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+Project Gutenberg's Handbook on Japanning: 2nd Edition, by William N. Brown
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Handbook on Japanning: 2nd Edition
+       For Ironware, Tinware, Wood, Etc. With Sections on Tinplating and
+       Galvanizing
+       
+
+Author: William N. Brown
+
+Release Date: April 14, 2005 [EBook #15622]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HANDBOOK ON JAPANNING: 2ND EDITION ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Jason Isbell, Karen Dalrymple and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+A HANDBOOK ON JAPANNING
+
+_FOR IRONWARE, TINWARE, WOOD, ETC._
+
+WITH SECTIONS ON TIN-PLATING AND GALVANIZING
+
+
+BY
+
+WILLIAM N. BROWN
+
+
+_SECOND EDITION: REVISED AND ENLARGED WITH THIRTEEN ILLUSTRATIONS_
+
+
+  LONDON
+  SCOTT, GREENWOOD AND SON
+  "THE OIL AND COLOUR TRADES JOURNAL" OFFICES
+  8 BROADWAY, LUDGATE, E.C.
+
+  1913
+
+  D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY
+  8 WARREN ST., NEW YORK
+
+_First Edition under title "A Handbook on Japanning and Enamelling",
+1901_
+
+_Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged, under title "A Handbook on
+Japanning"--January, 1913_
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+                                                                  PAGE
+  SECTION I.
+
+  INTRODUCTION.                                                    1-5
+
+    Priming or Preparing the Surface to be Japanned                  4
+
+    The First Stage in the Japanning of Wood or of Leather
+      without a Priming                                              5
+
+
+  SECTION II.
+
+  JAPAN GROUNDS.                                                  6-19
+
+    White Japan Grounds                                              7
+
+    Blue Japan Grounds                                               9
+
+    Scarlet Japan Ground                                             9
+
+    Red Japan Ground                                                10
+
+    Bright Pale Yellow Grounds                                      10
+
+    Green Japan Grounds                                             10
+
+    Orange-Coloured Grounds                                         11
+
+    Purple Grounds                                                  11
+
+    Black Grounds                                                   11
+
+    Common Black Japan Grounds on Metal                             12
+
+    Tortoise-shell Ground                                           12
+
+    Painting Japan Work                                             13
+
+    Varnishing Japan Work                                           17
+
+
+  SECTION III.
+
+  JAPANNING OR ENAMELLING METALS.                                20-28
+
+    Enamelling Bedstead Frames and similar large pieces             24
+
+    Japanning Tin, such as Tea-trays and similar goods              25
+
+    Enamelling Old Work                                             27
+
+
+  SECTION IV.
+
+  THE ENAMELLING AND JAPANNING STOVE--PIGMENTS SUITABLE FOR
+  JAPANNING WITH NATURAL LACQUER--MODERN METHODS OF JAPANNING
+  WITH NATURAL JAPANESE LACQUER.                                 29-48
+
+    Appliances and Apparatus used in Japanning and Enamelling       29
+
+    Modern Japanning and Enamelling Stoves                          34
+
+      Stoves heated by direct fire                                  34
+
+      Stoves heated by hot-water pipes                              36
+
+    Pigments suitable for Japanning with Natural Lacquer            45
+
+      White Pigments                                                45
+
+      Red Pigments                                                  46
+
+      Blue Pigment                                                  46
+
+      Yellow Pigments                                               46
+
+      Green Pigment                                                 46
+
+      Black Pigment                                                 46
+
+    Methods of Application                                          46
+
+    Modern Methods of Japanning and Enamelling with
+      Natural Japanese Lacquer                                      47
+
+
+  SECTION V.
+
+  COLOURS FOR POLISHED BRASS.--MISCELLANEOUS.                    49-57
+
+    Painting on Zinc or on Galvanized Iron                          49
+
+    Bronzing Compositions                                           49
+
+    Golden Varnish for Metal                                        51
+
+    Carriage Varnish                                                51
+
+    Metal Polishes                                                  51
+
+    Black Paints                                                    52
+
+    Black Stain for Iron                                            53
+
+    Varnishes for Ironwork                                          55
+
+
+  SECTION VI.
+
+  PROCESSES FOR TIN-PLATING.                                     58-60
+
+    Amalgam Process                                                 59
+
+    Immersion Process                                               59
+
+    Battery Process                                                 59
+
+    Weigler's Process                                               60
+
+    Hern's Process                                                  60
+
+
+  SECTION VII.
+
+  GALVANIZING.                                                   61-66
+
+
+  INDEX.                                                         67-69
+
+
+
+
+HANDBOOK ON JAPANNING.
+
+
+
+
+SECTION I.
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+
+Japanning, as it is generally understood in Great Britain, is the art
+of covering paper, wood, or metal with a more or less thick coating of
+brilliant varnish, and hardening the same by baking it in an oven at a
+suitable heat. It originated in Japan--hence its name--where the
+natives use a natural varnish or lacquer which flows from a certain
+kind of tree, and which on its issuing from the plant is of a creamy
+tint, but becomes black on exposure to the air. It is mainly with the
+application of "japan" to metallic surfaces that we are concerned in
+these pages. Japanning may be said to occupy a position midway between
+painting and porcelain enamelling, and a japanned surface differs from
+an ordinary painted surface in being far more brilliant, smoother,
+harder, and more durable, and also in retaining its gloss permanently,
+in not being easily injured by hot water or by being placed near a
+fire; while real good japanning is characterised by great lustre and
+adhesiveness to the metal to which it has been applied, and its
+non-liability to chipping--a fault which, as a rule, stamps the common
+article.
+
+If the English process of japanning be more simple and produces a
+less durable, a less costly coating than the Japanese method, yet its
+practice is not so injurious to the health. Indeed, it is a moot point
+in how far the Japanese themselves now utilize their classical
+process, as the coat of natural japan on all the articles exhibited at
+the recent Vienna exhibition as being coated with the natural lacquer,
+when recovered after six months' immersion in sea water through the
+sinking of the ship, was destroyed, although it stood perfectly well
+on the articles of some age. In the English method, where necessary, a
+priming or undercoat is employed. It is customary to fill up any
+uneven surface, any minute holes or pores, and to render the surface
+to be japanned uniformly smooth. But such an undercoat or priming is
+not always applied, the coloured varnish or a proper japan ground
+being applied directly on the surface to be japanned. Formerly this
+surface usually, if not always, received a priming coat, and it does
+so still where the surface is coarse, uneven, rough, and porous. But
+where the surface is impervious and smooth, as in the case of metallic
+surfaces, a priming coat is not applied. It is also unnecessary to
+apply such a coat in the case of smooth, compact, grained wood. The
+reason for using this coating is that it effects a considerable saving
+in the quantity of varnish used, and because the matter of which the
+priming is composed renders the surface of the body to be varnished
+uniform, and fills up all pores, cracks, and other inequalities, and
+by its use it is easy after rubbing and water polishing to produce an
+even surface on which to apply the varnish. The previous application
+of this undercoat was thus an advantage in the case of coarse, uneven
+surfaces that it formed a first and sort of obligatory initial stage
+in the process of japanning. This initial coating is still applied in
+many instances. But it has its drawbacks, and these drawbacks are
+incidental to the nature of the priming coat which consists of size
+and whiting. The coats or layers of japan proper, that is of varnish
+and pigment applied over such a priming coat, will be continually
+liable to crack or peel off with any violent shock, and will not last
+nearly so long as articles japanned with the same materials and
+altogether in the same way but without the undercoat. This defect may
+be readily perceived by comparing goods that have been in use for some
+time in the japanning of which an undercoat has been applied with
+similar goods in which no such previous coat has been given. Provided
+a good japan varnish and appropriate pigments have been used and the
+japanning well executed, the coats of japan applied without a priming
+never peel or crack or are in any way damaged except by violence or
+shock, or that caused by continual ordinary wear and tear caused by
+such constant rubbing as will wear away the surface of the japan. But
+japan coats applied with a priming coat crack and fly off in flakes at
+the slightest concussion, at any knock or fall, more especially at the
+edges. Those Birmingham manufacturers who were the first to practise
+japanning only on metals on which there was no need for a priming coat
+did not of course adopt such a practice. Moreover, they found it
+equally unnecessary in the case of papier-mâché and some other goods.
+Hence Birmingham japanned goods wear better than those goods which
+receive a priming previous to japanning.
+
+
+PRIMING or PREPARING THE SURFACE TO BE JAPANNED.
+
+The usual priming, where one is applied, consists of Paris white
+(levigated whiting) made into a thin paste with size. The size should
+be of a consistency between the common double size and glue, and mixed
+with as much Paris white as will give it a good body so that it will
+hide the surface on which it is applied. But in particular work
+glovers' or parchment size instead of common size is used, and this is
+still further improved by the addition of one-third of isinglass, and
+if the coat be not applied too thickly it will be much less liable to
+peel or crack. The surface should be previously prepared for this
+priming by being well cleaned and by being brushed over with hot size
+diluted with two-thirds of water, that is provided the size be of the
+usual strength. The priming is then evenly and uniformly applied with
+a brush and left to dry. On a fairly even surface two coats of priming
+properly applied should suffice. But if it will not take a proper
+water polish, owing to the uneven surface not being effectually filled
+up, one or more additional coats must be applied. Previous to the last
+coat being applied, the surface should be smoothed by fine glass
+paper. When the last coat of priming is dry the water polish is
+applied. This is done by passing a fine wet rag or moistened sponge
+over the surface until the whole appears uniformly smooth and even.
+The priming is now complete and the surface ready to take the japan
+ground or the coloured varnish.
+
+
+THE FIRST STAGE IN THE JAPANNING OF WOOD OR OF LEATHER WITHOUT A
+PRIMING.
+
+[The leather is first securely stretched on a frame or board.] In this
+case, that is when no priming coat is previously applied, the best way
+to prepare the surface is to apply three coats of coarse varnish (1
+lb. seed-lac, 1 lb rosin to 1 gallon methylated spirit, dissolve and
+filter). This varnish, like all others formed from methylated spirits,
+must be applied in a warm place and all dampness should be avoided,
+for either cold or moisture chills it and thus prevents it taking
+proper hold of the surface on which it is applied. When the work is
+prepared thus, or by the priming made of size and whiting already
+described, the japan proper is itself applied.
+
+
+
+
+SECTION II.
+
+JAPAN GROUNDS.
+
+
+The japan ground properly so called consists of the varnish and
+pigment where the whole surface is to be of one simple colour, or of
+the varnish, with or without pigment, on which some painting or other
+form of decoration is afterwards to be applied. It is best to form
+this ground with the desired pigment incorporated with shellac
+varnish, except in the case of a white japan ground which requires
+special treatment, or when great brilliancy is a desideratum and other
+methods must be adopted. The shellac varnish for the japan ground is
+best prepared as follows: shellac 1-1/4 lb., methylated spirits 1
+gallon. Dissolve in a well-corked vessel in a warm place and with
+frequent shaking. After two or three days the shellac will be
+dissolved. It is then recommended to filter the solution through a
+flannel bag, and when all that will come through freely has done so
+the varnish should be run into a proper sized vessel and kept
+carefully corked for use. The bag may then be squeezed with the hand
+till the remainder of the fluid varnish is forced through it, and this
+if fairly clear may be used for rough purposes or added to the next
+batch. Pigments of any nature whatever may be used with the shellac
+varnish to give the desired tint to the ground, and where necessary
+they may be mixed together to form any compound colour, such as blue
+and yellow to form green. The pigments used for japan grounds should
+all be previously ground very smooth in spirits of turpentine, so
+smooth that the paste does not grate between the two thumb nails, and
+then only are they mixed with the varnish. This mixture of pigment and
+varnish vehicle should then be spread over the surface to be japanned
+very carefully and very evenly with a camel-hair brush. As metals do
+not require a priming coat of size and whiting, the japan ground may
+be applied to metallic surfaces forthwith without any preliminary
+treatment except thorough cleansing, except in the cases specially
+referred to further on. On metallic surfaces three to four coats are
+applied, and in the interval between each coat the articles must be
+stoved in an oven heated to from 250° to 300° F.
+
+
+WHITE JAPAN GROUNDS.
+
+The formation of a perfectly white japan ground and of the first
+degree of hardness has always been difficult to attain in the art of
+japanning, as there are few or no substances that can be so dissolved
+as to form a very hard varnish coat without being so darkened in the
+process as to quite degrade or spoil the whiteness of the colour. The
+following process, however, is said to give a composition which yields
+a very near approach to a perfect white ground: Take flake white or
+white lead washed and ground up with the sixth of its weight of starch
+and then dried, temper it properly for spreading with mastic varnish
+made thus: Take 5 oz. of mastic in powder and put it into a proper
+vessel with 1 lb. of spirits of turpentine; let them boil at a gentle
+heat till the mastic be dissolved, and, if there appear to be any
+turbidity, strain off the solution through flannel. Apply this
+intimate and homogeneous mixture on the body to be japanned, the
+surface of which has been suitably prepared either with or without the
+priming, then varnish it over with five or six coats of the following
+varnish: Provide any quantity of the best seed-lac and pick out of it
+all the clearest and whitest grains, take of this seed-lac 1/2 lb. and
+of gum anime 3/4 lb., pulverize the mixture to a coarse powder and
+dissolve in a gallon of methylated spirits and strain off the clear
+varnish. The seed-lac will give a slight tint to this varnish, but it
+cannot be omitted where the japanned surface must be hard, though
+where a softer surface will serve the purpose the proportion of
+seed-lac may be diminished and a little turpentine oleo-resin added to
+the gum anime to take off the brittleness. A very good varnish
+entirely free from brittleness may, it is said, be formed by
+dissolving gum anime in old nut or poppy oil, which must be made to
+boil gently when the gum is put into it. After being diluted with
+turps the white ground may be applied in this varnish, and then a coat
+or two of the varnish itself may be applied over it. These coats,
+however, take a long time to dry, and, owing to its softer nature,
+this japanned surface is more readily injured than that yielded by the
+shellac varnish.
+
+According to Mr. Dickson, "the old way of making a cream enamel for
+stoving (a white was supposed to be impossible) was to mix ordinary
+tub white lead with the polishing copal varnish and to add a modicum
+of blue to neutralize the yellow tinge, stove same in about 170°F. and
+then polish as before described". "This," continues Mr. Dickson,
+"would at the best produce but a very pale blue enamel or a cream. It
+was afterwards made with flake white or dry white lead ground in turps
+only and mixed with the polishing copal varnish with the addition of
+tints as required, by which means a white of any required character
+could be produced."
+
+
+BLUE JAPAN GROUNDS.
+
+Authorities state that these may be formed from bright Prussian blue
+or verditer glazed over with Prussian blue or of smalt. By bright
+Prussian blue possibly a genuine Prussian blue toned down to a sky
+blue with white lead is meant, and by verditer the variety known as
+refiners' blue verditer, and as to smalt it must not be forgotten that
+it changes its colour in artificial light. Be that as it may, the
+pigment may be mixed with the shellac varnish according to the
+instructions already given, but as the shellac will somewhat injure
+the tone of the pigment by imparting a yellow tinge to it where a
+bright true blue is required, the directions already given as regards
+white grounds must be carried out.
+
+
+SCARLET JAPAN GROUND.
+
+Vermilion is the best pigment to use for a scarlet japan ground, and
+its effect will be greatly enhanced by glazing it over with carmine or
+fine lake. If, however, the highest degree of brightness be required
+the white varnish must be used. Vermilion must be stoved at a very
+gentle heat.
+
+
+RED JAPAN GROUND.
+
+The basis of this japan ground is made up with madder lake ground in
+oil of turpentine, this constitutes the first ground; when this is
+perfectly dry a second coat of lake and white in copal varnish is
+applied, and the last coat is made up of lake in a mixture of copal
+varnish and turpentine varnish.
+
+
+BRIGHT PALE YELLOW GROUNDS.
+
+Orpiment or King's yellow may be used, and the effect is enhanced by
+dissolving powdered turmeric root in the methylated spirits from which
+the upper or polishing coat is made, which methylated spirits must be
+strained from off the dregs before the seed-lac is added to it to form
+the varnish. The seed-lac varnish is not so injurious to yellow
+pigments as it is to the tone of some other pigments, because, being
+tinged a reddish yellow, it does little more than intensify or deepen
+the tone of the pigment.
+
+
+GREEN JAPAN GROUNDS.
+
+Green japan grounds are produced by mixing Prussian blue or distilled
+verdigris with orpiment, and the effect is said to be extremely
+brilliant by applying them on a ground of leaf gold. Any of them may
+be used with good seed-lac varnish, for reasons already given. Equal
+parts by weight of rosin, precipitated rosinate of copper, and
+coal-tar solvent naphtha will give a varnish which, when suitably
+thinned and the coats stoved at a heat below 212° F., will give a
+green japan second to none as a finishing coat as regards purity of
+tone at least. To harden it and render it more elastic half of the
+rosin might be replaced by equal weights of a copal soluble in solvent
+naphtha and boiled linseed oil, so that the mixture would stand thus:
+rosinate of copper 1 lb., rosin 1/2 lb., boiled oil 1/4 lb., hard
+resin (copal) 1/4 lb., solvent naphtha 1 lb. When heated to a high
+temperature this rosinate of copper varnish yields a magnificent ruby
+bronze coloration, especially on glass. Verdigris dissolves in
+turpentine, and successful attempts might be made to make a green
+japan varnish from it on the lines indicated for rosinate of copper.
+
+
+ORANGE-COLOURED GROUNDS.
+
+Orange-coloured grounds may be formed by mixing vermilion or red lead
+with King's yellow, or orange lake or red orpiment (? realgar) will
+make a brighter orange ground than can be produced by any mixture.
+
+
+PURPLE GROUNDS.
+
+Purple grounds may be produced by the admixture of lake or vermilion
+with Prussian blue. They may be treated as the other coloured grounds
+as regards the varnish vehicle.
+
+
+BLACK GROUNDS.
+
+Black grounds may be formed either from lamp black or ivory black, but
+ivory black is preferable to lamp black, and possibly carbon black or
+gas black to either. These may be always applied with the shellac
+varnish as a vehicle, and their upper or polishing coats may consist
+of common seed-lac varnish. But the best quality of ivory black ground
+in the best super black japan yields, after suitable stoving, a very
+excellent black indeed, the purity of tone of which may be improved by
+adding a little blue in the grinding.
+
+
+COMMON BLACK JAPAN GROUNDS ON METAL.
+
+Common black japan grounds on metal by means of heat are procured in
+the following manner: The surface to be japanned must be coated over
+with drying oil, and when it is moderately dry must be put into a
+stove of such heat as will change the oil black without burning it.
+The stove should not be too hot when the oil is put into it nor the
+heat increased too fast, either which error would make it blister, but
+the slower the heat is increased and the longer it is continued,
+provided it be restrained within a due degree, the harder will be the
+coat of japan. This kind of japan requires no polish, having received
+from the heat, when properly regulated, a sufficiently bright surface.
+
+
+TORTOISE-SHELL GROUND.
+
+This beautiful ground, produced by heat, is valued not only for its
+hardness and its capacity to stand a heat greater than that of boiling
+water, but also for its fine appearance. It is made by means of a
+varnish prepared thus: Take one gallon of good linseed oil and half a
+pound of umber, boil them together until the oil becomes very brown
+and thick, strain it then through a coarse cloth and set it again to
+boil, in which state it must be continued until it acquires a
+consistency resembling that of pitch; it will then be fit for use.
+Having thus prepared the varnish, clean well the surface which is to
+be japanned; then apply vermilion ground in shellac varnish or with
+drying oil, very thinly diluted with oil of turpentine, on the places
+intended to imitate the more transparent parts of the tortoise-shell.
+When the vermilion is dry, brush the whole over with the black varnish
+thinned to the right consistency with oil of turpentine. When set and
+firm put the work into a stove where it may undergo a very strong
+heat, which must be continued a considerable time, for three weeks or
+even a month so much the better. This ground may be decorated with
+painting and gilding in the same way as any other varnished surface,
+which had best be done after the ground has been hardened, but it is
+well to give a second annealing at a very gentle heat after it has
+been finished. A very good black japan may be made by mixing a little
+japan gold size with ivory or lamp-black, this will develop a good
+gloss without requiring to be varnished afterwards.
+
+
+PAINTING JAPAN WORK.
+
+Japan work should be painted with real "enamel paints," that is with
+paints actually ground in varnish, and in that case all pigments may
+be used and the peculiar disadvantages, which attend several pigments
+with respect to oil or water, cease with this class of vehicle, for
+they are secured by it when properly handled from the least danger of
+changing or fading. The preparation of pigments for this purpose
+consists in bringing them to a due state of fineness by grinding them
+on a stone with turpentine. The best varnish for binding and
+preserving the pigments is shellac. This, when judiciously handled,
+gives such a firmness and hardness to the work that, if it be
+afterwards further secured with a moderately thick coat of seed-lac
+varnish, it will be almost as hard and durable as glass. The method of
+painting in varnish is, however, far more tedious than with an oil or
+water vehicle. It is, therefore, now very usual in japan work for the
+sake of dispatch, and in some cases in order to be able to use the
+pencil (brush) more freely, to apply the colours in an oil vehicle
+well diluted with turps. This oil (or japanners' gold size) may be
+made thus: Take 1 lb. of linseed oil and 4 oz. of gum anime, set the
+oil in a proper vessel and then add the gum anime powder, stirring it
+well until the whole is mixed with the oil. Let the mixture continue
+to boil until it appears of a thick consistence, then strain the whole
+through a coarse cloth and keep it for use. The pigments are also
+sometimes applied in a gum-water vehicle, but work so done, it has
+been urged, is not nearly so durable as that done in varnish or oil.
+However, those who formerly condemned the practice of japanning
+water-coloured decorations allowed that amateurs, who practised
+japanning for their amusement only and thus might not find it
+convenient to stock the necessary preparations for the other methods,
+might paint with water-colours. If the pigments are ground in an
+aqueous vehicle of strong isinglass size and honey instead of gum
+water the work would not be much inferior to that executed with other
+vehicles. Water-colours are sometimes applied on a ground of gold
+after the style of other paintings, and sometimes so as to produce an
+embossed effect. The pigments in this style of painting are ground in
+a vehicle of isinglass size corrected with honey or sugar-candy. The
+body with which the embossed work is raised is best formed of strong
+gum water thickened to a proper consistency with armenian bole and
+whiting in equal parts, which, being laid on in the proper figures and
+repaired when dry, may be then painted with the intended pigments in
+the vehicle of isinglass size or in the general manner with shellac
+varnish. As to the comparative value of pigments ground in water and
+ground in oil, that is between oil-colours and water-colours in
+enamelling and japanning, there seems to have been a change of opinion
+for some time back, especially as regards the enamelling of slate. The
+marbling of slate (to be enamelled) in water-colours is a process
+which Mr. Dickson says well repays study. It is greatly developed in
+France and Germany. The process is a quick one and the pigments are
+said to stand well and to maintain their pristine hue, yet if many
+strikingly natural effects result from the use of this process, its
+use has not spread in Great Britain, being confined wholly and solely
+to the marbling of slate (except in the case of wall-paper which is
+water-marbled in a somewhat similar way).
+
+"In painting in oil-colour," says Mr. Dickson, "the craftsman trusts
+largely to his badger-hair brush to produce his effects of softness
+and marbly appearance; but in painting in water-colours, this
+softness, depth, and marbly appearance are produced mostly by the
+colour placed upon the surface, and left entirely untouched by badger
+or any other brush. The colour drying quickly, does not allow much
+time for working, and when dry it cannot be touched without spoiling
+the whole of the work. The difference first of all between painting in
+water and in oil colour, is that a peculiar grain exists with painting
+in water that it is absolutely impossible to get in oil. The charm of
+a marble is, I think, its translucency as much as its beautiful
+colour; it is to that translucency (for in marble fixed we have no
+transparency) that it owes its softness of effect, which makes marble
+of such decorative value. This translucency can only be obtained by
+thin glazes of colour, by which means each succeeding glaze only
+partly covers the previous one, the character of the marble being thus
+produced. This is done sometimes in oil-colour in a marvellous manner,
+but even the best of oil-painting in marble cannot stand the
+comparison of water-colour, and it is only by comparison that any
+accurate judgment can be formed of any work. The production of marbles
+in water-colour has a depth, softness, and stoniness that defies
+oil-painting, and in some cases will defy detection unless by an
+expert of marbles. It may be that first of all the materials employed
+are more in keeping with the real material, as no oil enters into the
+composition of real marble, and by using the medium of water we thus
+start better, but the real secret is that by using water as a medium
+the colours take an entirely different effect. In painting in
+water-colour greys of any tint or strength can be obtained suitable
+for the production of a marble of greyish ground, by pure white,
+tinted as required, being applied of different thicknesses of colour,
+all the modulations of tone being obtained by the difference in the
+thickness of the colour applied."
+
+
+VARNISHING JAPAN WORK.
+
+Varnishing is the last and the finishing process in japanning. It
+consists in (1) applying, and (2) polishing the outer coats of
+varnish, which are equally necessary whether the plain japan ground be
+painted on or not. This is best done in a general way with common
+seed-lac varnish, except on those occasions where other methods have
+been shown to be more expedient, and the same reasons, which decide as
+to the propriety of using the different varnishes as regards the
+colours of the ground, hold equally with those of the painting, for
+where brightness is a material point and a tinge of yellow would
+injure it, seed-lac must give way to the whiter resins; but where
+hardness and tenacity are essential it must be adhered to, and where
+both are necessary a mixed varnish must be used. This mixed varnish
+should be made from the picked seed-lac as directed in the case of the
+white japan grounds. The common seed-lac varnish may be made thus:
+Take 1-1/2 lb. of seed-lac and wash it well in several waters, then
+dry it and powder it coarsely and put it with a gallon of methylated
+spirits into a Bohemian glass flask so that it be not more than
+two-thirds full. Shake the mixture well together and place the flask
+in a gentle heat till the seed-lac appears to be dissolved, the
+shaking being in the meantime repeated as often as may be convenient;
+then pour off all the clear and strain the remainder through a coarse
+cloth. The varnish so prepared must be kept for use in a well-corked
+glass vessel. The whiter seed-lac varnishes are used in the same
+manner as the common, except as regards the substances used in
+polishing, which, where a pure white or the greater clearness or
+purity of other pigments is in question, should be itself white, while
+the browner sorts of polishing dust, as being cheaper and doing their
+business with greater dispatch, may be used in other cases. The pieces
+of work to be varnished should be placed near the fire or in a warm
+room and made perfectly dry, and then the varnish may be applied with
+a flat camel-hair brush made for the purpose. This must be done very
+rapidly, but with great care; the same place should not be passed
+twice over in laying on one coat if it can possibly be avoided. The
+best way of proceeding is to begin in the middle and pass the brush to
+one end, then with another stroke from the middle pass it to the other
+end, taking care that before each stroke the brush be well supplied
+with varnish; when one coat is dry another must be laid over it in
+like manner, and this must be continued five or six times. If on trial
+there be not a sufficient thickness of varnish to bear the polish
+without laying bare the painting or ground colour underneath more
+varnish must be applied. When a sufficient number of coats of varnish
+is so applied the work is fit to be polished, which must be done in
+common work by rubbing it with a piece of cloth or felt dipped in
+tripoli or finely ground pumice-stone. But towards the end of the
+rubbing a little oil of any kind must be used with the powder, and
+when the work appears sufficiently bright and glossy it should be
+well rubbed with the oil alone to clean it from the powder and to give
+it a still greater lustre. In the case of white grounds, instead of
+the tripoli, fine putty or whiting should be used, but they should be
+washed over to prevent the danger of damaging the work from any sand
+or any other gritty matter that may happen to be mixed with them. It
+greatly improves all kinds of japan work to harden the varnish by
+means of heat, which, in every degree that can be applied short of
+what would burn or calcine the matter, tends to give it a firm and
+strong texture where metals form the body; therefore a very hot stove
+may be used, and the stoving may be continued for a considerable time,
+especially if the heat be gradually increased. But where wood or
+papier-mâché is in question, heat must be applied with great caution.
+
+
+
+
+SECTION III.
+
+JAPANNING OR ENAMELLING METALS.
+
+
+In japanning metals, all good work of which should be stoved, they
+have to be first thoroughly cleaned, and then the japan ground applied
+with a badger or camel-hair brush or other means, very carefully and
+evenly. Metals usually require from three to five coats, and between
+each application must be dried in an oven heated from 250° to 300°
+F.--about 270° being the average. It has already been seen that the
+best grounds for japanning are formed of shellac varnish, the
+necessary pigments for colouring being added thereto, being mixed with
+the shellac varnish after they have been ground into a high degree of
+smoothness and fineness in spirits of turpentine. In japanning it is
+best to have the oven at rather a lower temperature, increasing the
+heat after the work has been placed in the oven. When a sufficient
+number of coats have been laid on--which will usually be two only--the
+work must be polished by means of a piece of cloth or felt dipped in
+tripoli or finely powdered pumice-stone. For white grounds fine putty
+powder or whiting must be employed, a final coat being afterwards
+given, and the work stoved again. The last coat of all is one of
+varnish. And here, as a preliminary remark, it is advisable that all
+enamels and japans should be purchased ready-made, as any attempt to
+make such is almost sure to end in disaster, while, owing to the fact
+that such are only required for small jobs; it would involve too much
+trouble and would not pay. It is for this reason that few japan
+recipes are given, as, although many are available, they do not always
+turn out as suitable for the purpose as could be desired, in addition
+to which the ready-made articles can be purchased at a very reasonable
+price and are much better prepared. The operator should procure his
+enamels a shade or two lighter than he desires to see in the finished
+article, allowing the chemical action due to the stoving to tone the
+colours down. Another necessity is to keep the enamel thoroughly well
+mixed by well stirring it every time it is used, as if this is not
+done the actual colouring matter is apt to sink to the bottom, the
+ultimate result being that streaky work is produced in consequence of
+this indifferent mixing of the enamelling materials.
+
+It is hardly necessary to state that all japanning or enamelling work
+must be done in a room or shop absolutely free from dust or dirt, and
+as far away as possible from any window or other opening leading to
+the open air, for two reasons--one being that the draught therefrom
+may cool the oven or stove, and the other that the air may convey
+particles of dust into the enamelling shop. In fact, it cannot be too
+much impressed upon the workmen that one of the primary secrets of
+successful enamelling is absolute cleanliness; consequently all
+precautions must be taken to ensure that the enamel is perfectly free
+from grit and dust, and it must be so kept by frequent straining
+through fine muslin, flannel, or similar material. The work having
+been thoroughly cleaned and freed from all grease and other foreign
+matter, it must be suspended or held immediately over the pan
+elsewhere referred to, and the enamel poured on with an ordinary iron
+ladle, or covered by means of the brush. When it has been permitted to
+drain thoroughly, the work should be hung on the hooks on the rods in
+the oven as seen in the explanatory sketch, care being observed that
+no portion of the work is in such a position that any superfluous
+enamel cannot easily drain off--in other words, the work must lie or
+hang that it is always, as it were, on the slant. Always bear in mind
+when shutting the oven door to do so gently, as if a slam is indulged
+in all the gas jets will be blown out, and an explosion would probably
+result.
+
+Should the job in hand be a large one, it will be found as well to get
+a cheaper enamel for the first coat, but if the work is only a small
+job, it will not be necessary to have more than one enamel, of which a
+couple of coats at least will be required. When the first coat has
+thoroughly dried and hardened, the surface will have to be thoroughly
+rubbed till it is perfectly smooth with tripoli powder and fine
+pumice-stone, and afterwards hand-polished with rotten-stone and putty
+powder. And here it may be remarked that the finer the surface is got
+up with emery powder and other polishing agents the better will be the
+enamelling and ultimate finish. The rubbing down being finished,
+another coat of enamel must be applied and the work baked as before,
+care being always taken to keep the enamel in a sufficiently fluid
+condition as to enable it to flow and run off the work freely. It can
+easily be thinned with a little paraffin. A third coat will frequently
+be advisable, as it improves the finish.
+
+In enamelling cycles, it is well to hang the front forks crown
+uppermost when they are undergoing the final baking, and it is
+advisable to bear in mind that wheels require an enamel that will
+stove at a lower temperature than is called for for other parts of the
+machine. Some japanners advocate the fluid being put on with camel-or
+badger-hair brushes, and for the best descriptions of work, final
+coats, and such like, I agree with them; but this is a detail which
+can be left to the operator's own fancy, the class of work, etc.; but
+I would remind him that applying enamel with a brush requires much
+care and a certain amount of "knack". It is something like successful
+lacquering in brasswork--it looks very simple, but is not. Each
+succeeding coat of japan gives a more uniform and glossy surface, and
+for this reason it may, in some cases, be necessary to repeat the
+operation no fewer than half a dozen times, the final coat being
+generally a layer of clear varnish only, to add to the lustre.
+
+Care must be taken for light-coloured japans or enamels not to have
+the temperature sufficiently high to scorch, or the surface will be
+discoloured, as they require a lower temperature for fixing than the
+dark japans, which, provided the article is not likely to be injured
+by the heat, are usually dried at a somewhat high temperature. The
+preceding instructions apply only to the best descriptions of work.
+
+When pouring enamel by means of the ladle over pieces of work, do not
+agitate the liquid too much--at the same time taking care to keep it
+well mixed--so as to form air bubbles, as this will cause trouble, and
+in pouring over the work do it with an easy and gentle and not too
+hurried a motion. In japanning curved pieces, such as mud-guards,
+etc., in hanging up the work in the oven see that the liquid does not
+run to extremities and there form ugly blots or blotches of enamel.
+
+When white or other light tones are used for japanning they are mixed
+with japanners' varnish, and these require more careful heating in the
+oven or stove than darker tints or brown or black.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Trough for Dipping Bedstead Frames and other
+Large Work.]
+
+
+ENAMELLING BEDSTEAD FRAMES AND SIMILAR LARGE PIECES.
+
+At Fig. 1 is shown a trough in which large pieces, such as bedsteads,
+bicycle frames, etc., are dipped or immersed. For the first-mentioned
+class of work such high finish is not required as for bicycles, and
+consequently the enamel need not be applied with a brush, nor will it
+be necessary to rub down the work between each coat, but instead the
+pieces can be literally dipped in the tank of liquid, then allowed to
+drain on to the dripping-board--the superfluous enamel thus finding
+its way back into the trough or tank, the dripped articles being
+afterwards placed in the oven to harden. The trough must be of
+sufficient dimensions to allow the pieces of work to be completely
+immersed, and the dripping-board should be set at an angle of about
+45°.
+
+Bedstead frames will never require more than two coats and the
+commoner class of goods only one. I would not advise the tradesman in
+a small way of business to go to the expense of a trough, etc., as it
+calls for much more room than is ordinarily available, but if he has
+the necessary plant for bicycle work he can, of course, do an
+occasional job of the other kind.
+
+
+JAPANNING TIN, SUCH AS TEA-TRAYS AND SIMILAR GOODS.
+
+For japanning sheet-iron articles, which are really tin goods, such as
+tea-trays and similar things, first scour them well with a piece of
+sandstone, which will effectually remove all the scales and make the
+surface quite smooth. Then give the metal a coating of vegetable
+black, which must be mixed with super black japan varnish, thinned
+with turps, and well strained. Only a small quantity of this varnish
+is necessary, as it will dry dead. The article must then be placed in
+the stove to harden at a temperature of 212° F., there to remain for
+from ten to twelve hours. When taken out of the stove, the articles
+must be allowed to get cold, after which they must be given a coat of
+super black japan, which, if necessary, must be thinned with turps, a
+stiff, short bristle brush being employed, and the varnish put on
+sparingly, so that it will not "run" when it gets warm. Two coats of
+this varnish on top of the vegetable black coating are usually
+sufficient, when done properly, but a third coating much improves the
+work, and from ten to twelve hours' hardening will be necessary
+between each coating. The small lumps which will be more or less
+certain to arise will require to be rubbed down between each
+application by a small and smooth piece of pumice-stone.
+
+If it is desired to add gold or bronze bands or any kind of floral or
+other kind of fancy decorations, these are painted on, after the
+ground japanning has been done, in japanners' gold size, and then the
+gold leaf is applied, or the bronze or other metal powder is dusted
+on, after which the objects so treated are again placed in the stove,
+where they will not require to be kept near so long as for ordinary
+japanning. After they have been removed, the gilt or bronzed portions
+must be treated with a protecting coat of white spirit varnish.
+Transfers can be applied in the same way.
+
+Tinned iron goods are the most largely japanned, and for these brown
+and black colours are principally employed. Both are obtained by the
+use of brown japan, the metal having a preliminary coating of black
+paint when black is required. Only one coating of brown japan is given
+to cheap goods, but for better articles two or more are applied. For
+these it is possible that a final dressing with pumice-stone, then
+with rotten-stone, and rubbed with a piece of felt or cloth, or even
+the palm of the hand, may be necessary, but as a rule not.
+
+Large numbers of articles of the above description, such as tea-trays,
+tea-canisters, cash-boxes, coal-boxes, and similar goods, are japanned
+at Birmingham, and it is to such that the preceding instructions
+apply.
+
+
+ENAMELLING OLD WORK.
+
+In all cases of re-enamelling old work, it is absolutely necessary to
+remove all traces of the first enamelling, and if this has been well
+done in the first instance, it will prove no mean job. The best way to
+clean the work is to soak it in a strong "lye" of hot potash, when the
+softened enamel can be wiped or brushed off--this latter method being
+pursued in the more intricate and ungetatable portions of the work.
+New work, which has not been enamelled, can be treated in the same way
+for the removal of all grease, stains, finger-marks, etc., and too
+much attention cannot be paid to the initial preparation of the
+surface of the metal, to have it thoroughly even and smooth, as it
+adds so much to the ultimate finish and appearance of the work. Plenty
+of labour must be bestowed before the final coat, as any blemish will
+show through this finishing, and so mar what would otherwise be a
+highly satisfactory bit of work. In all kinds of bicycle work, whether
+new or old, the most satisfactory results are obtained by the
+application of at least two, and sometimes four or five, successive
+coats of good but thin enamel, as this will impart the necessary
+perfect coat, combined with durability, a high finish, and a good
+colour. A good enamel should be sufficiently hard, so as not to be
+scratched on the merest touch or rubbing. It will, of course, be
+understood that no solder-work must be put into the stove, or the
+pieces will separate. Should any of this work be discovered, the
+pieces must be taken apart, and then brazed together before being
+enamelled, and put in the stove.
+
+
+
+
+SECTION IV.
+
+THE ENAMELLING AND JAPANNING STOVE--PIGMENTS SUITABLE FOR JAPANNING
+WITH NATURAL LACQUER--MODERN METHODS OF JAPANNING WITH NATURAL
+JAPANESE LACQUER.
+
+
+APPLIANCES AND APPARATUS USED IN JAPANNING AND ENAMELLING.
+
+Besides the various enamels or japans and varnishes of various
+colourings and the stove, which will be found described and
+illustrated, together with the trough, in other pages, the worker will
+need some iron pots or cauldrons in which to boil the potash "lye" for
+the cleansing, more particularly, of old work, some iron ladles both
+for this work and for pouring the japan on the articles to be covered
+therewith, a few badger tools and brushes for small fine work, some
+hooks for the stove, a pair of pliers, a few bits of broom handle cut
+into short lengths and made taper, so as to fit into the tubes, etc.,
+of bicycles and other work, so as to keep the hands as free from the
+japan as possible, some emery powder, pumice-stone powder, tripoli,
+putty powder, whiting, and a piece of felt or cloth. If he is also
+doing any common work, a stumpy brush of bristles and a soft leather
+will also be requisite, together with a file or two. These will about
+comprise the whole of the articles required, not very expensive, all
+of which will really not be required by a beginner.
+
+Owing largely to the strides made in the cycle trade enamelling is
+stoved by means of gas, and of this a plentiful supply is necessary.
+Enamelling stoves may really be described as hot-air cupboards or
+ovens, and for a stove which will answer most requirements--say one of
+6 feet by 6 feet by 3-1/2 feet--six rows of atmospheric burners will
+be necessary to heat it, while it will be also advisable to fix pipes
+of 1-1/4 inch internal diameter from the gas meter to the stove. The
+atmospheric burners can be made from the requisite number of pieces of
+1-1/4-inch gas tube 3-1/2 feet in length, one end of each being
+stopped, and having 1/3-inch holes drilled therein at intervals of
+about 1 inch, the other end being left open for the insertion of
+ordinary 3/8-inch brass gas taps. Another plan preferred by some
+japanners is to have three rows of burners the full length of the
+stove, which, under some circumstances, due to structural conditions,
+will be found more suitable. Anyway, whatever the position of the
+stove, allowance must be made for a temperature up to 400° F. to be
+raised. In old-fashioned ovens the heat is applied by means of
+external flues, in which hot air or steam is circulated, but this
+system is generally unsatisfactory, the supply of heat having to be
+controlled by dampers or stop-cocks, and this has given place to the
+gas apparatus. Another simple form of oven, though not one which I
+shall recommend, is a species of sheet-iron box, which is encased by
+another and larger box of the same shape, so placed that from 2 to 3
+inches of interspace exists between the two boxes. To this interspace
+heat is applied, and a flue will have to be affixed to this apparatus
+to carry off the vapours which arise from the enamel or japan. For
+amateur or intermittent jobbing work the oven illustrated in Figs. 2
+and 3 is about as good as any, though to guard against fire it would
+be as well to have a course of brickwork beneath the oven, while if
+this is not possible on account of want of height, a sheet or so of
+zinc or iron will help to mitigate the danger. It is also advisable,
+if the apartment is a low-pitched one, to have a sheet of iron or zinc
+suspended by four corner chains from the ceiling in order to protect
+this from firing through the heat from the enamelling oven. Of course,
+it will be understood that every portion of the stove must be put
+together with rivets, no soldered work being permissible.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Door of Oven when Shut.]
+
+To those who wish to construct their own stove, it will be found that
+the framework can be shaped out of 1-inch angle iron, the panels or
+walls being constructed of sheet-iron of about 18 gauge, the whole
+being riveted together. The front will be occupied in its entire space
+by a door, which will require to be hung on strong iron hinges, and
+the framework of this door should be constructed of 1 inch by 1/4 inch
+iron--a rather stouter material will really be no disadvantage--to
+which the sheet-iron plates must be riveted. In the centre of the door
+must be cut a slit, say 1-1/2 inches by 9 inches, which will require
+to be covered with mica or talc behind which must be placed the
+thermometer, so as it can be seen during the process of stoving,
+without the necessity of opening the door, which, of course, more or
+less cools the oven. And, by the way, this thermometer must register
+higher than the highest temperature the oven is capable of reaching.
+Above is shown a sketch of the stove, interior and exterior, which
+will give an idea of what a japanner's stove is like.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3--Showing Stove when Open, and Back of Door.]
+
+Inside the stove it will be necessary to fix rows of iron rods, some
+four inches from the top, from which to suspend the work, or
+angle-iron ledges can be used on which the rods or bars can be fixed,
+these arrangements being varied according to the particular
+description of work, individual fancy, or other circumstances. Large S
+hooks are about the handiest to use. A necessary adjunct of the stove
+is a pan, which can be made by any handy man or tinworker, which
+should be made to fit the bottom of the stove above the gas jets, it
+being arranged that it rests on two side ledges, or along some rods.
+One a couple of inches in depth will be found sufficient, and it will
+repay its cost in the saving of enamel, it being possible with its use
+to enamel a bicycle with as little as a gallon of enamel. Some workmen
+have the tray made with a couple of hinged side flaps, to turn over
+and cover up the pan when not in use, but this is a matter of fancy.
+Of course, they must always be covered up when not in use. For those
+who would prefer to use Bunsen burners, I show at Fig. 4 a sketch of
+the best to employ, these having three rows of holes in each.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Bunsen Burner.]
+
+When brick ovens are employed they must be lined with sheet-iron, and
+in these very rare circumstances where gas is not available, the stove
+can be heated with coal or wood, which will, of course, involve a
+total alteration in the structural arrangements. I have not given the
+details here, as I do not think the necessity will ever arise for
+their use, and for the same reason I have refrained from giving the
+particulars for heating by steam and electricity, or the other methods
+which have been adopted by various workers, as there is no question
+but that a gas stove or oven, as described, is about the best and
+handiest for jobbers or amateurs.
+
+
+MODERN JAPANNING AND ENAMELLING STOVES.
+
+The modern japanning and enamelling stove consists of a compartment
+capable of being heated to any desired temperature, say 100° to 400°
+F., and at the same time, except as regards ventilation, capable of
+being hermetically sealed so as to prevent access of dust, soot, and
+dirt of all kinds to mar the beauty and lustre of the object being
+enamelled or japanned. Such a stove may be heated--
+
+1. By a direct coal, coke, wood, peat, or gas fire (which surrounds
+the inner isolated chamber) (Fig. 5).
+
+2. By heated air.
+
+3. By steam or hot-water pipes, coils of which circulate round the
+interior of the stove or under the floor.
+
+Such ovens may be either permanent, that is, built into masonry, or
+portable.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Greuzburg's Japanning Oven.]
+
+1. _Stoves heated by direct fire._--These were, of course, the form in
+which japanning ovens were constructed somewhat after the style of a
+drying kiln. Fig. 5, Greuzburg's japanning oven heated on the outside
+by hot gases from furnace. The oven is built into brickwork, and the
+hot gases circulate in the flues between the brickwork and the oven,
+and its erection and the arrangement of the heating flues are a
+bricklayer's job. Coke containing much sulphur is objectionable as a
+fuel for enamel stoves Mr. Dickson emphasizes this very forcibly. He
+says: "In the days when stoves were heated by coke furnaces, and the
+heat distributed by the flues, the principal trouble was the escape of
+fumes of sulphur which caused dire disaster to all the enamels by
+entering into their composition and preventing their ever drying, not
+to speak of hardening. I have known enamels to be in the stoves with
+heat to 270° for two and three days, and then be soft. The sulphur
+also caused the enamels to crack in a peculiar manner, much like a
+crocodile skin, and work so affected could never be made
+satisfactory, for here again we come back to the first principle,
+that if the foundation be not good, the superstructure can never be
+permanent. The enamels, being permeated with sulphur and other
+products from the coke, could never be made satisfactory, and the only
+way was to clean it all off. The other principal troubles are the
+blowing of the work in air bubbles, which is caused mainly by the heat
+being too suddenly applied to the articles, but these are very small
+matters to the experienced craftsman."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.]
+
+2. _Stoves heated by hot-water pipes._--Let us first of all consider
+the principle on which these are constructed. In Perkins' apparatus
+for conveying heat through buildings by the circulation of water in
+small-bore hot-water pipes an endless tube or pipe is employed, the
+surface of which is occasionally increased by spiral or other turnings
+where the heat is to be given off or acquired: the annexed figure may
+serve to illustrate this principle; it represents a strong
+wrought-iron tube of about one inch diameter completely filled with
+water; the spiral A passes through a furnace where it is highly
+heated, and the water is consequently put into motion in the direction
+of the arrows; the boiling of the water or formation of steam is
+prevented by the pressure, whence the necessity of the extreme
+perfection and strength of the tube. B represents a second coil which
+is supposed to be in an apartment where the heat is to be given out. C
+is a screw stopper by which the water may be occasionally replenished.
+By this form of apparatus the water may be heated to 300° or 400°, or
+even higher, so as occasionally to singe paper. A larger tube and
+lower temperature are, however, generally preferable.[1]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Enamelling Stove--in a Tin-plate Printing
+Factory--heated by Perkins' Hot-water Pipes.]
+
+The principle of Perkins' invention has, during the last eighty
+years, i.e. since the date of the invention in 1831, been very
+extensively applied not only for the heating of buildings of every
+description, but it has also been utilized for numerous industrial
+purposes which require an atmosphere heated up to 600° F. The
+principle lends itself specially to the design of apparatus for
+raising and maintaining heat evenly and uniformly, and also very
+economically for such purposes as enamelling, japanning, and
+lacquering.
+
+The distinctive feature of this apparatus when applied to moderate
+temperatures lies in the adoption of a closed system of piping of
+small bore, a certain portion of which is wound into a coil and placed
+in a furnace situated in any convenient position outside the drying
+chamber or hot closet. The circulation is thus hermetically sealed and
+so proportioned that while a much higher temperature can be attained
+than is possible with a system of pipes open to the atmosphere, yet a
+certain and perfectly safe maximum cannot by any possibility be
+exceeded.
+
+The efficiency of the apparatus increases within certain limits in
+proportion to the pressure employed, which fact explains the
+exceedingly economical results obtained, while the fact that, owing to
+the high temperature used, a small-bore pipe can be made more
+effective than the larger pipes used in any open system, accounts for
+the lower first cost of the Perkins' apparatus.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Japanning and Enamelling Oven Heated by Single
+Hot-water Pipes sealed at both ends with Furnace in Rear.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9--Japanning and Enamelling Oven For Bedstead,
+Ironmongery, Cash-box, and Lamp Factories.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.--Japanning and Enamelling Stove for parts of
+Sewing Machines.]
+
+It will be seen from the various illustrations that the articles to be
+treated are absolutely isolated from actual contact with the fire or
+the fire gases and other impurities which must be an objection to all
+methods of heating by means which are not of a purely mechanical
+nature. This principle not only recommends itself as scientifically
+correct and suited to the purpose in view, but is also a very simple
+and practical one. It affords the means of applying the heat at the
+point where it is required to do the work without unduly heating
+parts where heat is unnecessary; it secures absolute uniformity,
+perfect continuity, and the highest possible fuel economy.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.--Japanning and Enamelling Stove for
+Iron-Bedsteads and Household Ironmongery with Truck on Rails.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12--Permanent Japanning and Enamelling Stove for
+Kitchen Utensils built in Masonry.]
+
+The nature of the work to be executed in the different classes and
+various sizes of stoves vary so greatly and indefinitely that only by
+careful attention to the special requirements of each case, on the
+part of the designers and constructors, is it possible to obtain the
+most satisfactory results.
+
+The arrangement of fixing the pipes round the lower walls of the room
+in this form of stove is somewhat cumbersome, but in a roomy stove
+this slight drawback is not felt quite so much. However, it seems a
+good principle to leave every inch of internal space available for the
+goods to be enamelled or japanned, This principle is carried out to
+the letter in the other form of stoves described and illustrated in
+the sequel.
+
+The figure shows a section through single chamber japanning and
+enamelling oven heated by hot-water pipes (steel) closed at both ends
+and partially filled with water which always remains sealed up
+therein, and never evaporates until the pipes require to be refilled.
+
+This stove may be heated (1) by hot-water pipes (iron), (2) by
+super-heated water, (3) by steam, but only to 80° C. The different
+compartments may be heated to uniform or to different temperatures
+with hot water; the stoke-hole is at the side and thus quite separated
+from the stove proper.
+
+The ovens must be on the ground floor, so that the super-heated steam
+from the basement may be available.
+
+The great drawback to the use of gas for heating japanning and
+enamelling stoves is the great cost of coal gas.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.--Portable Gas Heated Japanning and Enamelling
+Stove fitted with Shelves, Thermometer, etc.]
+
+
+PIGMENTS SUITABLE FOR JAPANNING WITH NATURAL LACQUER.
+
+_White Pigments._--Barium sulphate and bismuth oxychloride. These two
+are used for the white lacquer or as a body for coloured lacquers.
+When the lacquer is to be dried at a high temperature barium sulphate
+is preferable, but when it is dried at an ordinary temperature bismuth
+oxychloride is better. Since the lacquer is originally of a brown
+colour the white lacquer is not pure white, but rather greyish or
+yellowish. Many white pigments, such as zinc oxide, zinc sulphide,
+calcium carbonate, barium carbonate, calcium sulphate, lead white,
+etc., turn brown to black, and no white lacquer can be obtained with
+them.
+
+_Red Pigments._--Vermilion and red oxide of iron. These two are used
+for the red lacquer, but vermilion should be stoved at a low
+temperature.
+
+_Blue Pigment._--Prussian blue.
+
+_Yellow Pigments._--Cadmium sulphide, lead chromate and orpiment.
+
+_Green Pigment._--Chromium oxide (? Guignet's green).
+
+_Black Pigment._--Lamp black. This is one of the pigments for black
+lacquer, but does not give a brilliant colour, therefore it is better
+to prepare the black lacquer by adding iron powder or some compound of
+iron to the lacquer.
+
+Various mixed colours are obtained by mixing some of the
+above-mentioned pigments.
+
+Examples of application are as follows:--
+
+(1) _Golden Yellow._--Finished lacquer, 10 parts; gamboge, 1 to 3;
+solvent, 5. If utensils are lacquered with this thin lacquer and dried
+for about 2 hours in an air-oven at a temperature of 120° C. a
+beautiful hard coating of golden colour is obtained.
+
+(2) _Black._--Black lacquer, 10 parts; solvent 2 to 4. Utensils
+lacquered with this lacquer are dried for about an hour at 130° to
+140° C.
+
+(3) _Red._--Vermilion, 10 parts; finished lacquer, 4; solvent, 2. This
+lacquer is dried for about an hour at 130° to 140° C.
+
+(4) _Khaki or Dirty Yellow._--Barium sulphate, 100 parts; chromic
+oxide, 3; finished lacquer, 20 to 25; solvent, 15. This lacquer is
+dried for about half an hour at 160° C.
+
+(5) _Green._--Barium sulphate, 100 parts; chromic oxide, 20 to 50;
+finished lacquer, 40 to 50; solvent, 20. This is dried for about 10
+minutes at 160° C.
+
+(6) _Yellow._--Barium sulphate, 100 parts; lead chromate, 40; finished
+lacquer, 40; solvent, 20. This is dried for about 15 minutes at 150°
+C.
+
+Almost all pigments other than the above-mentioned are blackened by
+contact with lacquer or suspend its drying quality.
+
+Several organic lakes can be used for coloured lacquers, that is to
+say, Indian yellow, thioflavin, and auramine lake for a yellow
+lacquer; fuchsine, rhodamine, and chloranisidin lake for a red;
+diamond sky blue, and patent nileblue lake for a blue; acid green,
+diamond green, brilliant milling green, vert-methyl lake, etc., for a
+green; methyl violet, acid violet, and magenta lake for a violet;
+phloxine lake for a pink. These lakes, however, are decomposed more or
+less on heating and fail to give proper colours when dried at a high
+temperature.
+
+
+MODERN METHODS OF JAPANNING AND ENAMELLING WITH NATURAL JAPANESE
+LACQUER.
+
+Urushiol, the principal constituent of Japanese lacquer, does not
+according to the Japanese investigator, Kisaburo Miryama, dry by
+itself at ordinary temperatures, but can be dried with ease at a
+temperature above 96° C. In the same way, lacquer that has been
+heated to a temperature above 70° C. and has entirely lost its drying
+quality can be easily dried at a high temperature. In this method of
+japanning the higher the temperature is, the more rapidly does the
+drying take place; for instance, a thin layer of urushiol, or lacquer,
+hardens within 5 hours at 100° C., within 30 minutes at 150° C., and
+within 10 minutes at 180° C. Japanning at a high temperature with
+natural lacquer does not require the presence of the enzymic
+nitrogenous matter in the lacquer, and gives a transparent coating
+which is quite hard and resistant to chemical and mechanical action;
+in these respects it is distinguished from that dried at an ordinary
+temperature. During the drying, oxygen is absorbed from the atmosphere
+and at the same time a partial decomposition takes place.
+
+This method of japanning has its application in lacquering metal work,
+glass, porcelain, earthenware, canvas, papier-mâché, etc.; because the
+drying is affected in a short time, and the coating thus obtained is
+much more durable than the same obtained by the ordinary method.
+
+For practical purposes it is better to _thin the lacquer with
+turpentine oil or other solvent_ in order to facilitate the lacquering
+and lessen the drying time of the lacquer. Since the lacquer-coating
+turns brown at a high temperature, lacquers of a light colour should
+be dried at 120° to 150° C.; and even those of a deep colour must not
+be heated above 180° C. _Most pigments are blackened by lacquer;
+therefore the varieties of coloured lacquers are very limited._
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] A question has been raised concerning the safety of
+Perkins' apparatus, not merely as relates to the danger of explosion,
+but also respecting that of high temperature; and it has been asserted
+that the water may be so highly heated in the tubes as to endanger the
+charring and even inflammation of paper, wood, and other substances in
+their contact or vicinity: such no doubt might be the case in an
+apparatus expressly intended for such purposes, but in the apparatus
+as constructed by Perkins, with adequate dampers and safety valves,
+and used with common care, no such result can ensue. Paper bound round
+an iron tube is not affected till the temperature exceeds 400°; from
+420° to 444° it becomes brown or slightly singed; sulphur does not
+inflame below 540°.
+
+
+
+
+SECTION V.
+
+COLOURS FOR POLISHED BRASS--MISCELLANEOUS.
+
+
+PAINTING ON ZINC OR ON GALVANIZED IRON.
+
+Painting on zinc or galvanized iron is facilitated by employing a
+mordant of 1 quart of chloride of copper, 1 of nitrate of copper, and
+1 of sal-ammoniac, dissolved in 64 parts of water. To thin mixture add
+1 part of commercial hydrochloric acid. This is brushed over the zinc,
+and dries a dull-grey colour in from twelve to twenty-four hours,
+paint adhering perfectly to the surface thus formed.
+
+
+BRONZING COMPOSITIONS.
+
+The following are the formulæ for a variety of baths, designed to
+impart to polished brass various colours. The brass objects are put
+into boiling solutions composed of different salts, and the intensity
+of the shade obtained is dependent upon duration of the immersion.
+With a solution composed of sulphate of copper, 120 grains;
+hydrochlorate of ammonia, 30 grains; and water 1 quart, greenish
+shades are obtained. With the following solution, all the shades of
+brown, from orange-brown to cinnamon, are obtained: chlorate of
+potash, 150 grains; sulphate of copper, 150 grains; and water, 1
+quart. The following solution gives the brass first a rosy tint, and
+then colours it violet and blue: sulphate of copper, 435 grains;
+hyposulphite of soda, 300 grains; cream of tartar, 150 grains; and
+water, 1 pint. Upon adding to this solution ammoniacal sulphate of
+iron, 300 grains, and hyposulphite of soda, 300 grains, there are
+obtained, according to the duration of the immersion, yellowish,
+orange, rosy, and then bluish shades. Upon polarizing the ebullition,
+the blue tint gives way to yellow, and finally to a pretty grey.
+Silver, under the same circumstances, becomes very beautifully
+coloured. After a long ebullition in the following solution, we obtain
+a yellow-brown shade, and then a remarkable fire-red: chlorate of
+potash, 75 grains; carbonate of nickel, 30 grains; salt of nickel, 75
+grains; and water, 10 oz. The following solution gives a beautiful
+dark-brown colour: chlorate of potash, 75 grains; salt of nickel, 150
+grains; and water, 10 oz. The following gives in the first place, a
+red, which passes to blue, then to pale lilac, and finally to white:
+orpiment, 75 grains; crystallized sal-sodæ, 150 grains; and water, 10
+oz. The following gives a yellow-brown: salt of nickel, 75 grains;
+sulphate of copper, 75 grains; chlorate of potash, 75 grains; and
+water, 10 oz. On mixing the following solutions, sulphur separates,
+and the brass becomes covered with iridescent crystallizations: (1)
+cream of tartar, 75 grains; sulphate of copper, 75 grains; and water,
+10 oz. (2) Hyposulphite of soda, 225 grains; and water, 5 oz. Upon
+leaving the brass objects immersed in the following mixture, contained
+in corked vessels, they at length acquire a very beautiful blue
+colour: hepar of sulphur, 75 grains; ammonia, 75 grains; and water, 4
+oz.
+
+
+A GOLDEN VARNISH FOR METAL.
+
+Take 2 oz. of gum sandarach, 1 oz. of litharge of gold, and 4 oz. of
+clarified linseed oil, which boil in a glazed earthenware vessel till
+the contents appear of a transparent yellow colour. This will make a
+good varnish for the final coating for enamelled and japanned goods.
+
+
+CARRIAGE VARNISH.
+
+The following is used for the wheels, springs, and carriage parts of
+coaches and other vehicles: Take of pale African copal 8 lb.; fuse,
+and add 2-1/2 gallons of clarified linseed oil; boil until very
+stringy, then add 1/4 lb. each of dry copperas and litharge; boil, and
+thin with 5-1/2 gallons of turpentine; then mix while hot with the
+following varnish, and immediately strain the mixture into a covered
+vessel. Gum anime, 8 lb.; clarified linseed oil, 2-1/2 gallons; 1/4
+lb. each of dried sugar of lead and litharge; boil, and thin with
+5-1/2 gallons of turpentine; and mix it while hot as above directed.
+Of course these quantities will only do for big jobs, and as it has to
+do with metal, it has been thought advisable to include the formula in
+this handbook.
+
+
+METAL POLISHES.
+
+The active constituent of all metal polishes is generally chalk,
+rouge, or tripoli, because these produce a polish on metallic
+surfaces. The following recipes give good polishing soaps:--
+
+(1) 20 to 25 lb. liquid soap is intimately mixed with about 80 lb. of
+Swedish chalk and 1/2 lb. Pompeiian red. (2) 25 lb. liquid coco-nut
+oil soap is mixed with 2 lb. tripoli, and 1 lb. each alum, tartaric
+acid, and white lead. (3) 25 lb. liquid coco-nut oil soap is mixed
+with 5 lb. rouge and 1 lb. ammonium carbonate. (4) 24 lb. coco-nut oil
+are saponified with 12 lb. soda lye of 38° to 40° B., after which 3
+lb. rouge, 3 lb. water, and 32 grammes ammonia are mixed in. Good
+recipes for polishing pomades are as follows: (1) 5 lb. lard and
+yellow vaseline is melted and mixed with 1 lb. fine rouge. (2) 2 lb.
+palm oil and 2 lb. vaseline are melted together, and then 1 lb. rouge,
+400 grains tripoli, and 20 grains oxalic acid are stirred in. (3) 4
+lb. fatty petroleum and 1 lb. lard are heated and mixed with 1 lb. of
+rouge. The polishing pomades are generally perfumed with essence of
+myrbane. Polishing powders are prepared as follows: (1) 4 lb.
+magnesium carbonate, 4 lb. chalk, and 7 lb. rouge are intimately
+mixed. (2) 4 lb. magnesium carbonate are mixed with 150 grains fine
+rouge. An excellent and harmless polishing water is prepared by
+shaking together 250 grains floated chalk, 1 lb. alcohol, and 20
+grains ammonia. Gilded articles are most readily cleansed with a
+solution of 5 grains borax in 100 parts water, by means of a sponge or
+soft brush. The articles are then washed in pure water, and dried with
+a soft linen rag. Silverware is cleansed by rubbing with a solution of
+sodium hyposulphite.
+
+
+BLACK PAINTS.
+
+Carbon, in one form or another, is the base of all black pigments. By
+far the most common of these, as used in structural plants, is
+graphite. Other black pigments are lamp-black (including carbon black)
+and bone-black, the former being produced in many grades, varying in
+price from twopence to half a crown per pound. Bone-black, which is
+refuse from the sugar-house black, varies in the percentage of carbon
+contained, which is usually about 10 or 12 per cent, the remainder
+being the mineral matter originally present in the bone, and
+containing 3 or 4 per cent of carbonate, whilst most of the remainder
+is phosphate of lime. Lamp-black is an absolutely impalpable powder,
+which having a small amount of greasy matter in it, greatly retards
+the drying of the oil with which it may be mixed. For this reason it
+is not used by itself, but is added in small quantity to other paints,
+which it affects by changing their colour, and probably their
+durability. For example, it is a common practice to add it to red
+lead, in order to tone down its brilliant colour, and also to correct
+the tendency it has to turn white, due to the conversion of the red
+oxide of lead into the carbonate.
+
+
+BLACK STAIN FOR IRON.
+
+For colouring iron and steel a dead black of superior appearance and
+permanency, the following is a good formula: 1 part bismuth chloride,
+2 parts mercury bi-chloride, 1 part copper chloride, 6 parts
+hydrochloric acid, 5 parts alcohol, and 50 parts lamp-black, these
+being all well mixed. To use this preparation successfully--the
+article to be blacked or bronzed being first made clean and free from
+grease--it is applied with a swab or brush, or, better still, the
+object may be dipped into it; the liquid is allowed to dry on the
+metal, and the latter is then placed in boiling water, the temperature
+being maintained for half an hour. If, after this, the colour is not
+so dark as is desired, the operation has simply to be repeated, and
+the result will be found satisfactory. After obtaining the desired
+degree of colour, the latter is fixed, as well as much improved
+generally, by placing for a few minutes in a bath of boiling oil, or
+by coating the surface with oil, and heating the object till the oil
+is completely driven off The intense black obtained by this method is
+admirable.
+
+Another black coating for ironwork, which is really a lacquer, is
+obtained by melting ozokerite, which becomes a brown resinous mass,
+with a melting-point at 140° F. The melted mass is then further heated
+to 212° F., the boiling-point of water. The objects to be lacquered
+are scoured clean by rubbing with dry sand, and are dipped in the
+melted mass. They are then allowed to drip, and the ozokerite is
+ignited by the objects being held over a fire. After the ozokerite has
+burned away, the flame is extinguished, and the iron acquires a firmly
+adhering black coating, which resists atmospheric influences, as well
+as acids and alkalies. If the black iron vessels are to contain
+alkaline liquids, the above operation is repeated.
+
+A good cheap stock black paint or varnish for ironwork is prepared, as
+follows: Clear (solid) wood tar, 10 lb.; lamp black or mineral black,
+1-1/4 lb.; oil of turpentine, 5-1/2 quarts. The tar is first heated in
+a large iron pot to boiling-point, or nearly so, and the heat is
+continued for about 4 hours. The pot is then removed from the fire out
+of doors, and while still warm, and not hot, the turpentine, mixed
+with the black, is stirred in. If the varnish is too thick to dry
+quickly, add more turpentine. Benzine can be used instead of
+turpentine, but the results are not so good. Asphaltum is preferable
+to the cheap tar.
+
+To make another good black varnish for ironwork, take 8 lb. of
+asphaltum and fuse it in an iron kettle, then add 2 gallons of boiled
+linseed oil, 1 lb. of litharge, 1/2 lb. of sulphate of zinc (add these
+slowly, or the mixture will boil over), and boil them for about 3
+hours. Then, add 1-1/2 lb. of dark gum amber, and boil for 2 hours
+longer, or until the mass will become quite thick when cool. After
+this it should be thinned with turpentine to the proper consistency.
+
+
+VARNISHES FOR IRONWORK.
+
+A reliable authority gives the following as a very good recipe for
+ironwork varnish. Take 2 lb. of tar oil, 1/2 lb. of pounded resin, and
+1/2 lb. of asphaltum, and dissolve together, and then mix while hot in
+an iron kettle, taking all care to prevent the flames getting into
+contact with the mixture. When cold the varnish is ready for
+application to outdoor ironwork. Another recipe is to take 3 lb. of
+powdered resin, place it in a tin or iron vessel, and add thereto
+2-1/2 pints of spirits of turpentine, which well shake, and then let
+it stand for a day or two, giving it an occasional shake. Then add to
+it 5 quarts of boiled oil, shake it thoroughly well all together,
+afterwards letting it stand in a warm room till it gets clear. The
+clear portion can then be drawn off and used, or reduced with spirits
+of turpentine till of the requisite consistency. For making a varnish
+suitable for iron patterns, take sufficient oil of turpentine for the
+purpose of the job in hand, and drop into it, drop by drop, some
+strong commercial oil of vitriol, when the acid will cause a dark
+syrupy precipitate in the oil of turpentine, and continue to add the
+drops of vitriol till the precipitate ceases to act, after which pour
+off the liquid and wash the syrupy mass with water, when it will be
+ready for use. When the iron pattern is to be varnished, it must be
+heated to a gentle degree, the syrupy product applied, and then the
+article allowed to dry.
+
+A fine black varnish suitable for the covering of broken places in
+sewing machines and similar articles, where the japanned surface has
+become injured or scratched, can be made by taking some fine
+lamp-black or ivory-black, and thoroughly mixing it with copal
+varnish. The black must be in a very fine powder, and to mix the more
+readily it should be made into a pasty mass with turpentine. For the
+ordinary repairing shop this will be found very handy.
+
+The following is a simple way for tarring sheet-iron pipes to prevent
+rusting. The sections as made should be coated with coal tar, and then
+filled with light wood shavings, and the latter set alight. The effect
+of this treatment will be to render the iron practically proof against
+rust for an indefinite period, rendering future painting unnecessary.
+It is important, of course, that the iron should not be made too hot,
+or kept hot for too long a time, lest the tar should be burnt off.
+
+The following is a varnish for iron and steel given by a recognized
+authority: 5 parts of camphor and elemi, 15 parts of sandarach, and
+10 parts of clear grains of mastic, are dissolved in the requisite
+quantity of alcohol, and applied cold.
+
+Another good black enamel for small articles can be made by mixing 1
+lb. of asphaltum with 1 lb. of resin in 4 lb. of tar oil, well heating
+the whole in an iron vessel before applying.
+
+A good brown japan can be prepared by separately heating equal
+quantities of amber and asphaltum, and adding to each one-half the
+quantity by weight of boiled linseed oil. Both compounds are then
+mixed together. Copal resin may be substituted for the amber, but it
+is not so durable. Oil varnish made from amber is highly elastic. If
+it is used to protect tin-plate printing, when the plates after
+stoving have been subsequently rolled so as to distort the letters,
+the varnish has in no way suffered, and its surface remains unbroken.
+
+A bronzing composition for coating iron consists of 120 parts mercury,
+10 parts tin, 20 parts green vitriol, 120 parts water, and 15 parts
+hydrochloric acid of 1.2 specific gravity.
+
+
+
+
+SECTION VI.
+
+PROCESSES FOR TIN-PLATING.
+
+
+In these days of making everything look what it is not, perhaps the
+best and cheapest substitute for silver as a white coating for table
+ware, culinary vessels, and the many articles requiring such a
+coating, is pure tin. It does not compare favourably with silver in
+point of hardness or wearing qualities, but it costs very much less
+than silver, is readily applied, and can be easily kept clean and
+bright. In tinning hollow ware on the inside the metal article is
+first thoroughly cleansed by pickling it in dilute muriatic or
+sulphuric acid and then scouring it with fine sand. It is then heated
+over a fire to about the melting-point of tin, sprinkled with powdered
+resin, and partly filled with melted pure grain tin covered with resin
+to prevent its oxidation. The vessel is then quickly turned and rolled
+about in every direction, so as to bring every part of the surface to
+be covered in contact with the molten metal. The greater part of the
+tin is then thrown out and the surface rubbed over with a brush of tow
+to equalize the coating; and if not satisfactory the operation must be
+repeated. The vessels usually tinned in this manner are of copper and
+brass, but with a little care in cleaning and manipulating, iron can
+also be satisfactorily tinned by this means. The vessels to be tinned
+must always be sufficiently hot to keep the metal contained in them
+thoroughly fused. This is covering by contact with melted tin.
+
+The amalgam process is not so much used as it was formerly. It
+consists in applying to the clean and dry metallic surface a film of a
+pasty amalgam of tin with mercury, and then exposing the surface to
+heat, which volatilizes the latter, leaving the tin adhering to the
+metal.
+
+The immersion process is the best adapted to coating articles of brass
+or copper. When immersed in a hot solution of tin properly prepared
+the metal is precipitated upon their surfaces. One of the best
+solutions for this purpose is the following:--
+
+  Ammonia alum              17-1/4 oz.
+  Boiling                   12-1/2 lb.
+  Protochloride of tin       1 oz.
+
+The articles to be tinned must be first thoroughly cleansed, and then
+kept in the hot solution until properly whitened. A better result will
+be obtained by using the following bath, and placing the pieces in
+contact with a strip of clean zinc, also immersed:--
+
+  Bitartrate of potassium      14 oz.
+  Soft water                   24 "
+  Protochloride of tin          1 "
+
+It should be boiled for a few minutes before using.
+
+The following is one of the best solutions for plating with tin by the
+battery process:--
+
+  Potassium pyrophosphate      12     oz.
+  Protochloride of tin          4-1/2 "
+  Water                        20     "
+
+The anode or feeding-plate used in this bath consists of pure Banca
+tin. This plate is joined to the positive (copper or carbon) pole of
+the battery, while the work is suspended from a wire connected with
+the negative (zinc) pole. A moderately strong battery is required, and
+the work is finished by scratch-brushing.
+
+In Weigler's process a bath is prepared by passing washed chlorine gas
+into a concentrated aqueous solution of stannous chloride to
+saturation, and expelling excess of gas by warming the solution, which
+is then diluted with about ten volumes of water, and filtered, if
+necessary. The articles to be plated are pickled in dilute sulphuric
+acid, and polished with fine sand and a scratch-brush, rinsed in
+water, loosely wound round with zinc wire or tape, and immersed in the
+bath for ten or fifteen minutes at ordinary temperatures. The coating
+is finished with the scratch-brush and whiting. By this process
+cast-or wrought-iron, steel, copper, brass, and lead can be tinned
+without a separate battery. The only disadvantage of the process is
+that the bath soon becomes clogged up with zinc chloride, and the tin
+salt must be frequently removed. In Hern's process a bath composed
+of--
+
+  Tartaric acid             2 oz.
+  Water                   100 "
+  Soda                      3 "
+  Protochloride of tin      3 "
+
+is employed instead of the preceding. It requires a somewhat longer
+exposure to properly tin articles in this than in Weigler's bath.
+Either of these baths may be used with a separate battery.
+
+
+
+
+SECTION VII.
+
+GALVANIZING.
+
+
+Galvanizing, as a protecting surface for large articles, such as enter
+into the construction of bridges, roofs, and shipwork, has not quite
+reached the point of appreciation that possibly the near future may
+award to it. Certain fallacies existed for a long time as to the
+relative merits of the dry or molten and the wet or electrolytical
+methods of galvanizing. The latter was found to be costly and slow,
+and the results obtained were erratic and not satisfactory, and soon
+gave place to the dry or molten bath process, as in practice at the
+present day; but the difficulty of management in connexion with large
+baths of molten material, and the deterioration of the bath, and other
+mechanical causes, limit the process to articles of comparatively
+small size and weight. The electro deposition of zinc has been subject
+to many patents, and the efforts to introduce it have been lamentable
+in both a mechanical and financial sense. Most authorities recommend a
+current density of 18 or 20 ampères per square foot of cathode
+surface, and aqueous solutions of zinc sulphate, acetate or chloride,
+ammonia, chloride or tartrate, as being the most suitable for
+deposition. Electrolytes made by adding caustic potash or soda to a
+suitable zinc salt have been found to be unworkable in practice on
+account of the formation of an insoluble zinc oxide on the surface of
+the anode and the resultant increased electrical resistance; the
+electrolytes are also constantly getting out of order, as more metal
+is taken out of the solution than could possibly be dissolved from the
+anodes by the chemicals set free on account of this insoluble scale or
+furring up of the anodes, which sometimes reaches one-eighth of an
+inch in thickness. To all intents and purposes the deposits obtained
+from acid solutions under favourable circumstances are fairly adhesive
+when great care has been exercised to thoroughly scale and clean the
+surface to be coated, which is found to be the principal difficulty in
+the application of any electro-chemical process for copper, lead, or
+tin, as well as for zinc, and that renders even the application of
+paint or other brush compounds to futile unless honestly complied
+with. Unfortunately these acid zinc coatings are of a transitory
+nature, Their durability being incomparable with hot galvanizing, as
+the deposit is porous and retains some of the acid salts, which cause
+a wasting of the zinc, and consequently the rusting of the iron or
+steel. Castings coated with acid zinc rust comparatively quickly, even
+when the porosity has been reduced by oxidation, aggravated no doubt
+by some of the corroding agents--sal-ammoniac, for instance--being
+forced into the pores of the metal. Other matters of serious moment in
+the electro-zincing process, apart from the slowness of the operation,
+were the uncertain nature, thickness, and extent of the coating on
+articles of irregular shape, and the formation of loose, dark-coloured
+patches on the work; the unhealthy and non-metallic look and want of
+brilliancy and the lustre prevented engineers and the trade from
+accepting the process or its results, except for the commoner articles
+of use. To obviate any tendency of the paint to peel off from the zinc
+surface, as it generally manifests a disposition to do, it is
+recommended to coat all the zinc surfaces, previous to painting them,
+with the following compound: 1 part chloride of copper, 1 part nitrate
+of copper, 1 part sal-ammoniac, dissolved in 61 parts of water, and
+then add 1 part commercial hydrochloric acid. When the zinc is brushed
+over with this mixture it oxidizes the surface, turns black, and dries
+in from twelve to twenty-four hours, and may then be painted over
+without any danger of peeling. Another and more quickly applied
+coating consists of, bi-chloride of platinum, 1 part dissolved in 10
+parts of distilled water, and applied either by a brush or sponge. It
+oxidizes at once, turns black, and resists the weak acids, rain, and
+the elements generally.
+
+Zinc surfaces, after a brief exposure to the air, become coated with a
+thin film of oxide--insoluble in water--which adheres tenaciously,
+forming a protective coating to the underlying zinc. So long as the
+zinc surface remains intact, the underlying metal is protected from
+corrosive action, but a mechanical or other injury to the zinc coating
+that exposes the metal beneath, in the presence of moisture causes a
+very rapid corrosion to be started, the galvanic action being changed
+from the zinc positive to zinc negative, and the iron, as the positive
+element in the circuit, is corroded instead of the zinc. When
+galvanized iron is immersed in a corrosive liquid, the zinc is
+attacked in preference to the iron, provided both the exposed parts of
+the iron and the protected parts are immersed in the liquid. The zinc
+has not the same protective quality when the liquid is sprinkled over
+the surface and remains in isolated drops. Sea air, being charged with
+saline matters, is very destructive to galvanized surfaces, forming a
+soluble chloride by its action. As zinc is one of the metals most
+readily attacked by acids, ordinary galvanized iron is not suitable
+for positions where it is to be much exposed to an atmosphere charged
+with acids sent into the air by some manufactories, or to the
+sulphuric acid fumes found in the products of combustion of rolling
+mills, iron, glass, and gas works, etc., and yet we see engineers of
+note covering-in important buildings with corrugated and other sheets
+of iron, and using galvanized iron tie rods, angles, and other
+constructive shapes in blind confidence of the protective power of the
+zinc coating; also in supreme indifference as to the future
+consequences and catastrophes that arise from their unexpected
+failure. The comparative inertia of lead to the chemical action of
+many acids has led to the contention that it should form as good, if
+not a better, protection of iron than zinc, but in practice it is
+found to be deficient as a protective coating against corrosion. A
+piece of lead-coated iron placed in water will show decided evidences
+of corrosion in twenty-four hours. This is to be attributed to the
+porous nature of the coating, whether it is applied by the hot or wet
+(acid) process. The lead does not bond to the plate as well as either
+of the other metals--zinc, tin, copper, or any alloys of them. The
+following table gives the increase in weight of different articles due
+to hot galvanizing:--
+
+  +--------------------------+--------------------------+-------------+
+  |    Description of        |     Weight of Zinc       | Percentage  |
+  |       Article            |     per Square foot      | of Increase |
+  |                          |                          | of Weight   |
+  +--------------------------+--------------------------+-------------+
+  | Thin sheet-iron          |         1.196 oz.        |    18.2     |
+  | 5/16-in. plates          |         1.76  "          |     2.0     |
+  | 4-in. cut nails          |         2.19  "          |     6.72    |
+  | 7/8-in. die bolt and nut | approximately 1.206 oz.  |     1.00    |
+  +--------------------------+--------------------------+-------------+
+
+Tin is often added to the hot bath for the purpose of obtaining a
+smoother surface and larger facets, but it is found to shorten the
+life of the protective coating very considerably.
+
+A portion of a zinc coating applied by the hot process was found to be
+very brittle, breaking when attempts were made to bend it; the average
+thickness of the coating was .015 inch. An analysis gave the following
+result: tin, 2.20; iron, 3.78; arsenic, a trace; zinc (by difference),
+94.02. A small quantity of iron is dissolved from all the articles
+placed in the molten zinc bath, and a dross is formed amounting in
+many cases to 25 per cent of the whole amount of zinc used. The
+zinc-iron alloy is very brittle, and contains by analysis 6 per cent
+of iron, and is used to cast small art ornaments from. A hot
+galvanizing plant, having a bath capacity of 10 feet by 4 feet by
+4-1/2 feet outside dimensions, and about 1 inch in thickness, will
+hold 28 tons of zinc. With equal amounts of zinc per unit of area, the
+zinc coating put on by the cold process is more resistant to the
+corroding action of a saturated solution of copper sulphate than is
+the case with steel coated by the ordinary hot galvanizing process;
+or, to put it in another form, articles coated by the cold process
+should have an equally long life under the same conditions of exposure
+that hot galvanized articles are exposed to, and with less zinc than
+would be necessary in the ordinary hot process. The hardness of a zinc
+surface is a matter of some importance. With this object in view
+aluminium has been added from a separate crucible to the molten zinc
+at the moment of dipping the article to be zinced, so as to form a
+compound surface of zinco-aluminium, and to reduce the ashes formed
+from the protective coverings of sal-ammoniac, fat, glycerine, etc.
+The addition of the aluminium also reduces the thickness of the
+coating applied. Cold and hot galvanized plates appear to stand
+abrasion equally well. Both pickling and hot galvanizing reduce the
+strength, distort and render brittle iron and steel wires of small
+sections.
+
+
+THE END.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+
+A
+
+  Amalgam process in tin-plating, 59.
+  Appliances and apparatus used in japanning and enamelling, 29.
+
+
+B
+
+  Battery process in tin-plating, 59.
+  Black grounds, 11.
+  ---- japan grounds on metal, common, 12.
+  ---- paints, 52.
+  ---- pigment, 46.
+  ---- stain for iron, 53.
+  ---- varnish for sewing machines, 56.
+  Blue japan grounds, 9.
+  ---- pigment, 46.
+  Brass, polished, colours for, 49-57.
+  Brick ovens, 33.
+  Bright pale yellow grounds, 10.
+  Bronzing composition, 49.
+  Brown japan, 57.
+  Bunsen burner, 33.
+
+
+C
+
+  Carriage varnish, 51.
+  Colours for polished brass, 49.
+  Common black japan grounds on metal, 12.
+  Composition for bronzing, 49.
+  Cream enamel, 8.
+
+
+E
+
+  Enamelling and japanning stoves, 29-46.
+  ---- ---- ---- ---- heated by direct fire, 34.
+  ---- ---- ---- ---- heated by hot-water pipes, 36.
+  ---- or japanning metals, 20-28.
+  ---- old work, 27.
+
+
+F
+
+  First stage in the japanning of wood, 5.
+  ---- ---- in the japanning of leather, without a priming, 5.
+
+
+G
+
+  Galvanized iron, painting on, 49.
+  Galvanizing, 61-66.
+  Golden varnish for metal, 51.
+  Green japan grounds, 10.
+  ---- pigment, 46.
+  Ground, red japan, 10.
+  ---- scarlet japan, 9.
+  ---- tortoise-shell, 12.
+  Grounds, black, 11.
+  ---- black japan, 12.
+  ---- blue japan, 9.
+  ---- bright pale yellow, 10.
+  ---- green japan, 10.
+  ---- japan, 6-19.
+  ---- orange-coloured, 11.
+  ---- purple, 11.
+  ---- white japan, 7
+
+
+H
+
+  Heating stoves by direct fire, 34.
+  ---- ---- by hot-water pipes, 36.
+  Hern's process in tin-plating, 60.
+
+
+I
+
+  Immersion process in tin-plating, 59.
+  Iron, black stain for, 53.
+  ---- galvanized, painting on, 49.
+  Ironwork, varnishes for, 55.
+
+
+J
+
+  Japan, brown, 57.
+  ---- ground, red, 10.
+  ---- ---- scarlet, 9.
+  ---- ---- grounds, 6-19.
+  ---- ---- black, 12.
+  ---- ---- blue, 9.
+  ---- ---- green, 10.
+  ---- ---- white, 7.
+  ---- work, painting, 13.
+  ---- ---- varnishing, 17.
+  Japanese gold size, 14.
+  Japanese lacquer, 47.
+  Japanning and enamelling stoves, 34.
+  ---- ---- ---- ---- heated by direct fire, 34.
+  ---- ---- ---- ---- heated by hot-water pipes, 36.
+  ---- leather without a priming, first stage, 5.
+  ---- or enamelling metals, 20-28.
+  ---- tin, 25.
+  ---- wood, first stage, 5.
+
+
+L
+
+  Lacquer, Japanese, 47.
+
+
+M
+
+  Metal, golden varnish for, 51.
+  ---- polishes, 51.
+  Metals, japanning or enamelling, 20-28.
+  Modern japanning and enamelling stoves, 34.
+
+
+N
+
+  Natural Japanese lacquer, 47.
+  ---- lacquer, 45.
+
+
+O
+
+  Oil vehicle, 14.
+  Old work, enamelling, 27.
+  Orange-coloured grounds, 11.
+
+
+P
+
+  Painting japan work, 13.
+  ---- on galvanized iron, 49.
+  ---- ---- zinc, 49.
+  Paints, black, 52.
+  Pigments suitable for japanning with natural lacquer, 45.
+  ---- black, 46.
+  ---- blue, 46.
+  ---- green, 46.
+  ---- red, 46.
+  ---- white, 45.
+  ---- yellow, 46.
+  Polished brass, colours for, 49.
+  Preparing the surface to be japanned, 4.
+  Priming the surface to be japanned, 4.
+  Processes for tin-plating, 58.
+  Purple grounds, 11.
+
+
+R
+
+  Red japan ground, 10.
+  ---- pigments, 46.
+
+
+S
+
+  Scarlet japan ground, 9.
+  Sewing machines, black varnish for, 56.
+  Shellac varnish, 6.
+  Stoves, modern japanning and enamelling, 34.
+  Stove, the enamelling and japanning, 29-45.
+  Surface to be japanned, priming or preparing the, 4.
+
+
+T
+
+  Tin, japanning, 25.
+  Tin-plating, colours for, 58.
+  Tin-plating, amalgam process, 59.
+  ---- battery process, 59.
+  ---- Hern's process, 60.
+  ---- immersion process, 59.
+  ---- Weigler's process, 60.
+  Tortoise-shell ground, 12.
+
+
+U
+
+  Urushiol, 47.
+
+
+V
+
+  Varnish, carriage, 51,
+  ---- for iron and steel, 57.
+  ---- for metal, golden, 51.
+  ---- shellac, 6.
+  Varnishes for iron work, 55.
+  Varnishing japan work, 17.
+
+
+W
+
+  Weigler's process of tin-plating, 60.
+  White japan grounds, 7.
+  ---- pigments, 45.
+  Wood, first stage in the japanning of, 5.
+
+
+Y
+
+  Yellow grounds, bright pale, 10.
+  ---- pigments, 46.
+
+
+Z
+
+  Zinc, painting on, 49.
+
+
+ABERDEEN: THE UNIVERSITY PRESS
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+ENAMELS AND ENAMELLING
+
+An Introduction to the Preparation and Application of all kinds of
+Enamels for Technical and Artistic Purposes.
+
+TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN OF PAUL RANDAU.
+
+_Second and Enlarged Edition._
+
+_Demy 8vo._         _194 Pages._
+
+Price 10s. 6d. net. (Post Free, 10s. 10d. Home; 11s. Abroad.)
+
+  Published by
+  SCOTT, GREENWOOD & SON,
+  8 BROADWAY, LUDGATE, LONDON, E.C.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+THE MANUFACTURE OF VARNISHES.
+
+BY
+
+_J.G. McINTOSH._
+
+  Based on and including the work of
+  ACH. LIVACHE.
+
+IN THREE VOLUMES.
+
+VOLUME I.--OIL CRUSHING, REFINING AND BOILING, THE MANUFACTURE OF
+LINOLEUM, PRINTING AND LITHOGRAPHIC INKS, AND INDIA-RUBBER
+SUBSTITUTES. Demy 8vo. 150 pp. 29 Illustrations. Price 75. 6d. net.
+(Post free, 7s. 10d. home; 8s. abroad.)
+
+VOLUME II.--VARNISH MATERIALS AND OIL-VARNISH MAKING. Demy 8vo. 70
+Illustrations. 220 pp. Price 10s. 6d. net. (Post free, 10s. 10d. home;
+11s. 3d. abroad.)
+
+VOLUME III.--SPIRIT VARNISHES AND SPIRIT VARNISH MATERIALS. Demy 8vo.
+64 Illustrations. 464 pp. Price 12s. 6d. net. (Post free, 13s. home;
+13s. 6d. abroad.)
+
+Send for Catalogue giving List of Contents of above works from
+
+  SCOTT, GREENWOOD & SON,
+  8 BROADWAY, LUDGATE, LONDON, E.C.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+For the latest recipes, etc., on Japanning you should read
+
+Oil & Colour Trades Journal.
+
+The Weekly Organ of the
+
+OIL, PAINT, VARNISH, SOAP, GLUE, DRYSALTERY, AND ALLIED TRADES.
+
+  The Annual Subscription
+    FOR 52 WEEKLY ISSUES, POST FREE, AND A COPY OF THE ANNUAL
+    DIARY AND TRADE DIRECTORY, CARRIAGE PAID, IS
+    10s.
+    TO ANY PART OF THE WORLD.
+
+  A Specimen Copy
+    WILL BE SENT TO ANYONE SENDING THEIR NAME AND ADDRESS TO
+
+  THE OIL AND COLOUR TRADES JOURNAL OFFICES,
+  8 BROADWAY, LUDGATE, LONDON, E.C.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Handbook on Japanning: 2nd Edition
+by William N. Brown
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+      The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Handbook On Japanning, by William N. Brown.
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+
+Project Gutenberg's Handbook on Japanning: 2nd Edition, by William N. Brown
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Handbook on Japanning: 2nd Edition
+       For Ironware, Tinware, Wood, Etc. With Sections on Tinplating and
+              Galvanizing
+              
+
+Author: William N. Brown
+
+Release Date: April 14, 2005 [EBook #15622]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HANDBOOK ON JAPANNING: 2ND EDITION ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Jason Isbell, Karen Dalrymple and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<h1><a name="Page_-7" id="Page_-7"></a><a name="Page_-6" id="Page_-6"></a><a name="Page_-5" id="Page_-5"></a>A HANDBOOK ON JAPANNING</h1>
+
+<h2><i>FOR IRONWARE, TINWARE, WOOD, ETC.</i></h2>
+
+<h2>WITH SECTIONS ON TIN-PLATING AND GALVANIZING<br /><br /><br /></h2>
+
+
+<h4>BY</h4>
+
+<h2>WILLIAM N. BROWN<br /><br /><br /></h2>
+
+
+<div class="center"><i>SECOND EDITION: REVISED AND ENLARGED WITH THIRTEEN ILLUSTRATIONS</i><br /><br /><br /></div>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<big>LONDON</big><br />
+<big>SCOTT, GREENWOOD AND SON</big><br />
+"THE OIL AND COLOUR TRADES JOURNAL" OFFICES<br />
+8 BROADWAY, LUDGATE, E.C.<br />
+<br />
+1913<br />
+<br />
+<big>D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY</big><br />
+<big>8 WARREN ST., NEW YORK</big><br />
+</div>
+<hr style="width: 25%;" />
+<div class="blockquot"><a name="Page_-4" id="Page_-4"></a><i>First Edition under title "A Handbook on Japanning and Enamelling",
+1901</i><br /><br /></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><i>Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged, under title "A Handbook on
+Japanning"&mdash;January, 1913</i></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a><a name="Page_-3" id="Page_-3"></a>CONTENTS.</h2>
+
+
+<div class='blockquot'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Table of Contents">
+<tr><td colspan="3" align="right">PAGE</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="3" align="center"><a href="#SECTION_I"><b>SECTION I.</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2" align="left"><a href="#INTRODUCTION">INTRODUCTION.</a></td><td align='right'>1-5</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left">Priming or Preparing the Surface to be Japanned</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_4'>4</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left">The First Stage in the Japanning of Wood or of Leather without a Priming</td><td align="right"><a href='#Page_5'>5</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="3" align="center"><a href="#SECTION_II"><b>SECTION II.</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2" align="left"><a href="#JAPAN_GROUNDS">JAPAN GROUNDS.</a></td><td nowrap="nowrap" align="right">6-19</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left">White Japan Grounds</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_7'>7</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left">Blue Japan Grounds</td><td align="right"><a href='#Page_9'>9</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left">Scarlet Japan Ground</td><td align="right"><a href='#Page_9'>9</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left">Red Japan Ground</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_10'>10</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left">Bright Pale Yellow Grounds</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_10'>10</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left">Green Japan Grounds</td><td align="right"><a href='#Page_10'>10</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left">Orange-Coloured Grounds</td><td align="right"><a href='#Page_11'>11</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left">Purple Grounds</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_11'>11</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left">Black Grounds</td><td align="right"><a href='#Page_11'>11</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left">Common Black Japan Grounds on Metal</td><td align="right"><a href='#Page_12'>12</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a name="Page_-2" id="Page_-2"></a>Tortoise-shell Ground</td><td align="right"><a href='#Page_12'>12</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left">Painting Japan Work</td><td align="right"><a href='#Page_13'>13</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left">Varnishing Japan Work</td><td align="right"><a href='#Page_17'>17</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="3" align="center"><a href="#SECTION_III"><b>SECTION III.</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2" align="left"><a href="#JAPANNING_OR_ENAMELLING_METALS">JAPANNING OR ENAMELLING METALS.</a></td><td nowrap="nowrap" align="right">20-28</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left">Enamelling Bedstead Frames and similar large pieces</td><td align="right"><a href='#Page_24'>24</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left">Japanning Tin, such as Tea-trays and similar goods</td><td align="right"><a href='#Page_25'>25</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left">Enamelling Old Work</td><td align="right"><a href='#Page_27'>27</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="3" align="center"><a href="#SECTION_IV"><b>SECTION IV.</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2" align="left"><a href="#THE_ENAMELLING_AND_JAPANNING_STOVE">THE ENAMELLING AND JAPANNING STOVE&mdash;PIGMENTS SUITABLE FOR
+JAPANNING WITH NATURAL LACQUER&mdash;MODERN METHODS OF JAPANNING WITH NATURAL JAPANESE LACQUER.</a></td><td nowrap="nowrap" align="right" valign="bottom">29-48</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left">Appliances and Apparatus used in Japanning and Enamelling&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align="right"><a href='#Page_29'>29</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left">Modern Japanning and Enamelling Stoves</td><td align="right"> <a href='#Page_34'>34</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left">Stoves heated by direct fire </td><td align="right"><a href='#Page_34'>34</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left">Stoves heated by hot-water pipes </td><td align="right"><a href='#Page_36'>36</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left">Pigments suitable for Japanning with Natural Lacquer</td><td align="right"><a href='#Page_45'>45</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left">White Pigments </td><td align="right"><a href='#Page_45'>45</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left">Red Pigments </td><td align="right"><a href='#Page_46'>46</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left">Blue Pigment </td><td align="right"><a href='#Page_46'>46</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left">Yellow Pigments</td><td align="right"><a href='#Page_46'>46</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left">Green Pigment</td><td align="right"><a href='#Page_46'>46</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left">Black Pigment</td><td align="right"><a href='#Page_46'>46</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a name="Page_-1" id="Page_-1"></a>Methods of Application </td><td align="right"><a href='#Page_46'>46</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left">Modern Methods of Japanning and Enamelling with Natural Japanese Lacquer </td><td align="right"><a href='#Page_47'>47</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="3" align="center"><a href="#SECTION_V"><b>SECTION V.</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2" align="left"><a href="#COLOURS_FOR_POLISHED_BRASS_MISCELLANEOUS">COLOURS FOR POLISHED BRASS.&mdash;MISCELLANEOUS.</a></td><td nowrap="nowrap" align="right">49-57</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left">Painting on Zinc or on Galvanized Iron </td><td align="right"><a href='#Page_49'>49</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left">Bronzing Compositions</td><td align="right"><a href='#Page_49'>49</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left">Golden Varnish for Metal </td><td align="right"><a href='#Page_51'>51</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left">Carriage Varnish </td><td align="right"><a href='#Page_51'>51</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left">Metal Polishes </td><td align="right"><a href='#Page_51'>51</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left">Black Paints &nbsp; </td><td align="right"><a href='#Page_52'>52</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left">Black Stain for Iron </td><td align="right"><a href='#Page_53'>53</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left">Varnishes for Ironwork </td><td align="right"><a href='#Page_55'>55</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="3" align="center"><a href="#SECTION_VI"><b>SECTION VI.</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2" align="left"><a href="#PROCESSES_FOR_TIN_PLATING">PROCESSES FOR TIN-PLATING.</a></td><td nowrap="nowrap" align="right">58-60</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left">Amalgam Process</td><td align="right"><a href='#Page_59'>59</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left">Immersion Process</td><td align="right"><a href='#Page_59'>59</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left">Battery Process</td><td align="right"><a href='#Page_59'>59</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left">Weigler's Process</td><td align="right"><a href='#Page_60'>60</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left">Hern's Process </td><td align="right"><a href='#Page_60'>60</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="3" align="center"><a href="#SECTION_VII"><b>SECTION VII.</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2" align="left"><a href="#GALVANIZING">GALVANIZING.</a></td><td nowrap="nowrap" align="right">61-66</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2" align="left"><a href="#INDEX"><b>INDEX.</b></a></td><td nowrap="nowrap" align="right">67-69</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="Page_0" id="Page_0"></a><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1"></a>HANDBOOK ON JAPANNING.</h2>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="SECTION_I" id="SECTION_I"></a>SECTION I.</h2>
+
+<h3><a name="INTRODUCTION" id="INTRODUCTION"></a>INTRODUCTION.</h3>
+
+
+<p>Japanning, as it is generally understood in Great Britain, is the art
+of covering paper, wood, or metal with a more or less thick coating of
+brilliant varnish, and hardening the same by baking it in an oven at a
+suitable heat. It originated in Japan&mdash;hence its name&mdash;where the
+natives use a natural varnish or lacquer which flows from a certain
+kind of tree, and which on its issuing from the plant is of a creamy
+tint, but becomes black on exposure to the air. It is mainly with the
+application of "japan" to metallic surfaces that we are concerned in
+these pages. Japanning may be said to occupy a position midway between
+painting and porcelain enamelling, and a japanned surface differs from
+an ordinary painted surface in being far more brilliant, smoother,
+harder, and more durable, and also in retaining its gloss permanently,
+in not being easily injured by hot water or by being placed near a
+fire; while real good japanning is characterised by great lustre and
+adhesiveness to the metal to which it has been applied, and its
+non-liability to chipping&mdash;a fault which, as a rule, stamps the common
+article.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2"></a>If the English process of japanning be more simple and produces a
+less durable, a less costly coating than the Japanese method, yet its
+practice is not so injurious to the health. Indeed, it is a moot point
+in how far the Japanese themselves now utilize their classical
+process, as the coat of natural japan on all the articles exhibited at
+the recent Vienna exhibition as being coated with the natural lacquer,
+when recovered after six months' immersion in sea water through the
+sinking of the ship, was destroyed, although it stood perfectly well
+on the articles of some age. In the English method, where necessary, a
+priming or undercoat is employed. It is customary to fill up any
+uneven surface, any minute holes or pores, and to render the surface
+to be japanned uniformly smooth. But such an undercoat or priming is
+not always applied, the coloured varnish or a proper japan ground
+being applied directly on the surface to be japanned. Formerly this
+surface usually, if not always, received a priming coat, and it does
+so still where the surface is coarse, uneven, rough, and porous. But
+where the surface is impervious and smooth, as in the case of metallic
+surfaces, a priming coat is not applied. It is also unnecessary to
+apply such a coat in the case of smooth, compact, grained wood. The
+reason for using this coating is that it effects a considerable saving
+in the quantity of varnish used, and because the matter of which the
+priming is composed renders the surface of the body to be varnished
+uniform, and fills up all pores, cracks, and other inequalities, and
+by its use it is easy after rubbing and water polishing to produce an
+even surface on which to apply the varnish. <a name="Page_3" id="Page_3"></a>The previous application
+of this undercoat was thus an advantage in the case of coarse, uneven
+surfaces that it formed a first and sort of obligatory initial stage
+in the process of japanning. This initial coating is still applied in
+many instances. But it has its drawbacks, and these drawbacks are
+incidental to the nature of the priming coat which consists of size
+and whiting. The coats or layers of japan proper, that is of varnish
+and pigment applied over such a priming coat, will be continually
+liable to crack or peel off with any violent shock, and will not last
+nearly so long as articles japanned with the same materials and
+altogether in the same way but without the undercoat. This defect may
+be readily perceived by comparing goods that have been in use for some
+time in the japanning of which an undercoat has been applied with
+similar goods in which no such previous coat has been given. Provided
+a good japan varnish and appropriate pigments have been used and the
+japanning well executed, the coats of japan applied without a priming
+never peel or crack or are in any way damaged except by violence or
+shock, or that caused by continual ordinary wear and tear caused by
+such constant rubbing as will wear away the surface of the japan. But
+japan coats applied with a priming coat crack and fly off in flakes at
+the slightest concussion, at any knock or fall, more especially at the
+edges. Those Birmingham manufacturers who were the first to practise
+japanning only on metals on which there was no need for a priming coat
+did not of course adopt such a practice. Moreover, they found it
+equally unnecessary in the case of papier-m&acirc;ch&eacute; and some other goods.
+Hence <a name="Page_4" id="Page_4"></a>Birmingham japanned goods wear better than those goods which
+receive a priming previous to japanning.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Priming or Preparing the Surface to be Japanned.</span><br /></div>
+
+<p>The usual priming, where one is applied, consists of Paris white
+(levigated whiting) made into a thin paste with size. The size should
+be of a consistency between the common double size and glue, and mixed
+with as much Paris white as will give it a good body so that it will
+hide the surface on which it is applied. But in particular work
+glovers' or parchment size instead of common size is used, and this is
+still further improved by the addition of one-third of isinglass, and
+if the coat be not applied too thickly it will be much less liable to
+peel or crack. The surface should be previously prepared for this
+priming by being well cleaned and by being brushed over with hot size
+diluted with two-thirds of water, that is provided the size be of the
+usual strength. The priming is then evenly and uniformly applied with
+a brush and left to dry. On a fairly even surface two coats of priming
+properly applied should suffice. But if it will not take a proper
+water polish, owing to the uneven surface not being effectually filled
+up, one or more additional coats must be applied. Previous to the last
+coat being applied, the surface should be smoothed by fine glass
+paper. When the last coat of priming is dry the water polish is
+applied. This is done by passing a fine wet rag or moistened sponge
+over the surface until the whole appears uniformly smooth and even.
+The priming is now complete and <a name="Page_5" id="Page_5"></a>the surface ready to take the japan
+ground or the coloured varnish.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">The First Stage in the Japanning of Wood or of Leather Without a
+Priming.</span><br /></div>
+
+<p>[The leather is first securely stretched on a frame or board.] In this
+case, that is when no priming coat is previously applied, the best way
+to prepare the surface is to apply three coats of coarse varnish (1
+lb. seed-lac, 1 lb rosin to 1 gallon methylated spirit, dissolve and
+filter). This varnish, like all others formed from methylated spirits,
+must be applied in a warm place and all dampness should be avoided,
+for either cold or moisture chills it and thus prevents it taking
+proper hold of the surface on which it is applied. When the work is
+prepared thus, or by the priming made of size and whiting already
+described, the japan proper is itself applied.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="SECTION_II" id="SECTION_II"></a><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6"></a>SECTION II.</h2>
+
+<h3><a name="JAPAN_GROUNDS" id="JAPAN_GROUNDS"></a>JAPAN GROUNDS.</h3>
+
+
+<p>The japan ground properly so called consists of the varnish and
+pigment where the whole surface is to be of one simple colour, or of
+the varnish, with or without pigment, on which some painting or other
+form of decoration is afterwards to be applied. It is best to form
+this ground with the desired pigment incorporated with shellac
+varnish, except in the case of a white japan ground which requires
+special treatment, or when great brilliancy is a desideratum and other
+methods must be adopted. The shellac varnish for the japan ground is
+best prepared as follows: shellac 1<sup>1</sup>/<sub>4</sub>&nbsp;lb., methylated spirits 1
+gallon. Dissolve in a well-corked vessel in a warm place and with
+frequent shaking. After two or three days the shellac will be
+dissolved. It is then recommended to filter the solution through a
+flannel bag, and when all that will come through freely has done so
+the varnish should be run into a proper sized vessel and kept
+carefully corked for use. The bag may then be squeezed with the hand
+till the remainder of the fluid varnish is forced through it, and this
+if fairly clear may be used for rough purposes or added to the next
+batch. Pigments of any nature whatever may be used with the shellac
+varnish to give <a name="Page_7" id="Page_7"></a>the desired tint to the ground, and where necessary
+they may be mixed together to form any compound colour, such as blue
+and yellow to form green. The pigments used for japan grounds should
+all be previously ground very smooth in spirits of turpentine, so
+smooth that the paste does not grate between the two thumb nails, and
+then only are they mixed with the varnish. This mixture of pigment and
+varnish vehicle should then be spread over the surface to be japanned
+very carefully and very evenly with a camel-hair brush. As metals do
+not require a priming coat of size and whiting, the japan ground may
+be applied to metallic surfaces forthwith without any preliminary
+treatment except thorough cleansing, except in the cases specially
+referred to further on. On metallic surfaces three to four coats are
+applied, and in the interval between each coat the articles must be
+stoved in an oven heated to from 250&deg; to 300&deg; F.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">White Japan Grounds.</span><br /></div>
+
+<p>The formation of a perfectly white japan ground and of the first
+degree of hardness has always been difficult to attain in the art of
+japanning, as there are few or no substances that can be so dissolved
+as to form a very hard varnish coat without being so darkened in the
+process as to quite degrade or spoil the whiteness of the colour. The
+following process, however, is said to give a composition which yields
+a very near approach to a perfect white ground: Take flake white or
+white lead washed and ground up with the sixth of its weight of starch
+and then dried, temper it properly for spreading with mastic varnish
+made <a name="Page_8" id="Page_8"></a>thus: Take 5 oz. of mastic in powder and put it into a proper
+vessel with 1 lb. of spirits of turpentine; let them boil at a gentle
+heat till the mastic be dissolved, and, if there appear to be any
+turbidity, strain off the solution through flannel. Apply this
+intimate and homogeneous mixture on the body to be japanned, the
+surface of which has been suitably prepared either with or without the
+priming, then varnish it over with five or six coats of the following
+varnish: Provide any quantity of the best seed-lac and pick out of it
+all the clearest and whitest grains, take of this seed-lac <sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub>&nbsp;lb. and
+of gum anime <sup>3</sup>/<sub>4</sub>&nbsp;lb., pulverize the mixture to a coarse powder and
+dissolve in a gallon of methylated spirits and strain off the clear
+varnish. The seed-lac will give a slight tint to this varnish, but it
+cannot be omitted where the japanned surface must be hard, though
+where a softer surface will serve the purpose the proportion of
+seed-lac may be diminished and a little turpentine oleo-resin added to
+the gum anime to take off the brittleness. A very good varnish
+entirely free from brittleness may, it is said, be formed by
+dissolving gum anime in old nut or poppy oil, which must be made to
+boil gently when the gum is put into it. After being diluted with
+turps the white ground may be applied in this varnish, and then a coat
+or two of the varnish itself may be applied over it. These coats,
+however, take a long time to dry, and, owing to its softer nature,
+this japanned surface is more readily injured than that yielded by the
+shellac varnish.</p>
+
+<p>According to Mr. Dickson, "the old way of making a cream enamel for
+stoving (a white was supposed to be impossible) was to mix ordinary
+tub white lead with <a name="Page_9" id="Page_9"></a>the polishing copal varnish and to add a modicum
+of blue to neutralize the yellow tinge, stove same in about 170&deg;F. and
+then polish as before described". "This," continues Mr. Dickson,
+"would at the best produce but a very pale blue enamel or a cream. It
+was afterwards made with flake white or dry white lead ground in turps
+only and mixed with the polishing copal varnish with the addition of
+tints as required, by which means a white of any required character
+could be produced."</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Blue Japan Grounds.</span><br /></div>
+
+<p>Authorities state that these may be formed from bright Prussian blue
+or verditer glazed over with Prussian blue or of smalt. By bright
+Prussian blue possibly a genuine Prussian blue toned down to a sky
+blue with white lead is meant, and by verditer the variety known as
+refiners' blue verditer, and as to smalt it must not be forgotten that
+it changes its colour in artificial light. Be that as it may, the
+pigment may be mixed with the shellac varnish according to the
+instructions already given, but as the shellac will somewhat injure
+the tone of the pigment by imparting a yellow tinge to it where a
+bright true blue is required, the directions already given as regards
+white grounds must be carried out.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Scarlet Japan Ground.</span><br /></div>
+
+<p>Vermilion is the best pigment to use for a scarlet japan ground, and
+its effect will be greatly enhanced by glazing it over with carmine or
+fine lake. If, <a name="Page_10" id="Page_10"></a>however, the highest degree of brightness be required
+the white varnish must be used. Vermilion must be stoved at a very
+gentle heat.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Red Japan Ground.</span><br /></div>
+
+<p>The basis of this japan ground is made up with madder lake ground in
+oil of turpentine, this constitutes the first ground; when this is
+perfectly dry a second coat of lake and white in copal varnish is
+applied, and the last coat is made up of lake in a mixture of copal
+varnish and turpentine varnish.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Bright Pale Yellow Grounds.</span><br /></div>
+
+<p>Orpiment or King's yellow may be used, and the effect is enhanced by
+dissolving powdered turmeric root in the methylated spirits from which
+the upper or polishing coat is made, which methylated spirits must be
+strained from off the dregs before the seed-lac is added to it to form
+the varnish. The seed-lac varnish is not so injurious to yellow
+pigments as it is to the tone of some other pigments, because, being
+tinged a reddish yellow, it does little more than intensify or deepen
+the tone of the pigment.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Green Japan Grounds.</span><br /></div>
+
+<p>Green japan grounds are produced by mixing Prussian blue or distilled
+verdigris with orpiment, and the effect is said to be extremely
+brilliant by applying them on a ground of leaf gold. Any of them may
+be used with good seed-lac varnish, for reasons already given. Equal
+parts by weight of rosin, precipitated rosinate of copper, and
+coal-tar solvent naphtha will <a name="Page_11" id="Page_11"></a>give a varnish which, when suitably
+thinned and the coats stoved at a heat below 212&deg; F., will give a
+green japan second to none as a finishing coat as regards purity of
+tone at least. To harden it and render it more elastic half of the
+rosin might be replaced by equal weights of a copal soluble in solvent
+naphtha and boiled linseed oil, so that the mixture would stand thus:
+rosinate of copper 1 lb., rosin <sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub>&nbsp;lb., boiled oil <sup>1</sup>/<sub>4</sub>&nbsp;lb., hard
+resin (copal) <sup>1</sup>/<sub>4</sub>&nbsp;lb., solvent naphtha 1 lb. When heated to a high
+temperature this rosinate of copper varnish yields a magnificent ruby
+bronze coloration, especially on glass. Verdigris dissolves in
+turpentine, and successful attempts might be made to make a green
+japan varnish from it on the lines indicated for rosinate of copper.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Orange-coloured Grounds.</span><br /></div>
+
+<p>Orange-coloured grounds may be formed by mixing vermilion or red lead
+with King's yellow, or orange lake or red orpiment (? realgar) will
+make a brighter orange ground than can be produced by any mixture.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Purple Grounds.</span><br /></div>
+
+<p>Purple grounds may be produced by the admixture of lake or vermilion
+with Prussian blue. They may be treated as the other coloured grounds
+as regards the varnish vehicle.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Black Grounds.</span><br /></div>
+
+<p>Black grounds may be formed either from lamp black or ivory black, but
+ivory black is preferable to lamp black, and possibly carbon black or
+gas black to <a name="Page_12" id="Page_12"></a>either. These may be always applied with the shellac
+varnish as a vehicle, and their upper or polishing coats may consist
+of common seed-lac varnish. But the best quality of ivory black ground
+in the best super black japan yields, after suitable stoving, a very
+excellent black indeed, the purity of tone of which may be improved by
+adding a little blue in the grinding.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Common Black Japan Grounds On Metal.</span><br /></div>
+
+<p>Common black japan grounds on metal by means of heat are procured in
+the following manner: The surface to be japanned must be coated over
+with drying oil, and when it is moderately dry must be put into a
+stove of such heat as will change the oil black without burning it.
+The stove should not be too hot when the oil is put into it nor the
+heat increased too fast, either which error would make it blister, but
+the slower the heat is increased and the longer it is continued,
+provided it be restrained within a due degree, the harder will be the
+coat of japan. This kind of japan requires no polish, having received
+from the heat, when properly regulated, a sufficiently bright surface.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Tortoise-Shell Ground.</span><br /></div>
+
+<p>This beautiful ground, produced by heat, is valued not only for its
+hardness and its capacity to stand a heat greater than that of boiling
+water, but also for its fine appearance. It is made by means of a
+varnish prepared thus: Take one gallon of good linseed oil and half a
+pound of umber, boil them together until the oil becomes very brown
+and thick, strain it then through a coarse cloth and set it again to
+boil, in which <a name="Page_13" id="Page_13"></a>state it must be continued until it acquires a
+consistency resembling that of pitch; it will then be fit for use.
+Having thus prepared the varnish, clean well the surface which is to
+be japanned; then apply vermilion ground in shellac varnish or with
+drying oil, very thinly diluted with oil of turpentine, on the places
+intended to imitate the more transparent parts of the tortoise-shell.
+When the vermilion is dry, brush the whole over with the black varnish
+thinned to the right consistency with oil of turpentine. When set and
+firm put the work into a stove where it may undergo a very strong
+heat, which must be continued a considerable time, for three weeks or
+even a month so much the better. This ground may be decorated with
+painting and gilding in the same way as any other varnished surface,
+which had best be done after the ground has been hardened, but it is
+well to give a second annealing at a very gentle heat after it has
+been finished. A very good black japan may be made by mixing a little
+japan gold size with ivory or lamp-black, this will develop a good
+gloss without requiring to be varnished afterwards.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Painting Japan Work.</span><br /></div>
+
+<p>Japan work should be painted with real "enamel paints," that is with
+paints actually ground in varnish, and in that case all pigments may
+be used and the peculiar disadvantages, which attend several pigments
+with respect to oil or water, cease with this class of vehicle, for
+they are secured by it when properly handled from the least danger of
+changing or fading. The preparation of pigments for this purpose
+<a name="Page_14" id="Page_14"></a>consists in bringing them to a due state of fineness by grinding them
+on a stone with turpentine. The best varnish for binding and
+preserving the pigments is shellac. This, when judiciously handled,
+gives such a firmness and hardness to the work that, if it be
+afterwards further secured with a moderately thick coat of seed-lac
+varnish, it will be almost as hard and durable as glass. The method of
+painting in varnish is, however, far more tedious than with an oil or
+water vehicle. It is, therefore, now very usual in japan work for the
+sake of dispatch, and in some cases in order to be able to use the
+pencil (brush) more freely, to apply the colours in an oil vehicle
+well diluted with turps. This oil (or japanners' gold size) may be
+made thus: Take 1 lb. of linseed oil and 4 oz. of gum anime, set the
+oil in a proper vessel and then add the gum anime powder, stirring it
+well until the whole is mixed with the oil. Let the mixture continue
+to boil until it appears of a thick consistence, then strain the whole
+through a coarse cloth and keep it for use. The pigments are also
+sometimes applied in a gum-water vehicle, but work so done, it has
+been urged, is not nearly so durable as that done in varnish or oil.
+However, those who formerly condemned the practice of japanning
+water-coloured decorations allowed that amateurs, who practised
+japanning for their amusement only and thus might not find it
+convenient to stock the necessary preparations for the other methods,
+might paint with water-colours. If the pigments are ground in an
+aqueous vehicle of strong isinglass size and honey instead of gum
+water the work would not be much inferior to that executed with other
+vehicles. Water-colours are sometimes applied on a <a name="Page_15" id="Page_15"></a>ground of gold
+after the style of other paintings, and sometimes so as to produce an
+embossed effect. The pigments in this style of painting are ground in
+a vehicle of isinglass size corrected with honey or sugar-candy. The
+body with which the embossed work is raised is best formed of strong
+gum water thickened to a proper consistency with armenian bole and
+whiting in equal parts, which, being laid on in the proper figures and
+repaired when dry, may be then painted with the intended pigments in
+the vehicle of isinglass size or in the general manner with shellac
+varnish. As to the comparative value of pigments ground in water and
+ground in oil, that is between oil-colours and water-colours in
+enamelling and japanning, there seems to have been a change of opinion
+for some time back, especially as regards the enamelling of slate. The
+marbling of slate (to be enamelled) in water-colours is a process
+which Mr. Dickson says well repays study. It is greatly developed in
+France and Germany. The process is a quick one and the pigments are
+said to stand well and to maintain their pristine hue, yet if many
+strikingly natural effects result from the use of this process, its
+use has not spread in Great Britain, being confined wholly and solely
+to the marbling of slate (except in the case of wall-paper which is
+water-marbled in a somewhat similar way).</p>
+
+<p>"In painting in oil-colour," says Mr. Dickson, "the craftsman trusts
+largely to his badger-hair brush to produce his effects of softness
+and marbly appearance; but in painting in water-colours, this
+softness, depth, and marbly appearance are produced mostly by the
+<a name="Page_16" id="Page_16"></a>colour placed upon the surface, and left entirely untouched by badger
+or any other brush. The colour drying quickly, does not allow much
+time for working, and when dry it cannot be touched without spoiling
+the whole of the work. The difference first of all between painting in
+water and in oil colour, is that a peculiar grain exists with painting
+in water that it is absolutely impossible to get in oil. The charm of
+a marble is, I think, its translucency as much as its beautiful
+colour; it is to that translucency (for in marble fixed we have no
+transparency) that it owes its softness of effect, which makes marble
+of such decorative value. This translucency can only be obtained by
+thin glazes of colour, by which means each succeeding glaze only
+partly covers the previous one, the character of the marble being thus
+produced. This is done sometimes in oil-colour in a marvellous manner,
+but even the best of oil-painting in marble cannot stand the
+comparison of water-colour, and it is only by comparison that any
+accurate judgment can be formed of any work. The production of marbles
+in water-colour has a depth, softness, and stoniness that defies
+oil-painting, and in some cases will defy detection unless by an
+expert of marbles. It may be that first of all the materials employed
+are more in keeping with the real material, as no oil enters into the
+composition of real marble, and by using the medium of water we thus
+start better, but the real secret is that by using water as a medium
+the colours take an entirely different effect. In painting in
+water-colour greys of any tint or strength can be obtained suitable
+for the production of a marble of greyish ground, by pure white,
+tinted as required, <a name="Page_17" id="Page_17"></a>being applied of different thicknesses of colour,
+all the modulations of tone being obtained by the difference in the
+thickness of the colour applied."</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Varnishing Japan Work.</span><br /></div>
+
+<p>Varnishing is the last and the finishing process in japanning. It
+consists in (1) applying, and (2) polishing the outer coats of
+varnish, which are equally necessary whether the plain japan ground be
+painted on or not. This is best done in a general way with common
+seed-lac varnish, except on those occasions where other methods have
+been shown to be more expedient, and the same reasons, which decide as
+to the propriety of using the different varnishes as regards the
+colours of the ground, hold equally with those of the painting, for
+where brightness is a material point and a tinge of yellow would
+injure it, seed-lac must give way to the whiter resins; but where
+hardness and tenacity are essential it must be adhered to, and where
+both are necessary a mixed varnish must be used. This mixed varnish
+should be made from the picked seed-lac as directed in the case of the
+white japan grounds. The common seed-lac varnish may be made thus:
+Take 1<sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub>&nbsp;lb. of seed-lac and wash it well in several waters, then
+dry it and powder it coarsely and put it with a gallon of methylated
+spirits into a Bohemian glass flask so that it be not more than
+two-thirds full. Shake the mixture well together and place the flask
+in a gentle heat till the seed-lac appears to be dissolved, the
+shaking being in the meantime repeated as often as may be convenient;
+then pour off all the clear and strain the remainder through a coarse
+cloth. The <a name="Page_18" id="Page_18"></a>varnish so prepared must be kept for use in a well-corked
+glass vessel. The whiter seed-lac varnishes are used in the same
+manner as the common, except as regards the substances used in
+polishing, which, where a pure white or the greater clearness or
+purity of other pigments is in question, should be itself white, while
+the browner sorts of polishing dust, as being cheaper and doing their
+business with greater dispatch, may be used in other cases. The pieces
+of work to be varnished should be placed near the fire or in a warm
+room and made perfectly dry, and then the varnish may be applied with
+a flat camel-hair brush made for the purpose. This must be done very
+rapidly, but with great care; the same place should not be passed
+twice over in laying on one coat if it can possibly be avoided. The
+best way of proceeding is to begin in the middle and pass the brush to
+one end, then with another stroke from the middle pass it to the other
+end, taking care that before each stroke the brush be well supplied
+with varnish; when one coat is dry another must be laid over it in
+like manner, and this must be continued five or six times. If on trial
+there be not a sufficient thickness of varnish to bear the polish
+without laying bare the painting or ground colour underneath more
+varnish must be applied. When a sufficient number of coats of varnish
+is so applied the work is fit to be polished, which must be done in
+common work by rubbing it with a piece of cloth or felt dipped in
+tripoli or finely ground pumice-stone. But towards the end of the
+rubbing a little oil of any kind must be used with the powder, and
+when the work appears sufficiently bright and glossy it should <a name="Page_19" id="Page_19"></a>be
+well rubbed with the oil alone to clean it from the powder and to give
+it a still greater lustre. In the case of white grounds, instead of
+the tripoli, fine putty or whiting should be used, but they should be
+washed over to prevent the danger of damaging the work from any sand
+or any other gritty matter that may happen to be mixed with them. It
+greatly improves all kinds of japan work to harden the varnish by
+means of heat, which, in every degree that can be applied short of
+what would burn or calcine the matter, tends to give it a firm and
+strong texture where metals form the body; therefore a very hot stove
+may be used, and the stoving may be continued for a considerable time,
+especially if the heat be gradually increased. But where wood or
+papier-m&acirc;ch&eacute; is in question, heat must be applied with great caution.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20"></a><a name="SECTION_III" id="SECTION_III"></a>SECTION III.</h2>
+<h3><a name="JAPANNING_OR_ENAMELLING_METALS" id="JAPANNING_OR_ENAMELLING_METALS"></a>JAPANNING OR ENAMELLING METALS.</h3>
+
+
+<p>In japanning metals, all good work of which should be stoved, they
+have to be first thoroughly cleaned, and then the japan ground applied
+with a badger or camel-hair brush or other means, very carefully and
+evenly. Metals usually require from three to five coats, and between
+each application must be dried in an oven heated from 250&deg; to 300&deg;
+F.&mdash;about 270&deg; being the average. It has already been seen that the
+best grounds for japanning are formed of shellac varnish, the
+necessary pigments for colouring being added thereto, being mixed with
+the shellac varnish after they have been ground into a high degree of
+smoothness and fineness in spirits of turpentine. In japanning it is
+best to have the oven at rather a lower temperature, increasing the
+heat after the work has been placed in the oven. When a sufficient
+number of coats have been laid on&mdash;which will usually be two only&mdash;the
+work must be polished by means of a piece of cloth or felt dipped in
+tripoli or finely powdered pumice-stone. For white grounds fine putty
+powder or whiting must be employed, a final coat being afterwards
+given, and the work stoved again. The last coat of all is one of
+varnish. And here, as a preliminary remark, it is <a name="Page_21" id="Page_21"></a>advisable that all
+enamels and japans should be purchased ready-made, as any attempt to
+make such is almost sure to end in disaster, while, owing to the fact
+that such are only required for small jobs; it would involve too much
+trouble and would not pay. It is for this reason that few japan
+recipes are given, as, although many are available, they do not always
+turn out as suitable for the purpose as could be desired, in addition
+to which the ready-made articles can be purchased at a very reasonable
+price and are much better prepared. The operator should procure his
+enamels a shade or two lighter than he desires to see in the finished
+article, allowing the chemical action due to the stoving to tone the
+colours down. Another necessity is to keep the enamel thoroughly well
+mixed by well stirring it every time it is used, as if this is not
+done the actual colouring matter is apt to sink to the bottom, the
+ultimate result being that streaky work is produced in consequence of
+this indifferent mixing of the enamelling materials.</p>
+
+<p>It is hardly necessary to state that all japanning or enamelling work
+must be done in a room or shop absolutely free from dust or dirt, and
+as far away as possible from any window or other opening leading to
+the open air, for two reasons&mdash;one being that the draught therefrom
+may cool the oven or stove, and the other that the air may convey
+particles of dust into the enamelling shop. In fact, it cannot be too
+much impressed upon the workmen that one of the primary secrets of
+successful enamelling is absolute cleanliness; consequently all
+precautions must be taken to ensure that the enamel is perfectly free
+from <a name="Page_22" id="Page_22"></a>grit and dust, and it must be so kept by frequent straining
+through fine muslin, flannel, or similar material. The work having
+been thoroughly cleaned and freed from all grease and other foreign
+matter, it must be suspended or held immediately over the pan
+elsewhere referred to, and the enamel poured on with an ordinary iron
+ladle, or covered by means of the brush. When it has been permitted to
+drain thoroughly, the work should be hung on the hooks on the rods in
+the oven as seen in the explanatory sketch, care being observed that
+no portion of the work is in such a position that any superfluous
+enamel cannot easily drain off&mdash;in other words, the work must lie or
+hang that it is always, as it were, on the slant. Always bear in mind
+when shutting the oven door to do so gently, as if a slam is indulged
+in all the gas jets will be blown out, and an explosion would probably
+result.</p>
+
+<p>Should the job in hand be a large one, it will be found as well to get
+a cheaper enamel for the first coat, but if the work is only a small
+job, it will not be necessary to have more than one enamel, of which a
+couple of coats at least will be required. When the first coat has
+thoroughly dried and hardened, the surface will have to be thoroughly
+rubbed till it is perfectly smooth with tripoli powder and fine
+pumice-stone, and afterwards hand-polished with rotten-stone and putty
+powder. And here it may be remarked that the finer the surface is got
+up with emery powder and other polishing agents the better will be the
+enamelling and ultimate finish. The rubbing down being finished,
+another coat of enamel must be applied and the work baked as before,
+care being always taken to keep the <a name="Page_23" id="Page_23"></a>enamel in a sufficiently fluid
+condition as to enable it to flow and run off the work freely. It can
+easily be thinned with a little paraffin. A third coat will frequently
+be advisable, as it improves the finish.</p>
+
+<p>In enamelling cycles, it is well to hang the front forks crown
+uppermost when they are undergoing the final baking, and it is
+advisable to bear in mind that wheels require an enamel that will
+stove at a lower temperature than is called for for other parts of the
+machine. Some japanners advocate the fluid being put on with camel-or
+badger-hair brushes, and for the best descriptions of work, final
+coats, and such like, I agree with them; but this is a detail which
+can be left to the operator's own fancy, the class of work, etc.; but
+I would remind him that applying enamel with a brush requires much
+care and a certain amount of "knack". It is something like successful
+lacquering in brasswork&mdash;it looks very simple, but is not. Each
+succeeding coat of japan gives a more uniform and glossy surface, and
+for this reason it may, in some cases, be necessary to repeat the
+operation no fewer than half a dozen times, the final coat being
+generally a layer of clear varnish only, to add to the lustre.</p>
+
+<p>Care must be taken for light-coloured japans or enamels not to have
+the temperature sufficiently high to scorch, or the surface will be
+discoloured, as they require a lower temperature for fixing than the
+dark japans, which, provided the article is not likely to be injured
+by the heat, are usually dried at a somewhat high temperature. The
+preceding instructions apply only to the best descriptions of work.</p>
+
+<p>When pouring enamel by means of the ladle over <a name="Page_24" id="Page_24"></a>pieces of work, do not
+agitate the liquid too much&mdash;at the same time taking care to keep it
+well mixed&mdash;so as to form air bubbles, as this will cause trouble, and
+in pouring over the work do it with an easy and gentle and not too
+hurried a motion. In japanning curved pieces, such as mud-guards,
+etc., in hanging up the work in the oven see that the liquid does not
+run to extremities and there form ugly blots or blotches of enamel.</p>
+
+<p>When white or other light tones are used for japanning they are mixed
+with japanners' varnish, and these require more careful heating in the
+oven or stove than darker tints or brown or black.</p>
+
+<div class="center"><a name="Fig_1" id="Fig_1"></a>
+<img src="images/032a.jpg" width="519" height="341" alt="Fig. 1.&mdash;Trough for Dipping Bedstead Frames and other
+Large Work." title="" /><br />
+<b><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 1.&mdash;Trough for Dipping Bedstead Frames and other
+Large Work.</b><br /><br />
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Enamelling Bedstead Frames and Similar Large Pieces.</span><br /></div>
+
+<p>At <a href="#Fig_1">Fig. 1</a> is shown a trough in which large pieces, such as bedsteads,
+bicycle frames, etc., are dipped or <a name="Page_25" id="Page_25"></a>immersed. For the first-mentioned
+class of work such high finish is not required as for bicycles, and
+consequently the enamel need not be applied with a brush, nor will it
+be necessary to rub down the work between each coat, but instead the
+pieces can be literally dipped in the tank of liquid, then allowed to
+drain on to the dripping-board&mdash;the superfluous enamel thus finding
+its way back into the trough or tank, the dripped articles being
+afterwards placed in the oven to harden. The trough must be of
+sufficient dimensions to allow the pieces of work to be completely
+immersed, and the dripping-board should be set at an angle of about
+45&deg;.</p>
+
+<p>Bedstead frames will never require more than two coats and the
+commoner class of goods only one. I would not advise the tradesman in
+a small way of business to go to the expense of a trough, etc., as it
+calls for much more room than is ordinarily available, but if he has
+the necessary plant for bicycle work he can, of course, do an
+occasional job of the other kind.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Japanning Tin, such as Tea-trays and Similar Goods.</span><br /></div>
+
+<p>For japanning sheet-iron articles, which are really tin goods, such as
+tea-trays and similar things, first scour them well with a piece of
+sandstone, which will effectually remove all the scales and make the
+surface quite smooth. Then give the metal a coating of vegetable
+black, which must be mixed with super black japan varnish, thinned
+with turps, and well strained. Only a small quantity of this varnish
+is necessary, as it will dry dead. The article must then be placed in
+the stove to harden at a temperature of 212&deg; F., there to <a name="Page_26" id="Page_26"></a>remain for
+from ten to twelve hours. When taken out of the stove, the articles
+must be allowed to get cold, after which they must be given a coat of
+super black japan, which, if necessary, must be thinned with turps, a
+stiff, short bristle brush being employed, and the varnish put on
+sparingly, so that it will not "run" when it gets warm. Two coats of
+this varnish on top of the vegetable black coating are usually
+sufficient, when done properly, but a third coating much improves the
+work, and from ten to twelve hours' hardening will be necessary
+between each coating. The small lumps which will be more or less
+certain to arise will require to be rubbed down between each
+application by a small and smooth piece of pumice-stone.</p>
+
+<p>If it is desired to add gold or bronze bands or any kind of floral or
+other kind of fancy decorations, these are painted on, after the
+ground japanning has been done, in japanners' gold size, and then the
+gold leaf is applied, or the bronze or other metal powder is dusted
+on, after which the objects so treated are again placed in the stove,
+where they will not require to be kept near so long as for ordinary
+japanning. After they have been removed, the gilt or bronzed portions
+must be treated with a protecting coat of white spirit varnish.
+Transfers can be applied in the same way.</p>
+
+<p>Tinned iron goods are the most largely japanned, and for these brown
+and black colours are principally employed. Both are obtained by the
+use of brown japan, the metal having a preliminary coating of black
+paint when black is required. Only one coating of brown japan is given
+to cheap goods, but for better articles two or more are applied. For
+these it is <a name="Page_27" id="Page_27"></a>possible that a final dressing with pumice-stone, then
+with rotten-stone, and rubbed with a piece of felt or cloth, or even
+the palm of the hand, may be necessary, but as a rule not.</p>
+
+<p>Large numbers of articles of the above description, such as tea-trays,
+tea-canisters, cash-boxes, coal-boxes, and similar goods, are japanned
+at Birmingham, and it is to such that the preceding instructions
+apply.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Enamelling Old Work.</span><br /></div>
+
+<p>In all cases of re-enamelling old work, it is absolutely necessary to
+remove all traces of the first enamelling, and if this has been well
+done in the first instance, it will prove no mean job. The best way to
+clean the work is to soak it in a strong "lye" of hot potash, when the
+softened enamel can be wiped or brushed off&mdash;this latter method being
+pursued in the more intricate and ungetatable portions of the work.
+New work, which has not been enamelled, can be treated in the same way
+for the removal of all grease, stains, finger-marks, etc., and too
+much attention cannot be paid to the initial preparation of the
+surface of the metal, to have it thoroughly even and smooth, as it
+adds so much to the ultimate finish and appearance of the work. Plenty
+of labour must be bestowed before the final coat, as any blemish will
+show through this finishing, and so mar what would otherwise be a
+highly satisfactory bit of work. In all kinds of bicycle work, whether
+new or old, the most satisfactory results are obtained by the
+application of at least two, and sometimes four or five, successive
+coats of good but thin enamel, as this will impart the necessary
+<a name="Page_28" id="Page_28"></a>perfect coat, combined with durability, a high finish, and a good
+colour. A good enamel should be sufficiently hard, so as not to be
+scratched on the merest touch or rubbing. It will, of course, be
+understood that no solder-work must be put into the stove, or the
+pieces will separate. Should any of this work be discovered, the
+pieces must be taken apart, and then brazed together before being
+enamelled, and put in the stove.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="SECTION_IV" id="SECTION_IV"></a><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29"></a>SECTION IV.</h2>
+
+<h3><a name="THE_ENAMELLING_AND_JAPANNING_STOVE" id="THE_ENAMELLING_AND_JAPANNING_STOVE"></a>THE ENAMELLING AND JAPANNING STOVE&mdash;PIGMENTS SUITABLE FOR JAPANNING
+WITH NATURAL LACQUER&mdash;MODERN METHODS OF JAPANNING WITH NATURAL
+JAPANESE LACQUER.</h3>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Appliances and Apparatus used in Japanning and Enamelling.</span><br /></div>
+
+<p>Besides the various enamels or japans and varnishes of various
+colourings and the stove, which will be found described and
+illustrated, together with the trough, in other pages, the worker will
+need some iron pots or cauldrons in which to boil the potash "lye" for
+the cleansing, more particularly, of old work, some iron ladles both
+for this work and for pouring the japan on the articles to be covered
+therewith, a few badger tools and brushes for small fine work, some
+hooks for the stove, a pair of pliers, a few bits of broom handle cut
+into short lengths and made taper, so as to fit into the tubes, etc.,
+of bicycles and other work, so as to keep the hands as free from the
+japan as possible, some emery powder, pumice-stone powder, tripoli,
+putty powder, whiting, and a piece of felt or cloth. If he is also
+doing any common work, a stumpy brush of bristles and a soft leather
+will also be requisite, together with a file or two. These will about
+comprise the whole of the articles required, not very expensive, all
+of which will really not be required by a beginner.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30"></a>Owing largely to the strides made in the cycle trade enamelling is
+stoved by means of gas, and of this a plentiful supply is necessary.
+Enamelling stoves may really be described as hot-air cupboards or
+ovens, and for a stove which will answer most requirements&mdash;say one of
+6 feet by 6 feet by 3<sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub>&nbsp;feet&mdash;six rows of atmospheric burners will
+be necessary to heat it, while it will be also advisable to fix pipes
+of 1<sup>1</sup>/<sub>4</sub>&nbsp;inch internal diameter from the gas meter to the stove. The
+atmospheric burners can be made from the requisite number of pieces of
+1<sup>1</sup>/<sub>4</sub>-inch gas tube 3<sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub>&nbsp;feet in length, one end of each being
+stopped, and having <sup>1</sup>/<sub>3</sub>-inch holes drilled therein at intervals of
+about 1 inch, the other end being left open for the insertion of
+ordinary <sup>3</sup>/<sub>8</sub>-inch brass gas taps. Another plan preferred by some
+japanners is to have three rows of burners the full length of the
+stove, which, under some circumstances, due to structural conditions,
+will be found more suitable. Anyway, whatever the position of the
+stove, allowance must be made for a temperature up to 400&deg; F. to be
+raised. In old-fashioned ovens the heat is applied by means of
+external flues, in which hot air or steam is circulated, but this
+system is generally unsatisfactory, the supply of heat having to be
+controlled by dampers or stop-cocks, and this has given place to the
+gas apparatus. Another simple form of oven, though not one which I
+shall recommend, is a species of sheet-iron box, which is encased by
+another and larger box of the same shape, so placed that from 2 to 3
+inches of interspace exists between the two boxes. To this interspace
+heat is applied, and a flue will have to be affixed to this apparatus
+to carry off the vapours which arise <a name="Page_31" id="Page_31"></a>from the enamel or japan. For
+amateur or intermittent jobbing work the oven illustrated in <a href="#Fig_2">Figs. 2</a>
+and <a href="#Fig_3">3</a> is about as good as any, though to guard against fire it would
+be as well to have a course of brickwork beneath the oven, while if
+this is not possible on account of want of height, a sheet or so of
+zinc or iron will help to mitigate the danger. It is also advisable,
+if the apartment is a low-pitched one, to have a sheet of iron or zinc
+suspended by four corner chains from the ceiling in order to protect
+this from firing through the heat from the enamelling oven. Of course,
+it will be understood that every portion of the stove must be put
+together with rivets, no soldered work being permissible.</p>
+
+<div class="center"><a name="Fig_2" id="Fig_2"></a>
+<img src="images/039a.jpg" width="218" height="412" alt="Fig. 2.&mdash;Door of Oven when Shut." title="" /><br />
+<b><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 2.&mdash;Door of Oven when Shut.</b><br /><br />
+</div>
+
+<p>To those who wish to construct their own stove, it will be found that
+the framework can be shaped out of 1-inch angle iron, the panels or
+walls being constructed of sheet-iron of about 18 gauge, the whole
+being riveted together. The front will be occupied in its entire space
+by a door, which will require to be hung on strong iron hinges, and
+the framework of this door should be constructed of 1 inch by <sup>1</sup>/<sub>4</sub>&nbsp;inch
+iron&mdash;a rather <a name="Page_32" id="Page_32"></a>stouter material will really be no disadvantage&mdash;to
+which the sheet-iron plates must be riveted. In the centre of the door
+must be cut a slit, say 1<sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub>&nbsp;inches by 9 inches, which will require
+to be covered with mica or talc behind which must be placed the
+thermometer, so as it can be seen during the process of stoving,
+without the necessity of opening the door, which, of course, more or
+less cools the oven. And, by the way, this thermometer must register
+higher than the highest temperature the oven is capable of reaching.
+Above is shown a sketch of the stove, interior and exterior, which
+will give an idea of what a japanner's stove is like.</p>
+
+<div class="center"><a name="Fig_3" id="Fig_3"></a>
+<img src="images/040a.jpg" width="469" height="395" alt="Fig. 3&mdash;Showing Stove when Open, and Back of Door." title="" />
+<br /><b><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 3&mdash;Showing Stove when Open, and Back of Door.</b><br /><br />
+</div>
+
+<p>Inside the stove it will be necessary to fix rows of <a name="Page_33" id="Page_33"></a>iron rods, some
+four inches from the top, from which to suspend the work, or
+angle-iron ledges can be used on which the rods or bars can be fixed,
+these arrangements being varied according to the particular
+description of work, individual fancy, or other circumstances. Large S
+hooks are about the handiest to use. A necessary adjunct of the stove
+is a pan, which can be made by any handy man or tinworker, which
+should be made to fit the bottom of the stove above the gas jets, it
+being arranged that it rests on two side ledges, or along some rods.
+One a couple of inches in depth will be found sufficient, and it will
+repay its cost in the saving of enamel, it being possible with its use
+to enamel a bicycle with as little as a gallon of enamel. Some workmen
+have the tray made with a couple of hinged side flaps, to turn over
+and cover up the pan when not in use, but this is a matter of fancy.
+Of course, they must always be covered up when not in use. For those
+who would prefer to use Bunsen burners, I show at <a href="#Fig_4">Fig. 4</a> a sketch of
+the best to employ, these having three rows of holes in each.</p>
+
+<div class="center"><a name="Fig_4" id="Fig_4"></a>
+<img src="images/041a.jpg" width="398" height="121" alt="Fig. 4.&mdash;Bunsen Burner." title="" /><br />
+<b><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 4.&mdash;Bunsen Burner.</b><br /><br />
+</div>
+
+<p>When brick ovens are employed they must be lined with sheet-iron, and
+in these very rare circumstances where gas is not available, the stove
+can be heated with coal or wood, which will, of course, involve a
+total alteration in the structural arrangements. I have not <a name="Page_34" id="Page_34"></a>given the
+details here, as I do not think the necessity will ever arise for
+their use, and for the same reason I have refrained from giving the
+particulars for heating by steam and electricity, or the other methods
+which have been adopted by various workers, as there is no question
+but that a gas stove or oven, as described, is about the best and
+handiest for jobbers or amateurs.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Modern Japanning and Enamelling Stoves.</span><br /></div>
+
+<p>The modern japanning and enamelling stove consists of a compartment
+capable of being heated to any desired temperature, say 100&deg; to 400&deg;
+F., and at the same time, except as regards ventilation, capable of
+being hermetically sealed so as to prevent access of dust, soot, and
+dirt of all kinds to mar the beauty and lustre of the object being
+enamelled or japanned. Such a stove may be heated&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>1. By a direct coal, coke, wood, peat, or gas fire (which surrounds
+the inner isolated chamber) (<a href="#Fig_5">Fig. 5</a>).</p>
+
+<p>2. By heated air.</p>
+
+<p>3. By steam or hot-water pipes, coils of which circulate round the
+interior of the stove or under the floor.</p>
+
+<p>Such ovens may be either permanent, that is, built into masonry, or
+portable.</p>
+
+<div class="center"><a name="Fig_5" id="Fig_5"></a>
+<img src="images/043a.jpg" width="516" height="459" alt="Fig. 5.&mdash;Greuzburg&#39;s Japanning Oven." title="" /><br />
+<b><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 5.&mdash;Greuzburg&#39;s Japanning Oven.</b><br /><br />
+</div>
+
+<p>1. <i>Stoves heated by direct fire.</i>&mdash;These were, of course, the form in
+which japanning ovens were constructed somewhat after the style of a
+drying kiln. <a href="#Fig_5">Fig. 5</a>, Greuzburg's japanning oven heated on the outside
+by hot gases from furnace. The oven is built into brickwork, and the
+hot gases circulate in the flues between the brickwork and the oven,
+and its erection and the arrangement of the heating <a name="Page_35" id="Page_35"></a>flues are a
+bricklayer's job. Coke containing much sulphur is objectionable as a
+fuel for enamel stoves Mr. Dickson emphasizes this very forcibly. He
+says: "In the days when stoves were heated by coke furnaces, and the
+heat distributed by the flues, the principal trouble was the escape of
+fumes of sulphur which caused dire disaster to all the enamels by
+entering into their composition and preventing their ever drying, not
+to speak of hardening. I have known enamels to be in the stoves with
+heat to 270&deg; for two and three days, and then be soft. The sulphur
+also caused the enamels to crack in a peculiar manner, much like a
+crocodile skin, and work so affected could never be made
+<a name="Page_36" id="Page_36"></a>satisfactory, for here again we come back to the first principle,
+that if the foundation be not good, the superstructure can never be
+permanent. The enamels, being permeated with sulphur and other
+products from the coke, could never be made satisfactory, and the only
+way was to clean it all off. The other principal troubles are the
+blowing of the work in air bubbles, which is caused mainly by the heat
+being too suddenly applied to the articles, but these are very small
+matters to the experienced craftsman."</p>
+
+<div class="center"><a name="Fig_6" id="Fig_6"></a>
+<img src="images/044a.jpg" width="164" height="417" alt="Fig. 6." title="" /><br />
+<b><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 6.</b><br /><br />
+</div>
+
+<p>2. <i>Stoves heated by hot-water pipes.</i>&mdash;Let us first of all consider
+the principle on which these are constructed. In Perkins' apparatus
+for conveying heat through buildings by the circulation of water in
+small-bore hot-water pipes an endless tube or pipe is employed, the
+surface of which is occasionally increased by spiral or other turnings
+where the heat is to be given off or acquired: the annexed figure may
+serve to illustrate this principle; it represents a strong
+wrought-iron tube of about one inch diameter completely filled with
+water; the spiral A passes through a furnace where it is highly
+heated, and the water is consequently put into motion in the direction
+of the arrows; the boiling of the water or formation of <a name="Page_37" id="Page_37"></a>steam is
+prevented by the pressure, whence the necessity of the extreme
+perfection and strength of the tube. B represents a second coil which
+is supposed to be in an apartment where the heat is to be given out. C
+is a screw stopper by which the water may be occasionally replenished.
+By this form of apparatus the water may be heated to 300&deg; or 400&deg;, or
+even higher, so as occasionally to singe paper. A larger tube and
+lower temperature are, however, generally preferable.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p>
+
+<div class="center"><a name="Fig_7" id="Fig_7"></a>
+<img src="images/045a.jpg" width="546" height="445" alt="Fig. 7.&mdash;Enamelling Stove&mdash;in a Tin-plate Printing
+Factory&mdash;heated by Perkins&#39; Hot-water Pipes." title="" /><br />
+<b><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 7.&mdash;Enamelling Stove&mdash;in a Tin-plate Printing
+Factory&mdash;heated by Perkins&#39; Hot-water Pipes.</b><br /><br />
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38"></a>The principle of Perkins' invention has, during the last eighty
+years, i.e. since the date of the invention in 1831, been very
+extensively applied not only for the heating of buildings of every
+description, but it has also been utilized for numerous industrial
+purposes which require an atmosphere heated up to 600&deg; F. The
+principle lends itself specially to the design of apparatus for
+raising and maintaining heat evenly and uniformly, and also very
+economically for such purposes as enamelling, japanning, and
+lacquering.</p>
+
+<p>The distinctive feature of this apparatus when applied to moderate
+temperatures lies in the adoption of a closed system of piping of
+small bore, a certain portion of which is wound into a coil and placed
+in a furnace situated in any convenient position outside the drying
+chamber or hot closet. The circulation is thus hermetically sealed and
+so proportioned that while a much higher temperature can be attained
+than is possible with a system of pipes open to the atmosphere, yet a
+certain and perfectly safe maximum cannot by any possibility be
+exceeded.</p>
+
+<p>The efficiency of the apparatus increases within certain limits in
+proportion to the pressure employed, which fact explains the
+exceedingly economical results obtained, while the fact that, owing to
+the high temperature used, a small-bore pipe can be made more
+effective than the larger pipes used in any open system, accounts for
+the lower first cost of the Perkins' apparatus.</p>
+
+<div class="center"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39"></a><a name="Fig_8" id="Fig_8"></a>
+<img src="images/047a.jpg" width="563" height="291" alt="Fig. 8.&mdash;Japanning and Enamelling Oven Heated by Single
+Hot-water Pipes sealed at both ends with Furnace in Rear." title="" /><br />
+<b><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 8.&mdash;Japanning and Enamelling Oven Heated by Single
+Hot-water Pipes sealed at both ends with Furnace in Rear.</b><br /><br />
+</div>
+
+<div class="center"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40"></a><a name="Fig_9" id="Fig_9"></a>
+<img src="images/048a.jpg" width="551" height="409" alt="Fig. 9&mdash;Japanning and Enamelling Oven For Bedstead,
+Ironmongery, Cash-box, and Lamp Factories." title="" /><br />
+<b><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 9&mdash;Japanning and Enamelling Oven For Bedstead,
+Ironmongery, Cash-box, and Lamp Factories.</b><br /><br />
+</div>
+
+<div class="center"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41"></a><a name="Fig_10" id="Fig_10"></a>
+<img src="images/049a.jpg" width="552" height="405" alt="Fig. 10.&mdash;Japanning and Enamelling Stove for parts of
+Sewing Machines." title="" /><br />
+<b><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 10.&mdash;Japanning and Enamelling Stove for parts of
+Sewing Machines.</b><br /><br />
+</div>
+
+<p>It will be seen from the various illustrations that the articles to be
+treated are absolutely isolated from actual contact with the fire or
+the fire gases and other impurities which must be an objection to all
+methods of heating by means which are not of a purely mechanical
+nature. This principle not only recommends itself as scientifically
+correct and suited to the purpose in view, but is also a very simple
+and practical one. It affords the means of applying the heat at the
+point where it is required to do the work without unduly heating
+parts where heat is unnecessary; it secures absolute uniformity,
+perfect continuity, and the highest possible fuel economy.</p>
+
+<div class="center"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42"></a><a name="Fig_11" id="Fig_11"></a>
+<img src="images/050a.jpg" width="556" height="392" alt="Fig. 11.&mdash;Japanning and Enamelling Stove for
+Iron-Bedsteads and Household Ironmongery with Truck on Rails." title="" /><br />
+<b><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 11.&mdash;Japanning and Enamelling Stove for
+Iron-Bedsteads and Household Ironmongery with Truck on Rails.</b><br /><br />
+</div>
+
+<div class="center"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43"></a><a name="Fig_12" id="Fig_12"></a>
+<img src="images/051a.jpg" width="556" height="406" alt="Fig. 12&mdash;Permanent Japanning and Enamelling Stove for
+Kitchen Utensils built in Masonry." title="" /><br />
+<b><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 12&mdash;Permanent Japanning and Enamelling Stove for
+Kitchen Utensils built in Masonry.</b><br /><br />
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44"></a>The nature of the work to be executed in the different classes and
+various sizes of stoves vary so greatly and indefinitely that only by
+careful attention to the special requirements of each case, on the
+part of the designers and constructors, is it possible to obtain the
+most satisfactory results.</p>
+
+<p>The arrangement of fixing the pipes round the lower walls of the room
+in this form of stove is somewhat cumbersome, but in a roomy stove
+this slight drawback is not felt quite so much. However, it seems a
+good principle to leave every inch of internal space available for the
+goods to be enamelled or japanned, This principle is carried out to
+the letter in the other form of stoves described and illustrated in
+the sequel.</p>
+
+<p>The figure shows a section through single chamber japanning and
+enamelling oven heated by hot-water pipes (steel) closed at both ends
+and partially filled with water which always remains sealed up
+therein, and never evaporates until the pipes require to be refilled.</p>
+
+<p>This stove may be heated (1) by hot-water pipes (iron), (2) by
+super-heated water, (3) by steam, but only to 80&deg; C. The different
+compartments may be heated to uniform or to different temperatures
+with hot water; the stoke-hole is at the side and thus quite separated
+from the stove proper.</p>
+
+<p>The ovens must be on the ground floor, so that the super-heated steam
+from the basement may be available.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45"></a>The great drawback to the use of gas for heating japanning and
+enamelling stoves is the great cost of coal gas.</p>
+
+<div class="center"><a name="Fig_13" id="Fig_13"></a>
+<img src="images/053a.jpg" width="479" height="463" alt="Fig. 13.&mdash;Portable Gas Heated Japanning and Enamelling
+Stove fitted with Shelves, Thermometer, etc." title="" /><br />
+<b><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 13.&mdash;Portable Gas Heated Japanning and Enamelling
+Stove fitted with Shelves, Thermometer, etc.</b><br /><br />
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Pigments Suitable for Japanning with Natural Lacquer.</span><br /></div>
+
+<p><i>White Pigments.</i>&mdash;Barium sulphate and bismuth oxychloride. These two
+are used for the white lacquer or as a body for coloured lacquers.
+When the lacquer is to be dried at a high temperature barium sulphate
+is preferable, but when it is dried at an ordinary temperature bismuth
+oxychloride is better. Since the lacquer is originally of a brown
+colour the white lacquer is not <a name="Page_46" id="Page_46"></a>pure white, but rather greyish or
+yellowish. Many white pigments, such as zinc oxide, zinc sulphide,
+calcium carbonate, barium carbonate, calcium sulphate, lead white,
+etc., turn brown to black, and no white lacquer can be obtained with
+them.</p>
+
+<p><i>Red Pigments.</i>&mdash;Vermilion and red oxide of iron. These two are used
+for the red lacquer, but vermilion should be stoved at a low
+temperature.</p>
+
+<p><i>Blue Pigment.</i>&mdash;Prussian blue.</p>
+
+<p><i>Yellow Pigments.</i>&mdash;Cadmium sulphide, lead chromate and orpiment.</p>
+
+<p><i>Green Pigment.</i>&mdash;Chromium oxide (? Guignet's green).</p>
+
+<p><i>Black Pigment.</i>&mdash;Lamp black. This is one of the pigments for black
+lacquer, but does not give a brilliant colour, therefore it is better
+to prepare the black lacquer by adding iron powder or some compound of
+iron to the lacquer.</p>
+
+<p>Various mixed colours are obtained by mixing some of the
+above-mentioned pigments.</p>
+
+<p>Examples of application are as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>(1) <i>Golden Yellow.</i>&mdash;Finished lacquer, 10 parts; gamboge, 1 to 3;
+solvent, 5. If utensils are lacquered with this thin lacquer and dried
+for about 2 hours in an air-oven at a temperature of 120&deg; C. a
+beautiful hard coating of golden colour is obtained.</p>
+
+<p>(2) <i>Black.</i>&mdash;Black lacquer, 10 parts; solvent 2 to 4. Utensils
+lacquered with this lacquer are dried for about an hour at 130&deg; to
+140&deg; C.</p>
+
+<p>(3) <i>Red.</i>&mdash;Vermilion, 10 parts; finished lacquer, 4; solvent, 2. This
+lacquer is dried for about an hour at 130&deg; to 140&deg; C.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47"></a>(4) <i>Khaki or Dirty Yellow.</i>&mdash;Barium sulphate, 100 parts; chromic
+oxide, 3; finished lacquer, 20 to 25; solvent, 15. This lacquer is
+dried for about half an hour at 160&deg; C.</p>
+
+<p>(5) <i>Green.</i>&mdash;Barium sulphate, 100 parts; chromic oxide, 20 to 50;
+finished lacquer, 40 to 50; solvent, 20. This is dried for about 10
+minutes at 160&deg; C.</p>
+
+<p>(6) <i>Yellow.</i>&mdash;Barium sulphate, 100 parts; lead chromate, 40; finished
+lacquer, 40; solvent, 20. This is dried for about 15 minutes at 150&deg;
+C.</p>
+
+<p>Almost all pigments other than the above-mentioned are blackened by
+contact with lacquer or suspend its drying quality.</p>
+
+<p>Several organic lakes can be used for coloured lacquers, that is to
+say, Indian yellow, thioflavin, and auramine lake for a yellow
+lacquer; fuchsine, rhodamine, and chloranisidin lake for a red;
+diamond sky blue, and patent nileblue lake for a blue; acid green,
+diamond green, brilliant milling green, vert-methyl lake, etc., for a
+green; methyl violet, acid violet, and magenta lake for a violet;
+phloxine lake for a pink. These lakes, however, are decomposed more or
+less on heating and fail to give proper colours when dried at a high
+temperature.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Modern Methods of Japanning and Enamelling with Natural Japanese
+Lacquer.</span><br /></div>
+
+<p>Urushiol, the principal constituent of Japanese lacquer, does not
+according to the Japanese investigator, Kisaburo Miryama, dry by
+itself at ordinary temperatures, but can be dried with ease at a
+temperature above 96&deg; C. In the same way, lacquer <a name="Page_48" id="Page_48"></a>that has been
+heated to a temperature above 70&deg; C. and has entirely lost its drying
+quality can be easily dried at a high temperature. In this method of
+japanning the higher the temperature is, the more rapidly does the
+drying take place; for instance, a thin layer of urushiol, or lacquer,
+hardens within 5 hours at 100&deg; C., within 30 minutes at 150&deg; C., and
+within 10 minutes at 180&deg; C. Japanning at a high temperature with
+natural lacquer does not require the presence of the enzymic
+nitrogenous matter in the lacquer, and gives a transparent coating
+which is quite hard and resistant to chemical and mechanical action;
+in these respects it is distinguished from that dried at an ordinary
+temperature. During the drying, oxygen is absorbed from the atmosphere
+and at the same time a partial decomposition takes place.</p>
+
+<p>This method of japanning has its application in lacquering metal work,
+glass, porcelain, earthenware, canvas, papier-m&acirc;ch&eacute;, etc.; because the
+drying is affected in a short time, and the coating thus obtained is
+much more durable than the same obtained by the ordinary method.</p>
+
+<p>For practical purposes it is better to <i>thin the lacquer with
+turpentine oil or other solvent</i> in order to facilitate the lacquering
+and lessen the drying time of the lacquer. Since the lacquer-coating
+turns brown at a high temperature, lacquers of a light colour should
+be dried at 120&deg; to 150&deg; C.; and even those of a deep colour must not
+be heated above 180&deg; C. <i>Most pigments are blackened by lacquer;
+therefore the varieties of coloured lacquers are very limited.</i></p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> A question has been raised concerning the safety of
+Perkins' apparatus, not merely as relates to the danger of explosion,
+but also respecting that of high temperature; and it has been asserted
+that the water may be so highly heated in the tubes as to endanger the
+charring and even inflammation of paper, wood, and other substances in
+their contact or vicinity: such no doubt might be the case in an
+apparatus expressly intended for such purposes, but in the apparatus
+as constructed by Perkins, with adequate dampers and safety valves,
+and used with common care, no such result can ensue. Paper bound round
+an iron tube is not affected till the temperature exceeds 400&deg;; from
+420&deg; to 444&deg; it becomes brown or slightly singed; sulphur does not
+inflame below 540&deg;.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="SECTION_V" id="SECTION_V"></a><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49"></a>SECTION V.</h2>
+
+<h3><a name="COLOURS_FOR_POLISHED_BRASS_MISCELLANEOUS" id="COLOURS_FOR_POLISHED_BRASS_MISCELLANEOUS"></a>COLOURS FOR POLISHED BRASS&mdash;MISCELLANEOUS.</h3>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Painting on Zinc or on Galvanized Iron.</span><br /></div>
+
+<p>Painting on zinc or galvanized iron is facilitated by employing a
+mordant of 1 quart of chloride of copper, 1 of nitrate of copper, and
+1 of sal-ammoniac, dissolved in 64 parts of water. To thin mixture add
+1 part of commercial hydrochloric acid. This is brushed over the zinc,
+and dries a dull-grey colour in from twelve to twenty-four hours,
+paint adhering perfectly to the surface thus formed.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Bronzing Compositions.</span><br /></div>
+
+<p>The following are the formul&aelig; for a variety of baths, designed to
+impart to polished brass various colours. The brass objects are put
+into boiling solutions composed of different salts, and the intensity
+of the shade obtained is dependent upon duration of the immersion.
+With a solution composed of sulphate of copper, 120 grains;
+hydrochlorate of ammonia, 30 grains; and water 1 quart, greenish
+shades are obtained. With the following solution, all the shades of
+brown, from orange-brown to cinnamon, are obtained: chlorate of
+potash, 150 grains; sulphate of copper, 150 grains; and water, 1
+quart. The following solution gives the brass first a rosy tint, and
+then colours it violet and <a name="Page_50" id="Page_50"></a>blue: sulphate of copper, 435 grains;
+hyposulphite of soda, 300 grains; cream of tartar, 150 grains; and
+water, 1 pint. Upon adding to this solution ammoniacal sulphate of
+iron, 300 grains, and hyposulphite of soda, 300 grains, there are
+obtained, according to the duration of the immersion, yellowish,
+orange, rosy, and then bluish shades. Upon polarizing the ebullition,
+the blue tint gives way to yellow, and finally to a pretty grey.
+Silver, under the same circumstances, becomes very beautifully
+coloured. After a long ebullition in the following solution, we obtain
+a yellow-brown shade, and then a remarkable fire-red: chlorate of
+potash, 75 grains; carbonate of nickel, 30 grains; salt of nickel, 75
+grains; and water, 10 oz. The following solution gives a beautiful
+dark-brown colour: chlorate of potash, 75 grains; salt of nickel, 150
+grains; and water, 10 oz. The following gives in the first place, a
+red, which passes to blue, then to pale lilac, and finally to white:
+orpiment, 75 grains; crystallized sal-sod&aelig;, 150 grains; and water, 10
+oz. The following gives a yellow-brown: salt of nickel, 75 grains;
+sulphate of copper, 75 grains; chlorate of potash, 75 grains; and
+water, 10 oz. On mixing the following solutions, sulphur separates,
+and the brass becomes covered with iridescent crystallizations: (1)
+cream of tartar, 75 grains; sulphate of copper, 75 grains; and water,
+10 oz. (2) Hyposulphite of soda, 225 grains; and water, 5 oz. Upon
+leaving the brass objects immersed in the following mixture, contained
+in corked vessels, they at length acquire a very beautiful blue
+colour: hepar of sulphur, 75 grains; ammonia, 75 grains; and water, 4
+oz.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51"></a>A Golden Varnish for Metal.</span></div>
+
+<p>Take 2 oz. of gum sandarach, 1 oz. of litharge of gold, and 4 oz. of
+clarified linseed oil, which boil in a glazed earthenware vessel till
+the contents appear of a transparent yellow colour. This will make a
+good varnish for the final coating for enamelled and japanned goods.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Carriage Varnish.</span><br /></div>
+
+<p>The following is used for the wheels, springs, and carriage parts of
+coaches and other vehicles: Take of pale African copal 8 lb.; fuse,
+and add 2<sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub>&nbsp;gallons of clarified linseed oil; boil until very
+stringy, then add <sup>1</sup>/<sub>4</sub>&nbsp;lb. each of dry copperas and litharge; boil, and
+thin with 5<sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub>&nbsp;gallons of turpentine; then mix while hot with the
+following varnish, and immediately strain the mixture into a covered
+vessel. Gum anime, 8 lb.; clarified linseed oil, 2<sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub>&nbsp;gallons; <sup>1</sup>/<sub>4</sub>&nbsp;lb. each of dried sugar of lead and litharge; boil, and thin with
+5<sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub>&nbsp;gallons of turpentine; and mix it while hot as above directed.
+Of course these quantities will only do for big jobs, and as it has to
+do with metal, it has been thought advisable to include the formula in
+this handbook.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Metal Polishes.</span><br /></div>
+
+<p>The active constituent of all metal polishes is generally chalk,
+rouge, or tripoli, because these produce a polish on metallic
+surfaces. The following recipes give good polishing soaps:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>(1) 20 to 25 lb. liquid soap is intimately mixed <a name="Page_52" id="Page_52"></a>with about 80 lb. of
+Swedish chalk and <sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub>&nbsp;lb. Pompeiian red. (2) 25 lb. liquid coco-nut
+oil soap is mixed with 2 lb. tripoli, and 1 lb. each alum, tartaric
+acid, and white lead. (3) 25 lb. liquid coco-nut oil soap is mixed
+with 5 lb. rouge and 1 lb. ammonium carbonate. (4) 24 lb. coco-nut oil
+are saponified with 12 lb. soda lye of 38&deg; to 40&deg; B., after which 3
+lb. rouge, 3 lb. water, and 32 grammes ammonia are mixed in. Good
+recipes for polishing pomades are as follows: (1) 5 lb. lard and
+yellow vaseline is melted and mixed with 1 lb. fine rouge. (2) 2 lb.
+palm oil and 2 lb. vaseline are melted together, and then 1 lb. rouge,
+400 grains tripoli, and 20 grains oxalic acid are stirred in. (3) 4
+lb. fatty petroleum and 1 lb. lard are heated and mixed with 1 lb. of
+rouge. The polishing pomades are generally perfumed with essence of
+myrbane. Polishing powders are prepared as follows: (1) 4 lb.
+magnesium carbonate, 4 lb. chalk, and 7 lb. rouge are intimately
+mixed. (2) 4 lb. magnesium carbonate are mixed with 150 grains fine
+rouge. An excellent and harmless polishing water is prepared by
+shaking together 250 grains floated chalk, 1 lb. alcohol, and 20
+grains ammonia. Gilded articles are most readily cleansed with a
+solution of 5 grains borax in 100 parts water, by means of a sponge or
+soft brush. The articles are then washed in pure water, and dried with
+a soft linen rag. Silverware is cleansed by rubbing with a solution of
+sodium hyposulphite.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Black Paints.</span><br /></div>
+
+<p>Carbon, in one form or another, is the base of all black pigments. By
+far the most common of these, as <a name="Page_53" id="Page_53"></a>used in structural plants, is
+graphite. Other black pigments are lamp-black (including carbon black)
+and bone-black, the former being produced in many grades, varying in
+price from twopence to half a crown per pound. Bone-black, which is
+refuse from the sugar-house black, varies in the percentage of carbon
+contained, which is usually about 10 or 12 per cent, the remainder
+being the mineral matter originally present in the bone, and
+containing 3 or 4 per cent of carbonate, whilst most of the remainder
+is phosphate of lime. Lamp-black is an absolutely impalpable powder,
+which having a small amount of greasy matter in it, greatly retards
+the drying of the oil with which it may be mixed. For this reason it
+is not used by itself, but is added in small quantity to other paints,
+which it affects by changing their colour, and probably their
+durability. For example, it is a common practice to add it to red
+lead, in order to tone down its brilliant colour, and also to correct
+the tendency it has to turn white, due to the conversion of the red
+oxide of lead into the carbonate.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Black Stain for Iron.</span><br /></div>
+
+<p>For colouring iron and steel a dead black of superior appearance and
+permanency, the following is a good formula: 1 part bismuth chloride,
+2 parts mercury bi-chloride, 1 part copper chloride, 6 parts
+hydrochloric acid, 5 parts alcohol, and 50 parts lamp-black, these
+being all well mixed. To use this preparation successfully&mdash;the
+article to be blacked or bronzed being first made clean and free from
+grease&mdash;it is applied with a swab or brush, or, better still, the
+object may be dipped <a name="Page_54" id="Page_54"></a>into it; the liquid is allowed to dry on the
+metal, and the latter is then placed in boiling water, the temperature
+being maintained for half an hour. If, after this, the colour is not
+so dark as is desired, the operation has simply to be repeated, and
+the result will be found satisfactory. After obtaining the desired
+degree of colour, the latter is fixed, as well as much improved
+generally, by placing for a few minutes in a bath of boiling oil, or
+by coating the surface with oil, and heating the object till the oil
+is completely driven off The intense black obtained by this method is
+admirable.</p>
+
+<p>Another black coating for ironwork, which is really a lacquer, is
+obtained by melting ozokerite, which becomes a brown resinous mass,
+with a melting-point at 140&deg; F. The melted mass is then further heated
+to 212&deg; F., the boiling-point of water. The objects to be lacquered
+are scoured clean by rubbing with dry sand, and are dipped in the
+melted mass. They are then allowed to drip, and the ozokerite is
+ignited by the objects being held over a fire. After the ozokerite has
+burned away, the flame is extinguished, and the iron acquires a firmly
+adhering black coating, which resists atmospheric influences, as well
+as acids and alkalies. If the black iron vessels are to contain
+alkaline liquids, the above operation is repeated.</p>
+
+<p>A good cheap stock black paint or varnish for ironwork is prepared, as
+follows: Clear (solid) wood tar, 10 lb.; lamp black or mineral black,
+1<sup>1</sup>/<sub>4</sub>&nbsp;b.; oil of turpentine, 5<sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub>&nbsp;quarts. The tar is first heated in
+a large iron pot to boiling-point, or nearly so, and the heat is
+continued for about 4 hours. The pot is then removed from the fire out
+of doors, and while still warm, <a name="Page_55" id="Page_55"></a>and not hot, the turpentine, mixed
+with the black, is stirred in. If the varnish is too thick to dry
+quickly, add more turpentine. Benzine can be used instead of
+turpentine, but the results are not so good. Asphaltum is preferable
+to the cheap tar.</p>
+
+<p>To make another good black varnish for ironwork, take 8 lb. of
+asphaltum and fuse it in an iron kettle, then add 2 gallons of boiled
+linseed oil, 1 lb. of litharge, <sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub>&nbsp;lb. of sulphate of zinc (add these
+slowly, or the mixture will boil over), and boil them for about 3
+hours. Then, add 1<sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub>&nbsp;lb. of dark gum amber, and boil for 2 hours
+longer, or until the mass will become quite thick when cool. After
+this it should be thinned with turpentine to the proper consistency.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Varnishes for Ironwork.</span><br /></div>
+
+<p>A reliable authority gives the following as a very good recipe for
+ironwork varnish. Take 2 lb. of tar oil, <sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub>&nbsp;lb. of pounded resin, and
+<sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub>&nbsp;lb. of asphaltum, and dissolve together, and then mix while hot in
+an iron kettle, taking all care to prevent the flames getting into
+contact with the mixture. When cold the varnish is ready for
+application to outdoor ironwork. Another recipe is to take 3 lb. of
+powdered resin, place it in a tin or iron vessel, and add thereto
+2<sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub>&nbsp;pints of spirits of turpentine, which well shake, and then let
+it stand for a day or two, giving it an occasional shake. Then add to
+it 5 quarts of boiled oil, shake it thoroughly well all together,
+afterwards letting it stand in a warm room till it gets clear. The
+clear portion can then be drawn off and used, or reduced with spirits
+of turpentine till <a name="Page_56" id="Page_56"></a>of the requisite consistency. For making a varnish
+suitable for iron patterns, take sufficient oil of turpentine for the
+purpose of the job in hand, and drop into it, drop by drop, some
+strong commercial oil of vitriol, when the acid will cause a dark
+syrupy precipitate in the oil of turpentine, and continue to add the
+drops of vitriol till the precipitate ceases to act, after which pour
+off the liquid and wash the syrupy mass with water, when it will be
+ready for use. When the iron pattern is to be varnished, it must be
+heated to a gentle degree, the syrupy product applied, and then the
+article allowed to dry.</p>
+
+<p>A fine black varnish suitable for the covering of broken places in
+sewing machines and similar articles, where the japanned surface has
+become injured or scratched, can be made by taking some fine
+lamp-black or ivory-black, and thoroughly mixing it with copal
+varnish. The black must be in a very fine powder, and to mix the more
+readily it should be made into a pasty mass with turpentine. For the
+ordinary repairing shop this will be found very handy.</p>
+
+<p>The following is a simple way for tarring sheet-iron pipes to prevent
+rusting. The sections as made should be coated with coal tar, and then
+filled with light wood shavings, and the latter set alight. The effect
+of this treatment will be to render the iron practically proof against
+rust for an indefinite period, rendering future painting unnecessary.
+It is important, of course, that the iron should not be made too hot,
+or kept hot for too long a time, lest the tar should be burnt off.</p>
+
+<p>The following is a varnish for iron and steel given by a recognized
+authority: 5 parts of camphor and <a name="Page_57" id="Page_57"></a>elemi, 15 parts of sandarach, and
+10 parts of clear grains of mastic, are dissolved in the requisite
+quantity of alcohol, and applied cold.</p>
+
+<p>Another good black enamel for small articles can be made by mixing 1
+lb. of asphaltum with 1 lb. of resin in 4 lb. of tar oil, well heating
+the whole in an iron vessel before applying.</p>
+
+<p>A good brown japan can be prepared by separately heating equal
+quantities of amber and asphaltum, and adding to each one-half the
+quantity by weight of boiled linseed oil. Both compounds are then
+mixed together. Copal resin may be substituted for the amber, but it
+is not so durable. Oil varnish made from amber is highly elastic. If
+it is used to protect tin-plate printing, when the plates after
+stoving have been subsequently rolled so as to distort the letters,
+the varnish has in no way suffered, and its surface remains unbroken.</p>
+
+<p>A bronzing composition for coating iron consists of 120 parts mercury,
+10 parts tin, 20 parts green vitriol, 120 parts water, and 15 parts
+hydrochloric acid of 1.2 specific gravity.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="SECTION_VI" id="SECTION_VI"></a><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58"></a>SECTION VI.</h2>
+
+<h3><a name="PROCESSES_FOR_TIN_PLATING" id="PROCESSES_FOR_TIN_PLATING"></a>PROCESSES FOR TIN-PLATING.</h3>
+
+
+<p>In these days of making everything look what it is not, perhaps the
+best and cheapest substitute for silver as a white coating for table
+ware, culinary vessels, and the many articles requiring such a
+coating, is pure tin. It does not compare favourably with silver in
+point of hardness or wearing qualities, but it costs very much less
+than silver, is readily applied, and can be easily kept clean and
+bright. In tinning hollow ware on the inside the metal article is
+first thoroughly cleansed by pickling it in dilute muriatic or
+sulphuric acid and then scouring it with fine sand. It is then heated
+over a fire to about the melting-point of tin, sprinkled with powdered
+resin, and partly filled with melted pure grain tin covered with resin
+to prevent its oxidation. The vessel is then quickly turned and rolled
+about in every direction, so as to bring every part of the surface to
+be covered in contact with the molten metal. The greater part of the
+tin is then thrown out and the surface rubbed over with a brush of tow
+to equalize the coating; and if not satisfactory the operation must be
+repeated. The vessels usually tinned in this manner are of copper and
+brass, but with a little care in cleaning and manipulating, iron can
+<a name="Page_59" id="Page_59"></a>also be satisfactorily tinned by this means. The vessels to be tinned
+must always be sufficiently hot to keep the metal contained in them
+thoroughly fused. This is covering by contact with melted tin.</p>
+
+<p>The amalgam process is not so much used as it was formerly. It
+consists in applying to the clean and dry metallic surface a film of a
+pasty amalgam of tin with mercury, and then exposing the surface to
+heat, which volatilizes the latter, leaving the tin adhering to the
+metal.</p>
+
+<p>The immersion process is the best adapted to coating articles of brass
+or copper. When immersed in a hot solution of tin properly prepared
+the metal is precipitated upon their surfaces. One of the best
+solutions for this purpose is the following:&mdash;</p>
+
+
+<div class='blockquot'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Solution for coating articles with tin">
+<tr><td width="200" align='left'>Ammonia alum</td><td align='left'>17<sup>1</sup>/<sub>4</sub>&nbsp;oz.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Boiling</td><td align='left'>12<sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub>&nbsp;lb.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Protochloride of tin</td><td align='left'>1 oz.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>The articles to be tinned must be first thoroughly cleansed, and then
+kept in the hot solution until properly whitened. A better result will
+be obtained by using the following bath, and placing the pieces in
+contact with a strip of clean zinc, also immersed:&mdash;</p>
+
+
+<div class='blockquot'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Bath for articles to be tinned">
+<tr><td width="200" align='left'>Bitartrate of potassium</td><td align='left'>14</td><td>oz.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Soft water</td><td align='left'>24</td><td>&nbsp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Protochloride of tin</td><td align='left'>1</td><td>&nbsp;"</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>It should be boiled for a few minutes before using.</p>
+
+<p>The following is one of the best solutions for plating with tin by the
+battery process:&mdash;</p>
+
+
+<div class='blockquot'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Solution for plating tin">
+<tr><td width="200" align='left'>Potassium pyrophosphate</td><td align='left'>12</td><td align='left'>oz.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Protochloride of tin</td><td align='left'>4<sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></td><td>&nbsp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Water</td><td align='left'>20</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;"</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60"></a>The anode or feeding-plate used in this bath consists of pure Banca
+tin. This plate is joined to the positive (copper or carbon) pole of
+the battery, while the work is suspended from a wire connected with
+the negative (zinc) pole. A moderately strong battery is required, and
+the work is finished by scratch-brushing.</p>
+
+<p>In Weigler's process a bath is prepared by passing washed chlorine gas
+into a concentrated aqueous solution of stannous chloride to
+saturation, and expelling excess of gas by warming the solution, which
+is then diluted with about ten volumes of water, and filtered, if
+necessary. The articles to be plated are pickled in dilute sulphuric
+acid, and polished with fine sand and a scratch-brush, rinsed in
+water, loosely wound round with zinc wire or tape, and immersed in the
+bath for ten or fifteen minutes at ordinary temperatures. The coating
+is finished with the scratch-brush and whiting. By this process
+cast-or wrought-iron, steel, copper, brass, and lead can be tinned
+without a separate battery. The only disadvantage of the process is
+that the bath soon becomes clogged up with zinc chloride, and the tin
+salt must be frequently removed. In Hern's process a bath composed
+of&mdash;</p>
+
+
+<div class='blockquot'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Bath for Hern's process">
+<tr><td width="200" align='left'>Tartaric acid</td><td align='right'>2</td><td>oz.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Water</td><td align='right'>100</td><td>&nbsp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Soda</td><td align='right'>3</td><td>&nbsp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Protochloride of tin</td><td align='right'>3</td><td>&nbsp;"</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>is employed instead of the preceding. It requires a somewhat longer
+exposure to properly tin articles in this than in Weigler's bath.
+Either of these baths may be used with a separate battery.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="SECTION_VII" id="SECTION_VII"></a><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61"></a>SECTION VII.</h2>
+
+<h3><a name="GALVANIZING" id="GALVANIZING"></a>GALVANIZING.</h3>
+
+
+<p>Galvanizing, as a protecting surface for large articles, such as enter
+into the construction of bridges, roofs, and shipwork, has not quite
+reached the point of appreciation that possibly the near future may
+award to it. Certain fallacies existed for a long time as to the
+relative merits of the dry or molten and the wet or electrolytical
+methods of galvanizing. The latter was found to be costly and slow,
+and the results obtained were erratic and not satisfactory, and soon
+gave place to the dry or molten bath process, as in practice at the
+present day; but the difficulty of management in connexion with large
+baths of molten material, and the deterioration of the bath, and other
+mechanical causes, limit the process to articles of comparatively
+small size and weight. The electro deposition of zinc has been subject
+to many patents, and the efforts to introduce it have been lamentable
+in both a mechanical and financial sense. Most authorities recommend a
+current density of 18 or 20 amp&egrave;res per square foot of cathode
+surface, and aqueous solutions of zinc sulphate, acetate or chloride,
+ammonia, chloride or tartrate, as being the most suitable for
+deposition. Electrolytes made by adding caustic potash or soda to <a name="Page_62" id="Page_62"></a>a
+suitable zinc salt have been found to be unworkable in practice on
+account of the formation of an insoluble zinc oxide on the surface of
+the anode and the resultant increased electrical resistance; the
+electrolytes are also constantly getting out of order, as more metal
+is taken out of the solution than could possibly be dissolved from the
+anodes by the chemicals set free on account of this insoluble scale or
+furring up of the anodes, which sometimes reaches one-eighth of an
+inch in thickness. To all intents and purposes the deposits obtained
+from acid solutions under favourable circumstances are fairly adhesive
+when great care has been exercised to thoroughly scale and clean the
+surface to be coated, which is found to be the principal difficulty in
+the application of any electro-chemical process for copper, lead, or
+tin, as well as for zinc, and that renders even the application of
+paint or other brush compounds to futile unless honestly complied
+with. Unfortunately these acid zinc coatings are of a transitory
+nature, Their durability being incomparable with hot galvanizing, as
+the deposit is porous and retains some of the acid salts, which cause
+a wasting of the zinc, and consequently the rusting of the iron or
+steel. Castings coated with acid zinc rust comparatively quickly, even
+when the porosity has been reduced by oxidation, aggravated no doubt
+by some of the corroding agents&mdash;sal-ammoniac, for instance&mdash;being
+forced into the pores of the metal. Other matters of serious moment in
+the electro-zincing process, apart from the slowness of the operation,
+were the uncertain nature, thickness, and extent of the coating on
+articles of irregular shape, and the formation of loose, dark-coloured
+patches on the work; <a name="Page_63" id="Page_63"></a>the unhealthy and non-metallic look and want of
+brilliancy and the lustre prevented engineers and the trade from
+accepting the process or its results, except for the commoner articles
+of use. To obviate any tendency of the paint to peel off from the zinc
+surface, as it generally manifests a disposition to do, it is
+recommended to coat all the zinc surfaces, previous to painting them,
+with the following compound: 1 part chloride of copper, 1 part nitrate
+of copper, 1 part sal-ammoniac, dissolved in 61 parts of water, and
+then add 1 part commercial hydrochloric acid. When the zinc is brushed
+over with this mixture it oxidizes the surface, turns black, and dries
+in from twelve to twenty-four hours, and may then be painted over
+without any danger of peeling. Another and more quickly applied
+coating consists of, bi-chloride of platinum, 1 part dissolved in 10
+parts of distilled water, and applied either by a brush or sponge. It
+oxidizes at once, turns black, and resists the weak acids, rain, and
+the elements generally.</p>
+
+<p>Zinc surfaces, after a brief exposure to the air, become coated with a
+thin film of oxide&mdash;insoluble in water&mdash;which adheres tenaciously,
+forming a protective coating to the underlying zinc. So long as the
+zinc surface remains intact, the underlying metal is protected from
+corrosive action, but a mechanical or other injury to the zinc coating
+that exposes the metal beneath, in the presence of moisture causes a
+very rapid corrosion to be started, the galvanic action being changed
+from the zinc positive to zinc negative, and the iron, as the positive
+element in the circuit, is corroded instead of the zinc. When
+galvanized iron is <a name="Page_64" id="Page_64"></a>immersed in a corrosive liquid, the zinc is
+attacked in preference to the iron, provided both the exposed parts of
+the iron and the protected parts are immersed in the liquid. The zinc
+has not the same protective quality when the liquid is sprinkled over
+the surface and remains in isolated drops. Sea air, being charged with
+saline matters, is very destructive to galvanized surfaces, forming a
+soluble chloride by its action. As zinc is one of the metals most
+readily attacked by acids, ordinary galvanized iron is not suitable
+for positions where it is to be much exposed to an atmosphere charged
+with acids sent into the air by some manufactories, or to the
+sulphuric acid fumes found in the products of combustion of rolling
+mills, iron, glass, and gas works, etc., and yet we see engineers of
+note covering-in important buildings with corrugated and other sheets
+of iron, and using galvanized iron tie rods, angles, and other
+constructive shapes in blind confidence of the protective power of the
+zinc coating; also in supreme indifference as to the future
+consequences and catastrophes that arise from their unexpected
+failure. The comparative inertia of lead to the chemical action of
+many acids has led to the contention that it should form as good, if
+not a better, protection of iron than zinc, but in practice it is
+found to be deficient as a protective coating against corrosion. A
+piece of lead-coated iron placed in water will show decided evidences
+of corrosion in twenty-four hours. This is to be attributed to the
+porous nature of the coating, whether it is applied by the hot or wet
+(acid) process. The lead does not bond to the plate as well as either
+of the other metals&mdash;zinc, tin, copper, or any alloys of them. <a name="Page_65" id="Page_65"></a>The
+following table gives the increase in weight of different articles due
+to hot galvanizing:&mdash;</p>
+
+
+<div class="blocktab">
+<table border="1" cellpadding="10" cellspacing="0" rules="groups" summary="Increased weight due to hot galvanizing">
+<thead>
+<tr>
+ <td align='left'></td><td align='left'>Description of Article</td>
+ <td align='left'>Weight of Zinc per Square foot</td>
+ <td align='center'>Percentage<br />of Increase of<br /> Weight</td>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td><td align='left'>Thin sheet-iron</td>
+  <td align='center'>1.196 oz.</td>
+  <td align='center'>18.2</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td><td align='left'><sup>5</sup>/<sub>16</sub>-in. plates</td>
+  <td align='center'>1.76&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td>
+  <td align='center'>&nbsp;&nbsp;2.0</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td><td align='left'>4-in. cut nails</td>
+  <td align='center'>2.19&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td>
+  <td align='center'>&nbsp;&nbsp;6.72</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'></td><td align='left'><sup>7</sup>/<sub>8</sub>-in. die bolt and nut</td>
+  <td align='center'>approximately 1.206 oz.</td>
+  <td align='center'>&nbsp;&nbsp;1.00</td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Tin is often added to the hot bath for the purpose of obtaining a
+smoother surface and larger facets, but it is found to shorten the
+life of the protective coating very considerably.</p>
+
+<p>A portion of a zinc coating applied by the hot process was found to be
+very brittle, breaking when attempts were made to bend it; the average
+thickness of the coating was .015 inch. An analysis gave the following
+result: tin, 2.20; iron, 3.78; arsenic, a trace; zinc (by difference),
+94.02. A small quantity of iron is dissolved from all the articles
+placed in the molten zinc bath, and a dross is formed amounting in
+many cases to 25 per cent of the whole amount of zinc used. The
+zinc-iron alloy is very brittle, and contains by analysis 6 per cent
+of iron, and is used to cast small art ornaments from. A hot
+galvanizing plant, having a bath capacity of 10 feet by 4 feet by
+4<sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub>&nbsp;feet outside dimensions, and about 1 inch in thickness, will
+hold 28 tons of zinc. With equal amounts of zinc per unit of area, the
+zinc coating put on by the cold process is more resistant to the
+corroding action of a saturated solution of copper sulphate than is
+the <a name="Page_66" id="Page_66"></a>case with steel coated by the ordinary hot galvanizing process;
+or, to put it in another form, articles coated by the cold process
+should have an equally long life under the same conditions of exposure
+that hot galvanized articles are exposed to, and with less zinc than
+would be necessary in the ordinary hot process. The hardness of a zinc
+surface is a matter of some importance. With this object in view
+aluminium has been added from a separate crucible to the molten zinc
+at the moment of dipping the article to be zinced, so as to form a
+compound surface of zinco-aluminium, and to reduce the ashes formed
+from the protective coverings of sal-ammoniac, fat, glycerine, etc.
+The addition of the aluminium also reduces the thickness of the
+coating applied. Cold and hot galvanized plates appear to stand
+abrasion equally well. Both pickling and hot galvanizing reduce the
+strength, distort and render brittle iron and steel wires of small
+sections.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">The End.</span><br /></div>
+
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67"></a><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>INDEX.</h2>
+
+
+<p>
+<b>A</b><br />
+<br />
+Amalgam process in tin-plating, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>.<br />
+Appliances and apparatus used in japanning and enamelling, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<b>B</b><br />
+<br />
+Battery process in tin-plating, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>.<br />
+Black grounds, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>.<br />
+&mdash;&mdash; japan grounds on metal, common, <a href='#Page_12'>12.</a><br />
+&mdash;&mdash; paints, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>.<br />
+&mdash;&mdash; pigment, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>.<br />
+&mdash;&mdash; stain for iron, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>.<br />
+&mdash;&mdash; varnish for sewing machines, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>.<br />
+Blue japan grounds, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>.<br />
+&mdash;&mdash; pigment, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>.<br />
+Brass, polished, colours for, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>-<a href='#Page_57'>57</a>.<br />
+Brick ovens, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>.<br />
+Bright pale yellow grounds, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>.<br />
+Bronzing composition, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>.<br />
+Brown japan, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>.<br />
+Bunsen burner, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<b>C</b><br />
+<br />
+Carriage varnish, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>.<br />
+Colours for polished brass, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>.<br />
+Common black japan grounds on metal, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>.<br />
+Composition for bronzing, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>.<br />
+Cream enamel, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<b>E</b><br />
+<br />
+Enamelling and japanning stoves, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>-<a href='#Page_46'>46</a>.<br />
+&mdash;&mdash; &mdash;&mdash; &mdash;&mdash; &mdash;&mdash; heated by direct fire, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>.<br />
+&mdash;&mdash; &mdash;&mdash; &mdash;&mdash; &mdash;&mdash; heated by hot-water pipes, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>.<br />
+&mdash;&mdash; or japanning metals, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>-<a href='#Page_28'>28</a>.<br />
+&mdash;&mdash; old work, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<b>F</b><br />
+<br />
+First stage in the japanning of wood, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>.<br />
+&mdash;&mdash; &mdash;&mdash; in the japanning of leather, without a priming, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<b>G</b><br />
+<br />
+Galvanized iron, painting on, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>.<br />
+Galvanizing, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>-<a href='#Page_66'>66</a>.<br />
+Golden varnish for metal, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>.<br />
+Green japan grounds, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>.<br />
+&mdash;&mdash; pigment, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>.<br />
+Ground, red japan, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>.<br />
+&mdash;&mdash; scarlet japan, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>.<br />
+&mdash;&mdash; tortoise-shell, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>.<br />
+Grounds, black, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>.<br />
+&mdash;&mdash; black japan, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>.<br />
+&mdash;&mdash; blue japan, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>.<br />
+&mdash;&mdash; bright pale yellow, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>.<br />
+&mdash;&mdash; green japan, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>.<br />
+&mdash;&mdash; japan, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>-<a href='#Page_19'>19</a>.<br />
+&mdash;&mdash; orange-coloured, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>.<br />
+&mdash;&mdash; purple, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>.<br />
+&mdash;&mdash; white japan, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<b>H</b><br />
+<br />
+Heating stoves by direct fire, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>.<br />
+&mdash;&mdash; &mdash;&mdash; by hot-water pipes, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>.<br />
+Hern's process in tin-plating, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<b>I</b><br />
+<br />
+Immersion process in tin-plating, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>.<br />
+Iron, black stain for, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>.<br /><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68"></a>
+&mdash;&mdash; galvanized, painting on, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>.<br />
+Ironwork, varnishes for, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<b>J</b><br />
+<br />
+Japan, brown, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>.<br />
+&mdash;&mdash; ground, red, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>.<br />
+&mdash;&mdash; &mdash;&mdash; scarlet, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>.<br />
+&mdash;&mdash; grounds, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>-<a href='#Page_19'>19</a>.<br />
+&mdash;&mdash; &mdash;&mdash; black, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>.<br />
+&mdash;&mdash; &mdash;&mdash; blue, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>.<br />
+&mdash;&mdash; &mdash;&mdash; green, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>.<br />
+&mdash;&mdash; &mdash;&mdash; white, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>.<br />
+&mdash;&mdash; work, painting, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>.<br />
+&mdash;&mdash; &mdash;&mdash; varnishing, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>.<br />
+Japanese gold size, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>.<br />
+Japanese lacquer, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>.<br />
+Japanning and enamelling stoves, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>.<br />
+&mdash;&mdash; &mdash;&mdash; &mdash;&mdash; &mdash;&mdash; heated by direct fire, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>.<br />
+&mdash;&mdash; &mdash;&mdash; &mdash;&mdash; &mdash;&mdash; heated by hot-water pipes, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>.<br />
+&mdash;&mdash; leather without a priming, first stage, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>.<br />
+&mdash;&mdash; or enamelling metals, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>-<a href='#Page_28'>28</a>.<br />
+&mdash;&mdash; tin, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>.<br />
+&mdash;&mdash; wood, first stage, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<b>L</b><br />
+<br />
+Lacquer, Japanese, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<b>M</b><br />
+<br />
+Metal, golden varnish for, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>.<br />
+&mdash;&mdash; polishes, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>.<br />
+Metals, japanning or enamelling, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>-<a href='#Page_28'>28</a>.<br />
+Modern japanning and enamelling stoves, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<b>N</b><br />
+<br />
+Natural Japanese lacquer, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>.<br />
+&mdash;&mdash; lacquer, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<b>O</b><br />
+<br />
+Oil vehicle, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>.<br />
+Old work, enamelling, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>.<br />
+Orange-coloured grounds, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<b>P</b><br />
+<br />
+Painting japan work, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>.<br />
+&mdash;&mdash; on galvanized iron, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>.<br />
+&mdash;&mdash; &mdash;&mdash; zinc, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>.<br />
+Paints, black, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>.<br />
+Pigments suitable for japanning with natural lacquer, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>.<br />
+&mdash;&mdash; black, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>.<br />
+&mdash;&mdash; blue, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>.<br />
+&mdash;&mdash; green, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>.<br />
+&mdash;&mdash; red, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>.<br />
+&mdash;&mdash; white, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>.<br />
+&mdash;&mdash; yellow, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>.<br />
+Polished brass, colours for, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>.<br />
+Preparing the surface to be japanned, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>.<br />
+Priming the surface to be japanned, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>.<br />
+Processes for tin-plating, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>.<br />
+Purple grounds, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<b>R</b><br />
+<br />
+Red japan ground, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>.<br />
+&mdash;&mdash; pigments, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<b>S</b><br />
+<br />
+Scarlet japan ground, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>.<br />
+Sewing machines, black varnish for, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>.<br />
+Shellac varnish, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>.<br />
+Stoves, modern japanning and enamelling, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>.<br />
+Stove, the enamelling and japanning, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>-<a href='#Page_45'>45</a>.<br />
+Surface to be japanned, priming or preparing the, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<b>T</b><br />
+<br />
+Tin, japanning, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>.<br />
+Tin-plating, colours for, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>.<br />
+Tin-plating, amalgam process, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>.<br /><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69"></a>
+&mdash;&mdash; battery process, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>.<br />
+&mdash;&mdash; Hern's process, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>.<br />
+&mdash;&mdash; immersion process, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>.<br />
+&mdash;&mdash; Weigler's process, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>.<br />
+Tortoise-shell ground, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<b>U</b><br />
+<br />
+Urushiol, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<b>V</b><br />
+<br />
+Varnish, carriage, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>,<br />
+&mdash;&mdash; for iron and steel, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>.<br />
+&mdash;&mdash; for metal, golden, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>.<br />
+&mdash;&mdash; shellac, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>.<br />
+Varnishes for iron work, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>.<br />
+Varnishing japan work, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<b>W</b><br />
+<br />
+Weigler's process of tin-plating, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>.<br />
+White japan grounds, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>.<br />
+&mdash;&mdash; pigments, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>.<br />
+Wood, first stage in the japanning of, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<b>Y</b><br />
+<br />
+Yellow grounds, bright pale, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>.<br />
+&mdash;&mdash; pigments, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<b>Z</b><br />
+<br />
+Zinc, painting on, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br /></p>
+
+<h4>ABERDEEN: THE UNIVERSITY PRESS</h4>
+
+<hr style='width: 65%;' />
+
+
+<h1><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70"></a>ENAMELS AND ENAMELLING</h1>
+<hr style='width: 15%;' />
+<h2><b>An Introduction to the Preparation and Application of all kinds of
+Enamels for Technical and Artistic Purposes.</b></h2>
+
+<div class="center">TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN OF<br /><br /></div>
+<div class="center"><big>PAUL RANDAU.</big></div>
+
+<h3><i>Second and Enlarged Edition.</i></h3>
+
+<h3><i>Demy 8vo.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;194 Pages.</i></h3>
+<hr style='width: 15%;' />
+<h3>Price 10s. 6d. net. (Post Free, 10s. 10d. Home; 11s. Abroad.)</h3>
+<hr style='width: 15%;' />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 12em;"><b>Published by</b></span>
+<h2>SCOTT, GREENWOOD &amp; SON,</h2>
+<div class="center">8 BROADWAY, LUDGATE, LONDON, E.C.</div>
+
+<hr style='width: 65%;' />
+
+<h1><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71"></a>THE MANUFACTURE OF VARNISHES.</h1>
+<hr style='width: 15%;' />
+<h5>BY</h5>
+
+<h2><i>J.G. McINTOSH.</i></h2>
+
+<h3>Based on and including the work of</h3>
+<h3>ACH. LIVACHE.</h3>
+<hr style='width: 15%;' />
+<h3>IN THREE VOLUMES.</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot">VOLUME I.&mdash;OIL CRUSHING, REFINING AND BOILING, THE MANUFACTURE OF
+LINOLEUM, PRINTING AND LITHOGRAPHIC INKS, AND INDIA-RUBBER
+SUBSTITUTES. Demy 8vo. 150 pp. 29 Illustrations. Price 75. 6d. net.
+(Post free, 7s. 10d. home; 8s. abroad.)<br /><br />
+
+VOLUME II.&mdash;VARNISH MATERIALS AND OIL-VARNISH MAKING. Demy 8vo. 70
+Illustrations. 220 pp. Price 10s. 6d. net. (Post free, 10s. 10d. home;
+11s. 3d. abroad.)<br /><br />
+
+VOLUME III.&mdash;SPIRIT VARNISHES AND SPIRIT VARNISH MATERIALS. Demy 8vo.
+64 Illustrations. 464 pp. Price 12s. 6d. net. (Post free, 13s. home;
+13s. 6d. abroad.)
+</div>
+<hr style='width: 15%;' />
+<h4>Send for Catalogue giving List of Contents of above works from</h4>
+
+<h2>SCOTT, GREENWOOD &amp; SON,</h2>
+<div class="center">8 BROADWAY, LUDGATE, LONDON, E.C.</div>
+
+<hr style='width: 65%;' />
+
+<h4><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72"></a>For the latest recipes, etc., on Japanning you should read</h4>
+
+<h1>Oil &amp; Colour Trades Journal.</h1>
+
+<span style="margin-left: 12em;"><b>The Weekly Organ of the</b></span>
+
+<h2>OIL, PAINT, VARNISH,<br />SOAP, GLUE, DRYSALTERY,<br />AND ALLIED TRADES.</h2>
+<hr style='width: 15%;' />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><b>The Annual Subscription</b></span><br /><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4em;">FOR 52 WEEKLY ISSUES, POST FREE, AND A COPY OF THE ANNUAL</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4em;">DIARY AND TRADE DIRECTORY, CARRIAGE PAID, IS</span><br /><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><b>10s.</b></span><br /><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4em;">TO ANY PART OF THE WORLD.</span><br />
+<hr style='width: 15%;' />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><b>A Specimen Copy</b></span><br /><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4em;">WILL BE SENT TO ANYONE SENDING THEIR NAME AND ADDRESS TO</span><br /><br />
+
+<h2>THE OIL AND COLOUR TRADES JOURNAL OFFICES,</h2><br />
+<div class="center">8 BROADWAY, LUDGATE, LONDON, E.C.</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Handbook on Japanning: 2nd Edition
+by William N. Brown
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+Project Gutenberg's Handbook on Japanning: 2nd Edition, by William N. Brown
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Handbook on Japanning: 2nd Edition
+       For Ironware, Tinware, Wood, Etc. With Sections on Tinplating and
+       Galvanizing
+
+
+Author: William N. Brown
+
+Release Date: April 14, 2005 [EBook #15622]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HANDBOOK ON JAPANNING: 2ND EDITION ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Jason Isbell, Karen Dalrymple and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+A HANDBOOK ON JAPANNING
+
+_FOR IRONWARE, TINWARE, WOOD, ETC._
+
+WITH SECTIONS ON TIN-PLATING AND GALVANIZING
+
+
+BY
+
+WILLIAM N. BROWN
+
+
+_SECOND EDITION: REVISED AND ENLARGED WITH THIRTEEN ILLUSTRATIONS_
+
+
+  LONDON
+  SCOTT, GREENWOOD AND SON
+  "THE OIL AND COLOUR TRADES JOURNAL" OFFICES
+  8 BROADWAY, LUDGATE, E.C.
+
+  1913
+
+  D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY
+  8 WARREN ST., NEW YORK
+
+_First Edition under title "A Handbook on Japanning and Enamelling",
+1901_
+
+_Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged, under title "A Handbook on
+Japanning"--January, 1913_
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+                                                                  PAGE
+  SECTION I.
+
+  INTRODUCTION.                                                    1-5
+
+    Priming or Preparing the Surface to be Japanned                  4
+
+    The First Stage in the Japanning of Wood or of Leather
+      without a Priming                                              5
+
+
+  SECTION II.
+
+  JAPAN GROUNDS.                                                  6-19
+
+    White Japan Grounds                                              7
+
+    Blue Japan Grounds                                               9
+
+    Scarlet Japan Ground                                             9
+
+    Red Japan Ground                                                10
+
+    Bright Pale Yellow Grounds                                      10
+
+    Green Japan Grounds                                             10
+
+    Orange-Coloured Grounds                                         11
+
+    Purple Grounds                                                  11
+
+    Black Grounds                                                   11
+
+    Common Black Japan Grounds on Metal                             12
+
+    Tortoise-shell Ground                                           12
+
+    Painting Japan Work                                             13
+
+    Varnishing Japan Work                                           17
+
+
+  SECTION III.
+
+  JAPANNING OR ENAMELLING METALS.                                20-28
+
+    Enamelling Bedstead Frames and similar large pieces             24
+
+    Japanning Tin, such as Tea-trays and similar goods              25
+
+    Enamelling Old Work                                             27
+
+
+  SECTION IV.
+
+  THE ENAMELLING AND JAPANNING STOVE--PIGMENTS SUITABLE FOR
+  JAPANNING WITH NATURAL LACQUER--MODERN METHODS OF JAPANNING
+  WITH NATURAL JAPANESE LACQUER.                                 29-48
+
+    Appliances and Apparatus used in Japanning and Enamelling       29
+
+    Modern Japanning and Enamelling Stoves                          34
+
+      Stoves heated by direct fire                                  34
+
+      Stoves heated by hot-water pipes                              36
+
+    Pigments suitable for Japanning with Natural Lacquer            45
+
+      White Pigments                                                45
+
+      Red Pigments                                                  46
+
+      Blue Pigment                                                  46
+
+      Yellow Pigments                                               46
+
+      Green Pigment                                                 46
+
+      Black Pigment                                                 46
+
+    Methods of Application                                          46
+
+    Modern Methods of Japanning and Enamelling with
+      Natural Japanese Lacquer                                      47
+
+
+  SECTION V.
+
+  COLOURS FOR POLISHED BRASS.--MISCELLANEOUS.                    49-57
+
+    Painting on Zinc or on Galvanized Iron                          49
+
+    Bronzing Compositions                                           49
+
+    Golden Varnish for Metal                                        51
+
+    Carriage Varnish                                                51
+
+    Metal Polishes                                                  51
+
+    Black Paints                                                    52
+
+    Black Stain for Iron                                            53
+
+    Varnishes for Ironwork                                          55
+
+
+  SECTION VI.
+
+  PROCESSES FOR TIN-PLATING.                                     58-60
+
+    Amalgam Process                                                 59
+
+    Immersion Process                                               59
+
+    Battery Process                                                 59
+
+    Weigler's Process                                               60
+
+    Hern's Process                                                  60
+
+
+  SECTION VII.
+
+  GALVANIZING.                                                   61-66
+
+
+  INDEX.                                                         67-69
+
+
+
+
+HANDBOOK ON JAPANNING.
+
+
+
+
+SECTION I.
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+
+Japanning, as it is generally understood in Great Britain, is the art
+of covering paper, wood, or metal with a more or less thick coating of
+brilliant varnish, and hardening the same by baking it in an oven at a
+suitable heat. It originated in Japan--hence its name--where the
+natives use a natural varnish or lacquer which flows from a certain
+kind of tree, and which on its issuing from the plant is of a creamy
+tint, but becomes black on exposure to the air. It is mainly with the
+application of "japan" to metallic surfaces that we are concerned in
+these pages. Japanning may be said to occupy a position midway between
+painting and porcelain enamelling, and a japanned surface differs from
+an ordinary painted surface in being far more brilliant, smoother,
+harder, and more durable, and also in retaining its gloss permanently,
+in not being easily injured by hot water or by being placed near a
+fire; while real good japanning is characterised by great lustre and
+adhesiveness to the metal to which it has been applied, and its
+non-liability to chipping--a fault which, as a rule, stamps the common
+article.
+
+If the English process of japanning be more simple and produces a
+less durable, a less costly coating than the Japanese method, yet its
+practice is not so injurious to the health. Indeed, it is a moot point
+in how far the Japanese themselves now utilize their classical
+process, as the coat of natural japan on all the articles exhibited at
+the recent Vienna exhibition as being coated with the natural lacquer,
+when recovered after six months' immersion in sea water through the
+sinking of the ship, was destroyed, although it stood perfectly well
+on the articles of some age. In the English method, where necessary, a
+priming or undercoat is employed. It is customary to fill up any
+uneven surface, any minute holes or pores, and to render the surface
+to be japanned uniformly smooth. But such an undercoat or priming is
+not always applied, the coloured varnish or a proper japan ground
+being applied directly on the surface to be japanned. Formerly this
+surface usually, if not always, received a priming coat, and it does
+so still where the surface is coarse, uneven, rough, and porous. But
+where the surface is impervious and smooth, as in the case of metallic
+surfaces, a priming coat is not applied. It is also unnecessary to
+apply such a coat in the case of smooth, compact, grained wood. The
+reason for using this coating is that it effects a considerable saving
+in the quantity of varnish used, and because the matter of which the
+priming is composed renders the surface of the body to be varnished
+uniform, and fills up all pores, cracks, and other inequalities, and
+by its use it is easy after rubbing and water polishing to produce an
+even surface on which to apply the varnish. The previous application
+of this undercoat was thus an advantage in the case of coarse, uneven
+surfaces that it formed a first and sort of obligatory initial stage
+in the process of japanning. This initial coating is still applied in
+many instances. But it has its drawbacks, and these drawbacks are
+incidental to the nature of the priming coat which consists of size
+and whiting. The coats or layers of japan proper, that is of varnish
+and pigment applied over such a priming coat, will be continually
+liable to crack or peel off with any violent shock, and will not last
+nearly so long as articles japanned with the same materials and
+altogether in the same way but without the undercoat. This defect may
+be readily perceived by comparing goods that have been in use for some
+time in the japanning of which an undercoat has been applied with
+similar goods in which no such previous coat has been given. Provided
+a good japan varnish and appropriate pigments have been used and the
+japanning well executed, the coats of japan applied without a priming
+never peel or crack or are in any way damaged except by violence or
+shock, or that caused by continual ordinary wear and tear caused by
+such constant rubbing as will wear away the surface of the japan. But
+japan coats applied with a priming coat crack and fly off in flakes at
+the slightest concussion, at any knock or fall, more especially at the
+edges. Those Birmingham manufacturers who were the first to practise
+japanning only on metals on which there was no need for a priming coat
+did not of course adopt such a practice. Moreover, they found it
+equally unnecessary in the case of papier-mache and some other goods.
+Hence Birmingham japanned goods wear better than those goods which
+receive a priming previous to japanning.
+
+
+PRIMING or PREPARING THE SURFACE TO BE JAPANNED.
+
+The usual priming, where one is applied, consists of Paris white
+(levigated whiting) made into a thin paste with size. The size should
+be of a consistency between the common double size and glue, and mixed
+with as much Paris white as will give it a good body so that it will
+hide the surface on which it is applied. But in particular work
+glovers' or parchment size instead of common size is used, and this is
+still further improved by the addition of one-third of isinglass, and
+if the coat be not applied too thickly it will be much less liable to
+peel or crack. The surface should be previously prepared for this
+priming by being well cleaned and by being brushed over with hot size
+diluted with two-thirds of water, that is provided the size be of the
+usual strength. The priming is then evenly and uniformly applied with
+a brush and left to dry. On a fairly even surface two coats of priming
+properly applied should suffice. But if it will not take a proper
+water polish, owing to the uneven surface not being effectually filled
+up, one or more additional coats must be applied. Previous to the last
+coat being applied, the surface should be smoothed by fine glass
+paper. When the last coat of priming is dry the water polish is
+applied. This is done by passing a fine wet rag or moistened sponge
+over the surface until the whole appears uniformly smooth and even.
+The priming is now complete and the surface ready to take the japan
+ground or the coloured varnish.
+
+
+THE FIRST STAGE IN THE JAPANNING OF WOOD OR OF LEATHER WITHOUT A
+PRIMING.
+
+[The leather is first securely stretched on a frame or board.] In this
+case, that is when no priming coat is previously applied, the best way
+to prepare the surface is to apply three coats of coarse varnish (1
+lb. seed-lac, 1 lb rosin to 1 gallon methylated spirit, dissolve and
+filter). This varnish, like all others formed from methylated spirits,
+must be applied in a warm place and all dampness should be avoided,
+for either cold or moisture chills it and thus prevents it taking
+proper hold of the surface on which it is applied. When the work is
+prepared thus, or by the priming made of size and whiting already
+described, the japan proper is itself applied.
+
+
+
+
+SECTION II.
+
+JAPAN GROUNDS.
+
+
+The japan ground properly so called consists of the varnish and
+pigment where the whole surface is to be of one simple colour, or of
+the varnish, with or without pigment, on which some painting or other
+form of decoration is afterwards to be applied. It is best to form
+this ground with the desired pigment incorporated with shellac
+varnish, except in the case of a white japan ground which requires
+special treatment, or when great brilliancy is a desideratum and other
+methods must be adopted. The shellac varnish for the japan ground is
+best prepared as follows: shellac 1-1/4 lb., methylated spirits 1
+gallon. Dissolve in a well-corked vessel in a warm place and with
+frequent shaking. After two or three days the shellac will be
+dissolved. It is then recommended to filter the solution through a
+flannel bag, and when all that will come through freely has done so
+the varnish should be run into a proper sized vessel and kept
+carefully corked for use. The bag may then be squeezed with the hand
+till the remainder of the fluid varnish is forced through it, and this
+if fairly clear may be used for rough purposes or added to the next
+batch. Pigments of any nature whatever may be used with the shellac
+varnish to give the desired tint to the ground, and where necessary
+they may be mixed together to form any compound colour, such as blue
+and yellow to form green. The pigments used for japan grounds should
+all be previously ground very smooth in spirits of turpentine, so
+smooth that the paste does not grate between the two thumb nails, and
+then only are they mixed with the varnish. This mixture of pigment and
+varnish vehicle should then be spread over the surface to be japanned
+very carefully and very evenly with a camel-hair brush. As metals do
+not require a priming coat of size and whiting, the japan ground may
+be applied to metallic surfaces forthwith without any preliminary
+treatment except thorough cleansing, except in the cases specially
+referred to further on. On metallic surfaces three to four coats are
+applied, and in the interval between each coat the articles must be
+stoved in an oven heated to from 250 deg. to 300 deg. F.
+
+
+WHITE JAPAN GROUNDS.
+
+The formation of a perfectly white japan ground and of the first
+degree of hardness has always been difficult to attain in the art of
+japanning, as there are few or no substances that can be so dissolved
+as to form a very hard varnish coat without being so darkened in the
+process as to quite degrade or spoil the whiteness of the colour. The
+following process, however, is said to give a composition which yields
+a very near approach to a perfect white ground: Take flake white or
+white lead washed and ground up with the sixth of its weight of starch
+and then dried, temper it properly for spreading with mastic varnish
+made thus: Take 5 oz. of mastic in powder and put it into a proper
+vessel with 1 lb. of spirits of turpentine; let them boil at a gentle
+heat till the mastic be dissolved, and, if there appear to be any
+turbidity, strain off the solution through flannel. Apply this
+intimate and homogeneous mixture on the body to be japanned, the
+surface of which has been suitably prepared either with or without the
+priming, then varnish it over with five or six coats of the following
+varnish: Provide any quantity of the best seed-lac and pick out of it
+all the clearest and whitest grains, take of this seed-lac 1/2 lb. and
+of gum anime 3/4 lb., pulverize the mixture to a coarse powder and
+dissolve in a gallon of methylated spirits and strain off the clear
+varnish. The seed-lac will give a slight tint to this varnish, but it
+cannot be omitted where the japanned surface must be hard, though
+where a softer surface will serve the purpose the proportion of
+seed-lac may be diminished and a little turpentine oleo-resin added to
+the gum anime to take off the brittleness. A very good varnish
+entirely free from brittleness may, it is said, be formed by
+dissolving gum anime in old nut or poppy oil, which must be made to
+boil gently when the gum is put into it. After being diluted with
+turps the white ground may be applied in this varnish, and then a coat
+or two of the varnish itself may be applied over it. These coats,
+however, take a long time to dry, and, owing to its softer nature,
+this japanned surface is more readily injured than that yielded by the
+shellac varnish.
+
+According to Mr. Dickson, "the old way of making a cream enamel for
+stoving (a white was supposed to be impossible) was to mix ordinary
+tub white lead with the polishing copal varnish and to add a modicum
+of blue to neutralize the yellow tinge, stove same in about 170 deg.F. and
+then polish as before described". "This," continues Mr. Dickson,
+"would at the best produce but a very pale blue enamel or a cream. It
+was afterwards made with flake white or dry white lead ground in turps
+only and mixed with the polishing copal varnish with the addition of
+tints as required, by which means a white of any required character
+could be produced."
+
+
+BLUE JAPAN GROUNDS.
+
+Authorities state that these may be formed from bright Prussian blue
+or verditer glazed over with Prussian blue or of smalt. By bright
+Prussian blue possibly a genuine Prussian blue toned down to a sky
+blue with white lead is meant, and by verditer the variety known as
+refiners' blue verditer, and as to smalt it must not be forgotten that
+it changes its colour in artificial light. Be that as it may, the
+pigment may be mixed with the shellac varnish according to the
+instructions already given, but as the shellac will somewhat injure
+the tone of the pigment by imparting a yellow tinge to it where a
+bright true blue is required, the directions already given as regards
+white grounds must be carried out.
+
+
+SCARLET JAPAN GROUND.
+
+Vermilion is the best pigment to use for a scarlet japan ground, and
+its effect will be greatly enhanced by glazing it over with carmine or
+fine lake. If, however, the highest degree of brightness be required
+the white varnish must be used. Vermilion must be stoved at a very
+gentle heat.
+
+
+RED JAPAN GROUND.
+
+The basis of this japan ground is made up with madder lake ground in
+oil of turpentine, this constitutes the first ground; when this is
+perfectly dry a second coat of lake and white in copal varnish is
+applied, and the last coat is made up of lake in a mixture of copal
+varnish and turpentine varnish.
+
+
+BRIGHT PALE YELLOW GROUNDS.
+
+Orpiment or King's yellow may be used, and the effect is enhanced by
+dissolving powdered turmeric root in the methylated spirits from which
+the upper or polishing coat is made, which methylated spirits must be
+strained from off the dregs before the seed-lac is added to it to form
+the varnish. The seed-lac varnish is not so injurious to yellow
+pigments as it is to the tone of some other pigments, because, being
+tinged a reddish yellow, it does little more than intensify or deepen
+the tone of the pigment.
+
+
+GREEN JAPAN GROUNDS.
+
+Green japan grounds are produced by mixing Prussian blue or distilled
+verdigris with orpiment, and the effect is said to be extremely
+brilliant by applying them on a ground of leaf gold. Any of them may
+be used with good seed-lac varnish, for reasons already given. Equal
+parts by weight of rosin, precipitated rosinate of copper, and
+coal-tar solvent naphtha will give a varnish which, when suitably
+thinned and the coats stoved at a heat below 212 deg. F., will give a
+green japan second to none as a finishing coat as regards purity of
+tone at least. To harden it and render it more elastic half of the
+rosin might be replaced by equal weights of a copal soluble in solvent
+naphtha and boiled linseed oil, so that the mixture would stand thus:
+rosinate of copper 1 lb., rosin 1/2 lb., boiled oil 1/4 lb., hard
+resin (copal) 1/4 lb., solvent naphtha 1 lb. When heated to a high
+temperature this rosinate of copper varnish yields a magnificent ruby
+bronze coloration, especially on glass. Verdigris dissolves in
+turpentine, and successful attempts might be made to make a green
+japan varnish from it on the lines indicated for rosinate of copper.
+
+
+ORANGE-COLOURED GROUNDS.
+
+Orange-coloured grounds may be formed by mixing vermilion or red lead
+with King's yellow, or orange lake or red orpiment (? realgar) will
+make a brighter orange ground than can be produced by any mixture.
+
+
+PURPLE GROUNDS.
+
+Purple grounds may be produced by the admixture of lake or vermilion
+with Prussian blue. They may be treated as the other coloured grounds
+as regards the varnish vehicle.
+
+
+BLACK GROUNDS.
+
+Black grounds may be formed either from lamp black or ivory black, but
+ivory black is preferable to lamp black, and possibly carbon black or
+gas black to either. These may be always applied with the shellac
+varnish as a vehicle, and their upper or polishing coats may consist
+of common seed-lac varnish. But the best quality of ivory black ground
+in the best super black japan yields, after suitable stoving, a very
+excellent black indeed, the purity of tone of which may be improved by
+adding a little blue in the grinding.
+
+
+COMMON BLACK JAPAN GROUNDS ON METAL.
+
+Common black japan grounds on metal by means of heat are procured in
+the following manner: The surface to be japanned must be coated over
+with drying oil, and when it is moderately dry must be put into a
+stove of such heat as will change the oil black without burning it.
+The stove should not be too hot when the oil is put into it nor the
+heat increased too fast, either which error would make it blister, but
+the slower the heat is increased and the longer it is continued,
+provided it be restrained within a due degree, the harder will be the
+coat of japan. This kind of japan requires no polish, having received
+from the heat, when properly regulated, a sufficiently bright surface.
+
+
+TORTOISE-SHELL GROUND.
+
+This beautiful ground, produced by heat, is valued not only for its
+hardness and its capacity to stand a heat greater than that of boiling
+water, but also for its fine appearance. It is made by means of a
+varnish prepared thus: Take one gallon of good linseed oil and half a
+pound of umber, boil them together until the oil becomes very brown
+and thick, strain it then through a coarse cloth and set it again to
+boil, in which state it must be continued until it acquires a
+consistency resembling that of pitch; it will then be fit for use.
+Having thus prepared the varnish, clean well the surface which is to
+be japanned; then apply vermilion ground in shellac varnish or with
+drying oil, very thinly diluted with oil of turpentine, on the places
+intended to imitate the more transparent parts of the tortoise-shell.
+When the vermilion is dry, brush the whole over with the black varnish
+thinned to the right consistency with oil of turpentine. When set and
+firm put the work into a stove where it may undergo a very strong
+heat, which must be continued a considerable time, for three weeks or
+even a month so much the better. This ground may be decorated with
+painting and gilding in the same way as any other varnished surface,
+which had best be done after the ground has been hardened, but it is
+well to give a second annealing at a very gentle heat after it has
+been finished. A very good black japan may be made by mixing a little
+japan gold size with ivory or lamp-black, this will develop a good
+gloss without requiring to be varnished afterwards.
+
+
+PAINTING JAPAN WORK.
+
+Japan work should be painted with real "enamel paints," that is with
+paints actually ground in varnish, and in that case all pigments may
+be used and the peculiar disadvantages, which attend several pigments
+with respect to oil or water, cease with this class of vehicle, for
+they are secured by it when properly handled from the least danger of
+changing or fading. The preparation of pigments for this purpose
+consists in bringing them to a due state of fineness by grinding them
+on a stone with turpentine. The best varnish for binding and
+preserving the pigments is shellac. This, when judiciously handled,
+gives such a firmness and hardness to the work that, if it be
+afterwards further secured with a moderately thick coat of seed-lac
+varnish, it will be almost as hard and durable as glass. The method of
+painting in varnish is, however, far more tedious than with an oil or
+water vehicle. It is, therefore, now very usual in japan work for the
+sake of dispatch, and in some cases in order to be able to use the
+pencil (brush) more freely, to apply the colours in an oil vehicle
+well diluted with turps. This oil (or japanners' gold size) may be
+made thus: Take 1 lb. of linseed oil and 4 oz. of gum anime, set the
+oil in a proper vessel and then add the gum anime powder, stirring it
+well until the whole is mixed with the oil. Let the mixture continue
+to boil until it appears of a thick consistence, then strain the whole
+through a coarse cloth and keep it for use. The pigments are also
+sometimes applied in a gum-water vehicle, but work so done, it has
+been urged, is not nearly so durable as that done in varnish or oil.
+However, those who formerly condemned the practice of japanning
+water-coloured decorations allowed that amateurs, who practised
+japanning for their amusement only and thus might not find it
+convenient to stock the necessary preparations for the other methods,
+might paint with water-colours. If the pigments are ground in an
+aqueous vehicle of strong isinglass size and honey instead of gum
+water the work would not be much inferior to that executed with other
+vehicles. Water-colours are sometimes applied on a ground of gold
+after the style of other paintings, and sometimes so as to produce an
+embossed effect. The pigments in this style of painting are ground in
+a vehicle of isinglass size corrected with honey or sugar-candy. The
+body with which the embossed work is raised is best formed of strong
+gum water thickened to a proper consistency with armenian bole and
+whiting in equal parts, which, being laid on in the proper figures and
+repaired when dry, may be then painted with the intended pigments in
+the vehicle of isinglass size or in the general manner with shellac
+varnish. As to the comparative value of pigments ground in water and
+ground in oil, that is between oil-colours and water-colours in
+enamelling and japanning, there seems to have been a change of opinion
+for some time back, especially as regards the enamelling of slate. The
+marbling of slate (to be enamelled) in water-colours is a process
+which Mr. Dickson says well repays study. It is greatly developed in
+France and Germany. The process is a quick one and the pigments are
+said to stand well and to maintain their pristine hue, yet if many
+strikingly natural effects result from the use of this process, its
+use has not spread in Great Britain, being confined wholly and solely
+to the marbling of slate (except in the case of wall-paper which is
+water-marbled in a somewhat similar way).
+
+"In painting in oil-colour," says Mr. Dickson, "the craftsman trusts
+largely to his badger-hair brush to produce his effects of softness
+and marbly appearance; but in painting in water-colours, this
+softness, depth, and marbly appearance are produced mostly by the
+colour placed upon the surface, and left entirely untouched by badger
+or any other brush. The colour drying quickly, does not allow much
+time for working, and when dry it cannot be touched without spoiling
+the whole of the work. The difference first of all between painting in
+water and in oil colour, is that a peculiar grain exists with painting
+in water that it is absolutely impossible to get in oil. The charm of
+a marble is, I think, its translucency as much as its beautiful
+colour; it is to that translucency (for in marble fixed we have no
+transparency) that it owes its softness of effect, which makes marble
+of such decorative value. This translucency can only be obtained by
+thin glazes of colour, by which means each succeeding glaze only
+partly covers the previous one, the character of the marble being thus
+produced. This is done sometimes in oil-colour in a marvellous manner,
+but even the best of oil-painting in marble cannot stand the
+comparison of water-colour, and it is only by comparison that any
+accurate judgment can be formed of any work. The production of marbles
+in water-colour has a depth, softness, and stoniness that defies
+oil-painting, and in some cases will defy detection unless by an
+expert of marbles. It may be that first of all the materials employed
+are more in keeping with the real material, as no oil enters into the
+composition of real marble, and by using the medium of water we thus
+start better, but the real secret is that by using water as a medium
+the colours take an entirely different effect. In painting in
+water-colour greys of any tint or strength can be obtained suitable
+for the production of a marble of greyish ground, by pure white,
+tinted as required, being applied of different thicknesses of colour,
+all the modulations of tone being obtained by the difference in the
+thickness of the colour applied."
+
+
+VARNISHING JAPAN WORK.
+
+Varnishing is the last and the finishing process in japanning. It
+consists in (1) applying, and (2) polishing the outer coats of
+varnish, which are equally necessary whether the plain japan ground be
+painted on or not. This is best done in a general way with common
+seed-lac varnish, except on those occasions where other methods have
+been shown to be more expedient, and the same reasons, which decide as
+to the propriety of using the different varnishes as regards the
+colours of the ground, hold equally with those of the painting, for
+where brightness is a material point and a tinge of yellow would
+injure it, seed-lac must give way to the whiter resins; but where
+hardness and tenacity are essential it must be adhered to, and where
+both are necessary a mixed varnish must be used. This mixed varnish
+should be made from the picked seed-lac as directed in the case of the
+white japan grounds. The common seed-lac varnish may be made thus:
+Take 1-1/2 lb. of seed-lac and wash it well in several waters, then
+dry it and powder it coarsely and put it with a gallon of methylated
+spirits into a Bohemian glass flask so that it be not more than
+two-thirds full. Shake the mixture well together and place the flask
+in a gentle heat till the seed-lac appears to be dissolved, the
+shaking being in the meantime repeated as often as may be convenient;
+then pour off all the clear and strain the remainder through a coarse
+cloth. The varnish so prepared must be kept for use in a well-corked
+glass vessel. The whiter seed-lac varnishes are used in the same
+manner as the common, except as regards the substances used in
+polishing, which, where a pure white or the greater clearness or
+purity of other pigments is in question, should be itself white, while
+the browner sorts of polishing dust, as being cheaper and doing their
+business with greater dispatch, may be used in other cases. The pieces
+of work to be varnished should be placed near the fire or in a warm
+room and made perfectly dry, and then the varnish may be applied with
+a flat camel-hair brush made for the purpose. This must be done very
+rapidly, but with great care; the same place should not be passed
+twice over in laying on one coat if it can possibly be avoided. The
+best way of proceeding is to begin in the middle and pass the brush to
+one end, then with another stroke from the middle pass it to the other
+end, taking care that before each stroke the brush be well supplied
+with varnish; when one coat is dry another must be laid over it in
+like manner, and this must be continued five or six times. If on trial
+there be not a sufficient thickness of varnish to bear the polish
+without laying bare the painting or ground colour underneath more
+varnish must be applied. When a sufficient number of coats of varnish
+is so applied the work is fit to be polished, which must be done in
+common work by rubbing it with a piece of cloth or felt dipped in
+tripoli or finely ground pumice-stone. But towards the end of the
+rubbing a little oil of any kind must be used with the powder, and
+when the work appears sufficiently bright and glossy it should be
+well rubbed with the oil alone to clean it from the powder and to give
+it a still greater lustre. In the case of white grounds, instead of
+the tripoli, fine putty or whiting should be used, but they should be
+washed over to prevent the danger of damaging the work from any sand
+or any other gritty matter that may happen to be mixed with them. It
+greatly improves all kinds of japan work to harden the varnish by
+means of heat, which, in every degree that can be applied short of
+what would burn or calcine the matter, tends to give it a firm and
+strong texture where metals form the body; therefore a very hot stove
+may be used, and the stoving may be continued for a considerable time,
+especially if the heat be gradually increased. But where wood or
+papier-mache is in question, heat must be applied with great caution.
+
+
+
+
+SECTION III.
+
+JAPANNING OR ENAMELLING METALS.
+
+
+In japanning metals, all good work of which should be stoved, they
+have to be first thoroughly cleaned, and then the japan ground applied
+with a badger or camel-hair brush or other means, very carefully and
+evenly. Metals usually require from three to five coats, and between
+each application must be dried in an oven heated from 250 deg. to 300 deg.
+F.--about 270 deg. being the average. It has already been seen that the
+best grounds for japanning are formed of shellac varnish, the
+necessary pigments for colouring being added thereto, being mixed with
+the shellac varnish after they have been ground into a high degree of
+smoothness and fineness in spirits of turpentine. In japanning it is
+best to have the oven at rather a lower temperature, increasing the
+heat after the work has been placed in the oven. When a sufficient
+number of coats have been laid on--which will usually be two only--the
+work must be polished by means of a piece of cloth or felt dipped in
+tripoli or finely powdered pumice-stone. For white grounds fine putty
+powder or whiting must be employed, a final coat being afterwards
+given, and the work stoved again. The last coat of all is one of
+varnish. And here, as a preliminary remark, it is advisable that all
+enamels and japans should be purchased ready-made, as any attempt to
+make such is almost sure to end in disaster, while, owing to the fact
+that such are only required for small jobs; it would involve too much
+trouble and would not pay. It is for this reason that few japan
+recipes are given, as, although many are available, they do not always
+turn out as suitable for the purpose as could be desired, in addition
+to which the ready-made articles can be purchased at a very reasonable
+price and are much better prepared. The operator should procure his
+enamels a shade or two lighter than he desires to see in the finished
+article, allowing the chemical action due to the stoving to tone the
+colours down. Another necessity is to keep the enamel thoroughly well
+mixed by well stirring it every time it is used, as if this is not
+done the actual colouring matter is apt to sink to the bottom, the
+ultimate result being that streaky work is produced in consequence of
+this indifferent mixing of the enamelling materials.
+
+It is hardly necessary to state that all japanning or enamelling work
+must be done in a room or shop absolutely free from dust or dirt, and
+as far away as possible from any window or other opening leading to
+the open air, for two reasons--one being that the draught therefrom
+may cool the oven or stove, and the other that the air may convey
+particles of dust into the enamelling shop. In fact, it cannot be too
+much impressed upon the workmen that one of the primary secrets of
+successful enamelling is absolute cleanliness; consequently all
+precautions must be taken to ensure that the enamel is perfectly free
+from grit and dust, and it must be so kept by frequent straining
+through fine muslin, flannel, or similar material. The work having
+been thoroughly cleaned and freed from all grease and other foreign
+matter, it must be suspended or held immediately over the pan
+elsewhere referred to, and the enamel poured on with an ordinary iron
+ladle, or covered by means of the brush. When it has been permitted to
+drain thoroughly, the work should be hung on the hooks on the rods in
+the oven as seen in the explanatory sketch, care being observed that
+no portion of the work is in such a position that any superfluous
+enamel cannot easily drain off--in other words, the work must lie or
+hang that it is always, as it were, on the slant. Always bear in mind
+when shutting the oven door to do so gently, as if a slam is indulged
+in all the gas jets will be blown out, and an explosion would probably
+result.
+
+Should the job in hand be a large one, it will be found as well to get
+a cheaper enamel for the first coat, but if the work is only a small
+job, it will not be necessary to have more than one enamel, of which a
+couple of coats at least will be required. When the first coat has
+thoroughly dried and hardened, the surface will have to be thoroughly
+rubbed till it is perfectly smooth with tripoli powder and fine
+pumice-stone, and afterwards hand-polished with rotten-stone and putty
+powder. And here it may be remarked that the finer the surface is got
+up with emery powder and other polishing agents the better will be the
+enamelling and ultimate finish. The rubbing down being finished,
+another coat of enamel must be applied and the work baked as before,
+care being always taken to keep the enamel in a sufficiently fluid
+condition as to enable it to flow and run off the work freely. It can
+easily be thinned with a little paraffin. A third coat will frequently
+be advisable, as it improves the finish.
+
+In enamelling cycles, it is well to hang the front forks crown
+uppermost when they are undergoing the final baking, and it is
+advisable to bear in mind that wheels require an enamel that will
+stove at a lower temperature than is called for for other parts of the
+machine. Some japanners advocate the fluid being put on with camel-or
+badger-hair brushes, and for the best descriptions of work, final
+coats, and such like, I agree with them; but this is a detail which
+can be left to the operator's own fancy, the class of work, etc.; but
+I would remind him that applying enamel with a brush requires much
+care and a certain amount of "knack". It is something like successful
+lacquering in brasswork--it looks very simple, but is not. Each
+succeeding coat of japan gives a more uniform and glossy surface, and
+for this reason it may, in some cases, be necessary to repeat the
+operation no fewer than half a dozen times, the final coat being
+generally a layer of clear varnish only, to add to the lustre.
+
+Care must be taken for light-coloured japans or enamels not to have
+the temperature sufficiently high to scorch, or the surface will be
+discoloured, as they require a lower temperature for fixing than the
+dark japans, which, provided the article is not likely to be injured
+by the heat, are usually dried at a somewhat high temperature. The
+preceding instructions apply only to the best descriptions of work.
+
+When pouring enamel by means of the ladle over pieces of work, do not
+agitate the liquid too much--at the same time taking care to keep it
+well mixed--so as to form air bubbles, as this will cause trouble, and
+in pouring over the work do it with an easy and gentle and not too
+hurried a motion. In japanning curved pieces, such as mud-guards,
+etc., in hanging up the work in the oven see that the liquid does not
+run to extremities and there form ugly blots or blotches of enamel.
+
+When white or other light tones are used for japanning they are mixed
+with japanners' varnish, and these require more careful heating in the
+oven or stove than darker tints or brown or black.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Trough for Dipping Bedstead Frames and other
+Large Work.]
+
+
+ENAMELLING BEDSTEAD FRAMES AND SIMILAR LARGE PIECES.
+
+At Fig. 1 is shown a trough in which large pieces, such as bedsteads,
+bicycle frames, etc., are dipped or immersed. For the first-mentioned
+class of work such high finish is not required as for bicycles, and
+consequently the enamel need not be applied with a brush, nor will it
+be necessary to rub down the work between each coat, but instead the
+pieces can be literally dipped in the tank of liquid, then allowed to
+drain on to the dripping-board--the superfluous enamel thus finding
+its way back into the trough or tank, the dripped articles being
+afterwards placed in the oven to harden. The trough must be of
+sufficient dimensions to allow the pieces of work to be completely
+immersed, and the dripping-board should be set at an angle of about
+45 deg..
+
+Bedstead frames will never require more than two coats and the
+commoner class of goods only one. I would not advise the tradesman in
+a small way of business to go to the expense of a trough, etc., as it
+calls for much more room than is ordinarily available, but if he has
+the necessary plant for bicycle work he can, of course, do an
+occasional job of the other kind.
+
+
+JAPANNING TIN, SUCH AS TEA-TRAYS AND SIMILAR GOODS.
+
+For japanning sheet-iron articles, which are really tin goods, such as
+tea-trays and similar things, first scour them well with a piece of
+sandstone, which will effectually remove all the scales and make the
+surface quite smooth. Then give the metal a coating of vegetable
+black, which must be mixed with super black japan varnish, thinned
+with turps, and well strained. Only a small quantity of this varnish
+is necessary, as it will dry dead. The article must then be placed in
+the stove to harden at a temperature of 212 deg. F., there to remain for
+from ten to twelve hours. When taken out of the stove, the articles
+must be allowed to get cold, after which they must be given a coat of
+super black japan, which, if necessary, must be thinned with turps, a
+stiff, short bristle brush being employed, and the varnish put on
+sparingly, so that it will not "run" when it gets warm. Two coats of
+this varnish on top of the vegetable black coating are usually
+sufficient, when done properly, but a third coating much improves the
+work, and from ten to twelve hours' hardening will be necessary
+between each coating. The small lumps which will be more or less
+certain to arise will require to be rubbed down between each
+application by a small and smooth piece of pumice-stone.
+
+If it is desired to add gold or bronze bands or any kind of floral or
+other kind of fancy decorations, these are painted on, after the
+ground japanning has been done, in japanners' gold size, and then the
+gold leaf is applied, or the bronze or other metal powder is dusted
+on, after which the objects so treated are again placed in the stove,
+where they will not require to be kept near so long as for ordinary
+japanning. After they have been removed, the gilt or bronzed portions
+must be treated with a protecting coat of white spirit varnish.
+Transfers can be applied in the same way.
+
+Tinned iron goods are the most largely japanned, and for these brown
+and black colours are principally employed. Both are obtained by the
+use of brown japan, the metal having a preliminary coating of black
+paint when black is required. Only one coating of brown japan is given
+to cheap goods, but for better articles two or more are applied. For
+these it is possible that a final dressing with pumice-stone, then
+with rotten-stone, and rubbed with a piece of felt or cloth, or even
+the palm of the hand, may be necessary, but as a rule not.
+
+Large numbers of articles of the above description, such as tea-trays,
+tea-canisters, cash-boxes, coal-boxes, and similar goods, are japanned
+at Birmingham, and it is to such that the preceding instructions
+apply.
+
+
+ENAMELLING OLD WORK.
+
+In all cases of re-enamelling old work, it is absolutely necessary to
+remove all traces of the first enamelling, and if this has been well
+done in the first instance, it will prove no mean job. The best way to
+clean the work is to soak it in a strong "lye" of hot potash, when the
+softened enamel can be wiped or brushed off--this latter method being
+pursued in the more intricate and ungetatable portions of the work.
+New work, which has not been enamelled, can be treated in the same way
+for the removal of all grease, stains, finger-marks, etc., and too
+much attention cannot be paid to the initial preparation of the
+surface of the metal, to have it thoroughly even and smooth, as it
+adds so much to the ultimate finish and appearance of the work. Plenty
+of labour must be bestowed before the final coat, as any blemish will
+show through this finishing, and so mar what would otherwise be a
+highly satisfactory bit of work. In all kinds of bicycle work, whether
+new or old, the most satisfactory results are obtained by the
+application of at least two, and sometimes four or five, successive
+coats of good but thin enamel, as this will impart the necessary
+perfect coat, combined with durability, a high finish, and a good
+colour. A good enamel should be sufficiently hard, so as not to be
+scratched on the merest touch or rubbing. It will, of course, be
+understood that no solder-work must be put into the stove, or the
+pieces will separate. Should any of this work be discovered, the
+pieces must be taken apart, and then brazed together before being
+enamelled, and put in the stove.
+
+
+
+
+SECTION IV.
+
+THE ENAMELLING AND JAPANNING STOVE--PIGMENTS SUITABLE FOR JAPANNING
+WITH NATURAL LACQUER--MODERN METHODS OF JAPANNING WITH NATURAL
+JAPANESE LACQUER.
+
+
+APPLIANCES AND APPARATUS USED IN JAPANNING AND ENAMELLING.
+
+Besides the various enamels or japans and varnishes of various
+colourings and the stove, which will be found described and
+illustrated, together with the trough, in other pages, the worker will
+need some iron pots or cauldrons in which to boil the potash "lye" for
+the cleansing, more particularly, of old work, some iron ladles both
+for this work and for pouring the japan on the articles to be covered
+therewith, a few badger tools and brushes for small fine work, some
+hooks for the stove, a pair of pliers, a few bits of broom handle cut
+into short lengths and made taper, so as to fit into the tubes, etc.,
+of bicycles and other work, so as to keep the hands as free from the
+japan as possible, some emery powder, pumice-stone powder, tripoli,
+putty powder, whiting, and a piece of felt or cloth. If he is also
+doing any common work, a stumpy brush of bristles and a soft leather
+will also be requisite, together with a file or two. These will about
+comprise the whole of the articles required, not very expensive, all
+of which will really not be required by a beginner.
+
+Owing largely to the strides made in the cycle trade enamelling is
+stoved by means of gas, and of this a plentiful supply is necessary.
+Enamelling stoves may really be described as hot-air cupboards or
+ovens, and for a stove which will answer most requirements--say one of
+6 feet by 6 feet by 3-1/2 feet--six rows of atmospheric burners will
+be necessary to heat it, while it will be also advisable to fix pipes
+of 1-1/4 inch internal diameter from the gas meter to the stove. The
+atmospheric burners can be made from the requisite number of pieces of
+1-1/4-inch gas tube 3-1/2 feet in length, one end of each being
+stopped, and having 1/3-inch holes drilled therein at intervals of
+about 1 inch, the other end being left open for the insertion of
+ordinary 3/8-inch brass gas taps. Another plan preferred by some
+japanners is to have three rows of burners the full length of the
+stove, which, under some circumstances, due to structural conditions,
+will be found more suitable. Anyway, whatever the position of the
+stove, allowance must be made for a temperature up to 400 deg. F. to be
+raised. In old-fashioned ovens the heat is applied by means of
+external flues, in which hot air or steam is circulated, but this
+system is generally unsatisfactory, the supply of heat having to be
+controlled by dampers or stop-cocks, and this has given place to the
+gas apparatus. Another simple form of oven, though not one which I
+shall recommend, is a species of sheet-iron box, which is encased by
+another and larger box of the same shape, so placed that from 2 to 3
+inches of interspace exists between the two boxes. To this interspace
+heat is applied, and a flue will have to be affixed to this apparatus
+to carry off the vapours which arise from the enamel or japan. For
+amateur or intermittent jobbing work the oven illustrated in Figs. 2
+and 3 is about as good as any, though to guard against fire it would
+be as well to have a course of brickwork beneath the oven, while if
+this is not possible on account of want of height, a sheet or so of
+zinc or iron will help to mitigate the danger. It is also advisable,
+if the apartment is a low-pitched one, to have a sheet of iron or zinc
+suspended by four corner chains from the ceiling in order to protect
+this from firing through the heat from the enamelling oven. Of course,
+it will be understood that every portion of the stove must be put
+together with rivets, no soldered work being permissible.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Door of Oven when Shut.]
+
+To those who wish to construct their own stove, it will be found that
+the framework can be shaped out of 1-inch angle iron, the panels or
+walls being constructed of sheet-iron of about 18 gauge, the whole
+being riveted together. The front will be occupied in its entire space
+by a door, which will require to be hung on strong iron hinges, and
+the framework of this door should be constructed of 1 inch by 1/4 inch
+iron--a rather stouter material will really be no disadvantage--to
+which the sheet-iron plates must be riveted. In the centre of the door
+must be cut a slit, say 1-1/2 inches by 9 inches, which will require
+to be covered with mica or talc behind which must be placed the
+thermometer, so as it can be seen during the process of stoving,
+without the necessity of opening the door, which, of course, more or
+less cools the oven. And, by the way, this thermometer must register
+higher than the highest temperature the oven is capable of reaching.
+Above is shown a sketch of the stove, interior and exterior, which
+will give an idea of what a japanner's stove is like.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3--Showing Stove when Open, and Back of Door.]
+
+Inside the stove it will be necessary to fix rows of iron rods, some
+four inches from the top, from which to suspend the work, or
+angle-iron ledges can be used on which the rods or bars can be fixed,
+these arrangements being varied according to the particular
+description of work, individual fancy, or other circumstances. Large S
+hooks are about the handiest to use. A necessary adjunct of the stove
+is a pan, which can be made by any handy man or tinworker, which
+should be made to fit the bottom of the stove above the gas jets, it
+being arranged that it rests on two side ledges, or along some rods.
+One a couple of inches in depth will be found sufficient, and it will
+repay its cost in the saving of enamel, it being possible with its use
+to enamel a bicycle with as little as a gallon of enamel. Some workmen
+have the tray made with a couple of hinged side flaps, to turn over
+and cover up the pan when not in use, but this is a matter of fancy.
+Of course, they must always be covered up when not in use. For those
+who would prefer to use Bunsen burners, I show at Fig. 4 a sketch of
+the best to employ, these having three rows of holes in each.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Bunsen Burner.]
+
+When brick ovens are employed they must be lined with sheet-iron, and
+in these very rare circumstances where gas is not available, the stove
+can be heated with coal or wood, which will, of course, involve a
+total alteration in the structural arrangements. I have not given the
+details here, as I do not think the necessity will ever arise for
+their use, and for the same reason I have refrained from giving the
+particulars for heating by steam and electricity, or the other methods
+which have been adopted by various workers, as there is no question
+but that a gas stove or oven, as described, is about the best and
+handiest for jobbers or amateurs.
+
+
+MODERN JAPANNING AND ENAMELLING STOVES.
+
+The modern japanning and enamelling stove consists of a compartment
+capable of being heated to any desired temperature, say 100 deg. to 400 deg.
+F., and at the same time, except as regards ventilation, capable of
+being hermetically sealed so as to prevent access of dust, soot, and
+dirt of all kinds to mar the beauty and lustre of the object being
+enamelled or japanned. Such a stove may be heated--
+
+1. By a direct coal, coke, wood, peat, or gas fire (which surrounds
+the inner isolated chamber) (Fig. 5).
+
+2. By heated air.
+
+3. By steam or hot-water pipes, coils of which circulate round the
+interior of the stove or under the floor.
+
+Such ovens may be either permanent, that is, built into masonry, or
+portable.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Greuzburg's Japanning Oven.]
+
+1. _Stoves heated by direct fire._--These were, of course, the form in
+which japanning ovens were constructed somewhat after the style of a
+drying kiln. Fig. 5, Greuzburg's japanning oven heated on the outside
+by hot gases from furnace. The oven is built into brickwork, and the
+hot gases circulate in the flues between the brickwork and the oven,
+and its erection and the arrangement of the heating flues are a
+bricklayer's job. Coke containing much sulphur is objectionable as a
+fuel for enamel stoves Mr. Dickson emphasizes this very forcibly. He
+says: "In the days when stoves were heated by coke furnaces, and the
+heat distributed by the flues, the principal trouble was the escape of
+fumes of sulphur which caused dire disaster to all the enamels by
+entering into their composition and preventing their ever drying, not
+to speak of hardening. I have known enamels to be in the stoves with
+heat to 270 deg. for two and three days, and then be soft. The sulphur
+also caused the enamels to crack in a peculiar manner, much like a
+crocodile skin, and work so affected could never be made
+satisfactory, for here again we come back to the first principle,
+that if the foundation be not good, the superstructure can never be
+permanent. The enamels, being permeated with sulphur and other
+products from the coke, could never be made satisfactory, and the only
+way was to clean it all off. The other principal troubles are the
+blowing of the work in air bubbles, which is caused mainly by the heat
+being too suddenly applied to the articles, but these are very small
+matters to the experienced craftsman."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.]
+
+2. _Stoves heated by hot-water pipes._--Let us first of all consider
+the principle on which these are constructed. In Perkins' apparatus
+for conveying heat through buildings by the circulation of water in
+small-bore hot-water pipes an endless tube or pipe is employed, the
+surface of which is occasionally increased by spiral or other turnings
+where the heat is to be given off or acquired: the annexed figure may
+serve to illustrate this principle; it represents a strong
+wrought-iron tube of about one inch diameter completely filled with
+water; the spiral A passes through a furnace where it is highly
+heated, and the water is consequently put into motion in the direction
+of the arrows; the boiling of the water or formation of steam is
+prevented by the pressure, whence the necessity of the extreme
+perfection and strength of the tube. B represents a second coil which
+is supposed to be in an apartment where the heat is to be given out. C
+is a screw stopper by which the water may be occasionally replenished.
+By this form of apparatus the water may be heated to 300 deg. or 400 deg., or
+even higher, so as occasionally to singe paper. A larger tube and
+lower temperature are, however, generally preferable.[1]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Enamelling Stove--in a Tin-plate Printing
+Factory--heated by Perkins' Hot-water Pipes.]
+
+The principle of Perkins' invention has, during the last eighty
+years, i.e. since the date of the invention in 1831, been very
+extensively applied not only for the heating of buildings of every
+description, but it has also been utilized for numerous industrial
+purposes which require an atmosphere heated up to 600 deg. F. The
+principle lends itself specially to the design of apparatus for
+raising and maintaining heat evenly and uniformly, and also very
+economically for such purposes as enamelling, japanning, and
+lacquering.
+
+The distinctive feature of this apparatus when applied to moderate
+temperatures lies in the adoption of a closed system of piping of
+small bore, a certain portion of which is wound into a coil and placed
+in a furnace situated in any convenient position outside the drying
+chamber or hot closet. The circulation is thus hermetically sealed and
+so proportioned that while a much higher temperature can be attained
+than is possible with a system of pipes open to the atmosphere, yet a
+certain and perfectly safe maximum cannot by any possibility be
+exceeded.
+
+The efficiency of the apparatus increases within certain limits in
+proportion to the pressure employed, which fact explains the
+exceedingly economical results obtained, while the fact that, owing to
+the high temperature used, a small-bore pipe can be made more
+effective than the larger pipes used in any open system, accounts for
+the lower first cost of the Perkins' apparatus.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Japanning and Enamelling Oven Heated by Single
+Hot-water Pipes sealed at both ends with Furnace in Rear.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9--Japanning and Enamelling Oven For Bedstead,
+Ironmongery, Cash-box, and Lamp Factories.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.--Japanning and Enamelling Stove for parts of
+Sewing Machines.]
+
+It will be seen from the various illustrations that the articles to be
+treated are absolutely isolated from actual contact with the fire or
+the fire gases and other impurities which must be an objection to all
+methods of heating by means which are not of a purely mechanical
+nature. This principle not only recommends itself as scientifically
+correct and suited to the purpose in view, but is also a very simple
+and practical one. It affords the means of applying the heat at the
+point where it is required to do the work without unduly heating
+parts where heat is unnecessary; it secures absolute uniformity,
+perfect continuity, and the highest possible fuel economy.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.--Japanning and Enamelling Stove for
+Iron-Bedsteads and Household Ironmongery with Truck on Rails.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12--Permanent Japanning and Enamelling Stove for
+Kitchen Utensils built in Masonry.]
+
+The nature of the work to be executed in the different classes and
+various sizes of stoves vary so greatly and indefinitely that only by
+careful attention to the special requirements of each case, on the
+part of the designers and constructors, is it possible to obtain the
+most satisfactory results.
+
+The arrangement of fixing the pipes round the lower walls of the room
+in this form of stove is somewhat cumbersome, but in a roomy stove
+this slight drawback is not felt quite so much. However, it seems a
+good principle to leave every inch of internal space available for the
+goods to be enamelled or japanned, This principle is carried out to
+the letter in the other form of stoves described and illustrated in
+the sequel.
+
+The figure shows a section through single chamber japanning and
+enamelling oven heated by hot-water pipes (steel) closed at both ends
+and partially filled with water which always remains sealed up
+therein, and never evaporates until the pipes require to be refilled.
+
+This stove may be heated (1) by hot-water pipes (iron), (2) by
+super-heated water, (3) by steam, but only to 80 deg. C. The different
+compartments may be heated to uniform or to different temperatures
+with hot water; the stoke-hole is at the side and thus quite separated
+from the stove proper.
+
+The ovens must be on the ground floor, so that the super-heated steam
+from the basement may be available.
+
+The great drawback to the use of gas for heating japanning and
+enamelling stoves is the great cost of coal gas.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.--Portable Gas Heated Japanning and Enamelling
+Stove fitted with Shelves, Thermometer, etc.]
+
+
+PIGMENTS SUITABLE FOR JAPANNING WITH NATURAL LACQUER.
+
+_White Pigments._--Barium sulphate and bismuth oxychloride. These two
+are used for the white lacquer or as a body for coloured lacquers.
+When the lacquer is to be dried at a high temperature barium sulphate
+is preferable, but when it is dried at an ordinary temperature bismuth
+oxychloride is better. Since the lacquer is originally of a brown
+colour the white lacquer is not pure white, but rather greyish or
+yellowish. Many white pigments, such as zinc oxide, zinc sulphide,
+calcium carbonate, barium carbonate, calcium sulphate, lead white,
+etc., turn brown to black, and no white lacquer can be obtained with
+them.
+
+_Red Pigments._--Vermilion and red oxide of iron. These two are used
+for the red lacquer, but vermilion should be stoved at a low
+temperature.
+
+_Blue Pigment._--Prussian blue.
+
+_Yellow Pigments._--Cadmium sulphide, lead chromate and orpiment.
+
+_Green Pigment._--Chromium oxide (? Guignet's green).
+
+_Black Pigment._--Lamp black. This is one of the pigments for black
+lacquer, but does not give a brilliant colour, therefore it is better
+to prepare the black lacquer by adding iron powder or some compound of
+iron to the lacquer.
+
+Various mixed colours are obtained by mixing some of the
+above-mentioned pigments.
+
+Examples of application are as follows:--
+
+(1) _Golden Yellow._--Finished lacquer, 10 parts; gamboge, 1 to 3;
+solvent, 5. If utensils are lacquered with this thin lacquer and dried
+for about 2 hours in an air-oven at a temperature of 120 deg. C. a
+beautiful hard coating of golden colour is obtained.
+
+(2) _Black._--Black lacquer, 10 parts; solvent 2 to 4. Utensils
+lacquered with this lacquer are dried for about an hour at 130 deg. to
+140 deg. C.
+
+(3) _Red._--Vermilion, 10 parts; finished lacquer, 4; solvent, 2. This
+lacquer is dried for about an hour at 130 deg. to 140 deg. C.
+
+(4) _Khaki or Dirty Yellow._--Barium sulphate, 100 parts; chromic
+oxide, 3; finished lacquer, 20 to 25; solvent, 15. This lacquer is
+dried for about half an hour at 160 deg. C.
+
+(5) _Green._--Barium sulphate, 100 parts; chromic oxide, 20 to 50;
+finished lacquer, 40 to 50; solvent, 20. This is dried for about 10
+minutes at 160 deg. C.
+
+(6) _Yellow._--Barium sulphate, 100 parts; lead chromate, 40; finished
+lacquer, 40; solvent, 20. This is dried for about 15 minutes at 150 deg.
+C.
+
+Almost all pigments other than the above-mentioned are blackened by
+contact with lacquer or suspend its drying quality.
+
+Several organic lakes can be used for coloured lacquers, that is to
+say, Indian yellow, thioflavin, and auramine lake for a yellow
+lacquer; fuchsine, rhodamine, and chloranisidin lake for a red;
+diamond sky blue, and patent nileblue lake for a blue; acid green,
+diamond green, brilliant milling green, vert-methyl lake, etc., for a
+green; methyl violet, acid violet, and magenta lake for a violet;
+phloxine lake for a pink. These lakes, however, are decomposed more or
+less on heating and fail to give proper colours when dried at a high
+temperature.
+
+
+MODERN METHODS OF JAPANNING AND ENAMELLING WITH NATURAL JAPANESE
+LACQUER.
+
+Urushiol, the principal constituent of Japanese lacquer, does not
+according to the Japanese investigator, Kisaburo Miryama, dry by
+itself at ordinary temperatures, but can be dried with ease at a
+temperature above 96 deg. C. In the same way, lacquer that has been
+heated to a temperature above 70 deg. C. and has entirely lost its drying
+quality can be easily dried at a high temperature. In this method of
+japanning the higher the temperature is, the more rapidly does the
+drying take place; for instance, a thin layer of urushiol, or lacquer,
+hardens within 5 hours at 100 deg. C., within 30 minutes at 150 deg. C., and
+within 10 minutes at 180 deg. C. Japanning at a high temperature with
+natural lacquer does not require the presence of the enzymic
+nitrogenous matter in the lacquer, and gives a transparent coating
+which is quite hard and resistant to chemical and mechanical action;
+in these respects it is distinguished from that dried at an ordinary
+temperature. During the drying, oxygen is absorbed from the atmosphere
+and at the same time a partial decomposition takes place.
+
+This method of japanning has its application in lacquering metal work,
+glass, porcelain, earthenware, canvas, papier-mache, etc.; because the
+drying is affected in a short time, and the coating thus obtained is
+much more durable than the same obtained by the ordinary method.
+
+For practical purposes it is better to _thin the lacquer with
+turpentine oil or other solvent_ in order to facilitate the lacquering
+and lessen the drying time of the lacquer. Since the lacquer-coating
+turns brown at a high temperature, lacquers of a light colour should
+be dried at 120 deg. to 150 deg. C.; and even those of a deep colour must not
+be heated above 180 deg. C. _Most pigments are blackened by lacquer;
+therefore the varieties of coloured lacquers are very limited._
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] A question has been raised concerning the safety of
+Perkins' apparatus, not merely as relates to the danger of explosion,
+but also respecting that of high temperature; and it has been asserted
+that the water may be so highly heated in the tubes as to endanger the
+charring and even inflammation of paper, wood, and other substances in
+their contact or vicinity: such no doubt might be the case in an
+apparatus expressly intended for such purposes, but in the apparatus
+as constructed by Perkins, with adequate dampers and safety valves,
+and used with common care, no such result can ensue. Paper bound round
+an iron tube is not affected till the temperature exceeds 400 deg.; from
+420 deg. to 444 deg. it becomes brown or slightly singed; sulphur does not
+inflame below 540 deg..
+
+
+
+
+SECTION V.
+
+COLOURS FOR POLISHED BRASS--MISCELLANEOUS.
+
+
+PAINTING ON ZINC OR ON GALVANIZED IRON.
+
+Painting on zinc or galvanized iron is facilitated by employing a
+mordant of 1 quart of chloride of copper, 1 of nitrate of copper, and
+1 of sal-ammoniac, dissolved in 64 parts of water. To thin mixture add
+1 part of commercial hydrochloric acid. This is brushed over the zinc,
+and dries a dull-grey colour in from twelve to twenty-four hours,
+paint adhering perfectly to the surface thus formed.
+
+
+BRONZING COMPOSITIONS.
+
+The following are the formulae for a variety of baths, designed to
+impart to polished brass various colours. The brass objects are put
+into boiling solutions composed of different salts, and the intensity
+of the shade obtained is dependent upon duration of the immersion.
+With a solution composed of sulphate of copper, 120 grains;
+hydrochlorate of ammonia, 30 grains; and water 1 quart, greenish
+shades are obtained. With the following solution, all the shades of
+brown, from orange-brown to cinnamon, are obtained: chlorate of
+potash, 150 grains; sulphate of copper, 150 grains; and water, 1
+quart. The following solution gives the brass first a rosy tint, and
+then colours it violet and blue: sulphate of copper, 435 grains;
+hyposulphite of soda, 300 grains; cream of tartar, 150 grains; and
+water, 1 pint. Upon adding to this solution ammoniacal sulphate of
+iron, 300 grains, and hyposulphite of soda, 300 grains, there are
+obtained, according to the duration of the immersion, yellowish,
+orange, rosy, and then bluish shades. Upon polarizing the ebullition,
+the blue tint gives way to yellow, and finally to a pretty grey.
+Silver, under the same circumstances, becomes very beautifully
+coloured. After a long ebullition in the following solution, we obtain
+a yellow-brown shade, and then a remarkable fire-red: chlorate of
+potash, 75 grains; carbonate of nickel, 30 grains; salt of nickel, 75
+grains; and water, 10 oz. The following solution gives a beautiful
+dark-brown colour: chlorate of potash, 75 grains; salt of nickel, 150
+grains; and water, 10 oz. The following gives in the first place, a
+red, which passes to blue, then to pale lilac, and finally to white:
+orpiment, 75 grains; crystallized sal-sodae, 150 grains; and water, 10
+oz. The following gives a yellow-brown: salt of nickel, 75 grains;
+sulphate of copper, 75 grains; chlorate of potash, 75 grains; and
+water, 10 oz. On mixing the following solutions, sulphur separates,
+and the brass becomes covered with iridescent crystallizations: (1)
+cream of tartar, 75 grains; sulphate of copper, 75 grains; and water,
+10 oz. (2) Hyposulphite of soda, 225 grains; and water, 5 oz. Upon
+leaving the brass objects immersed in the following mixture, contained
+in corked vessels, they at length acquire a very beautiful blue
+colour: hepar of sulphur, 75 grains; ammonia, 75 grains; and water, 4
+oz.
+
+
+A GOLDEN VARNISH FOR METAL.
+
+Take 2 oz. of gum sandarach, 1 oz. of litharge of gold, and 4 oz. of
+clarified linseed oil, which boil in a glazed earthenware vessel till
+the contents appear of a transparent yellow colour. This will make a
+good varnish for the final coating for enamelled and japanned goods.
+
+
+CARRIAGE VARNISH.
+
+The following is used for the wheels, springs, and carriage parts of
+coaches and other vehicles: Take of pale African copal 8 lb.; fuse,
+and add 2-1/2 gallons of clarified linseed oil; boil until very
+stringy, then add 1/4 lb. each of dry copperas and litharge; boil, and
+thin with 5-1/2 gallons of turpentine; then mix while hot with the
+following varnish, and immediately strain the mixture into a covered
+vessel. Gum anime, 8 lb.; clarified linseed oil, 2-1/2 gallons; 1/4
+lb. each of dried sugar of lead and litharge; boil, and thin with
+5-1/2 gallons of turpentine; and mix it while hot as above directed.
+Of course these quantities will only do for big jobs, and as it has to
+do with metal, it has been thought advisable to include the formula in
+this handbook.
+
+
+METAL POLISHES.
+
+The active constituent of all metal polishes is generally chalk,
+rouge, or tripoli, because these produce a polish on metallic
+surfaces. The following recipes give good polishing soaps:--
+
+(1) 20 to 25 lb. liquid soap is intimately mixed with about 80 lb. of
+Swedish chalk and 1/2 lb. Pompeiian red. (2) 25 lb. liquid coco-nut
+oil soap is mixed with 2 lb. tripoli, and 1 lb. each alum, tartaric
+acid, and white lead. (3) 25 lb. liquid coco-nut oil soap is mixed
+with 5 lb. rouge and 1 lb. ammonium carbonate. (4) 24 lb. coco-nut oil
+are saponified with 12 lb. soda lye of 38 deg. to 40 deg. B., after which 3
+lb. rouge, 3 lb. water, and 32 grammes ammonia are mixed in. Good
+recipes for polishing pomades are as follows: (1) 5 lb. lard and
+yellow vaseline is melted and mixed with 1 lb. fine rouge. (2) 2 lb.
+palm oil and 2 lb. vaseline are melted together, and then 1 lb. rouge,
+400 grains tripoli, and 20 grains oxalic acid are stirred in. (3) 4
+lb. fatty petroleum and 1 lb. lard are heated and mixed with 1 lb. of
+rouge. The polishing pomades are generally perfumed with essence of
+myrbane. Polishing powders are prepared as follows: (1) 4 lb.
+magnesium carbonate, 4 lb. chalk, and 7 lb. rouge are intimately
+mixed. (2) 4 lb. magnesium carbonate are mixed with 150 grains fine
+rouge. An excellent and harmless polishing water is prepared by
+shaking together 250 grains floated chalk, 1 lb. alcohol, and 20
+grains ammonia. Gilded articles are most readily cleansed with a
+solution of 5 grains borax in 100 parts water, by means of a sponge or
+soft brush. The articles are then washed in pure water, and dried with
+a soft linen rag. Silverware is cleansed by rubbing with a solution of
+sodium hyposulphite.
+
+
+BLACK PAINTS.
+
+Carbon, in one form or another, is the base of all black pigments. By
+far the most common of these, as used in structural plants, is
+graphite. Other black pigments are lamp-black (including carbon black)
+and bone-black, the former being produced in many grades, varying in
+price from twopence to half a crown per pound. Bone-black, which is
+refuse from the sugar-house black, varies in the percentage of carbon
+contained, which is usually about 10 or 12 per cent, the remainder
+being the mineral matter originally present in the bone, and
+containing 3 or 4 per cent of carbonate, whilst most of the remainder
+is phosphate of lime. Lamp-black is an absolutely impalpable powder,
+which having a small amount of greasy matter in it, greatly retards
+the drying of the oil with which it may be mixed. For this reason it
+is not used by itself, but is added in small quantity to other paints,
+which it affects by changing their colour, and probably their
+durability. For example, it is a common practice to add it to red
+lead, in order to tone down its brilliant colour, and also to correct
+the tendency it has to turn white, due to the conversion of the red
+oxide of lead into the carbonate.
+
+
+BLACK STAIN FOR IRON.
+
+For colouring iron and steel a dead black of superior appearance and
+permanency, the following is a good formula: 1 part bismuth chloride,
+2 parts mercury bi-chloride, 1 part copper chloride, 6 parts
+hydrochloric acid, 5 parts alcohol, and 50 parts lamp-black, these
+being all well mixed. To use this preparation successfully--the
+article to be blacked or bronzed being first made clean and free from
+grease--it is applied with a swab or brush, or, better still, the
+object may be dipped into it; the liquid is allowed to dry on the
+metal, and the latter is then placed in boiling water, the temperature
+being maintained for half an hour. If, after this, the colour is not
+so dark as is desired, the operation has simply to be repeated, and
+the result will be found satisfactory. After obtaining the desired
+degree of colour, the latter is fixed, as well as much improved
+generally, by placing for a few minutes in a bath of boiling oil, or
+by coating the surface with oil, and heating the object till the oil
+is completely driven off The intense black obtained by this method is
+admirable.
+
+Another black coating for ironwork, which is really a lacquer, is
+obtained by melting ozokerite, which becomes a brown resinous mass,
+with a melting-point at 140 deg. F. The melted mass is then further heated
+to 212 deg. F., the boiling-point of water. The objects to be lacquered
+are scoured clean by rubbing with dry sand, and are dipped in the
+melted mass. They are then allowed to drip, and the ozokerite is
+ignited by the objects being held over a fire. After the ozokerite has
+burned away, the flame is extinguished, and the iron acquires a firmly
+adhering black coating, which resists atmospheric influences, as well
+as acids and alkalies. If the black iron vessels are to contain
+alkaline liquids, the above operation is repeated.
+
+A good cheap stock black paint or varnish for ironwork is prepared, as
+follows: Clear (solid) wood tar, 10 lb.; lamp black or mineral black,
+1-1/4 lb.; oil of turpentine, 5-1/2 quarts. The tar is first heated in
+a large iron pot to boiling-point, or nearly so, and the heat is
+continued for about 4 hours. The pot is then removed from the fire out
+of doors, and while still warm, and not hot, the turpentine, mixed
+with the black, is stirred in. If the varnish is too thick to dry
+quickly, add more turpentine. Benzine can be used instead of
+turpentine, but the results are not so good. Asphaltum is preferable
+to the cheap tar.
+
+To make another good black varnish for ironwork, take 8 lb. of
+asphaltum and fuse it in an iron kettle, then add 2 gallons of boiled
+linseed oil, 1 lb. of litharge, 1/2 lb. of sulphate of zinc (add these
+slowly, or the mixture will boil over), and boil them for about 3
+hours. Then, add 1-1/2 lb. of dark gum amber, and boil for 2 hours
+longer, or until the mass will become quite thick when cool. After
+this it should be thinned with turpentine to the proper consistency.
+
+
+VARNISHES FOR IRONWORK.
+
+A reliable authority gives the following as a very good recipe for
+ironwork varnish. Take 2 lb. of tar oil, 1/2 lb. of pounded resin, and
+1/2 lb. of asphaltum, and dissolve together, and then mix while hot in
+an iron kettle, taking all care to prevent the flames getting into
+contact with the mixture. When cold the varnish is ready for
+application to outdoor ironwork. Another recipe is to take 3 lb. of
+powdered resin, place it in a tin or iron vessel, and add thereto
+2-1/2 pints of spirits of turpentine, which well shake, and then let
+it stand for a day or two, giving it an occasional shake. Then add to
+it 5 quarts of boiled oil, shake it thoroughly well all together,
+afterwards letting it stand in a warm room till it gets clear. The
+clear portion can then be drawn off and used, or reduced with spirits
+of turpentine till of the requisite consistency. For making a varnish
+suitable for iron patterns, take sufficient oil of turpentine for the
+purpose of the job in hand, and drop into it, drop by drop, some
+strong commercial oil of vitriol, when the acid will cause a dark
+syrupy precipitate in the oil of turpentine, and continue to add the
+drops of vitriol till the precipitate ceases to act, after which pour
+off the liquid and wash the syrupy mass with water, when it will be
+ready for use. When the iron pattern is to be varnished, it must be
+heated to a gentle degree, the syrupy product applied, and then the
+article allowed to dry.
+
+A fine black varnish suitable for the covering of broken places in
+sewing machines and similar articles, where the japanned surface has
+become injured or scratched, can be made by taking some fine
+lamp-black or ivory-black, and thoroughly mixing it with copal
+varnish. The black must be in a very fine powder, and to mix the more
+readily it should be made into a pasty mass with turpentine. For the
+ordinary repairing shop this will be found very handy.
+
+The following is a simple way for tarring sheet-iron pipes to prevent
+rusting. The sections as made should be coated with coal tar, and then
+filled with light wood shavings, and the latter set alight. The effect
+of this treatment will be to render the iron practically proof against
+rust for an indefinite period, rendering future painting unnecessary.
+It is important, of course, that the iron should not be made too hot,
+or kept hot for too long a time, lest the tar should be burnt off.
+
+The following is a varnish for iron and steel given by a recognized
+authority: 5 parts of camphor and elemi, 15 parts of sandarach, and
+10 parts of clear grains of mastic, are dissolved in the requisite
+quantity of alcohol, and applied cold.
+
+Another good black enamel for small articles can be made by mixing 1
+lb. of asphaltum with 1 lb. of resin in 4 lb. of tar oil, well heating
+the whole in an iron vessel before applying.
+
+A good brown japan can be prepared by separately heating equal
+quantities of amber and asphaltum, and adding to each one-half the
+quantity by weight of boiled linseed oil. Both compounds are then
+mixed together. Copal resin may be substituted for the amber, but it
+is not so durable. Oil varnish made from amber is highly elastic. If
+it is used to protect tin-plate printing, when the plates after
+stoving have been subsequently rolled so as to distort the letters,
+the varnish has in no way suffered, and its surface remains unbroken.
+
+A bronzing composition for coating iron consists of 120 parts mercury,
+10 parts tin, 20 parts green vitriol, 120 parts water, and 15 parts
+hydrochloric acid of 1.2 specific gravity.
+
+
+
+
+SECTION VI.
+
+PROCESSES FOR TIN-PLATING.
+
+
+In these days of making everything look what it is not, perhaps the
+best and cheapest substitute for silver as a white coating for table
+ware, culinary vessels, and the many articles requiring such a
+coating, is pure tin. It does not compare favourably with silver in
+point of hardness or wearing qualities, but it costs very much less
+than silver, is readily applied, and can be easily kept clean and
+bright. In tinning hollow ware on the inside the metal article is
+first thoroughly cleansed by pickling it in dilute muriatic or
+sulphuric acid and then scouring it with fine sand. It is then heated
+over a fire to about the melting-point of tin, sprinkled with powdered
+resin, and partly filled with melted pure grain tin covered with resin
+to prevent its oxidation. The vessel is then quickly turned and rolled
+about in every direction, so as to bring every part of the surface to
+be covered in contact with the molten metal. The greater part of the
+tin is then thrown out and the surface rubbed over with a brush of tow
+to equalize the coating; and if not satisfactory the operation must be
+repeated. The vessels usually tinned in this manner are of copper and
+brass, but with a little care in cleaning and manipulating, iron can
+also be satisfactorily tinned by this means. The vessels to be tinned
+must always be sufficiently hot to keep the metal contained in them
+thoroughly fused. This is covering by contact with melted tin.
+
+The amalgam process is not so much used as it was formerly. It
+consists in applying to the clean and dry metallic surface a film of a
+pasty amalgam of tin with mercury, and then exposing the surface to
+heat, which volatilizes the latter, leaving the tin adhering to the
+metal.
+
+The immersion process is the best adapted to coating articles of brass
+or copper. When immersed in a hot solution of tin properly prepared
+the metal is precipitated upon their surfaces. One of the best
+solutions for this purpose is the following:--
+
+  Ammonia alum              17-1/4 oz.
+  Boiling                   12-1/2 lb.
+  Protochloride of tin       1 oz.
+
+The articles to be tinned must be first thoroughly cleansed, and then
+kept in the hot solution until properly whitened. A better result will
+be obtained by using the following bath, and placing the pieces in
+contact with a strip of clean zinc, also immersed:--
+
+  Bitartrate of potassium      14 oz.
+  Soft water                   24 "
+  Protochloride of tin          1 "
+
+It should be boiled for a few minutes before using.
+
+The following is one of the best solutions for plating with tin by the
+battery process:--
+
+  Potassium pyrophosphate      12     oz.
+  Protochloride of tin          4-1/2 "
+  Water                        20     "
+
+The anode or feeding-plate used in this bath consists of pure Banca
+tin. This plate is joined to the positive (copper or carbon) pole of
+the battery, while the work is suspended from a wire connected with
+the negative (zinc) pole. A moderately strong battery is required, and
+the work is finished by scratch-brushing.
+
+In Weigler's process a bath is prepared by passing washed chlorine gas
+into a concentrated aqueous solution of stannous chloride to
+saturation, and expelling excess of gas by warming the solution, which
+is then diluted with about ten volumes of water, and filtered, if
+necessary. The articles to be plated are pickled in dilute sulphuric
+acid, and polished with fine sand and a scratch-brush, rinsed in
+water, loosely wound round with zinc wire or tape, and immersed in the
+bath for ten or fifteen minutes at ordinary temperatures. The coating
+is finished with the scratch-brush and whiting. By this process
+cast-or wrought-iron, steel, copper, brass, and lead can be tinned
+without a separate battery. The only disadvantage of the process is
+that the bath soon becomes clogged up with zinc chloride, and the tin
+salt must be frequently removed. In Hern's process a bath composed
+of--
+
+  Tartaric acid             2 oz.
+  Water                   100 "
+  Soda                      3 "
+  Protochloride of tin      3 "
+
+is employed instead of the preceding. It requires a somewhat longer
+exposure to properly tin articles in this than in Weigler's bath.
+Either of these baths may be used with a separate battery.
+
+
+
+
+SECTION VII.
+
+GALVANIZING.
+
+
+Galvanizing, as a protecting surface for large articles, such as enter
+into the construction of bridges, roofs, and shipwork, has not quite
+reached the point of appreciation that possibly the near future may
+award to it. Certain fallacies existed for a long time as to the
+relative merits of the dry or molten and the wet or electrolytical
+methods of galvanizing. The latter was found to be costly and slow,
+and the results obtained were erratic and not satisfactory, and soon
+gave place to the dry or molten bath process, as in practice at the
+present day; but the difficulty of management in connexion with large
+baths of molten material, and the deterioration of the bath, and other
+mechanical causes, limit the process to articles of comparatively
+small size and weight. The electro deposition of zinc has been subject
+to many patents, and the efforts to introduce it have been lamentable
+in both a mechanical and financial sense. Most authorities recommend a
+current density of 18 or 20 amperes per square foot of cathode
+surface, and aqueous solutions of zinc sulphate, acetate or chloride,
+ammonia, chloride or tartrate, as being the most suitable for
+deposition. Electrolytes made by adding caustic potash or soda to a
+suitable zinc salt have been found to be unworkable in practice on
+account of the formation of an insoluble zinc oxide on the surface of
+the anode and the resultant increased electrical resistance; the
+electrolytes are also constantly getting out of order, as more metal
+is taken out of the solution than could possibly be dissolved from the
+anodes by the chemicals set free on account of this insoluble scale or
+furring up of the anodes, which sometimes reaches one-eighth of an
+inch in thickness. To all intents and purposes the deposits obtained
+from acid solutions under favourable circumstances are fairly adhesive
+when great care has been exercised to thoroughly scale and clean the
+surface to be coated, which is found to be the principal difficulty in
+the application of any electro-chemical process for copper, lead, or
+tin, as well as for zinc, and that renders even the application of
+paint or other brush compounds to futile unless honestly complied
+with. Unfortunately these acid zinc coatings are of a transitory
+nature, Their durability being incomparable with hot galvanizing, as
+the deposit is porous and retains some of the acid salts, which cause
+a wasting of the zinc, and consequently the rusting of the iron or
+steel. Castings coated with acid zinc rust comparatively quickly, even
+when the porosity has been reduced by oxidation, aggravated no doubt
+by some of the corroding agents--sal-ammoniac, for instance--being
+forced into the pores of the metal. Other matters of serious moment in
+the electro-zincing process, apart from the slowness of the operation,
+were the uncertain nature, thickness, and extent of the coating on
+articles of irregular shape, and the formation of loose, dark-coloured
+patches on the work; the unhealthy and non-metallic look and want of
+brilliancy and the lustre prevented engineers and the trade from
+accepting the process or its results, except for the commoner articles
+of use. To obviate any tendency of the paint to peel off from the zinc
+surface, as it generally manifests a disposition to do, it is
+recommended to coat all the zinc surfaces, previous to painting them,
+with the following compound: 1 part chloride of copper, 1 part nitrate
+of copper, 1 part sal-ammoniac, dissolved in 61 parts of water, and
+then add 1 part commercial hydrochloric acid. When the zinc is brushed
+over with this mixture it oxidizes the surface, turns black, and dries
+in from twelve to twenty-four hours, and may then be painted over
+without any danger of peeling. Another and more quickly applied
+coating consists of, bi-chloride of platinum, 1 part dissolved in 10
+parts of distilled water, and applied either by a brush or sponge. It
+oxidizes at once, turns black, and resists the weak acids, rain, and
+the elements generally.
+
+Zinc surfaces, after a brief exposure to the air, become coated with a
+thin film of oxide--insoluble in water--which adheres tenaciously,
+forming a protective coating to the underlying zinc. So long as the
+zinc surface remains intact, the underlying metal is protected from
+corrosive action, but a mechanical or other injury to the zinc coating
+that exposes the metal beneath, in the presence of moisture causes a
+very rapid corrosion to be started, the galvanic action being changed
+from the zinc positive to zinc negative, and the iron, as the positive
+element in the circuit, is corroded instead of the zinc. When
+galvanized iron is immersed in a corrosive liquid, the zinc is
+attacked in preference to the iron, provided both the exposed parts of
+the iron and the protected parts are immersed in the liquid. The zinc
+has not the same protective quality when the liquid is sprinkled over
+the surface and remains in isolated drops. Sea air, being charged with
+saline matters, is very destructive to galvanized surfaces, forming a
+soluble chloride by its action. As zinc is one of the metals most
+readily attacked by acids, ordinary galvanized iron is not suitable
+for positions where it is to be much exposed to an atmosphere charged
+with acids sent into the air by some manufactories, or to the
+sulphuric acid fumes found in the products of combustion of rolling
+mills, iron, glass, and gas works, etc., and yet we see engineers of
+note covering-in important buildings with corrugated and other sheets
+of iron, and using galvanized iron tie rods, angles, and other
+constructive shapes in blind confidence of the protective power of the
+zinc coating; also in supreme indifference as to the future
+consequences and catastrophes that arise from their unexpected
+failure. The comparative inertia of lead to the chemical action of
+many acids has led to the contention that it should form as good, if
+not a better, protection of iron than zinc, but in practice it is
+found to be deficient as a protective coating against corrosion. A
+piece of lead-coated iron placed in water will show decided evidences
+of corrosion in twenty-four hours. This is to be attributed to the
+porous nature of the coating, whether it is applied by the hot or wet
+(acid) process. The lead does not bond to the plate as well as either
+of the other metals--zinc, tin, copper, or any alloys of them. The
+following table gives the increase in weight of different articles due
+to hot galvanizing:--
+
+  +--------------------------+--------------------------+-------------+
+  |    Description of        |     Weight of Zinc       | Percentage  |
+  |       Article            |     per Square foot      | of Increase |
+  |                          |                          | of Weight   |
+  +--------------------------+--------------------------+-------------+
+  | Thin sheet-iron          |         1.196 oz.        |    18.2     |
+  | 5/16-in. plates          |         1.76  "          |     2.0     |
+  | 4-in. cut nails          |         2.19  "          |     6.72    |
+  | 7/8-in. die bolt and nut | approximately 1.206 oz.  |     1.00    |
+  +--------------------------+--------------------------+-------------+
+
+Tin is often added to the hot bath for the purpose of obtaining a
+smoother surface and larger facets, but it is found to shorten the
+life of the protective coating very considerably.
+
+A portion of a zinc coating applied by the hot process was found to be
+very brittle, breaking when attempts were made to bend it; the average
+thickness of the coating was .015 inch. An analysis gave the following
+result: tin, 2.20; iron, 3.78; arsenic, a trace; zinc (by difference),
+94.02. A small quantity of iron is dissolved from all the articles
+placed in the molten zinc bath, and a dross is formed amounting in
+many cases to 25 per cent of the whole amount of zinc used. The
+zinc-iron alloy is very brittle, and contains by analysis 6 per cent
+of iron, and is used to cast small art ornaments from. A hot
+galvanizing plant, having a bath capacity of 10 feet by 4 feet by
+4-1/2 feet outside dimensions, and about 1 inch in thickness, will
+hold 28 tons of zinc. With equal amounts of zinc per unit of area, the
+zinc coating put on by the cold process is more resistant to the
+corroding action of a saturated solution of copper sulphate than is
+the case with steel coated by the ordinary hot galvanizing process;
+or, to put it in another form, articles coated by the cold process
+should have an equally long life under the same conditions of exposure
+that hot galvanized articles are exposed to, and with less zinc than
+would be necessary in the ordinary hot process. The hardness of a zinc
+surface is a matter of some importance. With this object in view
+aluminium has been added from a separate crucible to the molten zinc
+at the moment of dipping the article to be zinced, so as to form a
+compound surface of zinco-aluminium, and to reduce the ashes formed
+from the protective coverings of sal-ammoniac, fat, glycerine, etc.
+The addition of the aluminium also reduces the thickness of the
+coating applied. Cold and hot galvanized plates appear to stand
+abrasion equally well. Both pickling and hot galvanizing reduce the
+strength, distort and render brittle iron and steel wires of small
+sections.
+
+
+THE END.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+
+A
+
+  Amalgam process in tin-plating, 59.
+  Appliances and apparatus used in japanning and enamelling, 29.
+
+
+B
+
+  Battery process in tin-plating, 59.
+  Black grounds, 11.
+  ---- japan grounds on metal, common, 12.
+  ---- paints, 52.
+  ---- pigment, 46.
+  ---- stain for iron, 53.
+  ---- varnish for sewing machines, 56.
+  Blue japan grounds, 9.
+  ---- pigment, 46.
+  Brass, polished, colours for, 49-57.
+  Brick ovens, 33.
+  Bright pale yellow grounds, 10.
+  Bronzing composition, 49.
+  Brown japan, 57.
+  Bunsen burner, 33.
+
+
+C
+
+  Carriage varnish, 51.
+  Colours for polished brass, 49.
+  Common black japan grounds on metal, 12.
+  Composition for bronzing, 49.
+  Cream enamel, 8.
+
+
+E
+
+  Enamelling and japanning stoves, 29-46.
+  ---- ---- ---- ---- heated by direct fire, 34.
+  ---- ---- ---- ---- heated by hot-water pipes, 36.
+  ---- or japanning metals, 20-28.
+  ---- old work, 27.
+
+
+F
+
+  First stage in the japanning of wood, 5.
+  ---- ---- in the japanning of leather, without a priming, 5.
+
+
+G
+
+  Galvanized iron, painting on, 49.
+  Galvanizing, 61-66.
+  Golden varnish for metal, 51.
+  Green japan grounds, 10.
+  ---- pigment, 46.
+  Ground, red japan, 10.
+  ---- scarlet japan, 9.
+  ---- tortoise-shell, 12.
+  Grounds, black, 11.
+  ---- black japan, 12.
+  ---- blue japan, 9.
+  ---- bright pale yellow, 10.
+  ---- green japan, 10.
+  ---- japan, 6-19.
+  ---- orange-coloured, 11.
+  ---- purple, 11.
+  ---- white japan, 7
+
+
+H
+
+  Heating stoves by direct fire, 34.
+  ---- ---- by hot-water pipes, 36.
+  Hern's process in tin-plating, 60.
+
+
+I
+
+  Immersion process in tin-plating, 59.
+  Iron, black stain for, 53.
+  ---- galvanized, painting on, 49.
+  Ironwork, varnishes for, 55.
+
+
+J
+
+  Japan, brown, 57.
+  ---- ground, red, 10.
+  ---- ---- scarlet, 9.
+  ---- ---- grounds, 6-19.
+  ---- ---- black, 12.
+  ---- ---- blue, 9.
+  ---- ---- green, 10.
+  ---- ---- white, 7.
+  ---- work, painting, 13.
+  ---- ---- varnishing, 17.
+  Japanese gold size, 14.
+  Japanese lacquer, 47.
+  Japanning and enamelling stoves, 34.
+  ---- ---- ---- ---- heated by direct fire, 34.
+  ---- ---- ---- ---- heated by hot-water pipes, 36.
+  ---- leather without a priming, first stage, 5.
+  ---- or enamelling metals, 20-28.
+  ---- tin, 25.
+  ---- wood, first stage, 5.
+
+
+L
+
+  Lacquer, Japanese, 47.
+
+
+M
+
+  Metal, golden varnish for, 51.
+  ---- polishes, 51.
+  Metals, japanning or enamelling, 20-28.
+  Modern japanning and enamelling stoves, 34.
+
+
+N
+
+  Natural Japanese lacquer, 47.
+  ---- lacquer, 45.
+
+
+O
+
+  Oil vehicle, 14.
+  Old work, enamelling, 27.
+  Orange-coloured grounds, 11.
+
+
+P
+
+  Painting japan work, 13.
+  ---- on galvanized iron, 49.
+  ---- ---- zinc, 49.
+  Paints, black, 52.
+  Pigments suitable for japanning with natural lacquer, 45.
+  ---- black, 46.
+  ---- blue, 46.
+  ---- green, 46.
+  ---- red, 46.
+  ---- white, 45.
+  ---- yellow, 46.
+  Polished brass, colours for, 49.
+  Preparing the surface to be japanned, 4.
+  Priming the surface to be japanned, 4.
+  Processes for tin-plating, 58.
+  Purple grounds, 11.
+
+
+R
+
+  Red japan ground, 10.
+  ---- pigments, 46.
+
+
+S
+
+  Scarlet japan ground, 9.
+  Sewing machines, black varnish for, 56.
+  Shellac varnish, 6.
+  Stoves, modern japanning and enamelling, 34.
+  Stove, the enamelling and japanning, 29-45.
+  Surface to be japanned, priming or preparing the, 4.
+
+
+T
+
+  Tin, japanning, 25.
+  Tin-plating, colours for, 58.
+  Tin-plating, amalgam process, 59.
+  ---- battery process, 59.
+  ---- Hern's process, 60.
+  ---- immersion process, 59.
+  ---- Weigler's process, 60.
+  Tortoise-shell ground, 12.
+
+
+U
+
+  Urushiol, 47.
+
+
+V
+
+  Varnish, carriage, 51,
+  ---- for iron and steel, 57.
+  ---- for metal, golden, 51.
+  ---- shellac, 6.
+  Varnishes for iron work, 55.
+  Varnishing japan work, 17.
+
+
+W
+
+  Weigler's process of tin-plating, 60.
+  White japan grounds, 7.
+  ---- pigments, 45.
+  Wood, first stage in the japanning of, 5.
+
+
+Y
+
+  Yellow grounds, bright pale, 10.
+  ---- pigments, 46.
+
+
+Z
+
+  Zinc, painting on, 49.
+
+
+ABERDEEN: THE UNIVERSITY PRESS
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+ENAMELS AND ENAMELLING
+
+An Introduction to the Preparation and Application of all kinds of
+Enamels for Technical and Artistic Purposes.
+
+TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN OF PAUL RANDAU.
+
+_Second and Enlarged Edition._
+
+_Demy 8vo._         _194 Pages._
+
+Price 10s. 6d. net. (Post Free, 10s. 10d. Home; 11s. Abroad.)
+
+  Published by
+  SCOTT, GREENWOOD & SON,
+  8 BROADWAY, LUDGATE, LONDON, E.C.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+THE MANUFACTURE OF VARNISHES.
+
+BY
+
+_J.G. McINTOSH._
+
+  Based on and including the work of
+  ACH. LIVACHE.
+
+IN THREE VOLUMES.
+
+VOLUME I.--OIL CRUSHING, REFINING AND BOILING, THE MANUFACTURE OF
+LINOLEUM, PRINTING AND LITHOGRAPHIC INKS, AND INDIA-RUBBER
+SUBSTITUTES. Demy 8vo. 150 pp. 29 Illustrations. Price 75. 6d. net.
+(Post free, 7s. 10d. home; 8s. abroad.)
+
+VOLUME II.--VARNISH MATERIALS AND OIL-VARNISH MAKING. Demy 8vo. 70
+Illustrations. 220 pp. Price 10s. 6d. net. (Post free, 10s. 10d. home;
+11s. 3d. abroad.)
+
+VOLUME III.--SPIRIT VARNISHES AND SPIRIT VARNISH MATERIALS. Demy 8vo.
+64 Illustrations. 464 pp. Price 12s. 6d. net. (Post free, 13s. home;
+13s. 6d. abroad.)
+
+Send for Catalogue giving List of Contents of above works from
+
+  SCOTT, GREENWOOD & SON,
+  8 BROADWAY, LUDGATE, LONDON, E.C.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+For the latest recipes, etc., on Japanning you should read
+
+Oil & Colour Trades Journal.
+
+The Weekly Organ of the
+
+OIL, PAINT, VARNISH, SOAP, GLUE, DRYSALTERY, AND ALLIED TRADES.
+
+  The Annual Subscription
+    FOR 52 WEEKLY ISSUES, POST FREE, AND A COPY OF THE ANNUAL
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+
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+    WILL BE SENT TO ANYONE SENDING THEIR NAME AND ADDRESS TO
+
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+  8 BROADWAY, LUDGATE, LONDON, E.C.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Handbook on Japanning: 2nd Edition
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