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diff --git a/15683-8.txt b/15683-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..8cb2d49 --- /dev/null +++ b/15683-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,4826 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The High School Failures, by Francis P. Obrien + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The High School Failures + A Study of the School Records of Pupils Failing in Academic or + Commercial High School Subjects + + +Author: Francis P. Obrien + +Release Date: April 22, 2005 [EBook #15683] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE HIGH SCHOOL FAILURES *** + + + + +Produced by Martin Agren, Lynn Bornath and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team. + + + + + +THE HIGH SCHOOL FAILURES + + +A STUDY OF THE SCHOOL RECORDS OF PUPILS FAILING IN ACADEMIC OR +COMMERCIAL HIGH SCHOOL SUBJECTS + + +By + +FRANCIS P. OBRIEN + + +Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of +Doctor of Philosophy in the Faculty of Philosophy, Columbia University + + + PUBLISHED BY + Teachers College, Columbia University + NEW YORK CITY + 1919 + + +Copyright, 1919, by FRANCIS P. OBRIEN + + + + +PREFACE + + +Grateful acknowledgment is due the principals of each of the high +schools whose records are included in this study, for the courteous and +helpful attitude which they and their assistants manifested in the work +of securing the data. Thanks are due Dr. John S. Tildsley for his +generous permission to consult the records in each or any of the New +York City high schools. But the fullest appreciation is felt and +acknowledged for the ready criticism and encouragement received from +Professor Thomas H. Briggs and Professor George D. Strayer at each +stage from the inception to the completion of this study. + +F.P.O. + + + + +CONTENTS + + PAGE +I.--THE GENERAL INTRODUCTION OF THE SUBJECT + +1. The Relevance of This Study 1 + +2. The Meaning of Failure in This Study 3 + +3. Scope and Content of the Field Covered 4 + +4. Sources of the Data Employed 6 + +5. Selection and Reliability of These Sources 8 + +6. Summary of Chapter, and References 11 + + + +II.--HOW EXTENSIVE ARE THE FAILURES OF THE HIGH SCHOOL PUPILS? + +1. A Distribution of All Entrants in Reference to Failure 12 + +2. The Later Distribution of the Pupils by Semesters 14 + +3. The Distribution of the Failures--by Ages and by Semesters 14 + +4. Distribution of the Failures by Subjects 19 + +5. The Pupils Dropping Out--Time and Age 24 + +6. Summary of Chapter, and References 27 + + +III.--WHAT BASIS IS DISCOVERABLE FOR A PROGNOSIS OF THE OCCURRENCE + OR THE NUMBER OF FAILURES? + +1. Some Possible Factors--Attendance, Mental and Physical + Defects, Size of Classes 29 + +2. Employment of the School Entering Age for the Purpose + of Prognosis 31 + +3. The Percentage of Failure at Each Age on the Possibility + of Failures for That Age 36 + +4. The Initial Record in High School 37 + +5. Prognosis of Failure by Subject Selection 39 + +6. The Time Period and the Number of Failures 40 + +7. Similarity of Facts for Boys and Girls 45 + +8. Summary of Chapter, and References 45 + + +IV.--HOW MUCH IS GRADUATION OR THE PERSISTENCE IN SCHOOL CONDITIONED + BY THE OCCURRENCE OR BY THE NUMBER OF FAILURES? + +1. Comparison of the Failing and the Non-failing Groups + in Reference to Graduation and Persistence 48 + +2. The Number of Failures and the Years Required to Graduate 49 + +3. The Number of Failures and the Semesters of Dropping + Out, for Non-graduates 51 + +4. The Percentages That the Non-graduate Groups Form of + the Pupils Who Have Each Successively Higher Number + of Failures 55 + +5. Time Extension for the Failing Graduates 56 + +6. Summary of Chapter, and References 57 + + +V.--ARE THE SCHOOL AGENCIES EMPLOYED IN REMEDYING THE FAILURES + ADEQUATE FOR THE PURPOSE? + +1. Repetition as a Remedy for Failures 60 + a. Size of Schedule and Results of Repeating. + b. Later Grades in the Same Kind of Subjects, + Following Repetition and Without it. + c. The Grades in Repeated Subjects and in New Work. + d. The Number and Results of Identical Repetitions. + +2. Discontinuance of the Subject or Course, and the + Substitution of Others 68 + +3. The Employment of School Examinations 69 + +4. The Service Rendered by the Regents' Examinations in + New York 70 + +5. Continuation of Subjects Without Repetition or Examination 73 + +6. Summary of Chapter, and References 74 + + +VI.--DO THE FAILURES REPRESENT A LACK OF CAPABILITY OR OF + FITNESS FOR HIGH SCHOOL WORK ON THE PART OF THOSE PUPILS? + +1. Some Are Evidently Misfits 76 + +2. Most of the Failing Pupils Lack Neither Ability nor + Earnestness 77 + +3. The School Emphasis and the School Failures Are Both + Culminative in Particular School Subjects 81 + +4. An Indictment Against the Subject-Matter and the Teaching + Ends as Factors in Producing Failures 83 + +5. Summary of Chapter, and References 85 + + +VII.--WHAT TREATMENT IS SUGGESTED BY THE DIAGNOSIS OF THE FACTS + OF FAILURE? + +1. Organization and Adaptation in Recognition of the + Individual Differences in Abilities and Interests 87 + +2. Faculty Student Advisers from the Time of Entrance 89 + +3. Greater Flexibility and Differentiation Required 90 + +4. Provision for the Direction of the Pupils' Study 92 + +5. A Greater Recognition and Exposition of the Facts as + Revealed by Accurate and Complete School Records 94 + +6. Summary of Chapter, and References 96 + + + + +A STUDY OF THE SCHOOL RECORDS OF THE PUPILS FAILING IN ACADEMIC +OR COMMERCIAL HIGH SCHOOL SUBJECTS + + + + +CHAPTER I + +GENERAL INTRODUCTION OF THE SUBJECT + + +1. THE RELEVANCE OF THIS STUDY + +As the measuring of the achievements of the public schools has become a +distinctive feature of the more recent activities in the educational +field, the failure in expected accomplishment by the school, and its +proficiency in turning out a negative product, have been forced upon +our attention rather emphatically. The striking growth in the number of +school surveys, measuring scales, questionnaires, and standardized +tests, together with many significant school experiments and +readjustments, bears testimony of our evident demand for a closer +diagnosis of the practices and conditions which are no longer accepted +with complacency. + +The American people have expressed their faith in a scheme of universal +democratic education, and have committed themselves to the support of +the free public high school. They have been liberal in their financing +and strong in their faith regarding this enterprise, so typically +American, to a degree that a secondary education may no longer be +regarded as a luxury or a heritage of the rich. No longer may the field +be treated as either optional or exclusive. The statutes of several of +our states now expressly or impliedly extend their compulsory +attendance requirements beyond the elementary years of school. Many, +too, are the lines of more desirable employment for young people which +demand or give preference to graduates of a high school. At the same +time there has been no decline in the importance of high school +graduation for entering the learned or professional pursuits. +Accordingly, it seems highly probable that, with such an extended and +authoritative sphere of influence, a stricter business accounting will +be exacted of the public high school, as the great after-war burdens +make the public less willing to depend on faith in financing so great +an experiment. They will ask, ever more insistently, for facts as to +the expenditures, the finished product, the internal adjustments, and +the waste product of our secondary schools. Such inquiries will indeed +seem justifiable. + +It is estimated that the public high schools had 84 per cent of all the +pupils (above 1,500,000) enrolled in the secondary schools of the +United States in 1916.[1] The majority of these pupils are lost from +school--whatever the cause--before the completion of their courses; +and, again, the majority of those who do graduate have on graduation +ended their school days. Consequently, it becomes more and more evident +how momentous is the influence of the public high school in +conditioning the life activities and opportunities of our youthful +citizens who have entered its doors. Before being entitled to be +considered a "big business enterprise,"[2] it seems imperative that our +"American High School" must rapidly come to utilize more of business +methods of accounting and of efficiency, so as to recognize the +tremendous waste product of our educational machinery. + +The aim of this study is to trace as carefully and completely as may be +the facts relative to that major portion of our high school population, +the pupils who fail in their school subjects, and to note something of +the significance of these findings. If we are to proceed wisely in +reference to the failing pupils in the high school, it is admittedly of +importance that such procedure should be based on a definite knowledge +of the facts. The value of such a study will in turn be conditioned by +the scrupulous care and scientific accuracy in the securing and +handling of the facts. It is believed that the causes of and the +remedies for failure are necessarily closely linked with factors found +in the school and with the school experiences of failing pupils, so +that the problem cannot be solved by merely labeling such pupils as the +unfit. There is no attempt in this study to treat all failures as in +any single category. The causes of the failures are not assumed at the +start nor given the place of chief emphasis, but are regarded as +incidental to and dependent upon what the evidence itself discloses. +The success of the failing pupils after they leave the high school is +not included in this undertaking, but is itself a field worthy of +extended study. Even our knowledge of what later happens to the more +successful and the graduating high school pupils is limited mainly to +those who go on to college or to other higher institutions. One of the +more familiar attempts to evaluate the later influence of the high +school illustrates the fallacy of overlooking the process of selection +involved, and of treating its influence in conjunction with the +training as though it were the result of school training alone.[3] + + +2. THE MEANING OF 'FAILURE' IN THIS STUDY + +The term 'failure' is employed in this study to signify the non-passing +of a pupil in any semester-subject of his school work. The school +decision is not questioned in the matter of a recorded failure. And +although it is usually understood to negate "ability plus +accomplishment," it may, and undoubtedly does, at times imply other +meanings, such as a punitive mark, a teacher's prejudice, or a deferred +judgment. The mark may at times tell more about the teacher who gave it +than about the pupil who received it. These peculiarities of the +individual teacher or pupil are pretty well compensated for by the +large number of teachers and of pupils involved. The decisive factor in +this matter is that the school refuses to grant credit for the work +pursued. The failure for a semester seems to be a more adaptable unit +in this connection than the subject-failure for a year. However, it +necessitates the treatment of the subject-failure for a year as +equivalent to a failure for each of the two semesters. Two of the +schools involved in this study (comprising about 11 per cent of the +pupils) recorded grades only at the end of the year. It is quite +probable that the marking by semesters would actually have increased +the number of failures in these schools, as there are many teachers who +confess that they are less willing to make a pupil repeat a year than a +semester. + +By employing this unit of failure, the failures in the different +subjects are regarded as comparable. Since only the academic and +commercial subjects are considered, and since they are almost uniformly +scheduled for four or five hours a week, the failures will seem to be +of something near equal gravity and to represent a similar amount of +non-performance or of unsatisfactory results. There were also a few +failures included here for those subjects which had only three hours a +week credit, mainly in the commercial subjects. But failures were +unnoted when the subject was listed for less than three hours a week. + +There are certain other elements of assumption in the treatment of the +failures, which seemed to be unavoidable. They are, first, that failure +in any subject is the same fact for boys and for girls; second, that +failures in different years of work or with different teachers are +equivalent; third, that failures in elective and in required subjects +are of the same gravity. It was found practically impossible to +differentiate required and elective subjects, however desirable it +would have been, for the subjects that are theoretically elective often +are in fact virtually required, the electives of one course are +required in another, and on many of the records consulted neither the +courses nor the electives are clearly designated. + + +3. THE SCOPE AND CONTENT OF THE FIELD COVERED + +As any intensive study must almost necessarily be limited in its scope, +so this one comprises for its purposes the high school records for +6,141 pupils belonging to eight different high schools located in New +York and New Jersey. For two of these schools the records for all the +pupils that entered are included here for five successive years, and +for their full period in high school. In two other schools the records +of all pupils that entered for four successive years were secured. In +four of the schools the records of all pupils who entered in February +and September of one year constituted the number studied. There is +apparently no reason to believe that a longer period of years would be +more representative of the facts for at least three of these four +schools, in view of the situation that they had for years enjoyed a +continuity of administration and that they possess a well-established +organization. The fourth one of these schools had less complete records +than were desired, but even in that the one year was representative of +the other years' records. The distribution of the 6,141 pupils by +schools and by years of entering high school is given below. + + + HIGH SCHOOL PUPILS IN: ENTERING HIGH SCHOOL NUMBER + IN THE YEARS STUDIED + + White Plains, N.Y. 1908, '09, '10, '11, '12 659 + Dunkirk, N.Y. 1909, '10, '11, '12 370 + Mount Vernon, N.Y. 1912 224 + Montclair, N.J. 1908, '09, '10, '11, '12 946 + Hackensack, N.J. 1909, '10, '11, '12 736 + Elizabeth, N.J. 1912 333 + Morris H.S.--Bronx 1912 1712 + Erasmus Hall H.S.--Brooklyn 1912 1161 + ---- + TOTAL 6141 + + +As it is essential for the purposes of this study to have the complete +record of the pupils for their full time in the high school, the 6,141 +pupils include none who entered later than 1912. Thus all were allowed +at least five and one-half or six years in which to terminate their +individual high school history, of successes or of failures, before the +time of making this inquiry into their records. No pupils who were +transferred from another high school or who did not start with the +class as beginning high school students were included among those +studied. Post-graduate records were not considered, neither was any +attempt made to trace the record of drop-outs who entered other +schools. Manifestly the percentage of graduation would be higher in any +school if the recruits from other schools and the drop-backs from other +classes in the school were included. + +No attempt has been made to trace the elementary school or college +records of the failing pupils, for our purpose does not reach beyond +the sphere of the high school records. In reference to the +differentiation by school courses, some facts were at first collected, +but these were later discarded, as the courses represent no +standardization in terminology or content, and they promised to give +nothing of definite value. As might be expected, the schools lacked +agreement or uniformity in the number of courses offered. One school +had no commercial classes, as that work was assigned to a separate +school; another school offered only typewriting and stenography of the +commercial subjects; a third had placed rather slight emphasis on the +commercial subjects until recently. Only four of the schools had pupils +in Greek. The Spanish classes outnumbered the Greek both by schools and +by enrollment. In the classification by subjects, English is made to +include (in addition to the usual subjects of that name) grammar, +literature, and business English. Mathematics includes all subjects of +that class except commercial arithmetic, which is treated as a +commercial subject, and shop-mathematics, which is classed as +non-academic. Industrial history, and 'political and social science' +are regarded along with academic subjects; likewise household chemistry +is included with the science classification. Economics is treated as a +commercial subject. At least a dozen other subjects, not classified as +academic or commercial, including also spelling and penmanship, were +taken by a portion of these pupils, but the records for these subjects +do not enter this study in determining the successful and failing +grades or the sizes of schedule. Yet it is true that such subjects do +demand time and work from those pupils. + + +4. SOURCES OF THE DATA EMPLOYED + +The only records employed in this whole problem of research were the +official school records. No questionnaires were used, and no statements +of pupils or opinions of teachers as such were sought. The facts are +the most authoritative and dependable available, and are the very same +upon which the administrative procedure of the school relative to the +pupil is mainly dependent. The individual, cumulative records for the +pupils provided the chief source of the facts secured. These school +records, as might be expected, varied considerably as to the form, the +size, the simplicity in stating facts, and the method of filing; but +they were quite similar in the facts recorded, as well as in the +completeness and care with which the records were compiled. It may be +added that only schools having such records were included in the +investigation. + +After the meanings of symbols and devices and the methods of recording +the facts had been fully explained and carefully studied for the +records of any school, the selection of the pupil records was then +made, on the basis of the year of the pupils' entrance to the school, +including all the pupils who had actually entered and undertaken work. +(Pupils who registered but failed to take up school work were entirely +disregarded.) These individual records were classified into the failing +and the non-failing divisions, then into graduating and non-graduating +groups, with the boys and girls differentiated throughout. As fast as +the records were read and interpreted into the terms required they were +transcribed, with the pupils' names, by the author himself, to large +sheets (16x20) from which the tabulations were later made. There was +always an opportunity to ask questions and to make appeals for +information either to the principal himself or to the secretary in +charge of the records. This tended to reduce greatly the danger of +mistakes other than those of chance error. The task of transcribing the +data was both tedious and prolonged. This process alone required as +much as four weeks for each of the larger schools, and without the +continued and courteous cooperation of the principals and their +assistants it would have been altogether impossible in that time. + +Some arbitrary decisions and classifications proved necessary in +reference to certain facts involved in the data employed in this study. +All statements of age will be understood as applying to within the +nearest half year; that is, fifteen years of age will mean within the +period from fourteen years and a half to fifteen years and a half. The +classification in the following pages by school years or semesters +(half-years) is dependent upon the time of entrance into school. In +this sense, a pupil who entered either in September or in February is +regarded as a first semester pupil, however the school classes are +named. As promotions are on a subject basis in each of the schools +there is no attempt to classify later by promotions, but the +time-in-school basis is retained. In reference to school marks or +grades, letters are here employed, although four of the eight schools +employ percentage grading. Whether the passing mark is 60, as in some +of the schools, or 70, as in others, the letter C is used to represent +one-third of the distance from the failing mark to 100 per cent; B is +used to represent the next third of the distance; and A is used to +express the upper third of the distance. The plus and minus signs, +attached to the gradings in three of the schools, are disregarded for +the purposes of this study, except that when D+ occurred as a +conditional passing mark it was treated as a C. Otherwise D has been +used to signify a failing grade in a subject, which means that the +grade is somewhere below the passing mark. The term 'graduates' is +meant to include all who graduate, either by diploma or by certificate. +Any statement made in the following pages of 'time in school' or of +time spent for 'securing graduation' will not include as a part of such +period a semester in which the pupil is absent all or nearly all of the +time, as in the case of absence due to illness. + + +5. THE SELECTION AND RELIABILITY OF THESE SOURCES OF DATA + +By employing data secured only from official school records and in the +manner stated, this study has been limited to those schools that +provide the cumulative pupil records, with continuity and completeness, +for a sufficient period of years. Some schools had to be eliminated +from consideration for our purposes because the cumulative records +covered too brief a period of years. In other schools administrative +changes had broken the continuity of the records, making them difficult +to interpret or undependable for this study. The shortage of clerical +help was the reason given in one school for completing only the records +of the graduates. In addition to the requirements pertaining to +records, only publicly administered and co-educational schools have +been included among those whose records are used. It was also +considered important to have schools representing the large as well as +the small city on the list of those studied. Since many schools do not +possess these important records, or do not recognize their value, it is +quite probable that the conditions prescribed here tended to a +selection of schools superior in reference to systematic procedure, +definite standards, and stable organization, as compared to those in +general which lack adequate records. + +The reliability and correctness of these records for the schools named +are vouched for and verbally certified by the principals as the most +dependable and in large part the only information of its kind in the +possession of the schools. In each of these schools the principals have +capable assistants who are charged with the keeping of the records, +although they are aided at times by teachers or pupils who work under +direction. In three of the larger schools a special secretary has full +charge of the records, and is even expected to make suggestions for +revisions and improvements of the forms and methods. In view of such +facts it seems doubtful that one could anywhere find more dependable +school records of this sort. It was true of one of the schools that +the records previous to 1909 proved to be unreliable. There is no +inclination here to deny the existence of defects and limitations to +these records, but the intimate acquaintance resulting from close +inquiry, involving nearly every factor which the records contain, is +convincing that for these schools at least the records are highly +dependable. + +However, there is some tendency for even the best school records to +understate the full situation regarding failure, while there is no +corresponding tendency to overstate or to record failures not made. Not +infrequently the pupils who drop out after previously failing may +receive no mark or an incomplete one for the last semester in school. +Although a portion or all of such work may obviously merit failure, yet +it is not usually so recorded. In a similar manner pupils who remain in +school one or two semesters or less, but take no examinations and +receive no semester grades, might reasonably be considered to have +failed if they shunned examinations merely to escape the recording of +failures, as sometimes appears to be the case when judged from the +incomplete grades recorded for only a part of the semester. A few +pupils will elect to 'skip' the regular term examination, and then +repeat the work of that semester, but no failures are recorded in such +instances. Some teachers, when recording for their own subjects, prefer +to indicate a failure by a dash mark or by a blank space until after +the subject is satisfied later, and the passing mark is then filled in. +One school indicates failure entirely by a short dash in the space +provided, and then at times there occurs the 'cond' (conditioned) in +pencil, apparently to avoid the classification as a failure by the +usual sign. One finds some instances of a '?' or an 'inc' (incomplete) +as a substitute for a mark of failure. Again, where there is no +indication of failure recorded, the dates accompanying the grades for +the subjects may tell the tale that two semesters were required to +complete one semester's work in a subject. Some of these situations +were easily discernible, and the indisputable failures treated as such +in the succeeding tabulations; but in many instances this was not +possible, and partial statement of these cases is all that is +attempted. + +How far these selected schools, their pupils, and the facts relating to +them are representative or typical of the schools, the pupils, and the +same facts for the states of New Jersey and New York, cannot be +definitely known from the information that is now available. It seems +indisputable, however, that the schools concerned in this study are at +least among the better schools of these two states. If we may feel +assured that the 6,141 pupils here included are fairly and generally +representative of the facts for the eight schools to which they belong +and which had an enrollment of 14,620 pupils in 1916; and if we are +justified in classing these schools as averaging above the median rank +of the schools for these states, then the statistical facts presented +in the following pages may seem to be a rather moderate statement +regarding the failures of high school pupils for the states referred +to. It must be noted in this connection, however, that it is not +unlikely that such schools, with their adequate records, will have the +facts concerning failure more certainly recorded than will those whose +records are incomplete, neglected, or poorly systematized. + +A partial comparison of the teachers is possible between the schools +represented here and those of New York and New Jersey. More than four +hundred teachers comprised the teaching staff for the 6,141 pupils of +the eight schools reported here. Of these about 40 per cent were men, +while the percentage of men of all high school teachers in New Jersey +and New York[4] was about 38 for the year 1916. The men in these +schools comprised 50 per cent of the teachers in the subjects which +prove most difficult by producing the most failures, and they were more +frequently found teaching in the advanced years of these subjects. It +is not assumed here that men are superior as high school teachers, but +the endeavor is rather to show that the teaching force was by its +constitution not unrepresentative. It may be added here that few high +schools anywhere have a more highly selected and better paid staff of +teachers than are found in this group of schools. It is indeed not easy +to believe that the situation in these eight selected schools regarding +failure and its contributing factors could not be readily duplicated +elsewhere within the same states. + + +A SUMMARY OF CHAPTER I + +The American people have a large faith in the public high school. It +enrolls approximately 84 per cent of the secondary school pupils of the +United States. High school attendance is becoming legally and +vocationally compulsory. The size of the waste product demands a +diagnosis of the facts. This study aims to discover the significant +facts relative to the failing pupils. + +Failure is used in the unit sense of non-passing in a semester subject. +Failures are then counted in terms of these units. + +This study includes 6,141 pupils belonging to eight different high +schools and distributed throughout two states. The cumulative, +official, school records for these pupils formed the basis of the data +used. + +The schools were selected primarily for their possession of adequate +records. More dependable school records than those employed are not +likely to be found, yet they tend to understate the facts of failure. +It is quite possible that a superior school, and one with a high grade +teaching staff, is actually selected by the requirements of the study. + + +REFERENCES: + +1. _Annual Report of United States Commissioner of Education for 1917._ + +2. Josslyn, H.W. Chapter IV, in Johnson's _Modern High School_. + +3. _The Money Value of Education._ Bulletin No. 22, 1917, United States + Bureau of Education. + +4. New York and New Jersey _State School Reports for 1917_. + + + + +CHAPTER II + +HOW EXTENSIVE ARE THE FAILURES OF THE HIGH SCHOOL PUPILS? + + +1. A DISTRIBUTION OF ALL ENTRANTS IN REFERENCE TO FAILURE + +With no purpose of making this a comparative study of schools, the +separate units or schools indicated in Chapter I will from this point +be combined into a composite and treated as a single group. It becomes +possible, with the complete and tabulated facts pertaining to a group +of pupils, after their high school period has ended, to get a +comprehensive survey of their school records and to answer such +questions as: (1) What part of the total number of boys or of girls +have school failures? (2) To what extent are the non-failing pupils the +ones who succeed in graduating? (3) To what extent do the failing +pupils withdraw early? The following tabulation will show how two of +these questions are answered for the 6,141 pupils here reported on. + + + ALL ALL + ENTRANTS FAILING GRADUATES FAILING + + Totals 6,141 3,573 (58.2%) 1,936 1,125 (58.1%) + Boys 2,646 1,645 (62.1%) 796 489 (61.4%) + Girls 3,495 1,928 (55.1%) 1,140 639 (55.8%) + + +From this distribution we readily compute that the percentage of pupils +who fail is 58.2 per cent (boys--62.1, girls--55.1). But this statement +is itself inadequate. It does not take into account the 808 pupils who +received no grades and had no chance to be classed as failing, but who +were in most cases in school long enough to receive marks, and a +portion of whom were either eliminated earlier or deterred from +examinations by the expectation of failing. It seems entirely safe to +estimate that no less than 60 per cent of this non-credited number +should[5] be treated as of the failing group[6] of pupils. Then the +percentage of pupils to be classed as failing in school subjects +becomes 66 per cent (boys--69.6, girls--63.4). + +In considering the second inquiry above, we find from the preceding +distribution of pupils that 58.1 per cent (boys--61.4, girls--55.8) of +all pupils that graduate have failed in one or more subjects one or +more times. This percentage varies from 34 per cent to 73 per cent by +schools, but in only two instances does the percentage fall below 50 +per cent, and in one of these two it is almost 50 per cent. + +We may now ask, when do the failing and the non-failing non-graduates +drop out of school? Of the total number of non-graduates (4,205), there +are 2,448 who drop out after failing one or more times, and 1,757 who +drop out without failing. The cumulative percentages of the +non-graduates in reference to dropping out are here given. + + + CUMULATIVE PERCENTAGES OF THE FAILING NON-GRADUATES AS THEY ARE + LOST BY SEMESTERS + + LOST BY END + OF SEMESTER 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 + + Per Cent 14.1 33.9 46.4 64.9 72.9 85.2 91.9 97.6 99.1 + + + CUMULATIVE PERCENTAGES OF NON-FAILING NON-GRADUATES AS THEY ARE + LOST BY SEMESTERS + + LOST BY END + OF SEMESTER 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 + + Per Cent 61.1 78.0 85.9 92.1 94.5 98.4 99.5 .. .. + + +Briefly stated, the above percentages assert that more than three +fourths of those who neither fail nor graduate have left school by the +end of the first year, while only 33.9 per cent of those non-graduates +who fail have left so early. More than 50 per cent of the failing +non-graduates continue in school to near the end of the second year. By +that time about 90 per cent of the non-failing non-graduates have been +lost from school. By a combination of the above groups we get the +percentages of all non-graduates lost by successive semesters. + + + CUMULATIVE PERCENTAGES OF ALL NON-GRADUATES LOST BY SUCCESSIVE SEMESTERS + + LOST BY END + OF SEMESTER 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 + + Per Cent 33.7 53.4 62.6 76.2 81.9 90.7 94.0 98.6 + + +These percentages of non-graduates indicate that more than 50 per cent +of those who do not graduate are gone by the end of the first year, +but that there are a few who continue beyond four years without +graduating. + + +2. THE LATER DISTRIBUTION OF PUPILS BY SEMESTERS + +Consideration is here given to the number of the total entrants +remaining in school for each successive semester, and then to the +accompanying percentages of failure for each group. The following +figures show the rapid decline in numbers. + + + THE PERSISTENCE OF PUPILS IN SCHOOL, BY SEMESTERS + + END OF SEMESTER 1 2 3 4 5 6 Graduate + + 6,141 (Total) 4,723 3,893 3,508 2,935 2,697 2,234 1,936 + + Percentages 76.9 63.4 57.1 47.8 43.9 36.4 31.5 + + +As was pointed out in Section 3 of Chapter I, the above group does not +include any increment to its own numbers by means of transfer from +other classes or schools. We find, accompanying this reduction in the +number of pupils, which shows more than 50 per cent gone by the end of +the second year in school, that there is no corresponding reduction in +the percentage of pupils failing each semester on the basis of the +number of those in school for that semester. + + + PERCENTAGE OF PUPILS FAILING OF THE PUPILS IN SCHOOL FOR THAT PERIOD + + Semesters 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 + + Per Cent 34.2 37.3 38.5 40.2 38.2 37.1 30.0 24.0 + + +There is no difficulty in grasping the simple and definite significance +of these figures, for they tell us that the percentage of pupils +failing increases for the first four semesters, slightly declines for +two semesters, with a greater decline for two more semesters. These +percentages of failures are based on the number of pupils enrolled at +the beginning of the semester, and are accordingly lower than the facts +would really warrant since that number is in each case considerably +reduced by the end of the same semester. + + +3. THE DISTRIBUTION OF FAILURES + +That the failures are widely distributed by semesters, by ages, +and for both boys and girls, is shown in Table I. + + + TABLE I + + THE DISTRIBUTION OF FAILURES ACCORDING TO THE AGE AND THE SEMESTER + OF THEIR OCCURRENCE[A] + + SEMES- AGES UNDISTRIB- + TERS 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 UTED TOTALS + + 1 B. 0 20 321 650 575 167 34 16 2 .. .. 10 1795 + G. 1 19 356 813 611 236 67 3 0 .. .. 13 2119 + 3914 + 2 B. .. 2 95 423 534 256 57 27 4 .. .. 5 1403 + G. .. 6 99 483 589 280 91 5 0 .. .. 7 1560 + 2963 + 3 B. .. 0 17 267 443 363 96 22 5 0 .. 2 1215 + G. .. 1 28 318 548 317 99 15 0 2 .. 1 1329 + 2544 + 4 B. .. .. 5 101 437 403 169 32 7 2 .. 5 1161 + G. .. .. 4 102 475 425 160 39 6 2 .. 6 1219 + 2380 + 5 B. .. .. 1 19 195 377 214 61 13 3 .. 6 889 + G. .. .. 0 15 277 438 212 60 15 0 .. 3 1020 + 1909 + 6 B. .. .. .. 4 70 322 326 99 33 3 .. 6 863 + G. .. .. .. 9 117 407 349 78 33 4 .. 3 1000 + 1863 + 7 B. .. .. 1 0 17 155 227 106 16 4 1 4 531 + G. .. .. 0 2 14 200 299 127 38 0 0 3 683 + 1214 + 8 B. .. .. .. .. 0 42 173 109 49 2 .. 5 380 + G. .. .. .. .. 2 58 244 140 49 10 .. 3 506 + 886 + 9 B. .. .. .. .. .. 0 31 32 18 1 .. .. 82 + G. .. .. .. .. .. 4 39 67 31 5 .. .. 146 + 228 + 10 B. .. .. .. .. .. .. 1 16 9 3 0 .. 29 + G. .. .. .. .. .. .. 3 13 10 3 1 .. 30 + 59 + Summary + B. 0 22 440 1464 2271 2085 1328 520 156 18 1 43 8348 + G. 1 26 487 1742 2633 2365 1563 547 182 26 1 39 9612 + 17,960 + + [Footnote A: The expression of the above facts in terms of percentages + for each age group was found to be difficult, since failures and not + pupils are designated. But the total failures for each age group are + expressed (on p. 36) as percentages of the entire number of subjects + taken by these pupils for the semesters in which they failed. Such + percentages increase as the ages rise. A similar statement of the + percentages of failure by semesters will be found on p. 41.] + + +Table I reads: the boys had 20 failures and the girls had 19 failures +in the first semester and at the age of thirteen; in the second +semester, at the age of thirteen, the boys had 2 failures and the girls +6. For each semester, the first line represents boys, the second line +girls. There is a total of 17,960 failures listed in this table. In +addition to this number there are 1,947 uncompleted grades for the +failing non-graduates. The semesters were frequently completed by such +pupils but the records were left incomplete. Their previous records and +their prospects of further partial or complete failure seem to justify +an estimate of 55 per cent (1,070) of these uncompleted grades as +either tentative or actual but unrecorded failures. Therefore we +virtually have 1,070 other failures belonging to these pupils which are +not included in Table I. Accordingly, since the number can only be +estimated, the fact that they are not incorporated in that table +suggests that the information which it discloses is something less than +a full statement of the school failures for these pupils. In the +distribution of the totals for ages, the mode appears plainly at 16, +but with an evident skewness toward the upper ages. The failures for +the years 16, 17, and 18, when added together, form 68.1 per cent of +the total failures. If those for 15 years are also included, the result +is 86 per cent of the total. Of the total failures, 65.7 per cent are +found in the first two years (11,801 out of the total of 17,960). But +the really striking fact is that 34.3 per cent of the failures occur +after the end of the first two years, after 52.2 per cent of the pupils +are gone, and with other hundreds leaving in each succeeding semester +before even the end of the eighth. In Table II we have similar facts +for the pupils who graduate. + + + TABLE II + + THE DISTRIBUTION OF FAILURES ACCORDING TO THE AGES AND THE SEMESTERS + OF THEIR OCCURRENCE FOR THE GRADUATING PUPILS + + AGES + SEMESTERS 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 TOTALS + + 1 B. 0 66 84 60 5 2 3 .. .. .. 220 + G. 4 68 123 68 23 4 0 .. .. .. 290 + 510 + 2 B. 0 30 95 96 41 3 2 .. .. .. 267 + G. 1 25 119 121 30 11 2 .. .. .. 309 + 576 + 3 B. 0 6 108 98 71 22 1 3 .. .. 309 + G. 1 15 101 158 78 20 5 0 .. .. 378 + 687 + 4 B. .. 4 54 157 107 36 6 0 .. .. 364 + G. .. 1 45 186 143 51 7 2 .. .. 435 + 799 + 5 B. .. 1 10 82 142 82 17 4 3 .. 341 + G. .. 0 9 145 187 88 22 9 0 .. 460 + 801 + 6 B. .. .. 4 34 158 139 32 9 2 .. 378 + G. .. .. 2 70 235 178 40 13 1 .. 539 + 917 + 7 B. .. 1 0 10 115 140 65 4 4 1 340 + G. .. 0 2 7 130 187 69 19 0 0 414 + 754 + 8 B. .. .. .. 0 31 122 65 25 2 .. 245 + G. .. .. .. 2 45 150 95 37 2 .. 331 + 576 + 9 B. .. .. .. .. 0 24 23 13 1 .. 61 + G. .. .. .. .. 4 32 40 24 0 .. 100 + 161 + 10 B. .. .. .. .. .. 1 11 5 3 .. 20 + G. .. .. .. .. .. 3 12 6 1 .. 22 + 42 + Summary B. .. 108 355 537 670 571 225 63 15 1 2545 + G. 6 109 401 757 875 724 292 110 4 0 3278 + 5823 + + [Footnote: In the facts which are involved and in the manner of reading + them, this table is similar to Table I. The mode of the distribution of + totals for the ages is at 17 in this table. Further reference will be + made to both Tables I and II in later chapters of this study. (See + pages 36, 37, 41, 42).] + + +A further analysis of the failures is here made in reference +to the number of pupils and the number of failures each. + + + TABLE III + + A DISTRIBUTION OF FAILING PUPILS ACCORDING TO THE NUMBER OF FAILURES + PER PUPIL, IN EACH SEMESTER + + NO. OF SEMESTERS TOTALS + FAILURES 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 + + 1 B. 459 430 375 352 271 221 157 113 22 11 2411 + G. 561 535 428 421 328 261 167 123 35 9 2868 + --------------------------- + 32.5% 5279 + + 2 B. 271 242 211 206 149 144 79 68 19 4 1393 + G. 271 253 238 204 177 142 127 84 17 6 1519 + --------------------------- + 34.9% 2912 + + 3 B. 144 106 81 73 59 60 45 27 6 2 603 + G. 207 103 81 75 75 83 52 38 20 3 737 + --------------------------- + 35% 1340 + + 4 B. 83 39 33 30 27 32 10 10 1 1 266 + G. 95 50 38 35 27 39 19 19 3 0 325 + --------------------------- + 31.8% 591 + + 5 B. 6 3 5 8 7 8 7 2 0 .. 46 + G. 3 2 6 5 1 10 6 5 1 .. 39 + --------------------------- + 55.3% 85 + + 6 B. .. .. 3 3 0 1 1 .. .. .. 8 + G. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. + --------------------------- + 25% 8 + + Tot. B. 963 820 708 672 513 466 299 220 48 18 4727 + G. 1137 943 791 740 608 535 371 269 76 18 5488 + 10,215 + + +Table III tells us that 459 boys and 561 girls have one failure each +in the first semester of their high school work; 271 boys and the same +number of girls have two failures in the first semester, and so on, for +the ten semesters and for as many as six failures per pupil. The +failures represented by these pupils give a total of 17,960. A +distribution of the total failures per pupil, and the facts relative +thereto, will be considered in Chapter IV of this study. + +The above distribution of Table III is repeated here in Table IV, so +far as it relates to the failing graduates only. + + + TABLE IV + + A DISTRIBUTION OF THE FAILING PUPILS WHO GRADUATE, ACCORDING TO + THE NUMBER OF FAILURES PER PUPIL IN EACH SEMESTER + + NO. OF SEMESTERS TOTALS + FAILURES 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 + + 1 B. 110 131 137 150 162 139 120 118 19 11 1097 + G. 136 142 181 200 197 180 121 89 20 3 1269 + ---------------------------- + 50% 2366 + + 2 B. 34 49 61 69 61 75 47 28 15 3 442 + G. 49 64 63 86 81 73 81 62 10 5 574 + ---------------------------- + 53.2% 1016 + + 3 B. 10 10 14 18 12 17 27 17 4 1 130 + G. 16 9 14 13 27 43 30 20 16 3 191 + ---------------------------- + 67.6% 321 + + 4 B. 3 2 2 3 4 8 6 5 0 .. 33 + G. 2 3 6 6 5 16 9 12 3 .. 62 + ---------------------------- + 71.6% 95 + + 5 B. .. .. 0 2 1 0 3 0 .. .. 6 + G. .. .. 1 0 0 4 1 2 .. .. 8 + ---------------------------- + 78.6% 14 + + 6 B. .. .. .. .. .. 1 1 .. .. .. 2 + G. .. .. .. .. 0 0 .. .. .. 0 + ---------------------------- + 100% 2 + + Tot. B. 157 192 214 237 240 240 204 163 48 15 1710 + G. 203 218 265 305 310 316 242 185 49 11 2104 + 3814 + + +This table reads similarly to Table III. There is not the element of +continuous dropping out to be considered, as in Table III, until after +the sixth semester is passed, for no pupils graduate in less than three +years. The failures represented in this table number 5,823. This same +distribution will be the subject of further comment later on. It +discloses some facts that Table III tends to conceal, for instance, +that the greater number of graduating pupils who have 2, 3, 4, 5, and +6 failures in a semester are found after the end of the second year. + + +4. DISTRIBUTION OF THE FAILURES IN REFERENCE TO THE SUBJECTS IN WHICH +THEY OCCUR + +The following tabulation of failures will show how they were shared by +both boys and girls in each of the school subjects which provided the +failures here listed. + + + NUMBER OF FAILURES DISTRIBUTED BY SCHOOL SUBJECTS + + Total Math. Eng. Latin Ger. Fr. Hist. Sci. Bus. Span. or + Subj's. Greek + + B. 8348 2015 1555 1523 917 473 571 850 424 20 + G. 9612 2300 1424 1833 812 588 1036 1013 593 13 + Per Cent + of Total 24.1 16.5 18.7 9.6 5.9 8.9 10.3 5.6 .2 + + +The abbreviated headings above will be self-explanatory by reference to +section 3 of Chapter I. The first line of numbers gives the failures +for the boys, the second line for the girls. Mathematics has 24.1 per +cent of all the failures for all the pupils. Latin claims 18.7 per cent +and English 16.5 per cent of all the failures. These three subjects +make a total of nearly 60 per cent of the failures for the nine subject +groups appearing here. But still this is only a partial statement of +the facts as they are, since the total enrollment by subjects is an +independent matter and far from being equally divided among all the +subjects concerned. The subject enrollment may sometimes be relatively +high and the percentage of failure for that subject correspondingly +lower than for a subject with the same number of failures but a smaller +enrollment. This fact becomes quite apparent from the following +percentages taken in comparison with the ones just preceding: + + + PERCENTAGES ENROLLED IN EACH SUBJECT OF THE SUM TOTAL + OF THE SUBJECT ENROLLMENTS FOR ALL PUPILS AND ALL SEMESTERS + + Math. Eng. Latin Ger. Fr. Hist. Sci. Bus. Span. or + Subj's. Greek + + 17.3 24.0 11.9 8.5 6.8 10.2 12.5 8.3 .5 + + +We note that the percentages for mathematics and English, which +represent their portions of the grand total of subject enrollments, are +virtually the reverse of the percentages which designate the amount of +total failures produced by the same two subjects. That means that the +percentage of the total failures produced by mathematics is really +greater than was at first apparent, while the percentages of failures +for English is not so great relatively as the statement of the total +failures above would alone indicate. In a similar manner, we note that +Latin has 18.7 per cent of all the failures, but its portion of the +total enrollment for all subjects is only 11.9 per cent. If the +failures in this subject were in proportion to the enrollment, its +percentage of the failures would be reduced by 6.8 per cent. On the +other hand, if the failures for English were in the same proportion to +the total as is its subject enrollment, it would claim 7.5 per cent +more of all the failures. In the same sense, French, history, science, +and the business subjects have a smaller proportion of all the failures +than of all the subject enrollments. + +The comparison of failures by subjects may be continued still further +by computing the percentage of failures in each subject as based on the +number enrolled in that subject. Such percentages are here presented +for each subject. + + + PERCENTAGE OF THE NUMBER TAKING THE SUBJECT WHO FAIL IN THAT SUBJECT + + Latin Math. Ger. Fr. Hist. Sci. Eng. Bus. Span. or + Subj's. Greek + + 18.7 16.0 13.5 11.6 10.4 9.8 8.2 8.0 4.1 + + +It becomes evident at once that the largest percentage of failures, +based on the pupils taking the subject, is in Latin, although we have +already found that mathematics has the greatest percentage of all the +failures recorded (p. 19). But here mathematics follows Latin, with +German coming next in order as ranked by its high percentage of failure +for those enrolled in the subject. History has the median percentage +for the failures as listed for the nine subjects above. + +The failures as reported by subjects for other schools and other pupils +will provide a comparison which may indicate something of the relative +standing of this group of schools in reference to failures. The +failures are presented below for thirteen high schools in New Jersey, +involving 24,895 grades, as reported by D.C. Bliss[7] in 1917. As the +schools were reported singly, the median percentage of failure for +each subject is used here for our purpose. But Mr. Bliss' figures are +computed from the promotion sheets for June, 1915, and include none of +those who had dropped out. In this sense they are not comparable to the +percentages of failure as presented in this study. Yet with the one +exception of Latin these median percentages are higher. The percentages +as presented below for St. Paul[8] are in each case based on the total +number taking the subject for a single semester, and include about +4,000 pupils, in all the classes, in the four high schools of the +city.[B] + + + [Footnote B: It is a significant fact, and one worthy of note here, + that the report for St. Paul is apparently the only one of the surveys + which also states the number taking each subject, as well as the + percentages of failure. Percentages alone do not tell the whole story, + and they do not promote the further utilization of the facts to + discover other relationships.] + + +The facts presented for St. Louis[9] are for one school only, with +2,089 pupils, as recorded for the first half of the year 1915-16. All +foreign languages as reported for this school are grouped together. +History is the only subject that has a percentage of failure lower than +that of the corresponding subjects for our eight schools. The figures +for both St. Paul and St. Louis are based on the grades for all classes +in school, but for only a single semester. One cannot avoid feeling +that a statement of facts for so limited a period may or may not be +dependable and representative for all periods. The percentages for +Paterson[10] are reported for about 4,000 pupils, in all classes, for +two successive semesters, and are based on the number examined. For +Denver,[11] the records are reported for 4,120 pupils, and cover a +two-year period. The percentages for Butte[12] are based on the records +for 3,110 pupils, for one school semester. The figures reported by +Rounds and Kingsbury[13] are for only two subjects, but for forty-six +widely separated high schools, whose enrollment for these two subjects +was 57,680. + + + PERCENTAGES OF FAILURE BY SUBJECTS--QUOTED FOR OTHER SCHOOLS + + Math. Latin Ger. Fren. Eng. Hist. Sci. Bus. + Subj's. + + 13 N.J. H.S.'s. 20.0 18.0 16.0 .. 14.0 11.0 .. 11.5 + St. Paul 21.8 13.6 14.3 17.0 10.0 10.9 7.3 11.7 + St. Louis 18.0 [-------16------] 13.0 7.0 19.0 .. + Paterson 23.1 21.6 23.4 .. 12.2 13.9 18.3 8.5 + Denver 24.0 21.0 12.0 .. 11.7 11.0 17.0 11.0 + Butte 18.6 25.0 24.0 32.6 5.4 7.0 13.0 8.4 + R and K 24.7 .. .. .. 18.5 .. .. .. + Our 8 H.S.'s 16.0 18.7 13.5 11.6 8.2 10.4 9.8 8.0 + + +In some schools the reports were not available for all subjects. It is +not at all probable, so far as information could be obtained, that the +failures of the drop-out pupils for any of the schools were included in +the percentages as reported above, or that the percentages are based on +the total number in the given subjects, with the exception of one +school. Moreover, it is certain for at least some of the schools that +neither the failures of the drop-outs nor the pupils who were in the +class for less than a whole semester were considered in the percentages +above. So far, however, as these comparisons may be justified, the +suggestion made in Chapter I that the schools included in this study +are doubtless a superior group with respect to failures appears to be +strengthened by the comparisons made above. + +It becomes more apparent, as we attempt to offer a statement of +failures as taken from the various reports, that they are not truly +comparable. The bases of such percentages are not at all uniform. The +basis used most frequently is the number enrolled at the end of the +period rather than the total number enrolled for any class, for which +the school has had to provide, and which should most reasonably form +the basis of the percentage of failure. Furthermore, the failures for +pupils who drop out are not usually counted. Yet, in most of the +reports, the situation is not clearly indicated for either of the facts +referred to. Still more difficult is the task of securing a general +statement of failures by subjects, since the percentages are most +frequently reported separately for each class, in each subject, and for +different buildings, but with the number of pupils stated for neither +the failures nor the enrollment. The St. Paul report[8] is an exception +in this regard. + +To present the full situation it is indeed necessary to know the +failures for particular teachers, subjects, and buildings, but it is +also frequently necessary to be able to make a comparison of results +for different systems. Consequently, in order to use the varied reports +for the attempted comparison above, the plan was pursued of averaging +the percentages as stated for the different classes, semesters, and +years of a subject, in each school separately, and then selecting the +median school thus determined as the one best representing the city or +the system. This method was employed to modify the reports, and to +secure the percentages as stated above for Denver, Paterson, and +Butte. Any plan of averaging the percentages for the four years of +English, or similarly for any other subject, may actually tend to +misstate the facts, when the percentages or the numbers represented are +not very nearly equal. But, in an incidental way, the difficulty serves +to emphasize the inadequacy and the incomparability in the reporting of +failures as found in the various studies, as well as to warn us of the +hopelessness of reaching any conclusions apart from a knowledge of the +procedure employed in securing the data. + +The basis is also provided for some interesting comparisons by +isolating from the general distribution of failures by school subjects +(p. 19) the same facts for the failing graduates. That gives the +following distribution. + + + THE FAILURES BY SCHOOL SUBJECTS FOR GRADUATES ONLY + + Total Math. Eng. Latin Ger. Fr. Hist. Sci. Bus. Span. or + Subj's. Greek + + 5803 B. 660 403 521 241 191 180 251 91 7 + 6334 G. 782 347 673 257 240 410 394 162 12 + Per Cent + of Totals 24.8 12.9 20.5 8.5 7.4 10.1 11. 4.3 .3 + + + SIMILAR PERCENTAGES FOR THE NON-GRADUATES + + As above 23.6 18.3 17.7 10.1 5.3 8.4 10. 6.3 .1 + + +It is a noteworthy fact that the percentages of failure (based on the +total failures for the graduates) run higher in mathematics, Latin, +history, French, and science for the graduates than for the whole +composite number (page 19). The non-graduates have a correspondingly +lower percentage of failure in these subjects, as is indicated above. +The school influences in respect to the failures of the non-graduates +differ from those of the graduates chiefly in the fact that the +failures of the former tend to occur to a greater extent in the earlier +years of these subjects, since so many of the non-graduates are in the +school for only those earlier years; while the failures of the +graduates range more widely and have a tendency to predominate in the +upper years of the subject, as will be further emphasized in the later +pages of this report (see also Table IV). + + +5. DISTRIBUTION OF PUPILS DROPPING OUT--SEMESTERS--AGES + +Table V presents the facts concerning the time and the age at which the +failing pupils drop out of school. Table VI furnishes the corresponding +facts for the non-failing drop-outs. + + + TABLE V + + DISTRIBUTION OF THE FAILING NON-GRADUATES, SHOWING THE SEMESTER + AND THE AGE AT THE TIME OF DROPPING OUT + + AGES UNDIS- + SEMESTERS 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 TRIB. TOTALS + + 1 B. 1 40 49 50 18 0 1 1 .. .. 1 160 + G. 3 40 65 47 23 4 0 0 .. .. 3 185 + 345 + 2 B. .. 9 56 88 56 22 6 2 .. .. 3 242 + G. .. 6 72 119 61 24 3 0 .. .. 6 291 + 533 + 3 B. .. 4 30 40 23 10 7 .. .. .. 0 114 + G. .. 3 35 51 32 13 7 .. .. .. 1 142 + 256 + 4 B. .. 1 16 66 86 34 16 2 .. .. 3 224 + G. .. 1 19 60 70 59 18 3 .. .. 0 230 + 454 + 5 B. .. .. 2 12 36 21 8 4 .. .. 3 86 + G. .. .. 4 17 48 28 9 3 .. .. 1 110 + 196 + 6 B. .. .. 1 6 48 52 38 10 .. .. 1 156 + G. .. .. 1 11 52 49 26 5 .. .. 2 146 + 302 + 7 B. .. .. .. 2 12 35 21 7 0 .. 1 78 + G. .. .. .. 2 15 21 15 4 1 .. 0 59 + 137 + 8 B. .. .. .. 0 10 23 19 19 2 0 2 75 + G. .. .. .. 2 10 31 29 10 4 2 3 91 + 166 + 9 B. .. .. .. .. 1 4 4 2 .. 1 1 13 + G. .. .. .. .. 1 6 12 4 .. 0 0 23 + 36 + 10 B. .. .. .. .. .. .. 1 3 3 1 .. 8 + G. .. .. .. .. .. .. 4 3 3 1 .. 11 + 19 + 11 B. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 0 0 0 .. 0 + G. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 2 1 1 .. 4 + 4 + Tot. B. 1 54 154 264 290 201 120 50 6 2 14 1156 + G. 3 50 196 309 312 235 123 34 9 4 16 1292 + 2448 + + +Table V reads: In the first semester 1 boy and 3 girls drop out at age +13; 40 boys and 40 girls drop out at the age of 14; 49 boys and 65 +girls, at the age of 15. In this table, as elsewhere, age 15 means from +14½ to 15½, and so on. Any drop-out, as for the second semester, means +either during or at the end of that semester. + + + TABLE VI + + DISTRIBUTION OF THE NON-FAILING NON-GRADUATES, SHOWING THE SEMESTER + AND THE AGE AT THE TIME OF DROPPING OUT + + AGES + SEMESTER 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 TOTALS + + 1 B. 17 118 141 106 39 3 4 1 1 430 + G. 11 159 235 160 51 19 4 4 0 643 + 1073 + 2 B. 0 7 49 50 18 7 3 0 .. 134 + G. 1 1 59 42 31 10 7 2 .. 163 + 297 + 3 B. .. .. 7 16 11 5 1 0 .. 40 + G. .. .. 14 22 33 15 3 2 .. 89 + 129 + 4 B. .. .. 5 13 11 10 1 0 1 41 + G. .. .. 7 20 31 16 2 1 1 78 + 119 + 5 B. .. .. 1 2 9 1 2 0 .. 15 + G. .. .. 0 3 10 9 4 1 .. 27 + 42 + 6 B. .. .. 1 4 14 3 2 0 .. 24 + G. .. .. 0 5 17 13 7 3 .. 45 + 69 + 7 B. .. .. .. 0 2 2 2 1 .. 7 + G. .. .. .. 1 2 7 1 1 .. 12 + 19 + 8 B. .. .. .. .. .. 1 1 1 .. 3 + G. .. .. .. .. .. 3 1 1 .. 5 + 8 + 9 B. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 0 .. 0 + G. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 1 .. 1 + 1 + Tot. B. 17 125 204 191 104 32 16 3 2 694 + G. 12 170 315 253 175 92 29 16 1 1063 + 1757 + + +Table VI reads similarly to Table V. The distribution of the age totals +for the pupils dropping out gives us medians which, for both boys and +girls, fall within the 17-year group for the failing pupils, but within +the 16-year group for the non-failing pupils. For Table V the mode of +the distribution is at 17, but for Table VI it is at 15. The +percentages of dropping out for each age group are given below. First, +all the pupils of Tables V and VI are grouped together for this +purpose, then the boys and the girls for Tables V and VI are considered +separately to facilitate the comparison of facts. + + + PERCENTAGES IN EACH AGE GROUP OF THE TOTAL NUMBER DROPPING OUT + + Ages 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 + + Per Cent 0.8 9.5 20.7 24.2 21.0 13.3 6.8 2.4 1.2 + + +It is readily seen from the above percentages that, as would be +expected, the drop-outs are most frequent for the very ages which are +most common in the high school. There is no special accumulation of +drop-outs for either the earlier or the later ages. But, if in any +semester we consider the drop-outs for each age as a percentage of the +total pupils represented for that age, the facts are more fully +revealed, as is indicated below for certain semesters. + + + PERCENTAGES OF DROP-OUTS FOR EACH AGE, ON THE TOTALS FOR SUCH AGE + IN THE FIRST, SECOND AND FOURTH SEMESTERS + + AGES + 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 + + Semester 1 6.8 18.2 23.1 32.6 38.3 35.0 40.0 40.0 .. + Semester 2 4.0 8.1 14.8 18.3 22.2 30.0 40.0 33.0 .. + Semester 4 0 9.0 11.8 12.5 16.5 24.6 35.2 50.0 .. + + +If these semesters may be taken as indicative of all, an almost steady +increase will be expected in the percentages of drop-outs as the ages +of the pupils rise. It follows, then, that the older ages have the +higher percentages of drop-outs when this basis of the computation is +employed. We may, however, make some helpful comparisons of the ages of +drop-outs for boys and for girls by merely using the percentages of +total drop-outs for the purpose. + + + PERCENTAGES OF FAILING DROP-OUTS IN EACH AGE GROUP, FOR BOYS AND GIRLS + SEPARATELY + + AGES + 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 + + Boys 0 4.6 12.5 22.8 25.1 17.4 10.3 4.3 1.9 + Girls .2 3.8 15.1 23.9 24.1 19.0 9.5 2.6 2.2 + + +Here it appears that, of all the boys and girls who fail before +dropping out, the school loses at the age of 14, for example, 4.6 per +cent for the boys and 3.8 per cent for the girls. As a matter of mere +convenience, the percentages for age 21 are made to include also the +undistributed pupils in Table V. + + + PERCENTAGES OF THE NON-FAILING DROP-OUTS IN EACH AGE GROUP, FOR BOYS + AND GIRLS SEPARATELY + + AGES + 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 + + Boys 2.4 18.0 29.4 27.1 15.0 4.4 2.3 0.7 + Girls 1.1 16.0 29.6 23.8 16.4 8.6 2.7 1.6 + + +These percentages are computed from the age totals in Table VI, just as +the ones preceding are computed from Table V. It seems worthy of note +here that close to 50 per cent of the non-failing drop-outs occur under +16 years of age, for both the boys and the girls; but that the number +of the failing pupils who drop out does not reach 20 per cent for the +boys or the girls in these same years. It is likewise remarkable in +these distributions that the percentages for boys and for girls show +such slight differences in either of the two groupings. + + +SUMMARY OF CHAPTER II + +If to the recorded failures the virtual but unrecorded ones are added, +the percentage of failing pupils is 66 per cent. This percentage is +higher for the boys than for the girls by a difference of 6 per cent. + +Of the graduating pupils, 58.1 per cent fail one or more times. + +Of the non-failing non-graduates 78 per cent are lost from school by +the end of their first year. But the failing non-graduates have not +lost such a percentage before the end of the third year. + +The percentage of pupils failing increases for the first four +semesters, and lowers but little for two more semesters. One third to +one half of the pupils fail in each semester to seventh. + +In the distribution of failures by ages and semesters, 86 per cent are +found from ages 15 to 18 inclusive. Thirty-four per cent of the +failures occur after the end of the second year, when 52.2 per cent of +the pupils have been lost and others are leaving continuously. + +Mathematics, Latin, and English head the list in the percentages of +total failures, and together provide nearly 60 per cent of the +failures; but English has a large subject-enrollment to balance its +count in failures. + +Mathematics, Latin, and German fail the highest percentages on the +number of pupils taking the subjects. + +In several subjects the percentages of failure based on the total +failures are higher for the graduates than for the non-graduates. + +For the pupils dropping out without failure the median age is at 16, +with the mode at 15. For the failing drop-outs both the median and the +mode are at the age of 17. Nearly 50 per cent of the non-failing +drop-outs occur under age 16, but not 20 per cent of the failing +non-graduates are gone by that age. The percentage of drop-outs is +higher for older pupils. + + +REFERENCES: + +5. Kelley, T.L. "A Study of High School and University Grades, with +Reference to Their Intercorrelation and the Causes of Elimination," +_Journal of Educational Psychology_, 6:365. + +6. Johnson, G.R. "Qualitative Elimination in High School," _School +Review_, 18:680. + +7. Bliss, D.C. "High School Failures," _Educational Administration and +Supervision_, Vol. 3. + +8. Strayer, G.D., Coffman, L.D., Prosser, C.A. _Report of a Survey of +the School System of St. Paul, Minnesota_. + +9. Meredith, A.B. _Survey of the St. Louis Public Schools_, 1917, Vol. +III, p. 51. + +10. _Annual Report of the Board of Education, Paterson, New Jersey_, +1915. + +11. Bobbitt, J.F. _Report of the School Survey of Denver_, 1916. + +12. Strayer, G.D. _A Survey of the Public Schools of Butte_, 1914. + +13. Rounds, C.R., Kingsbury, H.B. "Do Too Many Students Fail?" _School +Review_, 21:585. + + + + +CHAPTER III + +WHAT BASIS IS DISCOVERABLE FOR PROGNOSTICATING THE OCCURRENCE OF OR THE +NUMBER OF FAILURES? + + +1. ATTENDANCE, MENTAL OR PHYSICAL DEFECTS, AND SIZE OF CLASSES ARE +POSSIBLE FACTORS + +Any definite factors available for the school that have a prognostic +value in reference to school failures will help to perform a function +quite comparable to the science of preventive medicine in its field, +and in contrast with the older art of doctoring the malady after it has +been permitted to develop. Such prognostication of failure, however, +need not imply a complete knowledge of the causes of the failures. It +may simply signify that in certain situations the causes are less +active or are partly overcome by other factors. + +Perhaps one of the simplest factors with a prognostic value on failure +may be found in the facts of attendance. Persistent or repeated absence +from school may reach a point where it tends to affect the number of +failures. It happened, unfortunately, that the reports for attendance +were incomplete or lacking in a considerable portion of the records +employed in this study. Consequently the influence of attendance is +given no especial consideration in these pages, except as explained in +Chapter I, that the pupil must have been present enough of any semester +to secure his subject grades, else no failure is counted and no time is +charged to his period in school. In this connection, Dr. C.H. Keyes[14] +found in a study of elementary school pupils that of 1,649 pupils +losing four weeks or more in a single year 459 belonged to the +accelerate pupils, 647 to those arrested, and 543 to pupils normal in +their school work. He accredits such large loss of time as almost +invariably the result of illness and of contagious disease. He also +says, "Prolonged absence from school is appreciable in producing +arrest especially when it amounts to more than 25 days in one school +year." But the diseases of childhood, with the resultant absence, are +less prevalent in the high school years than earlier. Furthermore, the +losses due to change of residence will not be met with here, for, as +explained in Chapter I, no transferred pupils are included subsequent +to the time of the transference either to or from the school. + +The influence of physical or mental defects also deserves recognition +here as a possible factor relative to school failures, although this +study has no data to offer of any statistical value in that regard. A +few pupils in high school may actually reach the limits prescribed by +their 'intelligence quotient'[15] or general mental ability, or +perhaps, as Bronner[16] so interestingly points out, be handicapped by +some special mental disability. If such be true, they will doubtless be +found in the number of school drop-outs later referred to as failing in +50 per cent or more of their work; but we have no measurement of +intelligence recorded for them to serve our purposes of +prognostication. In the matter of physical defects alone, the report of +Dr. L.P. Ayres[17] on a study of 3,304 pupils, ten to fourteen years +old, in New York City, states that "In every case except in that of +vision the children rated as 'dull' are found to be suffering from +physical defects to a greater degree than 'normal' or 'bright' +children." The defects of vision, which is the exception noted, may be +even partly the result of the studious habits of the pupils. +Bronner[16] remarks on the "relationships between mental and physical +conditions," and also on how "the findings on tests were altogether +different after the child had been built up physically." But Gulick and +Ayres[18] conclude that it is evident from the facts at hand that if +vision were omitted the percentage of defects would dwindle and become +comparatively small among the upper grades. This would probably be +still more true for the high school; but this whole field has not yet +been completely and thoroughly investigated. + +It would be very desirable to have ascertained the size of the classes +in which the failures were most frequent, as well as the relative +success of the pupils repeating subjects in larger or in smaller +classes. But, as such facts were unobtainable, it is permitted here +simply to recognize the possible influence of this factor. It seems +deserving in itself of careful and special study. From the standpoint +of the pupil, the kind of subject, the kind of teacher, and the sort of +discipline employed will tend to influence the size of class to be +called normal, and to make it a sort of variable. Thirty pupils is +regarded by the North Central Association as the maximum size of class +in high school.[19] Surely the size of class will react on the pupil by +affecting the teacher's spirit and energy. Reference is made by +Hall-Quest[20] to an experiment, whose author is not named, in which +829 pupils stated that their "most helpful teachers were pleasant, +cheerful, optimistic, enthusiastic, and young." If such be true then +the very large size of classes will tend to reduce the teacher's +helpfulness. + + +2. THE EMPLOYMENT OF THE SCHOOL ENTERING AGE FOR PROGNOSIS + +A promising but less emphasized basis of prognosticating the school +success or failure of the pupils is found in the employment of the +school entering ages for this purpose. The distribution of all the +pupils (except 30 undistributed ones, for whom the records were +incomplete), according to entering age, is here presented, +independently for the boys and for the girls. + + + DISTRIBUTION OF PUPILS BY THEIR ENTRANCE AGES TO HIGH SCHOOL + + AGES Undis- + Total 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 tributed + + 2646 B. 16 211 820 900 497 148 23 10 7 14 + 3495 G. 8 259 1124 1217 614 194 51 10 8 16 + + +The entering ages of these 6,141 pupils are distributed from 12 to 20, +with 30 of them for whom the age records were not given. The median age +for all the entrants is 15.3. But in order to compare this with the +median entering age (14.9) of the 1,033 pupils reported by King[21] for +the Iowa City high school, or with the median entering age (14.5) of +1000 high school pupils in New York City, as reported by Van +Denburg,[22] it is necessary to reduce these medians to the same basis +of age classification. Since age 15 for this study starts at 14½, then +15.3 would be only 14.8 (15.3-.5) as by their classification. The +percentages of the total number of pupils for each age are given below. + + + PERCENTAGES OF PUPILS FOR EACH ENTERING AGE + + AGES + 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 + Undistributed + Total 0.4 7.6 31.6 34.4 18.1 5.5 1.2 1.0 + Boys 0.6 8.0 31.0 37.8 18.8 5.6 0.8 1.1 + Girls 0.2 7.4 32.4 34.8 17.5 5.5 1.4 1.0 + + +We see that 84 per cent of the pupils enter at age 14, 15, and 16, or, +what is perhaps more important, that nearly 40 per cent enter under 15 +years of age. The similarity of percentages for boys and for girls is +pronounced. The slight advantage of the boys for ages 12 and 13 may be +due to home influence in restricting the early entrance of the girls, +thus causing a corresponding superiority for the girls at age 14. The +mode of this percentage distribution is at 15 for both boys and girls. + +What portion of each entering-age-group has no failures? This question +and the answer presented below direct our attention to the superiority +of the pupils of the earlier entering ages. That these groups of +earlier ages of entrance are comprised of pupils selected for their +capabilities is shown by the successive decrease in the percentages of +the non-failing as the ages of their entrance increases, up to age 18. + + + DISTRIBUTION OF THE PUPILS WHO DO NOT FAIL, FOR EACH ENTERING-AGE-GROUP + + AGES + Totals 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 + + 1061 B. 11 102 320 309 186 56 9 4 4 + 1575 G. 3 133 522 545 256 73 29 7 6 + % of ----------------- + Entrants 58.0 50.0 43.4 40.0 39.8 37.7 55.0 + + +Here is definite evidence that the pupils of the earlier entering ages +are less likely to fail in any of their school subjects than are the +older ones. Those entering at ages 12 or 13 escape school failures +altogether for 50 per cent or more of their numbers. Those entering at +age 14 are somewhat less successful but still seem superior to those +of later entrance ages. It is encouraging, then, that these three ages +of entrance include nearly 40 per cent of the 6,141 pupils. There is, +of course, nothing in this situation to justify any deduction of the +sort that pupils entering at the age of 17 would have been more +successful had they been sent to high school earlier, except that had +they been able to enter high school earlier they would have represented +a different selection of ability by that fact alone. There is also a +sort of selection operative for the pupils entering at ages 18, 19, or +20, which tends to account at least partly for the rise in the +percentage of the non-failing for these years. It is safe to believe +that for the most part only the more able, ambitious, and purposeful +individuals are likely to display the energy required or to discern the +need of their entering high school when they have reached the age of 18 +or later. The appeal of school athletics will in this case seem very +inadequate to explain their entrance so late, since the girls +predominate so strongly for these years. Then it may be contended +further that the added maturity and experience of those later entrants +may partly compensate for a lack of native ability, if such be the +case, and thereby result in a relatively high percentage of non-failing +pupils for this group. + +It is readily conceded that the avoidance of failure in school work +serves as only one criterion for gauging the pupils' accomplishment. It +is accordingly important to inquire how the different age-groups of +school entrants compare with reference to the persistence and ability +which is represented by school graduation. A truly striking array of +percentages follows in reference to the question of how many of the +entering pupils in each age-group do graduate. + + + DISTRIBUTION OF THE PUPILS GRADUATING FOR EACH ENTERING-AGE GROUP + + AGES + Totals 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 + + 796 B. 14 115 290 253 99 20 2 1 2 + 1140 G. 5 151 465 363 121 26 5 1 0 + + % of Entrants 79.1 56.6 38.8 29.9 20.0 13.4 9.1 10.0 13.3 + + +These percentages bear convincing testimony in support of the previous +evidence that the pupils of the earlier entering years are highly +selected in ability. Of all the high school entrants they are the 'most +fit,' the least likely to fail, and the most certain to graduate. The +percentage of pupils graduating who entered at the age of 12 is +approximately four times that of pupils who entered at the age of 16. +Thirteen is more than four times as fruitful of graduates as age 17; +fourteen bears a similar relationship to age 18; and the percentage for +fifteen is three times that for age 19, as is apparent from the above +figures. The fact that the decline of these percentages ceases at age +19 is probably due to the greater maturity of such later entrants. + +When we make inquiry as to what portion of the graduates in each of the +above groups 'goes through' in four years or less, we get the series of +percentages indicated below. + + + PERCENTAGE OF THE GRADUATES WHO FINISH IN FOUR YEARS OR LESS, + FOR EACH OF THE ENTERING-AGE GROUPS + + Ages 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 + + % of Each Group 84.3 85.7 75.8 79.5 84.3 80.4 100 + + +It appears that the ones in the older age-groups who do graduate are +not so handicapped in reference to the time requirement for graduation +as we might have expected them to be from the facts of the preceding +pages. Perhaps that fact is partly accounted for by the not unusual +tendency to restrain the more rapid progress of the younger pupils or +to promote the older ones partly by age, so that by our school +procedure the younger and the brighter pupils may at times actually be +more retarded, according to mental age, than are the older and slower +ones. + +Since the same teachers, the same schools, and the same administrative +policy were involved for the different entrance-age groups, the +prognostic value of the factor of age at entrance will seem to be +unimpaired, whether it operates independently as a gauge of rank in +mental ability, or conjointly with and indicative of the varying +influence on these pupils of other concomitant factors, such as the +difference of economic demands, the difference of social interests, the +difference in permanence of conflicting habits of the individual, or +the difference in effectiveness of the school's appeal as adapted for +the several ages. One may contend, and with some success, that the high +school régime is better adjusted to the younger pupils, with the +consequent result that they are more successful in its requirements. +The distractions of more numerous social interests may actually +accompany the later years of school age. In reference to the social +distractions of girls, Margaret Slattery says,[23] "This mania for +'going' seizes many of our girls just when they need rest and natural +pleasures, the great out-of-doors, and early hours of retiring." But +surely such distractions are not peculiar to the girls alone. The +economic needs that arise at the age of sixteen and later are often +considered to constitute a pressing factor regarding the continuance in +school. But VanDenburg[22] was convinced by the investigation, in New +York City, of 420 rentals for the families of pupils that "on the whole +the economic status of these pupils seems to be only a slight factor in +their continuance in school." A similar conclusion was reached by +Wooley,[24] in Cincinnati, after investigating 600 families, in which +it was estimated that 73 per cent of the families did not need the +earnings of the children who left school to go to work. The +corresponding report by a commission[25] in Massachusetts shows 76 per +cent. The same facts for New York City[26] indicate that 80 per cent of +such families are independent of the child's wages. But Holley +concludes,[27] from a study of certain towns in Illinois, that "there +is a high correlation between the economic, educational, and social +advantages of a home and the number of years of school which its +children receive." It will hardly be denied that even aside from the +relation of the family means to the school persistence, the economic +needs may have a direct influence on the failing of the children in +their school work, either because home conditions may be decidedly +unfavorable for required home study, or because of the larger portion +of time that must be given to outside employment, with its consequent +reduction of the normal vitality of the individual or of his readiness +to study. But, in spite of the possible interrelationship of these +factors, it still appears that the school entrance age of pupils will +serve as a valuable sort of educational compass to foretell in part the +probable direction of their later accomplishment. + + +3. THE AMOUNT OF FAILURE AT EACH AGE AND ITS RELATION TO THE +POSSIBILITY OF FAILING FOR THAT AGE + +We have considered at some length the prognostic value of the age at +entrance. Here we shall briefly consider the prognostic value of age in +reference to the time when failures occur and the amount of failure for +such age. If we were to total all the failures for a given age, as +shown in Table I, what part will that form of the total subjects taken +by these pupils at the time the failures occur? In other words, what +are the percentages formed by the total failures on the possibility of +failing, for the same pupils and the same semesters, considered by age +groups? The summary line of Table I gives the total failures according +to the ages at which they occurred. The number of pupils sharing in +each group of these failures is also known by a separate tabulation. +Then the full number of subjects per pupil is taken as 4½, since +approximately 50 per cent of the pupils take five or more subjects each +semester and the other 50 per cent take four or less (see p. 61). With +the number of pupils given, and with a schedule of 4½ subjects per +pupil, we are able to compute the percentages which the failures form +of the total subjects for these failing pupils at the time. These +percentages are given below. + + + THE PERCENTAGES FORMED BY FAILURES AT EACH AGE ON THE POSSIBILITIES OF + FAILING AT THAT AGE AND TIME, FOR THE SAME PUPILS + + Ages 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 + + % 36.6 38.0 37.9 40.9 40.8 41.2 41.3 42.0 42.7 + + [Footnote: These percentages are computed from the data secured in + Table I, as noted above.] + + +There is an almost unbroken rise in these percentages from 36.6 for age +13 to 42.7 for age 21. Not only do a greater number of the older pupils +fail, as was previously indicated, but they also have a greater +percentage of failure for the subjects which they are taking. It seems +appropriate here to offer a caution that, in reading the above +percentages, one must not conclude that all of age 14 fail in 38 per +cent of their work, but rather that those who do fail at age 14 fail in +38 per cent of their work for that semester. The evidence does not seem +to indicate that the maturity of later years operates to secure any +general reduction of these percentages. The prognostic value of such +facts seems to consist in leading us to expect a greater percentage of +failures (on the total subjects) from the older pupils who fail than +from the younger ones who fail. If it were possible to translate the +above percentages to a basis of the possibility of failure for all +pupils, instead of the possibility for failing pupils only, the +disparity for the different ages would become more pronounced, as the +earlier ages have more non-failing pupils. But this we are not able to +do, as our data are not adequate for that purpose. + + +4. THE INITIAL RECORD IN HIGH SCHOOL FOR PROGNOSIS OF FAILURE + +For this purpose the pupil record for the first year, in reference to +failures, is deemed more adequate and dependable than the record for +the first semester only. Accordingly, the pupils have been classified +on their first year's record into those who had 0, 1, 2, 3, and up to 7 +or more failures. Then these groups were further distributed into those +who failed 0, 1, 2, 3, and up to 7 or more times after the first year. +From such a double distribution we may get some indication of what +assurance the first year's record offers on the expectation of later +failures. Table VII presents these facts. + +Table VII is read in this manner: Of all the pupils who have failures +the first year (805 boys, and 1,129 girls) 397 boys and 672 girls have +failures later, 105 boys and 130 girls have 1 failure later, 77 boys +and 98 girls have 2 failures later, while 68 boys and 63 girls have +seven or more failures later. The column of totals to the right gives +the pupils for each number of failures for the first year. The line of +totals at the bottom gives the pupils for each number of failures +subsequent to the first year. + +The table includes 3,508 pupils, since those who did not remain in +school more than three semesters are not included (1,120 boys, 1,513 +girls). Obviously, those who do not stay more than one year would have +no subsequent school record, and those remaining only a brief time +beyond one year would not have a record of comparable length. It seems +quite significant, too, for the purposes of our prognosis, that of the +2,633 pupils dropping out in three semesters or less only about 43 per +cent have ever failed (boys--46 per cent, girls--41 per cent). In +contrast to this, nearly 70 per cent (69.6) of those continuing in +school more than three semesters fail one or more times. Those who drop +out without failure, in the three semesters or less, constitute nearly +60 per cent of the total non-failing pupils (2,568), but the failing +pupils who drop out in that same period constitute less than 32 per +cent of the total who fail (3,573). This situation received some +emphasis in Chapter II and will be further treated in Chapter IV, under +the comparison of the failing and non-failing groups. + + + TABLE VII + + SUBSEQUENT RECORD OF FAILURES FOR PUPILS FAILING 1, 2, 3, ETC., + TIMES THE FIRST YEAR + + FAILURES + OF 1ST FAILURES SUBSEQUENT TO FIRST YEAR + YEAR 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7+ TOTALS + + 0 B. 397 105 77 50 47 37 24 68 805 + G. 672 130 98 60 53 27 26 63 1129 + 1069 235 175 110 100 64 50 131 1934 + + 1 B. 46 43 34 33 35 21 15 46 273 + G. 65 43 53 33 33 19 17 67 330 + 111 86 87 66 68 40 32 113 603 + + 2 B. 22 24 23 23 30 21 13 57 213 + G. 42 32 27 21 22 13 15 83 255 + 64 56 50 44 52 34 28 140 468 + + 3 B. 7 5 16 10 10 13 10 30 101 + G. 8 9 7 10 17 6 7 41 105 + 15 14 23 20 27 19 17 71 206 + + 4 B. 6 8 5 7 7 11 7 23 74 + G. 8 7 5 6 10 8 4 27 75 + 14 15 10 13 17 19 11 50 149 + + 5 B. 3 1 0 2 1 5 3 11 26 + G. 5 9 5 6 5 4 2 14 50 + 8 10 5 8 6 9 5 25 76 + + 6 B. 0 1 4 2 1 1 1 10 20 + G. 2 1 2 2 6 2 0 6 21 + 2 2 6 4 7 3 1 16 41 + + 7+ B. 3 2 1 0 1 0 2 5 14 + G. 1 2 1 1 5 2 0 5 17 + 4 4 2 1 6 2 2 10 31 + + Tot. B. 484 189 160 127 132 109 75 250 1526 + G. 803 233 198 139 151 81 71 306 1982 + 1287 422 358 266 283 190 146 556 3508 + + +Referring directly now to Table VII, we find that 44.7 per cent of +those not failing the first year do fail later. Of all those who fail +the first year, 13.8 per cent escape any later failures. Of all the +pupils included in this table 15.8 per cent have 7 or more failures, +while of those failing in the first year 27 per cent later have 7 or +more failures. For the number included in this table 30.4 per cent have +no failures assigned to them. + + + PERCENTAGE OF FIRST YEAR FAILING GROUPS, WHO LATER HAVE NO FAILURES + + No. of F's. in First Year 1 2 3 4 5 6 7+ + + Per Cent of Groups Having + No Failures Later 18.4 13.7 7.2 9.4 10.5 5.0 12.9 + + +About the same percentage of the boys and of the girls (near 60 per +cent) is represented in Table VII. The girls have an advantage over the +boys of about 8 per cent for those belonging to the group with no +failures, and of about 1 per cent for the group with seven or more +failures. + +No unconditional conclusion seems justified by this table. In the first +year's record of failures there are good grounds for the promise of +later performance. We may safely say that those who do not fail the +first year are much less likely to fail later, and that if they do fail +later, they have less accumulation of failures. Yet some of this group +have many failures after the first year, and others who have several +failures the first year have none subsequently. Generally, however, the +later accumulations are in almost direct ratio to the earlier record, +and the later non-failures are in inverse ratio to the debits of the +first year. + + +5. THE PROGNOSIS OF FAILURES BY THE SUBJECT SELECTION + +From the distribution of failures by school subjects as presented in +Chapter II, this will seem to be the easiest and almost the surest of +all the factors thus far considered to employ for a prognosis of +failure. For of all pupils taking Latin we may confidently expect an +average of a little less than one pupil in every five to fail each +semester. For the entire number taking mathematics, the expectation of +failure is an average of about one in six for each semester. German +comes next, and for each semester it claims for failure on the average +nearly one pupil in every seven taking it. Similarly French claims for +failure one in every nine; history, one in every ten; English and +business subjects, less than one in every twelve. It will be noted that +the average on a semester basis is employed in this part of the +computation. Consequently, it is not the same as saying that such a +percentage of pupils fail at some time, in the subject. The pupil who +fails four times in first year mathematics is intentionally regarded +here as representing four failures. Likewise, the pupil who completes +four years of Latin without failure represents eight successes for the +subject in calculating these percentages. Every recorded failure for +each pupil is thus accounted for. + +It was also noted in Chapter II that the percentages of the total +failures run higher in mathematics, Latin, history, and science, for +the graduates than for the non-graduates. This fact is not due to the +greater number of failures of graduates in the earlier semesters, when +most of the non-graduate failures occur, but to the increase of +failures for the graduates in the later years, as is disclosed in +Tables II and IV. Accordingly, we may say that those two subjects which +are most productive of school failures are increasingly fruitful of +such results in the upper years. This does not seem to be the usual or +accepted conviction. Certain of the school principals have expressed +the assurance that it would be found otherwise. Such deception is +easily explainable, for the number of failures show a marked reduction, +and the rise of percentages is consequently easily overlooked. It is +quite possible, too, that in some individual schools there is not such +a rise of the percentages of failure for the graduates in any of the +school subjects. In a single one of the eight schools reported here +neither Latin nor mathematics showed a higher percentage of failure for +the graduate pupils over the non-graduates. In the other seven schools +the graduates had the higher percentage in one or both of these +subjects. + + +6. THE TIME PERIOD AND THE NUMBER OF FAILURES + +The statement that the number of failures will be greater for the +failing pupils who remain in school the longer time may seem rather +commonplace. But it will not seem trite to state that the percentage +of the total failures on the total subject enrollments increases by +school semesters up to the seventh; that the percentage of possible +failures for all graduating pupils increases likewise; or that the +failures per pupil in each single semester tend to increase as the time +period extends to the later semesters. Yet radical as these statements +may sound, they are actually substantiated by the facts to be +presented. + + + PERCENTAGE OF THE TOTAL FAILURES ON THE TOTAL SUBJECT ENROLLMENT, + BY SEMESTERS + + Semester 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 + + Per Cent 11.5 13.9 14.5 15.1 14.5 15.3 12.1 9.9 10.9 6.2 + + +The 808 pupils who received no marks, and many of whom dropped out +early in the first semester, are not included in the subject enrollment +for the above percentages. Otherwise the enrollments taken are for the +beginning of each semester and inclusive of all the pupils. These +percentages rise from 11.5 in the first semester to 15.3 in the sixth +semester. Then the percentages drop off, doubtless due to the +increasing effect by this time of the non-failing graduates on the +total enrollment. The graduates alone are next considered in this +respect. + + + PERCENTAGES OF THE TOTAL FAILURES FOR THE GRADUATES ON THE TOTAL + SUBJECT ENROLLMENT FOR GRADUATES, BY SEMESTERS + + Semester 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 + + Per Cent 5.9 6.6 7.8 9.1 9.2 10.5 9.1 7.3 8.8 5.2 + + +These percentages are based on the total possibility of failure, and +reach their highest point in the sixth semester, where the percentage +of failure is nearly twice that for the first semester. These same +facts may be effectively presented also by the percentages of such +failures for the graduates on the total subject enrollment for only the +failing graduates in each semester. + + + PERCENTAGES OF THE TOTAL FAILURES FOR THE GRADUATES ON THE TOTAL + SUBJECT ENROLLMENT FOR FAILING GRADUATES, BY SEMESTERS + + Semester 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 + + Per Cent 31.4 31.2 31.8 32.7 32.3 36.6 37.5 37.4 38.0 36.0 + + +The percentages here are limited to the total possibilities of failure +for those graduates who do fail in each semester. They reach the +highest point in the ninth semester, with a gradual increase from the +first. The high point is reached later in this series than in the one +immediately preceding, because while the percentage of pupils failing +decreases in the final semesters (p. 14), there is an increase in the +number of failures per failing pupil (Table IV). + +This increase of percentages by semesters for the graduates on the +total possibility of failure, as just noted, is due to an actual +increase in the number of failures for the later semesters. By the +distribution of failures in Table II more than 56 per cent of the +failures are found after the completion of the second year, in spite of +the fact that about 10 per cent of the pupils who graduate do so in +three or three and a half years. The failures of the graduates are +simply the more numerous after the first two years in school. That this +situation is no accident due to the superior weight of any single +school in the composite group, is readily disclosed by turning to the +units which form the composite. For these schools the percentages of +the graduates' failures that are found after the second year range from +40 per cent to 66 per cent. In only three of the schools are such +percentages under 50 per cent, while in three others they are above 60 +per cent. + +Further confirmation of how the increase of failures accompanies the +pupils who stay longer in school is offered in the facts of Table IV. +Here are indicated the number of pupils who before graduating fail 1, +2, 3, etc., times, in semesters 1, 2, 3, etc., up to 10. Of all the +occurrences of only one failure per pupil in a semester, 50 per cent +are distributed after the fourth semester. In this same period (after +the fourth semester) are found 53.2 per cent of those with two failures +in a semester; 67.6 per cent of those with three failures in a +semester; 71.6 per cent of those having four; 78.6 per cent of those +having five; and all of those having six failures in a single semester. +One could almost say that the longer they stay the more they fail. + +The statements presented herein regarding the relative increase of +failures for at least the first three years in school are likely to +arouse some surprise among that portion of the people in the +profession, with whom the converse of this situation has been quite +generally accepted as true. Such an impression has indeed not seemed +unwarranted according to some reports, but the responsibility for it +must be due in part to the manner of presenting the data, so that at +times it actually serves to misstate or to conceal certain important +features of the situation. Since the dropping out is heaviest in the +early semesters, and since the school undertakes the expense of +providing for all who enter, it does not seem to be a correct +presentation of the facts to compute the percentage of failure on only +the pupils who finish the whole semester. Such a practice tends to +assign an undue percentage of failures to the earlier semesters, one +that is considerably too high in comparison with that of the later +semesters where the dropping out becomes relatively light. It is not +sufficient to report merely what part of our final product is +imperfect, instead of reporting, as do most institutions outside of the +educational field, what part of all that is taken in becomes waste +product. This situation is sufficiently grievous to demand further +comment. + +In his study of the New Jersey high schools, Bliss states [28] that one +of the striking facts found is the "steady decrease of failure from the +freshman to the senior year." If we bear in mind that Bliss used only +the promotion sheets for his data, and took no account of the drop-outs +preceding promotion, and if we then estimate that an average of 10 per +cent may drop out before the end of the first semester (the percentage +is 13.2 for our eight schools), then the percentages of failure +recorded for the first year will be reduced by one-eleventh of their +own respective amounts for each school reported by Bliss, as we +translate the percentages to the total enrollment basis. As a +consequence of such a procedure, Bliss' percentages, as reported for +the second year, will be as high as or higher than those for the first +year in six of the ten schools concerned, and nearly equal in two more +of the schools. It is also evident that his percentages of failure as +reported for the junior and senior years are not very different from +each other in six of the ten schools, although there is no inclusion of +the drop-outs in the percentages stated. The only pronounced or actual +decrease in the percentages of failures as Bliss reports them, occurs +between the sophomore and junior years, and it is doubtless a +significant fact that this decided drop appears at the time and place +where the opportunity for elective subjects is first offered in many +schools. Yet apparently it has not seemed worth while to most persons +who report the facts of failure to compute separately from the other +subjects the percentages for the 3- and 4-year required subjects. + +A rather small decline is shown in the percentages of failure for the +successive semesters, as quoted below for 2,481 high school pupils of +Paterson[29] (the average of two semesters), although these percentages +are based upon the number of pupils examined at the completion of the +semester. It may further be noted that these percentages do not follow +the same pupils by semesters, but state the facts for successive +classes of pupils. The same criticisms may be offered for the +percentages as quoted from Wood[30] for 435 pupils. + + + PERCENTAGES OF PUPILS FAILING, BY SEMESTERS + + SEMESTERS + 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 + + Paterson 17.8 18.4 16.7 15.0 15.6 11.6 9.4 7.4 + Wood 24.5 14.5 29.5 30.0 31.0 7.9 16.2 .. + OBrien (p. 41) 11.5 13.9 14.5 15.1 14.5 15.3 12.1 9.9 + + +The above series of percentages tend to agree at least in showing +little or no decline in the percentages of failure for the first five +or six semesters in school. + +Another tendency to conceal important features in relation to the facts +of school failures may be found in the grouping together of +non-continuous and continuous subjects, the latter of which are +generally required. F.W. Johnson found in the University of Chicago +High School[31] that the percentage of failures by successive years +indicated little or no decrease for mathematics and for English (which +were 3- and 4-year subjects respectively). The figures were based on +the records for a period of two years. In regard to St. Paul, it was +possible to compute similar information from the data which were +available.[32] The percentages of failure are presented separately in +each case for Latin, German, and French, not more than two years of +which are required in the schools referred to above. A contrast is thus +presented that is both interesting and suggestive. + + + PERCENTAGES OF PUPILS FAILING, BY YEARS. (Johnson, F.W.) + + YEARS + 1 2 3 4 + + English 18.1 9.5 18.4 14.4 + Math 12.9 12.9 13.6 5.6 + Latin 14.1 9.0 2.9 .. + German 12.4 7.4 .. .. + French 14.3 9.6 3.1 .. + + + PERCENTAGES OF PUPILS FAILING, BY SEMESTERS. (St. Paul) + + SEMESTERS + 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 + + English and Math 17.8 18.0 16.3 16.9 8.1 14.0 .. .. + Latin, German, French 17.6 17.5 15.1 7.6 3.0 .. .. .. + + +Apparently the full story has by no means been told when we simply say +that there is a general decline in the percentages of failure by years +or semesters. First, the failures of the drop-outs should be included, +so far as it is at all feasible; second, the percentage should be based +on the total enrollment in the subject, not on the final product, if we +wish to disclose the real situation; third, the continuous or required +subjects should be distinguished in order to give a full statement of +the facts. On page 41 are presented the percentages of failure for the +1,125 failing graduates alone, as found in this study, the greater +portion of whose work, as it actually happened, consisted of 3- and +4-year subjects continuous from the time of entrance, and for whom the +percentages of failure increase to the ninth semester. + + +7. SIMILARITY OF FACTS FOR BOYS AND GIRLS + +Nowhere is there any definite indication that any of these factors of +prognosis operates more distinctly or more pronouncedly on either boys +or girls. Some variations do occur, but differences between the sexes +in personal attitudes, social interests, or conventional standards may +account for slight differences such as have been already noted. To +simplify the statement of facts, no comparison of facts for boys and +girls has, in general, been attempted where there was only similarity +to be shown. + + +A SUMMARY OF CHAPTER III + +The influence of non-attendance as a factor in school failure is partly +provided for here, but no statistical data were secured. + +The percentage of physical and mental defects are doubtless +comparatively small for high school pupils except in the case of +vision. + +The facts regarding size of classes were unobtainable. + +The pupils are distributed by their ages of entrance from 12 to 20, +with the mode of the distribution at 15. The younger entering pupils +are distinctly more successful in escaping failure. They are also +strikingly more successful in their ability to graduate. + +The older pupils who fail have a higher percentage of failure on the +subjects taken. + +The first year's record has real prognostic value for pupils persisting +more than three semesters. But 57 per cent of those leaving earlier +have no failures. This includes nearly 60 per cent of all the +non-failing pupils, but less than 32 per cent of the failing ones have +gone that early. + +Prediction of failure by subjects is relatively easy and sure, and the +later years seem more productive of this result. + +The percentage of failure on the total possibility of failure increases +with the time period up to the seventh semester. The same facts are +true for the graduates when considered alone. Fifty-six per cent of the +failures for the graduates occur after the second year. The longer stay +in school actually begets an increase of failures. The boys and girls +are similarly affected by these factors of prognosis. + + +REFERENCES: + +14. Keyes, C.H. _Progress Through the Grades_, pp. 23, 62. + +15. Terman, L.M. _The Measurement of Intelligence_, p. 68. + +16. Bronner, A.E. _Psychology of Special Abilities and Disabilities_. + +17. Ayres, L.P. "The Effect of Physical Defects on School Progress," +_Psychological Clinic_, 3:71. + +18. Gulick, L.H., Ayres, L.P. _Medical Inspection in the Schools_, p. +194. + +19. _Standards of The North Central Association of Colleges and +Secondary Schools_. + +20. Hall-Quest, A.L., in Johnson's _Modern High School_, p. 270. + +21. King, I. _The High School Age_, p. 195. + +22. VanDenburg, J.K. _The Elimination of Pupils from Public Secondary +Schools_, p. 113. + +23. Slattery, M. _The Girl in Her Teens_, p. 20. + +24. Wooley, H.T. "Facts About the Working Children of Cincinnati," +_Elementary School Teacher_, 14:135. + +25. _Report of Commission on Industrial and Technical Education_ +(Mass.), 1906, p. 92. + +26. Barrows, Alice P. _Report of Vocational Guidance Survey_ (New York +City), Public Education Association, New York City, Bull. No. 9, 1912. + +27. Holley, C.E. _The Relationship Between Persistence in School and +Home Conditions_, Fifteenth Yearbook, Pt. II, p. 98. + +28. Bliss, D.C. "High School Failures," _Educational Administration and +Supervision_, Vol. III. + +29. _Annual Report of Board of Education, Paterson_, 1915. + +30. Wood, J.W. "A Study of Failures," _School and Society_, I, 679. + +31. Johnson, F.W. "A Study of High School Grades," _School Review_, +19-13. + +32. Strayer, G.D., Coffman, L.D., Prosser, C.A. _Report of a Survey of +the School System of St. Paul_, 1917. + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +HOW MUCH IS THE GRADUATION OR THE PERSISTENCE IN SCHOOL CONDITIONED BY +THE OCCURRENCE OR THE NUMBER OF FAILURES? + + +1. COMPARISON OF THE FAILING AND THE NON-FAILING GROUPS IN REFERENCE TO +GRADUATION AND PERSISTENCE + +It has been noted in section 1 of Chapter II that 58.1 per cent of all +the graduates have school failures. Here we mean to carry the analysis +and comparison in reference to graduation and failure somewhat further. +To this end the following distribution is significant. + + + DISTRIBUTION OF PUPILS IN REFERENCE TO FAILURE AND GRADUATION + + The Non-failing The Failing + Pupils--Graduating Pupils--Graduating + + Totals 2568 811 (31.5%) 3573 1125 (31.5%) + Boys 1001 307 (30.6%) 1645 489 (29.7%) + Girls 1567 504 (32.1%) 1928 639 (33.0%) + + +We have presented here the numbers that graduate without failures, +together with the total group to which they belong, and the same for +the graduates who have failed. By a mere process of subtraction we may +determine the number of non-graduates, as well as the number of these +that fail, and then compute the percentage of the non-graduates who +fail. Thus we get 58.2 per cent (boys--62.5, girls--54.9) as the +percentage of the non-graduates failing. It is apparent at once that +this is almost identical with the percentage of failure for the ones +who graduate (Chapter II), but for the non-graduates the boys and girls +are a little further apart. It may be remarked in this connection that +no effort was made to include any of the 808 non-credited pupils among +the ones who fail. The inclusion of 60 per cent of this number as +potentially failing pupils, as was done in Chapter II, will raise the +above percentage of failing non-graduates by 11.5 per cent. + +The above distribution of pupils enables us to determine what +percentage of the failing and of the non-failing groups graduate. These +percentages are identical--31.5 per cent in each case. The boys and +girls are further apart in the former group (boys--29.7, girls--33) +than in the latter group (boys--30.6, girls--32.1). It follows, then, +that the percentage who graduate of all the original entrants is 31.5 +per cent. This fact varies by schools from 20.8 per cent to 45.4 per +cent. And such percentage is in each case exclusive of the pupils who +join the class by transfers from other schools or classes. Our +particular interest is not in how many pupils the school graduates in +any year, but rather in how many of the entering pupils in any one year +stay to graduate. + +The greater persistence of the failing non-graduates, or the greater +failing for the more persistent non-graduates, has already been given +some attention in both Chapters II and III. In the following +distribution the non-graduates alone are considered. The number +persisting in school to each succeeding semester is first stated, and +then the percentage of that number which is composed of the non-failing +pupils is given. + + + DISTRIBUTION OF THE NON-GRADUATES ACCORDING TO THE NUMBERS PERSISTING + TO EACH SUCCESSIVE SEMESTER + + BY END OF SEMESTERS + 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 + + Total (4205) 2787 1957 1572 999 761 390 234 60 23 4 + Per Cent of + Non-failing (41.8) 24.5 20.0 16.4 13.9 12.7 7.2 3.8 1.6 0 .. + + +Only 20 per cent of the non-graduates who remain to the end of the +first year (second semester) do not fail. Although the failing +non-graduates outnumber the non-failing ones when all the pupils who +finally drop out are considered, their percentage of the majority +increases rapidly for each successive semester continued in school. +That the non-failing non-graduates are in general not the ones who +persist long in school is shown by these percentages. + + +2. THE NUMBER OF FAILURES AND THE YEARS TO GRADUATE + +The following table shows how the number of failures are related to the +time period required for graduation. The distribution in Table VIII +shows a range from 1 to 25 failures per pupil, and a time period for +graduation ranging from 3 to 6 years. It is evident from this +distribution that the increase of time period for graduating is not +commensurate with the number of failures for the individual. By far the +largest number graduate in four years in spite of their numerous +failures. Nearly 70 per cent of the failing graduates require four +years or less for graduation. The number who finish in three years is +greater than the number who require either five and one-half or six +years. The median number of failures per pupil is 4. The pupils with +fewer than 4 failures who take more than four years to graduate are not +representative of any particular school in this composite, nor are +those having 10 or more failures who take less than 5 years to +graduate. + + + TABLE VIII + + DISTRIBUTION OF PUPILS GRADUATING, ACCORDING TO THE TOTAL FAILURES EACH + AND THE TIME TAKEN TO GRADUATE + + NO. OF YEARS TO GRADUATE + FAILURES 3 3½ 4 4½ 5 5½ 6 TOTALS + + 0 Boys 20 23 244 12 8 .. .. 307 + Girls 54 26 380 30 14 .. .. 504 + + 1 Boys 2 10 59 7 2 .. .. 80 + Girls 5 8 83 13 5 .. .. 114 + + 2 Boys 2 2 64 7 7 0 .. 82 + Girls 2 3 88 11 8 1 .. 113 + + 3 Boys 0 6 27 5 4 .. .. 42 + Girls 1 1 53 6 3 .. .. 64 + + 4 Boys 1 1 44 0 8 1 .. 55 + Girls 4 6 57 8 4 1 .. 80 + + 5 Boys 0 1 41 2 3 .. .. 47 + Girls 1 2 26 7 5 .. .. 41 + + 6 Boys .. 0 29 6 3 .. 0 38 + Girls .. 1 29 3 8 .. 1 42 + + 7 Boys .. 2 12 7 7 .. .. 28 + Girls .. 1 13 4 5 .. .. 23 + + 8 Boys .. 0 17 7 8 .. 1 33 + Girls .. 1 16 9 7 .. 0 33 + + 9 Boys .. 0 6 5 5 0 0 16 + Girls .. 1 7 8 8 1 1 26 + + 10 Boys .. 1 6 4 6 0 .. 17 + Girls .. 1 14 5 2 1 .. 23 + + 11-15 Boys .. 0 9 18 11 0 1 39 + Girls .. 1 11 25 14 1 4 56 + + 16-20 Boys .. .. 2 2 4 1 1 10 + Girls .. .. 2 5 2 2 0 11 + + 21-25 Boys .. .. 1 0 0 1 0 2 + Girls .. .. 0 1 4 3 1 9 + + Total Boys 25 46 561 82 76 3 3 796 + Girls 67 52 780 135 89 10 7 1140 + + +In reading Table VIII, we find that 20 boys and 54 girls who have no +failures graduate in three years; 2 boys and 5 girls fail once and +graduate in 3 years; 10 boys and 8 girls have one failure and graduate +in 3½ years, and so on. The median period is 4 years for those with no +failures and it remains at 4 for all who have fewer than 9 failures; +but the median time period is not above 5 years for the highest number +of failures. + + +3. THE NUMBER OF FAILURES AND THE SEMESTER OF DROPPING OUT FOR THE +NON-GRADUATES + +The pages preceding this point have given evidence that the failing +pupils are not mainly the ones who drop out early. But we may still ask +whether the number of failures per individual tends to determine how +early he will be eliminated? This question calls for the facts of the +next table. In this table the semesters of dropping out are indicated +at the top. The failures range as high as 25 per pupil, and it is +evident that not all pupils have left school until the eleventh +semester. The distribution includes the 1156 boys and the 1292 girls +who failed and did not graduate; also the 694 boys and the 1063 girls +who dropped out without failing. The wide distribution of these +non-graduates both relative to the number of failures and to the time +of dropping out, is forcibly brought to our attention by the table +which follows. + + + TABLE IX + + DISTRIBUTION OF THE NON-GRADUATES, ACCORDING TO THE TOTAL FAILURES + EACH AND THE TIME OF DROPPING OUT + + NO. OF SEMESTER OF DROPPING OUT + FAILURES 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 TOTAL + + 0 B. 430 134 40 41 15 24 7 3 0 .. .. 694 + G. 643 163 89 78 27 45 12 5 1 .. .. 1063 + 1757 + 1 B. 35 53 25 33 14 9 1 1 .. .. .. 171 + G. 46 65 25 34 12 12 4 3 .. .. .. 201 + 372 + 2 B. 52 58 18 30 8 17 5 6 .. .. .. 194 + G. 49 79 31 36 12 17 3 3 .. .. .. 230 + 424 + 3 B. 43 41 22 28 9 10 5 1 0 .. .. 159 + G. 54 52 19 34 18 17 0 6 1 .. .. 201 + 360 + 4 B. 27 31 13 32 7 11 9 2 .. .. .. 132 + G. 34 43 23 29 11 16 5 8 .. .. .. 169 + 301 + 5 B. 3 13 14 30 11 16 11 4 .. .. .. 102 + G. 2 14 18 24 5 13 3 5 .. .. .. 84 + 186 + 6 B. .. 27 8 24 11 16 11 6 0 0 .. 103 + G. .. 17 14 25 10 11 3 9 2 1 .. 92 + 195 + 7 B. .. 8 7 7 6 16 5 3 0 1 .. 53 + G. .. 9 3 15 8 7 5 5 0 0 .. 52 + 105 + 8 B. .. 8 3 14 6 11 6 5 1 0 .. 54 + G. .. 10 5 15 7 10 6 6 1 1 .. 61 + 115 + 9 B. .. 1 1 7 5 8 2 7 3 1 .. 35 + G. .. 0 2 7 8 9 2 4 1 0 .. 33 + 68 + 10 B. .. 2 2 10 2 7 6 10 0 .. .. 39 + G. .. 2 1 6 5 9 4 4 0 .. .. 31 + 70 + 11-15 B. .. .. 1 8 7 27 14 22 5 2 0 86 + G. .. .. 1 5 12 22 20 23 9 6 2 100 + 186 + 16-20 B. .. .. .. 1 0 8 3 6 3 3 0 24 + G. .. .. .. 0 2 3 3 12 6 2 2 30 + 54 + 21-25 B. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 2 1 1 .. 4 + G. .. .. .. .. .. .. 1 3 3 1 .. 8 + 12 + TOTAL B. 590 376 154 263 101 180 85 78 13 8 0 1850 + G. 828 454 231 308 137 191 71 96 24 11 4 2355 + 4205 + + +Table IX reads in a manner similar to Table VIII: 430 boys and 643 +girls, having failures, drop out in the first semester; 35 boys and 46 +girls drop out in the first semester with a single failure; 3 boys and +2 girls drop out in the first semester with five failures each. + +For a small portion of these drop-outs the number of failures is +undoubtedly the prime or immediate factor in securing their +elimination. It seems probable that such is the situation for most of +those pupils who drop out after 50 per cent or more of their school +work has resulted in failures. Yet a few of these pupils manage to +continue for an extended time in school, as the following distribution +shows. + + + DROP-OUTS FAILING IN 50 PER CENT OR MORE OF THEIR TOTAL WORK, + AND THEIR DISTRIBUTION BY SEMESTERS OF DROPPING OUT + + SEMESTERS + 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 + + 221 B. 81 69 17 24 7 15 4 2 1 1 + 264 G. 98 68 20 35 14 10 5 8 5 1 + + % of Total 36.9 28.2 7.6 12.2 4.3 5.2 1.9 2.0 1.2 .4 + + +This grouping includes 485 pupils, or 11.5 per cent of the total number +of 4,205 drop-outs. But whatever the part may be that is played by +failing it is evident that it does not operate to cause their early +loss to the school in nearly all of these instances. It may be noted +here that it is difficult to find any justification for allowing or +forcing these pupils to endure two, three, or four years of a kind of +training for which they have shown themselves obviously unfitted. To be +sure, they have satisfied a part of these failures by repetitions or +otherwise, but only to go on adding more failures. A device of +'superannuation' is employed in certain schools by which a pupil who +has failed in half of his work for two semesters, and is sixteen years +of age, is supposed to be dropped automatically from the school. This +device seems designed to evade a difficulty in the absence of any real +solution for it, and harmonizes with the school aims that are +prescribed in terms of subject matter rather than in terms of the +pupils' needs. From the standpoint of the individual pupil his peculiar +qualities are not likely to be fashioned to the highest degree of +usefulness by this procedure. It simply serves notice that the pupil +must make the adjustment needed, as the school cannot or will not. + +Notwithstanding the testimony furnished by the accumulation of failures +shown in Table IX, there are grounds for believing that for the major +portion of all the non-graduates the number of failures is not a prime +nor perhaps a highly important cause of their dropping out of school. +This conviction seems to be substantiated by the statement of +percentages below. + + + THE PERCENTAGE OF NON-GRADUATES WHO DROP OUT WITH + + 0 1 or 0 2 or fewer 3 or fewer 4 or fewer 5 or fewer + Failures Failures Failures Failures Failures Failures + + 41.8 50.6 60.7 69.2 76.4 80.8 + + +The fact that nearly 81 per cent of the non-graduates have only 5 +failures or less, taken in comparison with the fact that approximately +one fourth of the failing graduates have 8 or more failures, argues +that the number of failures alone can hardly be considered one of the +larger factors in causing the dropping out. In a report concerning the +working children of Cincinnati, H.T. Wooley remarks[33] that +"two-thirds of our children leaving the public schools are the +failures." This seems to suppose failing a large cause of the dropping +out. But this investigation of failure indicates that the percentage of +failure for those leaving is no higher than for the ones who do not +leave. A similar illustration is credited to O.W. Caldwell[34], who +makes reference to the large percentage of the failing pupils who leave +high school, without taking any recognition of the equally large +percentage of the failing pupils who continue in the high school. + +There is in no sense any intention here to condone the large number of +failures simply because it is pointed out that they do not operate +chiefly to cause elimination from school. The above facts may lead to +some such conviction as that expressed by Wooley,[33] after giving +especial attention to those who had left school, that "the real force +that is sending a majority of these children out into the industrial +field is their own desire to go to work, and behind this desire is +frequently the dissatisfaction with school." A somewhat similar +conviction seems to be shared by King,[35] in saying that "the pupil +who yields unwillingly to the narrow round of school tasks ... will +grasp at almost any pretext to quit school." W.F. Book tabulated the +reasons why pupils leave high school,[36] as given by 1,051 pupils. He +found that discouragement, loss of interest, and disappointment affect +more pupils than all the other causes combined. Likewise Bronner +notes[37] that the 'irrational' sameness of school procedure for all +pupils often leads to "serious loss of interest in school work, +discouragement, truancy, and disciplinary problems." Still it may be +that the worst consequences of multiplied failures are not to those +dropping out. W.D. Lewis observes[38] that the failing pupil "speedily +comes to accept himself as a failure," and that "the disaster to many +who stay in the schools is greater than to those who are shoved out." +To the same point Hanus tells[39] us that "during the school period +aversion and evasion are more frequently cultivated than power and +skill, through the forced pursuit of uninteresting subjects." A pupil +who acquires the habit of failing and the attitude of accepting it as a +necessary evil may soon give up trying to win and become satisfied to +accept himself as less gifted, or even to accept life in general as +necessarily a matter of repeated failures. In a similar connection, +James E. Russell says,[40] "the boy who becomes accustomed to second +place soon fails to think at his best." Such psychological results in +regard to habits and attitude accruing from repeated failures are both +certain and insidious. And an education which purports to be for all +and to offer the highest training to each must abandon the inculcation +of attitudes of mind so detrimental to the individual and to the very +society which educates him. + + +4. THE PERCENTAGES THAT THE NON-GRADUATE GROUPS FORM OF THE PUPILS WHO +HAVE EACH SUCCESSIVELY HIGHER NUMBER OF FAILURES + +By merely adding the columns of totals for Tables VIII and IX, we are +able to obtain the full number of pupils who have each number of +failures from 1 to 25. We may readily secure the percentages for the +non-graduates in each of these groups by referring again to the numbers +in the totals column of Table IX. The following series of percentages +are thus obtained. + + + THE PERCENTAGE FORMED BY NON-GRADUATES WITH 0, 1, 2, 3, ETC., FAILURES + ON THE TOTAL NUMBER WHO HAVE 0, 1, 2, 3, ETC., FAILURES + + No. of Failures 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 + Per Cent 68.4 65.7 68.5 77.2 69.0 68.0 70.6 67.3 63.5 + + No. of Failures 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17+ + Per Cent 61.8 63.6 69.0 61.2 66.0 65.3 70.0 61.5 69.4 + + +That these percentages would be higher for the non-graduates than for +the graduates (that is, above 50 per cent) would certainly be expected +by a glance at their higher numbers in every group of their +distribution. But it would hardly be expected by most of us that the +percentages would show no general tendency to rise as the failures per +pupil increase in number, yet such is the truth as found here. The +reverse of these facts was found by Aaron I. Dotey, with a smaller +group of high school pupils[41] (1,397), studied in one of the New York +City high schools. Still he also asserts that failure in studies is not +a cause of elimination to the extent that it is generally supposed to +be. We may gain some advantage for judging the general tendency of the +extended and varied series of percentages above, by computing them in +groups of larger size, thus yielding a briefer series, as follows: + + + (A CONDENSED FORM OF THE PRECEDING STATEMENT) + + No. of Failures 0 1 to 4 5 to 8 9 to 12 13 to 16 17 to 25 + Per Cent 68.4 67.6 67.3 63.9 65.7 69.4 + + +Not only do the percentages of non-graduates not increase relatively as +the numbers of failure go higher, but there is a slight general decline +in these percentages until we reach '17 or more' failures per pupil. +Then for '17 to 25' failures per pupil there is an increase of only 1 +per cent over that for failures. The number of failures does not seem +directly to condition the pupil's ability to graduate or to continue to +in school. + + +5. TIME EXTENSION FOR THE FAILING GRADUATES + +We shall now inquire further what extension of time for graduating +characterizes the failing graduates in comparison with the non-failing +ones. + +The distribution according to the period for graduation for the 1,936 +pupils who graduate was shown by the summary lines of Table VIII. In +the same table the non-failing graduates are included (but distinct). +No pupil graduates in less than three years and none takes longer than +six years; 9.8 per cent of the number finish in less than 4 years; 19.7 +per cent take more than 4 years. The small number that finish earlier +than four years may be due in part to the single annual graduation in +several of the schools. Some of the schools admitting two classes each +year graduated only one, and the records made it plain that some pupils +had a half year more credit than was needed for graduating. +Considering, however, that about 42 per cent of the graduates had no +failures, they should have been able to speed up more on the time +period of getting through. They were doubtless not unable to do that. +But some principals hold the conviction that four years will result in +a rounding out of the pupil more than commensurate with the extended +time. More than 35 per cent of those who did finish in less than four +years are graduates who had failed from 1 to 11 times. In the +conventional period of four years 77 per cent of the non-failing and 64 +per cent of the failing graduates complete their work and graduate (see +p. 59, for the means employed). The percentages of non-failing +graduates for each time period are given below. + + + THE PERCENTAGES OF NON-FAILING GRADUATES FOR EACH PERIOD + + Time Period in Years 3 ½ 4 ½ 5 ½ 6 + Per Cent of Non-Failing 80.4 50.0 46.5 19.3 13.3 .. .. + + +This continuous decline of percentages representing the non-failing +graduates shows that they have an evident advantage in regard to the +time period for graduating. Their percentages are high for the shorter +time periods and low for the longer periods. But by reference to Table +VIII we quickly find that the slight extension of the time period for +the failing graduates is not at all commensurate with the number of +failures which they have. The failures are provided for in various +ways, as Chapter V will explain. No striking differences are observed +for the boys and girls in any division of this chapter. + + +A SUMMARY OF CHAPTER IV + +The percentages of graduates and of non-graduates that fail are almost +identical. + +The percentages of the failing pupils who graduate and of the +non-failing pupils who graduate are identical (31.5 per cent); hence, +graduation is not perceptibly conditioned by the occurrence of failure. + +The non-failing non-graduates do not persist long in school, as +compared with the failing non-graduates. The short persistence partly +accounts for their avoidance of failure. + +As the number of failures per pupil increase for the failing graduates, +the time extension is not commensurate with the number of failures. + +For 11.5 per cent of the non-graduates who fail in 50 per cent or more +of their work, failure is probably a chief cause of dropping out. + +Failure is probably not a prime cause of dropping out for most of the +non-graduates, as 80 per cent have only 5 failures or fewer. + +The worst consequences of failure are perhaps in acquiring the habit of +failing, and in coming to accept one's self as a failure. The number of +drop-outs does not tend to increase as the number of failures per pupil +increases. + +The time period for graduating ranges from three to six years, with +approximately 79 per cent of all graduates finishing in four years or +less. The failing graduates take, on the average, a little longer time +than the non-failing, but not an increase that is proportionate to the +number of failures. + +The boys and girls present no striking differences in the facts of +Chapter IV. + + +REFERENCES: + +33. Wooley, H.T. "Facts About the Working Children of Cincinnati," +_Elementary School Teacher_, Vol. XIV, 135. + +34. Caldwell, O.W. "Laboratory Method and High School Efficiency," +_Popular Science Monthly_, 82-243. + +35. King, Irving. _The High School Age._ + +36. Book, W.F. "Why Pupils Fail," _Pedagogical Seminary_, 11:204. + +37. Bronner, A.E. _The Psychology of Special Abilities and +Disabilities_, p. 6. + +38. Lewis, W.D. _Democracy's High School_, pp. 28, 37. + +39. Hanus, P.H. _School Aims and Values._ + +40. Russell, J.E. "Co-education in High School. Is It a Failure?" +Reprint from _Good Housekeeping_. + +41. Dotey, A.I. _An Investigation of Scholarship Records of High School +Pupils_. High School Teachers Association of New York City. Bulletins +1911-14, p. 220. + + + + +CHAPTER V + +ARE THE SCHOOL AGENCIES EMPLOYED IN REMEDYING FAILURES ADEQUATE FOR THE +PURPOSE? + + +The caption of this chapter suggests the inquiry as to what are the +agencies employed by the school for this purpose, and how extensively +does each function? The different means employed and the number +attempting in the various ways to satisfy for the failures charged are +classified and stated below, but the success of each method is +considered later in its turn. One might think also of time extension, +night school, summer school, correspondence courses, and tutoring as +possible factors deserving to be included here in the list of remedies +for failures made. The matter of time extension has already been partly +treated in Chapter IV, while the facts for the other agencies mentioned +are rather uncertain and difficult to trace on the records. However, +they all tend to eventuate finally in one of the methods noted below. + + + THE DISPOSITION MADE OF THE SCHOOL FAILURES + + Repeat School Exam. Contin. Both + Total No. the Final or Regents' Discon. or No Repeat + Failures Subject Spec. Exam's. Substitution Repet. and + or Exam. Exam. + 8348 B. 3695 821 1333 2471 259 231 + 9612 G. 5001 1025 1752 1929 249 344 + Per Cent + of Total 48.4 10.3 17.2 24.5 2.8 3.2 + + +It is obvious from these percentages that school practice puts an +inclusive faith in the repetition of the subject, as 48.4 per cent of +all the failures are referred to this one remedy for the purpose of +being rectified, although one school made practically no use of this +means (see section 5 of this chapter). We shall proceed to find how +effectively it operates and how much this faith is warranted by the +results. The cases above designated as both repeating and taking +examination (3.2 per cent) have been counted twice, and their +percentage must be subtracted from the sum of the percentages in order +to give 100 per cent. + + +1. REPETITION AS A REMEDY FOR FAILURES + +We already know how many of the failing pupils repeat the subject of +failure, but the success attending such repetition is entitled to +further attention. Accordingly, the grades received in the 8,696 +repetitions are presented here. + + + GRADES SECURED IN THE SUBJECTS REPEATED + + GRADES + Total Repetitions A B C D INC. + 3695 Boys 63 547 1863 1003 219 + 5001 Girls 83 724 2510 1337 347 + ----------------- + Per Cent of Total 1.7 14.7 50.3 33.3 + + +Less than 2 per cent of the repeaters secure A's, while only about 1 in +6 ever secures either an A or a B. The first three are passing grades, +with values as explained in Chapter I, and D represents failure. Of the +repeated subjects 33.3 per cent result in either a D or an unfinished +status. It is a fair assumption that the unfinished grade usually bore +pretty certain prospects of being a failing grade if completed, and it +is so treated here. There is a difference of less than 1 per cent in +the failures assigned to boys and girls for the repeated subjects. + +The hope was entertained in the original plan of this study to secure +several other sorts of information about the repeaters, but these later +proved to be unobtainable. The influence of repeating with the same +teacher as contrasted with a change of teachers in the same subject, +the comparative facts for the repetition with men or with women +teachers, the varying results for the different sizes of classes, and +the apparent effect of supervised study of some sort before or after +failing, were all sought for in the records available; but the schools +were not able to provide any definite and complete information of the +sorts here specified. + + +_a. Size of Schedule and Results of Repeating_ + +It would seem plausible that the failing pupils who were permitted and +who possessed the energy would want to take one or more extra subjects +to balance the previous loss of credit due to failure. Then it becomes +important at once for the administrative head to know whether the +proportion of failures bears a definite relationship to the size of the +pupil's schedule of subjects. A normal schedule for most purposes and +for most of the schools includes, on the average, four subjects or +twenty weekly hours. In this study the schedule which each individual +school claimed as normal schedule, has been accepted as such, all +larger schedules being considered extra size and all smaller ones +reduced. For instance, in one of the schools five subjects are +considered a normal schedule even though they totaled 24 points, which +is not usual. But in the other schools a normal schedule includes the +range from 18 to 22 points irrespective of those carried in the +subjects outside of the classification included in this study; while +above 22 points is an extra schedule and below 18 a reduced schedule in +the same sense as above. For the most part this meant that five or more +of such subjects form an extra schedule, and that three form a reduced +schedule. In this manner all the repeated subjects are classed as part +of a reduced, a normal, or an extra sized schedule as follows. + + + SIZE OF SCHEDULES FOR PUPILS TAKING REPEATED SUBJECTS + + Total Reduced Normal Extra + + 3695 Boys 132 1762 1801 + 5001 Girls 164 2684 2153 + + Per Cent of Total 3.4 51.1 45.5 + + +This distribution indicates that relatively few of the pupils take a +reduced schedule in repeating. For the succeeding comparison with the +grades of extra schedule pupils, those having a normal or reduced +schedule are grouped together. + + + GRADES FOR SUBJECTS REPEATED BY FAILING PUPILS WHO CARRIED + A REDUCED OR NORMAL SCHEDULE + + Total Repetitions A B C D .. + + 1894 Boys 34 259 894 541 166 + 2848 Girls 44 361 1319 840 284 + ---------------- + Per Cent of Total 1.6 13.1 46.7 38.6 + + +In this distribution are the grades for 4742 instances of repetition. +Of these, 38.6 per cent fail to pass after repeating. It is not +possible to say definitely how many of these pupils actually determine +their schedule by a free choice, and how many are restricted by school +authorities or by home influence. But certain it is that a policy of +opposition exists in some schools and with some teachers to allowing +repeaters to carry more than a prescribed schedule; and in most schools +at least some form of discrimination or regulation is exercised in this +matter. It will appear from the next distribution that a rule of +uniformity in regard to size of schedule, without regard to the +individual pupils, is here, as elsewhere, lacking in wisdom and is in +disregard of the facts. + + + GRADES FOR THE SUBJECTS REPEATED, WITH AN EXTRA SCHEDULE + + Total Repetitions A B C D .. + + 1801 Boys 29 288 969 462 53 + 2153 Girls 39 363 1191 497 63 + ---------------- + Per Cent of Total 1.7 16.6 54.5 27.2 + + +Out of the 3,954 repeated subjects in this distribution, 72.8 per cent +secure passing grades, 27.2 per cent result in failures. This means +that the repeaters with an extra schedule have 11.4 per cent fewer +failing grades than the repeaters who carry only a normal or a reduced +schedule. They also excel in the percentage of A's and B's secured for +repeated subjects. In only one of the eight schools was the reverse of +these general facts found to be true. In one other school the +difference was more than 2 to 1 in favor of the extra schedule +repeaters as judged by the percentages of failure for each group. It +seems that at least three factors operate to secure superior results +for repeaters with heavier schedule. First, they are undoubtedly a more +highly selected group in reference to ability and energy. Second, they +have the advantage of the spur and the motivation which comes from the +consciousness of a heavier responsibility, and from which emanates +greater earnestness of effort. Third, it is probable that some teachers +are more helpful and considerate in the aiding and grading of pupils +who appear to be working hard. It is, at any rate, a plain fact that +those who are willing and who are permitted to take extra work are the +more successful. Excessive emphasis must not be placed on the latter +requirement alone, as willingness frequently seems to be the only +essential condition imposed. + + +_b. Later Grades in the Same Kind of Subjects, Following Repetition and +Without It_ + +Next in importance to the degree of success attending the repetition of +failing subjects is the effect which such repetition has upon the +results in later subjects of the same kind. By tabulating separately +the later grades in like subjects for those who had repeated and for +those who had not repeated after failure, we have the basis for the +following comparison of results. It should be stated at this point that +by the same kind of subject is not meant a promiscuous grouping +together of all language or of all history courses. But for languages a +later course in the same language is implied, with the single exception +that Latin and French are treated as though French were a mere +continuation of the Latin preceding it. Certain other decisions are as +arbitrary. Greek, Roman, and ancient history are considered as in the +same class; so are modern, English, and American history. The general +and the biological sciences are grouped together, but the physical +sciences are distinguished as a separate group. The various commercial +subjects are considered to be of the same kind only when they are the +same subject. All mathematics subjects are regarded as the same kind of +subjects except commercial arithmetic which is classed as a commercial +subject. All the later marks given in what was regarded as the same +kind of subject, are included in the two distributions of grades which +follow. + + + LATER GRADES IN THE SAME KIND OF SUBJECT, AFTER FAILURE AND + REPETITION OF THE SUBJECT + + Total A B C D + + 2788 Boys 28 308 1441 1011 + 3489 Girls 33 307 1748 1401 + + Per Cent of Total .9 9.8 50.8 38.4 + + +This distribution shows a marked tendency for failures in any subject +to be accompanied by further failures (38.4 per cent), not only in the +subjects for which it is a prerequisite but in subjects closely akin to +it. If this tendency to succeeding failures is really dependent upon +thoroughness in the preceding subject, then the repetition of the +subject should offer an opportunity for greater thoroughness and should +prove to be a distinct advantage in this regard. When we compare the +percentage of failures above with that in the following distribution, +we fail to find evidence of such an advantage in repetition. The +continuity of failures by subjects and the ineffectiveness of +repetition are pointed out by T.H. Briggs[42] as found in an +unpublished study by J.H. Riley, showing that after repeating and +passing the subjects of failure, 33 per cent of those who continued the +subject failed again the next semester. + + + LATER GRADES IN THE SAME KIND OF SUBJECTS, FOLLOWING FAILURE + BUT WITH NO REPETITION + + Total A B C D + + 1269 Boys 5 102 639 523 + 1191 Girls 8 147 669 367 + + Per Cent of Total .5 10.1 53.1 36.2 + + +Here the same pronounced tendency is disclosed for the occurrence of +other subsequent failures in the subjects closely similar. But for this +distribution of grades, secured without any preceding repetitions, the +unsuccessful result is 2.2 per cent lower than that found for those who +had repeated. This group is not so large in numbers as the one above, +and undoubtedly there is some distinct element of pupil selection +involved, for it is not easy to believe that the repetition should work +a positive injury to the later grades. Nevertheless, our faith in the +worth of unconditional repetitions should properly be disturbed by such +disclosures. + + +_c. The Grades in Repeated Subjects and in the New Work, for the Same +Semester and the Same Pupils_ + +If it is granted that the teachers of the repeaters are equally good as +compared with the others, then the previous familiarity with the work +that is being repeated might be expected to serve as an advantage in +its favor when compared with the new and advanced work in other +subjects. But the grades for the new and advanced work as presented +below, and the grades for the repeated subjects as presented earlier in +this chapter (section 1), deny the validity of such an assumption and +give us a different version of the facts. + + + THE GRADES SECURED IN NEW WORK, AT SAME TIME AND BY SAME PUPILS + AS THE GRADES SECURED IN THE REPEATED SUBJECTS + + Total A B C D + + 11,029 Boys 256 2225 5543 3005 + 11,941 Girls 198 2064 6604 3075 + + Per Cent of Total 1.9 18.6 53.1 26.4 + + +The facts not only show a lower percentage (by 6.9 per cent) of +unsuccessful grades in the new work, but they also show a higher +percentage of A's, of B's, and of C's than for the repeated subjects. +There is definite suggestion here that often the particular subject of +failure may be more responsible and more at fault than the particular +pupil. Certainly uniformity and an arbitrary routine of tasks ignore +the individual differences of interests and abilities. But by their +greater and their repeated failures in the same deficient subjects (see +p. 66) these pupils seem to have reasserted stoutly the facts ignored. +They have been asked to repeat and repeat again subjects which they +have already indicated their unfitness to handle successfully. This +pursuance of an unsuccessful method is not good procedure in the +business world. The doctor does not employ such methods. + + +_d. The Number and Results of Identical Repetitions_ + +It has become apparent before this that some pupils fail several times +and in identical subjects because of their unsuccessful repetitions +after each failure. Final success might at times justify multiplied +repetitions, but in such instances it becomes increasingly important +that the repetition should eventually end in success after the subject +has been repeated two, three or four times. If such is not the result, +then the method is at best a misdirection of energy; or still worse it +is an irreparable error, expensive to the individual and the school +alike, which only serves to accentuate the inequalities and perversions +of opportunity imposed by an arbitrary requirement of the same +subjects, the same methods, and the same scheme of education for all +pupils alike, regardless of their capacities and interests. In using +the term identical it is intended to designate just one unit of the +course, as English I, or Latin II. The following table will disclose +the facts as to the success resulting from each number of such +successive and identical repetitions per pupil. + + + TABLE X + + THE NUMBERS AND RESULTS OF REPEATED REPETITIONS, FOR IDENTICAL SUBJECTS + + NO. OF Grades No Per Cent + REPET. A B C D Grade Totals Failing + 1 Boys 62 532 1727 880 216 3117 + Girls 80 702 2329 1180 342 4633 32.5 + 2 Boys 1 15 106 77 3 202 + Girls 3 17 154 89 2 265 36.6 + 3 Boys .. 0 26 33 0 59 + Girls .. 5 19 36 3 63 59.0 + 4 Boys .. .. 4 11 .. 15 + Girls .. .. 8 25 .. 33 75.0 + 5 Boys .. .. .. 2 .. 2 + Girls .. .. .. 5 .. 5 100.0 + 6 Boys .. .. .. 0 .. 0 + Girls .. .. .. 2 .. 2 100.0 + Tot. Boys 63 547 1863 1003 219 3695 + Girls 83 724 2510 1337 347 5001 + + +Although a smaller number of pupils make each higher number of +repetitions, a higher percentage of each successive group meets with +final failure in the subject repeated, and the facts are indicative of +what should be expected however large the numbers making such +multiplied repetitions. It seems almost incredible that pupils should +anywhere be required or permitted to make the fourth, fifth, or sixth +repetition of subjects so manifestly certain of leading to further +disappointment. It must be understood, too, that five and six +repetitions means six and seven times over the same school work. The +existence of such a situation testifies to a sort of deep-seated faith +in the dependence of the pupil's educational salvation on the +successful repetition of some particular school subject. It shows no +recognition that the duty of the school is to give each pupil the type +of training best suited to his individual endowments and limitations, +and at the same time in keeping with the needs of society. Such +indiscriminate repetition becomes a matter of thoughtless duplicating +and operates, first, to increase the economic, educational, and human +waste, where the school is especially the agency charged with +conserving the greatest of our national resources. Second, it operates +to fix more permanently the habit and attitude of failing for such +pupils, and bequeaths to society the fruit of such maladjustments, +which cannot fail to function frequently and seriously in the +production of industrial dissatisfactions and misfits later in life. +Such probabilities are merely in keeping with the psychological fact +that habits once established are not likely to be easily lost. +Indiscriminate repetition is an expensive way of failing to do the +thing which it assumes to do. + +Surely one finds in the preceding pages rather slight grounds to +warrant the almost unqualified faith in repetition such as the school +practice exhibits (Table X), or in the importance of the particular +subjects so repeated. There may be evidence in this faith and practice +of what Snedden[43] calls the "undue importance attached to the +historic instruments of secondary education ... now taught mainly +because of the ease with which they can be presented ... and which may +have had little distinguishable bearing on the future achievement of +those young people so gifted by nature as to render it probable that +they should later become leaders." But such instruments will not lack +direct bearing on the productions of failures for pupils whose +interests and needs are but remotely served by such subjects. + +A recent ruling in the department of secondary education,[44] in New +York City, denies high school pupils permission "to repeat the same +grade and type of work for the third consecutive time" after failing a +second time. And further it is prescribed that "students who have failed +twice in any given grade of a foreign language should be dropped from +all classes in that language." Our findings in this study will seem to +verify the wisdom of these rulings. Another ruling that "students who +have failed successfully four prepared subjects should not be permitted +to elect more than four in the succeeding term," or if they "have +passed four subjects and failed in one," should be permitted to take +five only provisionally, seems to judge the individual's capacities +pretty much in terms of failure. We have found that for approximately +4,000 repetitions with an extra schedule, however or by whomever they +may have been determined, the percentage getting A's and B's was +higher and the percentage of failing was substantially lower than for +approximately 4,700 repetitions with only three or four subjects for +each schedule. It does not appear that the number of subjects is +uniformly the factor of prime importance, or that such a ruling will +meet the essential difficulty regarding failure. The failure in any +subject will more often tend to indicate a specific difficulty rather +than any general lack of 'ability plus application' relative to the +number of subjects. The maladjustment is not so often in the size of +the load as in the kind or composition of the load for the particular +individual concerned. The burden is sometimes mastered by repeated +trials. But often the particular adjustment needed is clearly indicated +by the antecedent failures. + + +2. DISCONTINUANCE OF SUBJECT OR COURSE, AND THE SUBSTITUTION OF OTHERS + +Earlier in this chapter appears the number and percentage of failures +whose disposition was effected by discontinuance or by substitution. +Twenty-four and five-tenths per cent of the failures were accounted for +in this way. This grouping happens to be a rather complex one. Many of +such pupils simply discontinue the course and then drop out of school. +Some discontinue the subject but because they have extra credits take +no substitute for it; others substitute in a general way to secure the +needed credits but not specifically for the subject dropped. Only a few +shift their credits to another curriculum. In some instances the +subject is itself an extra one, and needs no substitute. For the +graduating pupils only about 5 per cent of the failures are disposed of +by discontinuing and by substitution of subjects. This fact may be due +to the greater economy in examinations, or to the relatively inflexible +school requirements for completing the prescribed work by repetition +whether for graduation or for college entrance. In only one school was +there a tendency to discontinue the subject failed in. So far as +failures represent a definite maladjustment between the pupil and the +school subject, the substitution of other work would seem to be the +most rational solution of the difficulty. + +A consideration of the success following a substitution of vocational +or shop subjects, to replace the academic subjects of failure, offers +an especially promising theme for study. No opportunity was offered in +the scope of this study to include that sort of inquiry, but its +possibilities are recognized and acknowledged herein as worthy of +earnest attention. In only two of the eight schools was any shop-work +offered, and only one of these could probably claim vocational rank. +Apart from the difficulty in reference to comparability of standards, +there were not more than a negligible number of cases of such +substitution, due partly to the relative recency in the offering of any +vocational work. In this reference a report comes from W.D. Lewis of an +actual experiment[45] in which "fifty boys of the school loafer type +... selected because of their prolific record in failure--as they had +proved absolute failures in the traditional course--were placed in +charge of a good red-blooded man in a thoroughly equipped wood work +shop." "The shop failed to reach just one." At the same time the +academic work improved. One cannot be sure of how much to credit the +type of work and how much the red-blooded man for such results. But we +may feel sure of further contributions of this sort in due time. + + +3. EMPLOYMENT OF SCHOOL EXAMINATIONS + +The school examinations employed to dispose of the failures are of two +types. The 'final' semester examination, employed by certain schools +and required of pupils who have failed, operates to remove the previous +failure for that semester of the subject. The success of this plan is +not high, because of the insufficient time available to make any +adequate reparation for the failures already charged. Of the 1,657 +examinations of this kind to satisfy for failures, 30.7 per cent result +in success. The boys are more successful than the girls by 4.5 per +cent. This particular procedure is not employed by more than two of the +eight schools. The other form of school examination employed for +disposing of failures is the special examination, usually following +some definite preparation, and given at the discretion of the teacher +or department head. Its employment seems also to be limited pretty much +to two of the schools, because for most of the subjects the Regents' +examinations tend to displace it in the schools of the New York State +and City systems. As only the successes were sure of being recorded in +these tests we do not know the percentage of success attributable to +this plan of removing failures. It probably deserves to be credited +with a fairly high degree of success, for relatively few pupils (less +than 200) utilize it, and then frequently after some extra preparation +or study--such as summer school courses or tutoring. These two forms of +school examinations jointly yield 37.5 per cent of successes on the +number attempted, so far as such are recorded. + + +4. THE SERVICE RENDERED BY THE REGENTS' EXAMINATIONS IN NEW YORK STATE + +Whatever may be the merits or demerits of the Regents' examination +system in general for academic school subjects, these tests certainly +perform a saving function for the failing pupils, by promptly +rectifying so many of their school failures and thus rescuing them from +the burden of expensive repetition. A pupil's success in the Regents' +examination has the immediate effect of satisfying the school failure +charged to him. At the same time, it is possible, as is sometimes +asserted, that the anticipation of these tests inclines some teachers +to a more gratuitous distribution of failing marks as a spur to their +pupils to brace up and perform well in reference to the Regents' +questions. However, there is no trace of that policy found so far as +the schools included in this study are concerned. For the three New +Jersey schools considered jointly have a higher percentage of failing +pupils, and a slightly higher average in the number of failures for +each failing pupil than have the three New York State schools. + +But it is more probable that the attitude referred to operates to +exclude the failing pupils from being freely permitted to enter the +Regents' tests in the failing subjects, and thus to restrain them from +what threatens to lower the school percentage of successful papers, +except that in New York City such discrimination is prohibited.[46] On +the percentages of success for these examination results teachers and +even schools are wont to be popularly judged. Annual school reports may +feature the passing percentage for the school in Regents' examinations, +with a spirit of pride or rivalry, but with no word of what that +percentage costs as real cost must be reckoned. It is interesting to +note in this connection that the percentage of unsuccessful repetitions +for the three New Jersey schools is 13.7 per cent lower than for the +three New York schools. In addition to this, for the latter schools 22 +per cent more of the subject failures are repeated than for the former +ones mentioned. It is important also to bear in mind that the success +percentage for the Regents' tests is computed on the number admitted to +the examinations--not on the number instructed in the subject. The +regulations are flexible and admit of considerable latitude in matters +of classification and interpretation. Accordingly, if it happens +anywhere in the state that those who are the less promising candidates, +in the teacher's judgment, are debarred from attempting Regents' +examinations by failing marks, by demotion and exclusion from their +class, or by other means, the school's percentage of pupils passing may +be kept high as a result, but the injustice worked upon the pupil in +such manner is vicious and reprehensible. Yet the whole intolerableness +of the practice will center in the rule for exclusion of pupils from +these examinations because of school failure. No one can predict with +any safe degree of certainty that the outcome of any individual's +efforts will be a failure in the Regents' tests, even though he has +failed in a school subject. If failure should happen to result, it is +chiefly the school pride that suffers; if the pupil is denied a free +trial, he may suffer an injustice to aid the pretension of the school. +Our school sanctions are not characterized by such acumen or +infallibility as to warrant our refusing to give a pupil the benefit of +the doubt. He is entitled to his chance to win success in these +examinations if he is able, and it appears that only results in the +Regents' tests can be truly trusted to tell us that he is or is not +able to pass them. + +The facts depicted here may lead to the belief that the recorded +success in Regents' examinations may sometimes be artificially high, +due to the subtle influences at work to make it so. In New York City +absence is the sole condition for debarring any pupil, since he must +have pursued a subject the prescribed time. Such a ruling is highly +commendable, and it should not in fairness to the pupil be otherwise +anywhere in the state. The following distribution discloses that 72.8 +per cent of the 3,085 failing pupils who were recorded as taking the +Regents' examinations were successful, and that 78 per cent of those +succeeding passed in the same semester in which the school failure +occurred. + + + SUCCESS OF THE FAILING PUPILS IN THE REGENTS' EXAMINATIONS + + Pass the Pass a Fail First, + Same Semester Later Semester then Pass Only Fail + + 1333 Boys 809 143 38 343 + 1752 Girls 946 193 117 496 + ------------------------------------------ + Per Cent of Total 72.8 27.2 + + +The divisions of the above distribution are distinct, with no +overlapping or double counting. Of the pupils who pass these +examinations in a later semester than that in which the failure occurs, +a major part belong to the two schools which restrict their pupils +mainly to a repetition of the subject after failing before they attempt +the Regents' tests. Otherwise many of them would pass the Regents' +examinations at once, as in the other schools, and would not need to +repeat the subject. It was pointed out in the initial part of this +chapter that 3.2 per cent of the instances of failure were followed by +both repetition and examination. In one of the two schools referred to +90.8 per cent of the pupils failing and later taking Regents' +examinations repeat the subject first. That most of such repetition is +almost entirely needless is suggested by the fact that only 2.1 per +cent more of their pupils pass, of the ones attempting, than of the +total number reported above, and that too in spite of the loss of +pupils' time and public money by such repetition. It may be, and +doubtless is, true that an occasional omission occurs in recording the +results after such tests have been taken, but, since it is the avowed +policy of each school to have complete records for their own constant +reference (excepting that the practice of the smallest of the five +units was not to record the Regents' failures, and for this school they +had to be estimated), the failing results would not be expected to be +omitted more often than the successes, so that only the totals would be +perceptibly affected by such errors. + +One may rightly be permitted to speculate a bit here as to the most +probable reaction of the pupil in regard to his respect for the school +standards and for the judgment and opinion of his teacher, when he so +readily and repeatedly passes the official state tests almost +immediately after his school has classed his work as of failing +quality. Perhaps it becomes easier for him to feel that failure is not +a serious matter but an almost necessary incident that accompanies the +expectations of the usual school course, just as gout is sometimes +regarded as a mere contingency of ease and plenty. If such be true, and +the evidence establishes a strong probability that it is, then it is +not a helpful attitude to develop in the pupil nor one of benefit to +the school and to society. + + +5. CONTINUATION OF SUBJECT WITHOUT REPETITION + +A limited number of records were available in one school for the pupils +who failed in the first semester of a subject, and who were permitted +to continue the subject conditionally a second semester without first +repeating it. Not all pupils were given this privilege, and the +conditions of selection were not very definite beyond a sort of general +confidence and promise relative to the pupil. The after-school +conference was the only specific means provided for aiding such pupils. +But 52 per cent of such subjects were passed in this manner, and the +subsequent passing compensated for the previous failure as to school +credit. + + + GRADES FOR FAILING PUPILS WHO CONTINUE THE SUBJECT WITHOUT REPETITION + + A B C D + + 259 Boys .. 7 133 119 + 249 Girls .. 3 119 125 + ------------------ + Per Cent of Total .. 52 48 + + +A difference of judgments may prevail as to the significance of these +facts. Although the passing grades secured are not high, 52 per cent +have thus been relieved from the subject repetition, which on the +average results in 33.3 per cent of failures, as has been noted in +section 1 of this chapter. + +A much more ingenious device for enabling at least some pupils to +escape the repetition and yet to continue the subject was discovered in +one school, in which it had been employed. Briefly stated, the scheme +involved a nominal passing grade of 70 per cent, but a passing average +of 75 per cent; and so long as the average was attained, the grade in +one or two of the subjects might be permitted to drop as low as 60 per +cent. Then in the event of a lower average than 75 per cent, it might +be raised by a new test in the favorite or easiest subject, rather than +in the low subject. By this scheme the grades could be so juggled as to +escape repetition or other direct form of reparation in spite of +repeated failures, unless perchance the grades fell below 60 per cent. +By a change of administration in the school this whole scheme has been +superseded. But it had been utilized to the extent that the records for +this school showed practically no repetitions for the failing pupils. + + +A SUMMARY OF CHAPTER V + +Among the school agencies for disposing of the failures, repetition of +the subject is the most extensively employed. + +Thirty-three and three-tenths per cent of the repeated grades are +repeated failures. + +Few of the repeaters take reduced schedules. + +The repeaters with an extra schedule are more successful in each of the +passing grades, and have 11.4 per cent less failures than repeaters +with a normal or reduced schedule. + +In the later subjects of the same kind, after failure and repetition, +the unsuccessful grades are 2.2 per cent higher than for a similar +situation without any repetition. + +The grades in new work for repeaters are markedly superior to those in +the repeated subjects, for the same semester. + +As the number of identical repetitions are increased (as high as six), +the percentage of final failure rapidly rises. + +The emphasis placed on repetition is excessive, and the faith displayed +in it by school practice is unwarranted by the facts. + +Relatively few of the failing pupils who continue in school discontinue +the subject or substitute another after failure. + +School examinations are employed for 10.3 per cent of the failures, +with 37.5 per cent of success on the attempts. + +The Regents' examinations are employed for 17.2 per cent of the +failures, of which 72.8 per cent succeed in passing, and in most cases +immediately after the school failure. + +Of those who continue the subject of failure without any repetition 52 +per cent get passing grades. + +No form of school compensation can be considered as adequate which does +not adapt the treatment to the kind and cause of the malady, as +manifested by the failure symptoms. + + +REFERENCES: + +42. Briggs, T.H. Report on Secondary Education, U.S. Comm. of Educ. +Report, 1914. + +43. Snedden, D. In Johnson's _Modern High School._ II, 24, 26. + +44. Official Bulletin on Promotion and Students' Programs, 1917, from +Assoc. Supt. in Charge of Secondary Schools, for N.Y. City. + +45. Lewis, W.D. _Democracy's High School_, p. 45. + +46. Ruling of Board of Supt's., New York City, June, 1917. + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +DO THE FAILURES REPRESENT A LACK OF CAPABILITY OR OF FITNESS FOR HIGH +SCHOOL WORK ON THE PART OF THOSE PUPILS? + + +In view of the fact that some of the pupils do not fail in any part of +their school work, there is a certain popular presumption that failure +must be significant of pupil inferiority when it occurs. That +connotation will necessarily be correct if we are to judge the +individual entirely by that part of his work in which he fails, and to +assume that the failing mark is a fair indication of both achievement +and ability. Although the pupil is only one of the contributing factors +in the failure, nevertheless it happens that cherished opportunity, +prizes, praise, honors, employment, and even social recognition are +frequently proffered or withheld according to his marks in school. +Still further, the pupil who accumulates failures may soon cease to be +aggressively alive and active; he is in danger of acquiring a +conforming attitude of tolerance toward the experience of being +unsuccessful. Therefore it is particularly momentous to the pupil, +should the school record ascribed to him prove frequently to be +incongruous with his potential powers. It has already been pointed out +in these pages that the failures frequently tend to designate specific +difficulties rather than what is actually the negative of 'ability plus +application.' This does not at all deny that in some instances there +appears to be the ability minus the application, and that in other +cases the pupils are simple unfitted for the work required of them. + + +1. SOME ARE EVIDENTLY MISFITS + +There is a strong presumption that many of the 485 pupils who failed in +50 per cent of their school work and dropped out (reported in Chapter +IV) represent misfits for at least the kind of school subjects offered +or required. One cannot say that even hopeless failing in any +particular subject is a safe criterion of general inability, or that +failure in abstract sort of mental work would be a sure prophecy of +failure in more concrete hand work. It is altogether probable that some +of the individuals in the above number were not endowed to profit by an +academic high school course, and that others were the restless ones at +a restless age, who just would not fit in, whatever their abilities. +But even of these pupils a considerable number display sufficient +resourcefulness to satisfy many of their failures and to persist in +school two, three, or four years. There are perhaps at least a few +others who, without failing, drop out early, prompted by the conviction +of their own unfitness to succeed in the high school. Yet collectively +this group is by no means a large one. This conclusion is in harmony +with the judgment of former Superintendent Maxwell, of New York +City,[47] who stated that "the number of children leaving school +because they have not the native ability to cope with high school +studies, is, in my judgment, small." Likewise Van Denburg[48] reached +the conclusion that "at least 75 per cent of the pupils who enter (high +school) have the brains, the native ability to graduate, if they chose +to apply themselves." With many who fail not even is the application +lacking, as the facts of section 2 will seem to prove. + + +2. MOST OF THE FAILING PUPILS LACK NEITHER ABILITY OR EARNESTNESS + +When we take into account that by the processes of selection and +elimination only thirty to forty per cent of the pupils who enter the +elementary school ever reach high school,[49] it is readily admitted +that the high school population is a selected group, of approximately 1 +in 3. Then of this number we again select less than 1 in 3 to graduate. +This gives a 1 in 9 selection, let us say, of the elementary school +entrants. For relatively few general purposes in life may we expect to +find so high a degree of selection. Yet in this 1 in 9 group (who +graduate) the percentage of the failing pupils is as high as that of +the non-failing ones, and the percentage of graduates does not drop +even as the number of failures rise. So far as ability is required to +meet the conditions of graduation they are manifestly provided with +it. Following this comparison still further, the failing pupils who do +not graduate have an average number of failures that is only .6 higher +than for the failing graduates (4.9-4.3); but barring those +non-graduates considered in section 1 of this chapter, the average is +practically the same as for the failing graduates. Moreover, the +failing non-graduates continue in school, even in the face of failure, +much longer than do the non-failing non-graduates. That gives evidence +of the same quality to which the manager of a New York business firm +paid tribute when he said that he preferred to employ a high school +graduate for the simple reason that the graduate had learned, by +staying to graduate, how to 'stick to' a task. + +The success of the failing pupils in passing the Regents' examinations +does not give endorsement to the suggestion that they are in any true +sense weaklings. That they succeed here almost concurrently with the +failure in the school testifies that 'they can if they will,' or +conversely, as regards the school subject, that 'they can but they +won't.' Of course it is possible that differences in the type of +examinations or in the standards of judgment as employed by the school +and the Regents may be a factor in the difference of results secured. +The great difficulty then seems to resolve itself into a technical +problem of more successfully enlisting the energy and ability which +they so irrefutably do possess in order to secure better school +results, but perhaps in work that is better adapted to them. Again, the +success with which these pupils carry a schedule of five or six +subjects, besides other work not recognized in the treatment of this +study, and retrieve themselves in the unattractive subjects of failure +pleads for a recognition of their ability and enterprise. Their +difficulty is without doubt frequently more physiological than +psychological, except as they are the victims of a false psychology, +that either disregards or misapplies the principles which Thorndike +terms the law of readiness[50] to respond and the law of effect, and +consequently depend largely on the one law of exercise of the function +to secure the desired results. + +Some additional evidence that the failing pupils can and do succeed in +most of their subjects is provided by their earlier and later records, +as disclosed by the total grades received for the semester first +preceding and the one next following that in which the failure occurs. +There were of course no preceding grades for the failures that occur in +the first semester, and none succeeding those that occur in the last +semester spent in school. It is quite apparent from the following +distribution of grades that these pupils are far from helpless in +regard to the ability required to do school work in general. + + + GRADES OF THE FAILING PUPILS IN THE SEMESTER NEXT PRECEDING + THE FAILURES + + Total A B C D + + 13,857 Boys 315 2883 6668 3991 + 17,264 Girls 245 2868 9509 4642 + + Per Cent of Total 1.8 18.5 52.0 27.7 + + + GRADES OF THE FAILING PUPILS IN THE SEMESTER NEXT SUCCEEDING + THE FAILURES + + Total A B C D + + 14,724 Boys 319 2772 7406 4227 + 16,942 Girls 281 2788 9114 4759 + + Per Cent of Total 1.9 17.7 52.1 28.3 + + +More than 20 per cent of the grades in the former and nearly 20 per +cent of the grades in the latter distribution are A's or B's, 52 per +cent more in each case are given a lower passing grade, while +approximately 28 per cent in each distribution have failing grades. +Though some tendency toward a continuity of failures is apparent, there +is also evident a pronounced tendency in the main for pupils to +succeed. That these same pupils could do better is not open to doubt. +Teachers in two of the larger schools asserted that with many pupils a +kind of complacency existed to feel satisfied with a C, and to consider +greater effort for the sake of higher passing marks as a waste of time. +Such pupils openly advocate a greater number of subjects with at least +a minimum passing mark in each, in preference to fewer subjects and the +higher grades, which they claim count no more in essential credit than +a lower passing grade. That attitude may account for some of the low +marks as well as for some of the failures shown above, even though the +pupils may possess an abundance of mental ability. + +Still another element, apart from the real ability of the pupils, +which is contributory to school failures is found in punitive marking +or in the giving of a failing grade for disciplinary effect. It is +probably a relatively small element, but it is difficult to establish +any certain estimate of its amount. Numerous teachers are ready to +assert its reality in practice. Two cases came directly to the author's +personal attention by mere chance--one, by the frank statement of a +teacher who had used this weapon; another, by the ready advice of an +older to a younger teacher, in the midst of recording marks, to fail a +boy "because he was too fresh." The advice was followed. Such a +practice, however prevalent, is intolerable and indefensible. If the +school failure is to be administered as a retaliation or convenience by +the teacher, how is the moral or educational welfare of the pupil to be +served thereby? It is certain to be more efficacious for vengeance than +for purposes of reforming the individual if employed in this way. The +Regents' rules take recognition of this inclination toward a perversion +of the function of examination by forbidding any exclusion from +Regents' examinations as a means of discipline. Many teachers cultivate +a finesse for discerning weaknesses and faults, without perceiving the +immeasurable advantage of being able to see the pupils' excellences. In +one school there was employed a plan by which a percentage discount was +charged for absence, and in some instances it reduced a passing mark to +a failing mark. This comes close to the assignment of marks of failure +for penalizing purposes, which is unjustified and vicious. + +It is certain that some of the pupils are failures only in the narrow +academic sense. Information in reference to a few such cases was +volunteered by principals, without any effort being made to trace such +pupils in general. One of the pupils in this study who had graduated +after failing 23 times, was able to enter a reputable college, and had +reached the junior year at the time of this study. Two others with a +record of more than 20 failures each had made a decided success in +business--one as an automobile salesman and manager, the other in a +telegraph office. It is not unrecognized that the school has many +notable failures to indicate how even the fittest sometimes do not +survive the school routine. Among such cases were Darwin, Beecher, +Seward, Pasteur, Linnaeus, Webster, Edison, and George Eliot, who were +classed by their schools as stupid or incompetent.[51] In reference to +the pupil's responsibility for the failures, Thorndike remarks[52] that +"something in the mental or social and economic status of the pupil who +enters high school, or in the particular kind of education given in the +United States, is at fault. The fact that the elimination is so great +in the first year of the high school gives evidence that a large share +of the fault lies with the kind of education given in the United +States." Some of the facts for those are not eliminated so early are +still more definitely indicative that something is wrong with the kind +of education given, as the facts of the following section seem to point +out. + + +3. THE SCHOOL EMPHASIS AND THE SCHOOL FAILURES ARE BOTH CULMINATIVE IN +PARTICULAR SCHOOL SUBJECTS + +As soon as we find any subject forced upon all pupils alike as a school +requirement we may be quite sure that it will not meet the demands of +the individual aptitudes and capacities of some portion of those +pupils. As a result an accumulation of failures will tend to mark out +such a uniformly required subject, whether it be mathematics, science +or Latin. It was pointed out in section 4 of Chapter II that Latin and +mathematics, although admittedly in charge of teachers ranking with the +best, have both a high percentage of the total failures and the highest +percentage of failures reckoned on the number taking the subject. In +both regards there is a heaping up of failures for those two subjects, +but furthermore there is an arbitrary emphasis culminating in these two +subjects beyond any others excepting that English is a very generally +required subject. In reference to these two required subjects the +pupils who graduate are not more successful than those who do not. When +the emphasis is on the teaching of the subject rather than on the +teaching of the pupil there is no incongruity in making the subject a +requirement for all, but both are incongruous with what psychology has +more lately recognized and pointed out as to the wide range of +individual differences. A similar situation is evidenced by the +percentage of failure in science as reported for the St. Louis high +school in Chapter II. A year of physics had been made compulsory for +all, and taught in the second year.[53] Its percentage of failures +accordingly mounts to the highest place. Mr. Meredith, who conducted +that portion of the survey, rightly regards the policy as a mistake, +and recommends that the needs of individual pupils be considered. + +It is indeed striking how failures of the pupils are grouped under +particular subjects of difficulty, and how the pupils fail again and +again in the same general subject. No educational expert would seem to +be needed to diagnose a goodly number of these chronic cases of failing +and to detect a productive source of the whole trouble if only the +following distribution were presented to him. + + + DISTRIBUTION OF PUPILS ACCORDING TO THE NUMBER OF TIMES THEY HAVE + FAILED IN THE SAME SUBJECT + + No. of + Times 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 14 + + Boys 2852 1416 425 196 73 25 2 4 1 1 1 0 1 + Girls 2812 1722 501 250 98 31 7 8 3 1 0 3 0 + + +By 'same subjects' the same general divisions are designated, as +English, Latin, mathematics. We may be led to note first that a major +portion of the above distribution of pupils belongs to those who fail +but once in the same subject; but then we note that by far the greater +number of failures comprised by that distribution belong to those who +fail two or more times in the same subject. To state that fact more +specifically, 68.5 per cent of the total 17,960 failures involved in +this study are made by two or more failures in the same subject, while +31.5 per cent of the failures belong to a more promiscuous and varied +collection of failures, of not more than one in any subject. It will be +noted here that some subjects do not have a greater continuity than one +year or even one semester on the school program. Such subjects provide +the least possibility of successive failures in the same field. A +further analysis shows that the failures incurred by three or more +instances occurring in the same subject form 33.6 per cent of the +entire number; and that 18 per cent of the total is comprised of four +or more instances of failure in the same subject. There is small +probability that such a multiplication of failures by subjects will +characterize the subjects which are least productive of failures in +general, and such is not the case in fact. Latin and mathematics are +again the chief contributors, and this would seem to be a fact also for +those schools quoted from outside of this study, for purposes of +comparison in Chapter II. + +The above distribution speaks with graphic eloquence of how the school +tends to focus emphasis on the subject prescribed and then to demand +that the pupil be fitted or become fitted to the courses offered. Such +heaping up of failures will more likely mark those subjects which seem +to the pupil to be furthest from meeting his needs and appealing to his +interests. + +In two of the schools studied, an X, Y, and Z division was formed in +certain difficult subjects for the failing pupils, by which they take +three semesters to complete two semesters of work. This plan, as judged +by results, is obviously insufficient for such pupils and tends to +prove further that the kind of work is more at fault in the matter of +failing than is the amount. Frequently a pupil who fails in the A +semester (first) will also fail in the X division of that subject as he +repeats it, while at the same time his work is perhaps not inferior in +the other subjects. The data for these special divisions were not kept +distinct in transcribing the records, so that it is not possible to +offer the tabulated facts here. There are numerous recognized +illustrations of how some pupils find some particular subject as +history, mathematics, or language distinctively difficult for them. + + +4. AN INDICTMENT AGAINST THE SUBJECT-MATTER AND THE TEACHING ENDS, AS +FACTORS IN PRODUCING FAILURES + +The evidence already disclosed to the effect that the high school +entrants are highly selected, that few of the failing pupils lack +sufficient ability for the work, that they have manifested their +ability and energy in diverse ways, and that particular subjects are +unduly emphasized and by the uniformity of their requirement cause much +maladjustment, largely contributing to the harvest of failures, seems +to warrant an indictment against both the subject-matter and the +teaching ends for factoring so prominently in the production of +failures. There is clearly an administrative and curriculum problem +involved here in the sense that not a few of the failures seem to +represent the cost at which the machinery operates. This is in no sense +intended as a challenge to any subject to defend its place in the high +school curriculum, but it is meant to challenge the policy of the +indiscriminate requirement of any subject for all pupils, allowing only +that English of some kind will usually be a required subject for the +great majority of the pupils. It is simply demanded that Latin and +mathematics shall stand on their own merits, and that the same shall +apply to history and science or other subjects of the curriculum. So +far as they are taught each should be taught as earnestly and as +efficiently as possible; but it should not be asked that any teacher +take the responsibility for the unwilling and unfitted members of a +class who are forced into the subject by an arbitrary ruling which +regards neither the motive, the interest or the fitness of the +individual. + +This indictment extends likewise to the teaching method or purpose +which focalizes the teachers' attention and energy chiefly on the +subject. Certain basic assumptions, now pretty much discredited, have +led to the avowed teaching of the subject for its own sake, and often +without much regard to any definite social utility served by it. This +charge seems to find an instance in the handling of the subject of +English so that 16.5 per cent of all the failures are contributed by +it, without giving even the graduate a mastery of direct, forceful +speech, as is so generally testified. Strangely enough, except in the +light of such teaching ends, the pupils who stay through the upper +years and to graduate have more failures in certain subjects than the +non-graduates who more generally escape the advanced classes of these +subjects. The traditional standards of the high school simply do not +meet the dominant needs of the pupils either in the subject-content or +in the methods employed. Some of these traditional methods and studies +are the means of working disappointment and probably of inculcating a +genuine disgust rather than of furnishing a valuable kind of +discipline. The school must provide more than a single treatment for +all cases. In each subject there must be many kinds of treatment for +the different cases in order to secure the largest growth of the +individuals included. This does not in any sense necessitate the +displacement of thoroughness by superficiality or trifling, but on the +contrary greater thoroughness may be expected to result, as helpful +adaptations of method and of matter give a meaningful and purposeful +motive for that earnest application which thoroughness itself demands. + + +SUMMARY OF CHAPTER VI + +The pupil is but one of several factors involved in the failure, yet +the consequences are most momentous for him. + +The pupils who lack native ability sufficient for the work are not a +large number. + +The high school graduates represent about a 1 in 9 selection of the +elementary school entrants, but in this group is included as high a +percentage of the failing pupils as of the non-failing ones. + +The success of the failing pupils in the Regents' examinations, and +also in their repeating with extra schedules, bears witness to their +possession of ability and industry. + +In the semester first preceding and that immediately subsequent to the +failure, 72 per cent of all the grades are passing, 20 per cent are A's +or B's. Many of them "can if they will." + +The early elimination of pupils, the number that fail, and the notable +cases of non-success in school are evidence of something wrong with the +kind of education. + +The characteristic culmination of failures for Latin and mathematics +can hardly be considered a part of the pupils' responsibility. + +Of all the failures 68.5 per cent are incurred by instances of two or +more failures in the same subject. + +Much maladjustment of the subject assignments is almost inevitable by a +prescribed uniformity of the same content and the same treatment for +all. + +The traditional methods and emphasis probably account for more +disappointment and disgust than for valuable discipline. + + +REFERENCES: + +47. Maxwell, W.H. _A Quarter Century of Public School Development_, p. +88. + +48. Van Denburg, J.K. _The Elimination of Pupils from Public Secondary +Schools_, p. 183. + +49. Annual Report of the U.S. Commissioner of Education, 1917. + +50. Thorndike, E.L. _Educational Psychology_, Vol. II, Chap. I. + +51. Swift, E.J. _Mind in the Making_, Chap. I. + +52. Thorndike, E.L. _Elimination of Pupils from School_, U.S. Bull. 4, +1907. + +53. Meredith, A.B. _Survey of the St. Louis Public Schools_, 1917, Vol. +III, pp. 51, 40. + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +WHAT TREATMENT IS SUGGESTED BY THE DIAGNOSIS OF THE FACTS OF FAILURE? + + +It is not the purpose of this chapter to formulate conclusions that are +arbitrary, fixed, or all-complete. There are definite reasons why that +should not be attempted. The author merely undertakes to apply certain +well recognized and widely accepted principles of education and of +psychology, as among the more important elements recommending +themselves to him in any endeavor to derive an adequate solution for +the situation disclosed in the preceding chapters. The significance of +those preceding chapters in reference to the failures of the high +school pupils is not at all conditioned by this final chapter. Since as +a problem of research the findings have now been presented, it is +possible that others may find the basis therein for additional or +different conclusions from the ones suggested here. For such persons +Chapter VII need not be considered an inseparable or essentially +integral part of this report on the field of the research. Indeed the +purpose of this study will not have been served most fully until it has +been made the subject of discussion and of criticism; and the treatment +that is recommended here will not necessarily preclude other +suggestions in the general effort to devise a solution or solutions +that are the most satisfactory. + +It appears from the analysis made in Chapter VI of the pupils' +capability and fitness relative to the school failures that it is +impossible to make any definite apportionment of responsibility to the +pupils, until we have first frankly faced and made an effective +disposition of the malfunctioning and misdirection as found in the +school itself. It does not follow from this that any radical +application of surgery need be recommended, but instead, a practical +and extended course of treatment should be prescribed, which will have +due regard for the nature and location of the ills to be remedied. +Anything less than this will seem to be a mere external salve and leave +untouched the chronic source of the systematic maladjustment. It is not +assumed that a school system any more than any other institution or +machine can be operated without some loss. But the failure of the +school to make a natural born linguist pass in a subject of technical +mathematics is perhaps unfortunate only in the thing attempted and in +the uselessness of the effort. + +We must take into account at the very beginning the fundamental truth +stated by Thorndike,[54] that "achievement is a measure of ability only +if the conditions are equal." Corollary to that is the fact that the +same uniform conditions and requirements are often very unequal as +applied to different individuals. The equalization of educational +opportunity does not at all mean the same duplicated method or content +for all. That interpretation will controvert the very spirit and +purpose of the principle stated. Any inflexible scheme which attempts +to fashion all children into types, according to preconceived notions, +and whose perpetuity is rooted in a psychology based on the uniformity +of the human mind, simply must give way to the newer conception which +harmonizes with the psychic laws of the individual, or else continue to +waste much time and energy in trying to force pupils to accomplish +those things for which they have neither the capacity nor the +inclination. It is accordingly obligatory on the school to give +intelligent and responsive recognition to the wide differentiation of +social demands, and to the extent and the continuity of the individual +differences of pupils. + + +1. ORGANIZATION AND ADAPTATION IN RECOGNITION OF THE INDIVIDUAL +DIFFERENCES IN ABILITIES AND INTERESTS + +If the school failures are to be substantially reduced, the teaching of +the school subjects with the chief emphasis on the pupil must surely +replace the practice of teaching the subjects primarily for their own +sake. This 'subject first' treatment must give place to the 'pupil +first' idea. No subject then will overshadow the pupil's welfare, and +the pupil will not be subjected to the subject. Education in terms of +subject-matter is well designed to produce a large crop of failures. +Neither the addition or subtraction of subjects is urged primarily, +but the adaptation and utilization of the school agencies so as to make +the pupils as efficient and as productive as possible, by recognizing +first of all their essential lack of uniformity in reference to +capacities and interests,--not only as between different individuals, +but in the same individual at different ages, at different stages of +maturity, and in different kinds of subjects. This conception precludes +the school employment of subjects and methods for all alike which are +obviously better adapted to the younger than to the older. Neither does +it overlook the fact that the attitude of more mature pupils toward +authority and discipline is essentialy different from that of the +younger boys and girls; that a subject congenial to some pupils will be +intolerable and nearly if not quite impossible for others; or that an +appeal designed mainly to reach the girls will not reach boys equally +well. In brief, the treatment proposed here is neither radical nor +novel, but it is simply the institution of applied psychology as +pertaining to school procedure. What the more modern experimental +psychology has established must be utilized in the school, at the +expense of the more obsolete and traditional. Psychology now generally +recognizes the existence of what the general school procedure implies +does not exist, namely, the wide range of individual differences. + +The situation clearly demands that our public schools shall not, by +clinging to precedent and convention, fall notably behind industry and +government in appropriating the fruits of modern scientific research. +As the doctor varies the diet to the needs of each patient and each +affliction, so must the school serve the intellectual and social needs +of the pupils by such an organization and attitude that the selection +of subjects for each pupil may take an actual and specific regard of +the individual to be served. The change all important is not +necessarily in the school subject or curriculum, but rather a change in +the attitude as to how a subject shall be presented--to whom and by +whom. The latter will also determine the character of the pupil's +response and the subject's educational value to him. By securing a +genuine response from the pupils a subject or course of study is +thereby translated into pupil achievement and human results. The +authority of the school is impotent to get these results by merely +commanding them or by requiring all to pursue the same subject. An +experience, in order to have truly educational value, must come within +the range of the pupils comprehension and interest. Quoting Newman,[55] +"To get the most out of an experience there must be more or less +understanding of its better possibilities. The social and ethical +implications must somewhere and at some time be lifted very definitely +into conscious understanding and volition." The pupil's responsiveness +is then much more important both for securing results and for reducing +failures than is any subject content or method that is not effective in +securing a tolerable and satisfying sort of mental activity. + + +2. FACULTY STUDENT ADVISERS FROM THE TIME OF ENTRANCE + +Not only the failure of pupils in their school subjects but the failure +also of 13 per cent of them to remain in school even to the end of the +first semester, or of 23.1 per cent to remain beyond the first semester +(Tables V and VI)--of whom a relatively small number had failed (about +¼)--make a strong appeal for the appointment of sympathetic and helpful +teachers as student advisers from the very time of their entrance. One +teacher is able to provide personal advice and educational guidance for +from 20 to 30 pupils. The right type of teachers, their early +appointment, and the keeping of some sort of confidential and +unofficial record, all seem highly important. + +Superintendent Maxwell mentioned among the reasons why pupils leave +school[56] that "they become bewildered, sometimes scared, by the +strange school atmosphere and the aloofness of the high school +teachers." There is a strangeness that is found in the transition to +high school surroundings and to high school work which certainly should +not be augmented by any further handicap for the pupil. There are no +fixed limitations to what helpfulness the advisers may render in the +way of 'a big brother' or 'big sister' capacity. It is all incidental +and supplementary in form, but of inestimable value to the pupils and +the school. A further service that is far more unusual than difficult +may be performed by the pupils who are not new, in the way of removing +strangeness for those who are entering what seems to them a sort of new +esoteric cult in the high school. The girls of the Washington Irving +High School[55] of New York City recently put into practice a plan to +give a personal welcome to each entering girl, and a personal escort +for the first hour, including the registration and a tour of the +building, in addition to some friendly inquiries, suggestions, and +introductions. The pupil is then more at home in meeting the teachers +later. Here is the sort of courtesy introduced into the school that +commercial and business houses have learned to practice to avoid the +loss of either present or prospective customers. Some day the school +must learn more fully that the faith cure is much cheaper than surgery +and less painful as well. + + +3. GREATER FLEXIBILITY AND DIFFERENTIATION REQUIRED + +The recognition of individual differences urged in section 1 +necessitates a differentiation and a flexibility of the high school +curriculum that is limited only by the social and individual needs to +be served, the size of the school, and the availability of means. The +rigid inflexibility of the inherited course of study has contributed +perhaps more than its full share to the waste product of the +educational machinery. The importance of this change from compulsion +and rigidity toward greater flexibility has already received attention +and commendation. One authority[57] states that "one main cause of +(H.S.) elimination is incapacity for and lack of interest in the sort +of intellectual work demanded by the present courses of study," and +further that "specialization of instruction for different pupils within +one class is needed as well as specialization of the curriculum for +different classes." There must be less of the assumption that the +pupils are made for the schools, whose regime they must fit or else +fail repeatedly where they do not fit. Theoretically considerable +progress has already been made in the differentiation of curricula, but +in practice the opportunity that is offered to the pupils to profit +thereby is curtailed, because of the rigid organization of courses and +the uniform requirements that are dictated by administrative +convenience or by the college entrance needs of the minority. The only +permissible limitations to the variables of the curriculum should be +such as aim to secure a reasonable continuity and sequence of subjects +in one or more of the fields selected. One of the chief barriers to a +more general flexibility has been the notion of inequality between the +classical and all other types of education. This assumption has had its +foundations heavily shaken of late. The quality of response which it +elicits has come to receive precedence over the name by which a subject +happens to be classified. "France has come out boldly and recognized at +least officially the exact parity between the scientific education and +the classical education."[58] Indeed one may doubt whether this parity +will ever again be seriously questioned, because of the elevation of +scientific training and accomplishment in the great world wars as well +as in its adaptation for the direct and purposeful dealing with the +problems of modern life. Especially for the early classes in the high +school does the situation demand a relatively flexible curriculum, else +the only choice will be to drop out to escape drudgery or failure. +Inglis maintains that the selective function of the high school may +operate by a process of differentiation rather than by a wholesale +elimination.[59] The pupil surely cannot know in advance what he is +best fitted for, but the school must help him find that out, if it is +to render a very valuable service, and one at all comparable to the +success of the industrial expert in utilizing his material and in +minimizing waste. The junior high school especially aims to perform +this function that is so slighted in the senior high school. Yet +neither the organization nor the purpose of the two are so far apart as +to excuse the helplessness of the latter in this important duty. + +There is apparently no constitutional impediment to a still further +extension of the principle of flexibility and to the minimizing of loss +by what has been a costly trial and error method of fitting the pupils +and the subjects to each other. Short unit courses are not unfamiliar +in certain educational fields, and they lend themselves very readily to +definite and specific needs. Their usefulness may be regarded as a +warrant of a wider adoption of them. Although they are as yet employed +mainly for an intensive form of training or instruction to meet +specific needs of a particular group in a limited time,[60] the +principle of their use is no longer novel. A unit course of an +extensive nature is also conceivable, for instance, a semester of any +subject entitled to two credits might allow a division into two +approximately equal portions. If then both teacher and pupil feel, when +one unit is completed, that the pupil is in the wrong subject or that +his work is hopeless in that subject, he might be permitted to +withdraw and be charged with a failure of only one point, that is, just +one-half the failure of a semester's work in the subject--or one-fourth +that for a whole year with no semester divisions. Even if this scheme +would not work equally well in all subjects, it implies no extensive +reorganization to employ it in the ones adapted. It is not incredible +that, as the people more generally understand that physics, chemistry, +and biology have become vital to national self-preservation and social +well-being, their emphasis as subjects required or as subjects sought +by most of the pupils may lead to a high percentage of failures, such +as is found for Latin and mathematics usually, or for science as +reported in St. Louis, where it was required of all and yielded the +highest percentage of failures. Now the teaching of most sciences by +the unit plan will comprise no greater difficulty than is involved in +overcoming text-book methods and the conservatism of convention. The +project device, as employed in vocational education, will also lend +itself in many instances to the unit division of work. The first +consequence of this plan will be a reduction of failures for the pupil +in those subjects whose continued pursuit would mean increased failure. +The second consequence may be to relieve teachers of hopeless cases of +misfit in any subject, for if the pupils no longer have intolerable +subjects imposed on them the teachers will come to demand only +tolerable work in the subjects of their choice. The third consequence +will probably be to encourage pupils to find themselves by trying out +subjects at less risk of such cumulative failures as are disclosed in +section 3 of the preceding chapter. + + +4. PROVISION FOR THE DIRECTION OF THE PUPILS' STUDY + +The forms of treatment suggested in the first three sections of this +chapter for the diminution of failures will find their natural +culmination of effectiveness in a plan for helping the pupils to help +themselves. This has been notably lacking in most school practice. +Every improvement of the school adaptation still assumes that the +pupils are to apply themselves to honest, thorough study. But the high +school must bear in mind that good studying implies good teaching. It +cannot be trusted to intuition or to individual discovery. Real, +earnest studying is hard work. The teachers have usually presupposed +habits of study on the part of the pupils, but one of the important +lessons for the school to teach the pupil is how to use his mind and +his books effectively and efficiently. Even the simplest kinds of +apprenticeship instruct the novice in the use of each device and in the +handling of each tool to a degree which the school most often +disregards when requiring the pupil to use even highly abstract and +complex instrumentalities. The practice of the school almost glorifies +drudgery as a genuine virtue. E.R. Breslich refers to this fact,[61] +saying, "so it happens that the preparation for the classwork, not the +classwork itself burdens the lives of the pupils." The indefensibleness +of the indiscriminate lesson giving consists in the fact that it is not +the load but the harness that is too heavy. The harness is more +exhausting and burdensome than the load appointed. The destination +sought and the course to be followed in the lesson preparation are very +many times not clearly indicated, lest the discipline, negative and +repressive though it be, should be extracted from the struggle. The +fact is that discouragement and failure are too often the best of +testimony that teachers are not much concerned about how the pupil +employs his time or books in studying a lesson. The point is +illustrated admirably by the report in the _Ladies Home Journal_, for +January, 1913, of a request from a hardworking widow that the teacher +of one of her children in school try teaching the child instead of just +hearing the lessons which the mother had taught. + +Directing the pupils' study is sometimes regarded as a more or less +formalized scheme of organization and procedure, which requires extra +time, extra teachers, and a lesser degree of independence on the part +of the pupils. But here too the important things are differentiation +and specific direction as adapted to the needs of the subject, the +topic or the pupils. It must be insisted that supervised study is not +the same thing in all schools, in all subjects, or for all pupils. In +other words, its very purpose is defeated if it is overformalized. An +experiment is reported by J.H. Minnick with two classes in plane +geometry,[62] of practically the same size, ability, and time allowance +for study, which indicated that the supervised pupils were the less +dependent as judged by their success in tests consisting of new +problems. The pupils also liked the method, in spite of their early +opposition, and no one failed, while two of the unsupervised class +failed. William Wiener also speaks of the wonderful self-control which +springs from the supervised study program.[63] As to the need of extra +teachers for the purpose there is not much real agreement, since the +plans of adaptation are so different in themselves. Increased labor for +the same teachers will rightly imply greater renumeration. Colvin makes +mention of the additional expense imposed by the larger force of +teachers required.[64] But J.S. Brown finds that the failures are so +largely reduced that with fewer repeaters there is a consequent saving +in the teaching force.[65] With a faculty of 66 teachers, he reports 38 +classes in which there was no failure, and a marked reduction of +failures in general by the use of supervised study. It is interesting +and significant to note here that by allowing 100 daily pupil +recitations to the teacher the repeated subjects reported in this study +would require 87 teachers for one semester or 11 teachers for the full +four years. This fact represents more than $50,000 in salaries alone. +Buildings, equipment, heat, and other expenses will more than double +the amount. But such expense is incomparable with what the pupils pay +in time, in struggles, and in disappointment in order to succeed later +in only 66.7 per cent of the subjects repeated. As none of the eight +schools provided anything more definite than a general after school +hour for offering help, and which often has a punitive suggestion to +it, the possibility of saving many of these pupils from failure and +repetition by the wise and helpful direction of their study is simply +unmeasured. A conclusion that is particularly encouraging is reported +by W.C. Reavis to the effect that the poorer pupils--the ones who most +need the direction--are the ones that supervised study helps the +most.[66] There is nothing novel in saying that good teaching and good +studying are but different aspects of the same process, but it would be +an innovation to find this conception generally realized in the school +practice. + + +5. A GREATER RECOGNITION AND EXPOSITION OF THE FACTS AS REVEALED BY +ACCURATE AND COMPLETE SCHOOL RECORDS + +It is unfortunate that the detailed and complete records which tell the +whole story about the failures in the school and for the individual are +found in relatively few schools, even when on all sides business +enterprises find a complete system of detailed records, filed and +indexed, altogether indispensable for their intelligent operation and +administration. The school still proceeds in its sphere too much by +chance and faith, forgetting mistakes and recalling successes. This is +possible because there is no question of self-support or of solvency to +face, and because neither the teachers nor the institution are in +danger of direct financial loss by their waste, duplication, or +failures. In the absence of records it is always possible to calmly +assume that the facts are not so bad as for other schools which do +report their recorded facts. The prevailing unfamiliarity with +statistical methods may also favor a skepticism as to their proper +application to education, since it is not an exact science. But the +fact remains established that it is always possible to measure +qualitative differences if stated in terms of their quantitative +amounts. + +Admirable and complete as are the records for the many schools of the +minority group possessing them, their more general value and +information are still quite securely hidden away in the files which +contain them. Peculiarly interesting was the surprise expressed by the +principals at the extensive and significant information which their own +school records provided, when they received individual reports on the +data collected and tabulated for this study. Yet they received only the +portions of the tabulations which seemed most likely to interest them. +The principals do not have the time or the assistance to study in a +collective way the facts which are provided by their own records, but +they are entitled to much credit for so courteously cooperating with +any competent person for utilizing their records for approved purposes +and in turn sharing their results with the school. To proceed wisely in +the administration of the school we must have a chance to know and +discuss the facts. It is not possible to know the facts without +adequate records. The absence of evidence gives prominence to opinion +and precedent. Accordingly, it is entirely incredible that the number, +the repetition, and the accumulation of failures would remain unchanged +after a fair exposition and discussion of the evidence presented in a +collective and comprehensive form. It may be necessary to admit that a +few teachers will hold opinions so strong that they will discredit all +testimony not in support of such opinions. But the high school +teachers in general seem fairly and earnestly disposed, even about +revising their notions concerning the truth in any situation. In regard +to the relative number and time of the failures, the actual and +relative success in repeated work, the advantage of repetition for +later work, the relation of success to the size of the schedule, the +influence of the number of failures on graduation, and numbers of other +vital facts, it could be said of the teachers in general that they +simply knew not what they were doing. They even thought they were doing +what they were not. The school records must be disclosed and utilized +more fully if their value and importance are to be realized. It will be +a large source of satisfaction if this report helps to direct attention +to the official school records, from which a frequent 'trial balance' +will help to rectify and clarify the school practice. Both are needed. + + +SUMMARY OF CHAPTER VII + +The contributing factors found in the school must first be remedied, +before responsibility for the failures can be fairly apportioned to the +pupils. + +The provision of uniform conditions for all is based on the false +doctrine of the uniformity of the human mind. Such conditions may prove +very unequal for some individuals, and achievement is not then a real +measure of ability. + +By applying a functioning psychology to school practice, more +adaptation and specialization are required to meet the individual +differences of pupils. + +No change of subjects is in general necessitated, but a change of the +attitude which subjects pupils to the subjects seems essential. + +The genuineness of the pupil's response depends on the pupil and the +subject. A policy of coercion will usually beget only dislike or +failure. + +Properly selected student advisers, appointed early, may transform the +school for the pupil, save the pupil for the school, and his work from +failures. + +A relatively high degree of flexibility and specialization of the +curriculum will help the pupil find what he is best fitted for, and +thereby minimize waste. This will include a virtual parity between the +classical and scientific subjects. + +The reduction of some subjects to smaller units will tend to facilitate +flexibility and a reduction of failures. + +The provision of directed study will help the pupils to help +themselves. Good teaching demands it. The harness is often heavier than +the load. Failures are inevitable. + +The plan of study direction must be varied according to the varying +needs of pupils, subjects, and schools. The poorer pupils are aided +most. They are made even more reliant on themselves. The reduction of +failures tends to balance any added expense. + +Records adequate and complete should be a part of the business and +educational equipment of every school. The exposition and use of these +facts as recorded will then give direction to school progress, and +dethrone the authority of assumption and opinion. + + +REFERENCES: + +54. Thorndike, E.L. _Individuality_, pp. 38, 51. + +55. Neuman, H. _Moral Values in Secondary Education_, United States +Bureau of Education Bulletin, No. 51, 1917, pp. 18, 17. + +56. Maxwell, W.H. _A Quarter Century of Public School Development_, +p. 89. + +57. Thorndike, E.L. _The Elimination of Pupils from School_, U.S. +Bureau of Education Bulletin, No. 4, 1907, p. 10. + +58. Farrington, F.E. _French Secondary Schools_, p. 124. + +59. Inglis, A. _Principles of Secondary Education_, p. 669. + +60. Committee of N.E.A. _Vocational Secondary Education_, U.S. Bureau +of Education Bulletin No. 21, 1916, p. 58. + +61. Breslich, E.R. _Supervised Study as Supplementary Instruction, +Thirteenth Yearbook_, p. 43. + +62. Minnick, J.H. "The Supervised Study of Mathematics," _School +Review_, 21-670. + +63. Wiener, W. "Home Study Reform," _School Review_, 20-526. + +64. Colvin, S.S. _An Introduction to High School Teaching_, p. 366. + +65. Brown, J.S. _School and Home Education_, February, 1915, p. 207. + +66. Reavis, W.C. "Supervised Study," in Parker's _Methods of Teaching +in the High School_, p. 398. + + + + +VITA + + +FRANCIS PAUL OBRIEN was born at Overton, Pa., November 12, 1885. + +He received his early education in the village school of Overton, Pa., +and graduated from the high school at Wilkesbarre, Pa., in 1904. He was +a student at Lafayette College, Easton, Pa., receiving the Bachelor of +Arts degree in 1908. He was a graduate student at Teachers College, +Columbia University, from 1915 to 1918, receiving the degree of Master +of Arts in Education in 1916. + +During 1908-09 he was high school teacher of science and history at +South River, N.J.; 1909-10, principal of the high school, and 1910-15 +superintendent of schools at South River, N.J. + +He received honors and held offices in college as follows: Competitive +prize scholarship at Lafayette College, and junior oratorical prize at +the same college, 1907; officer in college debating club, 1907-1908; +vice-president of Y.M.C.A., Teachers College, 1907; member of Columbia +chapter, Phi Delta Kappa, 1917. + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's The High School Failures, by Francis P. 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