within the time + between the death and decay of the soft parts of the + sea-urchin and the growth of the coralline to the full size + which it has attained. If the decay of the soft parts of the + sea-urchin; the attachment, growth to maturity, and decay of + the Crania; and the subsequent attachment and growth of the + coralline, took a year (which is a low estimate enough), the + accumulation of the inch of chalk must have taken more than + a year: and the deposit of a thousand feet of chalk must, + consequently, have taken more than twelve thousand + years.</p> + + <p>The foundation of all this calculation is, of course, a + knowledge of the length of time the Crania and the coralline + needed to attain their full size; and, on this head, precise + knowledge is at present wanting. But there are circumstances + which tend to show that nothing like an inch of chalk has + accumulated during the life of a Crania; and, on any probable + estimate of the length of that life, the chalk period must have + had a much longer duration than that thus roughly assigned to + it.</p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page192"></a>[pg 192]</span> + + <p>Thus, not only is it certain that the chalk is the mud of an + ancient sea-bottom; but it is no less certain that the chalk + sea existed during an extremely long period, though we may not + be prepared to give a precise estimate of the length of that + period in years. The relative duration is clear, though the + absolute duration may not be definable. The attempt to affix + any precise date to the period at which the chalk sea began or + ended its existence, is baffled by difficulties of the same + kind. But the relative age of the cretaceous epoch may be + determined with as great ease and certainty as the long + duration of that epoch.</p> + + <p>You will have heard of the interesting discoveries recently + made, in various parts of Western Europe, of flint implements, + obviously worked into shape by human hands, under circumstances + which show conclusively that man is a very ancient denizen of + these regions.</p> + + <p>It has been proved that the old populations of Europe, whose + existence has been revealed to us in this way, consisted of + savages, such as the Esquimaux are now; that, in the country + which is now France, they hunted the reindeer, and were + familiar with the ways of the mammoth and the bison. The + physical geography of France was in those days different from + what it is now—the river Somme, for instance, having cut + its bed a hundred feet deeper between that time and this; and + it is probable that the climate was more like that of Canada or + Siberia than that of Western Europe.</p> + + <p>The existence of these people is forgotten even in the + traditions of the oldest historical nations. The name + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page193"></a>[pg 193]</span> and fame of them had + utterly vanished until a few years back; and the amount of + physical change which has been effected since their day + renders it more than probable that, venerable as are some of + the historical nations, the workers of the chipped flints of + Hoxne or of Amiens are to them, as they are to us, in point + of antiquity.</p> + + <p>But, if we assign to these hoar relics of long-vanished + generations of men the greatest age that can possibly be + claimed for them, they are not older than the drift, or boulder + clay, which, in comparison with the chalk, is but a very + juvenile deposit. You need go no further than your own seaboard + for evidence of this fact. At one of the most charming spots on + the coast of Norfolk, Cromer, you will see the boulder clay + forming a vast mass, which lies upon the chalk, and must + consequently have come into existence after it. Huge boulders + of chalk are, in fact, included in the clay, and have evidently + been brought to the position they now occupy by the same agency + as that which has planted blocks of syenite from Norway side by + side with them.</p> + + <p>The chalk, then, is certainly older than the boulder clay. + If you ask how much, I will again take you no further than the + same spot upon your own coasts for evidence. I have spoken of + the boulder clay and drift as resting upon the chalk. That is + not strictly true. Interposed between the chalk and the drift + is a comparatively insignificant layer, containing vegetable + matter. But that layer tells a wonderful history. It is full of + stumps of trees standing as they grew. Fir-trees are there with + their cones, and hazel-bushes with their nuts; there stand the + stools of oak and yew trees, <span class="pagenum"><a name= + "page194" + id="page194"></a>[pg 194]</span> beeches and alders. Hence + this stratum is appropriately called the "forest-bed."</p> + + <p>It is obvious that the chalk must have been upheaved and + converted into dry land before the timber trees could grow upon + it. As the bolls of some of these trees are from two to three + feet in diameter, it is no less clear that the dry land thus + formed remained in the same condition for long ages. And not + only do the remains of stately oaks and well-grown firs testify + to the duration of this condition of things, but additional + evidence to the same effect is afforded by the abundant remains + of elephants, rhinoceroses, hippopotamuses, and other great + wild beasts, which it has yielded to the zealous search of such + men as the Rev. Mr. Gunn.</p> + + <p>When you look at such a collection as he has formed, and + bethink you that these elephantine bones did veritably carry + their owners about, and these great grinders crunch, in the + dark woods of which the forest-bed is now the only trace, it is + impossible not to feel that they are as good evidence of the + lapse of time as the annual rings of the tree-stumps.</p> + + <p>Thus there is a writing upon the wall of cliffs at Cromer, + and whoso runs may read it. It tells us, with an authority + which cannot be impeached, that the ancient sea-bed of the + chalk sea was raised up, and remained dry land, until it was + covered with forest, stocked with the great game whose spoils + have rejoiced your geologists. How long it remained in that + condition cannot be said; but "the whirligig of time brought + its revenges" in those days as in these. That dry land, with + the bones and teeth of generations of <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page195"></a>[pg 195]</span> long-lived elephants, + hidden away among the gnarled roots and dry leaves of its + ancient trees, sank gradually to the bottom of the icy sea, + which covered it with huge masses of drift and boulder clay. + Sea-beasts, such as the walrus, now restricted to the + extreme north, paddled about where birds had twittered among + the topmost twigs of the fir-trees. How long this state of + things endured we know not, but at length it came to an end. + The upheaved glacial mud hardened into the soil of modern + Norfolk. Forests grew once more, the wolf and the beaver + replaced the reindeer and the elephant; and at length what + we call the history of England dawned.</p> + + <p>Thus you have, within the limits of your own county, proof + that the chalk can justly claim a very much greater antiquity + than even the oldest physical traces of mankind. But we may go + further and demonstrate, by evidence of the same authority as + that which testifies to the existence of the father of men, + that the chalk is vastly older than Adam himself.</p> + + <p>The Book of Genesis informs us that Adam, immediately upon + his creation, and before the appearance of Eve, was placed in + the garden of Eden. The problem of the geographical position of + Eden has greatly vexed the spirits of the learned in such + matters, but there is one point respecting which, so far as I + know, no commentator has ever raised a doubt. This is, that of + the four rivers which are said to run out of it, Euphrates and + Hiddekel are identical with the rivers now known by the names + of Euphrates and Tigris.</p> + + <p>But the whole country in which these mighty rivers take + their origin, and through which they run, is <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page196"></a>[pg 196]</span> composed of rocks which are + either of the same age as the chalk, or of later date. So + that the chalk must not only have been formed, but, after + its formation, the time required for the deposit of these + later rocks, and for their upheaval into dry land, must have + elapsed, before the smallest brook which feeds the swift + stream of "the great river, the river of Babylon," began to + flow.</p> + <hr> + + <p>Thus, evidence which cannot be rebutted, and which need not + be strengthened, though if time permitted I might indefinitely + increase its quantity, compels you to believe that the earth, + from the time of the chalk to the present day, has been the + theatre of a series of changes as vast in their amount as they + were slow in their progress. The area on which we stand has + been first sea and then land, for at least four alternations; + and has remained in each of these conditions for a period of + great length.</p> + + <p>Nor have these wonderful metamorphoses of sea into land, and + of land into sea, been confined to one corner of England. + During the chalk period, or "cretaceous epoch," not one of the + present great physical features of the globe was in existence. + Our great mountain ranges, Pyrenees, Alps, Himalayas, Andes, + have all been upheaved since the chalk was deposited, and the + cretaceous sea flowed over the sites of Sinai and Ararat.</p> + + <p>All this is certain, because rocks of cretaceous or still + later date have shared in the elevatory movements which gave + rise to these mountain chains; and may be found perched up, in + some cases, many thousand feet <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page197"></a>[pg 197]</span> high upon their flanks. And + evidence of equal cogency demonstrates that, though in + Norfolk the forest-bed rests directly upon the chalk, yet it + does so, not because the period at which the forest grew + immediately followed that at which the chalk was formed, but + because an immense lapse of time, represented elsewhere by + thousands of feet of rock, is not indicated at Cromer.</p> + + <p>I must ask you to believe that there is no less conclusive + proof that a still more prolonged succession of similar changes + occurred before the chalk was deposited. Nor have we any reason + to think that the first term in the series of these changes is + known. The oldest sea-beds preserved to us are sands, and mud, + and pebbles, the wear and tear of rocks which were formed in + still older oceans.</p> + + <p>But, great as is the magnitude of these physical changes of + the world, they have been accompanied by a no less striking + series of modifications in its living inhabitants.</p> + + <p>All the great classes of animals, beasts of the field, fowls + of the air, creeping things, and things which dwell in the + waters, flourished upon the globe long ages before the chalk + was deposited. Very few, however, if any, of these ancient + forms of animal life were identical with those which now live. + Certainly not one of the higher animals was of the same species + as any of those now in existence. The beasts of the field, in + the days before the chalk, were not our beasts of the field, + nor the fowls of the air such as those which the eye of man has + seen flying, unless his antiquity dates infinitely further back + than we at present surmise. If we could <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page198"></a>[pg 198]</span> be carried back into those + times, we should be as one suddenly set down in Australia + before it was colonized. We should see mammals, birds, + reptiles, fishes, insects, snails, and the like, clearly + recognizable as such, and yet not one of them would be just + the same as those with which we are familiar, and many would + be extremely different.</p> + + <p>From that time to the present, the population of the world + has undergone slow and gradual, but incessant, changes. There + has been no grand catastrophe—no destroyer has swept away + the forms of life of one period, and replaced them by a totally + new creation; but one species has vanished and another has + taken its place; creatures of one type of structure have + diminished, those of another have increased, as time has passed + on. And thus, while the differences between the living + creatures of the time before the chalk and those of the present + day appear startling, if placed side by side, we are led from + one to the other by the most gradual progress, if we follow the + course of Nature through the whole series of those relics of + her operations which she has left behind.</p> + + <div class="figleft" + style="width:200px;"> + <a href="images/198.png"><img width="200" + src="images/198.png" + alt="SKELETON OF THE PTERODACTYL."></a><br> + SKELETON OF THE PTERODACTYL. + </div> + + <p>And it is by the population of the chalk sea that the + ancient and the modern inhabitants of the world are most + completely connected. The groups which are dying out flourish, + side by side, with the groups which are now the dominant forms + of life.</p> + + <p>Thus the chalk contains remains of those flying and + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page199"></a>[pg 199]</span> swimming reptiles, the + pterodactyl, the ichthyosaurus, and the plesiosaurus, which + are found in no later deposits, but abounded in preceding + ages. The chambered shells called ammonites and belemnites, + which are so characteristic of the period preceding the + cretaceous, in like manner die with it.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" + style="width:600px;"> + <a href="images/199-1.png"><img width="600" + src="images/199-1.png" + alt="THE SKELETON OF THE ICHTHYOSAURUS."></a><br> + THE SKELETON OF THE ICHTHYOSAURUS. + </div> + + <div class="figcenter" + style="width:600px;"> + <a href="images/199-2.png"><img width="600" + src="images/199-2.png" + alt="THE SKELETON OF THE PLESIOSAURUS."></a><br> + THE SKELETON OF THE PLESIOSAURUS. + </div> + + <div class="figcenter" + style="width:600px;"> + <a href="images/199-3.png"><img width="600" + src="images/199-3.png" + alt="AMMONITES."></a><br> + AMMONITES. + </div> + + <p>But, among these fading remainders of a previous state of + things, are some very modern forms of life, looking like Yankee + peddlers among a tribe of red Indians. Crocodiles of modern + type appear; bony fishes, many of them very similar to existing + species, almost supplant the forms of fish which predominate in + more ancient seas; and many kinds of living shell-fish + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page200"></a>[pg 200]</span> first become known to us in + the chalk. The vegetation acquires a modern aspect. A few + living animals are not even distinguishable as species from + those which existed at that remote epoch. The Globigerina of + the present day, for example, is not different specifically + from that of the chalk; and the same may be said of many + other Foraminifera. I think it probable that critical and + unprejudiced examination will show that more than one + species of much higher animals have had a similar longevity; + but the only example which I can at present give confidently + is the snake's-head lamp-shell (<i>Terebratulina caput + serpentis</i>), which lives in our English seas and abounded + (as <i>Terebratulina striata</i> of authors) in the + chalk.</p> + + <div class="figleft" + style="width:200px;"> + <a href="images/200-1.png"><img width="200" + src="images/200-1.png" + alt="BELEMNITES."></a><br> + BELEMNITES. + </div> + + <div class="figright" + style="width:200px;"> + <a href="images/200-2.png"><img width="200" + src="images/200-2.png" + alt="TEREBRATULINA."></a><br> + TEREBRATULINA. + </div> + + <p>The longest line of human ancestry must hide its diminished + head before the pedigree of this insignificant shell-fish. We + Englishmen are proud to have an ancestor who was present at the + Battle of Hastings. The ancestors of <i>Terebratulina caput + serpentis</i> may have been present at a battle of + Ichthyosauria in that part of the sea which, when the chalk was + forming, flowed over the site of Hastings. While all around has + changed, this Terebratulina has peacefully propagated its + species from generation to generation, and stands to this day + as a living testimony to the <span class="pagenum"><a name= + "page201" + id="page201"></a>[pg 201]</span> continuity of the present + with the past history of the globe.</p> + <hr> + + <p>Up to this moment I have stated, so far as I know, nothing + but well-authenticated facts, and the immediate conclusions + which they force upon the mind.</p> + + <p>But the mind is so constituted that it does not willingly + rest in facts and immediate causes, but seeks always after a + knowledge of the remoter links in the chain of causation.</p> + + <p>Taking the many changes of any given spot of the earth's + surface, from sea to land, and from land to sea, as an + established fact, we cannot refrain from asking ourselves how + these changes have occurred. And when we have explained + them—as they must be explained—by the alternate + slow movements of elevation and depression which have affected + the crusts of the earth, we go still further back, and ask, Why + these movements?</p> + + <p>I am not certain that any one can give you a satisfactory + answer to that question. Assuredly I cannot. All that can be + said for certain is, that such movements are part of the + ordinary course of nature, inasmuch as they are going on at the + present time. Direct proof may be given, that some parts of the + land of the northern hemisphere are at this moment insensibly + rising and others insensibly sinking; and there is indirect but + perfectly satisfactory proof, that an enormous area now covered + by the Pacific has been deepened thousands of feet since the + present inhabitants of that sea came into existence.</p> + + <p>Thus there is not a shadow of a reason for believing + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page202"></a>[pg 202]</span> that the physical changes + of the globe, in past times, have been effected by other + than natural causes.</p> + + <p>Is there any more reason for believing that the concomitant + modifications in the forms of the living inhabitants of the + globe have been brought about in any other ways?</p> + + <p>Before attempting to answer this question, let us try to + form a distinct mental picture of what has happened in some + special case.</p> + + <p>The crocodiles are animals which, as a group, have a very + vast antiquity. They abounded ages before the chalk was + deposited; they throng the rivers in warm climates at the + present day. There is a difference in the form of the joints of + the backbone, and in some minor particulars, between the + crocodiles of the present epoch and those which lived before + the chalk; but, in the cretaceous epoch, as I have already + mentioned, the crocodiles had assumed the modern type of + structure. Notwithstanding this, the crocodiles of the chalk + are not identically the same as those which lived in the times + called "older tertiary," which succeeded the cretaceous epoch; + and the crocodiles of the older tertiaries are not identical + with those of the newer tertiaries, nor are these identical + with existing forms. I leave open the question whether + particular species may have lived on from epoch to epoch. But + each epoch has had its peculiar crocodiles; though all, since + the chalk, have belonged to the modern type, and differ simply + in their proportions and in such structural particulars as are + discernible only to trained eyes.</p> + + <p>How is the existence of this long succession of different + species of crocodiles to be accounted + for?</p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page203"></a>[pg 203]</span> + + <p>Only two suppositions seem to be open to us—either + each species of crocodile has been specially created, or it has + arisen out of some pre-existing form by the operation of + natural causes.</p> + + <p>Choose your hypothesis; I have chosen mine. I can find no + warranty for believing in the distinct creation of a score of + successive species of crocodiles in the course of countless + ages of time. Science gives no countenance to such a wild + fancy; nor can even the perverse ingenuity of a commentator + pretend to discover this sense, in the simple words in which + the writer of Genesis records the proceeding of the fifth and + sixth days of the Creation.</p> + + <p>On the other hand, I see no good reason for doubting the + necessary alternative, that all these varied species have been + evolved from pre-existing crocodilian forms by the operation of + causes as completely a part of the common order of nature as + those which have effected the changes of the inorganic + world.</p> + + <p>Few will venture to affirm that the reasoning which applies + to crocodiles loses its force among other animals or among + plants. If one series of species has come into existence by the + operation of natural causes, it seems folly to deny that all + may have arisen in the same way.</p> + <hr> + + <p>A small beginning has led us to a great ending. If I were to + put the bit of chalk with which we started into the hot but + obscure flame of burning hydrogen, it would presently shine + like the sun. It seems to me that this physical metamorphosis + is no false image of what has been the result of our subjecting + it to a jet <span class="pagenum"><a id="page204"></a>[pg 204]</span> of fervent, though nowise + brilliant, thought to-night. It has become luminous, and its + clear rays, penetrating the abyss of the remote past, have + brought within our ken some stages of the evolution of the + earth. And in the shifting "without haste, but without rest" + of the land and sea, as in the endless variation of the + forms assumed by living beings, we have observed nothing but + the natural product of the forces originally possessed by + the substance of the universe.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" + style="width:400px;"> + <a href="images/204.png"><img width="400" + src="images/204.png" + alt="Cliffs above the sea."></a> + </div> + + <p> </p> + + <p> </p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page205"></a>[pg 205]</span> + + <h2>A BIT OF SPONGE</h2> + + <h4>(Written on Scotland.)</h4> + + <h4>(<span class="sc">From Glimpses of Nature.</span>)</h4> + + <h3><span class="sc">By</span> A. WILSON.</h3> + <hr class="short"> + + <div class="figleft" + style="width:200px;"> + <a href="images/205.png"><img width="200" + src="images/205.png" + alt="Fishing for sponges."></a> + </div> + + <p>This morning, despite the promise of rain over-night, has + broken with all the signs and symptoms of a bright July day. + The Firth is bathed in sunlight, and the wavelets at full tide + are kissing the strand, making a soft musical ripple as they + retire, and as the pebbles run down the sandy slope on the + retreat of the waves. Beyond the farthest contact of the tide + is a line of seaweed dried and desiccated, mixed up with which, + in confusing array, are masses of shells, and such <i>olla + podrida</i> of the sea.</p> + + <p>Tossed up at our very feet is a dried fragment of sponge, + which doubtless the unkind waves tore from its rocky bed. It is + not a large portion of sponge this, but its structure is + nevertheless to be fairly made out, and some reminiscences of + its history gleaned, for the sake of occupying the by no means + "bad half-hour" before breakfast. "What is a sponge?" is a + question <span class="pagenum"><a id="page206"></a>[pg 206]</span> which you may well ask as a + necessary preliminary to the understanding of its + personality.</p><br> + + <div class="figleft" + style="width:250px;"> + <a href="images/206.png"><img width="250" + src="images/206.png" + alt="A SPONGE ATTACHED TO ITS ROCKY BED."></a><br> + A SPONGE ATTACHED TO ITS ROCKY BED. + </div> + + <p>The questionings of childhood and the questionings of + science run in precisely similar grooves. "What is it?" and + "How does it live?" and "Where does it come from?" are equally + the inquiries of childhood, and of the deepest philosophy which + seeks to determine the whole history of life. This morning, we + cannot do better than follow in the footsteps of the child, and + to the question, "What is a sponge?" I fancy science will be + able to return a direct answer. First of all, we may note that + a sponge, as we know it in common life, is the horny skeleton + or framework which was made by, and which supported, the living + parts. These living parts consist of minute masses of that + living jelly to which the name of <i>protoplasm</i> has been + applied. This, in truth, is the universal matter of life. It is + the one substance with which life everywhere is associated, and + as we see it simply in the sponge, so also we behold it (only + in more complex guise) in the man. Now, the living parts of + this dried cast-away sponge were found both <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page207"></a>[pg 207]</span> in its interior and on its + surface. They lined the canals that everywhere permeate the + sponge-substance, and microscopic examination has told us a + great deal about their nature.</p> + + <div class="figright" + style="width:400px;"> + <a href="images/207.png"><img width="400" + src="images/207.png" + alt= + "FIG. 1. DEVELOPMENT OF A SPONGE (Olynthus)."></a><br> + FIG. 1. DEVELOPMENT OF A SPONGE (<i>Olynthus</i>). + + <p>1. The egg. 2, 3, and 4. The process of egg-division. 5 + and 6. The gastrula-stage. 7. The perfect sponge.</p> + </div> + + <p>For, whether found in the canals of the sponge themselves, + or embedded in the sponge-substance, the living + sponge-particles are represented each by a semi-independent + mass of protoplasm. So that the first view I would have you + take of the sponge as a living mass, is, that it is a colony + and not a single unit. It is composed, in other words, of + aggregated masses of living particles, which bud out one from + the other, and manufacture the supporting skeleton we know as + "the sponge of commerce" itself. Under the microscope, these + living sponge-units appear in various guises and shapes. Some + of them are formless, and, as to shape, ever-altering masses, + resembling that familiar animalcule of our pools we know as the + <i>Amoeba</i>. These members of the sponge-colony form the bulk + of the population. They are embedded in the sponge substance; + they wander about through the meshes of the sponge; + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page208"></a>[pg 208]</span> they seize food and + flourish and grow; and they probably also give origin to the + "eggs" from which new sponges are in due course + produced.</p> + + <p>More characteristic however, are certain units of this + living sponge-colony which live in the lining membrane of the + canals. In point of fact, a sponge is a kind of Venice, a + certain proportion of whose inhabitants, like those of the + famous Queen of the Adriatic herself, live on the banks of the + waterways. Just as in Venice we find the provisions for the + denizens of the city brought to the inhabitants by the canals, + so from the water, which, as we shall see, is perpetually + circulating through a sponge, the members of the sponge-colony + receive their food.</p> + + <p>Look, again, at the sponge-fragment which lies before us. + You perceive half a dozen large holes or so, each opening on a + little eminence, as it were. These apertures, bear in mind, we + call <i>oscula</i>. They are the exits of the sponge-domain. + But a close inspection of a sponge shows that it is riddled + with finer and smaller apertures. These latter are the + <i>pores</i>, and they form the entrances to the + sponge-domain.</p> + + <p>On the banks of the canal you may see growing plentifully in + summer time a green sponge, which is the common fresh-water + species. Now, if you drop a living specimen of this species + into a bowl of water, and put some powdered indigo into the + water, you may note how the currents are perpetually being + swept in by the pores and out by the oscula. In every living + sponge this perpetual and unceasing circulation of water + proceeds. This is the sole evidence the unassisted sight + receives of the vitality of the sponge-colony, + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page209"></a>[pg 209]</span> and the importance of this + circulation in aiding life in these depths, to be fairly + carried out cannot readily be over-estimated.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" + style="width:300px;"> + <a href="images/233.jpg"><img width="300" + src="images/233sm.jpg" + alt="WHERE SPONGES GROW."></a><br> + WHERE SPONGES GROW. + </div> + + <p>Let us now see how this circulation is maintained. + Microscopically regarded, we see here and there, in the sides + of the sponge-passages, little chambers and recesses which + remind one of the passing-places in a narrow canal. Lining + these chambers, we see living sponge-units of a type different + from the shapeless specks we noted to occur in the meshes of + the sponge substance itself. The units of the recesses each + consist of a living particle, whose free extremity is raised + into a kind of collar, from which projects a lash-like filament + known as a flagellum.</p> + + <p>This lash is in constant movement. It waves to and fro in + the water, and the collection of lashes we see in any one + chamber acts as a veritable brush, which by its movement not + only sweeps water in by the pores, but sends it onwards through + the sponge, and in due time sends it out by the bigger holes, + or oscula. This constant circulation in the sponge discharges + more than one important function. For, as already noted, it + serves the purpose of nutrition, in that the particles on which + sponge-life is supported are swept into the colony.</p> + + <p>Again, the fresh currents of water carry with them the + oxygen gas which is a necessity of sponge existence, as of + human life; while, thirdly, waste matters, inevitably alike in + sponge and in man as the result of living, are swept out of the + colony, and discharged into the sea beyond. Our bit of sponge + has thus grown from a mere dry fragment into a living reality. + It is a <span class="pagenum"><a id="page210"></a>[pg 210]</span> community in which already, + low as it is, the work of life has come to be discharged by + distinct and fairly specialized beings.</p> + + <p>The era of new sponge-life is inaugurated by means of + egg-development, although there exists another fashion (that of + gemmules or buds) whereby out of the parental substance young + sponges are produced. A sponge-egg develops, as do all eggs, in + a definite cycle. It undergoes division (Fig. 1); its one cell + becomes many; and its many cells arrange themselves first of + all into a cup-like form (5, 6 and 7), which may remain in this + shape if the sponge is a simple one, or become developed into + the more complex shape of the sponges we know.</p> + + <p>In every museum you may see specimens of a beautiful + vase-like structure seemingly made of spun-glass. This is a + flinty sponge, the "Venus flower-basket," whose presence in the + sponge family redeems it from the charge that it contains no + things of beauty whatever. So, too, the rocks are full of + fossil-sponges, many of quaint form. Our piece of sponge, as we + may understand, has yet other bits of history attached to + it.... Meanwhile, think over the sponge and its ways, and learn + from it that out of the dry things of life, science weaves many + a fairy tale.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" + style="width:500px;"> + <a href="images/210.png"><img width="500" + src="images/210.png" + alt="Under the sea."></a> + </div> + + <p> </p> + + <p> </p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page211"></a>[pg 211]</span> + + <h2>THE GREATEST SEA-WAVE EVER KNOWN</h2> + + <h4>(<span class="sc">From Light Science in Leisure + Hours.</span>)</h4> + + <h3><span class="sc">By</span> R.A. PROCTOR.</h3> + <hr class="short"> + + <div class="figleft" + style="width:200px;"> + <a href="images/211.png"><img width="200" + src="images/211.png" + alt="sea wave"></a> + </div> + + <p>August 13th, 1868, one of the most terrible calamities which + has ever visited a people befell the unfortunate inhabitants of + Peru. In that land earthquakes are nearly as common as rain + storms are with us; and shocks by which whole cities are + changed into a heap of ruins are by no means infrequent. Yet + even in Peru, "the land of earthquakes," as Humboldt has termed + it, no such catastrophe as that of August, 1868, had occurred + within the memory of man. It was not one city which was laid in + ruins, but a whole empire. Those who perished were counted by + tens of thousands, while the property destroyed by the + earthquake was valued at millions of pounds sterling.</p> + + <p>Although so many months have passed since this terrible + calamity took place, scientific men have been busily engaged, + until quite recently, in endeavoring to <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page212"></a>[pg 212]</span> ascertain the real + significance of the various events which were observed + during and after the occurrence of the earthquake. The + geographers of Germany have taken a special interest in + interpreting the evidence afforded by this great + manifestation of Nature's powers. Two papers have been + written recently on the great earthquake of August 13th, + 1868—one by Professor von Hochsteter, the other by + Herr von Tschudi, which present an interesting account of + the various effects, by land and by sea, which resulted from + the tremendous upheaving force to which the western flanks + of the Peruvian Andes were subjected on that day. The + effects on land, although surprising and terrible, only + differ in degree from those which have been observed in + other earthquakes. But the progress of the great sea-wave + which was generated by the upheaval of the Peruvian shores + and propagated over the whole of the Pacific Ocean differs + altogether from any earthquake phenomena before observed. + Other earthquakes have indeed been followed by oceanic + disturbances; but these have been accompanied by terrestrial + motions, so as to suggest the idea that they had been caused + by the motion of the sea-bottom or of the neighboring land. + In no instance has it ever before been known that a + well-marked wave of enormous proportions should have been + propagated over the largest ocean tract on our globe by an + earth-shock whose direct action was limited to a relatively + small region, and that region not situated in the centre, + but on one side of the wide area traversed by the wave.</p> + + <p>We propose to give a brief sketch of the history of this + enormous sea-wave. In the first place, however, + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page213"></a>[pg 213]</span> it may be well to remind + the reader of a few of the more prominent features of the + great shock to which this wave owed its origin.</p> + + <p>It was at Arequipa, at the foot of the lofty volcanic + mountain Misti, that the most terrible effects of the great + earthquake were experienced. Within historic times Misti has + poured forth no lava streams, but that the volcano is not + extinct is clearly evidenced by the fact that in 1542 an + enormous mass of dust and ashes was vomited forth from its + crater. On August 13th. 1868, Misti showed no signs of being + disturbed. So far as the volcanic neighbor was concerned, the + forty-four thousand inhabitants of Arequipa had no reason to + anticipate the catastrophe which presently befell them. At five + minutes past five an earthquake shock was experienced, which, + though severe, seems to have worked little mischief. Half a + minute later, however, a terrible noise was heard beneath the + earth; a second shock more violent than the first was felt, and + then began a swaying motion, gradually increasing in intensity. + In the-course of the first minute this motion had become so + violent that the inhabitants ran in terror out of their houses + into the streets and squares. In the next two minutes the + swaying movement had so increased that the more lightly built + houses were cast to the ground, and the flying people could + scarcely keep their feet. "And now," says Von Tschudi, "there + followed during two or three minutes a terrible scene. The + swaying motion which had hitherto prevailed changed into fierce + vertical upheaval. The subterranean roaring increased in the + most terrifying manner; then were heard the heart-piercing + shrieks of the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page214"></a>[pg 214]</span> wretched people, the + bursting of walls, the crashing fall of houses and churches, + while over all rolled thick clouds of a yellowish-black + dust, which, had they been poured forth many minutes longer, + would have suffocated thousands." Although the shocks had + lasted but a few minutes, the whole town was destroyed. Not + one building remained uninjured, and there were few which + did not lie in shapeless heaps of ruins.</p> + + <p>At Tacna and Arica the earth-shock was less severe, but + strange and terrible phenomena followed it. At the former place + a circumstance occurred the cause and nature of which yet + remain a mystery. About three hours after the + earthquake—in other words, at about eight o'clock in the + evening—an intensely brilliant light made its appearance + above the neighboring mountains. It lasted for fully half an + hour, and has been ascribed to the eruption of some as yet + unknown volcano.</p> + + <p>At Arica the sea-wave produced even more destructive effects + than had been caused by the earthquake. About twenty minutes + after the first earth-shock the sea was seen to retire, as if + about to leave the shores wholly dry; but presently its waters + returned with tremendous force. A mighty wave, whose length + seemed immeasurable, was seen advancing like a dark wall upon + the unfortunate town, a large part of which was overwhelmed by + it. Two ships, the Peruvian corvette America, and the United + States "double-ender" Wateree, were carried nearly half a mile + to the north of Arica beyond the railroad which runs to Tacna, + and there left stranded high and dry. This enormous wave was + considered by the English vice-consul at Arica to have been + fully fifty feet in height.</p><span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page215"></a>[pg 215]</span> + + <p>At Chala three such waves swept in after the first shocks of + earthquake. They overflowed nearly the whole of the town, the + sea passing more than half a mile beyond its usual limits.</p> + + <p>At Islay and Iquique similar phenomena were manifested. At + the former town the lava flowed in no less than five times, and + each time with greater force. Afterward the motion gradually + diminished, but even an hour and a half after the commencement + of this strange disturbance the waves still ran forty feet + above the ordinary level. At Iquique the people beheld the + inrushing wave while it was still a great way off. A dark blue + mass of water some fifty feet in height was seen sweeping in + upon the town with inconceivable rapidity. An island lying + before the harbor was completely submerged by the great wave, + which still came rushing on black with the mud and slime it had + swept from the sea-bottom. Those who witnessed its progress + from the upper balconies of their houses, and presently saw its + black mass rushing close beneath their feet, looked on their + safety as a miracle. Many buildings were indeed washed away, + and in the low-lying parts of the town there was a terrible + loss of life. After passing far inland, the wave slowly + returned sea-ward, and, strangely enough, the sea, which + elsewhere heaved and tossed for hours after the first great + wave had swept over it, here came soon to rest.</p> + + <p>At Callao a yet more singular instance was afforded of the + effect which circumstances may have upon the motion of the sea + after a great earthquake has disturbed it. In former + earthquakes Callao has suffered terribly from the effects of + the great sea-wave. In <span class="pagenum"><a id="page216"></a>[pg 216]</span> fact, on two occasions the + whole town has been destroyed, and nearly all its + inhabitants have been drowned, through the inrush of + precisely such waves as flowed into the ports of Arica and + Chala. But upon this occasion the centre of subterranean + disturbance must have been so situated that either the wave + was diverted from Callao, or, more probably, two waves + reached Callao from different sources and at different + times, so that the two undulations partly counteracted each + other. Certain it is that, although the water retreated + strangely from the coast near Callao, insomuch that a wide + tract of the sea-bottom was uncovered, there was no + inrushing wave comparable with those described above. The + sea afterward rose and fell in an irregular manner, a + circumstance confirming the supposition that the disturbance + was caused by two distinct oscillations. Six hours after the + occurrence of the earth-shock the double oscillations seemed + for a while to have worked themselves into unison, for at + this time three considerable waves rolled in upon the town. + But clearly these waves must not be compared with those + which in other instances had made their appearance within + half an hour of the earth-throes. There is little reason to + doubt that if the separate oscillations had re-enforced each + other earlier, Callao would have been completely destroyed. + As it was, a considerable amount of mischief was effected; + but the motion of the sea presently became irregular again, + and so continued until the morning of August 14th, when it + began to ebb with some regularity. But during the 14th there + were occasional renewals of the irregular motion, and + several days <span class="pagenum"><a id="page217"></a>[pg 217]</span> elapsed before the regular + ebb and flow of the sea were resumed.</p> + + <p>Such were among the phenomena presented in the region where + the earthquake itself was felt. It will be seen at once that + within this region, or rather along that portion of the + sea-coast which falls within the central region of disturbance, + the true character of the sea-wave generated by the earthquake + could not be recognized. If a rock fall from a lofty cliff into + a comparatively shallow sea, the water around the place where + the rock has fallen is disturbed in an irregular manner. The + sea seems at one place to leap up and down; elsewhere one wave + seems to beat against another, and the sharpest eye can detect + no law in the motion of the seething waters. But presently, + outside the scene of disturbance, a circular wave is seen to + form, and if the motion of this wave be watched it is seen to + present the most striking contrast with the turmoil and + confusion at its centre. It sweeps onward and outward in a + regular undulation. Gradually it loses its circular figure + (unless the sea-bottom happens to be unusually level), showing + that although its motion is everywhere regular, it is not + everywhere equally swift. A wave of this sort, though + incomparably vaster, swept swiftly away on every side from the + scene of the great earthquake near the Peruvian Andes. It has + been calculated that the width of this wave varied from one + million to five million feet, or, roughly, from two hundred to + one thousand miles, while, when in mid-Pacific, the length of + the wave, measured along its summit in a widely-curved path + from one side to another of the great <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page218"></a>[pg 218]</span> ocean, cannot have been + less than eight thousand miles.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" + style="width:500px;"> + <a href="images/218.jpg"><img width="500" + src="images/218.jpg" + alt= + "OVER A LARGE PORTION OF ITS COURSE ITS PASSAGE WAS UNNOTED."></a><br> + OVER A LARGE PORTION OF ITS COURSE ITS PASSAGE WAS UNNOTED. + </div> + + <p>We cannot tell how deep-seated was the centre of + subterranean action; but there can be no doubt it was very deep + indeed, because otherwise the shock felt in towns separated + from each other by hundreds of miles could not have been so + nearly contemporaneous. Therefore the portion of the earth's + crust upheaved must have been enormous, for the length of the + region where the direct effects of the earthquake were + perceived is estimated by Professor von Hochsteter at no + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page219"></a>[pg 219]</span> less than two hundred and + forty miles. The breadth of the region is unknown, because + the slope of the Andes on one side and the ocean on the + other concealed the motion of the earth's crust.</p> + + <p>The great ocean-wave swept, as we have said, in all + directions around the scene of the earth-throe. Over a large + part of its course its passage was unnoted, because in the open + sea the effects even of so vast an undulation could not be + perceived. A ship would slowly rise as the crest of the great + wave passed under her, and then as slowly sink again. This may + seem strange, at first sight, when it is remembered that in + reality the great sea-wave we are considering swept at the rate + of three or four hundred sea-miles an hour over the larger part + of the Pacific. But when the true character of ocean-waves is + understood, when it is remembered that there is no transference + of the water itself at this enormous rate, but simply a + transmission of motion (precisely as when in a high wind waves + sweep rapidly over a cornfield, while yet each cornstalk + remains fixed in the ground), it will be seen that the effects + of the great sea-wave could only be perceived near the shore. + Even there, as we shall presently see, there was much to convey + the impression that the land itself was rising and falling + rather than that the deep was moved. But among the hundreds of + ships which were sailing upon the Pacific when its length and + breadth were traversed by the great sea-wave, there was not one + in which any unusual motion was perceived.</p> + + <p>In somewhat less than three hours after the occurrence of + the earthquake the ocean-wave inundated the <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page220"></a>[pg 220]</span> port of Coquimbo, on the + Chilean seaboard, some eight hundred miles from Arica. An + hour or so later it had reached Constitucion, four hundred + and fifty miles farther south; and here for some three hours + the sea rose and fell with strange violence. Farther south, + along the shore of Chile, even to the island of Chiloe, the + shore-wave travelled, though with continually diminishing + force, owing, doubtless, to the resistance which the + irregularities of the shore opposed to its progress.</p> + + <p>The northerly shore-wave seems to have been more + considerable; and a moment's study of a chart of the two + Americas will show that this circumstance is highly + significant. When we remember that the principal effects of the + land-shock were experienced within that angle which the + Peruvian Andes form with the long north-and-south line of the + Chilean and Bolivian Andes, we see at once that, had the centre + of the subterranean action been near the scene where the most + destructive effects were perceived, no sea-wave, or but a small + one, could have been sent toward the shores of North America. + The projecting shores of northern Peru and Ecuador could not + have failed to divert the sea-wave toward the west; and though + a reflected wave might have reached California, it would only + have been after a considerable interval of time, and with + dimensions much less than those of the sea-wave which travelled + southward. When we see that, on the contrary, a wave of even + greater proportions travelled toward the shores of North + America, we seem forced to the conclusion that the centre of + the subterranean action must have been so far to the west that + the sea- <span class="pagenum"><a id="page221"></a>[pg 221]</span> wave generated by it had a + free course to the shores of California.</p> + + <p>Be this as it may, there can be no doubt that the wave which + swept the shores of Southern California, rising upward of sixty + feet above the ordinary sea-level, was absolutely the most + imposing of all the indirect effects of the great earthquake. + When we consider that even in San Pedro Bay, fully five + thousand miles from the centre of disturbance, a wave twice the + height of an ordinary house rolled in with unspeakable violence + only a few hours after the occurrence of the earth-throe, we + are most strikingly impressed with the tremendous energy of the + earth's movement.</p> + + <p>Turning to the open ocean, let us track the great wave on + its course past the multitudinous islands which dot the surface + of the Pacific.</p> + + <p>The inhabitants of the Sandwich Islands, which lie about six + thousand three hundred miles from Arica, might have imagined + themselves safe from any effects which could be produced by an + earthquake taking place so far away from them. But on the night + between August 13th and 14th, the sea around this island group + rose in a surprising manner, insomuch that many thought the + islands were sinking, and would shortly subside altogether + beneath the waves. Some of the smaller islands, indeed, were + for a time completely submerged. Before long, however, the sea + fell again, and as it did so the observers "found it impossible + to resist the impression that the islands were rising bodily + out of the water." For no less than three days this strange + oscillation of the sea continued to be experienced, the most + remarkable ebbs and <span class="pagenum"><a id="page222"></a>[pg 222]</span> floods being noticed at + Honolulu, on the island of Woahoo.</p> + + <p>But the sea-wave swept onward far beyond these islands.</p> + + <p>At Yokohama, in Japan, more than ten thousand five hundred + miles from Arica, an enormous wave poured in on August 14th, + but at what hour we have no satisfactory record. So far as + distance is concerned, this wave affords most surprising + evidence of the stupendous nature of the disturbance to which + the waters of the Pacific Ocean had been subjected. The whole + circumference of the earth is but twenty-five thousand miles, + so that this wave had travelled over a distance considerably + greater than two-fifths of the earth's circumference. A + distance which the swiftest of our ships could not traverse in + less than six or seven weeks had been swept over by this + enormous undulation in the course of a few hours.</p> + + <p>More complete details reach us from the Southern + Pacific.</p> + + <p>Shortly before midnight the Marquesas Isles and the + low-lying Tuamotu group were visited by the great wave, and + some of these islands were completely submerged by it. The + lonely Opara Isle, where the steamers which run between Panama + and New Zealand have their coaling station, was visited at + about half-past eleven in the evening by a billow which swept + away a portion of the coal depot. Afterward great waves came + rolling in at intervals of about twenty minutes, and several + days elapsed before the sea resumed its ordinary ebb and + flow.</p> + + <p>It was not until about half-past two on the morning + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page223"></a>[pg 223]</span> of August 14th that the + Samoa Isles (sometimes called the Navigator Islands) were + visited by the great wave. The watchmen startled the + inhabitants from their sleep by the cry that the sea was + about to overwhelm them; and already, when the terrified + people rushed from their houses, the sea was found to have + risen far above the highest water-mark. But it presently + began to sink again, and then commenced a series of + oscillations, which lasted for several days, and were of a + very remarkable nature. Once in every quarter of an hour the + sea rose and fell, but it was noticed that it rose twice as + rapidly as it sank. This peculiarity is well worth + remarking. The eminent physicist Mallet speaks thus (we + follow Lyell's quotation) about the waves which traverse an + open sea: "The great sea-wave, advancing at the rate of + several miles in a minute, consists, in the deep ocean, of a + long, low swell of enormous volume, having an equal slope + before and behind, and that so gentle that it might pass + under a ship without being noticed. But when it reaches the + edge of soundings, its front slope becomes short and steep, + while its rear slope is long and gentle." On the shores + visited by such a wave, the sea would appear to rise more + rapidly than it sank. We have seen that this happened on the + shores of the Samoa group, and therefore the way in which + the sea rose and fell on the days following the great + earthquake gave significant evidence of the nature of the + sea-bottom in the neighborhood of these islands. As the + change of the great wave's figure could not have been + quickly communicated, we may conclude with certainty that + the Samoan Islands are the summits of lofty mountains, whose + sloping sides extend far toward the east.</p><span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page224"></a>[pg 224]</span> + + <p>This conclusion affords interesting evidence of the + necessity of observing even the seemingly trifling details of + important phenomena.</p> + + <p>The wave which visited the New Zealand Isles was altogether + different in character, affording a noteworthy illustration of + another remark of Mallet's. He says that where the sea-bottom + slopes in such a way that there is water of some depth close + inshore, the great wave may roll in and do little damage; and + we have seen that so it happened in the case of the Samoan + Islands. But he adds that, "where the shore is shelving there + will be first a retreat of the water, and then the wave will + break upon the beach and roll far in upon the land." This is + precisely what happened when the great wave reached the eastern + shores of New Zealand, which are known to shelve down to very + shallow water, continuing far away to sea toward the east.</p> + + <p>At about half-past three on the morning of August 14th the + water began to retreat in a singular manner from the port of + Littleton, on the eastern shores of the southernmost of the New + Zealand Islands. At length the whole port was left entirely + dry, and so remained for about twenty minutes. Then the water + was seen returning like a wall of foam ten or twelve feet in + height, which rushed with a tremendous noise upon the port and + town. Toward five o'clock the water again retired, very slowly + as before, not reaching its lowest ebb until six. An hour later + a second huge wave inundated the port. Four times the sea + retired and returned with great power at intervals of about two + hours. Afterward the oscillation of the water was less + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page225"></a>[pg 225]</span> considerable, but it had + not wholly ceased until August 17th, and only on the 18th + did the regular ebb and flow of the tide recommence.</p> + + <p>Around the Samoa group the water rose and fell once in every + fifteen minutes, while on the shores of New Zealand each + oscillation lasted no less than two hours. Doubtless the + different depths of water, the irregular conformation of the + island groups, and other like circumstances, were principally + concerned in producing these singular variations. Yet they do + not seem fully sufficient to account for so wide a range of + difference. Possibly a cause yet unnoticed may have had + something to do with the peculiarity. In waves of such enormous + extent it would be quite impossible to determine whether the + course of the wave motion was directed full upon a line of + shore or more or less obliquely. It is clear that in the former + case the waves would seem to follow each other more swiftly + than in the latter, even though there were no difference in + their velocity.</p> + + <p>Far on beyond the shores of New Zealand the great wave + coursed, reaching at length the coast of Australia. At dawn of + August 14th Moreton Bay was visited by five well-marked waves. + At Newcastle, on the Hunter River, the sea rose and fell + several times in a remarkable manner, the oscillatory motion + commencing at half-past six in the morning. But the most + significant evidence of the extent to which the sea-wave + travelled in this direction was afforded at Port Fairy, + Belfast, South Victoria. Here the oscillation of the water was + distinctly perceived at midday on August 14th; and yet, to + reach this point, the sea-wave must <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page226"></a>[pg 226]</span> not only have travelled on + a circuitous course nearly equal in length to half the + circumference of the earth, but must have passed through + Bass's Straits, between Australia and Van Diemen's Land, and + so have lost a considerable portion of its force and + dimensions. When we remember that had not the effects of the + earth-shock on the water been limited by the shores of South + America, a wave of disturbance equal in extent to that which + travelled westward would have swept toward the east, we see + that the force of the shock was sufficient to have disturbed + the waters of an ocean covering the whole surface of the + earth. For the sea-waves which reached Yokohama in one + direction and Port Fairy in another had each traversed a + distance nearly equal to half the earth's circumference; so + that if the surface of the earth were all sea, waves setting + out in opposite directions from the centre of disturbance + would have met each other at the antipodes of their + starting-point.</p> + + <p>It is impossible to contemplate the effects which followed + the great earthquake—the passage of a sea-wave of + enormous volume over fully one third of the earth's surface, + and the force with which, on the farthermost limits of its + range, the wave rolled in upon shores more than ten thousand + miles from its starting-place—without feeling that those + geologists are right who deny that the subterranean forces of + the earth are diminishing in intensity. It may be difficult, + perhaps, to look on the effects which are ascribed to ancient + earth-throes without imagining for a while that the power of + modern earthquakes is altogether less. But when we consider + fairly the share which time had in <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page227"></a>[pg 227]</span> those ancient processes of + change, when we see that while mountain ranges were being + upheaved or valleys depressed to their present position, + race after race, and type after type appeared on the earth, + and lived out the long lives which belong to races and to + types, we are recalled to the remembrance of the great work + which the earth's subterranean forces are still engaged + upon. Even now continents are being slowly depressed or + upheaved; even now mountain ranges are being raised to a new + level, tablelands are in process of formation, and great + valleys are being gradually scooped out. It may need an + occasional outburst, such as the earthquake of August, 1868, + to remind us that great forces are at work beneath the + earth's surface. But, in reality, the signs of change have + long been noted. Old shore-lines shift their place, old + soundings vary; the sea advances in one place and retires in + another; on every side Nature's plastic hand is at work + modelling and remodelling the earth, in order that it may + always be a fit abode for those who are to dwell upon + it.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" + style="width:500px;"> + <a href="images/227.png"><img width="500" + src="images/227.png" + alt="Ship on waves."></a> + </div> + + <p> </p> + + <p> </p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page228"></a>[pg 228]</span> + + <h2>THE PHOSPHORESCENT SEA</h2> + + <h4>(<span class="sc">From Studies of Animated + Nature.</span>)</h4> + + <h3><span class="sc">By</span> W.S. DALLAS.</h3> + <hr class="short"> + + <div class="figleft" + style="width:200px;"> + <a href="images/228.png"><img width="200" + src="images/228.png" + alt="Small Boat and Phosphorescence."></a> + </div> + + <p>It is not merely on land that this phenomenon of + phosphorescence is to be seen in living forms. Among marine + animals, indeed, it is a phenomenon much more general, much + more splendid, and, we may add, much more familiar to those who + live on our coasts. There must be many in the British Isles who + have never had the opportunity of seeing the light of the + glow-worm, but there can be few of those who have frequented in + summer any part of our coasts, who have never seen that + beautiful greenish light which is then so often visible, + especially on our southern shores, when the water is disturbed + by the blade of an oar or the prow of a boat or ship. In some + cases, even on our own shores, the phenomenon is much more + brilliant, every rippling wave being crested with a line of the + same peculiar light, and in warmer seas exhibitions of this + kind are much more common. It is now <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page229"></a>[pg 229]</span> known that this light is + due to a minute living form, to which we will afterward + return.</p> + + <p>But before going on to speak in some detail of the organisms + to which the phosphorescence of the sea is due, it will be as + well to mention that the kind of phosphorescence just spoken of + is only one mode in which the phenomenon is exhibited on the + ocean. Though sometimes the light is shown in continuous lines + whenever the surface is disturbed, at other times, and, + according to M. de Quatrefages, more commonly, the light + appears only in minute sparks, which, however numerous, never + coalesce. "In the little channel known as the Sund de Chausez," + he writes, "I have seen on a dark night each stroke of the oar + kindle, as it were, myriads of stars, and the wake of the craft + appeared in a manner besprinkled with diamonds." When such is + the case the phosphorescence is due to various minute animals, + especially crustaceans; that is, creatures which, + microscopically small as they are, are yet constructed more or + less on the type of the lobster or cray-fish.</p> + + <p>At other times, again, the phosphorescence is still more + partial. "Great domes of pale gold with long streamers," to use + the eloquent words of Professor Martin Duncan, "move slowly + along in endless succession; small silvery disks swim, now + enlarging and now contracting, and here and there a green or + bluish gleam marks the course of a tiny, but rapidly rising and + sinking globe. Hour after hour the procession passes by, and + the fishermen hauling in their nets from the midst drag out + liquid light, and the soft sea jellies, crushed and torn + piecemeal, shine in every clinging <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page230"></a>[pg 230]</span> particle. The night grows + dark, the wind rises and is cold, and the tide changes; so + does the luminosity of the sea. The pale spectres below the + surface sink deeper, and are lost to sight, but the + increasing waves are tinged here and there with green and + white, and often along a line, where the fresh water is + mixing with the salt in an estuary, there is a brightness so + intense that boats and shores are visible.... But if such + sights are to be seen on the surface, what must not be the + phosphorescence of the depths! Every sea-pen is glorious in + its light, in fact, nearly every eight-armed Alcyonarian is + thus resplendent, and the social Pyrosoma, bulky and a free + swimmer, glows like a bar of hot metal with a white and + green radiance."</p> + + <p>Such accounts are enough to indicate how varied and how + general a phenomenon is the phosphorescence of the sea. To take + notice of one tithe of the points of interest summed up in the + paragraph just quoted would occupy many pages, and we must + therefore confine the attention to a few of the most + interesting facts relating to marine phosphorescence.</p> + + <p>We will return to that form of marine luminosity to which we + first referred: what is known as the general or diffused + phosphorescence of the sea. From this mode of describing it the + reader must not infer that the surface of the ocean is ever to + be seen all aglow in one sheet of continuous light. So far, at + least, as was ever observed by M. de Quatrefages, who studied + this phenomenon carefully and during long periods on the coasts + of Brittany and elsewhere, no light was visible when the + surface of the sea was perfectly still. On the other hand, when + the sea exhibits in a high degree the <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page231"></a>[pg 231]</span> phenomenon of diffused + phosphorescence no disturbance can be too slight to cause + the water to shine with that peculiar characteristic gleam. + Drop but a grain of sand upon its surface, and you will see + a point of light marking the spot where it falls, and from + that point as a centre a number of increasing wavelets, each + clearly defined by a line of light, will spread out in + circles all around.</p> + + <p>The cause of this diffused phosphorescence was long the + subject of curiosity, and was long unknown, but more than a + hundred years ago (in 1764) the light was stated by M. Kigaut + to proceed from a minute and very lowly organism, now known as + <i>Noctiluca miliaris</i>; and subsequent researches have + confirmed this opinion. This Noctiluca is a spherical form of + not more than one-fiftieth of an inch in size, with a slight + depression or indentation at one point, marking the position of + a mouth leading to a short digestive cavity, and having close + beside it a filament, by means of which it probably moves + about. The sphere is filled with protoplasm, in which there is + a nucleus and one or more gaps, or "vacuoles." Such is nearly + all the structure that can be discerned with the aid of the + microscope in this simple organism.</p> + + <p>Nevertheless, this lowly form is the chief cause of that + diffused phosphorescence which is sometimes seen over a wide + extent of the ocean. How innumerable the individuals belonging + to this species must therefore be, may be left to the + imagination. Probably the Noctiluca is not rivalled in this + respect even by miscroscopic unicellular algæ which compose the + "red snow."</p> + + <p>By filtering sea-water containing Noctilucæ its light + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page232"></a>[pg 232]</span> can be concentrated, and it + has been found that a few teaspoonfuls will then yield light + enough to enable one to read holding a book at the ordinary + distance from the eyes—about ten inches.</p> + + <p>A singular and highly remarkable case of diffused marine + phosphorescence was observed by Nordenskiöld during his voyage + to Greenland in 1883. One dark night, when the weather was calm + and the sea smooth, his vessel was steaming across a narrow + inlet called the Igaliko Fjord, when the sea was suddenly + observed to be illumined in the rear of the vessel by a broad + but sharply-defined band of light, which had a uniform, + somewhat golden sheen, quite unlike the ordinary bluish-green + phosphorescence of the sea. The latter kind of light was + distinctly visible at the same time in the wake of the vessel. + Though the steamer was going at the rate of from five to six + miles an hour, the remarkable sheet of light got nearer and + nearer. When quite close, it appeared as if the vessel were + sailing in a sea of fire or molten metal. In the course of an + hour the light passed on ahead, and ultimately it disappeared + in the remote horizon. The nature of this phenomenon + Nordenskiöld is unable to explain; and unfortunately he had not + the opportunity of examining it with the spectroscope.</p> + + <p>If we come now to consider the more partial phosphorescence + of the sea, we find that it is due to animals belonging to + almost every group of marine forms—to Echinoderms, or + creatures of the sea-urchin and star-fish type, to Annelid + worm, to Medusidæ, or jelly-fish, as they are popularly called, + including the "great domes" and the "silvery disks" of the + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page233"></a>[pg 233]</span> passage above quoted from + Professor Martin Duncan, to Tunicates, among which is the + Pyrosoma, to Mollusks, Crustaceans, and in very many cases + to Actinozoa, or forms belonging to the type of the sea + anemone and the coral polyp.</p> + + <p>Of these we will single out only a few for more special + notice.</p> + + <p>Many of the Medusidæ, or jelly-fish, possess the character + of which we are speaking. In some cases the phosphorescence is + spontaneous among them, but in others it is not so; the + creature requires to be irritated or stimulated in some way + before it will emit the light. It is spontaneous, for example, + in the <i>Pelagia phosphorea</i>, but not in the allied + <i>Pelagia noctiluca</i>, a very common form in the + Mediterranean.</p> + + <p>In both of the jelly-fishes just mentioned the + phosphorescence, when displayed at all, is on the surface of + the swimming disk, and this is most commonly the case with the + whole group. Sometimes, however, the phosphorescence is + specially localized. In some forms, as in <i>Thaumantius + pilosella</i> and other members of the same genus, it is seen + in buds at the base of tentacles given off from the margin of + the swimming-bell. In other cases it is situated in certain + internal organs, as in the canals which radiate from the centre + to the margin of the bell, or in the ovaries. It is from this + latter seat that the phosphorescence proceeds in <i>Oceania + pilata</i>, the form which gives out such a light that + Ehrenberg compared it to a lamp-globe lighted by a flame.</p> + + <p>The property of emitting a phosphorescent light, sometimes + spontaneously and sometimes on being stimulated, is likewise + exemplified in the Ctenophora, a <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page234"></a>[pg 234]</span> group resembling the + Medusidæ in the jelly-like character of their bodies, but + more closely allied in structure to the Actinozoa. But we + will pass over these cases in order to dwell more + particularly on the remarkable tunicate known as Pyrosoma, a + name indicative of its phosphorescent property, being + derived from two Greek words signifying fire-body. As shown + in the illustration Pyrosoma is not a single creature, but + is composed of a whole colony of individuals, each of which + is represented by one of the projections on the surface of + the tube, closed at one end, which they all combine to form. + The free end on the exterior contains the mouth, while there + is another opening in each individual toward the interior of + the tube. Such colonies, which swim about by the alternate + contraction and dilatation of the individuals composing + them, are pretty common in the Mediterranean, where they may + attain the length of perhaps fourteen inches, with a breadth + of about three inches. In the ocean they may reach a much + greater size. Mr. Moseley, in his "Notes of a Naturalist on + the Challenger," mentions a giant specimen which he once + caught in the deep-sea trawl, a specimen four feet in length + and ten inches in diameter, with "walls of jelly about an + inch in thickness."</p> + + <div class="figleft" + style="width:250px;"> + <a href="images/234.png"><img width="250" + src="images/234.png" + alt="A. PYROSOMA. B. PONITON."></a><br> + A. PYROSOMA. B. PONITON. (Magnified.) + </div> + + <p>The same naturalist states that the light emitted by + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page235"></a>[pg 235]</span> this compound form is the + most beautiful of all kinds of phosphorescence. When + stimulated by a touch, or shake, or swirl of the water, it + "gives out a globe of bluish light, which lasts for several + seconds, as the animal drifts past several feet beneath the + surface, and then suddenly goes out." He adds that on the + giant specimen just referred to be wrote his name with his + finger as it lay on the deck in a tub at night, and in a few + seconds he had the gratification of seeing his name come out + in "letters of fire."</p> + + <p>Among mollusks, the best known instance of phosphorescence + is in the rock-boring Pholas, the luminosity of which after + death is mentioned by Pliny. But it is not merely after death + that Pholas becomes luminous—a phenomenon perfectly + familiar even in the case of many fish, especially the herring + and mackerel. It was long before the luminosity of the living + animal was known, but this is now a well-ascertained fact; and + Panceri, an Italian naturalist, recently dead, has been able to + discover in this, as in several other marine phosphorescent + forms, the precise seat of the light-giving bodies, which he + has dissected out again and again for the sake of making + experiments in connection with this subject.</p> + + <p>A more beautiful example of a phosphorescent mollusk is + presented by a sea-slug called <i>Phyllirhoë bucephala</i>. + This is a creature of from one and a half to two inches in + length, without a shell in the adult stage, and without even + gills. It breathes only by the general surface of the body. It + is common enough in the Mediterranean, but is not easy to see, + as it is almost perfectly transparent, so that it cannot be + distinguished <span class="pagenum"><a id="page236"></a>[pg 236]</span> without difficulty, by day + at least, from the medium in which it swims. By night, + however, it is more easily discerned, in consequence of its + property of emitting light. When disturbed or stimulated in + any way, it exhibits a number of luminous spots of different + sizes irregularly distributed all over it, but most thickly + aggregated on the upper and under parts. These + phosphorescent spots, it is found, are not on the surface, + but for the most part represent so many large cells which + form the terminations of nerves, and are situated underneath + the transparent cuticle. The spots shine with exceptional + brilliancy when the animal is withdrawn from the water and + stimulated by a drop of ammonia.</p> + + <p>Among the Annelid worms a species of <i>Nereis</i>, or + sea-centipedes, has earned by its phosphorescent property the + specific name of <i>noctiluca</i> (night-shining), and the same + property is very beautifully shown in <i>Polynoë</i>, a near + ally of the familiar sea-mouse. M. de Quatrefages speaks with + enthusiasm of the beauty of the spectacle presented by this + latter form when examined under a microscope magnifying to the + extent of a hundred diameters. He then found, as he did in the + great majority of cases which he studied, that the + phosphorescence was confined to the motor muscles, and was + manifested solely when these were in the act of contracting, + manifested, too, not in continuous lines along the course of + the muscles, but in rows of brilliant points.</p> + + <p>More interesting than the Annelids, however, are the + Alcyonarian Actinozoa. The Actinozoa have already been + described as formed on the type of the sea-anemone and the + coral polyp, that is, they are all animals with a radiate + structure, attached to one end, and <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page237"></a>[pg 237]</span> having their only opening + at the other end, which is surrounded by tentacles. In the + Alcyonarian forms belonging to this great group these + tentacles are always eight in number, and fringed on both + sides. Moreover, these forms are almost without exception + compound. Like the Pyrosoma, they have a common life + belonging to a whole stock or colony, as well as an + individual life.</p> + + <p>Now, throughout this sub-division of the Actinozoa + phosphorescence is a very general phenomenon. Professor + Moseley, already quoted as a naturalist accompanying the + Challenger expedition, informs us that "all the Alcyonarians + dredged by the Challenger in deep water were found to be + brilliantly phosphorescent when brought to the surface."</p> + + <p>Among these Alcyonarians are the sea-pens mentioned in the + quotation above made from Professor Martin Duncan. Each sea-pen + is a colony of Alcyonarians, and the name is due to the + singular arrangement of the individuals upon the common stem. + This stem is supported internally by a coral rod, but its outer + part is composed of fleshy matter belonging to the whole + colony. The lower portion of it is fixed in the muddy bottom of + the sea, but the upper portion is free, and gives off a number + of branches, on which the individual polyps are seated. The + whole colony thus has the appearance of a highly ornamental + pen.</p> + + <p>There is one British species, <i>Pennatula phosphorea</i>, + which is found in tolerably deep water, and is from two to four + inches in length. The specific name again indicates the + phosphorescent quality belonging to it. When irritated, it + shines brilliantly, and the curious thing is that the + phosphorescence travels gradually on from <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page238"></a>[pg 238]</span> polyp to polyp, starting + from the point at which the irritation is applied. If the + lower part of the stem is irritated, the phosphorescence + passes gradually upwards along each pair of branches in + succession; but if the top is irritated the phosphorescence + will pass in the same way downwards. When both top and + bottom are irritated simultaneously two luminous currents + start at once, and, meeting in the middle, usually become + extinguished there; but on one occasion Panceri found that + the two crossed, and each completed its course independently + of the other. Those of our readers who have had + opportunities of making or seeing experiments with the + sensitive plant (<i>Mimosa pudica</i>) will be reminded of + the way in which, when that plant is irritated, the + influence travels regularly on from pinnules to pinnules and + pinnae to pinnae.</p> + + <p>In all the cases mentioned the phenomenon of phosphorescence + is exhibited by invertebrate animals; but though rare, it is + not an unknown phenomenon even in living vertebrates. In a + genus of deep-sea fishes called Stomias, Gunther mentions that + a "series of phosphorescent dots run along the lower side of + the head, body, and tail." Several other deep-sea fishes, + locally phosphorescent, seem to have been dredged up by the + French ship Talisman in its exploring cruise off the west coast + of Northern Africa in 1883. During the same expedition, a + number of deep-sea phosphorescent crustaceans were dredged up, + the phosphorescence being in some cases diffused over the whole + body, in other cases localized to particular areas. In deep-sea + forms the phenomenon is, in fact, so common, as to have given + rise to the theory that in the depths of the ocean, where the + light <span class="pagenum"><a id="page239"></a>[pg 239]</span> of the sun cannot + penetrate, the phosphorescence of various organisms diffuse + a light which limits the domain of absolute darkness.</p> + + <p>So much by way of illustration regarding the phosphorescence + exhibited by animals, terrestrial and marine; but it ought to + be noticed that there are also a few cases in which the same + phenomenon is to be witnessed in plants. These are not so + numerous as was at one time supposed, the property having been + mistakenly ascribed to some plants not really luminous.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" + style="width:600px;"> + <a href="images/239.png"><img width="600" + src="images/239.png" + alt="A PHOSPHORESCENT SEA."></a><br> + A PHOSPHORESCENT SEA. + </div> + + <p>In some instances the mistake appears to have been due to a + subjective effect produced by brilliantly colored (red or + orange) flowers, such as the great Indian cress, the orange + lily, the sunflower, and the marigold. The fact that such + flowers do give out in the dusk sudden flashes of light has + often been stated on the authority of a daughter of Linnæus, + subsequently <span class="pagenum"><a id="page240"></a>[pg 240]</span> backed by the assertions of + various other observers. But most careful observers seem to + be agreed that the supposed flashes of light are in reality + nothing else than a certain dazzling of the eyes.</p> + + <p>In another case, in which a moss, <i>Schistostega + osmundacea</i>, has been stated to be phosphorescent, the + effect is said to be really due to the refraction and + reflection of light by minute crystals scattered over its + highly cellular leaves, and not to be produced at all where the + darkness is complete.</p> + + <p>Among plants, genuine phosphorescence is to be found chiefly + in certain fungi, the most remarkable of which is + <i>Rhizomorpha subterranea</i>, which is sometimes to be seen + ramifying over the walls of dark, damp mines, caverns, or + decayed towers, and emitting at numerous points a mild + phosphorescent light, which is sometimes bright enough to allow + of surrounding objects being distinguished by it. The name of + "vegetable glow-worm" has sometimes been applied to this + curious growth.</p> + + <p>Among other phosphorescent fungi are several species of + Agaricus, including the <i>A. olearius</i> of Europe, <i>A. + Gardneri</i> of Brazil, and <i>A. lampas</i> of Australia, and + besides the members of this genus, <i>Thelaphora cærulea</i>, + which is the cause of the phosphorescent light sometimes to be + seen on decaying wood—the "touchwood" which many boys + have kept in the hope of seeing this light displayed. The milky + juice of a South American Euphorbia (<i>E. phosphorea</i>) is + stated by Martins to be phosphorescent when gently heated. But + phosphorescence is evidently not so interesting and important a + phenomenon in the vegetable as it is in the animal + kingdom.</p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page241"></a>[pg 241]</span> + + <p>The whole phenomenon is one that gives rise to a good many + questions which it is not easy to answer, and this is + especially true in the case of animal phosphorescence. What is + the nature of the light? What are the conditions under which it + is manifested? What purpose does it serve in the animal + economy?</p> + + <p>As to the nature of the light, the principal question is + whether it is a direct consequence of the vital activity of the + organism in which it is seen, of such a nature that no further + explanation can be given of it, any more than we can explain + why a muscle is contracted under the influence of a + nerve-stimulus; or whether it is due to some chemical process + more or less analogous to the burning of a candle.</p> + + <p>The fact of luminosity appearing to be in certain cases + directly under the control of the creature in which it is + found, and the fact of its being manifested in many forms, as + M. de Quatrefages found, only when muscular contraction was + taking place, would seem to favor the former view. On the other + hand, it is against this view that the phosphorescence is often + found to persist after the animal is dead, and even in the + phosphorescent organs for a considerable time after they have + been extracted from the body of the animal. In the glow-worm + the light goes on shining for some time after the death of the + insect, and even when it has become completely extinguished it + can be restored for a time by the application of a little + moisture. Further, both Matteucci and Phipson found that when + the luminous substance was extracted from the insect it would + keep on glowing for thirty or forty minutes.</p> + + <p>In Pholas the light is still more persistent, and it is + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page242"></a>[pg 242]</span> found that when the dead + body of this mollusk is placed in honey, it will retain for + more than a year the power of emitting light when plunged in + warm water.</p> + + <p>The investigations of recent years have rendered it more and + more probable that the light exhibited by phosphorescent + organisms is due to a chemical process somewhat analogous to + that which goes on in the burning of a candle. This latter + process is one of rapid oxidation. The particles of carbon + supplied by the oily matter that feeds the candle become so + rapidly combined with oxygen derived from the air that a + considerable amount of light, along with heat, is produced + thereby. Now, the phenomenon of phosphorescence in organic + forms, whether living or dead, appears also to be due to a + process of oxidation, but one that goes on much more slowly + than in the case of a lighted candle. It is thus more closely + analogous to what is observed in the element phosphorus itself, + which owes its name (meaning "light-bearer") to the fact that + when exposed to the air at ordinary temperatures it glows in + the dark, in consequence of its becoming slowly combined with + oxygen.</p> + + <p>At one time it was believed that the presence of oxygen was + not necessary to the exhibition of phosphorescence in organic + forms, but it has now been placed beyond doubt that this is a + mistake. Oxygen has been proved to be indispensable, and hence + we see a reason for the luminous organs in the glow-worm being + so intimately connected, as above mentioned, with the air-tubes + that ramify through the insect.</p> + + <p>This fact of itself might be taken as a strong indication of + the chemical nature of the process to which <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page243"></a>[pg 243]</span> phosphorescence is due. But + the problem has been made the subject of further + investigations which have thrown more light upon it. It was + long known that there were various inorganic bodies besides + phosphorus which emitted a phosphorescent light in the dark, + at least after being exposed to the rays of the sun; but it + was not till quite recently that any organic compound was + known to phosphoresce at ordinary temperatures.</p> + + <p>This discovery was made by a Polish chemist, named + Bronislaus Radziszewski, who followed it up with a long series + of experiments on the phosphorescence of organic compounds, by + which he was able to determine the conditions under which that + phenomenon was exhibited. In all the substances investigated by + him in which phosphorescence was introduced he found that three + conditions were essential to its production: (1) that oxygen + should be present; (2) that there should be an alkaline + reaction in the phosphorescing mixture—that is, a + reaction such as is produced on acids and vegetable coloring + matters by potash, soda, and the other alkalies; and (3) that + some kind of chemical action should take place.</p> + + <p>He found, moreover, that among the organic compounds that + could be made to phosphoresce under these conditions were + nearly all the fixed and ethereal oils. With reference to the + phosphorescence of animals, this observation is important, for + it has been shown in a great many cases that a fatty substance + forms the main constituent in their luminous organs. This has + long been known to be the case in the luminous insects + belonging to the Lampyridæ and Elateridæ, as well as + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page244"></a>[pg 244]</span> in the luminous centipedes; + and the researches of Panceri, already referred to, on the + luminous organs of many marine forms have shown that it + holds good with regard to these also.</p> + + <p>We may, therefore, conclude that substances fitted to + phosphoresce under the conditions determined by the experiments + of Radziszewski are generally, and probably universally, + present in the luminous organs of phosphorescent animals. Now, + what is to be said as to the occurrence of these conditions? + The access of oxygen is in all cases easy to account for, but + it must also be shown how the alkaline reaction is to be + produced. We need not expect to find in animal organisms + potash, soda, ammonia, and the other common alkalies; but it + was established by experiment that the alkaline organic + compounds cholin and neurin, which are present in animal + tissues, would also serve to bring about the phenomenon of + phosphorescence in the substances on which the experiments were + made.</p> + + <p>Accordingly, it seems fair to conclude that when all these + conditions for the production of phosphorescence in a chemical + laboratory are present in animal organisms, the phenomenon, + when observed in these, is exactly of the same nature as that + which is produced artificially. By that it is meant that animal + phosphorescence is attended, like the artificial phenomenon, by + a slow chemical action, or in other words, that the + phosphorescent light is due to a gradual process of + oxidation.</p> + + <p>One curious circumstance has been discovered which lends + still further probability to this explanation. It was mentioned + above that among phosphorescent plants <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page245"></a>[pg 245]</span> there are several species + of Agaricus. Now, from one species of this genus, though not + indeed one of the phosphorescent species (from <i>A. + muscarius</i>) there has been extracted a principle called + <i>amanitia</i>, which is found to be identical with cholin. + In the light of the results derived from the investigations + just referred to it is reasonable to draw the conclusion + that, if sought for, this principle would likewise be found + in the phosphorescent species in which the other conditions + of phosphorescence are also present.</p> + + <p>On this theory of the production of the phenomenon now under + consideration, the effect of shaking or of vital action in + giving rise to or intensifying the exhibition of the light is + accounted for by the fact that by these means fresh supplies of + oxygen are brought into contact with the phosphorescent + substance. The effect of ammonia on the light emitted by the + sea-slug <i>Phyllirhoë bucephala</i>, is also fully explained, + ammonia being one of those alkaline substances which are so + directly favorable to the exhibition of the phenomenon.</p> + + <p>Nor is it difficult to account for the control which in some + cases insects appear to have over the luminosity of the + phosphorescent organs, exhibiting and withdrawing the light at + will. It is not necessary to suppose that this is an immediate + effect, a conversion of nerve force into light, and a + withdrawal of that force. The action of the creature's will may + be merely in maintaining or destroying the conditions under + which the light is manifested. It may, for example, have the + power of withdrawing the supply of oxygen, and this supposition + receives some countenance from the observation cited from Kirby + and Spence on the two <span class="pagenum"><a id="page246"></a>[pg 246]</span> captured glow-worms, one of + which withdrew its light, while the other kept it shining, + but while doing so had the posterior extremity of the + abdomen in constant motion. But the animal may also have the + power in another way of affecting the chemical conditions of + the phenomenon. It may, for example, have the power of + increasing or diminishing by some nervous influence the + supply of the necessary alkaline ingredient.</p> + + <p>But if animal phosphorescence is really due to a process of + slow oxidation, there is one singular circumstance to be noted + in connection with it. Oxidation is a process that is normally + accompanied by the development of heat. Even where no light is + produced an increase of temperature regularly takes place when + substances are oxidized. We ought, then, to expect such a rise + of temperature when light is emitted by the phosphorescent + organs of animals. But the most careful observations have shown + that nothing of the kind can be detected. It was with a view to + test this that Panceri dissected out the luminous organs of so + many specimens of Pholas. He selected this mollusk because it + was so abundant in the neighborhood of Naples, where, his + experiments were made; and in making his experiments he made + use of a thermopile, an apparatus by which, with the aid of + electricity, much smaller quantities of heat can be indicated + than by means of the most delicate thermometer. The organs + remained luminous long after they were extracted, but no rise + in temperature whatever could be found to accompany the + luminosity. Many experiments upon different animals were made + with similar negative results by means of the + thermometer.</p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page247"></a>[pg 247]</span> + + <p>The only explanation of this that can be given is probably + to be found in the fact that the chemical process ascertained + to go on in the phosphorescence of organic compounds on which + experiments were made in the laboratory is an extremely slow + one.</p> + + <p>The so-called phosphorescence of most inorganic bodies is + one of a totally different nature from that exhibited in + organic forms. The diamond shines for a time in the dark after + it has been exposed to the sun; so do pieces of quartz when + rubbed together, and powdered fluor-spar when heated shines + with considerable brilliancy. Various artificial compounds, + such as sulphide of calcium (Canton's phosphorus, as it is + called from the discoverer), sulphate of barium (Bologna stone, + or Bologna phosphorus), sulphide of strontium, etc., after + being illuminated by the rays of the sun, give out in the dark + a beautiful phosphorescence, green, blue, violet, orange, red, + according to circumstances. The luminous paint which has + recently attracted so much attention is of the same nature. In + these cases what we have is either a conversion of heat rays + into light rays (as in the powdered fluor-spar), or the + absorption and giving out again of sun-rays. In the latter case + the phenomenon is essentially the same as fluorescence, in + which the dark rays of the solar spectrum beyond the violet are + made visible.</p> + + <p>But we must now return to the other questions that have been + started in relation to phosphorescence in animals. There has + been much speculation as to the object of this light, and to + the purposes it serves in Nature. Probably no general answer + can be given to this question. It is no doubt impossible to + show why so many <span class="pagenum"><a id="page248"></a>[pg 248]</span> animals have been endowed + with this remarkable property; but we may consider some of + the effects which the possession of it has in different + cases.</p> + + <p>In the first place, it will undoubtedly serve in many cases + to afford light to enable the animal to see by, and in the + Lampyridæ it would seem that the degree of luminosity is + related to the development of the vision. In that family, + according to the Rev. H.S. Gorham, the eyes are developed, as a + rule, in inverse proportion to the luminosity. Where there is + an ample supply of this kind of light the eyes are small, but + where the light is insignificant the eyes are large by way of + compensation. And moreover, where both eyes and light are + small, then the antennae are large and feathery, so that the + deficiency in the sense of sight is made up for by an unusual + development in the organs of touch.</p> + + <p>But it is none the less certain that the presence of this + light cannot always be designed to serve this purpose, for many + of the animals so endowed are blind. The phosphorescent + centipedes are without eyes, like all the other members of the + genus (<i>Geophilus</i>) to which they belong, and probably the + majority of phosphorescent marine forms are likewise destitute + of organs of sight.</p> + + <p>Another suggestion is that the light derived from these + marine forms, and especially from deep-sea Alcyonarians, is + what enables the members of the deep-sea fauna that are + possessed of eyes (which are always enormously enlarged) to + see. Such is the suggestion of Dr. Carpenter, Sir Wyville + Thomson, and Mr. Gwyn Jeffries; and it is possible that this + actually is one of the effects of the phosphorescent property. + But if so, it <span class="pagenum"><a id="page249"></a>[pg 249]</span> remains to inquire how the + forms endowed with it came to be possessed of a power useful + in that way to other forms, but not to themselves. According + to the Darwinian doctrine of development, the powers that + are developed in different organisms by the process of + natural selection are such as are useful to themselves and + not to others, unless incidentally.</p> + + <p>This consideration has led to another suggestion, namely, + that the property of phosphorescence serves as a protection to + the forms possessing it, driving away enemies in one way or + another: it may be by warning them of the fact that they are + unpalatable food, as is believed to be the case with the colors + of certain brilliantly-colored caterpillars; it may be in other + ways. In Kirby and Spence one case is recorded in which the + phosphorescence of the common phosphorescent centipede + (<i>Geophilus electricus</i>) was actually seen apparently to + serve as a means of defence against an enemy. "Mr. Shepherd," + says that authority, "once noticed a scarabeus running round + the last-mentioned insect when shining, as if wishing, but + afraid to attack it." In the case of the jelly-fishes, it has + been pointed out that their well-known urticating or stinging + powers would make them at least unpleasant, if not dangerous, + food for fishes; and that consequently the luminosity by which + so many of them are characterized at night may serve at once as + a warning to predatory fishes and as a protection to + themselves. The experience of the unpleasant properties of many + phosphorescent animals may likewise have taught fishes to avoid + all forms possessing this attribute, even though many of them + might be quite harmless.</p><span class="pagenum"><a name= + "page250" + id="page250"></a>[pg 250]</span> + + <p>Lastly, it has been suggested that the phosphorescence in + the female glow-worm may be designed to attract the male; and + that it will actually have this effect may readily be taken for + granted. Observation shows that the male glow-worm is very apt + to be attracted by a light. Gilbert White of Selborne mentions + that they, attracted by the light of the candles, came into his + parlor. Another observer states that by the same light he + captured as many as forty male glow-worms in one night.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" + style="width:500px;"> + <a href="images/250.png"><img width="500" + src="images/250.png" + alt="glow-worms by candlelight"></a> + </div> + + <p> </p> + + <p> </p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page251"></a>[pg 251]</span> + + <h2>COMETS</h2> + + <h4>(<span class="sc">From Marvels of the Heavens</span>.)</h4> + + <h3><span class="sc">By</span> CAMILLE FLAMMARION.</h3> + <hr class="short"> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>"Je viens vous annoncer une grande nouvelle:</p> + + <p>Nous l'avons, en dormant, madame, échappé belle.</p> + + <p>Un monde près de nous a passé tout du long,</p> + + <p>Est chu tout au travers de notre tourbillon;</p> + + <p>Et s'il eût en chemin rencontré notre terre,</p> + + <p>Elle eût été brisée en morceaux comme verre."</p> + + <p class="i30"><span class="sc">Molière</span>.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="figleft" + style="width:225px;"> + <a href="images/251.png"><img width="225" + src="images/251.png" + alt="comet"></a> + </div> + + <p>This announcement of Trissontin's to Philaminte, who begins + the parody on the fears caused by the appearance of comets, + would not have been a parody four or five centuries ago. These + tailed bodies, which suddenly come to light up the heavens, + were for long regarded with terror, like so many warning signs + of divine wrath. Men have always thought themselves much more + important than they really are in the universal order; they + have had the vanity to pretend that the whole creation was made + for them, whilst in reality the whole creation does not suspect + their existence. The Earth we inhabit is only one of the + smallest <span class="pagenum"><a id="page252"></a>[pg 252]</span> worlds; and therefore it + can scarcely be for it alone that all the wonders of the + heavens, of which the immense majority remains hidden from + it, were created. In this disposition of man to see in + himself the centre and the end of everything, it was easy + indeed to consider the steps of nature as unfolded in his + favor; and if some unusual phenomenon presented itself, it + was considered to be without doubt a warning from Heaven. If + these illusions had had no other result than the + amelioration of the more timorous of the community one would + regret these ages of ignorance; but not only were these + fancied warnings of no use, seeing that once the danger + passed, man returned to his former state; but they also kept + up among people imaginary terrors, and revived the fatal + resolutions caused by the fear of the end of the world.</p> + + <p>When one fancies the world is about to end,—and this + has been believed for more than a thousand years,—no + solicitude is felt in the work of improving this world; and, by + the indifference or disdain into which one falls, periods of + famine and general misery are induced which at certain times + have overtaken our community. Why use the wealth of a world + which is going to perish? Why work, be instructed, or rise in + the progress of the sciences or arts? Much better to forget the + world, and absorb one's self in the barren contemplation of an + unknown life. It is thus that ages of ignorance weigh on man, + and thrust him further and further into darkness, while Science + makes known by its influence on the whole community, its great + value, and the magnitude of its aim.</p> + + <p>The history of a comet would be an instructive + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page253"></a>[pg 253]</span> episode of the great + history of the heavens. In it could be brought together the + description of the progressive movement of human thought, as + well as the astronomical theory of these extraordinary + bodies. Let us take, for example, one of the most memorable + and best-known comets, and give an outline of its successive + passages near the Earth. Like the planetary worlds, Comets + belong to the solar system, and are subject to the rule of + the Star King. It is the universal law of gravitation which + guides their path; solar attraction governs them, as it + governs the movement of the planets and the small + satellites. The chief point of difference between them and + the planets is, that their orbits are very elongated; and, + instead of being nearly circular, they take the elliptical + form. In consequence of the nature of these orbits, the same + comet may approach very near the Sun, and afterwards travel + from it to immense distances. Thus, the period of the Comet + of 1680 has been estimated at three thousand years. It + approaches the Sun, so as to be nearer to it than our Moon + is to us, whilst it recedes to a distance 853 times greater + than the distance of the Earth from the Sun. On the 17th of + December, 1680, it was at its perihelion—that is, at + its greatest proximity to the Sun; it is now continuing its + path beyond the Neptunian orbit. Its velocity varies + according to its distance from the solar body. At its + perihelion it travels thousands of leagues per minute; at + its aphelion it does not pass over more than a few yards. + Its proximity to the Sun in its passage near that body + caused Newton to think that it received a heat twenty-eight + thousand times greater than that we experience at the summer + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page254"></a>[pg 254]</span> solstice; and that this + heat being two thousand times greater than that of red-hot + iron, an iron globe of the same dimensions would be fifty + thousand years entirely losing its heat. Newton added that + in the end comets will approach so near the Sun that they + will not be able to escape the preponderance of its + attraction, and that they will fall one after the other into + this brilliant body, thus keeping up the heat which it + perpetually pours out into space. Such is the deplorable end + assigned to comets by the author of the "Principia," an end + which makes De la Brétonne say to Rétif: "An immense comet, + already larger than Jupiter, was again increased in its path + by being blended with six other dying comets. Thus displaced + from its ordinary route by these slight shocks, it did not + pursue its true elliptical orbit; so that the unfortunate + thing was precipitated into the devouring centre of the + Sun." "It is said," added he, "that the poor comet, thus + burned alive, sent forth dreadful cries!"</p> + + <div class="figcenter" + style="width:300px;"> + <a href="images/281.jpg"><img width="300" + src="images/281sm.jpg" + alt="A COMET"></a><br> + A COMET + </div> + + <p>It will be interesting, then, in a double point of view, to + follow a comet in its different passages in sight of the Earth. + Let us take the most important in astronomical + history—the one whose orbit has been calculated by Edmund + Halley, and which was named after him. It was in 1682 that this + comet appeared in its greatest brilliancy, accompanied with a + tail which did not measure less than thirty-two millions of + miles. By the observation of the path which it described in the + heavens, and the time it occupied in describing it, this + astronomer calculated its orbit, and recognized that the comet + was the same as that which was admired in 1531 and 1607, and + which ought to have reappeared in <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page255"></a>[pg 255]</span> 1759. Never did scientific + prediction excite a more lively interest. The comet returned + at the appointed time; and on the 12th of March, 1759, + reached its perihelion. Since the year 12 before the + Christian era, it had presented itself twenty-four times to + the Earth. It was principally from the astronomical annals + of China that it was possible to follow it up to this + period.</p> + + <p>Its first memorable appearance in the history of France is + that of 837, in the reign of Louis le Débonnaire. An anonymous + writer of chronicles of that time, named "The Astronomer," gave + the following details of this appearance, relative to the + influence of the comet on the imperial imagination:</p> + + <p>"During the holy days of the solemnization of Easter, a + phenomenon ever fatal, and of gloomy foreboding, appeared in + the heavens. As soon as the Emperor, who paid attention to + these phenomena, received the first announcement of it, he gave + himself no rest until he had called a certain learned man and + myself before him. As soon as I arrived, he anxiously asked me + what I thought of such a sign; I asked time of him, in order to + consider the aspects of the stars, and to discover the truth by + their means, promising to acquaint him on the morrow; but the + Emperor, persuaded that I wished to gain time, which was true, + in order not to be obliged to announce anything fatal to him, + said to me: 'Go on the terrace of the palace and return at once + to tell me what you have seen, for I did not see this star last + evening, and you did not point it out to me; but I know that it + is a comet; tell me what you think it announces to me.' Then + scarcely <span class="pagenum"><a id="page256"></a>[pg 256]</span> allowing me time to say a + word, he added: 'There is still another thing you keep back; + it is that a change of reign and the death of a prince are + announced by this sign.' And as I advanced the testimony of + the prophet, who said: 'Fear not the signs of the heavens as + the nations fear them,' the prince with his grand nature, + and the wisdom which never forsook him, said, 'We must not + only fear Him who has created both us and this star. But as + this phenomenon may refer to us, let us acknowledge it as a + warning from Heaven."</p> + + <p>Louis le Débonnaire gave himself and his court to fasting + and prayer, and built churches and monasteries. He died three + years later, in 840, and historians have profited by this + slight coincidence to prove that the appearance of the comet + was a harbinger of death. The historian, Raoul Glader, added + later: "These phenomena of the universe are never presented to + man without surely announcing some wonderful and terrible + event."</p> + + <p>Halley's comet again appeared in April, 1066, at the moment + when William the Conqueror invaded England. It was pretended + that it had the greatest influence on the fate of the battle of + Hastings, which delivered over the country to the Normans.</p> + + <p>A contemporary poet, alluding probably to the English diadem + with which William was crowned, had proclaimed in one place, + "that the comet had been more favorable to William than nature + had been to Caesar; the latter had no hair, but William had + received some from the comet." A monk of Malmesbury + apostrophized the comet in these terms: "Here thou art again, + thou cause of the tears of many <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page257"></a>[pg 257]</span> mothers! It is long since I + have seen thee, but I see thee now, more terrible than ever; + thou threatenest my country with complete ruin!"</p> + + <p>In 1455, the same comet made a more memorable appearance + still. The Turks and Christians were at war, the West and the + East seemed armed from head to foot—on the point of + annihilating each other. The crusade undertaken by Pope + Calixtus III. against the invading Saracens, was waged with + redoubled ardor on the sudden appearance of the star with the + flaming tail. Mahomet II. took Constantinople by storm, and + raised the siege of Belgrade. But the Pope having put aside + both the curse of the comet, and the abominable designs of the + Mussulmans, the Christians gained the battle, and vanquished + their enemies in a bloody fight. The <i>Angelus</i> to the + sound of bells dates from these ordinances of Calixtus III. + referring to the comet.</p> + + <p>In his poem on astronomy, Daru, of the French Academy, + describes this episode in eloquent terms:</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i2">"Un autre Mahomet a-t-il d'un bras + puissant</p> + + <p class="i2">Aux murs de Constantine arboré le + croissant:</p> + + <p class="i2">Le Danube étonné se trouble au bruit des + armes,</p> + + <p class="i2">La Grèce est dans les fers, l'Europe est + en alarmes;</p> + + <p class="i2">Et pour comble d'horreur, l'astre au + visage ardent</p> + + <p class="i2">De ses ailes de feu va couvrir + l'Occident.</p> + + <p class="i2">Au pied de ses autels, qu'il ne saurait + défendre,</p> + + <p class="i2">Calixte, l'oeil en pleurs, le front + convert de cendre,</p> + + <p class="i2">Conjure la comète, objet de tant + d'effroi:</p> + + <p class="i2">Regarde vers les cieux, pontife, et + lève-toi!</p> + + <p class="i2">L'astre poursuit sa course, et le fer + d'Huniade</p> + + <p class="i2">Arrête le vainqueur, qui tombe sous + Belgrade.</p> + + <p class="i2">Dans les cieux cependant le globe + suspendu,</p> + + <p class="i2">Par la loi générale à jamais + retenu,</p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page258"></a>[pg 258]</span> + + <p class="i2">Ignore les terreurs, l'existence de + Rome,</p> + + <p class="i2">Et la Terre peut-être, et jusqu'au nom de + l'homme,</p> + + <p class="i2">De l'homme, être crédule, atome + ambitieux,</p> + + <p class="i2">Qui tremble sous un prêtre et qui lit + dans les cieux."</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>This ancient comet witnessed many revolutions in human + history, at each of its appearances, even in its later ones, in + 1682, 1759, 1835; it was also presented to the Earth under the + most diverse aspects, passing through a great variety of forms, + from the appearance of a curved sabre, as in 1456, to that of a + misty head, as in its last visit. Moreover, this is not an + exception to the general rule, for these mysterious stars have + had the gift of exercising a power on the imagination which + plunged it in ecstasy or trouble. Swords of fire, bloody + crosses, flaming daggers, spears, dragons, fish, and other + appearances of the same kind, were given to them in the middle + ages and the Renaissance.</p> + + <p>Comets like those of 1577 appear, moreover, to justify by + their strange form the titles with which they are generally + greeted. The most serious writers were not free from this + terror. Thus, in a chapter on celestial monsters, the + celebrated surgeon, Ambroise Paré, described the comet of 1528 + under the most vivid and frightful colors: "This comet was so + horrible and dreadful that it engendered such great terror to + the people, that they died, some with fear, others with + illness. It appeared to be of immense length, and of blood + color; at its head was seen the figure of a curved arm, holding + a large sword in the hand as if it wished to strike. At the + point of the sword there were three stars, and on either side + was seen a great number of hatchets, knives, and swords covered + with blood, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page259"></a>[pg 259]</span> amongst which were numerous + hideous human faces, with bristling beards and hair."</p> + + <p>The imagination has good eyes when it exerts itself. The + great and strange variety of cometary aspects is described with + exactitude by Father Souciet in his Latin poem on comets. "Most + of them," says he, "shine with fires interlaced like thick + hair, and from this they have taken the name of comets. One + draws after it the twisted folds of a long tail; another + appears to have a white and bushy beard; this one throws a + glimmer similar to that of a lamp burning during the night; + that one, O Titan! represents thy resplendent face; and this + other, O Phoebe! the form of thy nascent horns. There are some + which bristle with twisted serpents. Shall I speak of those + armies which have sometimes appeared in the air? of those + clouds which follow as it were along a circle, or which + resemble the head of Medusa? Have there not often been seen + figures of men or savage animals?</p> + + <p>"Often, in the gloom of night, lighted up by these sad + fires, the horrible sound of arms is heard, the clashing of + swords which meet in the clouds, the ether furiously resounding + with fearful din which crush the people with terror. All comets + have a melancholy light, but they have not all the same color. + Some have a leaden color; others that of flame or brass. The + fires of some have the redness of blood; others resemble the + brightness of silver. Some again are azure; others have the + dark and pale color of iron. These differences come from the + diversity of the vapors which surround them, or from the + different manner in which they receive the Sun's rays. Do you + not see in our fires, that various <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page260"></a>[pg 260]</span> kinds of wood produce + different colors? Pines and firs give a flame mixed with + thick smoke, and throw out little light. That which rises + from sulphur and thick bitumen is bluish. Lighted straw + gives out sparks of a reddish color. The large olive, + laurel, ash of Parnassus, etc., trees which always retain + their sap, throw a whitish light similar to that of a lamp. + Thus, comets whose fires are formed of different materials, + each take and preserve a color which is peculiar to + them."</p> + + <p>Instead of being a cause of fear and terror, the variety and + variability of the aspect of comets ought rather to indicate to + us the harmlessness of their nature.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" + style="width:500px;"> + <a href="images/260.png"><img width="500" + src="images/260.png" + alt="a comet"></a> + </div> + + <p> </p> + + <p> </p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page261"></a>[pg 261]</span> + + <h2>THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE OF 1883</h2> + + <h3><i>AN ASTRONOMERS VOYAGE TO FAIRY-LAND.</i></h3> + + <h4>(<span class="sc">From The Atlantic Monthly, May, + 1890.</span>)</h4> + + <h3><span class="sc">By</span> PROF. E.S. HOLDEN.</h3> + <hr class="short"> + + <div class="figleft" + style="width:200px;"> + <a href="images/261.png"><img width="200" + src="images/261.png" + alt="Solar Eclipse"></a> + </div> + + <p>In 1883 calculations showed that a solar eclipse of + unusually long duration (5 minutes, 20 seconds) would occur in + the South Pacific Ocean. The track of the eclipse lay south of + the equator, but north of Tahiti. There were in fact only two + dots of coral islands on the charts in the line of totality, + Caroline Island, and one hundred and fifty miles west Flint + Island (longitude 150 west, latitude 10 south). Almost nothing + was known of either of these minute points. The station of the + party under my charge (sent out by the United States government + under the direction of the National Academy of Sciences) was to + be Caroline Islands.</p> + + <p>Every inch of that island (seven miles long, a mile or so + broad) is familiar now; but it is almost ludicrous to recollect + with what anxiety we pored over the hydrographic charts and + sailing instructions of the various <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page262"></a>[pg 262]</span> nations, to find some + information, however scanty, about the spot which was to be + our home for nearly a month. All that was known was that + this island had formerly been occupied as a guano station. + There was a landing <i>then</i>.</p> + + <p>After the <i>personnel</i> of the party had been decided on, + there were the preparations for its subsistence to be looked + out for. How to feed seventeen men for twenty-one days? + Fortunately the provisions that we took, and the fresh fish + caught for us by the natives, just sufficed to carry us through + with comfort and with health.</p> + + <p>In March of 1883 we sailed from New York, and about the same + time a French expedition left Europe bound for the same spot. + From New York to Panama, from Panama to Lima, were our first + steps. Here we joined the United States steamship Hartford, + Admiral Farragut's flagship, and the next day set sail for our + destined port,—if a coral reef surrounded by a raging + surf can be called a port. About the same time a party of + French observers under Monsieur Janssen, of the Paris Academy + of Sciences, left Panama in the <i>Eclaireur</i>.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" + style="width:500px;"> + <a href="images/262.png"><img width="500" + src="images/262.png" + alt= + "BIRD'S EYE VIEW OF THE CAROLINE ISLANDS."></a><br> + BIRD'S EYE VIEW OF THE CAROLINE ISLANDS. + </div> + + <p>It was an ocean race of four thousand miles due + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page263"></a>[pg 263]</span> west. The station Caroline + Islands was supposed to be more desirable than Flint Island. + Admiral Wilkes's expedition had lain off the latter several + days without being able to land on account of the tremendous + surf, so that it was eminently desirable to "beat the + Frenchman," as the sailors put it. With this end in view our + party had secured (through a member of the National Academy + in Washington) the verbal promise of the proper official of + the Navy Department that the Hartford's orders should read + "to burn coal as necessary." The last obstacle to success + was thus removed. We were all prepared, and now the ship + would take us speedily to our station.</p> + + <p>Imagine our feelings the next day after leaving Callao, when + the commanding officer of the Hartford opened his sealed + orders. They read (dated Washington, in February), "To arrive + at Caroline Islands (in April) with full coal-bunkers!"</p> + + <p>Officialism could go no further. Here was an expedition sent + on a slow-sailing ship directly through the regions of calms + for four thousand miles. It was of no possible use to send the + expedition at all unless it arrived in time. And here were our + orders "to arrive with full coal-bunkers."</p> + + <p>Fortunately we had unheard-of good-luck. The trade-wind blew + for us as it did for the Ancient Mariner, and we sped along the + parallel of 12° south at the rate of one hundred and fifty + miles a day under sail, while the <i>Eclaireur</i> was steaming + for thirty days a little nearer the equator in a dead calm. We + arrived off the island just in time, with not a day to spare. + It was a narrow escape, and a warning to all of us never to + sail again <span class="pagenum"><a id="page264"></a>[pg 264]</span> under sealed orders unless + we knew what was under the seal.</p> + + <p>Here we were, then, lying off the island and scanning its + sparse crown of cocoanut palms, looking for a French flag among + their wavy tufts. There was none in sight. We were the winners + in the long race. Directly a whale-boat was lowered, and rowed + around the white fringe of tremendous surf that broke + ceaselessly against the vertical wall of coral rock. There was + just one narrow place where the waves rolled into a sort of + cleft and did not break. Here was the "landing," then.</p> + + <p>Landing was an acrobatic feat. In you went on the crest of a + wave, pointing for the place where the blue seas did not break + into white. An instant after, you were in the quiet water + inside of the surf. Jump out everybody and hold the boat! Then + it was pick up the various instruments, and carry them for a + quarter of a mile to high-water mark and beyond, over the sharp + points of the reef.</p> + + <p>In one night we were fairly settled; in another the Hartford + had sailed away, leaving us in our fairy paradise, where the + corals and the fish were of all the brilliant hues of the + rainbow, and where the whiteness of the sand, the emerald of + the lagoon, and the turquoise of the ocean made a picture of + color and form never to be forgotten.</p> + + <p>But where are the Frenchmen? The next morning there is the + <i>Eclaireur</i> lying a mile or so out, and there is a boat + with the bo'sun—<i>maître d'équipage</i>—pulling + towards the surf. I wade out to the brink. He + halloes:</p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page265"></a>[pg 265]</span> + + <p>"Where is the landing, then?"</p> + + <p>"<i>Mais ici</i>"—Right here,—I say.</p> + + <p>"Yes, that's all very well for <i>persons</i>, but where do + you land <i>les bagages</i>?"</p> + + <p>"<i>Mais ici</i>" I say again, and he says, + "<i>Diable!</i>"</p> + + <p>But all the same he lands both persons and baggage in a + neat, sailor-like way. In a couple of days our two parties of + fifty persons had taken possession of this fairy isle. + Observatories go up, telescopes, spectroscopes, photographic + cameras are pointed and adjusted. The eventful day arrives. + Everything is successful. Then comes the Hartford and takes us + away, and a few days later comes the <i>Eclaireur</i>, and the + Frenchmen are gone. The little island is left there, abandoned + to the five natives who tend the sickly plantation of + cocoa-palms, and live from year to year with no incident but + the annual visit of "the blig" (Kanaka for brig), which brings + their store of ship biscuit and molasses.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" + style="width:600px;"> + <a href="images/265.png"><img width="600" + src="images/265.png" + alt="'OBSERVATORIES GO UP.'"></a><br> + "OBSERVATORIES GO UP." + </div> + + <p>Think of their stupendous experience! For years and years + they have lived like that in the marvellous, continuous charm + of the silent island. The "blig" <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page266"></a>[pg 266]</span> had come and gone away this + year, and there will be no more disturbance and discord for + a twelve-month longer.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>"Surely, surely, slumber is more sweet than toil, + the shore</p> + + <p>Than labor in the deep mid-ocean, wind, and wave, + and oar,</p> + + <p>Then rest ye, brother mariners, we will not wander + more!"</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>Not so! for here comes a great warship out of the East under + a press of canvas. What event is this? See! she clews up her + light sails and fires an eleven-inch gun! One of those guns of + Mobile Bay. Then swarms out the starboard watch, one hundred + and sixty strong, and a fleet of boats brings ashore these pale + astronomers with those useless tubes that they point at the sky + every night. But there are useful things too; cooking-stoves, + and lumber, and bricks.</p> + + <p>What is all this? No sooner are these established than comes + another ship and fires its gun! and another set of hardy + sailormen pours out, and here is another party of madmen with + tubes,—yes, and with cooking-stoves and lumber, too. Then + comes the crowning, stupendous, and unspeakable event. The + whole sun is hidden and the heavens are lighted up with pearly + streamers! In the name of all the Polynesian gods, what is the + meaning of all this?</p> + + <p>And then in a few days all these are gone. All the madmen. + They have taken away the useless tubes, but they have left + their houses standing. Their splendid, priceless, precious + cook-stoves are here. See! here is a frying-pan! here are empty + tin cans! and a keg of nails! They must have forgotten all + this, madmen as they are!</p><span class="pagenum"><a name= + "page267" + id="page267"></a>[pg 267]</span> + + <p>And the little island sinks back to its quiet and its calm. + The lagoon lies placid like a mirror. The slow sea breaks + eternally on the outer reef. The white clouds sail over day by + day. The seabirds come back to their haunts,—the fierce + man-of-war birds, the gentle, soft-eyed tern. But we, whose + island home was thus invaded—are we the same? Was this a + dream? Will it happen again next year? every year? What indeed + was it that happened,—or in fact, did it happen at all? + Is it not a dream, indeed?</p> + + <p>If we left those peaceful Kanakas to their dream, we + Americans have brought ours away with us. Who will forget it? + Which of us does not wish to be in that peaceful fairyland once + more? That is the personal longing. But we have all come back, + each one with his note-books full; and in a few weeks the + stimulus of accustomed habit has taken possession of us again. + Right and wrong are again determined by "municipal sanctions." + We have become useful citizens once more. Perhaps it is just as + well. We should have been poor poets, and we do not forget. So + ends the astronomer's voyage to fairyland.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" + style="width:400px;"> + <a href="images/267.png"><img width="400" + src="images/267.png" + alt="Peaceful Island"></a> + </div> + + <p> </p> + + <p> </p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page268"></a>[pg 268]</span> + + <h2>HALOS—PARHELIA—THE SPECTRE OF THE BROCKEN, + ETC</h2> + + <h4>(<span class="sc">From The Atmosphere.</span>)</h4> + + <h3><span class="sc">By</span> CAMILLE FLAMMARION.</h3> + <hr class="short"> + + <div class="figleft" + style="width:231px;"> + <a href="images/268.png"><img width="231" + src="images/268.png" + alt="Rainbow"></a> + </div> + + <p>Treatises on meteorology have not, up to the present day, + classified with sufficient regularity the divers optical + phenomena of the air. Some of these phenomena have, however, + been seen but rarely, and have not been sufficiently studied to + admit of their classification. We have examined the common + phenomenon of the rainbow and we have seen that it is due to + the refraction and reflection of light on drops of water, and + that it is seen upon the opposite side of the sky to the sun in + day-time, or the moon at night. We are now about to consider an + order of phenomena which are of rarer occurrence, but which + have this property in common with the rainbow, viz., that they + take place also upon the side of the sky opposite to the sun. + These different optical effects are <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page269"></a>[pg 269]</span> classed together under the + name of <i>anthelia</i> (from Greek, opposite to, and Greek, + the sun). The optical phenomena which occur on the same side + as, or around the sun, such as halos, parhelia, etc., will + be dealt with later on.</p> + + <p>Before coming to the anthelia, properly so called, or to the + colored rings which appear around a shadow, it is as well first + to note the effects produced on the clouds and mists that are + facing the sun when it rises or sets.</p> + + <p>Upon high mountains, the shadow of the mountain is often + seen thrown either upon the surface of the lower mists or upon + the neighboring mountains, and projected opposite to the sun + almost horizontally. I once saw the shadow of the Righi very + distinctly traced upon Mount Pilate, which is situated to the + west of the Righi, on the other side of the Lake of Lucerne. + This phenomenon occurs a few minutes after sunrise, and the + triangular form of Righi is delineated in a shape very easy to + recognize.</p> + + <p>The shadow of Mont Blanc is discerned more easily at sunset. + MM. Bravais and Martins, in one of their scientific ascents, + noticed it under specially favorable circumstances, the shadow + being thrown upon the snow-covered mountains, and gradually + rising in the atmosphere until it reached a height of 1°, still + remaining quite visible. The air above the cone of the shadow + was tinted with that rosy purple which is seen, in a fine + sunset, coloring the lofty peaks. "Imagine," says Bravais, "the + other mountains also projecting, at the same moment, their + shadows into the atmosphere, the lower parts dark and slightly + greenish, and above each of these shadows the rosy surface, + with the deeper rose <span class="pagenum"><a id="page270"></a>[pg 270]</span> of the belt which separates + it from them; add to this the regular contour of the cones + of the shadow, principally at the upper edge, and lastly, + the laws of perspective causing all these lines to converge + the one to the other toward the very summit of the shadow of + Mont Blanc; that is to say, to the point of the sky where + the shadows of our own selves were; and even then one will + have but a faint idea of the richness of the meteorological + phenomenon displayed before our eyes for a few instants. It + seemed as though an invisible being was seated upon a throne + surrounded by fire, and that angels with glittering wings + were kneeling before him in adoration."</p> + + <p>Among the natural phenomena which now attract our attention, + but fail to excite our surprise, there are some which possess + the characteristics of a supernatural intervention. The names + which they have received still bear witness to the terror which + they once inspired; and even to-day, when science has stripped + them of their marvellous origin, and explained the causes of + their production, these phenomena have retained a part of their + primitive importance, and are welcomed by the <i>savant</i> + with as much interest as when they were attributed to divine + agency. Out of a large and very diverse number, I will first + select the <i>Spectre of the Brocken</i>.</p> + + <p>The Brocken is the highest mountain in the picturesque Hartz + chain, running through Hanover, being three hundred and thirty + feet above the level of the sea.</p> + + <p>One of the best descriptions of this phenomenon is given by + the traveller Hane, who witnessed it on the 23d of May, 1797. + After having ascended no less than <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page271"></a>[pg 271]</span> thirty miles to the summit, + he had the good fortune at last to contemplate the object of + his curiosity. The sun rose at about four o'clock, the + weather being fine, and the wind driving off to the west the + transparent vapors which had not yet had time to be + condensed into clouds. About a quarter-past four, Hane saw + in this direction a human figure of enormous dimensions. A + gust of wind nearly blowing off his hat at that moment, he + raised his hand to secure it, and the colossal figure + imitated his action. Hane, noticing this, at once made a + stooping movement, and this was also reproduced by the + spectre. He then called another person to him, and placing + themselves in the very spot where the apparition was first + seen, the pair kept their eyes fixed on the Achtermannshohe, + but saw nothing. After a short interval, however, two + colossal figures appeared, which repeated the gestures made + by them, and then disappeared.</p> + + <p>Some few years ago, in the summer of 1862, a French artist, + M. Stroobant, witnessed and carefully sketched this phenomenon, + which is drawn in full-page illustration, opposite p. 272. He + had slept at the inn of the Brocken, and rising at two in the + morning, he repaired to the plateau upon the summit in the + company of a guide. They reached the highest point just as the + first glimmer of the rising sun enabled them to distinguish + clearly objects at a great distance. To use M. Stroobant's own + words, "My guide, who had for some time appeared to be walking + in search of something, suddenly led me to an elevation whence + I had the singular privilege of contemplating for a few + instants the magnificent effect of mirage, which is termed the + Spectre <span class="pagenum"><a id="page272"></a>[pg 272]</span> of the Brocken. The + appearance is most striking. A thick mist, which seemed to + emerge from the clouds like an immense curtain, suddenly + rose to the west of the mountain, a rainbow was formed, then + certain indistinct shapes were delineated. First, the large + tower of the inn was reproduced upon a gigantic scale; after + that we saw our two selves in a more vague and less exact + shape, and these shadows were in each instance surrounded by + the colors of the rainbow, which served as a frame to this + fairy picture. Some tourists who were staying at the inn had + seen the sun rise from their windows, but no one had + witnessed the magnificent spectacle which had taken place on + the other side of the mountain."</p> + + <p>Sometimes these spectres are surrounded by colored + concentric arcs. Since the beginning of the present century, + treatises on meteorology designate, under the name of the + <i>Ulloa circle</i>, the pale external arch which surrounds the + phenomenon, and this same circle has sometimes been called the + "white rainbow." But it is not formed at the same angular + distance as the rainbow, and, although pale, it often envelops + a series of interior colored arcs.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" + style="width:300px;"> + <a href="images/303.jpg"><img width="300" + src="images/303sm.jpg" + alt="'THE SPECTRE OF THE BROCKEN'"></a><br> + "THE SPECTRE OF THE BROCKEN" + </div> + + <p>Ulloa, being in company with six fellow-travellers upon the + Pambamarca at daybreak one morning, observed that the summit of + the mountain was entirely covered with thick clouds, and that + the sun, when it rose, dissipated them, leaving only in their + stead light vapors, which it was almost impossible to + distinguish. Suddenly, in the opposite direction to where the + sun was rising, "each of the travellers beheld, at about + seventy feet from where he was standing, his own + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page273"></a>[pg 273]</span> image reflected in the air + as in a mirror. The image was in the centre of three + rainbows of different colors, and surrounded at a certain + distance by a fourth bow with only one color. The inside + color of each bow was carnation or red, the next shade was + violet, the third yellow, the fourth straw color, the last + green. All these bows were perpendicular to the horizon; + they moved in the direction of, and followed, the image of + the person they enveloped as with a glory." The most + remarkable point was that, although the seven spectators + were standing in a group, each person only saw the + phenomenon in regard to his own person, and was disposed to + disbelieve that it was repeated in respect to his + companions. The extent of the bows increased continually and + in proportion to the height of the sun; at the same time + their colors faded away, the spectre <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page274"></a>[pg 274]</span> became paler and more + indistinct, and finally the phenomenon disappeared + altogether. At the first appearance the shape of the bows + was oval, but toward the end they became quite circular. The + same apparition was observed in the polar regions by + Scoresby, and described by him. He states that the + phenomenon appears whenever there is mist and at the same + time shining sun. In the polar seas, whenever a rather thick + mist rises over the ocean, an observer, placed on the mast, + sees one or several circles upon the mist.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" + style="width:600px;"> + <a href="images/273.png"><img width="600" + src="images/273.png" + alt="THE ULLOA CIRCLE."></a><br> + THE ULLOA CIRCLE. + </div> + + <p>These circles are concentric, and their common centre is in + the straight line joining the eye of the observer to the sun, + and extended from the sun toward the mist. The number of + circles varies from one to five; they are particularly numerous + and well colored when the sun is very brilliant and the mist + thick and low. On July 23, 1821, Scoresby saw four concentric + circles around his head. The colors of the first and of the + second were very well defined; those of the third, only visible + at intervals, were very faint, and the fourth only showed a + slight greenish tint.</p> + + <p>The meteorologist Kaemtz has often observed the same fact in + the Alps. Whenever this shadow was projected upon a cloud, his + head appeared surrounded by a luminous aureola.</p> + + <p>To what action of light is this phenomenon due? Bouguer is + of opinion that it must be attributed to the passage of light + through icy particles. Such, also, is the opinion of De + Saussure, Scoresby, and other meteorologists.</p> + + <p>In regard to the mountains, as we cannot assure ourselves + directly of the fact by entering the clouds, we + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page275"></a>[pg 275]</span> are reduced to conjecture. + The aerostat traversing the clouds completely, and passing + by the very point where the apparition is seen, affords one + an opportunity of ascertaining the state of the cloud. This + observation I have been able to make, and so to offer an + explanation of the phenomenon.</p> + + <p>As the balloon sails on, borne forward by the wind, its + shadow travels either on the ground or on the clouds. This + shadow is, as a rule, black, like all others; but it frequently + happens that it appears alone on the surface of the ground, and + thus appears luminous. Examining this shadow by the aid of a + telescope, I have noticed that it is often composed of a dark + nucleus and a penumbra of the shape of an aureola. This + aureola, frequently very large in proportion to the diameter of + the central nucleus, eclipses it to the naked eye, so that the + whole shadow appears like a nebulous circle projected in yellow + upon the green ground of the woods and meadows. I have noticed, + too, that this luminous shadow is generally all the more + strongly marked in proportion to the greater humidity of the + surface of the ground.</p> + + <p>Seen upon the clouds, this shadow sometimes presents a + curious aspect. I have often, when the balloon emerged from the + clouds into the clear sky, suddenly perceived, at twenty or + thirty yards' distance, a second balloon distinctly delineated, + and apparently of a grayish color, against the white ground of + the clouds. This phenomenon manifests itself at the moment when + the sun re-appears. The smallest details of the car can be made + out clearly, and our gestures are strikingly reproduced by the + shadow.</p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page276"></a>[pg 276]</span> + + <div class="figcenter" + style="width:600px;"> + <a href="images/276.png"><img width="600" + src="images/276.png" + alt= + "THE SHADOW OF THE BALLOON WAS SEEN BY US."></a><br> + THE SHADOW OF THE BALLOON WAS SEEN BY US. + </div> + + <p>On April 15, 1868, at about half-past three in the + afternoon, we emerged from a stratum of clouds, when the shadow + of the balloon was seen by us, surrounded by colored concentric + circles, of which the car formed the centre. It was very + plainly visible upon a yellowish white ground. A first circle + of pale blue encompassed this ground and the car in a kind of + ring. Around this ring was a second of a deeper yellow, then a + grayish red zone, and lastly as the exterior circumference, a + fourth circle, violet in hue, and imperceptibly toning down + into the gray tint of the clouds. The slightest details were + clearly discernible—net, robes, and instruments. Every + one of our gestures was instantaneously reproduced by the + aerial spectres. The anthelion remained upon the clouds + sufficiently distinct, and for a sufficiently long time, to + permit of my taking a sketch in my journal and studying the + physical <span class="pagenum"><a id="page277"></a>[pg 277]</span> condition of the clouds + upon which it was produced. I was able to determine directly + the circumstances of its production. Indeed, as this + brilliant phenomenon occurred in the midst of the very + clouds which I was traversing, it was easy for me to + ascertain that these clouds were not formed of frozen + particles. The thermometer marked 2° above zero. The + hygrometer marked a maximum of humidity experienced, namely, + seventy-seven at three thousand seven hundred and seventy + feet, and the balloon was then at four thousand six hundred + feet, where the humidity was only seventy-three. It is + therefore certain that this is a phenomenon of the + diffraction of light simply produced by the vesicles of the + mist.</p> + + <p>The name of diffraction is given to all the modifications + which the luminous rays undergo when they come in contact with + the surface of bodies. Light, under these circumstances, is + subject to a sort of deviation, at the same time becoming + decomposed, whence result those curious appearances in the + shadows of objects which were observed for the first time by + Grimaldi and Newton.</p> + + <p>The most interesting phenomena of diffraction are those + presented by <i>gratings</i>, as are technically denominated + the systems of linear and very narrow openings situated + parallel to one another and at very small intervals. A system + of this kind may be realized by tracing with a diamond, for + instance, on a pane of glass equidistant lines very close + together. As the light would be able to pass in the interstices + between the strokes, whereas it would be stopped in the points + corresponding to those where the glass was not smooth, + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page278"></a>[pg 278]</span> there is, in reality, an + effect produced as if there were a series of openings very + near to each other. A hundred strokes, about 1/25th of an + inch in length, may thus be drawn without difficulty. The + light is then decomposed in spectra, each overlapping the + other. It is a phenomenon of this kind which is seen when we + look into the light with the eye half closed; the eyelashes + in this case, acting as a net-work or grating. These + net-works may also be produced by reflection, and it is to + this circumstance that are due the brilliant colors observed + when a pencil of luminous rays is reflected on a metallic + surface regularly striated.</p> + + <p>To the phenomena of gratings must be attributed, too, the + colors, often so brilliant, to be seen in mother-of-pearl. This + substance is of a laminated structure; so much so, that in + carving it the different folds are often cut in such a way as + to form a regular net-work upon the surface. It is, again, to a + phenomenon of this sort that are due the rainbow hues seen in + the feathers of certain birds, and sometimes in spiders' webs. + The latter, although very fine, are not simple, for they are + composed of a large number of pieces joined together by a + viscous substance, and thus constitute a kind of net-work.</p> + + <p>If the sun is near the horizon, and the shadow of the + observer falls upon the grass, upon a field of corn, or other + surface covered with dew, there is visible an aureola, the + light of which is especially bright about the head, but which + diminishes from below the middle of the body. This light is due + to the reflection of light by the moist stubble and the drops + of dew. It is brighter about the head, because the blades that + are <span class="pagenum"><a id="page279"></a>[pg 279]</span> near where the shadow of + the head falls expose to it all that part of them which is + lighted up, whereas those farther off expose not only the + part which is lighted up, but other parts which are not, and + this diminishes the brightness in proportion as their + distance from the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page280"></a>[pg 280]</span> head increases. The + phenomenon is seen whenever there is simultaneously mist and + sun. This fact is easily verified upon a mountain. As soon + as the shadow of a mountaineer is projected upon a mist, his + head gives rise to a shadow surrounded by a luminous + aureola.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" + style="width:400px;"> + <a href="images/279.jpg"><img width="400" + src="images/279.jpg" + alt="FOG-BOW SEEN FROM THE MATTERHORN."></a><br> + FOG-BOW SEEN FROM THE MATTERHORN. + </div> + + <p><i>The Illustrated London News</i> of July 8, 1871, + illustrates one of these apparitions, "The Fog-Bow, seen from + the Matterhorn," observed by E. Whymper in this celebrated + region of the Alps. The observation was taken just after the + catastrophe of July 14, 1865; and by a curious coincidence, two + immense white aerial crosses projected into the interior of the + external arc. These two crosses were no doubt formed by the + intersection of circles, the remaining parts of which were + invisible. The apparition was of a grand and solemn character, + further increased by the silence of the fathomless abyss into + which the four ill-fated tourists had just been + precipitated.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" + style="width:500px;"> + <a href="images/280.png"><img width="500" + src="images/280.png" + alt="Optical appearance"></a> + </div> + + <p>Other optical appearances of an analogous kind are + manifested under different conditions. Thus, for instance, if + any one, turning his back to the sun, looks into water, he will + perceive the shadow of his head, but always very much deformed. + At the same time he will see starting from this very shadow + what seem to be <span class="pagenum"><a id="page281"></a>[pg 281]</span> luminous bodies, which dart + their rays in all directions with inconceivable rapidity, + and to a great distance. These luminous + appearances—these aureola rays—have, in addition + to the darting movement, a rapid rotary movement around the + head.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" + style="width:400px;"> + <a href="images/281.png"><img width="400" + src="images/281.png" + alt="decorative picture"></a> + </div> + + <p> </p> + + <p> </p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page282"></a>[pg 282]</span> + + <h2>THE PLANET VENUS</h2> + + <h3><span class="sc">By</span> AGNES M. CLERKE.</h3> + <hr class="short"> + + <h2>I.</h2> + + <h3>HESPERUS AND PHOSPHOR.</h3> + + <div class="figleft" + style="width:175px;"> + <a href="images/282.png"><img width="175" + src="images/282.png" + alt="Torch carrier"></a> + </div> + + <p>The radiant planet that hangs on the skirts of dusk and + dawn</p> + + <blockquote> + <p>"like a jewel in an Ethiop's ear,"</p> + </blockquote> + + <p>has been known and sung by poets in all ages. Its supremacy + over the remainder of the starry host is recognized in the name + given it by the Arabs, those nomad watchers of the skies, for + while they term the moon "El Azhar," "the Brighter One," and + the sun and moon together "El Azharan," "the Brighter Pair," + they call Venus "Ez Zahra," the bright or shining one <i>par + excellence</i>, in which sense the same word is used to + describe a flower. This "Flower of Night" is supposed to be no + other than the white rose into which Adonis was changed by + Venus in the fable which is the basis of all early Asiatic + mythology. The morning and evening star is thus the celestial + symbol <span class="pagenum"><a id="page283"></a>[pg 283]</span> of that union between earth + and heaven in the vivifying processes of nature, typified in + the love of the goddess for a mortal.</p> + + <p>The ancient Greeks, on the other hand, not unnaturally took + the star, which they saw alternately emerging from the + effulgence of the rising and setting sun, in the east and in + the west, for two distinct bodies, and named it differently + according to the time of its appearance. The evening star they + called Hesperus, and from its place on the western horizon, + fabled an earthly hero of that name, the son of Atlas, who from + the slopes of that mountain on the verge of the known world + used to observe the stars until eventually carried off by a + mighty wind, and so translated to the skies. These divine + honors were earned by his piety, wisdom, and justice as a ruler + of men, and his name long shed a shimmering glory over those + Hesperidean regions of the earth, where the real and unreal + touched hands in the mystical twilight of the unknown.</p> + + <p>But the morning star shone with a different significance as + the herald of the day, the torchbearer who lights the way for + radiant Aurora on her triumphal progress through the skies. + Hence he was called Eosphorus, or Phosphorus, the bearer of the + dawn, translated into Latin as Lucifer, the Light-bearer. The + son of Eos, or Aurora, and the Titan Astraeus, he was of the + same parentage as the other multitude of the starry host, to + whom a similar origin was ascribed, and from whom in Greek + mythology he was evidently believed to differ only in the + superior order of his brightness. Homer, who mentions the + planet in the following passage:</p><span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page284"></a>[pg 284]</span> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>"But when the star of Lucifer appeared,</p> + + <p>The harbinger of light, whom following close,</p> + + <p>Spreads o'er the sea the saffron-robed morn."</p> + + <p class="i30">(<span class="sc">Lord Derby's</span> + "Iliad.")</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>recognizes no distinction between those celestial nomads, + the planets, "wandering stars," as the Arabs call them, which + visibly change their position relatively to the other stars, + and the latter, whose places on the sphere are apparently fixed + and immutable. In this he and his compatriots were far behind + the ancient Egyptians, who probably derived their knowledge + from still earlier speculators in Asia, for they not only + observed the movements of some at least of the planets, but + believed that Mercury and Venus revolved as satellites round + the sun, which in its turn circled round our lesser world. + Pythagoras is said to have been the first to identify Hesperus + with Phosphor, as the</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i10">"Silver planet both of eve and + morn,"</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>and by Plato the same fact is recognized. The other planets, + all of which had, according to him, been originally named in + Egypt and Syria, have each its descriptive title in his + nomenclature. Thus the innermost, "the Star of Mercury," is + called Stilbon, "the Sparkler," Mars, Pyroeis, "the Fiery One," + while Jupiter, the planet of the slowest course but one, is + designated as Phaeton, and Saturn, the tardiest of all, + Phaenon. These names were in later times abandoned in favor of + those of the divinities to whom they were respectively + dedicated, unalterably associated now with the days of the + week, over which they have been selected to + preside.</p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page285"></a>[pg 285]</span> + + <p>The Copernican theory, which once and forever "brushed the + cobwebs out of the sky," by clearing away the mists of + pre-existing error, first completely explained the varying + positions of the Shepherd's star, irradiating the first or last + watch of night, according to her alternate function as the + follower or precursor of the sun. As she travels on a path + nearer to him by more than twenty-five and a half million miles + than that of the earth, she is seen by us on each side of him + in turn after passing behind or in front of him. The points at + which her orbit expands most widely to our eyes—an effect + of course entirely due to perspective, as her distance from the + sun is not then actually increased—are called her eastern + and western elongations; that at which she passes by the sun on + the hither side her inferior, and on the farther side her + superior conjunction. At both conjunctions she is lost to our + view, since she accompanies the sun so closely as to be lost in + his beams, rising and setting at the same time, and travelling + with him in his path through the heavens during the day. When + at inferior conjunction, or between us and the sun, she turns + her dark hemisphere to us like the new moon, and would + consequently be invisible in any case, but when in the opposite + position, shows us her illuminated face, and is literally a day + star, invisible only because effaced by the solar splendor. It + is as she gradually separates from him, after leaving this + latter position, circling over that half of her orbit which + lies to the east of him, that she begins to come into view as + an evening star, following him at a greater and greater + distance, and consequently setting later, until she attains her + greatest <span class="pagenum"><a id="page286"></a>[pg 286]</span> eastern elongation, divided + from the sun about 45° of his visible circuit through the + heavens, and consequently remaining above the horizon for + some four hours after him. From this point she again appears + to draw nearer to him until she passes on his hither side in + inferior conjunction, from which she emerges on the opposite + side to the westward, and begins to shine as a morning star, + preceding him on his track, at a gradually increasing + distance, until attaining her greatest westward elongation, + and finally completing her cycle by returning to superior + conjunction once more in a period of about five hundred and + eighty-four days.</p> + + <p>Venus is thus Hesperus or Vesper, the evening star, when + following the sun as she passes from beyond him in superior + conjunction to inferior conjunction where she is nearest to the + earth. As she again leaves him behind in her course from this + point to the opposite one of superior conjunction, she appears + in her second aspect as Phosphorus or Lucifer, "the sun of + morning," and herald of the day, shining as</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i22">"The fair star</p> + + <p>That gems the glittering coronet of morn."</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p> </p> + + <h2>II.</h2> + + <h3>THE PHASES OF VENUS.</h3> + + <p>But the changes in the aspect of Venus due to her varying + positions in her orbit are not confined to those which cause + her to oscillate with a pendulum movement eastward and westward + from the sun. The discovery that she undergoes phases exactly + like those of the moon, followed that of the existence of + Jupiter's <span class="pagenum"><a id="page287"></a>[pg 287]</span> satellites as the second + great result achieved by the use of the telescope in the + hands of Galileo. The fact that the planets were + intrinsically dark bodies revolving round the sun, and + reflecting its light, as he and Copernicus had maintained, + thus received a further ocular demonstration. The Florentine + astronomer describes in a letter to a friend how the planet, + after emerging from superior conjunction as a morning star, + gradually loses her rotundity on the side remote from the + luminary, changing first to a half sphere and then to a + waning crescent; until, after passing through the stage of + absolute extinction when intervening between us and the sun, + she re-appears as a morning star, and undergoes the same + series of transformations in inverse order. The revelation + was indeed so novel and unexpected, that when the slight + deformation of the planet's shape was first detected by him, + he did not venture to announce it in plain terms but veiled + it, according to the prevailing fashion of the time, under a + Latin anagram. His celebrated sentence—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>"Haec immatura a me jam frustra leguntur."</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>("Those incomplete observations are as yet read by me in + vain.")</p> + + <p>forms, by transposing the letters, the more definite + statement,</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>"Cynthiæ figuras æmulatur Mater Amorum."</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>("The mother of the loves imitates the aspects of Diana.") + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page288"></a>[pg 288]</span> that is to say, Venus vies + with the phases of the moon. The discovery was an important + one from its bearing on popular superstition ascribing to + the planets special influences on human affairs, for since + they were thus shown to transmit to us only borrowed light, + belief in their beneficent or malefic powers over man's + destinies received a rude shock.</p> + + <div class="figright" + style="width:350px;"> + <a href="images/287.png"><img width="350" + src="images/287.png" + alt="THE PHASES OF VENUS."></a><br> + THE PHASES OF VENUS. + </div> + + <p>Galileo's announcement, published in September, 1610, when + only a slight flattening of the planet's disk was visible, + received absolute confirmation in the ensuing months, as she + completed her full half-circle of change on February 24th of + the following year, and consequently exhibited herself to him + in all her varying aspects. It was the first time they had been + looked upon by a human eye, since its unaided powers do not + enable it to discern them, although one exception to this rule + is said to have existed. This was the case of the Swiss + mathematician Gauss, who, when a child, on being shown the + crescent star through the telescope, exclaimed to his mother + that it "was turned wrong"; the inference being that he + recognized the reversal of the image in the field of the glass. + If it were indeed so, he deserves to rank with the Siberian + savage, who described the eclipses, or Jupiter's satellites; or + the shoemaker of Breslau, who could see and declare the + positions of those minute orbs.</p> + + <p>The phases exhibited to us by Venus are due to her moving in + an orbit within that of the earth, at one side of which she is + between us and the sun, while at the other this position is + exactly reversed. We may compare her to a performer in a great + celestial circus, lit by a central chandelier, and ourselves to + spectators in an <span class="pagenum"><a id="page289"></a>[pg 289]</span> external ring, from which + we see her at one time facing us with the light full on her, + at the opposite point in complete shadow, and at the + intermediate ones in varying degrees of illumination + according to our changing views of her. The same + illustration may serve to show why Venus is brightest, not + when full, since she is then beyond the sun, and at the + farthest possible point from us, but when she approaches us + at inferior conjunction, more nearly by over one hundred and + thirty million miles, and still shows us a crescent of her + illuminated surface, before passing into the last phase of + total obscuration. When actually nearest to us she is + absolutely invisible, being then, like the new moon, between + us and the sun. Her varying degrees of brilliancy, even when + in the same phase, are thus accounted for by her alternate + retreat from and advance towards us as she circles round the + sun. Completing, as she does, her revolution in about seven + months and a half, she would of course go through the whole + series of her metamorphoses in that time, were the earth, + from which we observe them, a fixed point. Their protraction + instead, over a term of five hundred and eighty-four days, + or more than nineteen months, is due to the simultaneous + motion of the earth in the same direction, over her larger + orbit in a longer period, causing the same relative position + of the sister planet to recur only as often as she overtakes + her in her career. Thus the hour and minute hands of a + watch, moving at different rates of speed after meeting on + the dial plate at twelve o'clock, will not again come + together until five minutes past one, when the swifter paced + of the two will have completed a revolution and a twelfth. + But were we to <span class="pagenum"><a id="page290"></a>[pg 290]</span> retard the motion of the + latter, reducing it to only twice that of its companion, + they would always meet at the figure twelve, as it would + exactly complete two circuits while the hour hand was + performing one. Venus thus overtakes and passes the earth + once in five hundred and eighty-four days, or nearly two and + a half of her own years, constituting what is called her + synodic period of apparent revolution as seen from this + globe. She thus presents to us all the phases undergone by + our own satellite during a lunar month, passing from new to + full, and <i>vice versa</i>, through the various intervening + gradations of form.</p> + + <p>The phases of Venus are amongst the most beautiful subjects + for observation in a moderate telescope, as her silver bow, + gradually brightening in the evening dusk, or fading in the + dawn,</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>"On a bed of daffodil sky,"</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>is, after the two greater luminaries that rule the day and + night, the most brilliant object in the heavens.</p> + + <p> </p> + + <h2>III.</h2> + + <h3>THE SILVER CROWN.</h3> + + <p>The parallel between Venus and</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>"That orbed maiden with fire laden,</p> + + <p>Whom mortals call the moon,"</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>is carried a stage further. Most of us are familiar with the + spectacle in which the Ancient Egyptians saw symbolized Horus + on the lap of Isis, but which we more prosaically term "the old + moon in the new moon's <span class="pagenum"><a id="page291"></a>[pg 291]</span> arms." The strongly + illuminated half circle next the sun is then seen embracing + with its horns a dusky sphere, contrasting with it as + tarnished silver does with the newly burnished metal. The + same phenomenon is occasionally, though very rarely, + exhibited by Venus, while close to the sun at inferior + injunction, when the shadowy form of the full orb is seen to + shine dimly within her crescent with what is termed "the + ashen light." More wonderful still, this "glimmering sphere" + is then crowned, as with a silver halo, by a thin luminous + arch, forming a secondary sickle facing the one nearest the + sun, and doubtless due to the refraction of his rays round + the globe of the planet, through the upper regions of her + twilight atmosphere. This spectacle was first observed by + the Jesuit Ricciolo, an opponent of the Copernican theory, + on January 9th, 1643. He describes the planet as ruddy near + the sun, yellowish in the middle, and of greenish blue on + the side remote from the sun; while he also noted the bow of + light limiting the dark hemisphere. Scarcely daring to trust + his own eyesight, he ascribed these appearances, although he + recorded them, to illusory reflection in the telescope.</p> + + <div class="figright" + style="width:300px;"> + <a href="images/291.png"><img width="300" + src="images/291.png" + alt="VENUS AT HER GREATEST BRILLIANCY."></a><br> + VENUS AT HER GREATEST BRILLIANCY. + </div> + + <p>They were again seen, however, by Derham about + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page292"></a>[pg 292]</span> 1715, and six years later + by Kirch, in Berlin, who has the following entry in his + diary for Saturday, June 29, 1721:—"I found Venus in a + region where the sky was not very clear. The planet was + narrow, and I seemed to see its dark side, though this is + almost incredible. The diameter of Venus was 65", and its + sickle seemed to tremble in the atmospheric vapors." Again, + on March 8th, 1726, he records a similar observation. "We + observed Venus with the twenty-six foot telescope. I + perceived her dark side, and its edge seemed to describe a + smaller circle than that of the light side, as is the case + of the moon." This effect is due to irradiation, that is to + say, to the glare from a bright surface, giving a deceptive + enlargement to its apparent area. He again saw the dark side + of the planet in October, 1759, as did Harding at Göttingen, + with Herschel's ten-foot reflector, on January 24th, 1806. + This latter observer saw it on this occasion stand out + against the background of the sky as of a pale ashen green, + while on February 28th following, it seemed to him of a pale + reddish gray, like the color of the eclipsed moon.</p> + + <p>That the latter body should send to us from her nocturnal + shadows sufficient light to be visible is easily explicable, + since she is then flooded with earth-light reflected on her + from a surface thirteen and one-half times greater than her + own, and probably casting on her an illumination transcending + our full moonlight in the same proportion. But the secondary + light of Venus admits of no such explanation, since earth-light + on her surface, diminished by 1/12000th part compared to what + it is on that of the moon, would be quite insufficient to + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page293"></a>[pg 293]</span> render her visible to our + eyes. The phenomenon was therefore adduced as an argument + for the habitability of the planets by Gruithuisen, of the + Munich Observatory, who, writing early in this century, + suggested that the ashen light of Venus might be due to + general illuminations in celebration by her inhabitants of + some periodically recurring festivity, The materials for a + flare-up on so grand a scale would, he thought, exist in + abundance, as he conjectured the vegetation of our planetary + neighbor to be more luxuriant than that of our Brazilian + forests. The phosphorescence of the Aphroditean oceans, warm + and teeming with life, as they are held to be by Zollner, + was advanced as an explanatory hypothesis, with scarcely + more plausibility, by Professor Safarik, while others have + resorted to the supposition of atmospheric or electrical + luminosity producing on a large scale some such display as + that of the aurora borealis.</p> + + <p>Professor Vogel, of Berlin, who himself saw part of the + night-side of Venus, in its semi-obscurity in November, 1871, + ascribed its visibility to a twilight effect caused by a very + extensive atmosphere. The light thus transmitted to us by + aerial diffusion and giving the ashen light, is reflected + sunlight, while that sent by the luminous arc on its edge is + direct sunlight, refracted, or bent round to us, from behind + the planet. The silver selvedge of the dawn edging the dark + limb may consequently be the brightest part of the broken + nimbus that then seems to surround her.</p> + + <p>A similar appearance is observed during transits of Venus, + when she passes directly between us and the actual solar disk. + A silver thread is then seen encircling <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page294"></a>[pg 294]</span> that side of the planet + which has not yet entered on the face of the sun or "a + shadowy nebulous ring," as it was described by Mr. + Macdonnell at Eden, surrounds the whole planetary disk when + two-thirds of it have passed the solar edge. As it moves off + it, the same aureole again becomes visible, testifying to + the existence of an atmosphere of considerable extent + exterior to the sharply outlined surface ordinarily visible. + The shimmering haze of reflected sunlight which perpetually + enfolds her is only made apparent to us under exceptional + circumstances which cut off some portion of her more + immediate light, just as we see the motes in the air + illuminated by a candle if we hide the actual flame from our + eyes. The perennial twilight which seems to reign over the + nocturnal hemisphere of Venus may compensate, perhaps, for + the want of a satellite to modify its darkness.</p> + + <p>The great prolongation at other times of the horns of her + crescent, so as to embrace almost her entire circumference with + a tenuous ring of light, is doubtless due to the same cause, as + their visibility should otherwise be limited to a half segment + of a circle. The regions thus shining to us are obviously those + on which the sun has not yet set, his appearance above the + horizon being prolonged, as in our own case, by refraction, + though to a much larger extent. The magnitude of the sun's disk + as seen from Venus, a third larger than it appears to us, is + also adducted by Mr. Proctor in his posthumous work, "The Old + and the New Astronomy," edited and completed by Mr. A.C. + Ranyard, as an element in extending the illumination of Venus + to more than a hemisphere of her surface. As <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page295"></a>[pg 295]</span> his diameter there is + 44-1/4°, a zone of more than 22° wide outside the sunward + hemisphere is he thinks illuminated by direct though partial + sunlight, the orb being throughout this tract still + partially above the horizon.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" + style="width:300px;"> + <a href="images/295.png"><img width="300" + src="images/295.png" + alt="GEOGRAPHICAL ASPECT OF VENUS."></a><br> + GEOGRAPHICAL ASPECT OF VENUS. + </div> + + <p> </p> + + <p> </p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page296"></a>[pg 296]</span> + + <div class="figcenter" + style="width:400px;"> + <a href="images/296-1.png"><img width="400" + src="images/296-1.png" + alt="Stars"></a> + </div> + + <h2>THE STARS</h2> + + <h4>(<span class="sc">From Starland.</span>)</h4> + + <h3>BY SIR ROBERT S. BALL.</h3> + <hr class="short"> + + <div class="figleft" + style="width:200px;"> + <a href="images/296-2.png"><img width="200" + src="images/296-2.png" + alt="Stars"></a> + </div> + + <p>The group of bodies which cluster around our sun forms a + little island, so to speak, in the extent of infinite space. We + may illustrate this by a map in which we shall endeavor to show + the stars placed at their proper relative distances. We first + open the compasses one inch, and thus draw a little circle to + represent the path of the earth. We are not going to put in all + the planets. We take Neptune, the outermost, at once. To draw + its path I open the compasses to thirty inches, and draw a + circle with that radius. That will do for our solar system, + though the comets no doubt will roam beyond these limits. To + complete our map we ought of course to put in some stars. There + are a hundred million to choose from, and we shall begin with + the brightest. It is often called the Dog Star, but astronomers + know it better as Sirius. Let us see where it is to be placed + on our <span class="pagenum"><a id="page297"></a>[pg 297]</span> map. Sirius is beyond + Neptune, so it must be outside somewhere. Indeed, it is a + good deal further off than Neptune; so I try at the edge of + the drawing-board; I have got a method of making a little + calculation that I do not intend to trouble you with, but I + can assure you that the results it leads me to are quite + correct; they show me that this board is not big enough. But + could a board which was big enough fit into this lecture + theatre? Here, again, I make my little calculations, and I + find that there would not be room for a board sufficiently + great; in fact, if I put the sun here at one end, with its + planets around it? Sirius would be too near on the same + scale if it were at the further corner. The board would have + to go out through the wall of the theatre, out through + London. Indeed, big as London is, it would not be large + enough to contain the drawing-board that I should require. + It would have to stretch about twenty miles from where we + are now assembled. We may therefore dismiss any hope of + making a practical map of our system on this scale if Sirius + is to have its proper place. Let us, then, take some other + star. We shall naturally try with the nearest of all. It is + one that we do not know in this part of the world, but those + that live in the southern hemisphere are well acquainted + with it. The name of this star is Alpha Centauri. Even for + this star we should require a drawing three or four miles + long if the distance from the earth to the sun is to be + taken as one inch. You see what an isolated position our sun + and his planets occupy. The members of the family are all + close together, and the nearest neighbors are situated at + enormous distances. There is a good reason <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page298"></a>[pg 298]</span> for this separation. The + stars are very pretty and perfectly harmless to us where + they are at present situated. They might be very troublesome + neighbors if they were very much closer to our system. It is + therefore well they are so far off; they would be constantly + making disturbances in the sun's family if they were near at + hand. Sometimes they would be dragging us into unpleasantly + great heat by bringing us too close to the sun, or producing + a coolness by pulling us away from the sun, which would be + quite as disagreeable.</p> + + <p> </p> + + <p><b>The Stars are Suns.</b></p> + + <p>We are about to discuss one of the grandest truths in the + whole of nature. We have had occasion to see that this sun of + ours is a magnificent globe immensely larger than the greatest + of his planets, while the greatest of these planets is + immensely larger than this earth; but now we are to learn that + our sun is, indeed, only a star not nearly so bright as many of + those which shine over our heads every night. We are + comparatively close to the sun, so that we are able to enjoy + his beautiful light and cheering heat. Each of those other + myriads of stars is a sun, and the splendor of those distant + suns is often far greater than that of our own. We are, + however, so enormously far from them that they appear dwindled + down to insignificance. To judge impartially between our sun or + star and such a sun or star as Sirius we should stand halfway + between the two; it is impossible to make a fair estimate when + we find ourselves situated close to one star and a million + times as far from the other. After allowance is made for the + imperfections of our point of view, we are <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page299"></a>[pg 299]</span> enabled to realize the + majestic truth that the sun is no more than a star, and that + the other stars are no less than suns. This gives us an + imposing idea of the extent and magnificence of the universe + in which we are situated. Look lip at the sky at + night—you will see a host of stars; try to think that + every one of them is itself a sun. It may probably be that + those suns have planets circling round them, but it is + hopeless for us to expect to see such planets. Were you + standing on one of those stars and looking towards our + system, you would not perceive the sun to be the brilliant + and gorgeous object that we know so well. If you could see + him at all, he would merely seem like a star, not nearly as + bright as many of those you can see at night. Even if you + had the biggest of telescopes to aid your vision, you could + never discern from one of these bodies the planets which + surround the sun, no astronomer in the stars could see + Jupiter, even if his sight were a thousand times as powerful + as any sight or telescope that we know. So minute an object + as our earth would, of course, be still more hopelessly + beyond the possibility of vision.</p> + + <p> </p> + + <p><b>The Number of the Stars.</b></p> + + <p>To count the stars involves a task which lies beyond the + power of man to accomplish. Even without the aid of any + telescope, we can see a great multitude of stars from this part + of the world. There are also many constellations in the + southern hemisphere which never appear above our horizon. If, + however, we were to go to the equator, then, by waiting there + for a twelve-month, all the stars in the heavens would have + been <span class="pagenum"><a id="page300"></a>[pg 300]</span> successively exposed to + view. An astronomer, Houzeau, with the patience to count + them, enumerated about six thousand. This is the naked-eye + estimate of the star-population of the heavens; but if + instead of relying on unaided vision, you get the assistance + of a little telescope, you will be astounded at the enormous + multitude of stars which are disclosed.</p> + + <div class="figleft" + style="width:400px;"> + <a href="images/300.jpg"><img width="400" + src="images/300.jpg" + alt="FIG 1. THE GREAT BEAR AND THE POLE."></a><br> + FIG 1. THE GREAT BEAR AND THE POLE. + </div> + + <p>An ordinary opera-glass or binocular is a very useful + instrument for looking at the stars in the heavens. If you + employ an instrument of this sort, you will be amazed to find + that the heavens teem with additional hosts of stars that your + unaided vision would never have given you knowledge of. Any + part of the sky may be observed; but, just to give an + illustration, I shall take one special region, namely, that of + the Great Bear (Fig. 1). The seven well-known stars are here + shown, four of which form a sort of oblong, while the other + three represent the tail. I would like you to make this little + experiment. On a fine clear night, count how many stars there + are within this oblong; they are all very faint, but you will + be able to see a few, and, with good sight, and on a clear + night, you may see perhaps ten. Next take your opera-glass and + sweep it over the same region; if you will carefully count the + stars <span class="pagenum"><a id="page301"></a>[pg 301]</span> it shows, you will find + fully two hundred; so that the opera-glass has, in this part + of the sky, revealed nearly twenty times as many stars as + could be seen without its aid. As six thousand stars can be + seen by the eye all over the heavens, we may fairly expect + that twenty times that number—that is to say, one + hundred and twenty thousand stars—could be shown by + the opera-glass over the entire sky. Let us go a step + further, and employ a telescope, the object-glass of which + is three inches across. This is a useful telescope to have, + and, if a good one, will show multitudes of pleasing + objects, though an astronomer would not consider it very + powerful. An instrument like this, small enough to be + carried in the hand, has been applied to the task of + enumerating the stars in the northern half of the sky, and + three hundred and twenty thousand stars were counted. + Indeed, the actual number that might have been seen with it + is considerably greater, for when the astronomer Argelander + made this memorable investigation he was unable to reckon + many of the stars in localities where they lay very close + together. This grand count only extended to half the sky, + and, assuming that the other half is as richly inlaid with + stars, we see that a little telescope like that we have + supposed will, when swept over the heavens, reveal a number + of stars which exceeds that of the population of any city in + England except London. It exhibits more than one hundred + times as many stars as our eyes could possibly reveal. + Still, we are only at the beginning of the count; the very + great telescopes add largely to the number. There are + multitudes of stars which in small instruments + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page302"></a>[pg 302]</span> we cannot see, but which + are distinctly visible from our great observatories. That + telescope would be still but a comparatively small one which + would show as many stars in the sky as there are people + living in the mighty city of London; and with the greatest + instruments, the tale of stars has risen to a number far + greater than that of the entire population of Great + Britain.</p> + + <p>In addition to those stars which the largest telescopes show + us, there are myriads which make their presence evident in a + wholly different way. It is only in quite recent times that an + attempt has been made to develop fully the powers of + photography in representing the celestial objects. On a + photographic plate which has been exposed to the sky in a great + telescope the stars are recorded by thousands. Many of these + may, of course, be observed with a good telescope, but there + are not a few others which no one ever saw in a telescope, + which apparently no one ever could see, though the photograph + is able to show them. We do not, however, employ a camera like + that which the photographer uses who is going to take your + portrait. The astronomer's plate is put into his telescope, and + then the telescope is turned towards the sky. On that plate the + stars produce their images, each by its own light. Some of + these images are excessively faint, but we give a very long + exposure of an hour or two hours; sometimes as much as four + hours' exposure is given to a plate so sensitive that a mere + fraction of a second would sufficiently expose it during the + ordinary practice of taking a photograph in daylight. We thus + afford sufficient time to enable the fainter objects to + indicate their presence <span class="pagenum"><a id="page303"></a>[pg 303]</span> upon the sensitive film. + Even with an exposure of a single hour a picture exhibiting + sixteen thousand stars has been taken by Mr. Isaac Roberts, + of Liverpool. Yet the portion of the sky which it represents + is only one ten-thousandth part of the entire heavens. It + should be added that the region which Mr. Roberts has + photographed is furnished with stars in rather exceptional + profusion.</p> + + <p>Here, at last, we have obtained some conception of the + sublime scale on which the stellar universe is constructed. Yet + even these plates cannot represent all the stars that the + heavens contain. We have every reason for knowing that with + larger telescopes, with more sensitive plates, with more + prolonged exposures, ever fresh myriads of stars will be + brought within our view.</p> + + <p>You must remember that every one of these stars is truly a + sun, a lamp, as it were, which doubtless gives light to other + objects in its neighborhood as our sun sheds light upon this + earth and the other planets. In fact, to realize the glories of + the heavens you should try to think that the brilliant points + you see are merely the luminous points of the otherwise + invisible universe.</p> + + <p>Standing one fine night on the deck of a Cunarder we passed + in open ocean another great Atlantic steamer. The vessel was + near enough for us to see not only the light from the mast-head + but also the little beams from the several cabin ports; and we + could see nothing of the ship herself. Her very existence was + only known to us by the twinkle of these lights. Doubtless her + passengers could see, and did see, the similar lights from our + own vessel, and they probably drew the correct inference that + these lights indicated a great ship. <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page304"></a>[pg 304]</span> Consider the multiplicity + of beings and objects in a ship: the captain and the crew, + the passengers, the cabins, the engines, the boats, the + rigging, and the stores. Think of all the varied interests + there collected and then reflect that out on the ocean, at + night, the sole indication of the existence of this + elaborate structure was given by the few beams of light that + happened to radiate from it. Now raise your eyes to the + stars; there are the twinkling lights. We cannot see what + those lights illuminate, we can only conjecture what untold + wealth of non-luminous bodies may also lie in their + vicinity; we may, however, feel certain that just as the few + gleaming lights from a ship are utterly inadequate to give a + notion of the nature and the contents of an Atlantic + steamer, so are the twinkling stars utterly inadequate to + give even the faintest conception of the extent and the + interest of the universe. We merely see self-luminous + bodies, but of the multitudes of objects and the elaborate + systems of which these bodies are only the conspicuous + points we see nothing and we know very little. We are, + however, entitled to infer from an examination of our own + star—the sun—and of the beautiful system by + which it is surrounded, that these other suns may be also + splendidly attended. This is quite as reasonable a + supposition as that a set of lights seen at night on the + Atlantic Ocean indicates the existence of a fine ship.</p> + + <p> </p> + + <p><b>The Clusters of Stars.</b></p> + + <p>On a clear night you can often see, stretching across the + sky, a track of faint light, which is known to astronomers as + the "Milky Way." It extends below the <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page305"></a>[pg 305]</span> horizon, and then round the + earth to form a girdle about the heavens. When we examine + the Milky Way with a telescope we find, to our amazement, + that it consists of myriads of stars, so small and so faint + that we are not able to distinguish them individually; we + merely see the glow produced from their collective rays. + Remembering that our sun is a star, and that the Milky Way + surrounds us, it would almost seem as if our sun were but + one of the host of stars which form this cluster.</p> + + <p>There are also other clusters of stars, some of which are + exquisitely beautiful telescopic spectacles. I may mention a + celebrated pair of these objects which lies in the + constellation of Perseus. The sight of them in a great + telescope is so imposing that no one who is fit to look through + a telescope could resist a shout of wonder and admiration when + first they burst on his view. But there are other clusters. + Here is a picture of one which is known as the "Globular + Cluster in the Centaur" (Fig. 2). It consists of a ball of + stars, so far off that, however large these several suns may + actually be, they have dwindled down to extremely small points + of light. A homely illustration may serve to show the + appearance which a globular cluster presents in a good + telescope. I take a pepper-caster, and on a sheet of + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page306"></a>[pg 306]</span> white paper I begin to + shake out the pepper until there is a little heap at the + centre and other grains are scattered loosely about. Imagine + that every one of those grains of pepper was to be + transformed into a tiny electric light, and then you have + some idea of what a cluster of stars would look like when + viewed through a telescope of sufficient power. There are + multitudes of such groups scattered through the depths of + space. They require our biggest telescopes to show them + adequately. We have seen that our sun is a star, being only + one of a magnificent cluster that forms the Milky Way. We + have also seen that there are other groups scattered through + the length and depth of space. It is thus we obtain a notion + of the rank which our earth holds in the scheme of things + celestial.</p> + + <div class="figright" + style="width:300px;"> + <a href="images/305.png"><img width="300" + src="images/305.png" + alt= + "FIG. 2. GLOBULAR CLUSTER IN THE CENTAUR."></a><br> + FIG. 2. GLOBULAR CLUSTER IN THE CENTAUR. + </div> + + <p> </p> + + <p><b>The Rank of the Earth as a Globe in Space.</b></p> + + <p>Let me give an illustration with the view of explaining more + fully the nature of the relation which the earth bears to the + other globes which abound through space, and you must allow me + to draw a little upon my imagination. I shall suppose that the + mails of our country extend not only over this globe, but that + they also communicate with other worlds; that postal + arrangements exist between Mars and the earth, between the sun + and Orion—in fact, everywhere throughout the whole extent + of the universe. We shall consider how our letters are to be + addressed. Let us take the case of Mr. John Smith, merchant, + who lives at 1001, Piccadilly; and let us suppose that Mr. John + Smith's business transactions are of such an extensive nature + that they reach not only all over this globe, but away + throughout space. <span class="pagenum"><a id="page307"></a>[pg 307]</span> I shall suppose that the + firm has a correspondent residing—let us say in the + constellation of the Great Bear; and when this man of + business wants to write to Mr. Smith from these remote + regions, what address must he put upon the letter, so that + the Postmaster-General of the universe shall make no mistake + about its delivery? He will write as follows:—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>MR. JOHN SMITH,</p> + + <p class="i4">1001 Piccadilly,</p> + + <p class="i8">London,</p> + + <p class="i12">England,</p> + + <p class="i16">Europe,</p> + + <p class="i20">Earth,</p> + + <p class="i24">Near the Sun,</p> + + <p class="i28">Milky Way,</p> + + <p class="i32">The Universe.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>Let us now see what the several lines of this address mean. + Of course we put down the name of Mr. John Smith in the first + line, and then we will add "1001 Piccadilly" for the second; + but as the people in the Great Bear are not likely to know + where Piccadilly is, we shall add "London" underneath. As even + London itself cannot be well known everywhere, it is better to + write "England." This would surely find Mr. John Smith from any + post-office on this globe. From other globes, however, the + supreme importance of England may not be so immediately + recognized, and therefore it is as well to add another line, + "Europe." This ought to be sufficient, I think, for any + post-office in the solar system. Europe is big enough to be + visible from Mars or Venus, and should be known to the + post-office people there, just as we know and have names for + the continents on Mars. But further away there might be a + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page308"></a>[pg 308]</span> little difficulty; from + Uranus and Neptune the different regions on our earth can + never have been distinguished, and therefore we must add + another line to indicate the particular globe of the solar + system which contains Europe. Mark Twain tells us that there + was always one thing in astronomy which specially puzzled + him, and that was to know how we found out the names of the + stars. We are, of course, in hopeless ignorance of the name + by which this earth is called among other intelligent beings + elsewhere who can see it. I can only adopt the title of + "Earth," and therefore I add this line. Now our address is + so complete that from anywhere in the solar + system—from Mercury, from Jupiter, or + Neptune—there ought to be no mistake about the letter + finding its way to Mr. John Smith. But from his + correspondent in the Great Bear this address would be still + incomplete; they cannot see our earth from there, and even + the sun himself only looks like a small star—like one, + in fact, of thousands of stars elsewhere. However, each star + can be distinguished, and our sun may, for instance, be + recognized from the Great Bear by some designation. We shall + add the line "Near the Sun," and then I think that from this + constellation, or from any of the other stars around us, the + address of Mr. John Smith may be regarded as complete. But + Mr. Smith's correspondence may be still wider. He may have + an agent living in the cluster of Perseus or on some other + objects still fainter and more distant; then "Near the Sun" + is utterly inadequate as a concluding line to the address, + for the sun, if it can be seen at all from thence, will be + only of the significance of an excessively minute star, no + more to be <span class="pagenum"><a id="page309"></a>[pg 309]</span> designated by a special + name than are each of the several leaves on the trees of a + forest. What this distant correspondent will be acquainted + with is not the earth or the sun but only the cluster of + stars among which the sun is but a unit. Again we use our + own name to denote the cluster, and we call it the "Milky + Way." When we add this line, we have made the address of Mr. + John Smith as complete as circumstances will permit. I think + a letter posted to him anywhere ought to reach its + destination. To perfect it, however, we will finish up with + one line more—"The Universe."</p> + + <p> </p> + + <p><b>The Distances of the Stars.</b></p> + + <p>I must now tell you something about the distances of the + stars. I shall not make the attempt to explain fully how + astronomers make such measurements, but I will give you some + notion of how it is done. You may remember I showed you how we + found the distance of a globe that was hung from the ceiling. + The principle of the method for finding the distance of a star + is somewhat similar, except that we make the two observations + not from the two ends of a table, not even from opposite sides + of the earth, but from two opposite points on the earth's + orbit, which are therefore at a distance of one hundred and + eighty-six million miles. Imagine that on Midsummer Day, when + standing on the earth here, I measure with a piece of card the + angle between the star and the sun. Six months later, on + Midwinter Day, when the earth is at the opposite point of its + orbit, I again measure the angle between the same star and the + sun, and we can now determine the star's distance by making a + triangle. I draw a line a foot <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page310"></a>[pg 310]</span> long, and we will take this + foot to represent one hundred and eighty-six million miles, + the distance between the two stations; then placing the + cards at the corners, I rule the two sides and complete the + triangle, and the star must be at the remaining corner; then + I measure the sides of the triangle, and how many feet they + contain, and recollecting that each foot corresponds to one + hundred and eighty-six million miles, we discover the + distance of the star. If the stars were comparatively near + us, the process would be a very simple one; but, + unfortunately, the stars are so extremely far off that this + triangle, even with a base of only one foot, must have its + sides many miles long. Indeed, astronomers will tell you + that there is no more delicate or troublesome work in the + whole of their science than that of discovering the distance + of a star.</p> + + <p>In all such measurements we take the distance from the earth + to the sun as a conveniently long measuring-rod, whereby to + express the results. The nearest stars are still hundreds of + thousands of times as far off as the sun. Let us ponder for a + little on the vastness of these distances. We shall first + express them in miles. Taking the sun's distance to be + ninety-three million miles, then the distance of the nearest + fixed star is about twenty millions of millions of + miles—that is to say, we express this by putting down a 2 + first, and then writing thirteen ciphers after it. It is, no + doubt, easy to speak of such figures, but it is a very + different matter when we endeavor to imagine the awful + magnitude which such a number indicates. I must try to give + some illustrations which will enable you to form a notion of + it. At first I was going to ask you to try and + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page311"></a>[pg 311]</span> count this number, but when + I found it would require at least three hundred thousand + years, counting day and night without stopping, before the + task was over, it became necessary to adopt some other + method.</p> + + <p>When on a visit in Lancashire I was once kindly permitted to + visit a cotton mill, and I learned that the cotton yarn there + produced in a single day would be long enough to wind round + this earth twenty-seven times at the equator. It appears that + the total production of cotton yarn each day in all the mills + together would be on the average about one hundred and + fifty-five million miles. In fact, if they would only spin + about one-fifth more, we could assert that Great Britain + produced enough cotton yarn every day to stretch from the earth + to the sun and back again! It is not hard to find from these + figures how long it would take for all the mills in Lancashire + to produce a piece of yarn long enough to reach from our earth + to the nearest of the stars. If the spinners worked as hard as + ever they could for a year, and if all the pieces were then + tied together, they would extend to only a small fraction of + the distance; nor if they worked for ten years, or for twenty + years, would the task be fully accomplished. Indeed, upwards of + four hundred years would be necessary before enough cotton + could be grown in America and spun in this country to stretch + over a distance so enormous. All the spinning that has ever yet + been done in the world has not formed a long enough thread!</p> + + <p>There is another way in which we can form some notion of the + immensity of these sidereal distances. You will recollect that, + when we were speaking of Jupiter's moons, I told you of the + beautiful discovery <span class="pagenum"><a id="page312"></a>[pg 312]</span> which their eclipses + enabled astronomers to make. It was thus found that light + travels at the enormous speed of about one hundred and + eighty-five thousand miles per second. It moves so quickly + that within a single second a ray would flash two hundred + times from London to Edinburgh and back again.</p> + + <p>We said that a meteor travels one hundred times as swiftly + as a rifle-bullet; but even this great speed seems almost + nothing when compared with the speed of light, which is ten + thousand times as great. Suppose some brilliant outbreak of + light were to take place in a distant star—an outbreak + which would be of such intensity that the flash from it would + extend far and wide throughout the universe. The light would + start forth on its voyage with terrific speed. Any neighboring + star which was at a distance of less than one hundred and + eighty-five thousand miles would, of course, see the flash + within a second after it had been produced. More distant bodies + would receive the intimation after intervals of time + proportioned to their distances. Thus, if a body were one + million miles away, the light would reach it in from five to + six seconds, while over a distance as great as that which + separates the earth from the sun the news would be carried in + about eight minutes. We can calculate how long a time must + elapse ere the light shall travel over a distance so great as + that between the star and our earth. You will find that from + the nearest of the stars the time required for the journey will + be over three years. Ponder on all that this involves. That + outbreak in the star might be great enough to be visible here, + but we could never become aware of it till three years after + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page313"></a>[pg 313]</span> it had happened. When we + are looking at such a star to-night we do not see it as it + is at present, for the light that is at this moment entering + our eyes has travelled so far that it has been three years + on the way. Therefore, when we look at the star now we see + it as it was three years previously. In fact, if the star + were to go out altogether, we might still continue to see it + twinkling for a period of three years longer, because a + certain amount of light was on its way to us at the moment + of extinction, and so long as that light keeps arriving + here, so long shall we see the star showing as brightly as + ever. When, therefore, you look at the thousands of stars in + the sky to-night, there is not one that you see as it is + now, but as it was years ago.</p> + + <p>I have been speaking of the stars that are nearest to us, + but there are others much farther off. It is true we cannot + find the distances of these more remote objects with any degree + of accuracy, but we can convince ourselves how great that + distance is by the following reasoning. Look at one of the + brightest stars. Try to conceive that the object was carried + away further into the depths of space, until it was ten times + as far from us as it is at present, it would still remain + bright enough to be recognized in quite a small telescope; even + if it were taken to one hundred times its original distance it + would not have withdrawn from the view of a good telescope; + while if it retreated one thousand times as far as it was at + first it would still be a recognizable point in our mightiest + instruments. Among the stars which we can see with our + telescopes, we feel confident there must be many from which the + light has expended hundreds of years, or even thousands of + years, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page314"></a>[pg 314]</span> on the journey. When, + therefore, we look at such objects, we see them, not as they + are now, but as they were ages ago; in fact, a star might + have ceased to exist for thousands of years, and still be + seen by us every night as a twinkling point in our great + telescopes.</p> + + <p>Remembering these facts, you will, I think, look at the + heavens with a new interest. There is a bright star, Vega, or + Alpha Lyræ, a beautiful gem, so far off that the light from it + which now reaches our eyes started before many of my audience + were born. Suppose that there are astronomers residing on + worlds amid the stars, and that they have sufficiently powerful + telescopes to view this globe, what do you think they would + observe? They will not see our earth as it is at present; they + will see it as it was years (and sometimes many years) ago. + There are stars from which if England could now be seen, the + whole of the country would be observed at this present moment + to be in a great state of excitement at a very auspicious + event. Distant astronomers might notice a great procession in + London, and they could watch the coronation of a youthful queen + amid the enthusiasm of a nation. There are other stars still + further, from which, if the inhabitants had good enough + telescopes, they would now see a mighty battle in progress not + far from Brussels. One splendid army could be beheld hurling + itself time after time against the immovable ranks of the + other. They would not, indeed, be able to hear the + ever-memorable "Up, Guards, and at them!" but there can be no + doubt that there are stars so far away that the rays of light + which started from the earth on the day of the battle of + Waterloo are only just arriving there. Further off + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page315"></a>[pg 315]</span> still, there are stars from + which a bird's-eye view could be taken at this very moment + of the signing of Magna Charta. There are even stars from + which England, if it could be seen at all, would now appear, + not as the great England we know, but as a country covered + by dense forests, and inhabited by painted savages, who + waged incessant war with wild beasts that roamed through the + island. The geological problems that now puzzle us would be + quickly solved could we only go far enough into space and + had we only powerful enough telescopes. We should then be + able to view our earth through the successive epochs of past + geological time; we should be actually able to see those + great animals whose fossil remains are treasured in our + museums tramping about over the earth's surface, splashing + across its swamps, or swimming with broad flippers through + its oceans. Indeed, if we could view our own earth reflected + from mirrors in the stars, we might still see Moses crossing + the Red Sea, or Adam and Eve being expelled from Eden.</p> + + <p>So important is the subject of star distance that I am + tempted to give one more illustration in order to bring before + you some conception of how vast such distances are. I shall + take, as before, the nearest of the stars so far as known to + us, and I hope to be forgiven for taking an illustration of a + practical and a commercial kind instead of one more purely + scientific. I shall suppose that a railway is about to be made + from London to Alpha Centauri. The length of that railway, of + course, we have already stated: it is twenty billions of miles. + So I am now going to ask your attention to the simple question + as to the fare which it would be reasonable to + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page316"></a>[pg 316]</span> charge for the journey. We + shall choose a very cheap scale on which to compute the + price of a ticket. The parliamentary rate here is, I + believe, a penny for every mile. We will make our + interstellar railway fares much less even than this; we + shall arrange to travel at the rate of one hundred miles for + every penny. That, surely, is moderate enough. If the + charges were so low that the journey from London to + Edinburgh only cost fourpence, then even the most + unreasonable passenger would be surely contented. On these + terms how much do you think the fare from London to this + star ought to be? I know of one way in which to make our + answer intelligible. There is a National Debt with which + your fathers are, unhappily, only too well acquainted; you + will know quite enough about it yourselves in those days + when you have to pay income tax. This debt is so vast that + the interest upon it is about sixty thousand pounds a day, + the whole amount of the National Debt being six hundred and + thirty-eight millions of pounds.</p> + + <p>If you went to the booking-office with the whole of this + mighty sum in your pocket—but stop a moment; could you + carry it in your pocket? Certainly not, if it were in + sovereigns. You would find that after you had as many + sovereigns as you could conveniently carry there would still be + some left—so many, indeed, that it would be necessary to + get a cart to help you on with the rest. When the cart had as + great a load of sovereigns as the horse could draw there would + be still some more, and you would have to get another cart; but + ten carts, twenty carts, fifty carts, would not be enough. You + would want five thousand of these before you <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page317"></a>[pg 317]</span> would be able to move off + towards the station with your money. When you did get there + and asked for a ticket at the rate of one hundred miles for + a penny, do you think you would get any change? No doubt + some little time would be required to count the money, but + when it was counted the clerk would tell you that there was + not enough—that he must have nearly two hundred + millions of pounds more.</p> + + <p>That will give some notion of the distance of the nearest + star, and we may multiply it by ten, by one hundred, and even + by one thousand, and still not attain to the distance of some + of the more remote stars that the telescope shows us.</p> + + <p>On account of the immense distances of the stars we can only + perceive them to be mere points of light. We can never see a + star to be a globe with marks on it like the moon, or like one + of the planets—in fact, the better the telescope the + smaller does the star seem, though, of course, its brightness + is increased with every addition to the light-grasping power of + the instrument.</p> + + <p> </p> + + <p><b>The Brightness and Color of Stars.</b></p> + + <p>Another point to be noticed is the arrangement of stars in + classes, according to their lustre. The brightest stars, of + which there are about twenty, are said to be of the first + magnitude. Those just inferior to the first magnitude are + ranked as the second; and those just lower than the second are + estimated as the third; and so on. The smallest points that + your unaided eyes will show you are of about the sixth + magnitude. Then the telescope will reveal stars still fainter + and fainter, down to what we term the seventeenth or eighteenth + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page318"></a>[pg 318]</span> magnitudes, or even lower + still. The number of stars of each magnitude increases very + much in the classes of small ones.</p> + + <div class="figright" + style="width:400px;"> + <a href="images/319.jpg"><img width="400" + src="images/319.jpg" + alt="FIG. 3. PERSEUS AND ITS NEIGHBORING STARS"></a> + + <p>FIG. 3. PERSEUS AND ITS NEIGHBORING STARS INCLUDING + ALGOL.</p> + </div> + + <p>Most of the stars are white, but many are of a somewhat + ruddy hue. There are a few telescopic points which are + intensely red, some exhibit beautiful golden tints, while + others are blue or green.</p> + + <p>There are some curious stars which regularly change their + brilliancy. Let me try to illustrate the nature of these + variables. Suppose that you were looking at a street gas-lamp + from a very long distance, so that it seemed a little twinkling + light; and suppose that some one was preparing to turn the + gas-cock up and down. Or, better still, imagine a little + machine which would act regularly so as to keep the light first + of all at its full brightness for two days and a half, and then + gradually turn it down until in three or four hours it declines + to a feeble glimmer. In this low state the light remains for + twenty minutes; then during three or four hours the gas is to + be slowly turned on again until it is full. In this condition + the light will remain for two days and a half, and then the + same series of changes is to recommence. This would be a very + odd form of gas-lamp. There would be periods of two days and a + half during which it would remain at its full; these would be + separated by intervals of about seven hours, when the gradual + turning down and turning up again would be in progress.</p> + + <p>The imaginary gas-lamp is exactly paralleled by a star + Algol, in the constellation of Perseus (Fig. 3), which goes + through the series of changes I have indicated. Ordinarily + speaking, it is a bright star of the <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page319"></a>[pg 319]</span> second magnitude, and, + whatever be the cause, the star performs its variations with + marvellous uniformity. In fact, Algol has always arrested + the attention of those who observed the heavens, and in + early times was looked on as the eye of a demon. There are + many other stars which also change their brilliancy. Most of + them require much longer periods than Algol, and sometimes a + new star which nobody has ever seen before will suddenly + kindle into brilliancy. It is now known that the bright star + Algol is attended by a dark companion. This dark star + sometimes comes between Algol and the observer and cuts off + the light. Thus it is that the diminution of brightness is + produced.</p> + + <p> </p> + + <p><b>Double Stars.</b></p> + + <p>Whenever you have a chance of looking at the heavens through + a telescope, you should ask to be shown what is called <i>a + double star</i>. There are many stars in the heavens which + present no remarkable appearance to the unaided eye, but which + a good telescope at once shows to be of quite a complex nature. + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page320"></a>[pg 320]</span> These are what we call + double stars, in which two quite distinct stars are placed + so close together that the unaided eye is unable to separate + them. Under the magnifying power of the telescope, however, + they are seen to be distinct. In order to give some notion + of what these objects are like, I shall briefly describe + three of them. The first lies in that best known + constellation, the Great Bear. If you look at his tail, + which consists of three stars, you will see that near the + middle one of the three a small star is situated; we call + this little star Alcor, but it is the brighter one near + Alcor to which I specially call your attention. The sharpest + eye would never suspect that it was composed of two stars + placed close together. Even a small telescope will, however, + show this to be the case, and this is the easiest and the + first observation that a young astronomer should make when + beginning to turn a telescope to the heavens. Of course you + will not imagine that I mean Alcor to be the second + component of the double star; it is the bright star near + Alcor which is the double. Here are two marbles, and these + marbles are fastened an inch apart. You can see them, of + course, to be separate; but if the pair were moved further + and further away, then you would soon not be able to + distinguish between them, though the actual distance between + the marbles had not altered. Look at these two wax tapers + which are now lighted; the little flames are an inch apart. + You would have to view them from a station a third of a mile + away if the distance between the two flames were to appear + the same as that between the two components of this double + star. Your eye would never be able to discriminate between + two <span class="pagenum"><a id="page321"></a>[pg 321]</span> lights only an inch apart + at so great a distance; a telescope would, however, enable + you to do so, and this is the reason why we have to use + telescopes to show us double stars.</p> + + <p>You might look at that double star year after year + throughout the course of a long life without finding any + appreciable change in the relative positions of its components. + But we know that there is no such thing as rest in the + universe; even if you could balance a body so as to leave it + for a moment at rest, it would not stay there, for the simple + reason that all the bodies round it in every direction are + pulling at it, and it is certain that the pull in one direction + will preponderate, so that move it must. Especially is this + true in the case of two suns like those forming a double star. + Placed comparatively near each other they could not remain + permanently in that position; they must gradually draw together + and come into collision with an awful crash. There is only one + way by which such a disaster could be averted. That is by + making one of these stars revolve around the other just as the + earth revolves around the sun, or the moon revolves around the + earth. Some motion must, therefore, be going on in every + genuine double star, whether we have been able to see that + motion or not.</p> + + <p>Let us now look at another double star of a different kind. + This time it is in the constellation of Gemini. The heavenly + twins are called Castor and Pollux. Of these, Castor is a very + beautiful double star, consisting of two bright points, a great + deal closer together than were those in the Great Bear; + consequently a better telescope is required for the purpose of + showing them <span class="pagenum"><a id="page322"></a>[pg 322]</span> separately. Castor has been + watched for many years, and it can be seen that one of these + stars is slowly revolving around the other; but it takes a + very long time, amounting to hundreds of years, for a + complete circuit to be accomplished. This seems very + astonishing, but when you remember how exceedingly far + Castor is, you will perceive that that pair of stars which + appear so close together that it requires a telescope to + show them apart must indeed be separated by hundreds of + millions of miles. Let us try to conceive our own system + transformed into a double star. If we took our outermost + planet—Neptune—and enlarged him a good deal, and + then heated him sufficiently to make him glow like a sun, he + would still continue to revolve round our sun at the same + distance, and thus a double star would be produced. An + inhabitant of Castor who turned his telescope towards us + would be able to see the sun as a star. He would not, of + course, be able to see the earth, but he might see Neptune + like another small star close to the sun. If generations of + astronomers in Castor continued their observations of our + system, they would find a binary star, of which one + component took a century and a half to go round the other. + Need we then be surprised that when we look at Castor we + observe movements that seem very slow?</p> + + <p>There is often so much diffused light about the bright stars + seen in a telescope, and so much twinkling in some states of + the atmosphere, that stars appear to dance about in rather a + puzzling fashion, especially to one who is not accustomed to + astronomical observations. I remember hearing how a gentleman + once came to visit an observatory. The astronomer showed him + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page323"></a>[pg 323]</span> Castor through a powerful + telescope as a fine specimen of a double star, and then, by + way of improving his little lesson, the astronomer mentioned + that one of these stars was revolving around the other. "Oh, + yes," said the visitor, "I saw them going round and round in + the telescope." He would, however, have had to wait for a + few centuries with his eye to the instrument before he would + have been entitled to make this assertion.</p> + + <p>Double stars also frequently delight us by giving + beautifully contrasted colors. I dare say you have often + noticed the red and the green lights that are used on railways + in the signal lamps. Imagine one of those red and one of those + green lights away far up in the sky and placed close together, + then you would have some idea of the appearance that a colored + double star presents, though, perhaps, I should add that the + hues in the heavenly bodies are not so vividly different as are + those which our railway people find necessary. There is a + particularly beautiful double star of this kind in the + constellation of the Swan. You could make an imitation of it by + boring two holes, with a red-hot needle, in a piece of card, + and then covering one of these holes with a small bit of the + topaz-colored gelatine with which Christmas crackers are made. + The other star is to be similarly colored with blue gelatine. A + slide made on this principle placed in the lantern gives a very + good representation of these two stars on the screen. There are + many other colored doubles besides this one; and, indeed, it is + noteworthy that we hardly ever find a blue or a green star by + itself in the sky; it is always as a member of one of these + pairs.</p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page324"></a>[pg 324]</span> + + <p> </p> + + <p><b>How We Find What the Stars are Made of.</b></p> + + <p>Here is a piece of stone. If I wanted to know what it was + composed of, I should ask a chemist to tell me. He would take + it into his laboratory, and first crush it into powder, and + then, with his test tubes, and with the liquids which his + bottles contain, and his weighing scales, and other apparatus, + he would tell all about it; there is so much of this, and so + much of that, and plenty of this, and none at all of that. But + now, suppose you ask this chemist to tell you what the sun is + made of, or one of the stars. Of course, you have not a sample + of it to give him; how, then, can he possibly find out anything + about it? Well, he can tell you something, and this is the + wonderful discovery that I want to explain to you. We now put + down the gas, and I kindle a brilliant red light. Perhaps some + of those whom I see before me have occasionally ventured on the + somewhat dangerous practice of making fire-works. If there is + any boy here who has ever constructed sky-rockets, and put the + little balls into the top which are to burn with such vivid + colors when the explosion takes place, he will know that the + substance which tinged that fire red must have been strontium. + He will recognize it by the color; because strontium gives a + red light which nothing else will give. Here are some of these + lightning papers, as they are called; they are very pretty and + very harmless; and these, too, give brilliant red flashes as I + throw them. The red tint has, no doubt, been produced by + strontium also. You see we recognized the substance simply by + the color of the light it produced when + burning.</p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page325"></a>[pg 325]</span> + + <p>Perhaps some of you have tried to make a ghost at Christmas + by dressing up in a sheet, and bearing in your hand a ladle + blazing with a mixture of common salt and spirits of wine, the + effect produced being a most ghastly one. Some mammas will + hardly thank me for this suggestion, unless I add that the + ghost must walk about cautiously, for otherwise the blazing + spirit would be very apt to produce conflagrations of a kind + more extensive than those intended. However, by the kindness of + Professor Dewar, I am enabled to show the phenomenon on a + splendid scale, and also free from all danger. I kindle a vivid + flame of an intensely yellow color, which I think the ladies + will unanimously agree is not at all becoming to their + complexions, while the pretty dresses have lost their variety + of colors. Here is a nice bouquet, and yet you can hardly + distinguish the green of the leaves from the brilliant colors + of the flowers, except by trifling differences of shade. Expose + to this light a number of pieces of variously colored ribbon, + pink and red and green and blue, and their beauty is gone; and + yet we are told that this yellow is a perfectly pure color; in + fact, the purest color that can be produced. I think we have to + be thankful that the light which our good sun sends us does not + possess purity of that description. There is one substance + which will produce that yellow light; it is a curious metal + called sodium—a metal so soft that you can cut it with a + knife, and so light that it will float on water; while, still + more strange, it actually takes fire the moment it is dropped + on the water. It is only in a chemical laboratory that you will + be likely to meet with the actual metallic sodium, yet in other + forms the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page326"></a>[pg 326]</span> substance is one of the + most abundant in nature. Indeed, common salt is nothing but + sodium closely united with a most poisonous gas, a few + respirations of which would kill you. But this strange metal + and this noxious gas, when united, become simply the salt + for our eggs at breakfast. This pure yellow light, wherever + it is seen, either in the flame of spirits of wine mixed + with salt or in that great blaze at which we have been + looking, is characteristic of sodium. Wherever you see that + particular kind of light, you know that sodium must have + been present in the body from which it came.</p> + + <p>We have accordingly learned to recognize two substances, + namely, strontium and sodium, by the different lights which + they give out when burning. To these two metals we may add a + third. Here is a strip of white metallic ribbon. It is called + magnesium. It seems like a bit of tin at the first glance, but + indeed it is a very different substance from tin; for, look, + when I hold it in the spirit-lamp, the strip of metal + immediately takes fire, and burns with a white light so + dazzling that it pales the gas-flames to insignificance. There + is no other substance which will, when kindled, give that + particular kind of light which we see from magnesium. I can + recommend this little experiment as quite suitable for trying + at home; you can buy a bit of magnesium ribbon for a trifle at + the opticians; it cannot explode or do any harm, nor will you + get into any trouble with the authorities provided you hold it + when burning over a tray or a newspaper, so as to prevent the + white ashes from falling on the carpet.</p> + + <p>There are, in nature, a number of simple bodies called + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page327"></a>[pg 327]</span> elements. Every one of + these, when ignited under suitable conditions, emits a light + which belongs to it alone, and by which it can be + distinguished from every other substance. I do not say that + we can try the experiments in the simple way I have here + indicated. Many of the materials will yield light which will + require to be studied by much more elaborate artifices than + those which have sufficed for us. But you will see that the + method affords a means of finding out the actual substances + present in the sun or in the stars. There is a practical + difficulty in the fact that each of the heavenly bodies + contains a number of different elements; so that in the + light it sends us the hues arising from distinct substances + are blended into one beam. The first thing to be done is to + get some way of splitting up a beam of light, so as to + discover the components of which it is made. You might have + a skein of silks of different hues tangled together, and + this would be like the sunbeam as we receive it in its + unsorted condition. How shall we untangle the light from the + sun or a star? I will show you by a simple experiment. Here + is a beam from the electric light; beautifully white and + bright, is it not? It looks so pure and simple, but yet that + beam is composed of all sorts of colors mingled together, in + such proportions as to form white light. I take a + wedge-shaped piece of glass called a prism, and when I + introduce it into the course of the beam, you see the + transformation that has taken place (Fig. 4). Instead of the + white light you have now all the colors of the + rainbow—red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, + violet, marked by their initial letters in the figure. These + colors are very beautiful, but they are transient, for the + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page328"></a>[pg 328]</span> moment we take away the + prism they all unite again to form white light. You see what + the prism has done; it has bent all the light in passing + through it; but it is more effective in bending the blue + than the red, and consequently the blue is carried away much + further than the red. Such is the way in which we study the + composition of a heavenly body. We take a beam of its light, + we pass it through a prism, and immediately it is separated + into its components; then we compare what we find with the + lights given by the different elements, and thus we are + enabled to discover the substances which exist in the + distant object whose light we have examined. I do not mean + to say that the method is a simple one; all I am endeavoring + to show is a general outline of the way in which we have + discovered the materials present in the stars. The + instrument that is employed for this purpose is called the + spectroscope. And perhaps you may remember that name by + these lines, which I have heard from an astronomical + friend:—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>"Twinkle, twinkle, little star,</p> + + <p>Now we find out what you are,</p> + + <p>When unto the midnight sky,</p> + + <p>We the spectroscope apply."</p> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="figright" + style="width:400px;"> + <a href="images/328.jpg"><img width="400" + src="images/328.jpg" + alt="FIG. 4. HOW A RAY OF LIGHT IS SPLIT UP."></a><br> + FIG. 4. HOW A RAY OF LIGHT IS SPLIT UP. + </div><span class="pagenum"><a id="page329"></a>[pg 329]</span> + + <p>I am sure it will interest everybody to know that the + elements which the stars contain are not altogether different + from those of which the earth is made. It is true there may be + substances in the stars of which we know nothing here; but it + is certain that many of the most common elements on the earth + are present in the most distant bodies. I shall only mention + one, the metal iron. That useful substance has been found in + some of the stars which lie at almost incalculable distances + from the earth.</p> + + <p> </p> + + <p><b>The Nebulæ.</b></p> + + <div class="figleft" + style="width:300px;"> + <a href="images/330-1.png"><img width="300" + src="images/330-1.png" + alt="FIG. 5. A GREAT REFLECTING TELESCOPE."></a><br> + FIG. 5. A GREAT REFLECTING TELESCOPE. + </div> + + <p>In drawing towards the close of these lectures I must say a + few words about some dim and mysterious objects to which we + have not yet alluded. They are what are called nebulæ, or + little clouds; and in one sense they are justly called little, + for each of them occupies but a very small spot in the sky as + compared with that which would be filled by an ordinary cloud + in our air. The nebulæ are, however, objects of the most + stupendous proportions. Were our earth and thousands of + millions of bodies quite as big all put together, they would + not be nearly so great as one of these nebulæ. Astronomers + reckon up the various nebulæ by thousands, but I must add that + most of them are apparently faint and uninteresting. A nebula + is sometimes liable to be mistaken for a comet. The comet is, + as I have already explained, at once distinguished by the fact + that it is moving and changing its appearance from hour to + hour, while scores of years elapse without changes in the + aspect or position of a nebula. The most powerful telescopes + are employed in observing <span class="pagenum"><a name= + "page330" + id="page330"></a>[pg 330]</span> these faint objects. I take + this opportunity of showing a picture of an instrument + suitable for such observations. It is the great reflector of + the Paris Observatory (Fig. 5).</p> + + <div class="figright" + style="width:350px;"> + <a href="images/330-2.jpg"><img width="350" + src="images/330-2.jpg" + alt= + "FIG. 6. THE RING NEBULA IN LYRA, UNDER DIFFERENT TELESCOPIC POWERS."></a> + + <p>FIG. 6. THE RING NEBULA IN LYRA, UNDER DIFFERENT + TELESCOPIC POWERS.</p> + </div> + + <p>There are such multitudes of nebulæ that I can only show a + few of the more remarkable kinds. In Fig. 6 will be seen + pictures of a curious object in the constellation of Lyra seen + under different telescopic powers. This is a gigantic ring of + luminous gas. To judge of the size of this ring let us suppose + that a railway were laid across it, and the train you entered + at one side was not to stop until it reached the other side, + how long do you think this journey would require? I recollect + some time ago a picture in <i>Punch</i> which showed a train + about to start from London to Brighton, and the guard walking + up and down announcing to the passengers the alarming fact that + "this train stops nowhere." An old gentleman was seen + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page331"></a>[pg 331]</span> vainly gesticulating out of + the window and imploring to be let out ere the frightful + journey was commenced. In the nebular railway the passengers + would almost require such a warning.</p> + + <p>Let the train start at a speed of a mile a minute, you would + think, surely, that it must soon cross the ring. But the + minutes pass, an hour has elapsed; so the distance must be + sixty miles at all events. The hours creep on into days, the + days advance into years, and still the train goes on. The years + would lengthen out into centuries, and even when the train had + been rushing on for a thousand years with an unabated speed of + a mile a minute, the journey would certainly not have been + completed. Nor do I venture to say what ages must elapse ere + the terminus at the other side of the ring nebula would be + reached.</p> + + <p>A cluster of stars viewed in a small telescope will often + seem like a nebula, for the rays of the stars become blended. A + powerful telescope will, however, dispel the illusion and + reveal the separate stars. It was, therefore, thought that all + the nebulæ might be merely clusters so exceedingly remote that + our mightiest instruments failed to resolve them into stars. + But this is now known not to be the case. Many of these objects + are really masses of glowing gas; such are, for instance, the + ring nebulæ, of which I have just spoken, and the form of which + I can simulate by a pretty experiment.</p> + + <p>We take a large box with a round hole cut in one face, and a + canvas back at the opposite side. I first fill this box with + smoke, and there are different ways of doing so. Burning brown + paper does not answer <span class="pagenum"><a id="page332"></a>[pg 332]</span> well, because the supply of + smoke is too irregular and the paper itself is apt to blaze. + A little bit of phosphorus set on fire yields copious smoke, + but it would be apt to make people cough, and, besides, + phosphorus is a dangerous thing to handle incautiously, and + I do not want to suggest anything which might be productive + of disaster if the experiment was repeated at home. A little + wisp of hay, slightly damped and lighted, will safely yield + a sufficient supply, and you need not have an elaborate box + like this; any kind of old packing-case, or even a bandbox + with a duster stretched across its open top and a round hole + cut in the bottom, will answer capitally. While I have been + speaking, my assistant has kindly filled this box with + smoke, and in order to have a sufficient supply, and one + which shall be as little disagreeable as possible, he has + mixed together the fumes of hydrochloric acid and ammonia + from two retorts shown in Fig. 7. A still simpler way of + doing the same thing is to put a little common salt in a + saucer and pour over it a little oil of vitriol; this is put + into the box, and over the floor of the box common + smelling-salts is to be scattered. You see there are dense + volumes of white smoke escaping from every corner of the + box. I uncover the opening and give a push to the canvas, + and you see a beautiful ring flying across the room; another + ring and another follows. If you were near <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page333"></a>[pg 333]</span> enough to feel the ring, + you would experience a little puff of wind; I can show this + by blowing out a candle which is at the other end of the + table. These rings are made by the air which goes into a + sort of eddy as it passes through the hole. All the smoke + does is to render the air visible. The smoke-ring is indeed + quite elastic. If we send a second ring hurriedly after the + first, we can produce a collision, and you see each of the + two rings remains unbroken, though both are quivering from + the effects of the blow. They are beautifully shown along + the beam of the electric lamp, or, better still, along a + sunbeam.</p> + + <div class="figleft" + style="width:300px;"> + <a href="images/332.png"><img width="300" + src="images/332.png" + alt="FIG. 7. HOW TO MAKE THE SMOKE RINGS."></a><br> + FIG. 7. HOW TO MAKE THE SMOKE RINGS. + </div> + + <p>We can make many experiments with smoke-rings. Here, for + instance, I take an empty box, so far as smoke is concerned, + but air-rings can be driven forth from it, though you cannot + see them, but you can feel them even at the other side of the + room, and they will, as you see, blow out a candle. I can also + shoot invisible air-rings at a column of smoke, and when the + missile strikes the smoke it produces a little commotion and + emerges on the other side, carrying with it enough of the smoke + to render itself visible, while the solid black looking ring of + air is seen in the interior. Still more striking is another way + of producing these rings, for I charge this box with ammonia, + and the rings from it you cannot see. There is a column of the + vapor of hydrochloric acid, that also you cannot see; but when + the visible ring enters the invisible column, then a sudden + union takes place between the vapor of the ammonia and the + vapor of the hydrochloric acid; the result is a solid white + substance in extremely fine dust which renders the ring + instantly visible.</p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page334"></a>[pg 334]</span> + + <p> </p> + + <p><b>What the Nebulæ are made of.</b></p> + + <p>There is a fundamental difference between the illumination + of these little rings that I have shown you and the great rings + in the heavens. I had to illuminate our smoke with the help of + the electric light, for, unless I had done so, you would not + have been able to see them. This white substance formed by the + union of ammonia and hydrochloric acid has, of course, no more + light of its own than a piece of chalk; it requires other light + falling upon it to make it visible. Were the ring nebula in + Lyra composed of this material, we could not see it. The + sunlight which illuminates the planets might, of course, light + up such an object as the ring, if it wrere comparatively near + us; but Lyra is at such a stupendous distance that any light + which the sun could send out there would be just as feeble as + the light we receive from a fixed star. Should we be able to + show our smoke-rings, for instance, if, instead of having the + electric light, I merely cut a hole in the ceiling and allowed + the feeble twinkle of a star in the Great Bear to shine + through? In a similar way the sunbeams would be utterly + powerless to effect any illumination of objects in these + stellar distances. If the sun were to be extinguished + altogether, the calamity would no doubt be a very dire one so + far as we are concerned, but the effect on the other celestial + bodies (moon and planets excepted) would be of the slightest + possible description. All the stars of heaven would continue to + shine as before. Not a point in one of the constellations + wrould be altered, not a variation in the brightness, not a + change in the hue of any star could <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page335"></a>[pg 335]</span> be noticed. The thousands + of nebulæ and clusters would be absolutely unaltered; in + fact, the total extinction of the sun would be hardly + remarked in the newspapers published in the Pleiades or in + Orion. There might possibly be a little line somewhere in an + odd corner to the effect "Mr. So-and-So, our well-known + astronomer, has noticed that a tiny star, inconspicuous to + the eye, and absolutely of no importance whatever, has now + become invisible."</p> + + <p>If, therefore, it be not the sun which lights up this + nebula, where else can be the source of its illumination? There + can be no other star in the neighborhood adequate to the + purpose, for, of course, such an object would be brilliant to + us if it were large enough and bright enough to impart + sufficient illumination to the nebula. It would be absurd to + say that you could see a man's face by the light of a candle + while the candle itself was too faint or too distant to be + visible. The actual facts are, of course, the other way; the + candle might be visible, when it was impossible to discern the + face which it lighted.</p> + + <p>Hence we learn that the ring nebula must shine by some light + of its own, and now we have to consider how it can be possible + for such material to be self-luminous. The light of a nebula + does not seem to be like flame; it can, perhaps, be better + represented by the pretty electrical experiment with Geissler's + tubes. These are glass vessels of various shapes, and they are + all very nearly empty, as you will understand when I tell you + the way in which they have been prepared. A little gas was + allowed into each tube, and then almost all the gas was taken + out again, so that only a mere <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page336"></a>[pg 336]</span> trace was left. I pass a + current of electricity through these tubes, and now you see + they are glowing with beautiful colors. The different gases + give out lights of different hues, and the optician has + exerted his skill so as to make the effect as beautiful as + possible. The electricity, in passing through these tubes, + heats the gas which they contain, and makes it glow; and + just as this gas can, when heated sufficiently, give out + light, so does the great nebula, which is a mass of gas + poised in space, become visible in virtue of the heat which + it contains.</p> + + <p>We are not left quite in doubt as to the constitution of + these gaseous nebulæ, for we can submit their light to the + prism in the way I explained when we were speaking of the + stars. Distant though that ring in Lyra may be, it is + interesting to learn that the ingredients from which it is made + are not entirely different from substances we know on our + earth. The water in this glass, and every drop of water, is + formed by the union of two gases, of which one is hydrogen. + This is an extremely light material, as you see by a little + balloon which ascends so prettily when filled with it. Hydrogen + also burns very readily, though the flame is almost invisible. + When I blow a jet of oxygen through the hydrogen, I produce a + little flame with a very intense heat. For instance, I hold a + steel pen in the flame, and it glows and sputters, and falls + down in white-hot drops. It is needless to say that, as a + constituent of water, hydrogen is one of the most important + elements on this earth. It is, therefore, of interest to learn + that hydrogen in some form or other is a constituent of the + most distant objects in space that the telescope has + revealed.</p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page337"></a>[pg 337]</span> + + <p> </p> + + <p><b>Photographing the Nebulæ.</b></p> + + <div class="figright" + style="width:300px;"> + <a href="images/337.jpg"><img width="300" + src="images/337.jpg" + alt="FIG. 8. THE PLEIADES."></a><br> + FIG. 8. THE PLEIADES. + </div> + + <p>Of late years we have learned a great deal about nebulæ, by + the help which photography has given to us. Look at this group + of stars which constitutes that beautiful little configuration + known as the Pleiades (Fig. 8). It looks like a miniature + representation of the Great Bear; in fact, it would be far more + appropriate to call the Pleiades the Little Bear than to apply + that title to another quite different constellation, as has + unfortunately been done. The Pleiades form a group containing + six or seven stars visible to the ordinary eye, though persons + endowed with exceptionally good vision can usually see a few + more. In an opera-glass the Pleiades becomes a beautiful + spectacle, though in a large telescope the stars appear too far + apart to make a really effective cluster. When Mr. Roberts took + a photograph of the Pleiades he placed a highly sensitive plate + in his telescope, and on that plate the Pleiades engraved their + picture with their own light. He left the plate exposed for + hours, and on developing it not only were the stars seen, but + there were also patches of faint light due to the presence of + nebulæ. It could not be said that the objects on the plate were + fallacious, for another photograph was taken, when the same + appearances were reproduced.</p><span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page338"></a>[pg 338]</span> + + <p>When we look at that pretty group of stars which has + attracted admiration during all time, we are to think that some + of those stars are merely the bright points in a vast nebula, + invisible to our unaided eyes or even to our mighty telescopes, + though capable of recording its trace on the photographic + plate. Does not this give us a greatly increased notion of the + extent of the universe, when we reflect that by photography we + are enabled to see much which the mightiest of telescopes had + previously failed to disclose?</p> + + <p>Of all the nebulæ, numbering some thousands, there is but a + single one which can be seen without a telescope. It is in the + constellation of Andromeda, and on a clear dark night can just + be seen with the unaided eye as a faint stain of light on the + sky. It has happened before now that persons noticing this + nebula for the first time have thought they had discovered a + comet. I would like you to try and find out this object for + yourselves.</p> + + <p>If you look at it with an opera-glass it appears to be + distinctly elongated. You can see more of its structure when + you view it in larger instruments, but its nature was never + made clear until some beautiful photographs were taken by Mr. + Roberts (Fig. 9). Unfortunately, the nebula in Andromeda has + not been placed in the best position for its portrait from our + point of view. It seems as if it were a rather flat-shaped + object, turned nearly edgewise towards us. To look at the + pattern on a plate, you would naturally hold the plate so as to + be able to look at it squarely. The pattern would not be seen + well if the plate were so tilted that its edge was turned + towards you. That seems to be nearly the way <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page339"></a>[pg 339]</span> in which we are forced to + view the nebula in Andromeda. We can trace in the photograph + some divisions extending entirely round the nebula, showing + that it seems to be formed of a series of rings; and there + are some outlying portions which form part of the same + system. Truly this is a marvellous object. It is impossible + for us to form any conception of the true dimensions of this + gigantic nebula; it is so far off that we have never yet + been able to determine its distance. Indeed, I may take this + opportunity of remarking that no astronomer has yet + succeeded in ascertaining the distance of any nebula. + Everything, however, points to the conclusion that they are + at least as far as the stars.</p> + + <div class="figright" + style="width:300px;"> + <a href="images/339.jpg"><img width="300" + src="images/339.jpg" + alt="FIG. 9. THE GREAT NEBULA IN ANDROMEDA."></a><br> + FIG. 9. THE GREAT NEBULA IN ANDROMEDA. + </div> + + <p>It is almost impossible to apply the methods which we use in + finding the distance of a star to the discovery of the distance + of the nebulæ. These flimsy bodies are usually too ill-defined + to admit of being measured with the precision and delicacy + required for the determination of distance. The measurements + necessary for this purpose can only be made from one star-like + point to another similar point. If we could choose a star in + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page340"></a>[pg 340]</span> the nebula and determine + its distance, then of course, we have the distance of the + nebula itself; but the difficulty is that we have, in + general, no means of knowing whether the star does actually + lie in the object. It may, for anything we can tell, lie + billions of miles nearer to us, or billions of miles further + off, and by merely happening to lie in the line of sight, + appear to glimmer in the nebula itself.</p> + + <p>If we have any assurance that the star is surrounded by a + mass of this glowing vapor, then it may be possible to measure + that nebula's distance. It will occasionally happen that + grounds can be found for believing that a star which appears to + be in the glowing gas does veritably lie therein, and is not + merely seen in the same direction. There are hundreds of stars + visible in a good drawing or a good photograph of the famous + object in Andromeda, and doubtless large numbers of these are + merely stars which happen to lie in the same line of sight. The + peculiar circumstances attending the history of one star seem, + however, to warrant us in making the assumption that it was + certainly in the nebula. The history of this star is a + remarkable one. It suddenly kindled from invisibility into + brilliancy. How is a change so rapid in the lustre of a star to + be accounted for? In a few days its brightness had undergone an + extraordinary increase. Of course, this does not tell us for + certain that the star lay in the glowing gas; but the most + rational explanation that I have heard offered of this + occurrence is that due, I believe, to my friend Mr. Monck. He + has suggested that the sudden outbreak in brilliancy might be + accounted for on the same principles as those by which we + explain the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page341"></a>[pg 341]</span> ignition of meteors in our + atmosphere. If a dark star, moving along with terrific speed + through space, were suddenly to plunge into a dense region + of the nebula, heat and light must be evolved in sufficient + abundance to transform the star into a brilliant object. If, + therefore, we knew the distance of this star at the time it + was in Andromeda, we should, of course, learn the distance + of that interesting object. This has been attempted, and it + has thus been proved that the Great Nebula must be very much + further from us than is that star of whose distance I + attempted some time ago to give you a notion.</p> + + <div class="figright" + style="width:350px;"> + <a href="images/341.jpg"><img width="350" + src="images/341.jpg" + alt= + "FIG. 10. THE SOLAR SYSTEM AS COMPARED WITH A GREAT NEBULA."></a><br> + FIG. 10. THE SOLAR SYSTEM AS COMPARED WITH A GREAT NEBULA. + </div> + + <p> </p> + + <p> </p> + + <p>We thus realize the enormous size of the Great Nebula. It + appears that if, on a map of this object, we were to lay down, + accurately to scale, a map of the solar system, putting the sun + in the centre and all the planets around their true proportions + out to the boundary traced by Neptune, this area, vast though + it is, would be a mere speck on the drawing of the object. Our + system would have to be enormously bigger before it sufficed to + cover anything like the area of the sky included in one of + these great objects. Here is a sketch of a nebula, Fig. 10, and + near I have marked a dot, which is to indicate our solar + system. We may feel confident that the Great Nebula is at the + very least as mighty as this proportion would + indicate.</p><br> + + <p> </p> + + <p> </p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page342"></a>[pg 342]</span> + + <h2>RAIN AND SNOW</h2> + + <h4>(<span class="sc">From The Forms of Water.</span>)</h4> + + <h3><span class="sc">By</span> JOHN TYNDALL.</h3> + + <p> </p> + <hr class="short"> + + <p><b>Oceanic Distillation.</b></p> + + <div class="figleft" + style="width:200px;"> + <a href="images/342.png"><img width="200" + src="images/342.png" + alt="SNOW CRYSTALS."></a>SNOW CRYSTALS. + </div> + + <p>At the equator, and within certain limits north and south of + it, the sun at certain periods of the year is directly overhead + at noon. These limits are called the Tropics of Cancer and of + Capricorn. Upon the belt comprised between these two circles + the sun's rays fall with their mightiest power; for here they + shoot directly downwards, and heat both earth and sea more than + when they strike slantingly.</p> + + <p>When the vertical sunbeams strike the land they heat it, and + the air in contact with the hot soil becomes heated in turn. + But when heated the air expands, and when it expands it becomes + lighter. This lighter air rises, like wood plunged into water, + through the heavier air overhead.</p> + + <p>When the sunbeams fall upon the sea the water is warmed, + though not so much as the land. The warmed water expands, + becomes thereby lighter, and therefore continues to float upon + the top. This upper layer of <span class="pagenum"><a name= + "page343" + id="page343"></a>[pg 343]</span> water warms to some extent + the air in contact with it, but it also sends up a quantity + of aqueous vapor, which being far lighter than air, helps + the latter to rise. Thus both from the land and from the sea + we have ascending currents established by the action of the + sun.</p> + + <p>When they reach a certain elevation in the atmosphere, these + currents divide and flow, part towards the north and part + towards the south; while from the north and the south a flow of + heavier and colder air sets in to supply the place of the + ascending warm air.</p> + + <p>Incessant circulation is thus established in the atmosphere. + The equatorial air and vapor flow above towards the north and + south poles, while the polar air flows below towards the + equator. The two currents of air thus established are called + the upper and the lower trade winds.</p> + + <p>But before the air returns from the poles great changes have + occurred. For the air as it quitted the equatorial regions was + laden with aqueous vapor, which could not subsist in the cold + polar regions. It is there precipitated, falling sometimes as + rain, or more commonly as snow. The land near the pole is + covered with this snow, which gives birth to vast glaciers.</p> + + <p>It is necessary that you should have a perfectly clear view + of this process, for great mistakes have been made regarding + the manner in which glaciers are related to the heat of the + sun.</p> + + <p>It was supposed that if the sun's heat were diminished, + greater glaciers than those now existing would + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page344"></a>[pg 344]</span> be produced. But the + lessening of the sun's heat would infallibly diminish the + quantity of aqueous vapor, and thus cut off the glaciers at + their source. A brief illustration will complete your + knowledge here.</p> + + <p>In the process of ordinary distillation, the liquid to be + distilled is heated and converted into vapor in one vessel, and + chilled and reconverted into liquid in another. What has just + been stated renders it plain that the earth and its atmosphere + constitute a vast distilling apparatus in which the equatorial + ocean plays the part of the boiler, and the chill regions of + the poles the part of the condenser. In this process of + distillation <i>heat</i> plays quite as necessary a part as + <i>cold</i>, and before Bishop Heber could speak of + "Greenland's icy mountains," the equatorial ocean had to be + warmed by the sun. We shall have more to say upon this question + afterwards.</p> + + <p>The heating of the tropical air by the sun is + <i>indirect</i>. The solar beams have scarcely any power to + heat the air through which they pass; but they heat the land + and ocean, and these communicate their heat to the air in + contact with them. The air and vapor start upwards charged with + the heat thus communicated.</p> + + <p> </p> + + <p><b>Tropical Rains.</b></p> + + <p>But long before the air and vapor from the equator reach the + poles, precipitation occurs. Wherever a humid warm wind mixes + with a cold dry one, rain falls. Indeed the heaviest rains + occur at those places where the sun is vertically overhead. We + must enquire a little more closely into their + origin.</p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page345"></a>[pg 345]</span> + + <p>Fill a bladder about two-thirds full of air at the sea + level, and take it to the summit of Mount Blanc. As you ascend, + the bladder becomes more and more distended; at the top of the + mountain it is fully distended, and has evidently to bear a + pressure from within. Returning to the sea level you find that + the tightness disappears, the bladder finally appearing as + flaccid as at first.</p> + + <p>The reason is plain. At the sea level the air within the + bladder has to bear the pressure of the whole atmosphere, being + thereby squeezed into a comparatively small volume. In + ascending the mountain, you leave more and more of the + atmosphere behind; the pressure becomes less and less, and by + its expansive force the air within the bladder swells as the + outside pressure is diminished. At the top of the mountain the + expansion is quite sufficient to render the bladder tight, the + pressure within being then actually greater than the pressure + without. By means of an air-pump we can show the expansion of a + balloon partly filled with air, when the external pressure has + been in part removed.</p> + + <p>But why do I dwell upon this? Simply to make plain to you + that the <i>unconfined air</i>, heated at the earth's surface, + and ascending by its lightness, must expand more and more the + higher it rises in the atmosphere.</p> + + <p>And now I have to introduce to you a new fact, towards the + statement of which I have been working for some time. It is + this: <i>The ascending air is chilled by its expansion</i>. + Indeed this chilling is one source of the coldness of the + higher atmospheric regions. And <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page346"></a>[pg 346]</span> now fix your eye upon those + mixed currents of air and aqueous vapor which rise from the + warm tropical ocean. They start with plenty of heat to + preserve the vapor as vapor; but as they rise they come into + regions already chilled, and they are still further chilled + by their own expansion. The consequence might be foreseen. + The load of vapor is in great part precipitated, dense + clouds are formed, their particles coalesce to rain-drops, + which descend daily in gushes so profuse that the word + "torrential" is used to express the copiousness of the + rainfall. I could show you this chilling by expansion, and + also the consequent precipitation of clouds.</p> + + <p>Thus long before the air from the equator reaches the poles + its vapor is in great part removed from it, having redescended + to the earth as rain. Still a good quantity of the vapor is + carried forward, which yields hail, rain, and snow in northern + and southern lands.</p> + + <p> </p> + + <p><b>Mountain Condensers.</b></p> + + <p>To complete our view of the process of atmospheric + precipitation we must take into account the action of + mountains. Imagine a south-west wind blowing across the + Atlantic towards Ireland. In its passage it charges itself with + aqueous vapor. In the south of Ireland it encounters the + mountains of Kerry: the highest of these is Magillicuddy's + Reeks, near Killarney. Now the lowest stratum of this Atlantic + wind is that which is most fully charged with vapor. When it + encounters the base of the Kerry Mountains it is tilted up and + flows bodily over them. Its load of vapor is therefore carried + to a height, it expands on reaching the height, + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page347"></a>[pg 347]</span> it is chilled in + consequence of the expansion, and comes down in copious + showers of rain. From this, in fact, arises the luxuriant + vegetation of Killarney; to this, indeed, the lakes owe + their water supply. The cold crests of the mountains also + aid in the work of condensation.</p> + + <p>Note the consequence. There is a town called Cahirciveen to + the south-west of Magillicuddy's Reeks, at which observations + of the rainfall have been made, and a good distance farther to + the north-east, right in the course of the south-west wind + there is another town, called Portarlington, at which + observations of rainfall have also been made. But before the + wind reaches the latter station it has passed over the + mountains of Kerry and left a great portion of its moisture + behind it. What is the result? At Cahirciveen, as shown by Dr. + Lloyd, the rainfall amounts to fifty-nine inches in a year, + while at Portarlington it is only twenty-one inches.</p> + + <p>Again, you may sometimes descend from the Alps when the fall + of rain and snow is heavy and incessant, into Italy, and find + the sky over the plains of Lombardy blue and cloudless, the + wind at the same time <i>blowing over the plain towards the + Alps</i>. Below the wind is hot enough to keep its vapor in a + perfectly transparent state; but it meets the mountains, is + tilted up, expanded, and chilled. The cold of the higher + summits also helps the chill. The consequence is that the vapor + is precipitated as rain or snow, thus producing bad weather + upon the heights, while the plains below, flooded with the same + air, enjoy the aspect of the unclouded summer sun. Clouds + blowing <i>from</i> the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page348"></a>[pg 348]</span> Alps are also sometimes + dissolved over the plains of Lombardy.</p> + + <p>In connection with the formation of clouds by mountains, one + particularly instructive effect may be here noticed. You + frequently see a streamer of cloud many hundred yards in length + drawn out from an Alpine peak. Its steadiness appears perfect, + though a strong wind may be blowing at the same time over the + mountain head. Why is the cloud not blown away? It <i>is</i> + blown away; its permanence is only apparent. At one end it is + incessantly dissolved; at the other end it is incessantly + renewed: supply and consumption being thus equalized, the cloud + appears as changeless as the mountain to which it seems to + cling. When the red sun of the evening shines upon these + cloud-streamers they resemble vast torches with their flames + blown through the air.</p> + + <p> </p> + + <p><b>Architecture of Snow.</b></p> + + <p>We now resemble persons who have climbed a difficult peak, + and thereby earned the enjoyment of a wide prospect. Having + made ourselves masters of the conditions necessary to the + production of mountain snow, we are able to take a + comprehensive and intelligent view of the phenomena of + glaciers.</p> + + <div class="figleft" + style="width:300px;"> + <a href="images/348.png"><img width="300" + src="images/348.png" + alt="SNOW CRYSTALS."></a><br> + SNOW CRYSTALS. + </div> + + <p>A few words are still necessary as to the formation of snow. + The molecules and atoms of all substances, when allowed free + play, build themselves into definite <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page349"></a>[pg 349]</span> and, for the most part, + beautiful forms called crystals. Iron, copper, gold, silver, + lead, sulphur, when melted and permitted to cool gradually, + all show this crystallizing power. The metal bismuth shows + it in a particularly striking manner, and when properly + fused and solidified, self-built crystals of great size and + beauty are formed of this metal.</p> + + <table> + <tr> + <td> + <div class="figleft" + style="width:275px;"> + <a href="images/349-1.png"><img width="275" + src="images/349-1.png" + alt="SNOW-STAR."></a><br> + SNOW-STAR. + </div> + </td> + + <td> + <div class="figright" + style="width:275px;"> + <a href="images/349-2.png"><img width="275" + src="images/349-2.png" + alt="SNOW-STAR."></a><br> + SNOW-STAR. + </div> + </td> + </tr> + </table> + + <p>If you dissolve salt-petre in water, and allow the solution + to evaporate slowly, you may obtain large crystals, for no + portion of the salt is converted into vapor. The water of our + atmosphere is fresh though it is derived from the salt sea. + Sugar dissolved in water, and permitted to evaporate, yields + crystals of sugar-candy. Alum readily crystallizes in the same + way. Flints dissolved, as they sometimes are in nature, and + permitted to crystallize, yield the prisms and pyramids of rock + crystal. Chalk dissolved and crystallized yields Iceland spar. + The diamond is <span class="pagenum"><a id="page350"></a>[pg 350]</span> crystallized carbon. All + our precious stones, the ruby, sapphire, beryl, topaz, + emerald, are all examples of this crystallizing power.</p> + + <div class="figleft" + style="width:300px;"> + <a href="images/350.png"><img width="300" + src="images/350.png" + alt="SNOW-STAR."></a><br> + SNOW-STAR. + </div> + + <p>You have heard of the force of gravitation, and you know + that it consists of an attraction of every particle of matter + for every other particle. You know that planets and moons are + held in their orbits by this attraction. But gravitation is a + very simple affair compared to the force, or rather forces, of + crystallization. For here the ultimate particles of matter, + inconceivably small as they are, show themselves possessed of + attractive and repellent poles, by the mutual action of which + the shape and structure of the crystal are determined. In the + solid condition the attracting poles are rigidly locked + together; but if sufficient heat be applied the bond of union + is dissolved, and in the state of fusion the poles are pushed + so far asunder as to be practically out of each other's range. + The natural tendency of the molecules to build themselves + together is thus neutralized.</p> + + <p>This is the case with water, which as a liquid is to all + appearance formless. When sufficiently cooled the molecules are + brought within the play of the crystallizing force, and they + then arrange themselves in forms of indescribable beauty. When + snow is produced in <span class="pagenum"><a id="page351"></a>[pg 351]</span> calm air, the icy particles + build themselves into beautiful stellar shapes, each star + possessing six rays. There is no deviation from this type, + though in other respects the appearances of the snow-stars + are infinitely various. In the polar regions these exquisite + forms were observed by Dr. Scoresby, who gave numerous + drawings of them. I have observed them in mid-winter filling + the air, and loading the slopes of the Alps. But in England + they are also to be seen, and no words of mine could convey + so vivid an impression of their beauty as the annexed + drawings of a few of them, executed at Greenwich by Mr. + Glaisher.</p> + + <div class="figright" + style="width:300px;"> + <a href="images/351.png"><img width="300" + src="images/351.png" + alt="SNOW-STAR."></a><br> + SNOW-STAR. + </div> + + <p>It is worth pausing to think what wonderful work is going on + in the atmosphere during the formation and descent of every + snow-shower; what building power is brought into play! and how + imperfect seem the productions of human minds and hands when + compared with those formed by the blind forces of nature!</p> + + <p>But who ventures to call the forces of nature blind? In + reality, when we speak thus we are describing our own + condition. The blindness is ours; and what we really ought to + say, and to confess, is that our powers are absolutely unable + to comprehend either the origin or the end of the operations of + nature.</p> + + <p>But while we thus acknowledge our limits, there is + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page352"></a>[pg 352]</span> also reason for wonder at + the extent to which science has mastered the system of + nature. From age to age, and from generation to generation, + fact has been added to fact, and law to law, the true method + and order of the Universe being thereby more and more + revealed. In doing this science has encountered and + overthrown various forms of superstition and deceit, of + credulity and imposture. But the world continually produces + weak persons and wicked persons; and as long as they + continue to exist side by side, as they do in this our day, + very debasing beliefs will also continue to infest the + world.</p> + + <p> </p> + + <p><b>Atomic Poles.</b></p> + + <p>"What did I mean when, a few moments ago I spoke of + attracting and repellent poles?" Let me try to answer this + question. You know that astronomers and geographers speak of + the earth's poles, and you have also heard of magnetic poles, + the poles of a magnet being the points at which the attraction + and repulsion of the magnet are as it were concentrated.</p> + + <p>Every magnet possesses two such poles; and if iron filings + be scattered over a magnet, each particle becomes also endowed + with two poles. Suppose such particles devoid of weight and + floating in our atmosphere, what must occur when they come near + each other? Manifestly the repellent poles will retreat from + each other, while the attractive poles will approach and + finally lock themselves together. And supposing the particles, + instead of a single pair, to possess several pairs of poles + arranged at definite points over their surfaces; you can then + picture them, in obedience to <span class="pagenum"><a name= + "page353" + id="page353"></a>[pg 353]</span> their mutual attractions + and repulsions, building themselves together to form masses + of definite shape and structure.</p> + + <p>Imagine the molecules of water in calm cold air to be gifted + with poles of this description, which compel the particles to + lay themselves together in a definite order, and you have + before your mind's eye the unseen architecture which finally + produces the visible and beautiful crystals of the snow. Thus + our first notions and conceptions of poles are obtained from + the sight of our eyes in looking at the effects of magnetism; + and we then transfer these notions and conceptions to particles + which no eye has ever seen. The power by which we thus picture + to ourselves effects beyond the range of the senses is what + philosophers call the Imagination, and in the effort of the + mind to seize upon the unseen architecture of crystals, we have + an example of the "scientific use" of this faculty. Without + imagination we might have <i>critical</i> power, but not + <i>creative</i> power in science.</p> + + <p> </p> + + <p><b>Architecture of Lake Ice.</b></p> + + <p>We have thus made ourselves acquainted with the beautiful + snow-flowers self-constructed by the molecules of water in + calm, cold air. Do the molecules show this architectural power + when ordinary water is frozen? What, for example, is the + structure of the ice over which we skate in winter? Quite as + wonderful as the flowers of the snow. The observation is rare, + if not new, but I have seen in water slowly freezing six-rayed + ice-stars formed, and floating free on the surface. A six-rayed + star, moreover, is typical of the construction + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page354"></a>[pg 354]</span> of all our lake ice. It is + built up of such forms wonderfully interlaced.</p> + + <p>Take a slab of lake ice and place it in the path of a + concentrated sunbeam. Watch the track of the beam through the + ice. Part of the beam is stopped, part of it goes through; the + former produces internal liquefaction, the latter has no effect + whatever upon the ice. But the liquefaction is not uniformly + diffused. From separate spots of the ice little shining points + are seen to sparkle forth. Every one of those points is + surrounded by a beautiful liquid flower with six petals.</p> + + <p>Ice and water are so optically alike that unless the light + fall properly upon these flowers you cannot see them. But what + is the central spot? A vacuum. Ice swims on water because, bulk + for bulk, it is lighter than water; so that when ice is melted + it shrinks in size. Can the liquid flowers then occupy the + whole space of the ice melted? Plainly no. A little empty space + is formed with the flowers, and this space, or rather its + surface, shines in the sun with the lustre of burnished + silver.</p> + + <p>In all cases the flowers are formed parallel to the surface + of freezing. They are formed when the sun shines upon the ice + of every lake; sometimes in myriads, and so small as to require + a magnifying glass to see them. They are always attainable, but + their beauty is often marred by internal defects of the ice. + Every one portion of the same piece of ice may show them + exquisitely, while a second portion shows them imperfectly.</p> + + <p>Annexed is a very imperfect sketch of these beautiful + figures.</p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page355"></a>[pg 355]</span> + + <p>Here we have a reversal of the process of crystallization. + The searching solar beam is delicate enough to take the + molecules down without deranging the order of their + architecture. Try the experiment for yourself with a + pocket-lens on a sunny day. You will not find the flowers + confused; they all lie parallel to the surface of freezing. In + this exquisite way every bit of the ice over which our skaters + glide in winter is put together.</p> + + <p>I said that a portion of the sunbeam was stopped by the ice + and liquefied it. What is this portion? The dark heat of the + sun. The great body of the light waves and even a portion of + the dark ones, pass through the ice without losing any of their + heating power. When properly concentrated on combustible + bodies, even after having passed through the ice, their burning + power becomes manifest.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" + style="width:400px;"> + <a href="images/355.png"><img width="400" + src="images/355.png" + alt="LIQUID FLOWERS IN LAKE ICE."></a><br> + LIQUID FLOWERS IN LAKE ICE. + </div> + + <p>And the ice itself may be employed to concentrate them. With + an ice-lens in the polar regions Dr. Scoresby has often + concentrated the sun's rays so as to make them burn wood, fire + gunpowder, and melt lead; thus proving that the heating power + is retained <span class="pagenum"><a id="page356"></a>[pg 356]</span> by the rays, even after + they have passed through so cold a substance.</p> + + <p>By rendering the rays of the electric lamp parallel, and + then sending them through a lens of ice, we obtain all the + effects which Dr. Scoresby obtained with the rays of the + sun.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" + style="width:500px;"> + <a href="images/356.png"><img width="500" + src="images/356.png" + alt="snowflakes"></a> + </div> + + <p> </p> + + <p> </p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page357"></a>[pg 357]</span> + + <h2>THE ORGANIC WORLD</h2> + + <h4>(<span class="sc">From The Elements of + Science.</span>)</h4> + + <h3><span class="sc">By</span> ST. GEORGE MIVART F.R.S.</h3> + <hr class="short"> + + <div class="figleft" + style="width:100px;"> + <a href="images/357.png"><img width="100" + src="images/357.png" + alt="T"></a> + </div> + + <p>The number of all the various kinds of living creatures is + so enormous that it would be impossible to study them + profitably, were they not classified in an orderly manner. + Therefore the whole mass has been divided, in the first place, + into two supreme groups, fancifully termed kingdoms—the + "animal kingdom" and the "vegetal kingdom." Each of these is + subdivided into an orderly series of subordinate groups, + successively contained one within the other, and named + sub-kingdoms, classes, orders, families, genera and species. + The lowest group but one is the "genus," which contains one or + more different kinds termed "species," as e.g., the species + "wood anemone" and the species "blue titmouse." The lowest + group of all—a species—may be said to consist of + individuals which differ from each other only by trifling + characters, such as characters due to difference of sex, while + their peculiar organization is faithfully reproduced by + generation as a whole, though small individual differences + exist in all cases.</p> + + <p>The vegetal, or vegetable, kingdom, consists of the great + mass of flowering plants, many of which, however, have such + inconspicuous flowers that they are <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page358"></a>[pg 358]</span> mistakenly regarded as + flowerless, as is often the case with the grasses, the + pines, and the yews. Another mass, or sub-kingdom, of plants + consists of the really flowerless plants, such as the ferns, + horsetails (Fig. 1), lycopods, and mosses. Sea and + fresh-water weeds (<i>algæ</i>), and mushrooms, or "moulds," + of all kinds (<i>fungi</i>), amongst which are the now + famous "bacteria," constitute a third and lowest set of + plants.</p> + + <div class="figleft" + style="width:400px;"> + <a href="images/358.png"><img width="400" + src="images/358.png" + alt= + "FIG. 1. HORSE-TAIL (Equisetum drummondii)."></a><br> + FIG. 1. HORSE-TAIL (<i>Equisetum drummondii</i>). + </div> + + <p>The animal kingdom consists, first, of a sub-kingdom of + animals which possess a spinal column, or backbone, and which + are known as vertebrate animals. Such are all beasts, birds, + reptiles, and fishes. There are also a variety of remotely + allied marine organisms known as tunicates, sea-squirts, or + ascidians (Fig. 2). There is, further, an immense group of + arthropods, consisting of all insects, crab-like creatures, + hundred-legs and their allies, with spiders, scorpions, tics + and mites. We have also the sub-kingdom of shell-fish or + molluscs, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page359"></a>[pg 359]</span> including cuttle-fishes, + snails, whelks, limpets, the oyster, and a multitude of + allied forms. A multitudinous sub-kingdom of worms also + exists, as well as another of star-fishes and their + congeners. There is yet another of zoophytes, or polyps, and + another of sponges, and, finally, we have a sub-kingdom of + minute creatures, or animalculæ, of very varied forms, which + may make up the sub-kingdom of <i>Protozoa</i>, consisting + of animals which are mostly unicellular.</p> + + <div class="figright" + style="width:175px;"> + <a href="images/359.png"><img width="175" + src="images/359.png" + alt="FIG. 2. A TUNICATE (Ascidia)."></a><br> + FIG. 2. A TUNICATE (<i>Ascidia</i>). + </div> + + <p>Multitudinous and varied as are the creatures which compose + this immense organic world, they nevertheless exhibit a very + remarkable uniformity of composition in their essential + structure. Every living creature from a man to a mushroom, or + even to the smallest animalcule or unicellular plant is always + partly fluid, but never entirely so. Every living creature also + consists in part (and that part is the most active living part) + of a soft, viscid, transparent, colorless substance, termed + protoplasm, which can be resolved into the four elements, + oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen and carbon. Besides these four + elements, living organisms commonly contain sulphur, + phosphorus, chlorine, potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium and + iron.</p> + + <p>In the fact that living creatures always consist of the four + elements, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen and carbon, we have a + fundamental character whereby the organic and inorganic (or + non-living) worlds are to be <span class="pagenum"><a name= + "page360" + id="page360"></a>[pg 360]</span> distinguished, for as we + have seen, inorganic bodies, instead of being thus uniformly + constituted, may consist of the most diverse elements and + sometimes of but two or even of only one.</p> + + <p>Again, many minerals, such as crystals, are bounded by plain + surfaces, and, with very few exceptions (spathic and hematite + iron and dolomite are such exceptions) none are bounded by + curved lines and surfaces, while living organisms are bounded + by such lines and surfaces.</p> + + <p>Yet, again, if a crystal be cut through, its internal + structure will be seen to be similar throughout. But if the + body of any living creature be divided, it will, at the very + least, be seen to consist of a variety of minute distinct + particles, called "granules," variously distributed throughout + its interior.</p> + + <p>All organisms consist either—as do the simplest, + mostly microscopic, plants and animals—of a single minute + mass of protoplasm, or of a few, or of many, or of an enormous + aggregation of such before-mentioned particles, each of which + is one of those bodies named a "cell" (Fig. 3). Cells may, or + may not, be enclosed in an investing coat or "cell-wall." Every + cell generally contains within it a denser, normally + spheroidal, body known as the nucleus.</p> + + <p>Now protoplasm is a very unstable substance—as we have + seen many substances are whereof nitrogen is a component + part—and it possesses active properties which are not + present in the non-living, or inorganic world. In the latter, + differences of temperature will produce motion in the shape of + "currents," as we have seen with respect to masses of air and + water. But in a portion <span class="pagenum"><a id="page361"></a>[pg 361]</span> of protoplasm, an internal + circulation of currents in definite lines will establish + itself from other causes.</p> + + <p>Inorganic bodies, as we have seen, will expand with heat, as + they may also do from imbibing moisture; but living protoplasm + has an apparently spontaneous power of contraction and + expansion under certain external conditions which do not + occasion such movements in inorganic matter.</p> + + <div class="figright" + style="width:300px;"> + <a href="images/361.png"><img width="300" + src="images/361.png" + alt="FIG. 3. CELL FROM A SALAMANDER."></a><br> + FIG. 3. CELL FROM A SALAMANDER. + + <p><i>n</i>, nucleus; <i>n'</i>, nucleolus embedded in the + network of chromatin threads; <i>k</i>, network of the cell + external to the nucleus; <i>a</i>, attraction-sphere or + archoplasm containing minute bodies called centrosomes; + <i>cl</i>, membrane enclosing the cell externally, + <i>nl</i>, membrane surrounding the nucleus; <i>c</i>, + centrosomes.</p> + </div> + + <p>Under favoring conditions, protoplasm has a power of + performing chemical changes, which result in producing heat far + more gently and continuously than it is produced by the + combustion of inorganic bodies. Thus it is that the heat is + produced which makes its presence evident to us in what we call + "warm-blooded animals," the most warm-blooded of all being + birds.</p> + + <p>Protoplasm has also the wonderful power of transforming + certain adjacent substances into material like + itself—into its own substance—and so, in a sense, + creating a new material. Thus it is that organisms have the + power to nourish themselves and grow. An animal would vainly + swallow the most nourishing food if the ultimate, protoplasmic + particles of its body had not this power of "transforming" + suitable <span class="pagenum"><a id="page362"></a>[pg 362]</span> substances brought near + them in ways to be hereinafter noticed.</p> + + <p>Without that, no organism could ever "grow." The growth of + organisms is utterly different from the increase in size of + inorganic bodies. Crystals, as we have seen, grow merely by + external increment; but organisms grow by an increment which + takes place in the very innermost substance of the tissues + which compose their bodies, and the innermost substance of the + cells which compose such tissues; this peculiar form of growth + is termed <i>intussusception</i>.</p> + + <p>Protoplasm, after thus augmenting its mass, has a further + power of spontaneous division, whereby the mass of the entire + organism whereof such protoplasm forms a part, is augmented and + so growth is brought about.</p> + + <p>The small particles of protoplasm which constitute "cells" + are far indeed from being structureless. Besides the nucleus + already mentioned there is a delicate network of threads of a + substance called <i>chromatin</i> within it, and another + network permeating the fluid of the cell substance, which + invest the nucleus often with further complications. These + networks generally perform (or undergo) a most complex series + of changes every time a cell spontaneously divides. In certain + cases, however, it appears that the nucleus divides into two in + a more simple fashion, the rest of the cell contents + subsequently dividing—each half enclosing one part of the + previously divided nucleus. It is by a continued process of + cell division that the complex structures of the most complex + organisms is brought about.</p> + + <p>The division of a cell, or particle of protoplasm, is + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page363"></a>[pg 363]</span> indeed a necessary + consequence of its complete nutrition.</p> + + <p>For new material can only be absorbed by its surface. But as + the cell grows, the proportion borne by its surface to its + mass, continually decreases; therefore this surface must soon + be too small to take in nourishment enough, and the particle, + or cell, must therefore either die or divide. By dividing, its + parts can continue the nutritive process till their surface, in + turn, becomes insufficient, when they must divide again, and so + on. Thus the term "feeding" has two senses. "To feed a horse," + ordinarily means to give it a certain quantity of hay, oats or + what not; and such indeed is one kind of feeding. But + obviously, if the nourishment so taken could not get from the + stomach and intestines into the ultimate particles and cells of + the horse's body, the horse could not be nourished, and still + less could it grow. It is this latter process, called + assimilation, which is the real and essential process of + feeding, to which the process ordinarily so called is but + introductory.</p> + + <p>Protoplasm has also the power of forming and ejecting from + its own substance, other substances which it has made, but + which are of a different nature to its own. This function, as + before said, is termed secretion; and we know the liver + secretes bile, and that the cow's udder secretes milk.</p> + + <p>Here again we have an external and an internal process. The + milk is drawn forth from a receptacle, the udder, into which it + finds its way, and so, in a superficial sense, it may be called + an organ of secretion. Nevertheless the true internal secretion + takes place in <span class="pagenum"><a id="page364"></a>[pg 364]</span> the innermost substance of + the cells or particles of protoplasm, of the milk-land, + which particles really form that liquid.</p> + + <div class="figleft" + style="width:300px;"> + <a href="images/364.png"><img width="300" + src="images/364.png" + alt= + "FIG. 4. AMOEBA SHOWN IN TWO OF THE MANY IRREGULAR SHAPES IT ASSUMES."></a> + + <p>FIG. 4. AMOEBA SHOWN IN TWO OF THE MANY IRREGULAR SHAPES + IT ASSUMES. <i>(After Howes</i>.)</p> + + <p>The clear space within it is a contractile vesicle. The + dark body is the nucleus. In the right-hand figure there is + shown a particle of food, passing through the external + surface.</p> + </div> + + <p>But every living creature consists at first entirely of a + particle of protoplasm. Therefore every other kind of substance + which may be found in every kind of plant or animal, must have + been formed through it, and be, in fact, a secretion from + protoplasm. Such is the rosy cheek of an apple, or of a maiden, + the luscious juice of the peach, the produce of the castor-oil + plant, the baleen that lines the whale's enormous jaws, as well + as that softest product, the fur of the chinchilla. Indeed, + every particle of protoplasm requires, in order that it may + live, a continuous process of exchange. It needs to be + continuously first built up by food, and then broken down by + discharging what is no longer needful for its healthy + existence. Thus the life of every organism is a life of almost + incessant change, not only in its being as a whole, but in that + of all its protoplasmic particles also.</p> + + <p>Prominent among such processes is that of an interchange of + gases between the living being and its environment. This + process consists in an absorption of oxygen and a giving-out of + carbonic acid, which exchange is termed + respiration.</p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page365"></a>[pg 365]</span> + + <p>Lastly, protoplasm has a power of motion when appropriately + acted on. It will then contract or expand its shape by + alternate protrusions and retractions of parts of its + substance. These movements are termed amoebiform, because they + quite resemble the movements of a small animalcule which is + named amoeba. (See Fig. 4.)</p> + + <p>Such is the ultimate structure, and such are the fundamental + activities or functions of living organisms, as far as they can + here be described, from the lowest animalcule and unicellular + plant, up to the most complex organisms and the body of man + himself.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" + style="width:400px;"> + <a href="images/365.png"><img width="400" + src="images/365.png" + alt="cliffs"></a> + </div> + + <p> </p> + + <p> </p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page366"></a>[pg 366]</span> + + <h2>INHABITANTS OF MY POOL</h2> + + <h4>(<span class="sc">From Magic Glasses.</span>)</h4> + + <h3><span class="sc">By</span> ARABELLA B. BUCKLEY.</h3> + <hr class="short"> + + <div class="figleft" + style="width:100px;"> + <a href="images/366.png"><img width="100" + src="images/366.png" + alt="cliffs"></a> + </div> + + <p>The pool lies in a deep hollow among a group of rocks and + boulders, close to the entrance of the cove, which can only be + entered at low water; it does not measure more than two feet + across, so that you can step over it, if you take care not to + slip on the masses of green and brown seaweed growing over the + rocks on its sides, as I have done many a time when collecting + specimens for our salt-water aquarium. I find now the only way + is to lie flat down on the rock, so that my hands and eyes are + free to observe and handle, and then, bringing my eye down to + the edge of the pool, to lift the seaweeds and let the sunlight + enter into the chinks and crannies. In this way I can catch + sight of many a small being either on the seaweed or the rocky + ledges, and even creatures transparent as glass become visible + by the thin outline gleaming in the sunlight. Then I pluck a + piece of seaweed, or chip off a fragment of rock with a + sharp-edged collecting knife, bringing away the specimen + uninjured upon it, and place it carefully in its own separate + bottle to be carried home alive and well.</p> + + <p>Now though this little pool and I are old friends, I + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page367"></a>[pg 367]</span> find new treasures in it + almost every time I go, for it is almost as full of living + things as the heavens are of stars, and the tide as it comes + and goes brings many a mother there to find a safe home for + her little ones, and many a waif and stray to seek shelter + from the troublous life of the open ocean.</p> + + <p>You will perhaps find it difficult to believe that in this + rock-bound basin there can be millions of living creatures + hidden away among the fine feathery weeds; yet so it is. Not + that they are always the same. At one time it may be the home + of myriads of infant crabs, not an eighth of an inch long, + another of baby sea-urchins only visible to the naked eye as + minute spots in the water, at another of young jelly-fish + growing on their tiny stalks, and splitting off one by one as + transparent bells to float away with the rising tide. Or it may + be that the whelk has chosen this quiet nook to deposit her + leathery eggs; or young barnacles, periwinkles, and limpets are + growing up among the green and brown tangles, while the + far-sailing velella and the stay-at-home sea-squirts, together + with a variety of other sea-animals, find a nursery and shelter + in their youth in this quiet harbor of rest.</p> + + <p>And besides these casual visitors there are numberless + creatures which have lived and multiplied there, ever since I + first visited the pool. Tender red, olive-colored, and green + seaweeds, stony corallines, and acorn-barnacles lining the + floor, sea-anemones clinging to the sides, sponges tiny and + many-colored hiding under the ledges, and limpets and mussels + wedged in the cracks. These can be easily seen with the naked + eye, but they are not the most numerous inhabitants; for these + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page368"></a>[pg 368]</span> we must search with a + magnifying glass, which will reveal to us wonderful + fairy-forms, delicate crystal vases with tiny creatures in + them whose transparent lashes make whirlpools in the water, + living crystal bells so tiny that whole branches of them + look only like a fringe of hair, jelly globes rising and + falling in the water, patches of living jelly clinging to + the rocky sides of the pool, and a hundred other forms, some + so minute that you must examine the fine sand in which they + lie under a powerful microscope before you can even guess + that they are there.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" + style="width:500px;"> + <a href="images/368.png"><img width="500" + src="images/368.png" + alt="FIG. 1. GROUP OF SEAWEEDS."></a><br> + FIG. 1. GROUP OF SEAWEEDS.<br> + (Natural size.)<br> + 1, <i>Ulva Linza.</i> 2, <i>Sphacelaria filicina.</i> 3, + <i>Polysiphonia urceolata.</i> 4, <i>Corallina + officinalis.</i> + </div> + + <p>So it has proved a rich hunting-ground, where summer and + winter, spring and autumn, I find some form to put under my + magic glass. There I can watch it for weeks growing and + multiplying under my care; moved only from the aquarium, where + I keep it supplied with healthy sea-water, to the tiny + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page369"></a>[pg 369]</span> transparent trough in which + I place it for a few hours to see the changes it has + undergone. I could tell you endless tales of transformations + in these tiny lives, but I want to-day to show you a few of + my friends, most of which I brought yesterday fresh from the + pool, and have prepared for you to examine.</p> + + <div class="figright" + style="width:300px;"> + <a href="images/369.png"><img width="300" + src="images/369.png" + alt="FIG. 2. Ulva lactuca, A GREEN-SEAWEED,"></a> + + <p>FIG. 2. <i>Ulva lactuca</i>, A GREEN-SEAWEED, GREATLY + MAGNIFIED TO SHOW STRUCTURE. (<i>After Orested).</i></p> + + <p>s, Spores in the cells, <i>ss</i>, Spores swimming out. + <i>h</i>, Holes through which spores have escaped.</p> + </div> + + <p>Let us begin with seaweeds. I have said that there are three + leading colors in my pool—green, olive, and red—and + these tints mark roughly three kinds of weed, though they occur + in an endless variety of shapes. Here is a piece of the + beautiful pale green seaweed, called the Laver or Sea-Lettuce, + <i>Ulva Linza</i> (1, Fig. 1),<a id="footnotetag4"></a><a href="#footnote4"><sup>4</sup></a> which grows in long ribbons in + a sunny nook in the water. I have placed under the first + microscope a piece of this weed which is just sending out + young seaweeds in the shape of tiny cells, with lashes very + like those we saw coming from the moss-flower, and I have + pressed them in the position in which they would naturally + leave the plant. You will also see on this side several + cells in which these tiny spores are forming, ready to burst + out and swim; for this green weed is merely a collection of + cells, like the single-celled plants on land. Each cell + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page370"></a>[pg 370]</span> can work as a separate + plant; it feeds, grows, and can send out its own young + spores.</p> + + <p>This deep olive-green feathery weed (2, Fig. 1), of which a + piece is magnified under the next microscope (2, Fig. 3), is + very different. It is a higher plant, and works harder for its + living, using the darker rays of sunlight which penetrate into + shady parts of the pool. So it comes to pass that its cells + divide the work. Those of the feathery threads make the food, + while others, growing on short stalks on the shafts of the + feather, make and send out the young spores.</p> + + <p>Lastly, the lovely red threadlike weeds, such as this + <i>Polysiphonia urceolata</i> (3, Fig. 1), carry actual urns on + their stems like those of mosses. In fact, the history of these + urns (see 3, Fig. 3), is much the same in the two classes of + plants, only that instead of the urn being pushed up on a thin + stalk as in the moss, it remains on the seaweed close down to + the stem, when it grows out of the plant-egg, and the tiny + plant is shut in till the spores are ready to swim out.</p> + + <div class="figleft" + style="width:300px;"> + <a href="images/370.png"><img width="300" + src="images/370.png" + alt= + "FIG. 3. THREE SEAWEEDS OF FIG. 1 MUCH MAGNIFIED TO SHOW FRUITS."></a> + + <p>FIG. 3. THREE SEAWEEDS OF FIG. 1 MUCH MAGNIFIED TO SHOW + FRUITS. (<i>Harvey.</i>)</p> + + <p>2, <i>Sphacelaria filicina.</i> 3, <i>Polysiphonia + urceolata.</i> 4, <i>Corallina officinalis.</i></p> + </div> + + <p>The stony corallines (4, Figs. 1 and 3), which build so much + carbonate of lime into their stems, are near relations of the + red seaweeds. There are plenty of them in my pool. Some of + them, of a deep purple color, grow upright in stiff groups + about three or four <span class="pagenum"><a id="page371"></a>[pg 371]</span> inches high; and others, + which form crusts over the stones and weeds, are a pale rose + color; but both kinds, when the plant dies, leaving the + stony skeleton (1, Fig. 4), are a pure white, and used to be + mistaken for corals. They belong to the same order of plants + as the red weeds, which all live in shady nooks in the + pools, and are the highest of their race.</p> + + <div class="figright" + style="width:400px;"> + <a href="images/371.png"><img width="400" + src="images/371.png" + alt= + "FIG. 4. CORALLINE AND SERTULARIA, TO SHOW LIKENESS BETWEEN THE ANIMAL SERTULARIA AND THE PLANT CORALLINE."></a> + + <p>FIG. 4. CORALLINE AND SERTULARIA, TO SHOW LIKENESS + BETWEEN THE ANIMAL SERTULARIA AND THE PLANT + CORALLINE.</p>1, <i>Corallina officinalis.</i> 2, + <i>Sertularia filicula.</i> + </div> + + <p>My pool is full of different forms of these four weeds. The + green ribbons float on the surface rooted to the sides of the + pool, and, as the sun shines upon it, the glittering bubbles + rising from them show that they are working up food out of the + air in the water, and giving off oxygen. The brown weeds lie + chiefly under the shelves of rocks, for they can manage with + less sunlight, and use the darker rays which pass by the green + weeds; and last of all, the red weeds and corallines, small and + delicate in form, line the bottom of the pool in its darkest + nooks.</p> + + <p>And now if I hand round two specimens,—one a + coralline, and the other something you do not yet know,—I + am sure you will say at first sight that they belong to the + same family, and, in fact, if you buy at the seaside a group of + seaweeds gummed on paper, you will most likely get both these + among them. Yet the truth is; that while the coralline (1, Fig. + 4) is a plant, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page372"></a>[pg 372]</span> the other specimen (2), + which is called <i>Sertularia filicula</i>, is an + animal.</p> + + <p>This special sertularian grows up right in my pool on stones + or often on seaweeds, but I have here (Fig. 5) another and much + smaller one which lives literally in millions hanging its cups + downwards. I find it not only under the narrow ledges of the + pool sheltered by the seaweed, but forming a fringe along all + the rocks on each side of the cove near to low-water mark, and + for a long time I passed it by thinking it was of no interest. + But I have long since given up thinking this of anything, + especially in my pool, for my magic glass has taught me that + there is not even a living speck which does not open out into + something marvellous and beautiful. So I chipped off a small + piece of rock and brought the fringe home, and found, when I + hung it up in clear sea-water as I have done over this glass + trough (Fig. 5) and looked at it through the lens, that each + thread of the dense fringe, in itself not a quarter of an inch + deep, turns out to be a tiny sertularian with at least twenty + mouths. You can see this with your pocket lens even as it hangs + here, and when you have examined it you can by and by take off + one thread and put it carefully in the trough. I promise you a + sight of the most beautiful little beings which exist in + nature.</p> + + <div class="figleft" + style="width:350px;"> + <a href="images/372.png"><img width="350" + src="images/372.png" + alt= + "FIG. 5. Sertularia tenella, HANGING FROM A SPLINT OF ROCK OVER A WATER TROUGH."></a> + + <p>FIG. 5. <i>Sertularia tenella</i>, HANGING FROM A SPLINT + OF ROCK OVER A WATER TROUGH. ALSO PIECE ENLARGED TO SHOW + THE ANIMAL ROTRUDING.</p> + </div> + + <p>Come and look at it. It is a horny-branched stem + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page373"></a>[pg 373]</span> with a double row of tiny + cups all along each side. Out of these cups there appear a + row of tiny cups all along each side (see Fig. 5), Out of + these cups there appear from time to time sixteen minute + transparent tentacles as fine as spun glass, which wave + about in the water. If you shake the glass a little, in an + instant each crystal star vanishes into its cup, to come out + again a few minutes later; so that now here, now there, the + delicate animal-flowers spread out on each side of the stem, + and the tree is covered with moving beings. These tentacles + are feelers, which lash food into a mouth and stomach in + each cup, where it is digested and passed, through a hole in + the bottom, along a jelly thread which runs down the stem + and joins all the mouths together. In this way the food is + distributed all over the tree, which is, in fact, one animal + with many feeding-cups. Some day I will show you one of + these cups with the tentacles stretched out and mounted on a + slide, so that you can examine a tentacle with a very strong + magnifying power. You will then see that it is dotted over + with cells, in which are coiled fine threads. The animal + uses these threads to paralyze the creatures on which it + feeds, for at the base of each thread there is a poison + gland.</p> + + <p>In the larger Sertularia the whole branched tree is + connected by jelly threads, running through the stem, and all + the thousands of mouths are spread out in the water. One large + form called <i>Sertularia cupressina</i> grows sometimes three + feet high and bears as many as a hundred thousand cups, with + living mouths, on its branches.</p> + + <p>The next of my minute friends I can only show to + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page374"></a>[pg 374]</span> the class in a diagram, but + you will see it under the fourth microscope by and by. I had + great trouble in finding it yesterday, though I know its + haunts upon the green weed, for it is so minute and + transparent that even when the weed is in a trough a + magnifying-glass will scarcely detect it. And I must warn + you that if you want to know any of the minute creatures we + are studying, you must visit one place constantly. You may + in a casual way find many of them on seaweed, or in the damp + ooze and mud, but it will be by chance only; to look for + them with any certainty you must take trouble in making + their acquaintance.</p> + + <div class="figleft" + style="width:300px;"> + <a href="images/374.png"><img width="300" + src="images/374.png" + alt= + "FIG. 6. Thuricolla folliculata and Chilomonas amygdalum."></a> + + <p>FIG. 6. <i>Thuricolla folliculata</i> and <i>Chilomonas + amygdalum</i>. (<i>Saville Kent</i>.)</p> + + <p>1, <i>Thuricolla</i> erect. 2, Retracted. 3, Dividing. + 4, <i>Chilomonas amygdalum. hc,</i> Horny carapace, + <i>cv</i>, Contractile vesicle. <i>v</i> Closing + valves.</p> + </div> + + <p>Turning then to the diagram (Fig. 6) I will describe it as I + hope you will see it under the microscope—a curious, + tiny, perfectly transparent open-mouthed vase standing upright + on the weed, and having an equally transparent being rising up + in it and waving its tiny lashes in the water. This is really + all one animal, the vase <i>hc</i> being the horny covering or + carapace of the body, which last stands up like a tube in the + centre. If you watch carefully, you may even see the minute + atoms of food twisting round inside the tube until they are + digested, after they have been swept in at the wide open mouth + by the whirling lashes. You will see this <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page375"></a>[pg 375]</span> more clearly if you put a + little rice-flour, very minutely powdered and colored by + carmine, into the water; for you can trace these red atoms + into some round spaces called <i>vacuoles</i> which are + dotted over the body of the animal, and are really globules + of watery fluid in which the food is probably partly + digested.</p> + + <p>You will notice, however, one round clear space <i>(cv)</i> + into which they do not go, and after a time you will be able to + observe that this round spot closes up or contracts very + quickly, and then expands again very slowly. As it expands it + fills with a clear fluid, and naturalists have not yet decided + exactly what work it does. It may serve the animal either for + breathing, or as a very simple heart, making the fluids + circulate in the tube. The next interesting point about this + little being is the way it retreats into its sheltering vase. + Even while you are watching, it is quite likely it may all at + once draw itself down to the bottom as in No. 2, and folding + down the valves <i>w</i> of horny teeth which grow on each + side, shut itself in from some fancied danger. Another very + curious point is that, besides sending forth young ones, these + creatures multiply by dividing in two (see No. 3, Fig. 6), each + one closing its own part of the vase into a new home.</p> + + <p>There are hundreds of these Infusoria, as they are called, + in my pond, some with vases, some without, some fixed to weeds + and stones, others swimming about freely. Even in the + water-trough in which this Thuricolla stands, I saw several + smaller forms, and the next microscope has a trough filled with + the minutest form of all, called a Monad. These are so small + that two thousand of them could lie side by side in an inch; + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page376"></a>[pg 376]</span> that is, if you could make + them lie at all, for they are the most restless little + beings, darting hither and thither, scarcely even halting + except to turn back. And yet though there are so many of + them, and as far as we know they have no organs of sight, + they never run up against each other, but glide past more + cleverly than any clear-sighted fish. These creatures are + mostly to be found among decaying seaweed, and though they + are so tiny, you can still see distinctly the clear space + contracting and expanding within them.</p> + + <div class="figleft" + style="width:350px;"> + <a href="images/376.png"><img width="350" + src="images/376.png" + alt="FIG. 7. LIVING DIATOMS."></a><br> + FIG. 7. LIVING DIATOMS. + + <p><i>a, Cocconema lanceolatum. b, Bacillaria paradoxa. c, + Gomphonema marinum. d, Diatoma hyalina</i>.</p> + </div> + + <p>But if there are so many thousands of mouths to feed, on the + tree-like Sertulariæ as well as in all these Infusoria, where + does the food come from? Partly from the numerous atoms of + decaying life all around, and the minute eggs of animals and + spores of plants; but besides these, the pool is full of minute + living plants—small jelly masses with solid coats of + flint which are moulded into most lovely shapes. Plants formed + of jelly and flint! You will think I am joking, but I am not. + These plants, called Diatoms, which live both in salt and fresh + water, are single cells feeding and growing just like those we + took from the water-butt, only that instead of a soft covering + they build up <span class="pagenum"><a id="page377"></a>[pg 377]</span> a flinty skeleton. They are + so small, that many of them must be magnified to fifty times + their real size before you can even see them distinctly. Yet + the skeletons of these almost invisible plants are carved + and chiselled in the most delicate patterns. I showed you a + group of these in our lecture on magic glasses, and now I + have brought a few living ones that we may learn to know + them. The diagram (Fig. 7) shows the chief forms you will + see on the different slides.</p> + + <p>The first one, <i>Sacillaria paradoxa</i> (<i>b</i>, Fig. + 7), looks like a number of rods clinging one to another in a + string, but each one of these is a single-celled plant with a + jelly cell surrounding the flinty skeleton. You will see that + they move to and fro over each other in the water.</p> + + <p>The next two forms, <i>a</i> and <i>c</i>, look much more + like plants, for the cells arrange themselves on a jelly stem, + which by and by disappears, leaving only the separate flint + skeletons. The last form, <i>d</i>, is something midway between + the other forms, the separate cells hang on to each other and + also on to a straight jelly stem.</p> + + <div class="figright" + style="width:175px;"> + <a href="images/377.png"><img width="175" + src="images/377.png" + alt="FIG. 8. A DIATOM"></a> + + <p>FIG. 8. A DIATOM (<i>Diatoma vulgare</i>) GROWING.</p> + + <p><i>a, b,</i> Flint skeleton inside the jelly-cell. <i>a, + c</i> and <i>d, b</i>, Two flint skeletons formed by new + valves, <i>c</i> and <i>d</i>, forming within the first + skeleton.</p> + </div> + + <p>Another species of Diatoma (Fig. 8) called <i>Diatoma + vulgare</i>, is a very simple and common form, and will help to + explain how these plants grow. The two flinty valves <i>a, + b</i> inside the cell are not quite the same size; the older + one <i>a</i> is larger than the younger one <i>b</i> and fits + over it like the cover of a pill-box. As the plant grows, the + cell enlarges and forms two <span class="pagenum"><a name= + "page378" + id="page378"></a>[pg 378]</span> more valves, one <i>c</i> + fitting into the cover <i>a</i>, so as to make a complete + box <i>ac</i>, and a second, <i>d</i>, back to back with + <i>c</i>, fitting into the valve <i>b</i>, and making + another complete <i>bd</i>. This goes on very rapidly, and + in this plant each new cell separates as it is formed, and + the free diatoms move about quite actively in the water.</p> + + <p>If you consider for a moment, you will see that, as the new + valves always fit into the old ones, each must be smaller than + the last, and so there comes a time when the valves have become + too small to go on increasing. Then the plant must begin + afresh. So the two halves of the last cell open, and throwing + out their flinty skeletons, cover themselves with a thin jelly + layer, and form a new cell which grows larger than any of the + old ones. These, which are spore-cells, then form flinty valves + inside, and the whole thing begins again.</p> + + <p>Now, though the plants themselves die, or become the food of + minute animals, the flinty skeletons are not destroyed, but go + on accumulating in the waters of the ponds, lakes, rivers, and + seas, all over the world. Untold millions have no doubt + crumbled to dust and gone back into the waters, but untold + millions also have survived. The towns of Berlin in Europe and + of Richmond in the United States are actually built upon ground + called "infusorial earth," composed almost entirely of valves + of these minute diatoms which have accumulated to a thickness + of more than eighty feet! Those under Berlin are fresh-water + forms, and must have lived in a lake, while those of Richmond + belong to salt-water forms. Every inch of the ground under + those cities represents thousands and thousands of living + plants <span class="pagenum"><a id="page379"></a>[pg 379]</span> which flourished in ages + long gone by, and were no larger than those you will see + presently under the microscope.</p> + + <p>These are a very few of the microscopic inhabitants of my + pond, but, as you will confuse them if I show you too many, we + will conclude with two rather larger specimens, and examine + them carefully. The first, called the Cydippe, is a lovely, + transparent living ball, which I want to explain to you because + it is so wondrously beautiful. The second, the Sea-mat or + Flustra, looks like a crumpled drab-colored seaweed, but is + really composed of many thousands of grottos, the homes of tiny + sea-animals.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" + style="width:500px;"> + <a href="images/379.jpg"><img width="500" + src="images/379.jpg" + alt="FIG. 9. Cydippe Pileus."></a><br> + FIG. 9. <i>Cydippe Pileus</i>. + + <p>1, Animal with tentacles <i>t</i>, bearing small + tendrils <i>t'</i>. 2, Body of animal enlarged. <i>m</i>, + Mouth. <i>c</i>, Digestive cavity. <i>s</i>, Sac into which + the tentacles are withdrawn. <i>p</i>, Bands with comb-like + plates. 3, Portion of a band enlarged to show the moving + plates <i>p</i>.</p> + </div> + + <p>Let us take the Cydippe first (1, Fig. 9). I have six here, + each in a separate tumbler, and could have brought many more, + for when I dipped my net in the pool yesterday such numbers + were caught in it that I believe the retreating tide must just + have left a shoal behind. Put a tumbler on the desk in front of + you, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page380"></a>[pg 380]</span> and if the light falls well + upon it you will see a transparent ball about the size of a + large pea marked with eight bright bands, which begin at the + lower end of the ball and reach nearly to the top, dividing + the outside into sections like the ribs of a melon. The + creature is so perfectly transparent that you can count all + the eight bands.</p> + + <p>At the top of the ball is a slight bulge which is the mouth + (<i>m</i> 2, Fig. 9), and from it, inside the ball hangs a long + bag or stomach, which opens below into a cavity, from which two + canals branch out, one on each side, and these divide again + into four canals which go one into each of the tubes running + down the bands. From this cavity the food, which is digested in + the stomach, is carried by the canals all over the body. The + smaller tubes which branch out of these canals cannot be seen + clearly without a very strong lens, and the only other parts + you can discern in this transparent ball are two long sacs on + each side of the lower end. These are the tentacle sacs, in + which are coiled up the tentacles, which we shall describe + presently. Lastly you can notice that the bands outside the + globe are broader in the middle than at the ends, and are + striped across by a number of ridges.</p> + + <p>In moving the tumblers the water has naturally been shaken, + and the creature being alarmed will probably at first remain + motionless. But very soon it will begin to play in the water, + rising and falling, and swimming gracefully from side to side. + Now you will notice a curious effect, for the bands will + glitter and become tinged with prismatic colors, till, as it + moves more and more rapidly these colors, reflected in the + jelly, seem <span class="pagenum"><a id="page381"></a>[pg 381]</span> to tinge the whole ball + with colors like those on a soap-bubble, while from the two + sacs below come forth two long transparent threads like spun + glass. At first these appear to be simple threads, but as + they gradually open out to about four or five inches, + smaller threads uncoil on each side of the line till there + are about fifty on each line. These short tendrils are never + still for long; as the main threads wave to and fro, some of + the shorter ones coil up and hang like tiny beads, then + these uncoil and others roll up, so that these graceful + floating lines are never two seconds alike.</p> + + <p>We do not really know their use. Sometimes the creature + anchors itself by them, rising and falling as they stretch out + or coil up; but more often they float idly behind it in the + water. At first you would perhaps think that they served to + drive the ball through the water, but this is done by a special + apparatus. The cross ridges which we noticed on the bands are + really flat comb-like plates (<i>p</i>, Fig. 9), of which there + are about twenty or thirty on each band; and these vibrate very + rapidly, so that two hundred or more paddles drive the tiny + ball through the water. This is the cause of the prismatic + colors; for iridescent tints are produced by the play of light + upon the glittering plates, as they incessantly change their + angle. Sometimes they move all at once, sometimes only a few at + a time, and it is evident the creature controls them at + will.</p> + + <p>This lovely fairy-like globe, with its long floating + tentacles and rainbow tints, was for a long time classed with + the jelly-fish; but it really is most nearly related to the + sea-anemones, as it has a true central cavity which acts as a + stomach, and many other points in common <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page382"></a>[pg 382]</span> with the <i>Actinozoa</i>. + We cannot help wondering, as the little being glides hither + and thither, whether it can see where it is going. It has + nerves of a low kind which start from a little dark spot + (<i>ng</i>) exactly at the south pole of the ball, and at + that point a sense-organ of some kind exists, but what + impression the creature gains from it of the world outside + we cannot tell.</p> + + <p>I am afraid you may think it dull to turn from such a + beautiful being as this, to the gray leaf which looks only like + a dead dry seaweed; yet you will be wrong, for a more wonderful + history attaches to this crumpled dead-looking leaf than to the + lovely jelly-globe.</p> + + <div class="figleft" + style="width:300px;"> + <a href="images/382.png"><img width="300" + src="images/382.png" + alt="FIG. 10. THE SEA-MAT OR FLUSTRA."></a> + + <p>FIG. 10. THE SEA-MAT OR FLUSTRA (<i>Flustra + foliacea</i>).</p> + + <p>1, Natural size. 2, Much magnified, <i>s</i>, Slit + caused by drawing in of the animal <i>a</i>.</p> + </div> + + <p>First of all I will pass round pieces of the dry leaf (1, + Fig. 10), and while you are getting them I will tell you where + I found the living ones. Great masses of the Flustra, as it is + called, line the bottom and sides of my pool. They grow in + tufts, standing upright on the rock, and looking exactly like + hard gray seaweeds, while there is nothing to lead you to + suspect that they are anything else. Yesterday I chipped off + very carefully a piece of rock with a tuft upon it, and have + kept it since in a glass globe by itself with sea-water, for + the little creatures living in this marine city require a very + good supply of healthy water and air. I have called it a + "marine <span class="pagenum"><a id="page383"></a>[pg 383]</span> city," and now I will tell + you why. Take the piece in your hand and run your finger + gently up and down it; you will glide quite comfortably from + the lower to the higher part of the leaf, but when you come + back you will feel your finger catch slightly on a rough + surface. Your pocket lens will show you why this is, for if + you look through it at the surface of the leaf you will see + it is not smooth, but composed of hundreds of tiny alcoves + with arched tops; and on each side of these tops stand two + short blunt spines, making four in all, pointing upwards, so + as partly to cover the alcove above. As your finger went up + it glided over the spines, but on coming back it met their + points. This is all you can see in the dead specimen; I must + show you the rest by diagrams, and by and by under the + microscope.</p> + + <p>First, then, in the living specimen which I have here, those + alcoves are not open as in the dead piece, but covered over + with a transparent skin, in which, near the top of the alcove + just where the curve begins, is a slit (<i>s</i> 2, Fig. 10) + Unfortunately, the membrane covering this alcove is too dense + for you to distinguish the parts within. Presently, however, if + you are watching a piece of this living leaf in a flat + water-cell under the microscope, you will see the slit slowly + open, and begin to turn as it were inside out, exactly like the + finger of a glove, which has been pushed in at the tip, + gradually rises up when you put your finger inside it. As this + goes on, a bundle of threads appears, at first closed like a + bud, but gradually opening out into a crown of tentacles, each + one clothed with hairs. Then you will see that the slit was not + exactly a slit after all, but the round edge where the sac was + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page384"></a>[pg 384]</span> pushed in. Ah! you will + say, you are now showing me a polyp like those on the + sertularian tree. Not so fast, my friend; you have not + studied what is still under the covering skin and hidden in + the living animal. I have, however, prepared a slide with + this membrane removed and there you can observe the + different parts, and learn that each one of these alcoves + contains a complete animal, and not merely one among many + mouths, like the polyp on Sertularia.</p> + + <div class="figleft" + style="width:250px;"> + <a href="images/384.jpg"><img width="250" + src="images/384.jpg" + alt= + "FIG. 11. DIAGRAM OF THE ANIMAL IN THE FLUSTRA OR SEA-MAT."></a> + + <p>FIG. 11. DIAGRAM OF THE ANIMAL IN THE FLUSTRA OR + SEA-MAT.</p> + + <p>1, Animal protruding. 2, Animal retracted in the sheath, + <i>sh</i>, Covering sheath, <i>s</i>, Slit. <i>t</i>, + Tentacles. <i>m</i>, Mouth. <i>th</i>, Throat, <i>st</i>, + Stomach. <i>i</i>, Intestine, <i>r</i>, Retractor muscle, + <i>e</i>, Egg-forming parts. <i>g</i>, Nerve-ganglion.</p> + </div> + + <p>Each of these little beings (<i>a</i>, Fig. 10) living in + its alcove has a mouth, throat, stomach, intestine, muscles, + and nerves starting from the ganglion of nervous matter, + besides all that is necessary for producing eggs and sending + forth young ones. You can trace all these under the microscope + (see 2, Fig. 11) as the creature lies curiously doubled up in + its bed, with its body bent in a loop; the intestine <i>i</i>, + out of which the refuse food passes, coming back close up to + the slit. When it is at rest, the top of the sac in which it + lies is pulled in by the retractor muscle <i>r</i>, and looks, + as I have said, like the finger of a glove with the top pushed + in. When it wishes to feed this top is drawn out by muscles + running <span class="pagenum"><a id="page385"></a>[pg 385]</span> round the sac, and the + tentacles open and wave in the water (1, Fig. 11).</p> + + <p>Look now at the alcoves, the homes of these animals; see how + tiny they are and how closely they fit together. Mr. Gosse, the + naturalist, has reckoned that there are six thousand, seven + hundred and twenty alcoves in a square inch; then if you turn + the leaf over you will see that there is another set, fixed + back to back with these, on the other side, making in all, + thirteen thousand, four hundred and forty alcoves. Now a + moderate-sized leaf of flustra measures about three square + inches, taking all the rounded lobes into account, so you will + see we get forty thousand, three hundred and twenty as a rough + estimate of the number of beings on this one leaf. But if you + look at this tuft I have brought, you will find it is composed + of twelve such leaves, and this after all is a very small part + of the mass growing round my pool. Was I wrong, then, when I + said my miniature ocean contains as many millions of beings as + there are stars in the heavens?</p> + + <p>You will want to know how these leaves grew, and it is in + this way. First a little free swimming animal, a mere living + sac provided with lashes, settles down and grows into one + little horny alcove, with its live creature inside, which in + time sends off from it three to five buds, forming alcoves all + round the top and sides of the first one, growing on to it. + These again bud out, and you can thus easily understand that, + in this way, in time a good-sized leaf is formed. Meanwhile the + creatures also send forth new swimming cells, which settle down + near to begin new leaves, and thus <span class= + "pagenum"><a id="page386"></a>[pg 386]</span> a tuft is formed; and long + after the beings in earlier parts of the leaf have died and + left their alcoves empty, those round the margin are still + alive and spreading....</p> + + <p>If you can trace the spore-cells and urns in the seaweeds, + observe the polyps in the Sertularia, and count the number of + mouths on a branch of my animal fringe (Sertularia tenella); if + you make acquaintance with the Thuricolla in its vase, and are + fortunate enough to see one divide in two; if you learn to know + some of the beautiful forms of diatoms, and can picture to + yourself the life of the tiny inhabitants of the Flustra; then + you will have used your microscope with some effect, and be + prepared for an expedition to my pool, where we will go + together some day to seek new treasures.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" + style="width:400px;"> + <a href="images/386.png"><img width="400" + src="images/386.png" + alt="page decoration"></a> + </div> + + <p> </p> + + <p> </p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page387"></a>[pg 387]</span> + + <h2>NOTES</h2> + + <p><span class="sc">Agassiz, J.L.R.</span>, naturalist, born in + Switzerland, 1807; died, Cambridge, Mass., 1873. In 1846 he + came to America, after having gained a high reputation in + Europe, to deliver a course of lectures in Boston "On the Plan + of the Creation," and met with such success that he spent the + rest of his days there, declining an invitation to return to + his native country and to Paris. In 1848 he was elected to the + chair of Natural History at Harvard. In 1850-51 he went on an + expedition to the Florida Reefs. In 1858 he founded and + organized the Museum of Comparative Zoölogy at + Cambridge—and, later on, went on his important voyage to + Brazil. In 1872 he founded and organized the summer school of + Natural History at Buzzard's Bay. He wrote "The Fishes of + Brazil," "A Study of Glaciers," "Natural History of the Fresh + Water Fishes of Central Europe," "Contributions to the Natural + History of the United States" (unfinished), and with his wife, + "A Journey in Brazil."</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Ball, Prof. Sir R.S.</span>, English + astronomer, born in Dublin, 1840. Was appointed Lord Ross's + astronomer in 1865. Professor of mathematics and mechanics at + the Royal Irish College of Science in 1873, and is now + astronomer royal for Ireland. He is the author of "The Story of + the Heavens," "Starland," etc., and is well known as a + successful lecturer on astronomical subjects in this + country.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Darwin, Charles R.</span>, English + naturalist, born, 1809; died, 1882. He first formulated what is + known as the principle of Natural Selection. In 1831 he went in + the famous scientific voyage of the <i>Beagle</i> as + naturalist, and afterwards published an account of it. He was + one of the most thorough, careful, and painstaking scientific + men of this or any age. He is the author of many famous books. + "The Origin of Species," "The Descent of Man," "Insectivorous + Plants," "The Power of Movement in Plants," "The Structure and + Distribution of Coral Reefs," "Geological Observations on + Volcanic Islands." "The Formation of Vegetable Mould" was his + last published work.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Flammarion, C.</span>, famous French + astronomer, born, 1842. He has written many popular works on + astronomy, most of which have been translated into English. + "The Stars," "The World Before the Creation," "Uranus," + "Comets," "Popular Astronomy," are among his best known.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Holden, Prof. E.S.</span>, American + astronomer, born at St. Louis, 1846. Lieutenant engineers, + U.S.A., 1870-73; professor mathematics, U.S.N., 1873-81; + director Washburn Observatory, 1881-85; president University of + California, 1883-88; director Lick Observatory, 1888-98. Is a + member of several learned societies of Europe. Is the author of + a "Life of William Herschel," "A Hand-book of the Lick + Observatory," "Earth and Sky," "Primer of Heraldry," + "Elementary Astronomy," "Family of the Sun," "Essays in + Astronomy," "Stories of the Great Astronomers," etc.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Huxley, T.H.</span>, English biologist, + born, 1825; died, 1895. Went on an exploring expedition on the + <i>Rattlesnake</i>, and devoted himself to the study of marine + life. For his scientific researches he received many honors. + His lectures were models of clearness, and he could simplify + the most difficult subjects. He strongly advocated Darwin's + views and evolutionist doctrines. His writings are numerous and + many of them technical. Among some of the most popular are + "Man's Place in Nature," his "Lay Sermons," "Critiques and + Addresses," "American Addresses," "Physiography," "Science and + Culture," "Lessons in Elementary Physiology," + etc.</p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page388"></a>[pg 388]</span> + + <p><span class="sc">Kingsley, C.</span>, English clergyman and + author, born, 1819; died, 1875. Wrote "Westward, Ho!" which + every boy should read, "Hypatia," "Alton Locke," "Hereward the + Wake," etc., and a charming book of travel, entitled, "At + Last." His "Water Babies" is exceedingly popular, and his + "Heroes" is a book much appreciated by the boys and girls + alike.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Proctor, R.A.</span>, English astronomer, + born, 1834; died, 1888. He was a very popular writer, and + lectured on astronomical subjects in this country, and in + England and her colonies. A memorial teaching observatory is + erected in his honor near San Diego, Cal. He was a man of + untiring industry, an athlete, a musician, and a chess-player. + His books are numerous. Among them are "Half Hours with the + Telescope," "Other Worlds than Ours," "Light Science for + Leisure Hours," "The Expanse of Heaven," "The Moon," "The + Borderland of Science," "Our Place Among Infinites," "Myths and + Marvels of Astronomy," "The Universe of Suns," "Other Suns than + Ours," etc.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Shaler, N.S.</span>, professor of geology + at Harvard. Born Newport, Ky., 1841. Served in the Union Army + during the Civil War. Instructor zoölogy, geology, and + paleontology, Lawrence Scientific School, till 1887. Since then + at Harvard. Is the author of "Kentucky a Pioneer Commonwealth," + "The Story of Our Continent," "The Interpretation of Nature," + "Feature of Coasts and Oceans," "Domesticated Animals," "The + Individual," "Study of Life and Death," etc.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Thompson, Sir C. Wyville</span>, English + zoölogist, born, 1830; died, 1882. He conducted scientific + dredging expeditions in the <i>Lightning</i> and + <i>Porcupine</i>, 1868-69, and was the scientific head of the + famous voyage of 68,900 miles in the <i>Challenger</i> for + deep-sea explorations (1872-76). His books are "The Depths of + the Sea," and "The Voyage of the Challenger."</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Tyndall, John</span>, English physicist, + born, 1820. Began his original researches in 1847, when teacher + of physics in Queenwood College. He and Professor Huxley + visited the Alps together, and they wrote a work on the + structure and nature of glaciers. It is impossible to detail + the work he has done; but his inquiries and experiments in + connection with light, heat, sound, and electricity have all + had practical results. He is a popular lecturer, and devoted + the proceeds of a lecturing tour in this country to founding + scholarships at Harvard and Columbia Colleges, for students + devoting themselves to original research. Among his books are + "Glaciers of the Alps," "Mountaineering," "Heat as a Mode of + Motion," "On Radiation," "Hours of Exercise in the Alps," + "Fragments of Science," "The Floating Matter of the Air," and + volumes on Light, Sound, Electricity, and the forms of + water.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Wallace, A.R.</span>, English naturalist + and traveller, born 1822; was educated as land surveyor and + architect, but afterwards devoted himself entirely to Natural + History. He explored the Valley of the Amazon and Rio Negro, + 1848-52, and travelled in the Malay Archipelago and Papua, + 1854-62, publishing the results of his explorations later on. + He also wrote "Contributions to the Theory of Natural + Selection," "Miracles and Modern Spiritualism," "Geographical + Distribution of Animals," "Tropical Nature," "Island Life," + etc.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Giberne, Agnes</span>, English + author—living. Began to write at seven years old. Her + first story for children was published when she was only + seventeen. Her stories for children have not been so popular as + her scientific writings, "Sun, Moon, and Stars," "The Starry + Skies," "Among the Stars," "The Ocean of Air," "The World's + Foundations," "Radiant Suns," etc.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Wilson, Andrew</span>, English physiologist + and lecturer, born, 1852. Is the author of "Studies on Life and + Sense," "Leisure Time Studies," "Science Stories," "Chapters on + Evolution," "Wild Animals," "Brain and Nerve," etc., and is a + constant contributor on scientific subjects to the magazines + and newspapers, contributing weekly "Science Jottings" to the + "Illustrated London News"</p> + + <p> </p> + + <p> </p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page389"></a>[pg 389]</span> + + <h2>WONDERS OF EARTH, SEA, AND SKY</h2> + + <h3>SUGGESTIONS FOR SUPPLEMENTARY READING</h3> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Wonder Stories of Science</p> + + <p class="i2">D.N. BEACH</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Wonders in Monsterland</p> + + <p class="i2">EDWARD W.D. CUMING</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Ocean Wonders</p> + + <p class="i2">W.E. DAMON</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Among the Stars</p> + + <p class="i2">AGNES GIBERNE</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>The Scenery of the Heavens</p> + + <p class="i2">JOHN ELLARD GORR</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Coal and the Coal Miners</p> + + <p class="i2">HOMER GREENE</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Wonders of the Moon</p> + + <p class="i2">A. GUILLEMIN</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>The Sea and Its Living Wonders.</p> + + <p class="i2">G. HARTWIG</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>The Wonders of Plant Life Under the Microscope</p> + + <p class="i2">SOPHIE B. HERRICK</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Marvels of Animal Life</p> + + <p class="i2">CHARLES F. HOLDER</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Old Ocean</p> + + <p class="i2">ERNEST INGERSOLL</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Modern Seven Wonders of the World</p> + + <p class="i2">C. KENT</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Madam How and Lady Why</p> + + <p class="i2">CHARLES KINGSLEY</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Wonders of Optics</p> + + <p class="i2">F. MARION</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>The Wonders of Science</p> + + <p class="i2">HENRY MAYHEW</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Wonders of Man and Nature</p> + + <p class="i2">E. MENAULT</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>A Century of Electricity</p> + + <p class="i2">T.C. MENDENHALL</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>The Orbs of Heaven</p> + + <p class="i2">ORMSBY S. MITCHELL</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Under Foot</p> + + <p class="i2">LAURA D. NICHOLS</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Myths and Marvels of Astronomy</p> + + <p class="i2">R.A. PROCTOR</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>The Wonders of the World</p> + + <p class="i2">CHARLES G. ROSENBERG</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>The Wonders of Nature</p> + + <p class="i2">PROFESSOR RUDOLPH</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Volcanoes of North America</p> + + <p class="i2">ISRAEL COOK RUSSELL</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Aspects of the Earth</p> + + <p class="i2">N.S. SHALER</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Wonders of the Bird World</p> + + <p class="i2">R.B. SHARPE</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>The Wonders of Water</p> + + <p class="i2">GASTON TISSANDIER</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Total Eclipses of the Sun</p> + + <p class="i2">MABEL L. TODD</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Wonders of Insect Life</p> + + <p class="i2">JOSEPH C. WILLET</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p> </p> + <hr> + + <blockquote class="footnote"> + <a id="footnote1"></a><b>Footnote 1:</b> + <a href="#footnotetag1">(return)</a> + + <p>Copyright, 1884, by N.S. Shaler.</p> + </blockquote> + + <blockquote class="footnote"> + <a id="footnote2"></a><b>Footnote 2:</b> + <a href="#footnotetag2">(return)</a> + + <p>During the cruise of H.M.S. Bull-dog, commanded by Sir + Leopold M'Clintock, in 1860, living star-fish were brought + up, clinging to the lowest part of the sounding-line, from + a depth of 1260 fathoms, midway between Cape Farewell, in + Greenland, and the Rockall banks. Dr. Wallich ascertained + that the sea-bottom at this point consisted of the ordinary + Globigerina ooze, and that the stomachs of the star-fishes + were full of Globigerinæ. This discovery removes all + objections to the existence of living Globigerinæ at great + depths, which are based upon the supposed difficulty of + maintaining animal life under such conditions; and it + throws the burden of proof upon those who object to the + supposition that the Globigerinæ live and die where they + are found.</p> + </blockquote> + + <blockquote class="footnote"> + <a id="footnote3"></a><b>Footnote 3:</b> + <a href="#footnotetag3">(return)</a> + + <p>I have recently traced out the development of the + "coccoliths" from a diameter of 1/7000th of an inch up to + their largest size (which is about 1/1600th), and no longer + doubt that they are produced by independent organisms, + which, like the Globigerinæ, live and die at the bottom of + the sea.</p> + </blockquote> + + <blockquote class="footnote"> + <a id="footnote4"></a><b>Footnote 4:</b> + <a href="#footnotetag4">(return)</a> + + <p>The slice given in Fig. 2 is from a broader-leaved form, + <i>U. lactuca</i>, because this species, being composed of + only one layer of cells, is better seen. <i>Ulva Linza</i> + is composed of two layers of cells.</p> + </blockquote> + +<p> </p> + +<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 15884 ***</div> +</body> +</html> + diff --git a/15884-h/images/001.png b/15884-h/images/001.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..47ef79b --- /dev/null +++ b/15884-h/images/001.png diff --git a/15884-h/images/005.png b/15884-h/images/005.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..5944021 --- /dev/null +++ b/15884-h/images/005.png diff --git a/15884-h/images/006.png b/15884-h/images/006.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..8584bfd --- /dev/null +++ b/15884-h/images/006.png diff --git a/15884-h/images/007.png b/15884-h/images/007.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..0be2b52 --- /dev/null +++ b/15884-h/images/007.png diff --git a/15884-h/images/010.png b/15884-h/images/010.png Binary files 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