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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of A System of Instruction in the Practical
+Use of the Blowpipe, by Anonymous
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: A System of Instruction in the Practical Use of the Blowpipe
+       Being A Graduated Course Of Analysis For The Use Of Students
+       And All Those Engaged In The Examination Of Metallic
+       Combinations
+
+Author: Anonymous
+
+Release Date: April 7, 2005 [EBook #15576]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK USE OF THE BLOWPIPE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Curtis Weyant, Victoria Woosley and the PG
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at www.pgdp.net.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+                             A
+                    SYSTEM OF INSTRUCTION
+                            IN
+                     THE PRACTICAL USE
+                            OF
+                       THE BLOWPIPE.
+
+
+   BEING A GRADUATED COURSE OF ANALYSIS FOR THE USE OF STUDENTS
+      AND ALL THOSE ENGAGED IN THE EXAMINATION OF METALLIC
+                       COMBINATIONS.
+
+
+                        NEW YORK:
+               H. BAILLIÈRE, 290 BROADWAY,
+              AND 219 REGENT STREET, LONDON.
+
+      PARIS: J.B. BAILLIÈRE ET FILS, RUE HAUTEFEUILLE.
+      MADRID: C. BAILLY-BAILLIÈRE, CALLE DEL PRINCIPE.
+                          1858.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+    ENTERED according to Act of Congress, in the year 1858, by
+                     C.E. BAILLIÈRE,
+ In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States,
+        for the Southern District of New York.
+
+
+      W.H. TINSON, Printer and Stereotyper, 43 Centre Street.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS.
+
+
+PART I.
+
+Preface,                                                             7
+The Use of the Blowpipe,                                             9
+Utensils--The Blowpipe,                                             12
+The Oil Lamp,                                                       22
+The Spirit Lamp,                                                    23
+Charcoal Support,                                                   24
+Platinum Supports,                                                  26
+Iron Spoons,                                                        28
+Glass Tubes,                                                        28
+Other Apparatus necessary,                                          31
+THE REAGENTS,                                                       34
+  Reagents of General Use,                                          34
+  Carbonate of Soda,                                                34
+  Hydrate of Baryta,                                                35
+  Bi-sulphate of Potassa,                                           35
+  Oxalate of Potassa,                                               36
+  Cyanide of Potassium,                                             36
+Nitrate of Potassa,                                                 37
+  Borax,                                                            38
+  Microcosmic Salt,                                                 39
+  Nitrate of Cobalt,                                                40
+  Tin,                                                              41
+  Silica,                                                           42
+  Test Papers,                                                      42
+ESPECIAL REAGENTS,                                                  43
+  Boracic Acid,                                                     43
+  Fluorspar,                                                        43
+  Oxalate of Nickel,                                                43
+  Oxide of Copper,                                                  43
+  Antimoniate of Potassa,                                           44
+  Silver Foil,                                                      44
+  Nitroprusside of Sodium,                                          44
+
+
+PART II.
+
+Initiatory Analysis,                                                47
+Examination with the Glass Bulb,                                    47
+      "     in the Open Tube,                                       52
+      "     upon Charcoal,                                          55
+      "     in the Platinum Forceps,                                61
+      "     in the Borax Bead,                                      69
+      "     in Microcosmic Salt,                                    72
+Table I.--Colors of Beads of Borax and Microcosmic Salt,            75
+Table II.--Behavior of Metallic Oxydes with Borax and
+  Microcosmic Salt,                                                 85
+Examinations with Carbonate of Soda,                               103
+
+
+PART III.
+
+Special Reactions,                                                 109
+A.--METALLIC OXIDES:
+  First Group.--The Alkalies: Potassa, Soda, Ammonia, and Lithia,  110
+  Second Group.--The Alkaline Earths: Baryta, Strontia, Lime,
+    and Magnesia,                                                  115
+  Third Group.--The Earths: Alumina, Glucina, Yttria, Thorina,
+    and Zirconia,                                                  121
+  Fourth Group.--Cerium, Lanthanium, Didymium, Columbium,
+    Niobium, Pelopium, Titanium, Uranium, Vanadium, Chromium,
+    Manganese,                                                     124
+  Fifth Group.--Iron, Cobalt, Nickel,                              135
+  Sixth Group.--Zinc, Cadmium, Antimony, Tellurium,                140
+  Seventh Group.--Lead, Bismuth, Tin,                              149
+  Eighth Group.--Mercury, Arsenic,                                 157
+  Ninth Group.--Copper, Silver, Gold,                              161
+  Tenth Group.--Molybdenum, Osmium,                                165
+  Eleventh Group.--Platinum, Palladium, Iridium, Rhodium,
+    Ruthenium,                                                     167
+
+Non-Metallic Substances,                                           168
+
+
+Tabular Statement of the Reactions of Minerals before
+    the Blowpipe,                                                  178
+  Carbon and Organic Minerals,                                     181
+  Potassa,                                                         184
+  Soda,                                                            186
+  Baryta and Strontia,                                             190
+  Lime,                                                            192
+  Magnesia,                                                        196
+  Alumina,                                                         200
+  Silicates,                                                       204
+  Uranium,                                                         212
+  Iron,                                                            214
+  Manganese,                                                       222
+  Nickel and Cobalt,                                               226
+  Zinc,                                                            232
+  Bismuth,                                                         234
+  Lead,                                                            238
+  Copper,                                                          248
+  Antimony,                                                        256
+  Arsenic,                                                         260
+  Mercury,                                                         262
+  Silver,                                                          264
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+It is believed the arrangement of the present work is superior to that
+of many of its predecessors, as a vehicle for the facilitation of the
+student's progress. While it does not pretend to any other rank than
+as an introduction to the larger works, it is hoped that the
+arrangement of its matter is such that the beginner may more readily
+comprehend the entire subject of Blowpipe Analysis than if he were to
+begin his studies by the perusal of the more copious works of
+Berzelius and Plattner.
+
+When the student shall have gone through these pages, and repeated the
+various reactions described, then he will be fully prepared to enter
+upon the study of the larger works. To progress through them will then
+be but a comparatively easy task.
+
+The arrangement of this little work has been such as the author and
+his friends have considered the best that could be devised for the
+purpose of facilitating the progress of the student. Whether we have
+succeeded is left for the public to decide. The author is indebted to
+several of his friends for valuable contributions and suggestions.
+
+S.
+
+CINCINNATI, _June, 1857_.
+
+*       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+         THE BLOWPIPE.
+
+
+
+
+*       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+Part First.
+
+THE USE OF THE BLOWPIPE.
+
+
+Perhaps during the last fifty years, no department of chemistry has
+been so enriched as that relating to analysis by means of the
+Blowpipe.
+
+Through the unwearied exertions of men of science, the use of this
+instrument has arrived to such a degree of perfection, that we have a
+right to term its use, "Analysis in the _dry_ way," in contradistinction
+to analysis "in the _wet_ way." The manipulations are so simple and
+expeditious, and the results so clear and characteristic, that the
+Blowpipe analysis not only verifies and completes the results of
+analysis in the wet way, but it gives in many cases direct evidences
+of the presence or absence of many substances, which would not be
+otherwise detected, but through a troublesome and tedious process,
+involving both prolixity and time; for instance, the detection of
+manganese in minerals.
+
+Many substances have to go through Blowpipe manipulations before they
+can be submitted to an analysis in the wet way. The apparatus and
+reagents employed are compendious and small in number, so that they
+can be carried easily while on scientific excursions, a considerable
+advantage for mineralogists and metallurgists.
+
+The principal operations with the Blowpipe may be explained briefly as
+follows:
+
+
+(_a._) By _Ignition_ is meant the exposure of a substance to such a
+degree of heat, that it glows or emits light, or becomes red-hot. Its
+greatest value is in the separation of a volatile substance from one
+less volatile, or one which is entirely fixed at the temperature of
+the flame. In this case we only take cognizance of the latter or fixed
+substance, although in many instances we make use of ignition for the
+purpose of changing the conditions of a substance, for example, the
+sesquioxide of chromium (Cr^{2}O^{3}) in its insoluble modification;
+and as a preliminary examination for the purpose of ascertaining
+whether the subject of inquiry be a combination of an organic or
+inorganic nature.
+
+The apparatus used for this purpose are crucibles of platinum or
+silver, platinum foil, a platinum spoon, platinum wire or tongs,
+charcoal, glass tubes, and iron spoons.
+
+
+(_b._) _Sublimation_ is that process by which we convert a solid
+substance into vapor by means of a strong heat. These vapors are
+condensed by refrigeration into the solid form. It may be termed a
+distillation of a solid substance. Sublimation is of great consequence
+in the detection of many substances; for instance, arsenic, antimony,
+mercury, etc.
+
+The apparatus used for the purposes of sublimation consist of glass
+tubes closed at one end.
+
+
+(_c._) _Fusion._--Many substances when exposed to a certain degree of
+heat lose their solid form, and are converted into a liquid. Those
+substances which do not become converted into the liquid state by
+heat, are said to be infusible. It is a convenient classification to
+arrange substances into those which are fusible with difficulty, and
+those which are easily fusible. Very often we resort to fusion for the
+purpose of decomposing a substance, or to cause it to enter into
+other combinations, by which means it is the more readily detected. If
+insoluble substances are fused with others more fusible (reagents) for
+the purpose of causing a combination which is soluble in water and
+acids, the operation is termed _unclosing_. These substances are
+particularly the silicates and the sulphates of the alkaline earths.
+The usual reagents resorted to for this purpose are carbonate of soda
+(NaO, CO^{2}), carbonate of potash (KO, CO^{2}), or still better, a
+mixture of the two in equal parts. In some cases we use the hydrate of
+barytes (BaO, HO) and the bisulphate of potash (KO, 2SO^{3}). The
+platinum spoon is generally used for this manipulation.
+
+Substances are exposed to fusion for the purpose of getting a new
+combination which has such distinctive characteristics that we can
+class it under a certain group; or for the purpose of ascertaining at
+once what the substance may be. The reagents used for this purpose are
+borax (NaO, 2BrO^{3}) and the microcosmic salt (NaO, NH^{4}O, PO^{5},
+HO). Charcoal and the platinum wire are used as supports for this kind
+of operation.
+
+
+(_d._) _Oxidation._--The chemical combination of any substance with
+oxygen is termed _oxidation_, and the products are termed _oxides_. As
+these oxides have qualities differing from those which are
+non-oxidized, it therefore frequently becomes necessary to convert
+substances into oxides; or, if they are such, of a lower degree, to
+convert them into a higher degree of oxidation. These different states
+of oxidation frequently present characteristic marks of identity
+sufficient to enable us to draw conclusions in relation to the
+substance under examination. For instance, the oxidation of manganese,
+of arsenic, etc. The conditions necessary for oxidation, are high
+temperature and the free admission of air to the substance.
+
+If the oxidation is effected through the addition of a substance
+containing oxygen (for instance, the nitrate or chlorate of potash)
+and the heating is accompanied by a lively deflagration and crackling
+noise, it is termed _detonation_. By this process we frequently
+effect the oxidation of a substance, and thus we prove the presence or
+the absence of a certain class of substances. For instance, if we
+detonate (as it is termed by the German chemists) the sulphide of
+antimony, or the sulphide of arsenic with nitrate of potash, we get
+the nitrate of antimony, or the nitrate of arsenic. The salts of
+nitric or chloric acid are determined by fusing them with the cyanide
+of potassium, because the salts of these acids detonate.
+
+
+(_e._) _Reduction._--If we deprive an oxidized substance of its
+oxygen, we term the process _reduction_. This is effected by fusing
+the substance under examination with another which possesses a greater
+affinity for oxygen. The agents used for reduction are hydrogen,
+charcoal, soda, cyanide of potassium, etc. Substances generally, when
+in the unoxidized state, have such characteristic qualities, that they
+cannot very readily be mistaken for others. For this reason, reduction
+is a very excellent expedient for the purpose of discerning and
+classifying many substances.
+
+
+B. UTENSILS.
+
+We shall give here a brief description of the most necessary apparatus
+used for analysis in the dry way, and of their use.
+
+_The Blowpipe_ is a small instrument, made generally out of brass,
+silver, or German silver, and was principally used in earlier times
+for the purpose of soldering small pieces of metals together. It is
+generally made in the form of a tube, bent at a right angle, but
+without a sharp corner. The largest one is about seven inches long,
+and the smallest about two inches. The latter one terminates with a
+small point, with a small orifice. The first use of the blowpipe that
+we have recorded is that of a Swedish mining officer, who used it in
+the year 1738 for chemical purposes, but we have the most meagre
+accounts of his operations. In 1758 another Swedish mining officer, by
+the name of Cronstedt, published his "Use of the Blowpipe in
+Chemistry and Mineralogy," translated into English, in 1770, by Van
+Engestroem. Bergman extended its use, and after him Ghan and the
+venerable Berzelius (1821). The blowpipe most generally used in
+chemical examinations is composed of the following parts: (_Fig._ 1.)
+A is a little reservoir made air-tight by grinding the part B into it.
+This reservoir serves the purpose of retaining the moisture with which
+the air from the mouth is charged. A small conical tube is fitted to
+this reservoir. This tube terminates in a fine orifice. As this small
+point is liable to get clogged up with soot, etc., it is better that
+it should be made of platinum, so that it may be ignited. Two of these
+platinum tubes should be supplied, differing in the size of the
+orifice, by which a stronger or lighter current of flame may be
+projected from it. Metals, such as brass or German silver, are very
+liable to become dirty through oxidation, and when placed between the
+lips are liable to impart a disagreeable taste. To avoid this, the top
+of the tube must be supplied with a mouthpiece of ivory or horn C. The
+blowpipe here represented is the one used by Ghan, and approved by
+Berzelius. The trumpet mouthpiece was adopted by Plattner; it is
+pressed upon the lips while blowing, which is less tiresome than
+holding the mouthpiece between the lips, although many prefer the
+latter mode.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1]
+
+Dr. Black's blowpipe is as good an instrument and cheaper. It
+consists of two tubes, soldered at a right angle; the larger one, into
+which the air is blown, is of sufficient capacity to serve as a
+reservoir.
+
+A chemist can, with a blowpipe and a piece of charcoal, determine many
+substances without any reagents, thus enabling him, even when
+travelling, to make useful investigations with means which are always
+at his disposal. There are pocket blowpipes as portable as a pencil
+case, such as Wollaston's and Mitscherlich's; these are objectionable
+for continued use as their construction requires the use of a metallic
+mouthpiece. Mr. Casamajor, of New York, has made one lately which has
+an ivory mouthpiece, and which, when in use, is like Dr. Black's.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2]
+
+The length of the blowpipe is generally seven or eight inches, but
+this depends very much upon the visual angle of the operators. A
+short-sighted person, of course, would require an instrument of less
+length than would suit a far-sighted person.
+
+The purpose required of the blowpipe is to introduce a fine current of
+air into the flame of a candle or lamp, by which a higher degree of
+heat is induced, and consequently combustion is more rapidly
+accomplished.
+
+By inspecting the flame of a candle burning under usual circumstances,
+we perceive at the bottom of the flame a portion which is of a light
+blue color (_a b_), _Fig._ 2, which gradually diminishes in size
+as it recedes from the wick, and disappears when it reaches the
+perpendicular side of the flame. In the midst of the flame there is a
+dark nucleus with a conical form (_c_). This is enveloped by the
+illuminating portion of the flame (_d_). At the exterior edge of the
+part _d_ we perceive a thin, scarcely visible veil, _a, e, e_, which
+is broader near the apex of the flame. The action of the burning
+candle may be thus explained. The radiant heat from the flame melts
+the tallow or wax, which then passes up into the texture of the wick
+by capillary attraction until it reaches the glowing wick, where the
+heat decomposes the combustible matter into carbonated hydrogen
+(C^{4}H^{4}), and into carbonic oxide (CO).
+
+While these gases are rising in hot condition, the air comes in
+contact with them and effects their combustion. The dark portion, _c_,
+of the flame is where the carbon and gases have not a sufficiency of
+air for their thorough combustion; but gradually they become mixed
+with air, although not then sufficient for complete combustion. The
+hydrogen is first oxidized or burnt, and then the carbon is attacked
+by the air, although particles of carbon are separated, and it is
+these, in a state of intense ignition, which produce the illumination.
+By bringing any oxidizable substance into this portion of the flame,
+it oxidizes very quickly in consequence of the high temperature and
+the free access of air. For that reason this part of the flame is
+termed the oxidizing flame, while the illuminating portion, by its
+tendency to abstract oxygen for the purpose of complete combustion,
+easily reduces oxidated substances brought into it, and it is,
+therefore, called the flame of reduction. In the oxidizing flame, on
+the contrary, all the carbon which exists in the interior of the flame
+is oxidized into carbonic acid (CO^{2}) and carbonic oxide (CO), while
+the blue color of the cone of the flame is caused by the complete
+combustion of the carbonic oxide. These two portions of the flame--the
+oxidizing and the reducing--are the principal agents of blowpipe
+analysis.
+
+If we introduce a fine current of air into a flame, we notice the
+following: The air strikes first the dark nucleus, and forcing the
+gases beyond it, mixes with them, by which oxygen is mingled freely
+with them. This effects the complete combustion of the gases at a
+certain distance from the point of the blowpipe. At this place the
+flame has the highest temperature, forming there the point of a blue
+cone. The illuminated or reducing portion of the flame is enveloped
+outside and inside by a very hot flame, whereby its own temperature is
+so much increased that in this reduction-flame many substances will
+undergo fusion which would prove perfectly refractory in a common
+flame. The exterior scarcely visible part loses its form, is
+diminished, and pressed more to a point, by which its heating power is
+greatly increased.
+
+_The Blast of Air._--By using the blowpipe for chemical purposes, the
+effect intended to be produced is an uninterrupted steady stream of
+air for many minutes together, if necessary, without an instant's
+cessation. Therefore, the blowing can only be effected with the
+muscles of the cheeks, and not by the exertion of the lungs. It is
+only by this means that a steady constant stream of air can be kept
+up, while the lungs will not be injured by the deprival of air. The
+details of the proper manner of using the blowpipe are really more
+difficult to describe than to acquire by practice; therefore the pupil
+is requested to apply himself at once to its practice, by which he
+will soon learn to produce a steady current of air, and to distinguish
+the different flames from each other. We would simply say that the
+tongue must be applied to the roof of the mouth, so as to interrupt
+the communication between the passage of the nostrils and the mouth.
+The operator now fills his mouth with air, which is to be passed
+through the pipe by compressing the muscles of the cheeks, while he
+breathes through the nostrils, and uses the palate as a valve. When
+the mouth becomes nearly empty, it is replenished by the lungs in an
+instant, while the tongue is momentarily withdrawn from the roof of
+the mouth. The stream of air can be continued for a long time, without
+the least fatigue or injury to the lungs. The easiest way for the
+student to accustom himself to the use of the blowpipe, is first to
+learn to fill the mouth with air, and while the lips are kept firmly
+closed to breathe freely through the nostrils. Having effected this
+much, he may introduce the mouthpiece of the blowpipe between his
+lips. By inflating the cheeks, and breathing through the nostrils, he
+will soon learn to use the instrument without the least fatigue. The
+air is forced through the tube against the flame by the action of the
+muscles of the cheeks, while he continues to breathe without
+interruption through the nostrils. Having become acquainted with this
+process, it only requires some practice to produce a steady jet of
+flame. A defect in the nature of the combustible used, as bad oil,
+such as fish oil, or oil thickened by long standing or by dirt, dirty
+cotton wick, or an untrimmed one, or a dirty wickholder, or a want of
+steadiness of the hand that holds the blowpipe, will prevent a steady
+jet of flame. But frequently the fault lies in the orifice of the jet,
+or too small a hole, or its partial stoppage by dirt, which will
+prevent a steady jet of air, and lead to difficulty. With a good
+blowpipe the air projects the entire flame, forming a horizontal, blue
+cone of flame, which converges to a point at about an inch from the
+wick, with a larger, longer, and more luminous flame enveloping it,
+and terminating to a point beyond that of the blue flame.
+
+To produce an efficient flame of oxidation, put the point of the
+blowpipe into the flame about one third the diameter of the wick, and
+about one twelfth of an inch above it. This, however, depends upon
+the size of the flame used. Blow strong enough to keep the flame
+straight and horizontal, using the largest orifice for the purpose.
+Upon examining the flame thus produced, we will observe a long, blue
+flame, _a b_, Fig. 3, which letters correspond with the same letters
+in Fig. 2. But this flame has changed its form, and contains all the
+combustible gases. It forms now a thin, blue cone, which converges to
+a point about an inch from the wick. This point of the flame possesses
+the highest intensity of temperature, for there the combustion of the
+gases is the most complete. In the original flame, the hottest part
+forms the external envelope, but here it is compressed more into a
+point, forming the cone of the blue flame, and likewise an envelope of
+flame surrounding the blue one, extending beyond it from _a_ to _c_,
+and presenting a light bluish or brownish color. The external flame
+has the highest temperature at _d_, but this decreases from _d_ to
+_c_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3]
+
+If there is a very high temperature, the oxidation is not effected so
+readily in many cases, unless the substance is removed a little from
+the flame; but if the heat be not too high, it is readily oxidized in
+the flame, or near its cone. If the current of air is blown too
+freely or violently into the flame, more air is forced there than is
+sufficient to consume the gases. This superfluous air only acts
+detrimentally, by cooling the flame.
+
+In general the operation proceeds best when the substance is kept at a
+dull red heat. The blue cone must be kept free from straggling rays of
+the yellow or reduction flame. If the analysis be effected on
+charcoal, the blast should not be too strong, as a part of the coal
+would be converted into carbonic oxide, which would act
+antagonistically to the oxidation. The oxidation flame requires a
+steady current of air, for the purpose of keeping the blue cone
+constantly of the same length. For the purpose of acquiring practice,
+the following may be done: Melt a little molybdenic acid with some
+borax, upon a platinum wire, about the sixteenth of an inch from the
+point of the blue cone. In the pure oxidation flame, a clear yellowish
+glass is formed; but as soon as the reduction flame reaches it, or the
+point of the blue cone touches it, the color of the bead changes to a
+brown, which, finally, after a little longer blowing, becomes quite
+dark, and loses its transparency. The cause of this is, that the
+molybdenic acid is very easily reduced to a lower degree of oxidation,
+or to the oxide of molybdenum. The flame of oxidation will again
+convert this oxide into the acid, and this conversion is a good test
+of the progress of the student in the use of the blowpipe. In cases
+where we have to separate a more oxidizable substance from a less one,
+we use with success the blue cone, particularly if we wish to
+determine whether a substance has the quality, when submitted to heat
+in the blue cone, of coloring the external flame.
+
+A good _reduction_ flame can be obtained by the use of a small orifice
+at the point of the blowpipe. In order to produce such a flame, hold
+the point of the blowpipe higher above the wick, while the nozzle must
+not enter the flame so far as in the production of the oxidation
+flame. The point of the blowpipe should only touch the flame, while
+the current of air blown into it must be stronger than into the
+oxidation flame. If we project a stream, in the manner mentioned, into
+the flame, from the smaller side of the wick to the middle, we shall
+perceive the flame changed to a long, narrow, luminous cone, _a b_,
+Fig. 4, the end _a_ of which is enveloped by the same dimly visible
+blueish colored portion of the flame _a, c_, which we perceive in the
+original flame, with its point at _c_. The portion close above the
+wick, presenting the dull appearance, is occasioned by the rising
+gases which have not supplied to them enough oxygen to consume them
+entirely. The hydrogen is consumed, while the carbon is separated in a
+state of bright ignition, and forms the internal flame.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4]
+
+Directly above the wick, the combustion of the gases is least
+complete, and forms there likewise, as is the case in the free flame,
+a dark blue nucleus _d_.
+
+If the oxide of a metal is brought into the luminous portion of the
+flame produced as above, so that the flame envelopes the substance
+perfectly, the access of air is prevented. The partially consumed
+gases have now a strong affinity for oxygen, under the influence of
+the intense heat of that part of the flame. The substance is thus
+deprived of a part, or the whole, of its oxygen, and becomes _reduced_
+according to the strength of the affinity which the substance itself
+has for oxygen. If the reduction of a substance is undertaken on
+platinum, by fusion with a flux, and if the oxide is difficult to
+reduce, the reduction will be completely effected only in the luminous
+part of the flame. But if a substance be reduced on charcoal, the
+reduction will take place in the blue part of the flame, as long as
+the access of air is cut off; but it is the luminous part of the flame
+which really possesses the greatest reducing power.
+
+The following should be observed in order to procure a good reduction
+flame:
+
+    The wick should not be too long, that it may make a smoke, nor
+    too short, otherwise the flame will be too small to produce a
+    heat strong enough for reduction.
+
+    The wick must be free from all loose threads, and from
+    charcoal.
+
+    The blast should be continued for a considerable time without
+    intermission, otherwise reduction cannot be effected.
+
+For the purpose of acquiring practice, the student may fuse the oxide
+of manganese with borax, upon a platinum wire, in the oxidation flame,
+when a violet-red glass will be obtained; or if too much of the oxide
+be used, a glass of a dark color and opaque will be obtained. By
+submitting this glass to the reduction flame, it will become colorless
+in correspondence to the perfection with which the flame is produced.
+Or a piece of tin may be fused upon charcoal, and kept in that state
+for a considerable time, while it presents the appearance of a bright
+metal on the surface. This will require dexterity in the operator;
+for, if the oxidation flame should chance to touch the bright metal
+only for a moment, it is coated with an infusible oxide.
+
+
+COMBUSTION.--Any flame of sufficient size can be used for blowpipe
+operations. It may be either the flame of a candle of tallow or wax,
+or the flame of a lamp. The flame of a wax candle, or of an oil lamp
+is most generally used. Sometimes a lamp is used filled with a
+solution of spirits of turpentine in strong alcohol. If a candle is
+used, it is well to cut the wick off short, and to bend the wick a
+little toward the substance experimented upon. But candles are not the
+best for blowpipe operations, as the radiant heat, reflecting from the
+substance upon the wax or tallow, will cause it to melt and run down
+the side of the candle; while again, candles do not give heat enough.
+The lamp is much the most desirable. The subjoined figure, from
+Berzelius, is perhaps the best form of lamp. It is made of japanned
+tin-plate, about four inches in length, and has the form and
+arrangement represented in Fig. 5. K is the lamp, fastened on the
+stand, S, by a screw, C, and is movable upwards or downwards, as
+represented in the figure. The posterior end of the lamp may be about
+one inch square, and at its anterior end, E, about three-quarters of
+an inch square. The under side of this box may be round, as seen in
+the figure. The oil is poured into the orifice, A, which has a cap
+screwed over it. C' is a wickholder for a flat lamp-wick. _a_ is a
+socket containing the wick, which, when not in use, is secured from
+dirt by the cap. The figures B and _a'_ give the forms of the cap and
+socket. The best combustible for this lamp is the refined rape-seed
+oil, or pure sweet oil. When this lamp is in use, there must be no
+loose threads, or no charcoal on the wick, or these will produce a
+smoky flame. The wick, likewise, should not be pulled up too high, as
+the same smoky flame would be produced.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 5]
+
+
+THE SPIRIT-LAMP.--This is a short, strong glass lamp, with a cap, B,
+Fig. 6, fitted to it by grinding, to prevent the evaporation of the
+alcohol. The neck _a_ contains a tube C, made of silver, or of tin
+plate, and which contains the wick. Brass would not answer so well
+for this tube, as the spirits would oxidize it, and thus impart color
+to the flame. The wickholder must cover the edge of the neck, but not
+fit tight within the tube, otherwise, by its expansion, it will break
+the glass. It is not necessary that alcohol, very highly rectified,
+should be burnt in this lamp, although if too much diluted with water,
+enough heat will not be given out. Alcohol of specific gravity 0.84 to
+0.86 is the best.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 6]
+
+This lamp is generally resorted to by blowpipe analysts, for the
+purpose of experiments in glass apparatus, as the oily combustibles
+will coat the glass with soot. Some substances, when exposed to the
+dark part of the flame, become reduced and, _in statu nascendi_,
+evaporated; but by passing through the external part of the flame,
+they become oxidized again, and impart a color to the flame. The
+spirit flame is the most efficient one for the examination of
+substances the nature of which we wish to ascertain through color
+imparted to the flame, as that of the spirit-lamp being colorless, is,
+consequently, most easily and thoroughly recognized by the slightest
+tinge imparted to it.
+
+It is necessary that in operating with such minute quantities of
+substances as are used in blowpipe analysis, that they should have
+some appropriate support. In order that no false results may ensue, it
+is necessary that the supports should be of such a nature that they
+will not form a chemical combination with the substance while it is
+exposed to fusion or ignition. Appropriate supports for the different
+blowpipe experiments are charcoal, platinum instruments, and glass
+tubes.
+
+(_a._) _Charcoal._--The value of charcoal as a support may be stated
+as follows:
+
+    1. The charcoal is infusible, and being a poor conductor of
+    heat, a substance can be exposed to a higher degree of heat
+    upon it than upon any other substance.
+
+    2. It is very porous, and therefore allows easily fusible
+    substances (such as alkalies and fluxes) to pass into it,
+    while other substances less fusible, such as metals, to remain
+    unabsorbed.
+
+    3. It has likewise a great reducing power.
+
+The best kind of charcoal is that of pinewood, linden, willow, or
+alderwood, or any other soft wood. Coal from the firwood sparkles too
+freely, while that of the hard woods contains too much iron in its
+ashes. Smooth pieces, free from bark and knots, should be selected. It
+should be thoroughly burnt, and the annual rings or growths should be
+as close together as possible.
+
+If the charcoal is in masses, it should be sawed into pieces about six
+inches in length by about two inches broad, but so that the
+year-growths run perpendicular to the broadest side, as the other
+sides, by their unequal structure, burn unevenly.
+
+That the substance under examination may not be carried off by the
+blast, small conical concavities should be cut in the broad side of
+the charcoal, between the year-growths, with a conical tube of tin
+plate about two or three inches long, and one quarter of an inch at
+one end, and half an inch at the other. These edges are made sharp
+with a file. The widest end of this charcoal borer is used for the
+purpose of making cavities for cupellation.
+
+In places where the proper kind of charcoal is difficult to procure,
+it is economical to cut common charcoal into pieces about an inch
+broad, and the third of an inch thick. In each of these little pieces
+small cavities should be cut with the small end of the borer. When
+these pieces of charcoal are required for use, they must be fastened
+to a narrow slip of tin plate, one end of which is bent into the form
+of a hook, under which the plate of charcoal is pushed.
+
+In general, we use the charcoal support where we wish to reduce
+metallic oxides, to prevent oxidation, or to test the fusibility of a
+substance. There is another point to which we would direct the
+student. Those metals which are volatile in the reduction flame,
+appear as oxides in the oxidation flame. These oxides make sublimates
+upon the charcoal close in the vicinity of the substance, or where it
+rested, and by their peculiar color indicate pretty correctly the
+species of minerals experimented upon.
+
+(_b._) _Platinum Supports._--The metal platinum is infusible in the
+blowpipe flame, and is such a poor conductor of heat that a strip of
+it may be held close to that portion of it which is red hot without
+the least inconvenience to the fingers. It is necessary that the
+student should be cognizant of those substances which would not be
+appropriate to experiment upon if placed on platinum. Metals should
+not be treated upon platinum apparatus, nor should the easily
+reducible oxides, sulphides, nor chlorides, as these substances will
+combine with the platinum, and thus render it unfit for further use in
+analysis.
+
+(_c._) _Platinum Wire._--As the color of the flame cannot be well
+discerned when the substance is supported upon charcoal, in
+consequence of the latter furnishing false colors, by its own
+reflection, to the substances under examination, we use platinum wire
+for that purpose, when we wish to examine those substances which give
+indications by the peculiar color which they impart to fluxes. The
+wire should be about as thick as No. 16 or 18 wire, or about 0.4
+millimetre, and cut into pieces about from two and a half to three
+inches in length. The end of each piece is crooked. In order that
+these pieces should remain clear of dirt, and ready for use, they
+should be kept in a glass of water. To use them, we dip the wetted
+hooked end into the powdered flux (borax or microcosmic salt) some of
+which will adhere, when we fuse it in the flame of the blowpipe to a
+bead. This bead hanging in the hook, must be clear and colorless.
+Should there not adhere a sufficient quantity of the flux in the first
+trial to form a bead sufficiently large, the hook must be dipped a
+second time in the flux and again submitted to the blowpipe flame. To
+fix the substance to be examined to the bead, it is necessary, while
+the latter is hot, to dip it in the powdered substance. If the hook is
+cold, we moisten the powder a little, and then dip the hook into it,
+and then expose it to the oxidation flame, by keeping it exposed to a
+regular blast until the substance and the flux are fused together, and
+no further alteration is produced by the flame.
+
+The platinum wire can be used except where reduction to the metallic
+state is required. Every reduction and oxidation experiment, if the
+results are to be known by the color of the fluxes, should be effected
+upon platinum wire. At the termination of the experiment or
+investigation, if it be one, to, clean the wire, place it in water,
+which will dissolve the bead.
+
+(_d._) _Platinum Foil._--For the heating or fusing of a substance,
+whereby its reduction would be avoided, we use platinum foil as a
+support. This foil should be of the thickness of good writing paper,
+and from two and a half to three inches long, by about half an inch
+broad, and as even and smooth as possible. If it should become injured
+by long use, cut the injured end off, and if it should prove too short
+to be held with the fingers, a pair of forceps may be used to grasp
+it, or it may be placed on a piece of charcoal.
+
+(_e._) _Platinum Spoon._--When we require to fuse substances with the
+acid sulphate of potash, or to oxidize them by detonation with nitrate
+of potash, whereby we wish to preserve the oxide produced, we
+generally use a little spoon of platinum, about from nine to fifteen
+millimetres[1] in diameter, and shaped as represented in Fig. 7. The
+handle of this spoon is likewise of platinum, and should fit into a
+piece of cork, or be held with the forceps.
+
+    [1] The French millimetre is about the twenty-fifth part of an
+    English inch.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 7.]
+
+(_f._) _Platinum Forceps or Tongs._--We frequently are necessitated to
+examine small splinters of metals or minerals directly in the blowpipe
+flame. These pieces of metallic substances are held with the forceps
+or tongs represented as in Fig. 8, where _ac_ is formed of steel, and
+_aa_ are platinum bars inserted between the steel plates. At _bb_ are
+knobs which by pressure so separate the platinum bars _aa_, that any
+small substance can be inserted between them.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 8.]
+
+(_g._) _Iron Spoons._--For a preliminary examination iron spoons are
+desirable. They may be made of sheet iron, about one-third of an inch
+in diameter, and are very useful in many examinations where the use of
+platinum would not be desirable.
+
+(_h._) _Glass Tubes._--For the separation and recognition of volatile
+substances before the blowpipe flame, we use glass tubes. These should
+be about one-eighth of an inch in diameter, and cut into pieces about
+five or six inches in length. These tubes should have both ends open.
+
+Tubes are of great value in the examination of volatile substances
+which require oxidizing or roasting, and heating with free access of
+air. Also to ascertain whether a substance under examination will
+sublimate volatile matter of a certain appearance. Such substances are
+selenium, sulphur, arsenic, antimony, and tellurium. These substances
+condense on a cool part of the tube, and they present characteristic
+appearances, or they may be recognized by their peculiar smell. These
+tubes must be made of the best kind of glass, white and difficult of
+fusion, and entirely free from lead. The substance to be examined must
+be put in the tube near one end, and exposed to the flame of the
+blowpipe. The end containing the substance must be held lower than the
+other end, and must be moved a little over the spirit-lamp before a
+draught of air is produced through the tube. It is a good plan to have
+a number of these tubes on hand. After having used a tube we cut off
+that end of it which contained the substance, with a file, and clean
+it from the sublimate, either by heating it over the spirit-lamp, or
+with a piece of paper wound around a wire. It sometimes happens that
+the substance falls out of the tube before it becomes sufficiently
+melted to adhere to the glass. To obviate this, we bend the tube not
+far from the end, at an obtuse angle, and place the substance in the
+angle, whereby the tube may be lowered as much as necessary. Fig. 9
+will give the student a comprehension of the processes described, and
+of the manner of bending the tubes.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 9.]
+
+(_i._) _Glass Tubes closed at one End._--If we wish to expose volatile
+substances to heat, with the exclusion of air as much as possible, or
+to ascertain the contents of water, or other volatile fluids, or for
+the purpose of heating substances which will decrepitate, we use glass
+tubes closed at one end. These tubes must be about one-eighth of an
+inch wide, and from two to three inches in length. They should be made
+of white glass, difficult of fusion, and free from lead. They should
+be closed at one end, as figured in the margin, Fig. 10.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 10.]
+
+When a substance is to be examined for the purpose of ascertaining
+whether it contains combustible matter, as sulphur or arsenic, and
+where we wish to avoid oxidation, we use these tubes without extending
+the closed end, in order that there may be as little air admitted as
+possible, as is represented in tube B. But when a substance to be
+examined is to be tested for water, or other incombustible volatile
+matters, we employ tubes with little bulbs blown at one end, such as
+represented at tube A. Here there is room for a circulation of air at
+the bottom of the tube, by which the volatile matter rises more
+easily. In some cases, it is necessary to draw the closed end out to a
+fine point, as in the tubes C and D. Either one or the other of these
+tubes is employed, depending upon the nature of the substance used.
+The sublimates condense at the upper part of the tube _a_, and can be
+there examined and recognized. These tubes, before being used, must be
+thoroughly dried and cleaned. In experimenting with them, they should
+not be exposed at once to the hottest part of the flame, but should be
+submitted to the heat gradually. If the substance is of such a nature
+that it will sublime at a low heat, the tube should be held more
+horizontal, while a higher heat is attained by bringing the tube to a
+more vertical position.
+
+
+VARIOUS APPARATUS NECESSARY.
+
+_Edulcorator or Washing Bottle._--Take a glass bottle of the capacity
+of about twelve ounces, and close the mouth of it very tight with a
+cork, through which a short glass tube is fitted airtight. The
+external end of this tube is drawn out to a point, with a very fine
+orifice. The bottle should be filled about half full of water. By
+blowing air into the bottle through the tube, and then turning it
+downwards, the compressed air will expel a fine stream of water
+through the fine orifice with considerable force. We use this washing
+bottle, Fig. 11, for the purpose of rinsing the small particles of
+coal from the reduced metals.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 11.]
+
+_Agate Mortar and Pestle._--This mortar is used for the purpose of
+pulverizing hard substances, and for mixing fluxes. As this mortar
+will not yield to abrasion, there is no danger of any foreign matter
+becoming mixed with the substance pulverized in it. It should be
+cleaned after use with pumice stone. Steel mortars are very useful for
+the pulverization of hard bodies; but for all those substances which
+require great care in their analysis, and which can be obtained in
+very minute quantity, the agate mortar alone should be used.
+
+A _hammer_ made of steel is necessary. This should have the edge
+square.
+
+A small _anvil_, polished on the surface, is also required. It is
+frequently used to test the malleability of metals.
+
+A _knife_, for the purpose of ascertaining the hardness of minerals.
+
+The student should also be provided with several three-edged files,
+and likewise with some flat ones.
+
+A _microscope_, an instrument with two lenses, or with such a
+combination of lenses, that they may be used double or single, is
+frequently necessary for the examination of blowpipe experiments, or
+the reaction of the fluxes. Common lenses, howsoever cheap they may
+be, are certainly not recommended. A microscope with achromatic lenses
+can now be purchased so cheap that there is no longer any necessity of
+procuring one with the common lens. Besides, there is no reliability
+whatever to be placed in the revelations of the common lens; while on
+the contrary, the deceptive appearances which minute objects assume
+beneath such lenses are more injurious than otherwise. A small cheap
+set of magnifying glasses are all that is required for the purpose of
+blowpipe analysis, Fig. 12.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 12.]
+
+A small _magnet_ should be kept on hand, for the purpose of testing
+reduced metals.
+
+_Nippers_, for the purpose of breaking off pieces of minerals for
+analysis, without injuring the entire piece, are indispensable, Fig
+13.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 13.]
+
+A pair of _scissors_ is required to trim the wick of the and for the
+trimming of the edge of platinum foil.
+
+A small _spatula_ should be kept for the purpose of mixing substances
+with fluxes.
+
+
+
+
+THE REAGENTS.
+
+
+Those substances which possess the property of acting upon other
+substances, in such a characteristic manner that they can be
+recognized, either by their color, or by their effervescence, or by
+the peculiar precipitation produced, are termed _reagents_. The
+phenomena thus produced is termed _reaction_. We use those reagents,
+or _tests_, for the purpose of ascertaining the presence or the
+absence of certain substances, through the peculiar phenomena produced
+when brought in contact with them.
+
+The number of reagents employed in blowpipe analysis is not great, and
+therefore we shall here give a brief description of their preparation
+and use. It is indispensably necessary that they should be chemically
+pure, as every admixture of a foreign substance would only produce a
+false result. Some of them have a strong affinity for water, or are
+deliquescent, and consequently absorb it greedily from the air. These
+must be kept in glass bottles, with glass stoppers, fitted air-tight
+by grinding.
+
+
+A. REAGENTS OF GENERAL USE.
+
+
+1. _Carbonate of Soda._--(NaO, CO^{2}) Wash the bicarbonate of soda
+(NaO, 2CO^{2}) upon a filter, with cold water, until the filtrate
+ceases to give, after neutralization with diluted nitric acid
+(NO^{5}), a precipitate with nitrate of baryta, (BaO, NO^{5}), or
+nitrate of silver, (AgO, NO^{5}). That left upon the filter we make
+red hot in a platinum, silver, or porcelain dish. One atom of carbonic
+acid is expelled, and the residue is carbonate of soda.
+
+A solution of soda must not be changed by the addition of sulphide of
+ammonium. And when neutralized with hydrochloric acid, and evaporated
+to dryness, and again dissolved in water, there must be no residue
+left.
+
+Carbonate of soda is an excellent agent in reduction, in consequence
+of its easy fusibility, whereby it causes the close contact of the
+oxides with the charcoal support, so that the blowpipe flame can reach
+every part of the substance under examination.
+
+For the decomposition and determination of insoluble substances,
+particularly the silicates, carbonate of soda is indispensable. But
+for the latter purpose, we use with advantage a mixture of ten parts
+of soda and thirteen parts of dry carbonate of potash, which mixture
+fuses more easily than the carbonate of soda alone.
+
+
+2. _Hydrate of Baryta_ (BaO, HO).--This salt is used sometimes for the
+detection of alkalies in silicates. Mix one part of the substance with
+about four parts of the hydrate of baryta, and expose it to the
+blowpipe flame. The hydrate of baryta combines with the silicic acid,
+and forms the super-basic silicate of baryta, while the oxides become
+free. The fused mass must be dissolved in hydrochloric acid, which
+converts the oxides into chlorides. Evaporate to dryness, and dissolve
+the residue in water. The silicic acid remains insoluble.
+
+The hydrate of baryta is prepared by mixing six parts of finely
+powdered heavy-spar (BaO, SO_{3}) with one part of charcoal and one
+and a half parts of wheat flour, and exposing this mixture in a
+Hessian crucible with a cover to a strong and continuous red heat. The
+cooled chocolate-brown mass must be boiled with twenty parts of water,
+and, while boiling, there must be added the oxide of copper in
+sufficient quantity, or until the liquid will not impart a black color
+to a solution of acetate of lead (PbO, [=]A). The liquid must be
+filtered while hot, and as it cools the hydrate of baryta appears in
+crystals. These crystals must be washed with a little cold water, and
+then heated at a low temperature in a porcelain dish until the crystal
+water is expelled. The hydrate of baryta melts by a low red heat
+without losing its water of hydration.
+
+
+3. _Bisulphate of Potassa_ (KO, 2SO^{3}).--At a red heat the half of
+the sulphuric acid of this salt becomes free, and thus separates and
+expels volatile substances, by which we can recognize lithium, boracic
+acid, nitric acid, fluoric acid, bromine, iodine, chlorine; or it
+decomposes and reveals some other compounds, as, for instance, the
+salts of the titanic, tantalic and tungstic acids. The bisulphate of
+potash is also used for the purpose of converting a substance into
+sulphate, or to free it at once from certain constituents. These
+sulphates are dissolved in water, by which we are enabled to effect
+the separation of its various constituents.
+
+PREPARATION.--Two parts of coarsely powdered sulphate of potash are
+placed in a porcelain crucible, and one part of pure sulphuric acid is
+poured over it. Expose this to heat over the spirit-lamp, until the
+whole becomes a clear liquid. The cooled mass must be of a pure white
+color, and may be got out of the crucible by inverting it. It must be
+kept in a fine powder.
+
+
+4. _Oxalate of Potassa_ (KO, [=]O).--Dissolve bioxalate of potash in
+water, and neutralize with carbonate of potash. Evaporate the solution
+at a low heat to dryness, stirring constantly towards the close of the
+operation. The dry residue is to be kept in the form of a powder.
+
+The oxalate of potash, at a low red heat, eliminates a considerable
+quantity of carbonic oxide, which, having a strong affinity for
+oxygen, with which it forms carbonic acid, it is therefore a powerful
+agent of reduction. It is in many cases preferable to carbonate of
+soda.
+
+
+5. _Cyanide of Potassium_ (Cy, K).--In the dry method of analysis,
+this salt is one of the most efficient agents for the reduction of
+metallic oxides. It separates not only the metals from their oxygen
+compounds, but likewise from their sulphur compounds, while it is
+converted through the action of the oxygen into carbonate of potash,
+or, in the latter case, combines with the sulphur and forms the
+sulphureted cyanide of potassium. This separation is facilitated by
+its easy fusibility. But in many cases it melts too freely, and
+therefore it is better to mix it, for blowpipe analysis, with an equal
+quantity of soda. This mixture has great powers of reduction, and it
+is easily absorbed by the charcoal, while the globules of reduced
+metal are visible in the greatest purity.
+
+PREPARATION.--Deprive the ferrocyanide of potassium (2KCy + FeCy) of
+its water by heating it over the spirit-lamp in a porcelain dish. Mix
+eight parts of this anhydrous salt with three parts of dry carbonate
+of potash, and fuse the mixture by a low red heat in a Hessian, or
+still better, in an iron crucible with a cover, until the mass flows
+quiet and clear, and a sample taken up with an iron spatula appears
+perfectly white. Pour the clear mass out into a china or porcelain
+dish or an iron plate, but with caution that the fine iron particles
+which have settled to the bottom, do not mix with it. The white fused
+mass must be powdered, and kept from the air. The cyanide of potassium
+thus prepared, contains some of the cyanate of potassa, but the
+admixture does not deteriorate it for blowpipe use. It must be
+perfectly white, free from iron, charcoal, and sulphide of potassium.
+The solution of it in water must give a white precipitate with a
+solution of lead, and when neutralized with hydrochloric acid, and
+evaporated to dryness, it must not give an insoluble residue by
+dissolving it again in water.
+
+
+6. _Nitrate of Potassa, Saltpetre_ (KO, NO^{5}).--Saturate boiling
+water with commercial saltpetre, filter while hot in a beaker glass,
+which is to be placed in cold water, and stir while the solution is
+cooling. The greater part of the saltpetre will crystallize in very
+fine crystals. Place these crystals upon a filter, and wash them with
+a little cold water, until a solution of nitrate of silver ceases to
+exhibit any reaction upon the filtrate. These crystals must be dried
+and powdered.
+
+Saltpetre, when heated with substances easy of oxidation, yields its
+oxygen quite readily, and is, therefore, a powerful means of
+oxidation. In blowpipe analysis, we use it particularly to convert
+sulphides (as those of arsenic, antimony, &c.) into oxides and acids.
+We furthermore use saltpetre for the purpose of producing a complete
+oxidation of small quantities of metallic oxides, which oxidize with
+difficulty in the oxidation flame, so that the color of the bead, in
+its highest state of oxidation, shall be visible, as for instance,
+manganese dissolved in the microcosmic salt.
+
+
+7. _Biborate of soda, borax_--(NaO + 2BO^{3}).--Commercial borax is
+seldom pure enough for a reagent. A solution of borax must not give a
+precipitate with carbonate of potassa; or, after the addition of
+dilute nitric acid, it must remain clear upon the addition of nitrate
+of silver, or nitrate of baryta. Or a small piece of the dry salt,
+fused upon a platinum wire, must give a clear and uncolored glass, as
+well in the oxidation flame as in the reduction flame. If these tests
+indicate a foreign admixture, the borax must be purified by
+re-crystallization. These crystals are washed upon a filter, dried,
+and heated, to expel the crystal water, or until the mass ceases to
+swell up, and it is reduced to powder.
+
+Boracic acid is incombustible, and has a strong affinity for oxides
+when fused with them; therefore, it not only directly combines with
+oxides, but it expels, by fusion, all other volatile acids from their
+salts. Furthermore, boracic acid promotes the oxidation of metals and
+sulphur, and induces haloid compounds, in the oxidation flame, to
+combine with the rising oxides. Borates thus made, melt generally by
+themselves; but admixed with borate of soda, they fuse much more
+readily, give a clear bead. Borax acts either as a flux, or through
+the formation of double salts.
+
+In borax, we have the action of free boracic acid, as well as borate
+of soda, and for that reason it is an excellent reagent for blowpipe
+analysis.
+
+All experiments in which borax is employed should be effected upon
+platinum wire. The hook of the wire should be heated red hot, and then
+dipped into the powdered borax. This should be exposed to the
+oxidation flame, when it will be fused to a bead, which adheres to the
+hook. This should be then dipped into the powdered substance, which
+will adhere to it if it is hot; but if the bead is cool, it must be
+previously moistened. Expose this bead to the oxidation flame until it
+ceases to change, then allow it to cool, when it should be exposed to
+the reduction flame. Look for the following in the oxidation flame:
+
+   (1.) Whether the heated substance is fused to a clear bead or
+   not, and whether the bead remains transparent after cooling. The
+   beads of some substances, for instance those of the alkaline
+   earths, are clear while hot; but upon cooling, are milk-white and
+   enamelled. Some substances give a clear bead when heated and when
+   cold, but appear enamelled when heated intermittingly or with a
+   flame which changes often from oxidation to reduction, or with an
+   unsteady flame produced by too strong a blast. The reason is an
+   incomplete fusion, while from the basic borate compound a part of
+   the base is separated. As the boracic acid is capable of
+   dissolving more in the heat, a bead will be clear while hot,
+   enamelled when cold, as a part in the latter instance will become
+   separated.
+
+   (2.) Whether the substance dissolves easily or not, and whether
+   it intumesces from arising gases.
+
+   (3.) Whether the bead, when exposed to the oxidation flame,
+   exhibits any color, and whether the color remains after the bead
+   shall have cooled, or whether the color fades.
+
+   (4.) Whether the bead exhibits any other reaction in the
+   reduction flame.
+
+The bead should not be overcharged with the substance under
+examination, or it will become colored so deeply as not to present any
+transparency, or the color light enough to discern its hue.
+
+
+8. _Microcosmic Salt--Phosphate of Soda and Ammonia_--(NaO, NH^{4}O +
+PO^{5}).--Dissolve six parts of phosphate of soda (2NaO, HO, PO^{5}),
+and one part of pure chloride of Ammonium (NH^{4}Cl.), in two parts of
+boiling water, and allow it to cool. The greatest part of the formed
+double salt crystallizes, while the mother-liquid contains chloride of
+sodium, and some of the double salt. The crystals must be dissolved in
+as little boiling water as possible, and re-crystallized. These
+crystals must be dried and powdered.
+
+When this double salt is heated, the water and the ammonia escape,
+while the incombustible residue has a composition similar to borax,
+viz., a free acid and an easily fusible salt. The effect of it is,
+therefore, similar to the borax. The free phosphoric acid expels,
+likewise, most other acids from their combinations, and combines with
+metallic oxides.
+
+For supports, the platinum wire may be used, but the hook must be
+smaller than when borax is used, or the bead will not adhere. As for
+all the other experiments with this salt, the microscosmic salt is
+used the same as borax.
+
+
+9. _Nitrate of Cobalt._--(CoO, NO^{5}).--This salt can be prepared by
+dissolving pure oxide of cobalt in diluted nitric acid, and
+evaporating to dryness with a low heat. The dry residue should be
+dissolved in ten parts of water, and filtered. The filtrate is now
+ready for use, and should be kept in a bottle with a glass stopper. If
+the pure oxide of cobalt cannot be procured, then it may be prepared
+by mixing two parts of finely powdered _glance of cobalt_ with four
+parts of saltpetre, and one part of dry carbonate of potassa with one
+part of water free from carbonate of soda. This mixture should be
+added in successive portions into a red-hot Hessian crucible, and the
+heat continued until the mass is fused, or at least greatly diminished
+in volume. The cooled mass must be triturated with hot water, and then
+heated with hydrochloric acid until it is dissolved and forms a dark
+green solution, which generally presents a gelatinous appearance,
+occasioned by separated silica. The solution is to be evaporated to
+dryness, the dry residue moistened with hydrochloric acid, boiled with
+water, filtered and neutralized while hot with carbonate of ammonia,
+until it ceases to give an acid reaction with test-paper. This must
+now be filtered again, and carbonate of potassa added to the filtrate
+as long as a precipitate is produced. This precipitate is brought upon
+a filter and washed thoroughly, and then dissolved in diluted nitric
+acid. This is evaporated to dryness, and one part of it is dissolved
+in ten parts of water for use.
+
+The oxide of cobalt combines, with strong heat in the oxidation flame,
+with various earths and infusible metallic oxides, and thus produces
+peculiarly colored compounds, and is therefore used for their
+detection; (alumina, magnesia, oxide of zinc, oxide of tin, etc.) Some
+of the powdered substance is heated upon charcoal in the flame of
+oxidation, and moistened with a drop of the solution of the nitrate of
+cobalt, when the oxidation flame is thrown upon it. Alumina gives a
+pure blue color, the oxide of zinc a bright green, magnesia a light
+red, and the oxide of tin a bluish-green color; but the latter is only
+distinctly visible after cooling.
+
+The dropping bottle, is the most useful apparatus for the purpose of
+getting small quantities of fluid. It is composed of a glass tube,
+drawn out to a point, with a small orifice. This tube passes through
+the cork of the bottle. By pressing in the cork into the neck of the
+bottle, the air within will be compressed, and the liquid will rise in
+the tube. If now we draw the cork out, with the tube filled with the
+fluid, and pressing the finger upon the upper orifice, the fluid can
+be forced out in the smallest quantity, even to a fraction of a drop.
+
+
+10. _Tin._--This metal is used in the form of foil, cut into strips
+about half an inch wide. Tin is very susceptible of oxidation, and
+therefore deprives oxidized substances of their oxygen very quickly,
+when heated in contact with them. It is employed in blowpipe analysis,
+for the purpose of producing in glass beads a lower degree of
+oxidation, particularly if the substance under examination contains
+only a small portion of such oxide. These oxides give a characteristic
+color to the bead, and thus are detected. The bead is heated upon
+charcoal in the reduction flame, with a small portion of the tin,
+whereby some of the tin is melted and mixes with the bead. The bead
+should be reduced quickly in the reduction flame, for by continuing
+the blast too great a while, the oxide of tin separates the other
+oxides in the reduced or metallic state, while we only require that
+they shall only be converted into a sub-oxide, in order that its
+peculiar color may be recognized in the bead. The addition of too much
+tin causes the bead to present an unclean appearance, and prevents
+the required reaction.
+
+
+11. _Silica_ (SiO^{3}).--This acid does not even expel carbonic acid
+in the wet way, but in a glowing heat it expels the strongest volatile
+acids. In blowpipe analysis, we use it fused with carbonate of soda to
+a bead, as a test for sulphuric acid, and in some cases for phosphoric
+acid. Also with carbonate of soda and borax, for the purpose of
+separating tin from copper.
+
+Finely powdered quartz will answer these purposes. If it cannot be
+procured, take well washed white sand and mix it with two parts of
+carbonate of soda and two parts of carbonate of potassa. Melt the
+materials together, pound up the cooled mass, dissolve in hot water,
+filter, add to the filtrate hydrochloric acid, and evaporate to
+dryness. Moisten the dry residue with hydrochloric acid, and boil in
+water. The silica remains insoluble. It should be washed well, dried,
+and heated, and then reduced to powder.
+
+
+12. TEST-PAPERS.--(_a._) _Blue, Litmus Paper._--Dissolve one part of
+litmus in six or eight parts of water, and filter. Divide the filtrate
+into two parts. In one of the parts neutralize the free alkali by
+stirring it with a glass rod dipped in diluted sulphuric acid, until
+the fluid appears slightly red. Then mix the two parts together, and
+draw slips of unsized paper, free from alkali, such as fine filtering
+paper. Hang these strips on a line to dry, in the shade and free from
+floating dust. If the litmus solution is too light, it will not give
+sufficient characteristic indications, and if too dark it is not
+sensitive enough. The blue color of the paper should be changed to
+red, when brought in contact with a solution containing the minutest
+trace of free acid; but it should be recollected that the neutral
+salts of the heavy metals produce the same change.
+
+(_b._) _Red Litmus Paper._--The preparation of the red litmus paper is
+similar to the above, the acid being added until a red color is
+obtained. Reddened litmus paper is a very sensitive reagent for free
+alkalies, the carbonates of the alkalies, alkaline earths, sulphides
+of the alkalies and of the alkaline earths, and alkaline salts with
+weak acids, such as boracic acid. These substances restore the
+original blue color of the litmus.
+
+(_c._) _Logwood Paper._--Take bruised logwood, boil it in water,
+filter, and proceed as above. Logwood paper is a very delicate test
+for free alkalies, which impart a violet tint to it. It is sometimes
+used to detect hydrofluoric acid, which changes its color to yellow.
+
+All the test-papers are to be cut into narrow strips, and preserved in
+closely stopped vials. The especial employment of the test-papers we
+shall allude to in another place.
+
+
+B. ESPECIAL REAGENTS.
+
+
+13. _Fused Boracic Acid_ (BO^{3}).--The commercial article is
+sufficiently pure for blowpipe analysis. It is employed in some cases
+to detect phosphoric acid, and also minute traces of copper in lead
+compounds.
+
+
+14. _Fluorspar_ (CaFl^{2}).--This substance should be pounded fine and
+strongly heated. Fluorspar is often mixed with boracic acid, which
+renders it unfit for analytical purposes. Such an admixture can be
+detected if it be mixed with bisulphate of potassa, and exposed upon
+platinum wire to the interior or blue flame. It is soon fused, the
+boracic acid is reduced and evaporated, and by passing through the
+external flame it is reoxidized, and colors the flame green. We use
+fluorspar mixed with bisulphate of potassa as a test for lithia and
+boracic acid in complicated compounds.
+
+
+15. _Oxalate of Nickel_ (NiO, [=]O).--It is prepared by dissolving the
+pure oxide of nickel in diluted hydrochloric acid. Evaporate to
+dryness, dissolve in water, and precipitate with oxalate of ammonia.
+The precipitate must be washed with caution upon a filter, and then
+dried. It is employed in blowpipe analysis to detect salts of potassa
+in the presence of sodium and lithium.
+
+
+16. _Oxide of Copper_ (CuO).--Pure metallic copper is dissolved in
+nitric acid. The solution is evaporated in a porcelain dish to
+dryness, and gradually heated over a spirit-lamp, until the blue color
+of the salt has disappeared and the mass presents a uniform black
+color. The oxide of copper so prepared must be powdered, and preserved
+in a vial. It serves to detect, in complicated compounds, minute
+traces of chlorine.
+
+
+17. _Antimoniate of Potassa_ (KO, SbO^{6}).--Mix four parts of the
+bruised metal of antimony, with nine parts of saltpetre. Throw this
+mixture, in small portions, into a red-hot Hessian crucible, and keep
+it at a glowing heat for awhile after all the mixture is added. Boil
+the cooled mass with water, and dry the residue. Take two parts of
+this, and mix it with one part of dry carbonate of potassa, and expose
+this to a red heat for about half an hour. Then wash the mass in cold
+water, and boil the residue in water; filter, evaporate the filtrate
+to dryness, and then, with a strong heat, render it free of water.
+Powder it while it is warm, and preserve it in closed vials. It is
+used for the detection of small quantities of charcoal in compound
+substances, as it shares its oxygen with the carbonaceous matter, the
+antimony becomes separated, and carbonate of potassa is produced,
+which restores red litmus paper to blue, and effervesces with acids.
+
+
+18. _Silver Foil._--A small piece of silver foil is used for the
+purpose of detecting sulphur and the sulphides of the metals, which
+impart a dark stain to it. If no silver foil is at hand, strips of
+filtering paper, impregnated with acetate of lead, will answer in many
+cases.
+
+
+19. _Nitroprusside of Sodium_ (Fe^{2}Cy^{5}, NO^{5}, 2Na).--This is a
+very delicate test for sulphur, and was discovered by Dr. Playfair.
+This test has lately been examined with considerable ability by Prof.
+J.W. Bailey, of West Point. If any sulphate or sulphide is heated by
+the blowpipe upon charcoal with the carbonate of soda, and the fused
+mass is placed on a watch-glass, with a little water, and a small
+piece of the nitroprusside of sodium is added, there will be produced
+a splendid purple color. This color, or reaction, will be produced
+from any substance containing sulphur, such as the parings of the
+nails, hair, albumen, etc. In regard to these latter substances, the
+carbonate of soda should be mixed with a little starch, which will
+prevent the loss of any of the sulphur by oxidation. Coil a piece of
+hair around a platinum wire, moisten it, and dip it into a mixture of
+carbonate of soda, to which a little starch has been added, and then
+heat it with the blowpipe, when the fused mass will give with the
+nitroprusside of sodium the characteristic purple reaction, indicative
+of the presence of sulphur. With the proper delicacy of manipulation,
+a piece of hair, half an inch in length, will give distinct
+indications of sulphur.
+
+_Preparation._--The nitroprussides of sodium and potassium (for either
+salt will give the above reactions), are prepared as follows: One atom
+(422 grains) of pulverized ferrocyanide of potassium is mixed with
+five atoms of commercial nitric acid, diluted with an equal quantity
+of water. One-fifth of this quantity (one atom) of the acid is
+sufficient to transfer the ferrocyanide into nitroprusside; but the
+use of a larger quantity is found to give the best results. The acid
+is poured all at once upon the ferrocyanide, the cold produced by the
+mixing being sufficient to moderate the action. The mixture first
+assumes a milky appearance, but after a little while, the salt
+dissolves, forming a coffee-colored solution, and gases are disengaged
+in abundance. When the salt is completely dissolved, the solution is
+found to contain ferrocyanide (red prussiate) of potassium, mixed with
+nitroprusside and nitrate of the same base. It is then immediately
+decanted into a large flask, and heated over the water-bath. It
+continues to evolve gas, and after awhile, no longer yields a dark
+blue precipitate with ferrous salts, but a dark green or slate-colored
+precipitate. It is then removed from the fire, and left to
+crystallize, whereupon it yields a large quantity of crystals of
+nitre, and more or less oxamide. The strongly-colored mother liquid is
+then neutralized with carbonate of potash or soda, according to the
+salt to be prepared, and the solution is boiled, whereupon it
+generally deposits a green or brown precipitate, which must be
+separated by filtration. The liquid then contains nothing but
+nitroprusside and nitrate of potash or soda. The nitrates being the
+least soluble, are first crystallized, and the remaining liquid, on
+farther evaporation, yields crystals of the nitroprusside. The sodium
+salt crystallizes most easily.--(PLAYFAIR.)
+
+As some substances, particularly in complicated compounds, are not
+detected with sufficient nicety in the dry way of analysis, it will
+often be necessary to resort to the wet way. It is therefore necessary
+to have prepared the reagents required for such testing, as every
+person, before he can become an expert blowpipe analyst, must be
+acquainted with the characteristic tests as applied in the wet way.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+Part II.
+
+INITIATORY ANALYSIS.
+
+
+Qualitative analysis refers to those examinations which relate simply
+to the presence or the absence of certain substances, irrespective of
+their quantities. But before we take cognizance of special
+examinations, it would facilitate the progress of the student to pass
+through a course of Initiatory Exercises. These at once lead into the
+special analysis of all those substances susceptible of examination by
+the blowpipe. The Initiatory Analysis is best studied by adopting the
+following arrangement:
+
+
+1. EXAMINATIONS WITH THE GLASS BULB.
+
+
+The glass of which the bulb is made should be entirely free from lead,
+otherwise fictitious results will ensue. If the bulb be of flint
+glass, then by heating it, there is a slightly iridescent film caused
+upon the surface of the glass, which may easily be mistaken for
+arsenic. Besides, this kind of glass is easily fusible in the
+oxidating flame of the blowpipe, while, in the reducing flame, its
+ready decomposition would preclude its use entirely. The tube should
+be composed of the potash or hard Bohemian glass, should be perfectly
+white, and very thin, or the heat will crack it.
+
+The tube should be perfectly clean, which can be easily attained by
+wrapping a clean cotton rag around a small stick, and inserting it in
+the tube. Before using the tube, see also that it is perfectly dry.
+
+The quantity of the substance put into the tube for examination should
+be small. From one to three grains is quite sufficient, as a general
+rule, but circumstances vary the quantity. The sides of the tube
+should not catch any of the substance as it is being placed at the
+bottom of the tube, or into the bulb. If any of the powder, however,
+should adhere, it should be pushed down with a roll of clean paper, or
+the clean cotton rag referred to above.
+
+In submitting the tube to the flame, it should be heated at first very
+gently, the heat being increased until the glass begins to soften,
+when the observations of what is ensuing within it may be made.
+
+If the substance be of an organic nature, a peculiar empyreumatic odor
+will be given off. If the substance chars, then it may be inferred
+that it is of an organic nature. The matters which are given off and
+cause the empyreumatic odor, are a peculiar oil, ammonia, carbonic
+acid, acetic acid, water, cyanogen, and frequently other compounds. If
+a piece of paper is heated in the bulb, a dark colored oil condenses
+upon the sides of the tube, which has a strong empyreumatic odor. A
+piece of litmus paper indicates that this oil is acid, as it is
+quickly changed to red by contact with it. A black residue is now left
+in the tube, and upon examination we will find that it is charcoal.
+If, instead of the paper, a piece of animal substance is placed in
+the bulb, the reddened litmus paper will be converted into its
+original blue color, while charcoal will be left at the bottom of the
+tube.
+
+A changing of the substance, however, to a dark color, should not be
+accepted as an invariable indication of charcoal, as some inorganic
+bodies thus change color, but the dark substance will not be likely to
+be mistaken for charcoal. By igniting the suspected substance with
+nitrate of potassa, it can quickly be ascertained whether it is
+organic or not, for if the latter, the vivid deflagration will
+indicate it.
+
+If the substance contains water, it will condense upon the cold
+portion of the tube, and may be there examined as to whether it is
+acid or alkaline. If the former, the matter under examination is,
+perhaps, vegetable; if the latter, it is of an animal nature. The
+water may be that fluid absorbed, or it may form a portion of its
+constitution,
+
+If the substance contain _sulphur_, the sublimate upon the cold part
+of the tube may be recognized by its characteristic appearance,
+especially if the substance should be a sulphide of tin, copper,
+antimony, or iron. The hyposulphites, and several other sulphides,
+also give off sulphur when heated. The volatile metals, mercury and
+arsenic, will, however, sublime without undergoing decomposition. As
+the sulphide of arsenic may be mistaken, from its color and
+appearance, for sulphur, it must be examined especially for the
+purpose of determining that point.
+
+_Selenium_ will likewise sublime by heat as does sulphur. This is the
+case if selenides are present. Selenium gives off the smell of decayed
+horse-radish.
+
+When the persalts are heated they are reduced to protosalts, with the
+elimination of a part of their acid. This will be indicated by the
+blue litmus paper.
+
+If some of the neutral salts containing a volatile acid be present,
+they will become decomposed. For instance, the red nitrous acid water
+of the nitrates will indicate the decomposition of the salt,
+especially if it be the nitrate of a metallic oxide.
+
+If there is an odor of sulphur, then it is quite probable, if no free
+sulphur be present, that a hyposulphite is decomposed.
+
+If an oxalate be present, it is decomposed with the evolution of
+carbonic oxide, which may be inflamed at the mouth of the tube; but
+there are oxalates that give off carbonic acid gas, which, of course,
+will not burn. A cyanide will become decomposed and eliminate nitrogen
+gas, while the residue is charred. Some cyanides are, however, not
+thus decomposed, as the dry cyanides of the earths and alkalies.
+
+There are several oxides of metals which will sublime, and may be thus
+examined in the tube. _Arsenious acid_ sublimes with great ease in
+minute octohedral crystals. The oxides of tellurium and antimony will
+sublime, the latter in minute glittering needles.
+
+There are several metals which will sublime, and may be examined in
+the cold portion of the tube. _Mercury_ condenses upon the tube in
+minute globules. These often do not present the metallic appearance
+until they are disturbed with a glass rod, when they attract each
+other, and adhere as small globules. Place in the tube about a grain
+of red precipitate of the drug stores and apply heat, when the oxide
+will become decomposed, its oxygen will escape while the vaporized
+mercury will condense upon the cold portion of the tube, and may there
+be examined with a magnifying glass.
+
+_Arsenic_, when vaporized, may be known by its peculiar alliaceous
+odor. Arsenic is vaporized from its metallic state, and likewise from
+its alloys. Several compounds which contain arsenic will also sublime,
+such as the arsenical cobalt. Place in the bulb a small piece of
+arsenical cobalt or "fly-stone," and apply heat. The sulphide of
+arsenic will first rise, but soon the arsenic will adhere to the sides
+of the tube.
+
+The metals tellurium and cadmium are susceptible of solution, but the
+heat required is a high one. This is best done upon charcoal.
+
+The _perchloride of mercury_ sublimes undecomposed in the bulb,
+previously undergoing fusion.
+
+The _protochloride of mercury_ likewise sublimes, but it does not
+undergo fusion first, as is the case with the corrosive sublimate.
+
+The _ammoniacal salts_ all are susceptible of sublimation, which they
+do without leaving a residue. There are, however, several which
+contain fixed acids, which latter are left in the bulb. This is
+particularly the case with the phosphates and borates. A piece of red
+litmus paper will readily detect the escaping ammonia, while its odor
+will indicate its presence with great certainty. The halogen compounds
+of mercury, we should have mentioned, also sublime, the red iodide
+giving a yellow sublimate.
+
+The bulb is also a convenient little instrument for the purpose of
+heating those substances which phosphoresce, and likewise those salts
+that decrepitate.
+
+Should the above reactions not be readily discerned, it should not be
+considered as an indication that the substances are not present, for
+they are frequently expelled in such combinations that the above
+reactions will not take place. This is often the case with sulphur,
+selenium, arsenic, and tellurium. It frequently happens, likewise,
+that these substances are in such combinations that heat alone will
+not sublime them; or else two or more of them may arise together, and
+thus complicate the sublimate, so that the eye cannot readily detect
+either substance. Sometimes sulphur and arsenic will coat the tube
+with a metal-like appearance, which is deceptive. This coating
+presents a metallic lustre at its lower portion, but changing, as it
+progresses upward, to a dark brown, light brown, orange or yellow;
+this sublimate being due to combinations of arsenic and sulphur, which
+compounds are volatilized at a lower temperature than metallic
+arsenic.
+
+If certain reagents are mixed with many substances, changes are
+effected which would not ensue with heat alone. _Formiate of soda_
+possesses the property of readily reducing metallic oxides. When this
+salt is heated, it gives off a quantity of carbonic oxide gas. This
+gas, when in the presence of a metallic oxide, easily reduces the
+metal, by withdrawing its oxygen from it, and being changed into
+carbonic oxide. If a little fly-stone is mixed with some formiate of
+soda, and heated in the bulb, the arsenic is reduced, volatilized, and
+condenses in the cool portion of the tube. By this method, the
+smallest portion of a grain of the arsenical compound may be thus
+examined with the greatest readiness. If the residue is now washed, by
+which the soda is got rid of, the metallic arsenic may be obtained in
+small spangles. If the compound examined be the sulphide of antimony,
+the one-thousandth part can be readily detected, and hence this method
+is admirably adapted to the examination of medicinal antimonial
+compounds. The arsenites of silver and copper are reduced by the
+formiate of soda to their metals, mixed with metallic arsenic. The
+mercurial salts are all reduced with the metal plainly visible as a
+bright silvery ring on the cool portion of the tube. The chloride and
+nitrate of silver are completely reduced, and may be obtained after
+working out the soda, as bright metallic spangles. The salts of
+antimony and zinc are thus reduced; also the sulphate of cadmium. The
+sublimate of the latter, although in appearance not unlike that of
+arsenic, can easily be distinguished by its brighter color. It is, in
+fact, the rich yellow of this sublimate which has led artists to adopt
+it as one of their most valued pigments.
+
+
+2. EXAMINATIONS IN THE OPEN TUBE.
+
+
+The substance to be operated upon should be placed in the tube, about
+half an inch from the end, and the flame applied at first very
+cautiously, increasing gradually to the required temperature. The
+tube, in all these _roasting_ operations, as they are termed, should
+be held in an inclined position. The nearer perpendicular the tube is
+held, the stronger is the draught of air that passes through it. If
+but little heat is required in the open tube operation, the
+spirit-lamp is the best method of applying the heat. But if a greater
+temperature is required, then recourse must be had to the blowpipe.
+Upon the angle of inclination of the tube depends the amount of air
+that passes through it, and therefore, the rapidity of the draught
+may be easily regulated at the will of the operator. The inclination
+of the tube may, as a general rule, be about the angle represented in
+Fig. 14.
+
+[Illustration Fig. 14.]
+
+The length of the tube must be about six inches, so that the portion
+upon which the substance rested in a previous examination may be cut
+off. The portion of the tube left will answer for several similar
+operations.
+
+When the substance is under examination, we should devote our
+attention to the nature of the sublimates, and to that of the _odors_
+of the gases. If sulphur be in the substance experimented upon, the
+characteristic odor of sulphurous acid gas will readily indicate the
+sulphur. If metallic sulphides, for instance, are experimented upon,
+the sulphurous acid gas eliminated will readily reveal their presence.
+As it is a property of this gas to bleach, a piece of Brazil-wood test
+paper should be held in the mouth of the tube, when its loss of color
+will indicate the presence of the sulphurous acid. It often happens,
+too, that a slight deposition of sulphur will be observed upon the
+cool portion of the tube. This is particularly the case with those
+sulphides, which yield sublimates of sulphur when heated in the bulb.
+
+_Selenium_ undergoes but slight oxidation, but it becomes readily
+volatilized, and may be observed on the cool portion of the tube. At
+the same time the nose, if applied close to the end of the tube, will
+detect the characteristic odor of rotten horse-radish. Arsenic also
+gives its peculiar alliaceous odor, which is so characteristic that it
+can be easily detected. A few of the arsenides produce this odor. The
+_sublimates_ should be carefully observed, as they indicate often with
+great certainty the presence of certain substances; for instance, that
+of arsenic. The sublimate, in this case, presents itself as the
+arsenious acid, or the metallic arsenic itself. If it be the former,
+it may be discerned by aid of the magnifying glass as beautiful
+glittering octohedral crystals. If the latter, the metallic lustre
+will reveal it.
+
+But it will be observed that while some of the arsenides are sublimed
+at a comparatively low temperature, others require a very high one.
+
+_Antimony_ gives a white sublimate when its salts are roasted, as the
+sulphide, or the antimonides themselves, or the oxide of this metal.
+This white sublimate is not antimonious acid, but there is mixed with
+it the oxide of antimony with which the acid is sublimed. As is the
+case with arsenious acid, the antimonious acid may, by dexterous
+heating, be driven from one portion of the tube to another.
+
+_Tellurium_, or its acid and oxide, may be got as a sublimate in the
+tube. The tellurious acid, unlike the arsenious and antimonious acids,
+cannot be driven from one portion of the tube to another, but, on the
+contrary, it fuses into small clear globules, visible to the naked eye
+sometimes, but quite so with the aid of the magnifying glass.
+
+_Lead_, or its chloride, sublimes like tellurium, and, like that
+substance, fuses into globules or drops.
+
+_Bismuth_, or its sulphide, sublimes into an orange or brownish
+globules, when it is melted, as directed above, for tellurium. The
+color of the bismuth and lead oxides are somewhat similar, although
+that of the latter is paler.
+
+If any mineral containing _fluorine_, is fused, first with the
+microcosmic salt bead, then put into the tube, and the flame of the
+blowpipe be directed _into_ the tube upon the bead, hydrofluoric acid
+is disengaged and attacks the inside of the tube. The fluoride of
+calcium, or fluorspar, may be used for this experiment.
+
+During the roasting, a brisk current of air should be allowed to pass
+through the tube, whereby unoxidized matter may be prevented from
+volatilization, and the clogging up of the substance under examination
+be prevented.
+
+
+3. EXAMINATIONS UPON CHARCOAL.
+
+
+In making examinations upon charcoal, it is quite necessary that the
+student should make himself familiar with the different and
+characteristic appearances of the deposits upon the charcoal. In this
+case I have found the advice given by Dr. Sherer to be the best; that
+is, to begin with the examination of the pure materials first, until
+the eye becomes familiarized with the appearances of their
+incrustations upon charcoal.
+
+The greater part of the metals fuse when submitted to the heat of the
+blowpipe, and if exposed to the outer flame, they oxidize. These
+metals, termed the noble metals, do not oxidize, but they fuse. The
+metals platinum, iridium, rhodium, osmium and palladium do not fuse.
+The metal osmium, if exposed to the flame of oxidation, fuses and is
+finally dissipated as osmic acid. In the latter flame, the salts of
+the noble metals are reduced to the metallic state, and the charcoal
+is covered with the bright metal.
+
+We shall give a brief description of the appearance of the principal
+elementary bodies upon being fused with charcoal. This plan is that
+deemed the most conducive to the progress of the student, by
+Berzelius, Plattner, and Sherer. Experience has taught us that this
+method is the most efficient that could have been devised as an
+initiatory exercise for the student, ere he commences a more concise
+and methodical method of analysis. In these reactions upon charcoal,
+we shall follow nearly the language of Plattner and Sherer.
+
+SELENIUM is not difficult of fusion, and gives off brown fumes in
+either the oxidation or reduction flame. The deposit upon the charcoal
+is of a steel-grey color, with a slightly metallic lustre. The deposit
+however that fuses outside of this steel-grey one is of a dull violet
+color, shading off to a light brown. Under the flame of oxidation this
+deposit is easily driven from one portion of the charcoal to another,
+while the application of the reducing flame volatilizes it with the
+evolution of a beautiful blue light. The characteristic odor of
+decayed horse-radish distinguishes the volatilization of this metal.
+
+TELLURIUM.--This metal fuses with the greatest readiness, and is
+reduced to vapor under both flames with fumes, and coats the charcoal
+with a deposit of tellurous acid. This deposit is white near the
+centre, and is of a dark yellow near the edges. It may be driven from
+place to place by the flame of oxidation, while that of reduction
+volatilizes it with a green flame. If there be a mixture of selenium
+present, then the color of the flame is bluish-green.
+
+ARSENIC.--This metal is volatilized without fusing, and covers the
+charcoal both in the oxidizing and reducing flames with a deposit of
+arsenious acid. This coating is white in the centre, and grey towards
+the edges, and is found some distance from the assay. By the most
+gentle application of the flame, it is immediately volatilized, and if
+touched for a moment with the reducing flame, it disappears, tinging
+the flame pale blue. During volatilization a strong garlic odor is
+distinctly perceptible, very characteristic of arsenic, and by which
+its presence in any compound may be immediately recognized.
+
+ANTIMONY.--This metal fuses readily, and coats the charcoal under both
+flames with antimonious acid. This incrustation is of a white color
+where thick, but of a bluish tint where it is thin, and is found
+nearer to the assay than that of arsenic. When greatly heated by the
+flame of oxidation, it is driven from place to place without coloring
+the flame, but when volatilized by the flame of reduction, it tinges
+the flame blue. As antimonious acid is not so volatile as arsenious
+acid, they may thus be easily distinguished from one another.
+
+When metallic antimony is fused upon charcoal, and the metallic bead
+raised to a red heat, if the blast be suspended, the fluid bead
+remains for some time at this temperature, giving off opaque white
+fumes, which are at first deposited on the surrounding charcoal, and
+then upon the bead itself, covering it with white, pearly crystals.
+The phenomenon is dependent upon the fact, that the heated button of
+antimony, in absorbing oxygen from the air, developes sufficient heat
+to maintain the metal in a fluid state, until it becomes entirely
+covered with crystals of antimonious acid so formed.
+
+BISMUTH.--This metal fuses with ease, and under both flames covers the
+charcoal with a coating of oxide, which, while hot, is of an
+orange-yellow color, and after cooling, of a lemon-yellow color,
+passing, at the edges, into a bluish white. This white coating
+consists of the carbonate of bismuth. The sublimate from bismuth is
+formed at a less distance from the assay than is the case with
+antimony. It may be driven from place to place by the application of
+either flame; but in so doing, the oxide is first reduced by the
+heated charcoal, and the metallic bismuth so formed is volatilized and
+reoxidized. The flame is uncolored.
+
+LEAD.--This metal readily fuses under either flame, and incrusts the
+charcoal with oxide at about the same distance from the assay as is
+the case with bismuth. The oxide is, while hot, of a dark lemon-yellow
+color, but upon cooling, becomes of a sulphur yellow. The carbonate
+which is formed upon the charcoal, beyond the oxide, is of a
+bluish-white color. If the yellow incrustation of the oxide be heated
+with the flame of oxidation, it disappears, undergoing changes similar
+to those of bismuth above mentioned. Under the flame of reduction,
+it, however, disappears, tinging the flame blue.
+
+CADMIUM.--This metal fuses with ease, and, in the flame of oxidation,
+takes fire, and burns with a deep yellow color, giving off brown
+fumes, which coat the charcoal, to within a small distance of the
+assay, with oxide of cadmium. This coating exhibits its characteristic
+reddish-brown color most clearly when cold. Where the coating is very
+thin, it passes to an orange color. As oxide of cadmium is easily
+reduced, and the metal very volatile, the coating of oxide may be
+driven from place to place by the application of either flame, to
+neither of which does it impart any color. Around the deposit of
+oxide, the charcoal has occasionally a variegated tarnish.
+
+ZINC.--This metal fuses with ease, and takes fire in the flame of
+oxidation, burning with a brilliant greenish-white light, and forming
+thick white fumes of oxide of zinc, which coat the charcoal round the
+assay. This coating is yellow while hot, but when perfectly cooled,
+becomes white. If heated with the flame of oxidation, it shines
+brilliantly, but is not volatilized, since the heated charcoal is,
+under these circumstances, insufficient to effect its reduction. Even
+under the reducing flame, it disappears very slowly.
+
+TIN.--This metal fuses readily, and, in the flame of oxidation,
+becomes covered with oxide, which, by a strong blast, may be easily
+blown off. In the reducing flame, the fused metal assumes a white
+surface, and the charcoal becomes covered with oxide. This oxide is of
+a pale yellow color while hot, and is quite brilliant when the flame
+of oxidation is directed upon it. After cooling, it becomes white. It
+is found immediately around the assay, and cannot be volatilized by
+the application of either flame.
+
+MOLYBDENUM.--This metal, in powder, is infusible before the blowpipe.
+If heated in the outer flame, it becomes gradually oxidized, and
+incrusts the charcoal, at a small distance from the assay, with
+molybdic acid, which, near the assay, forms transparent crystalline
+scales, and is elsewhere deposited as a fine powder. The incrustation,
+while hot, is of a yellow color, but becomes white after cooling. It
+may be volatilized by heating with either flame, and leaves the
+surface of the charcoal, when perfectly cooled, of a dark-red copper
+color, with a metallic lustre, due to the oxide of molybdenum, which
+has been formed by the reducing action of the charcoal upon the
+molybdic acid. In the reducing flame, metallic molybdenum remains
+unchanged.
+
+SILVER.--This metal, when fused alone, and kept in this state for some
+time, under a strong oxidizing flame, covers the charcoal with a thin
+film of dark reddish-brown oxide. If the silver be alloyed with lead,
+a yellow incrustation of the oxide of that metal is first formed, and
+afterwards, as the silver becomes more pure, a dark red deposit is
+formed on the charcoal beyond. If the silver contains a small quantity
+of antimony, a white incrustation of antimonious acid is formed, which
+becomes red on the surface if the blast be continued. And if lead and
+antimony are both present in the silver, after the greater part of
+these metals have been volatilized, a beautiful crimson incrustation
+is produced upon the charcoal. This result is sometimes obtained in
+fusing rich silver ores on charcoal.
+
+
+SULPHIDES, CHLORIDES, IODIDES, AND BROMIDES.
+
+In blowpipe experiments, it rarely occurs that we have to deal with
+pure metals, which, if not absolutely non-volatile, are recognized by
+the incrustation they form upon charcoal. Some compound substances,
+when heated upon charcoal, form white incrustations, resembling that
+formed by antimony, and which, when heated, may, in like manner, be
+driven from place to place. Among these are certain sulphides, as
+sulphide of potassium, and sulphide of sodium, which are formed by the
+action of the reducing flame upon the sulphates of potassa and soda,
+and are, when volatilized, reconverted into those sulphates, and as
+such deposited on the charcoal. No incrustation is, however, formed,
+until the whole of the alkaline sulphate has been absorbed into the
+charcoal, and has parted with its oxygen. As sulphide of potassium is
+more volatile than sulphide of sodium, an incrustation is formed from
+the former sooner than from the latter of these salts, and is
+considerably thicker in the former case. If the potash incrustation be
+touched with the reducing flame, it disappears with a violet-colored
+flame; and if a soda incrustation be treated in like manner, an
+orange-yellow flame is produced.
+
+Sulphide of lithium, formed by heating the sulphate in the reducing
+flame, is volatilized in similar manner by a strong blast, although
+less readily than the sulphide of sodium. It affords a greyish white
+film, which disappears with a crimson flame when submitted to the
+reducing flame.
+
+Besides the above, the sulphides of bismuth and lead give, when heated
+in either flame, two different incrustations, of which the more
+volatile is of a white color, and consists in the one case of sulphate
+of lead, and in the other of sulphate of bismuth. If either of these
+be heated under the reducing flame, it disappears in the former case
+with a bluish flame, in the latter unaccompanied by any visible flame.
+The incrustation formed nearest to the assay consists of the oxide of
+lead or bismuth, and is easily recognized by its color when hot and
+after cooling. There are many other metallic sulphides, which, when
+heated by the blowpipe flame, cover the charcoal with a white
+incrustation, as sulphide of antimony, sulphide of zinc, and sulphide
+of tin. In all these cases, however, the incrustation consists of the
+metallic oxide alone, and either volatilizes or remains unchanged,
+when submitted to the oxidizing flame.
+
+Of the metallic chlorides there are many which, when heated on
+charcoal with the blowpipe flame, are volatilized and redeposited as a
+white incrustation. Among these are the chlorides of potassium,
+sodium, and lithium, which volatilize and cover the charcoal
+immediately around the assay with a thin white film, after they have
+been fused and absorbed into the charcoal, chloride of potassium forms
+the thickest deposit, and chloride of lithium the thinnest, the
+latter being moreover of a greyish-white color. The chlorides of
+ammonium, mercury, and antimony volatilize without fusing.
+
+The chlorides of zinc, cadmium, lead, bismuth, and tin first fuse and
+then cover the charcoal with two different incrustations, one of which
+is a white volatile chloride, and the other a less volatile oxide of
+the metal.
+
+Some of the incrustations formed by metallic chlorides disappear with
+a colored flame when heated with the reducing flame; thus chloride of
+potassium affords a violet flame, chloride of sodium an orange one,
+chloride of lithium a crimson flame, and chloride of lead a blue one.
+The other metals mentioned above volatilize without coloring the
+flame.
+
+The chloride of copper fuses and colors the flame of a beautiful blue.
+Moreover, if a continuous blast be directed upon the salt, a part of
+it is driven off in the form of white fumes which smell strongly of
+chlorine, and the charcoal is covered with incrustations of three
+different colors. That which is formed nearest to the assay is of a
+dark grey color, the next, a dark yellow passing into brown, and the
+most distant of a bluish white color. If this incrustation be heated
+under the reducing flame, it disappears with a blue flame.
+
+Metallic iodides and bromides behave upon charcoal in a similar manner
+to the chlorides. Those principally deserving of mention are the
+bromides and iodides of potassium and sodium. These fuse upon
+charcoal, are absorbed into its pores, and volatilize in the form of
+white fumes, which are deposited upon the charcoal at some distance
+from the assay. When the saline films so formed are submitted to the
+reducing flame, they disappear, coloring the flame in the same manner
+as the corresponding chlorides.
+
+
+4. EXAMINATIONS IN THE PLATINUM FORCEPS.
+
+
+Before the student attempts to make an examination in the platinum
+forceps or tongs, he should first ascertain whether or not it will
+act upon the platinum. If the substance to be examined shall act
+chemically upon the platinum, then it should be examined on the
+charcoal, and the color of the flame ascertained as rigidly as
+possible. The following list of substances produce the color attached
+to them.
+
+A. VIOLET.
+
+  Potash, and all its compounds, with the exception of the phosphate
+  and the borate, tinge the color of the flame violet.
+
+B. BLUE.
+
+  Chloride of copper,  Intense blue.
+  Lead,                Pale clear blue.
+  Bromide of copper,   Bluish green.
+  Antimony,            Bluish green.
+  Selenium,            Blue.
+  Arsenic,             English green.
+
+C. GREEN.
+
+  Ammonia,             Dark green.
+  Boracic acid,        Dark green.
+  Copper,              Dark green.
+  Tellurium,           Dark green.
+  Zinc,                Light green.
+  Baryta               Apple green.
+  Phosphoric acid,     Pale green.
+  Molybdic acid,       Apple green.
+  Telluric acid,       Light green.
+
+D. YELLOW.
+
+  Soda,                Intense yellow.
+  Water,               Feeble yellow.
+
+E. RED.
+
+  Strontia,            Intense crimson.
+  Lithia,              Purplish red.
+  Potash,              Violet red.
+  Lime,                Purplish red.
+
+The student may often be deceived in regard to the colors: for
+instance, if a small splinter of almost any mineral be held at the
+point of the flame of oxidation, it will impart a very slight yellow
+to the flame. This is caused, doubtless, by the water contained in the
+mineral. If the piece of platinum wire is used, and it should be wet
+with the saliva, as is frequently done by the student, then the small
+quantity of soda existing in that fluid will color the flame of a
+light yellow hue.
+
+
+A. THE VIOLET COLOR.
+
+The salts of potash, with the exception of the borate and the
+phosphate, color the flame of a rich violet hue. This color is best
+discovered in the outer flame of the blowpipe, as is the case with all
+the other colors. The flame should be a small one, with a lamp having
+a small wick, while the orifice of the blowpipe must be quite small.
+These experiments should likewise be made in a dark room, so that the
+colors may be discerned with the greatest ease. In investigating with
+potash for the discernment of color, it should be borne in mind that
+the least quantity of soda will entirely destroy the violet color of
+the potash, by the substitution of its own strong yellow color. If
+there be not more than the two hundredth part of soda, the violet
+reaction of the potash will be destroyed. This is likewise the case
+with the presence of lithia, for its peculiar red color will destroy
+the violet of the potash. Therefore in making investigations with the
+silicates which contain potash, the violet color of the latter can
+only be discerned when they are free from soda and lithia.
+
+
+B. THE BLUE COLOR.
+
+(_a._) _The Chloride of Copper._--Any of the chlorides produce a blue
+color in the blowpipe flame, or any salt which contains chlorine will
+show the blue tint, as the color in this case is referable to the
+chlorine itself. There are, however, some chlorides which, in
+consequence of the peculiar reactions of their bases, will not produce
+the blue color, although in these cases the blue of the chlorine will
+be very likely to blend itself with the color produced by the base.
+The chloride of copper communicates an intense blue to the flame, when
+fused on the platinum wire. If the heat be continued until the
+chlorine is driven off, then the greenish hue of the oxide of copper
+will be discerned.
+
+(_b._) _Lead._--Metallic lead communicates to the flame a pale blue
+color. The oxide reacts in the same manner. The lead-salts, whose
+acids do not interfere with the color, impart also a fine blue to the
+flame, either in the platina forceps, or the crooked wire.
+
+(_c._) _Bromide of Copper._--This salt colors the flame of a
+bluish-green color, but when the bromine is driven off, then we have
+the green of the oxide of copper.
+
+(_d._) _Antimony._--This metal imparts a blue color to the blowpipe
+flame, but if the metal is in too small a quantity, then the color is
+a brilliant white. If antimony is fused on charcoal, the fused metal
+gives a blue color. The white sublimate which surrounds the fused
+metal, being subjected to the flame of oxidation, disappears from the
+charcoal with a bluish-green color.
+
+(_e._) _Selenium._--If fused in the flame of oxidation, it imparts to
+the flame a deep blue color. The incrustation upon charcoal gives to
+the flame the same rich color.
+
+(_f._) _Arsenic._--The arseniates and metallic arsenic itself impart
+to the blowpipe flame a fine blue color, provided that there is no
+other body present which may have a tendency to color the flame with
+its characteristic hue. The sublimate of arsenious acid which
+surrounds the assay, will give the same blue flame, when dissipated by
+the oxidation flame. The platinum forceps will answer for the
+exhibition of the color of arsenic, even though the salts be
+arseniates, whose bases possess the property of imparting their
+peculiar color to the flame, such as the arseniate of lime.
+
+
+C. THE GREEN COLOR.
+
+(_a._) _Ammonia._--The salts of ammonia, when heated before the
+blowpipe, and just upon the point of disappearing, impart to the flame
+a feeble though dark green color. This color, however, can only be
+discerned in a dark room.
+
+(_b._) _Boracic Acid._--If any one of the borates is mixed with two
+parts of a flux composed of one part of pulverized fluorspar, and four
+and a half parts of bisulphate of potash, and after being melted, is
+put upon the coil of a platinum wire, and held at the point of the
+blue flame, soon after fusion takes place a dark green color is
+discerned, but it is not of long duration. The above process is that
+recommended by Dr. Turner. The green color of the borates may be
+readily seen by dipping them, previously moistened with sulphuric
+acid, into the upper part of the blue flame, when the color can be
+readily discerned. If soda be present, then the rich green of the
+boracic acid is marred by the yellow of the soda. Borax, or the
+biborate of soda (NaO, 2BO_{3}) may be used for this latter reaction,
+but if it be moistened with sulphuric acid, the green of the boracic
+acid can then be seen. If the borates, or minerals which contain
+boracic acid, are fused on charcoal with carbonate of potash, then
+moistened with sulphuric acid and alcohol, then the bright green of
+the boracic acid is produced, even if the mineral contains but a
+minute portion of the boracic acid.
+
+(_c._) _Copper_. Nearly all the ores of copper and its salts, give a
+bright green color to the blowpipe flame. Metallic copper likewise
+colors the flame green, being first oxidized. If iodine, chlorine, and
+bromine are present, the flame is considerably modified, but the
+former at least intensifies the color. Many ores containing copper
+also color the flame green, but the internal portion is of a bright
+blue color if the compound contains lead, the latter color being due
+to the lead. The native sulphide and carbonate of copper should be
+moistened with sulphuric acid, while the former should be previously
+roasted. If hydrochloric acid is used for moistening the salts, then
+the rich green given by that moistened with the sulphuric acid is
+changed to a blue, being thus modified by the chlorine of the acid.
+Silicates containing copper, if heated in the flame in the platinum
+forceps, impart a rich green color to the outer flame. In fact, if any
+substance containing copper be submitted to the blowpipe flame, it
+will tinge it green, provided there be no other substance present to
+impart its own color to the flame, and thus modify or mar that of the
+copper.
+
+(_d._) _Tellurium._--If the flame of reduction is directed upon the
+oxide of tellurium placed upon charcoal, a green color is imparted to
+it. If the telluric acid be placed upon platinum wire in the reduction
+flame, the oxidation flame is colored green. Or if the sublimate be
+dissipated by the flame of oxidation, it gives a green color. If
+selenium be present, the green color is changed to a blue.
+
+(_e._) _Zinc._--The oxide of zinc, when strongly heated, gives a blue
+flame. This is especially the case in the reducing flame. The flame is
+a small one, however, and not very characteristic, as with certain
+preparations of zinc the blue color is changed to a bright white. The
+soluble salts of zinc give no blue color.
+
+(_f._) _Baryta._--The soluble salts of baryta, moistened, and then
+submitted to the reduction flame, produce a green color. The salt
+should be moistened, when the color will be strongly marked in the
+outer flame. The insoluble salts do not produce so vivid a color as
+the soluble salts, and they are brighter when they have previously
+been moistened. The carbonate does not give a strong color, but the
+acetate does, so long as it is not allowed to turn to a carbonate. The
+chloride, when fused on the platinum wire, in the point of the
+reduction flame, imparts a fine green color to the oxidation flame.
+This tint changes finally to a faint dirty green color. The sulphate
+of baryta colors the flame green when heated at the point of the
+reduction flame. But neither the sulphate, carbonate, nor, in fact,
+any other salt of baryta, gives such a fine green color as the
+chloride. The presence of lime does interfere with the reaction of
+baryta, but still does not destroy its color.
+
+(_g._) _Phosphoric Acid._--The phosphates give a green color to the
+oxidation flame, especially when they are moistened with sulphuric
+acid. This is best shown with the platinum forceps. The green of
+phosphoric, or the phosphates, is much less intense than that of the
+borates or boracic acid, but yet the reaction is a certain one, and is
+susceptible of considerable delicacy, either with the forceps, or
+still better upon platinum wire. Sulphuric acid is a great aid to the
+development of the color, especially if other salts be present which
+would be liable to hide the color of the phosphoric acid. In this
+reaction with phosphates, the water should be expelled from them
+previous to melting them with sulphuric acid. They should likewise be
+pulverized. Should soda be present it will only exhibit its peculiar
+color after the phosphoric acid shall have been expelled; therefore,
+the green color of the phosphoric acid should be looked for
+immediately upon submitting the phosphate to heat.
+
+(_h._) _Molybdic Acid._--If this acid or the oxide of molybdenum be
+exposed upon a platinum wire to the point of the reduction flame, a
+bright green color is communicated to the flame of oxidation. Take a
+small piece of the native sulphide of molybdenum, and expose it in the
+platinum tongs to the flame referred to above, when the green color
+characteristic of this metal will be exhibited.
+
+(_i._) _Telluric Acid._--If the flame of reduction is directed upon a
+small piece of the oxide of tellurium placed upon charcoal, a bright
+green color is produced. Or if telluric acid be submitted to the
+reduction flame upon the loop of a platinum wire, it communicates to
+the outer flame the bright green of tellurium. If the sublimate found
+upon the charcoal in the first experiment be submitted to the blowpipe
+flame, the green color of tellurium is produced while the sublimate is
+volatilized. If selenium be present the green color is changed to a
+deep blue one.
+
+
+D. YELLOW.
+
+The salts of soda all give a bright yellow color when heated in the
+platinum loop in the reduction flame. This color is very persistent,
+and will destroy the color of almost any other substance. Every
+mineral of which soda is a constituent, give this bright orange-yellow
+reaction. Even the silicate of soda itself imparts to the flame of
+oxidation the characteristic yellow of soda.
+
+
+E. RED.
+
+(_a._) _Strontia._--Moisten a small piece of the chloride of
+strontium, put it in the platinum forceps and submit it to the flame
+of reduction, when the outer flame will become colored of an intense
+red. If the salt of strontia should be a soluble one, the reaction is
+of a deeper color than if an insoluble salt is used, while the color
+is of a deeper crimson if the salt is moistened. If the salt be a
+soluble one, it should be moistened and dipped into the flame, while
+if it be an insoluble salt, it should be kept dry and exposed beyond
+the point of the flame. The carbonate of strontia should be moistened
+with hydrochloric acid instead of water, by which its color similates
+that of the chloride of strontium when moistened with water. In
+consequence of the decided red color which strontia communicates to
+flame, it is used by pyrotechnists for the purpose of making their
+"crimson fire."
+
+(_b._) _Lithia._--The color of the flame of lithia is slightly
+inclined to purple. The chloride, when placed in the platinum loop,
+gives to the outer flame a bright red color, sometimes with a slight
+tinge of purple. Potash does not prevent this reaction, although it
+may modify it to violet; but the decided color of soda changes the red
+of lithia to an orange color. If much soda be present, the color of
+the lithia is lost entirely. The color of the chloride of lithium may
+be distinctly produced before the point of the blue flame, and its
+durability may be the means of determining it from that of lithium,
+as the latter, under the same conditions, is quite evanescent. The
+minerals which contain lithia, frequently contain soda, and thus the
+latter destroys the color of the former.
+
+(_c._) _Potash._--The salts of potash, if the acid does not interfere,
+give a purplish-red color before the blowpipe; but as the color is
+more discernibly a purple, we have classed it under that color.
+
+(_d._) _Lime._--The color of the flame of lime does not greatly differ
+from that of strontia, with the exception that it is not so decided.
+Arragonite and calcareous spar, moistened with hydrochloric acid, and
+tried as directed for strontia, produce a red light, not unlike that
+of strontia. The chloride of calcium gives a red tinge, but not nearly
+so decided as the chloride of strontium. The carbonate of lime will
+produce a yellowish flame for a while, until the carbonic acid is
+driven off, when the red color of the lime may be discerned.
+
+If the borate or phosphate of lime be used, the green color of the
+acids predominates over the red of the lime. Baryta also destroys the
+red color of the lime, by mixing its green color with it. There is but
+one silicate of lime which colors the flame red, it is the variety
+termed tabular spar.
+
+
+5. EXAMINATIONS IN THE BORAX BEAD.
+
+
+In order to examine a substance in borax, the loop of the platinum
+wire should, after being thoroughly cleaned, and heated to redness, be
+quickly dipped into the powdered borax, and then quickly transferred
+to the flame of oxidation, and there fused. If the bead is not large
+enough to fill the loop of the wire, it must be subjected again to the
+same process. By examining the bead, both when hot and cold, by
+holding it up against the light, it can be soon ascertained whether it
+is free from dirt by the transparency, or the want of it, of the bead.
+
+In order to make the examination of a substance, the bead should be
+melted and pressed against it, when enough will adhere to answer the
+purpose. This powder should then be fused in the oxidation flame until
+it mixes with, and is thoroughly dissolved by the borax bead.
+
+The principal objects to be determined now are: the color of the borax
+bead, both when heated and when cooled; also the rapidity with which
+the substance dissolves in the bead, and if any gas is eliminated.
+
+If the color of the bead is the object desired, the quantity of the
+substance employed must be very small, else the bead will be so deeply
+colored, as in some cases to appear almost opaque, as, for instance,
+in that of cobalt. Should this be the case, then, while the bead is
+still red hot, it should be pressed flat with the forceps; or it may,
+while soft, be pulled out to a thin thread, whereby the color can be
+distinctly discovered.
+
+Some bodies, when heated in the borax bead, present a clear bead both
+while hot and cold; but if the bead be heated with the intermittent
+flame, or in the flame of reduction, it becomes opalescent, opaque or
+milk-white. The alkaline earths are instances of this kind of
+reaction, also glucina oxide of cerium, tantalic and titanic acids,
+yttria and zirconia. But if a small portion of silica should be
+present, then the bead becomes clear. This is likewise the case with
+some silicates, provided there be not too large a quantity present,
+that is: over the quantity necessary to saturate the borax, for, in
+that case, the bead will be opaque when cool.
+
+If the bead be heated on charcoal, a small tube or cavity must be
+scooped out of the charcoal, the bead placed in it, and the flame of
+reduction played upon it. When the bead is perfectly fused, it is
+taken up between the platinum forceps and pressed flat, so that the
+color may be the more readily discerned. This quick cooling also
+prevents the protoxides, if there be any present, from passing into a
+higher degree of oxidation.
+
+The bead should first be submitted to the oxidation flame, and any
+reaction carefully observed. Then the bead should be submitted to the
+flame of reduction. It must be observed that the platinum forceps
+should not be used when there is danger of a metallic oxide being
+reduced, as in this case the metal would alloy with the platinum and
+spoil the forceps. In this case charcoal should be used for the
+support. If, however, there be oxides present which are not reduced by
+the borax, then the platinum loop may be used. Tin is frequently used
+for the purpose of enabling the bead to acquire a color for an oxide
+in the reducing flame, by its affinity for oxygen. The oxide, thus
+being reduced to a lower degree of oxidation, imparts its peculiar
+tinge to the bead as it cools.
+
+The arsenides and sulphides, before being examined, should be roasted,
+and then heated with the borax bead. The arsenic of the former, it
+should be observed, will act on the glass tube in which the
+sublimation is proceeding, if the glass should contain lead.
+
+It should be recollected that earths, metallic oxides, and metallic
+acids are soluble in borax, except those of the easily reducible
+metals, such as platinum or gold, or of mercury, which too readily
+vaporize. Also the metallic sulphides, after the sulphur has been
+driven off. Also the salts of metals, after their acids are driven off
+by heat. Also the nitrates and carbonates, after their acids are
+driven off during the fusion. Also the salts of the halogens, such as
+the chlorides, iodides, bromides, etc., of the metals. Also the
+silicates, but with great tardiness. Also the phosphates and borates
+that fuse in the bead without suffering decomposition. The metallic
+sulphides are insoluble in borax, and many of the metals in the pure
+state.
+
+There are many substances which give clear beads with borax both while
+hot and cold, but which, upon being heated with the intermittent
+oxidation flame, become enamelled and opaque. The intermittent flame
+may be readily attained, not by varying the force of the air from the
+mouth, but by raising and depressing the bead before the point of the
+steady oxidating flame. The addition of a little nitrate of potash
+will often greatly facilitate the production of a color, as it
+oxidizes the metal. The hot bead should be pressed upon a small
+crystal of the nitrate, when the bead swells, intumesces, and the
+color is manifested in the surface of the bead,
+
+
+6. EXAMINATIONS IN MICROCOSMIC SALT.
+
+
+Microcosmic salt is a better flux for many metallic oxides than borax,
+as the colors are exhibited in it with more strength and character.
+Microcosmic salt is the phosphate of soda and ammonia. When it is
+ignited it passes into the biphosphate of soda, the ammonia being
+driven off. This biphosphate of soda possesses an excess of phosphoric
+acid, and thus has the property of dissolving a great number of
+substances, in fact almost any one, with the exception of silica. If
+the substances treated with this salt consist of sulphides or
+arsenides, the bead must be heated on charcoal. But if the substance
+experimented upon consists of earthly ingredients or metallic oxides,
+the platinum wire is the best. If the latter is used a few additional
+turns should be given to the wire in consequence of the greater
+fluidity of the bead over that of borax. The microcosmic salt bead
+possesses the advantage over that of borax, that the colors of many
+substances are better discerned in it, and that it separates the
+acids, the more volatile ones being dissipated, while the fixed ones
+combine with a portion of the base equally with the phosphoric acid,
+or else do not combine at all, but float about in the bead, as is the
+case particularly with silicic acid. Many of the silicates give with
+borax a clear bead, while they form with microcosmic salt an
+opalescent one.
+
+It frequently happens, that if a metallic oxide will not give its
+peculiar color in one of the flames, that it will in the other, as the
+difference in degree with which the metal is oxidized often determines
+the color. If the bead is heated in the reducing flame, it is well
+that it should be cooled rapidly to prevent a reoxidation. Reduction
+is much facilitated by the employment of metallic tin, whereby the
+protoxide or the reduced metal may be obtained in a comparatively
+brief time.
+
+The following tables, taken from Plattner and Sherer, will present the
+reactions of the metallic oxides, and some of the metallic acids, in
+such a clear light, that the student cannot very easily be led astray,
+if he gives the least attention to them. It frequently happens that a
+tabular statement of reactions will impress facts upon the memory when
+long detailed descriptions will fail to do so. It is for this purpose
+that we subjoin the following excellent tables.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+TABLE I.
+
+
+  A. BORAX.
+    1. Oxydizing flame.
+    2. Reducing    "
+
+  B. MICROCOSMIC SALT.
+    1. Oxydizing flame.
+    2. Reducing    "
+
+
+A. BORAX
+
+1. Oxydizing flame
+
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------
+Color of Bead.
+--+-----------------------------------------------------------------------
+  |               Substances which produce this color
+  +--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+  |    in the hot bead.                  |      in the cold bead.
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+Colorless
+-----------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+  | Silica            \                  | Silica
+  | Alumina            \                 | Alumina        _
+  | Oxide of Tin       |                 | Oxide of Tin    \
+  | Telluric Acid      |                 | Telluric Acid    \
+  | Baryta             |                 | Baryta            \
+  | Strontia           |                 | Strontia           |
+  | Lime               |                 | Lime               |
+  | Magnesia           |                 | Magnesia           |
+  | Glucina            | In all          | Glucina            |
+  | Yttria             } proportions.    | Yttria             |
+  | Zirconia           |                 | Zirconia           |
+  | Thoria             |                 | Thoria             |With
+  | Oxide of Lanthanum |                 | Oxide of Lanthanum |intermittent
+  |                    |                 |   "   "  Silver    }flame
+  | Tantalic Acid      |                 | Tantalic Acid      |opaque
+  | Niobic    "        |                 | Niobic    "        |white.
+  | Pelopic   "        /                 | Pelopic   "        |
+  | Titanic   "      _/                  | Titanic   "        |
+  |                _                     |                    |
+  | Tungstic  "       \  In small        | Tungstic  "        |
+  | Molybdic  "        \ quantity        | Molybdic  "        |
+  | Oxide of Zinc      | only.           | Oxide of Zinc     /
+  |   "   "  Cadmium   }                 |   "   "  Cadmium_/
+  |   "   "  Lead      | In large        |   "   "  Lead
+  |   "   "  Bismuth   / quantity        |   "   "  Bismuth
+  |   "   "  Antimony /  yellow.         |   "   "  Antimony
+--+-----------+--------------------------+--------------------------------
+Yellow, orange-red and reddish-brown.
+--+-----------+--------------------------+--------------------------------
+  |                         _            |
+  | Titanic Acid, yellow     \           |
+  | Tungstic Acid, yellow     \          |
+  | Molybdic Acid, dark yellow|when in   |
+  | Oxide of Zinc, pale-yellow|large     |
+  | Oxide of Cadmium,         }quantity. |
+  |    pale-yellow            |Otherwise |
+  | Oxide of Lead, yellow     |colorless.|
+  | Oxide of Bismuth, orange  /          |
+  | Oxide of Antimony, yellow/           |
+  | Oxide of Cerium, red                 | Oxide of Cerium with interm.
+  | Oxide of Iron, dark red              |   flame opaque white.
+  | Oxide of Uranium, red                | Oxide of Iron, yellow
+  | Oxide of Silver                      | Oxide of Uranium with interm.
+  |                                      |   flame opaque yellow.
+  |                                      | Oxide of Silver in large
+  |                                      |   proportion, with interm.
+  |                                      |   flame yellow.
+  | Vanadic Acid, yellow                 | Vanadic Acid, yellow.
+  | Oxide of Chromium,  dark-red         | Oxide of Nickel,
+  |                                      |   reddish-brown.
+  |                                      | Oxide of Manganese, red to
+  |                                      |   violet.
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+Violet or Amethyst.
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+  | Oxide of Nickel                      |
+  |   "   "  Manganese                   | Oxide of Didymium.
+  |   "   "  Didymium                    |
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+Blue.
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+  | Oxide of Cobalt                      | Oxide of Cobalt.
+  |                                      |     "    Copper, blue to
+  |                                      |    greenish-blue.
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+Green.
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+  | Oxide of Copper                      | Oxide of Chromium, with
+  |                                      |   yellowish tinge.
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+
+
+A. BORAX
+
+2. Reducing flame
+
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+Color of Bead.
+--+-----------------------------------------------------------------------
+  |               Substances which produce this color
+  +--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+  |    in the hot bead.                  |      in the cold bead.
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+Colorless
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+  | Silica                               | Silica
+  | Alumina                              | Alumina
+  | Oxide of Tin                         | Oxide of Tin    _
+  | Baryta                               | Baryta           \
+  | Strontia                             | Strontia          \
+  | Lime                                 | Lime               |
+  | Magnesia                             | Magnesia           |With
+  | Glucina                              | Glucina            |intermittent
+  | Yttria                               | Yttria             }flame
+  | Zirconia                             | Zirconia           |opaque-white.
+  | Thoria                               | Thoria only when   |
+  |                                      |   saturated        |
+  | Oxide of Lanthanum                   | Oxide of Lanthanum |
+  |   "   "  Cerium                      |   "   "  Cerium   /
+  | Tantalic Acid                        | Tantalic Acid   _/
+  | Oxide of Didymium                    | Oxide of Didymium
+  |   "   "  Manganese                   |   "   "  Manganese
+  |                 _                    |               _
+  | Niobic   Acid    \ In small          | Niobic   Acid  \ In small
+  | Pelopic   "       } proportions.     | Pelopic   "    } proportions.
+  |                 _/                   |               _/
+  |                _                     |                  _
+  | Oxide of Silver \                    | Oxide of Silver   \  After
+  |   "   "  Zinc    \ After long        |   "   "  Zinc      \ long
+  |   "   "  Cadmium | continued         |   "   "  Cadmium   | continued
+  |   "   "  Lead    } blowing.          |   "   "  Lead      } blowing.
+  |   "   "  Bismuth | Otherwise         |   "   "  Bismuth   | Otherwise
+  |   "   "  Antimony| grey.             |   "   "  Antimony  | grey.
+  |   "   "  Nickel  /                   |   "   "  Nickel    /
+  | Telluric Acid  _/                    | Telluric Acid    _/
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+Yellow to brown.
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+  | Titanic Acid                         | Titanic Acid.
+  | Tungstic "                           | Tungstic "
+  | Molybdic "                           | Molybdic "
+  | Vanadic  "                           |
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+Blue.
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+  | Oxide of Cobalt.                     | Oxide of Cobalt.
+  |                                      | Titanic Acid with intermittent
+  |                                      | flame opaque-blue.
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+Green.
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+  | Oxide of Iron                        | Oxide of Iron, bottle-green.
+  |   "   "  Uranium                     | Oxide of Uranium, bottle-
+  |   "   "  Chromium                    |   green.
+  |                                      | Oxide of Chromium, emerald-
+  |                                      |   green.
+  |                                      | Vanadic Acid, emerald-green.
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+Opaque-grey. (The opacity generally becomes distinct during cooling.)
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+  |                _                     |
+  | Oxide of Silver \                    | Oxide of Silver._
+  |   "   "  Zinc    \ After             |   "   "  Zinc    \ After
+  |   "   "  Cadmium | short             |   "   "  Cadmium  \short
+  |   "   "  Lead    } blowing.          |   "   "  Lead     |blowing.
+  |   "   "  Bismuth | Otherwise         |   "   "  Bismuth  }Otherwise
+  |   "   "  Antimony| colorless.        |   "   "  Antimony |colorless.
+  |   "   "  Nickel  /                   |   "   "  Nickel   /
+  | Telluric Acid  _/                    | Telluric Acid   _/
+  |                 _                    |           _
+  | Niobic Acid      \ After long        | Niobic Acid\ After long
+  | Pelopic "        | continued blowing | Pelopic "  | continued
+  |                  } and in            |            } blowing and
+  |                  | considerable      |            | in considerable
+  |                 _/ proportion.       |           _/ proportion.
+  |                                      |
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+Opaque red and reddish-brown.
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+  | Oxide of Copper                      | Oxide of Copper.
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+
+
+B. MICROCOSMIC SALT.
+
+1. Oxydizing flame.
+
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+Color of Bead.
+--+-----------------------------------------------------------------------
+  |               Substances which produce this color
+  +--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+  |    in the hot bead.                  |      in the cold bead.
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+Colorless
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+  |                  _                   |
+  | Silica (only      \                  | Silica
+  |   slightly soluble)\                 |
+  | Alumina             |                | Alumina
+  | Oxide of Tin        |                | Oxide of Tin     _
+  | Telluric Acid       |                | Telluric Acid     \
+  | Baryta              |                | Baryta             \
+  | Strontia            |                | Strontia            |With
+  | Lime                | In all         | Lime                |intermittent
+  | Magnesia            } proportions.   | Magnesia            }flame
+  | Glucina             |                | Glucina             |opaque
+  | Yttria              |                | Yttria              |white.
+  | Zirconia            |                | Zirconia            |
+  | Thoria              |                | Thoria             /
+  | Oxide of Lanthanum  |                | Oxide of Lanthanum/
+  |                     |                |   "   "  Cerium
+  | Niobic   Acid      /                 | Niobic   Acid
+  | Pelopic   "      _/                  | Pelopic  "
+  | Tantalic  "                          | Tantalic "
+  | Titanic   "                          | Titanic  "
+  | Tungstic  "      _                   | Tungstic "
+  | Oxide of Zinc     \  In small        | Oxide of Zinc
+  |   "   "  Cadmium   \ quantity only.  |   "   "  Cadmium
+  |   "   "  Lead      } In large        |   "   "  Lead
+  |   "   "  Bismuth   | quantity        |   "   "  Bismuth
+  |   "   "  Antimony  /  yellow.        |   "   "  Antimony
+  |                  _/                  |
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+Yellow, orange, red and brown.
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+  | Tantalic Acid     _                  |
+  | Titanic   "        \                 |
+  | Tungstic  "        |                 |
+  | Oxide of Zinc      | In large        |
+  |   "   "  Cadmium   } quantity.       |
+  |   "   "  Lead      |                 |
+  |   "   "  Bismuth   |                 |
+  |   "   "  Antimony _/                 |
+  |   "   "  Silver                      | Oxide of Silver.
+  |   "   "  Cerium                      |
+  |   "   "  Iron                        | Oxide of Iron.
+  |   "   "  Nickel                      |   "   "  Nickel.
+  |   "   "  Uranium                     |   "   "  Uranium,
+  |                                      |   yellowish-green.
+  | Vanadic Acid                         | Vanadic Acid.
+  | Oxide of Chromium                    |
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+Violet or Amethyst.
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+  | Oxide of Manganese                   | Oxide of Manganese.
+  |   "   "  Didymium                    |   "   "  Didymium.
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+Blue.
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+  | Oxide of Cobalt                      | Oxide of Cobalt
+  |                                      | Oxide of Copper, to
+  |                                      |   greenish-blue.
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+Green.
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+  | Molybdic Acid, yellowish-green       | Molybdic Acid, yellowish-green.
+  | Oxide of Copper                      | Oxide of Uranium,
+  |                                      |   yellowish-green.
+  |                                      | Oxide of Chromium,
+  |                                      |   emerald-green.
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+
+
+B. MICROCOSMIC SALT.
+
+2. Reducing flame.
+
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+Color of Bead.
+--+-----------------------------------------------------------------------
+  |               Substances which produce this color
+  +--------------------------------------+---------------------------------
+  |    in the hot bead.                  |      in the cold bead.
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+Colorless
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+  | Silica (only slightly soluble)       | Silica (only slightly soluble).
+  | Alumina                              | Alumina.
+  | Oxide of Tin                         | Oxide of Tin.    _
+  | Baryta                               | Baryta            \
+  | Strontia                             | Strontia           \
+  | Lime                                 | Lime                |
+  | Magnesia                             | Magnesia            |With an
+  | Glucina                              | Glucina             }intermittent
+  | Yttria                               | Yttria              |flame
+  | Zirconia                             | Zirconia            |opaque-
+  | Thoria                               | Thoria only when    |white.
+  |                                      |        saturated   /
+  | Oxide of Lanthanum                   | Oxide of Lanthanum/
+  |   "   "  Cerium                      |   "   "  Cerium.
+  |   "   "  Didymium                    |   "   "  Didymium.
+  |   "   "  Manganese                   |   "   "  Manganese.
+  | Tantalic Acid   _                    | Tantalic Acid.
+  | Oxide of Silver  \                   | Oxide of Silver _
+  |   "   "  Zinc     \                  |   "   "  Zinc    \  After
+  |   "   "  Cadmium   | After long      |   "   "  Cadmium  \ long
+  |   "   "  Lead      } continued       |   "   "  Lead      | continued
+  |   "   "  Bismuth   | blowing.        |   "   "  Bismuth   } blowing.
+  |   "   "  Antimony  | Otherwise grey. |   "   "  Antimony  | Otherwise
+  |   "   "  Nickel   /                  |   "   "  Nickel   / grey.
+  | Telluric Acid   _/                   | Telluric Acid   _/
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+Yellow, red, and brown.
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+  | Oxide of Iron, red                   | Oxide of Iron.
+  | Titanic Acid, yellow                 |
+  | Pelopic Acid, brown                  | Pelopic Acid.
+  | Ferruginous Titanic Acid, blood red  | Ferruginous Titanic Acid.
+  |      "      Niobic   "       "       |      "      Niobic   "
+  |      "      Pelopic  "       "       |      "      Pelopic  "
+  |      "      Tungstic "       "       |      "      Tungstic "
+  | Vanadic Acid, brownish               |
+  | Oxide of Chromium, reddish           |
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+Violet or Amethyst.
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+  | Niobic Acid in large proportion      | Niobic Acid in large proportion.
+  |                                      | Titanic Acid.
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+Blue.
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+  | Oxide of Cobalt                      | Oxide of Cobalt.
+  | Tungstic Acid                        | Tungstic Acid.
+  | Niobic Acid in very large proportion.| Niobic Acid in very large
+  |                                      |   proportion.
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+Green.
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+  | Oxide of Uranium                     | Oxide of Uranium.
+  | Molybdic Acid                        | Molybdic Acid.
+  |                                      | Vanadic  "
+  |                                      | Oxide of Chromium.
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+Opaque-grey. (The opacity generally becomes distinct during cooling.)
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+  | Oxide of Silver                      | Oxide of Silver.
+  |   "   "  Zinc                        |   "   "  Zinc.
+  |   "   "  Cadmium                     |   "   "  Cadmium.
+  |   "   "  Lead                        |   "   "  Lead.
+  |   "   "  Bismuth                     |   "   "  Bismuth.
+  |   "   "  Antimony                    |   "   "  Antimony.
+  |   "   "  Nickel                      |   "   "  Nickel.
+  | Telluric Acid                        | Telluric Acid.
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+Opaque-red and reddish brown.
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+  | Oxide of Copper                      | Oxide of Copper.
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+TABLE II.
+
+
+Metallic Oxides
+
+1. Oxide of Cerium, C^{2}O^{3}.
+
+  Behavior with Borax on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      Dissolves into a red or dark yellow glass (similar to that
+      produced by iron). During cooling, the color diminishes in the
+      intensity and becomes finally yellow. If much oxide be dissolved,
+      an opaque bead may be obtained with an intermittent flame, and a
+      still larger quantity renders it opaque spontaneously.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      The color of the bead becomes paler, so that a bead, which is
+      yellow in the oxidizing flame, is rendered colorless. With a
+      large quantity of oxide the bead becomes white and crystalline
+      on cooling.
+
+  Behavior with Mic. Salt on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      As with borax. During the process of cooling the color entirely
+      disappears.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      Both, when hot and cold, the bead is colorless, by which
+      character oxide of cerium may be distinguished from oxide of
+      iron. The glass remains clear even when containing a large
+      quantity of the oxide.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+2. Oxide of Lanthanum, LaO.
+
+  Behavior with Borax on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      Dissolves into a colorless glass, which, when sufficient oxide
+      is present, may be rendered opaque with an intermittent flame,
+      and becomes so spontaneously on cooling, when a still larger
+      amount is dissolved.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      As in the oxidizing flame.
+
+  Behavior with Mic. Salt on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      As with borax.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      No reaction.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+3. Oxide of Didymium, DO.
+
+  Behavior with Borax on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame:
+
+      Dissolves to a clear dark amethystine glass.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      No reaction.
+
+  Behavior with Mic. Salt on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      As with borax.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      No reaction.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+4. Oxide of Manganese, Mn^{2}O^{3}.
+
+  Behavior with Borax on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      Affords an intense amethyst color, which on cooling becomes
+      violet. A large quantity of the oxide produces an apparently
+      black bead, which however, if pressed flat, is seen to be
+      transparent.
+
+   in the reducing flame.
+
+      The colored bead becomes colorless. With a large amount of the
+      oxide, this reaction is best obtained upon charcoal, and is
+      facilitated by the addition of tin foil.
+
+  Behavior with Mic. Salt on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      With a considerable quantity of oxide an amethyst color is
+      obtained, but never so dark as in borax. With but little oxide a
+      colorless bead is obtained, in which, however, the
+      amethyst-color may be brought out by adding a little nitre.
+      While the bead is kept fused, it froths and gives off bubbles of
+      gas.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      The colored bead immediately loses its color, either on platinum
+      wire or on charcoal. After the reduction the fluid bead remains
+      still.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+5. Oxide of Iron, Fe^{2}O^{3}.
+
+  Behavior with Borax on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      With a small proportion of oxide, the glass is of a yellow
+      color, while warm, and colorless when cold; with a larger
+      proportion, red, while warm, and yellow, when cold; and with a
+      still larger amount, dark-red, while warm, and dark-yellow, when
+      cold.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      Treated alone on platinum wire, the glass becomes of a
+      bottle-green color (F^{3}O^{4}), and if touched with tin, it
+      becomes of a pale sea-green. On charcoal with tin, it assumes at
+      first a bottle-green color, which by continued blowing changes
+      to a sea-green (FeO).
+
+  Behavior with Mic. Salt on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      With a certain amount of oxide, the glass is of a yellowish-red
+      color, which on cooling changes to yellow, then green, and
+      finally becomes colorless. With a large addition of oxide, the
+      color is, when warm, dark red, and passes, while cooling, into
+      brownish-red, dark green, and finally brownish-red. During the
+      cooling process, the colors change more rapidly than with borax.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      With a small proportion of oxide there is no reaction. With a
+      larger amount the bead is red, while warm, and becomes on
+      cooling successively yellow, green, and russet. With the
+      addition of tin the glass becomes, during cooling, first green
+      and then colorless.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+6. Oxide of Cobalt, CoO.
+
+  Behavior with Borax on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame:
+
+      Colors the glass of an intense smalt blue both whilst hot and
+      when cold. When much oxide is present, the color is so deep as
+      to appear black.
+
+   in the reducing flame:
+
+      As in the oxidizing flame.
+
+  Behavior with Mic. Salt on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      As with borax, but less intensively colored. During cooling the
+      color becomes somewhat paler.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      As in the oxidizing flames.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+7. Oxide of Nickel, NiO.
+
+  Behavior with Borax on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      Colors intensely. A small amount of oxide affords a glass which,
+      while warm, is violet, and becomes of a pale reddish-brown on
+      cooling. A larger addition produces a dark violet color in the
+      warm and reddish-brown in the cold bead.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      The oxide is reduced and the metallic particles give the bead a
+      turbid grey appearance. If the blast be continued the metallic
+      particles fall together without fusing, and the glass becomes
+      colorless. This reaction is readily obtained with tin upon
+      charcoal, and the reduced nickel fuses to a bead with the tin.
+
+  Behavior with Mic. Salt on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      Dissolves into a reddish glass which becomes yellow on cooling.
+      With a large addition of the oxide, the glass is brownish while
+      hot, and orange when cold.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      On platinum wire the nickeliferous bead undergoes no change.
+      Treated with tin upon charcoal, it becomes at first opaque and
+      grey, and after long continued blowing the reduced nickel forms
+      a bead, and the glass remains colorless.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+8. Oxide of Zinc, ZnO.
+
+  Behavior with Borax on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      Dissolves easily into a clear colorless glass, which, when much
+      oxide is present, may be rendered opaque and flocculent by an
+      intermittent flame, and becomes so spontaneously with a still
+      larger addition. When a considerable quantity is dissolved, a
+      glass is obtained which is pale yellow, while hot, and colorless
+      when cold.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      On platinum wire the saturated glass becomes at first opaque and
+      grey, but by a sustained blast is again rendered clear. On
+      charcoal the oxide is gradually reduced; the metal is
+      volatilized and in crusts the charcoal with oxide.
+
+  Behavior with Mic. Salt on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      As with borax.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      As with borax.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+9. Oxide of Cadmium, CdO.
+
+  Behavior with Borax on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      When in very large proportion, dissolves to a clear yellow
+      glass, which becomes nearly colorless on cooling. When the oxide
+      is present in any considerable quantity, the glass can be
+      rendered opaque with an intermittent flame, and, with a larger
+      addition, it becomes so spontaneously on cooling.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      Upon charcoal ebullition takes place and the oxide is reduced.
+      The metallic cadmium is volatilized and incrusts the charcoal
+      with its characteristic deep yellow oxide.
+
+  Behavior with Mic. Salt on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      When in very large proportion dissolves to a clear glass, having
+      a yellow tinge, while hot, which disappears on cooling, and when
+      perfectly saturated, becomes milk-white.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      On charcoal the oxide is slowly and imperfectly reduced. The
+      reduced metal forms the characteristic incrustation on the
+      charcoal, but the is thin and does not exhibit its color clearly
+      until quite cold. The addition of tin hastens the reaction.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+10. Oxide of Lead, PbO.
+
+  Behavior with Borax on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      Dissolves readily to a clear yellow glass, which loses its color
+      upon cooling, and when containing much oxide can be rendered
+      dull under an intermittent flame. With a still larger addition
+      of oxide it becomes opaline yellow on cooling.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      The plumbiferous glass spreads out on charcoal, becomes turbid,
+      bubbles up, until the whole of the oxide is reduced, when it
+      again becomes clear. It is, however, difficult to bring the lead
+      together into a bead.
+
+  Behavior with Mic. Salt on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      As with borax, but a larger addition of oxide, required to
+      produce a yellow color in the warm bead.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      On charcoal the plumbiferous glass becomes grey and dull. With
+      an over dose of oxide a part is volatilized and forms an
+      incrustation on the charcoal beyond the bead. The addition of
+      tin does not render the glass opaque, but somewhat more dull and
+      grey than in its absence.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+11. Oxide of Tin, SnO^{2}.
+
+  Behavior with Borax on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      In small quantity dissolves slowly into a clear colorless glass,
+      which, when cold, remains clear, and cannot be rendered opaque
+      with an intermittent flame. If a saturated bead, which has been
+      allowed to cool, be reheated to incipient redness, it loses its
+      rounded form and exhibits imperfect crystallization.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      A glass containing but little oxide undergoes no change. If much
+      of the latter be present, a part may be reduced upon charcoal.
+
+  Behavior with Mic. Salt on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      In small quantity dissolves very slowly to a colorless glass,
+      which remains clear on cooling.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      The glass undergoes no change, either on charcoal or platinum wire.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+12. Oxide of Bismuth, BiO^{3}.
+
+  Behavior with Borax on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      Dissolves readily to a clear glass which with a small amount of
+      the oxide is yellow, while warm, and becomes colorless on
+      cooling. With a larger addition, the glass is, in the hot state,
+      of a deep orange color, which changes to yellow and finally
+      becomes opaline in process of cooling.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      A glass becomes at first grey and turbid, then begins to
+      effervesce, which action continues during the reduction of the
+      oxide, and it finally becomes perfectly clear. If tin be added,
+      the glass becomes at first grey from the reduced bismuth, but,
+      when the metal is collected into a bead, the glass is again
+      clear and colorless.
+
+  Behavior with Mic. Salt on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      Dissolves in small quantity to a clear colorless glass. A larger
+      addition affords a glass which, while warm, is yellow, and
+      becomes colorless on cooling. When in sufficient proportion the
+      glass may be rendered opaque under an intermittent flame, and a
+      still larger addition of oxide renders the bead spontaneously
+      opaque on cooling.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      On charcoal, and especially with the addition of tin, the glass
+      remains colorless and clear, while warm, but becomes on cooling
+      of a dark grey color and opaque.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+13. Oxide of Uranium, U^{2}O^{3}.
+
+  Behavior with Borax on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      Behaves similarly to oxide of iron, with the exception that the
+      color of the former is somewhat paler. When sufficiently
+      saturated, the glass may be rendered of an opaque yellow by an
+      intermittent flame.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      Affords the same color as the oxide of iron. The green glass
+      obtained in this flame, if sufficiently saturated, can be
+      rendered black by an intermittent flame, but it has under these
+      circumstances no enameline appearance. On charcoal, with the
+      addition of tin, the glass takes a dark green color.
+
+  Behavior with Mic. Salt on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      Dissolves to a clear yellow glass, which assumes a
+      yellowish-green color on cooling.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      The glass assumes a beautiful green color, which becomes more
+      brilliant as the bead cools. The addition of tin upon charcoal
+      produces no further change.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+14. Oxide of Copper, CuO.
+
+  Behavior with Borax on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      Produces an intense coloration. If in small quantity, the glass
+      is green, while warm, and becomes blue on cooling. If in large
+      proportion, the green color is so intense as to appear black.
+      When cool, this becomes paler, and changes to a greenish blue.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      If not too saturated, the cupriferous glass soon becomes nearly
+      colorless, but immediately on solidifying assumes a red color
+      and becomes opaque. By long continued blowing on charcoal, the
+      copper in the bead is reduced and separates out as a small
+      metallic bead, leaving the glass colorless. With the addition of
+      tin, the glass becomes of an opaque dull-red on cooling.
+
+  Behavior with Mic. Salt on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      With an equal proportion of oxide, this salt is not so strongly
+      colored as borax. A small amount imparts a green color in the
+      warm and a blue in the cold. With a very large addition of
+      oxide, the glass is opaque in the hot state, and after cooling
+      of a greenish-blue.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      A tolerably saturated glass assumes a dark green color under a
+      good flame, and on cooling becomes of an opaque brick-red, the
+      moment it solidifies. A glass containing but a small proportion
+      of the oxide becomes equally red and opaque on cooling, if
+      treated with tin upon charcoal.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+15. Oxide of Mercury, HgO.
+
+  Behavior with Borax on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      No reaction.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      No reaction.
+
+  Behavior with Mic. Salt on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      No reaction.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      No reaction.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+16. Oxide of Silver, AgO.
+
+  Behavior with Borax on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      The oxide is partly dissolved and partly reduced. In small
+      quantity, it colors the glass yellow while warm, the color
+      disappearing on cooling. In larger quantity, the glass is yellow
+      while warm, but during cooling becomes paler to a certain point,
+      and then again deeper. If reheated slightly, the glass becomes
+      opalescent.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      On charcoal the argentiferous glass becomes at first grey from
+      the reduced metal, but afterwards, when the silver is collected
+      into a bead, it becomes clear and colorless.
+
+  Behavior with Mic. Salt on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      Both the oxide and the metal afford a yellowish glass, which,
+      when containing much oxide becomes opaline, exhibiting a yellow
+      color by daylight and a red one by artificial light.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      As in borax.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+17. Oxide of Platinum, PtO^{2}.
+18. Oxide of Palladium, PdO^{2}.
+19. Oxide of Rhodium, R^{2}O^{3}.
+20. Oxide of Iridium, Ir^{2}O^{3}.
+21. Oxide of Ruthenium, Ru^{2}O^{9}.
+22. Oxide of Osmium OsO^{2}.
+
+  Behavior with Borax on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      Are reduced without being dissolved. The reduced metal, being
+      infusible, cannot however be collected into a bead.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      As in the oxidizing flame.
+
+  Behavior with Mic. Salt on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      As in borax.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      As in borax.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+23. Oxide of Gold, Au^{2}O^{3}.
+
+  Behavior with Borax on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      Is reduced without being dissolved and can be collected into a
+      bead on charcoal.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      As in the oxidizing flame.
+
+  Behavior with Mic. Salt on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      As in borax.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      As in borax.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+24. Titanic Acid, TiO^{2}
+
+  Behavior with Borax on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      Dissolves readily to a clear glass which, when but little acid
+      is present, is colorless, but when in larger proportion, yellow,
+      and, on cooling, colorless. When sufficiently saturated, it may
+      be rendered opaque with an intermittent flame, and with a still
+      larger addition of the acid becomes so spontaneously on cooling.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      In small proportion, it renders the glass yellow in larger
+      quantity dark-yellow or brown. A saturated bead assumes a
+      blue enamel-like appearance under an intermittent flame.
+
+  Behavior with Mic. Salt on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      Dissolves readily to a clear glass, which, when sufficiently
+      saturated, is yellow white hot, and becomes colorless on
+      cooling.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      The glass obtained in the oxidizing glame becomes yellow in the
+      hot state, but on cooling assumes a beautiful violet color. If
+      too saturated, this color is so deep as to appear opaque, but is
+      not enameline. If the titanic acid contains iron, the glass
+      becomes on cooling of a brownish-yellow or red color. The
+      addition of tin neutralizes the iron, and the glass then becomes
+      violet.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+25. Tantalic Acid, TaO^{3}.
+
+  Behavior with Borax on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      Dissolves readily to a clear colorless glass, which, when
+      sufficiently saturated, may be rendered opaque with an
+      intermittent flame, and with a larger addition of the acid
+      becomes spontaneously enameline on cooling.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      As in the oxidizing flame.
+
+  Behavior with Mic. Salt on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      Dissolves readily to a clear glass, which, when it contains a
+      large proportion of the acid, is yellow while warm, but becomes
+      colorless on cooling.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      The glass obtained in the oxidizing flame undergoes no change,
+      nor does it, according to _H. Rose_, alter by the addition of
+      sulphate of iron.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+26. Niobic Acid, Ni^{2}O{3}
+
+  Behavior with Borax on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      Behaves in a similar manner to tantalic acid, but the glass
+      requires a very large dose of the acid to render it opaque under
+      an intermittent flame. With an increased amount of the acid, the
+      glass is clear and yellow, while warm, but becomes on cooling
+      turbid, and when quite cold is white.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      The glass obtained in the oxidizing flame and which has become
+      opalescent on cooling, is rendered clear in the reducing flame.
+      With a larger addition of the acid, it becomes dull, and of a
+      bluish-grey color on cooling, and a still larger amount of
+      renders it opaque and bluish grey.
+
+  Behavior with Mic. Salt on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      Dissolves in large quantities to a clear colorless glass.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      If the acid be not present in too large a proportion, the glass
+      remains unchanged. An additional amount of the acid renders it
+      violet, and a still larger quantity affords a beautiful pure
+      blue color, similar to that produced by tungstic acid. If to
+      such a bead some sulphate of iron be added, the glass becomes
+      blood-red. The addition of peroxide of iron renders the glass
+      deep yellow while warm, the color becomes paler on cooling.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+27. Pelopic Acid, Pp^{2}O^{3}.
+
+  Behavior with Borax on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      Behaves similarly to the preceding.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      A bead containing sufficient of the acid to render it
+      spontaneously opaque on cooling, has a greyish color.
+
+  Behavior with Mic. Salt on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      Dissolves even in large quantity to a colorless glass.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      With sufficient dose of the acid, the bead becomes brown with a
+      violet tinge. This reaction is readily obtained upon charcoal.
+      Sulphate of iron renders the bead blood-red.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+28. Oxide of Antimony, SbO^{3}.
+
+  Behavior with Borax on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      Even when in large proportion, dissolves to a clear glass, which
+      is yellow when warm, but almost entirely loses its color on
+      cooling. On charcoal, the antimonious acid may be almost
+      expelled, so that tin produces no further change.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      A bead, that has only been treated for a short time in the
+      oxidizing flame, when submitted to the reducing flame becomes
+      grey and turbid from the reduced antimony. This soon volatizes
+      and the glass again becomes clear. The addition of tin renders
+      the glass ash-grey or black, according to the amount of oxide it
+      contains.
+
+  Behavior with Mic. Salt on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      Dissolves with ebullition to a glass of a pale yellow color
+      while warm.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      On charcoal, the saturated glass becomes at first dull, but as
+      soon as the reduced antimony is volatilized, it again becomes
+      clear. With tin, the glass is at first rendered grey by the
+      reduced antimony, but by continued blowing is restored to
+      clearness. Even when the glass contains but little oxide, tin
+      produces this reaction.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+29. Tungstic Acid, WO^{3}.
+
+  Behavior with Borax on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      Dissolves readily to a clear colorless glass. In large
+      proportion it renders the borax yellow, while warm, and with a
+      still greater addition the bead may be made opaque with an
+      intermittent flame. If more be then added, this reaction takes
+      place spontaneously.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      When the oxide is present in small quantity, the glass undergoes
+      no change. With a larger proportion, the glass is deep yellow
+      while warm, and yellowish-brown when cold. This reaction takes
+      place upon charcoal, with a small quantity of the acid. Tin
+      produces a dark coloration, when the acid is not present in too
+      great a quantity.
+
+  Behavior with Mic. Salt on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      Dissolves to a clear glass, which, when saturated, is yellow in
+      the hot state.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      The glass is of a pure blue. If the tungstic acid contain iron,
+      the glass becomes blood-red on cooling, similar to titanic acid.
+      In this case, tin restores the blue color, or, if iron be in
+      considerable quantity, renders it green.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+30. Molydbic Acid, MO^{3}.
+
+  Behavior with Borax on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      Dissolves readily and in large quantity. When but little is
+      dissolved, the glass is yellow while hot and colorless when
+      cold. When in larger quantity yellow while warm and opaline when
+      cold, and a further addition of acid renders it yellow when
+      warm, the color, on cooling, changing first to a pale enamel
+      blue, and then to an enamel white.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      The glass, which has been treated in the oxidizing flame,
+      becomes, when the acid is not present in too large a quantity,
+      brown, and when in large quantity, perfectly opaque. In a
+      strong flame, oxide of molybdenum is formed which is visible in
+      the yellow glass in the form of black flakes. If the glass
+      appear opaque, it should be flattened with the forceps.
+
+  Behavior with Mic. Salt on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      Dissolves to a clear glass, which, when sufficient acid is
+      present, is of a yellowish-green color when warm, and becomes
+      nearly colorless on cooling. On charcoal, the glass becomes
+      dark, and when cool has a beautiful green color.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      The glass becomes of a bottle-green color, which on cooling,
+      changes to a brilliant green, similar to that produced by oxide
+      of chromium. The reaction on charcoal is precisely similar. Tin
+      renders the color somewhat darker.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+31. Vanadic Acid, VaO^{8}.
+
+  Behavior with Borax on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      Dissolves to a clear glass, which is colorless when only a small
+      quantity of acid is present, and yellow when containing a larger
+      proportion.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      The yellow color of the glass changes to a brown when warm and a
+      chrome-green on cooling.
+
+  Behavior with Mic. Salt on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      As with borax.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      As with borax.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+32. Oxide of Chromium, Cr^{2}O^{3}.
+
+  Behavior with Borax on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      Affords an intense color, but dissolves slowly. A small
+      proportion colors the glass yellow when warm, and yellowish
+      green when cold; a larger addition produces a dark red color
+      when warm, which, on cooling, becomes yellow and finally a
+      brilliant green with a tinge of yellow.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      A small quantity of the oxide renders the glass beautifully
+      green both when warm and when cold. A larger addition changes it
+      to a darker emerald green. Tin produces no change in the color.
+
+  Behavior with Mic. Salt on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      Dissolves to a clear glass which has a pink tinge while warm,
+      but on cooling becomes dusky green, and finally brilliantly
+      green.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      As in the oxidizing flame, except that the colors are somewhat
+      darker. Tin produces no further change.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+33. Arsenious Acid, AsO^{3}.
+
+  Behavior with Borax on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+       No reaction.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+       No reaction.
+
+  Behavior with Mic. Salt on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+       No reaction.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+       No reaction.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+34. Tellurous Acid, TeO^{2}.
+
+  Behavior with Borax on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      Dissolves to a clear colorless glass which, when treated on
+      charcoal, becomes grey and dull from particles of reduced
+      tellurium.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+       As in the oxidizing flame.
+
+  Behavior with Mic. Salt on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+       As with borax.
+
+     in the reducing flame.
+
+       As with borax.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+7. EXAMINATIONS WITH CARBONATE OF SODA.
+
+
+The carbonate of soda is pulverized and then kneaded to a paste with
+water; the substance to be examined, in fine powder, is also mixed
+with it. A small portion of this paste is placed on the charcoal, and
+gradually heated until the moisture is expelled, when the heat is
+brought to the fusion of the bead, or as high as it can be raised.
+Several phenomena will take place, which must be closely observed.
+Notice whether the substance fuses with the bead, and if so, whether
+there is intumescence or not. Or, whether the substance undergoes
+reduction; or, whether neither of these reactions takes place, and, on
+the contrary, the soda sinks into the charcoal, leaving the substance
+intact upon its surface. If intumescence takes place, the presence of
+either tartaric acid, molybdic acid, silicic, or tungstic acid, is
+indicated. The silicic acid will fuse into a bead, which becomes clear
+when it is cold. Titanic acid will fuse into the bead, but may be
+easily distinguished from the silicic acid by the bead remaining
+opaque when cold.
+
+Strontia and baryta will flow into the charcoal, but lime will not.
+The molybdic and tungstic acids combine with the soda, forming the
+respective salts. These salts are absorbed by the charcoal. If too
+great a quantity of soda is used, the bead will be quite likely to
+become opaque upon cooling, while, if too small a quantity of soda is
+used, a portion of the substance will remain undissolved. These can be
+equally avoided by either the addition of soda, or the substance
+experimented upon, as may be required.
+
+As silica and titanic acid are the only two substances that produce a
+clear bead, the student, if he gets a clear bead, may almost conclude
+that he is experimenting with silica, titanic acid being a rare
+substance. When soda is heated with silica, a slight effervescence
+will be the first phenomenon noticed. This is the escape of the
+carbonic acid of the carbonate of soda, while the silicic acid takes
+its place, forming a glass with the soda. As titanic acid will not
+act in the same manner as silica, it can be easily distinguished by
+its bead not being perfectly pellucid. If the bead with which silica
+is fused should be tinted of a hyacinth or yellow color, this may be
+attributed to the presence of a small quantity of sulphur or a
+sulphate, and this sometimes happens from the fact of the flux
+containing sulphate of soda. The following metals, when exposed with
+carbonate of soda to the reducing flame, are wholly or partially
+reduced, viz. the oxides of all the noble metals, the oxides and acids
+of tungsten, molybdenum, arsenic, antimony, mercury, copper,
+tellurium, zinc, lead, bismuth, tin, cadmium, iron, nickel, and
+cobalt. Mercury and arsenic, as soon as they are reduced, are
+dissipated, while tellurium, bismuth, lead, antimony, cadmium, and
+zinc, are only partially volatilized, and, therefore, form sublimates
+on the charcoal. Those metals which are difficult of reduction should
+be fused with oxalate of potassa, instead of the carbonate of soda.
+The carbonic oxide formed from the combustion of the acid of this salt
+is very efficient in the reduction of these metals. Carbonate of soda
+is very efficient for the detection of minute quantities of manganese.
+The mixture of the carbonate of soda with a small addition of nitrate
+of potassa, and the mineral containing manganese, must be fused on
+platinum foil. The fused mass, when cooled, presents a fine blue
+color.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+1. The following minerals, according to Griffin, produce beads with
+soda, but do not fuse when heated alone: quartz, agalmatolyte,
+dioptase, hisingerite, sideroschilosite, leucite, rutile,
+pyrophyllite, wolckonskoite.
+
+2. The following minerals produce only slags with soda: allophane,
+cymophane, polymignite, æschynite, oerstedtite, titaniferous iron,
+tantalite, oxides of iron, yttro-tantalite, oxides of manganese,
+peroxide of tin (is reduced), hydrate of alumina, hydrate of magnesia,
+spinel, gahnite, worthite, carbonate of zinc, pechuran, zircon,
+thorite, andalusite, staurolite, gehlenite, chlorite spar, chrome
+ochre, uwarowite, chromate of iron, carbonates of the earths,
+carbonates of the metallic oxides, basic phosphate of yttria, do. of
+alumina, do. of lime, persulphate of iron, sulphate of alumina,
+aluminite, alumstone, fluoride of cerium, yttrocerite, topaz,
+corundum, pleonaste, chondrodite.
+
+3. The following minerals produce beads with a small quantity of soda,
+but produce slags if too much soda is added: phenakite, pierosmine,
+olivine, cerite, cyanite, talc, gadolinite, lithium-tourmaline.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+1. The following minerals, when fused alone, produce beads. Of these
+minerals the following produce beads with soda: the zeolites,
+spodumene, soda-spodumene, labrador, scapolite, sodalite (Greenland),
+elæolite, mica from primitive lime-stone, black talc, acmite,
+krokidolite, lievrite, cronstedtite, garnet, cerine, helvine,
+gadolinite, boracic acid, hydroboracite, tincal, boracite, datholite,
+botryolite, axinite, lapis lazuli, eudialyte, pyrosmalite, cryolite.
+
+2. The following minerals produce beads with a small quantity of soda,
+but if too much is added they produce slags: okenite, pectolite, red
+silicate of manganese, black hydro-silicate of manganese, idocrase,
+manganesian garnets, orthite, pyrorthite, sordawalite, sodalite,
+fluorspar.
+
+3. The following minerals produce a slag with soda: brevicite,
+amphodelite, chlorite, fahlunite, pyrope, soap-stone (Cornish) red
+dichroite, pyrargillite, black potash tourmaline, wolfram,
+pharmacolite, scorodite, arseniate of iron, tetraphyline, hetepozite,
+uranite, phosphate of iron, do. of strontia, do. of magnesia,
+polyhalite, hauyne.
+
+4. The following metals are reduced by soda: tungstate of lead,
+molybdate of lead, vanadate of lead, chromate of lead, vauquelinite,
+cobalt bloom, nickel ochre, phosphate of copper, sulphate of lead,
+chloride of lead, and chloride of silver.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The following minerals fuse on the edges alone, when heated in the
+blowpipe flame:
+
+1. The following produce beads with soda: steatite, meerschaum,
+felspar, albite, petalite, nepheline, anorthite, emerald, euclase,
+turquois, sodalite (Vesuvius).
+
+2. The following minerals produce beads with a small quantity of
+soda, but with the addition of more produce slags: tabular spar,
+diallage, hypersthene, epidote, zoisite.
+
+3. The following minerals produce slags only with soda:
+stilpnosiderite, plombgomme, serpentine, silicate of manganese (from
+Piedmont), mica from granite, pimelite, pinite, blue dichroite,
+sphenc, karpholite, pyrochlore, tungstate of lime, green soda
+tourmaline, lazulite, heavy spar, gypsum.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The reactions of substances, when fused with soda in the flame of
+oxidation may be of use to the student. A few of them are therefore
+given. Silica gives a clear glass.
+
+The oxide of tellurium and telluric acid gives a clear bead when it is
+hot, but white after it is cooled.
+
+Titanic acid gives a yellow bead when hot.
+
+The oxide of chromium gives also a clear yellow glass when hot, but is
+opaque when cold.
+
+Molybdic acid gives a clear bead when hot, but is turbid and white
+after cooling.
+
+The oxides and acids of antimony give a clear and colorless bead while
+hot, and white after cooling.
+
+Vanadic acid is absorbed by the charcoal, although it is not reduced.
+
+Tungstic acid gives a dark yellow clear bead while hot, but is opaque
+and yellow when cold.
+
+The oxides of manganese give to the soda bead a fine characteristic
+green color. This is the case with a very small quantity. This
+reaction is best exhibited on platinum foil.
+
+Oxide of cobalt gives to the bead while hot a red color, which, upon
+being cooled, becomes grey.
+
+The oxide of copper gives a clear green bead while hot.
+
+The oxide of lead gives a clear colorless bead while hot, which
+becomes, upon cooling, of a dirty yellow color and opaque.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The following metals, when they are fused with soda on charcoal, in
+the flame of reduction, produce volatile oxides, and leave an
+incrustation around the assay, viz. bismuth, zinc, lead, cadmium,
+antimony, selenium, tellurium, and arsenic.
+
+_Bismuth_, under the reduction flame, yields small particles of metal,
+which are brittle and easily crushed. The incrustation is of a flesh
+color, or orange, when hot, but gets lighter as it cools. The
+sublimate may be driven about the charcoal from place to place, by
+either flame, but is finally dissipated. While antimony and tellurium,
+in the act of dissipation, give color to the flame, bismuth does not,
+and may thus be distinguished from them.
+
+_Zinc_ deposits an incrustation about the assay, which is yellow while
+hot, but fades to white when cold. The reduction flame dissipates this
+deposit, but not that of oxidation. All the zinc minerals deposit the
+oxide incrustation about the assay, which, when moistened with a
+solution of cobalt and heated, changes to green.
+
+_Lead_ is very easily reduced, in small particles, and may be easily
+distinguished by its flattening under the hammer, unlike bismuth. It
+leaves an incrustation around the assay resembling that of bismuth, in
+the color of it, and in the peculiar manner in which it lies around
+the assay.
+
+_Cadmium_ deposits a dull reddish incrustation around the assay.
+Either of the flames dissipate the sublimate with the greatest
+readiness.
+
+_Antimony_ reduces with readiness. At the same time it yields
+considerable vapor, and deposits an incrustation around the assay.
+This deposit can be driven about on the charcoal by either of the
+flames. The flame of reduction, however, produces the light blue color
+of the antimony.
+
+_Selenium_ is deposited on the charcoal as a grey metallic-looking
+sublimate, but sometimes appearing purple or blue. If the reduction
+flame is directed on this deposit, it is dissipated with a blue light.
+
+_Tellurium_ is deposited on the charcoal as a white sublimate,
+sometimes changing at the margin to an orange or red color. The
+oxidation flame drives the deposit over the charcoal, while the
+reduction-flame dissipates it with a greenish color.
+
+_Arsenic_ is vaporized rapidly, while there is deposited around the
+assay a white incrustation of arsenious acid. This deposit will extend
+to some distance from the assay, and is readily volatilized, the
+reducing flame producing the characteristic alliaceous color.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The following metals, or their compounds, are reduced when fused with
+soda on charcoal, in the flame of reduction. They are reduced to
+metallic particles, but give no incrustation, viz. nickel, cobalt,
+iron, tin, copper, gold, silver, platinum, tungsten, and molybdenum.
+
+The particles of iron, nickel, and cobalt, it should be borne in mind,
+are attracted by the magnet.
+
+The following substances are neither fused nor reduced in soda, viz.
+alumina, magnesia, lime, baryta, strontia, the oxide of uranium, the
+oxides of cerium, zirconia, tantalic acid, thorina, glucina, and
+yttria. Neither are the alkalies, as they sink into the charcoal. The
+carbonates of the earths, strontia, and baryta fuse.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+Part III
+
+SPECIAL REACTIONS; OR, THE BEHAVIOR OF SUBSTANCES BEFORE THE BLOWPIPE.
+
+
+Analytical chemistry may be termed the art of converting the unknown
+constituents of substances, by means of certain operations, into new
+combinations which we recognize through the physical and chemical
+properties which they manifest.
+
+It is, therefore, indispensably necessary, not only to be cognizant of
+the peculiar conditions by which these operations can be effected, but
+it is absolutely necessary to be acquainted with the forms and
+combinations of the resulting product, and with every modification
+which may be produced by altering the conditions of the analysis.
+
+We shall first give the behavior of simple substances before the
+blowpipe; and the student should study this part thoroughly, by
+repeating each reaction, so that he can acquire a knowledge of the
+color, form, and physical properties in general, of the resulting
+combination. There is nothing, perhaps, which will contribute more
+readily to the progress of the pupil, than thorough practice with the
+reactions recommended in this part of the work, for when once the
+student shall have acquired a practical eye in the discernment of the
+peculiar appearances of substances after they have undergone the
+decompositions produced by the strong heat of the blowpipe flame,
+together with the reactions incident to these changes, then he will
+have greatly progressed in his study, and the rest will be
+comparatively simple.
+
+
+A. METALLIC OXIDES.
+
+
+GROUP FIRST.--THE ALKALIES: POTASSA, SODA, AMMONIA, AND LITHIA.
+
+The alkalies, in their pure, or carbonated state, render reddened
+litmus paper blue. This is likewise the case with the sulphides of the
+alkalies. The neutral salts of the alkalies, formed with the strong
+acids, do not change litmus paper, but the salts formed with the weak
+acids, render the red litmus paper blue; for instance, the alkaline
+salts with boracic acid. Fused with borax, soda, or microcosmic salt,
+they give a clear bead. The alkalies and their salts melt at a low red
+heat. The alkalies cannot be reduced to the metallic state before the
+blowpipe. They are not volatile when red hot, except the alkali
+ammonia, but they are volatile at a white heat.
+
+(_a._) _Potassa._(KO).--It is not found free, but in combination with
+inorganic and organic acids, as well in the animal as in the vegetable
+organism, as in the mineral kingdom. In the pure, or anhydrous state,
+or as the carbonate, potassa absorbs moisture, and becomes fluid, or
+is deliquescent, as it is termed. By exposing potassa, or its easily
+fusible salts (except the phosphate or borate), upon platinum wire, to
+the point of the blue flame, there is communicated to the external
+flame a violet color, in consequence of a reduction and reoxidation.
+This color, though characteristic of all the potassa compounds, is
+scarcely visible with the phosphate or borate salts of that alkali.
+The admixture of a very little soda (1/300th) destroys the color
+imparted by the potassa, while the flame assumes a yellow color,
+characteristic of the soda. The presence of lithia changes the violet
+color of the potash into red. The silicates of potassa must exist in
+pretty large proportion before they can be detected by the violet
+color of the flame, and those minerals must melt easily at the edges.
+The presence of a little soda in these instances conceals the reaction
+in the potassa entirely.
+
+If alcohol is poured over potassa compounds which are powdered, and
+then set on fire, the external flame appears violet-colored,
+particularly when stirred with a glass rod, and when the alcohol is
+really consumed. The presence of soda in lithia will, in this case
+likewise, hide by their own characteristic color, that of the potassa.
+
+The salts of potassa are absorbed when fused upon charcoal. The
+sulphur, bromine, chlorine, and iodine compounds of potassa give a
+white, but easily volatile sublimate upon the charcoal, around the
+place where the fused substance reposed. This white sublimate
+manifests itself only when the substance is melted and absorbed within
+the charcoal, and ceases to be visible as soon as it is submitted to
+the reducing flame, while the external flame is colored violet;
+sulphate of potassa, for instance, is reduced by the glowing charcoal
+into the sulphide. This latter is somewhat volatile, but by passing
+through the oxidation flame, it is again oxidized into the sulphate.
+This, being less volatile, sublimes upon the charcoal, but by exposing
+it again to the flame of reduction, it is reduced and carried off to
+be again oxidized by its passage through the oxidation flame.
+
+Potassa and its compounds give, with soda, borax or microcosmic salt,
+as well when hot as cold, colorless beads, unless the acid associated
+with the alkali should itself produce a color. When borax is fused
+with some pure boracic acid, and sufficient of the oxide of nickel is
+added, so that the beads appear of a brown color after being cooled,
+and then the bead thus produced fused with the substance suspected to
+contain potassa, in the oxidation flame, the brown color is changed to
+blue. The presence of the other alkalies does not prevent this
+reaction. As it is not possible to detect potassa compounds with
+unerring certainty by the blowpipe flame, the the wet method should
+be resorted to for the purpose of confirming it.
+
+The _silicates of potassa_ must be prepared as follows, for analytical
+purposes by the wet way. Mix one part of the finely powdered substance
+with two parts of soda (free from potassa), and one part of borax.
+Fuse the mixture upon charcoal in the oxidation flame to a clear,
+transparent bead. This is to be exposed again with the pincers to the
+oxidation flame, to burn off the adhering coal particles. Then
+pulverize and dissolve in hydrochloric acid to separate the silica;
+evaporate to dryness, dissolve the residue in water, with the
+admixture of a little alcohol, and test the filtrate with chloride of
+platinum for potassa.
+
+(_b._) _Soda_ (NaO).--This is one of the most abundant substances,
+although seldom found free, but combined with chlorine or some other
+less abundant compound. Soda, its hydrate and salts manifest in
+general the same properties as their respective potash compounds; but
+the salts of soda mostly contain crystal water, which leaves the salts
+if they are exposed to the air, and the salts effervesce.
+
+By exposing soda or its compounds upon a platinum wire to the blue
+flame, a reddish-yellow color is communicated to the external flame,
+which appears as a long brilliant stream and considerably increased in
+volume. The presence of potash does not prevent this reaction of soda.
+If there is too large a quantity of potash, the flame near to the
+substance is violet-colored, but the edge of the flame exhibits the
+characteristic tint of the soda. The presence of lithia changes the
+yellow color to a shade of red.
+
+When alcohol is poured over powdered soda compounds and lighted, the
+flame exhibits a reddish-yellow color, particularly if the alcohol is
+stirred up with a glass rod, or if the alcohol is nearly consumed.
+
+Fused upon charcoal, soda compounds are absorbed by the coal. The
+sulphide, chloride, iodide, and bromide of soda yield a white
+sublimate around the spot where the substance is laid, but this
+sublimate is not so copious as that of the potash compounds, and
+disappears when touched with the reduction flame, communicating a
+yellow color to the external flame. The presence of soda in compounds
+must likewise be confined by reactions in the wet way.
+
+(_c._) _Ammonia_ (NH^{4}O).--In the fused state, and at the usual
+temperature, ammonia is a pungent gas, and exerts a reaction upon
+litmus paper similar to potash and soda. Ammonium is considered by
+chemists as a metal, from the nature of its behavior with other
+substances. It has not been isolated, but its existence is now
+generally conceded by all chemists. The ammonia salts are volatile,
+and many of them sublimate without being decomposed.
+
+The salts of ammonia, on being heated in the point of the blue flame,
+produce a feeble green color in the external flame, just previous to
+their being converted into vapor. But this color is scarcely visible,
+and presents nothing characteristic. When the ammonia salts are mixed
+with the carbonate of soda, and heated in a glass tube closed at one
+end, carbonate of ammonia is sublimed, which can be readily recognized
+by its penetrating smell of spirits of hartshorn.
+
+This sublimate will render blue a slip of red litmus paper. This can
+be easily done by moistening the litmus paper, and then inserting the
+end of it in the tube. By holding a glass rod, moistened with dilute
+hydrochloric acid, over the mouth of the tube, a white vapor is
+instantly rendered visible (sal ammoniac).
+
+(_d._) _Lithia_ (LiO).--In the pure state, lithia is white and
+crystalline, not easily soluble in water, and does not absorb
+moisture. It changes red litmus to blue, and at a low red heat it
+melts. Lithia or its salts, exposed to the point of the blue flame,
+communicates a red color to the external or oxidation flame, in
+consequence of a reduction, sublimation, and re-oxidation of the
+lithia. An admixture of potash communicates to this flame a
+reddish-violet color, and the presence of soda that of a yellowish-red
+or orange. If the soda, however, is in too great proportion, then its
+intense yellow hides the red of the lithia. In the latter case the
+substance under test must be only imperfectly fused in the oxidation
+flame, and then dipped in wax or tallow. By exposing it now to the
+reduction flame, the red color imparted to the external flame by the
+lithia becomes visible, even if a considerable quantity of soda be
+present. A particular phenomenon appears with the phosphate of lithia,
+viz., the phosphoric acid itself possesses the property of
+communicating to the flame a bluish-green color. By its combination
+with lithia it still exhibits its characteristic color, while the
+latter presents likewise its peculiar tint. Then we perceive a green
+flame in the centre of the flame, while the red color of lithia
+surrounds it.
+
+The _silicates_, which contain only a little lithia, produce only a
+slight hue in the flame, and often none at all. We have to mix one
+part of the silicate with two parts of a mixture composed of one part
+of fluorspar and one and a half parts of bisulphate of potassa.
+Moisten the mass with water so that the mass will adhere, and then
+melt it upon a platinum wire in the reduction flame, when that of
+oxidation will present the red color of lithia.
+
+The _Borates of lithia_ produce at first a green color, but it soon
+yields to the red of lithia. When alcohol is poured over lithia or its
+compounds, and inflamed, it burns with a deep red color, particularly
+if the fluid is stirred up with a glass rod, or when the alcohol is
+nearly consumed. This color presents the same modifications as the
+corresponding ones communicated to the blowpipe as mentioned above.
+
+The salts of lithia are absorbed by charcoal when fused upon it. The
+sulphide, bromide, iodide, and chloride of lithia produce upon the
+charcoal a greyish-white sublimate, although not so copiously as the
+corresponding compounds of potash and soda. This sublimate disappears
+when touched by the reduction flame, while the oxidation flame gives
+the characteristic color of lithia.
+
+
+SECOND GROUP.--THE ALKALINE EARTHS, BARYTA, STRONTIA, LIME, AND
+MAGNESIA.
+
+In the pure state, the alkaline earths are caustic, cause red litmus
+paper to become blue, and are more or less soluble in water. Their
+sulphides are also soluble. The carbonates and phosphates of the
+alkaline earths are insoluble in water. By igniting the carbonates,
+their carbonic acid is expelled, and the alkaline earths are left in
+the caustic state. The alkaline earths are not volatile, and their
+organic salts are converted, by ignition, into carbonates.
+
+(_a._) _Baryta._ (BaO).--This alkaline earth does not occur free in
+nature, but combined with acids, particularly with carbonic and
+sulphuric acids. In the pure state, baryta is of a greyish-white
+color, presents an earthy appearance, and is easily powdered. When
+sparingly moistened with water, it slakes, becomes heated, and forms a
+dry, white powder. With still more water it forms a crystalline mass,
+the hydrate of baryta, which is completely soluble in hot water. Pure
+baryta is infusible; the hydrate fuses at a red heat, without the loss
+of its hydratic water; if caustic baryta is exposed for too great a
+length of time to the flame, it absorbs water, originated by the
+combustion, and becomes a hydrate, when it will melt. Salts of baryta,
+formed with most acids, are insoluble in water; for instance, the
+salts with sulphuric, carbonic, arsenic, phosphoric, and boracic
+acids. The salts of baryta, soluble in water, are decomposed by
+ignition, except the chloride.
+
+Carbonate of baryta loses its carbonic acid at a red heat, becomes
+caustic, and colors red litmus paper blue.
+
+By exposing baryta or its compounds upon a platinum wire, or a
+splinter of the substance held with the platinum tongs, to the point
+of the blue flame, a pale apple-green color is communicated to the
+external flame. This color appears at first very pale, but soon
+becomes more intense. This color is most visible if the substance is
+operated with in small quantities. The chloride of barium produces the
+deepest color. This color is less intense if the carbonate or sulphate
+is used. The presence of strontia, lime, or magnesia, does not
+suppress the reaction of the baryta, unless they greatly predominate.
+
+When alcohol is poured over baryta or its salts, and inflamed, a
+feeble green color is communicated to the flame, but this color should
+not be considered a characteristic of the salt.
+
+Baryta and its compounds give, when fused with carbonate of soda upon
+platinum foil, a clear bead. Fused with soda upon charcoal, it is
+absorbed. The sulphate fuses at first to a clear bead, which soon
+spreads, and is absorbed and converted while boiling into a hepatic
+mass. If this mass is taken out, placed upon a piece of polished
+silver and moistened with a little water, a black spot of sulphide of
+silver is left after washing off the mass with water.
+
+Borax dissolves baryta and its compounds with a hissing noise, as well
+in the flame of oxidation as in that of reduction. There is formed a
+clear bead which, with a certain degree of saturation, is clear when
+cold, but appears milk-white when overcharged, and of an opal, enamel
+appearance, when heated intermittingly, or with a vacillating flame,
+that changes frequently from the oxidating to the reducing flame.
+Baryta and its compounds produce the same reactions with microcosmic
+salt.
+
+Baryta and its compounds fuse when exposed to ignition in the
+oxidizing flame. Moistened with the solution of nitrate of cobalt, and
+heated in the oxidation flame, it presents a bead, colored from
+brick-red to brown, according to the quantity used. This color
+disappears when cold, and the bead falls to a pale grey powder after
+being exposed awhile to the air. When heated again, the color does not
+appear until fusion is effected. If carbonate of soda is fused upon
+platinum wire with so much of the sesquioxide of manganese that a
+green bead is produced, this bead, when fused with a sufficient
+quantity of baryta, or its compounds, after cooling, will appear of a
+bluish-green, or light blue color.
+
+(_b._) _Strontia_ (SrO).--Strontia and its compounds are analogous to
+the respective ones of baryta. The hydrate of strontia has the same
+properties as the hydrate of baryta, except that it is less soluble in
+water. The carbonate of strontia fuses a little at a red heat, swells,
+and bubbles up like cauliflower. This produces, in the blowpipe flame,
+an intense and splendid light, and now produces an alkaline reaction
+upon red litmus paper. The sulphate of strontia melts in the oxidation
+flame upon platinum foil, or upon charcoal, to a milk-white globule.
+This fuses upon charcoal, spreads and is reduced to the sulphide,
+which is absorbed by the charcoal. It now produces the same reactions
+upon polished silver as the sulphate of baryta under the same
+conditions. By exposing strontia and its compounds upon platinum wire,
+or as a splinter with the platinum tongs, to the point of the blue
+flame, the external flame appears of an intense crimson color. The
+deepest red color is produced by the chloride of strontium,
+particularly at the first moment of applying the heat. After the salt
+is fused, the red color ceases to be visible in the flame, by which it
+is distinguished from the chloride of lithium. The carbonate of
+strontia swells up and produces a splendid white light, while the
+external flame is colored of a fine purple-red. The color produced by
+the sulphate of strontia is less intense. The presence of baryta
+destroys the reaction of the strontia, the flame presenting the light
+green color of the baryta.
+
+If alcohol is poured over powdered strontia and inflamed, the flame
+appears purple or deep crimson, particularly if the fluid is stirred
+with a glass rod, and when the alcohol is nearly consumed.
+
+The insoluble salts of strontia do not produce a very intense color.
+Baryta does not prevent the reaction of the soluble salts of strontia,
+unless it exists greatly in excess. In the presence of baryta,
+strontia can be detected by the following process: mix some of the
+substance under examination with some pure graphite and water, by
+grinding in an agate mortar. Place the mixture upon charcoal, and
+expose it for a while to the reduction flame. The substance becomes
+reduced to sulphide of barium and sulphide of strontium, when it
+should be dissolved in hydrochloric acid. The solution should be
+evaporated to dryness, redissolved in a little water, and enough
+alcohol added that a spirit of 80 per cent. is produced. Inflame the
+spirit, and if strontia is present, the flame is tinged of a red
+color. This color can be discerned more distinctly by moistening some
+cotton with this spirit and inflaming it.
+
+If strontia or its compounds are fused with a green bead of carbonate
+of soda and sesquioxide of manganese, as described under the head of
+baryta, a bead of a brown, brownish-green, or dark grey color is
+produced. Carbonate of soda does not dissolve pure strontia. The
+carbonate and sulphate of strontia melt with soda upon platinum foil
+to a bead, which is milk-white when cold, but fused upon charcoal they
+are absorbed. Strontia or its compounds produce with borax, or
+microcosmic salt, the same reactions as baryta. When they are
+moistened with nitrate of cobalt, and ignited in the oxidizing flame,
+a black, or grey infusible mass is produced.
+
+(_c._) _Lime, Oxide of Calcium _(CaO).--Lime does not occur free in
+nature, but in combination with acids, chiefly the carbonic and
+sulphuric. The phosphate occurs principally in bones. The hydrate and
+the salts of lime are in their properties similar to those of the two
+preceding alkaline earths. In the pure state, the oxide of calcium is
+white; it slakes, produces a high temperature, and falls into a white
+powder when sprinkled with a little water. It is now a hydrate, and
+has greatly increased in volume. The hydrate of lime is far less
+soluble in water than either those of baryta or strontia, and is less
+soluble in hot water than in cold. Lime, its hydrate and sulphide of
+calcium, have a strong alkaline reaction upon red litmus paper. Lime
+and its hydrate are infusible, but produce at a strong red heat a very
+intense and splendid white light, while the hydrate loses its water.
+The carbonate of lime is also infusible, but at a red heat the
+carbonic acid is expelled, and the residue becomes caustic, appears
+whiter, and produces an intenser light. The sulphate of lime melts
+with difficulty, and presents the appearance of an enamelled mass when
+cold. By heating it upon charcoal it fuses in the reducing flame, and
+is reduced to a sulphide. This has a strong hepatic odor, and exerts
+an alkaline reaction upon red litmus paper. By exposing lime, or its
+compounds, upon platinum wire--or as a small splinter of the mineral
+in the platinum tongs--to the point of the blue flame, a purple color,
+similar to that of lithia and strontia, is communicated to the
+external flame, but this color is not so intense as that produced by
+strontia, and appears mixed with a slight tinge of yellow. This color
+is most intense with the chloride of calcium, while the carbonate of
+lime produces at first a yellowish color, which becomes red, after the
+expulsion of the carbonic acid. Sulphate of lime produces the same
+color, but not so intense. Among the silicates of lime only the
+tablespar (3CaO, 2SiO^{3}) produces a red color. Fluorspar (CaFl)
+produces a red as intense as pure lime, and fuses into a bead.
+Phosphate and borate of lime produce a green flame which is only
+characteristic of their acids. The presence of baryta communicates a
+green color to the flame. The presence of soda produces only a yellow
+color in the external flame.
+
+If alcohol is poured over lime or its compounds and inflamed, a red
+color is communicated to the flame. The presence of baryta or soda
+prevents this reaction. Lime and its compounds do not dissolve much by
+fusion with carbonate of soda. If this fusion is effected on charcoal,
+the carbonate of soda is absorbed and the lime remains as a
+half-globular infusible mass on the charcoal. This is what
+distinguishes lime from baryta and strontia, and is a good method of
+separating the former from the latter. Lime and its compounds fuse
+with borax in the oxidizing and reducing flames to a clear bead, which
+remains clear when cold, but when overcharged with an excess or heated
+intermittingly, the bead appears, when cold, crystalline and uneven,
+and is not so milk-white as the bead of baryta or strontia, produced
+under the same circumstances. The carbonate of lime is dissolved with
+a peculiar hissing noise. Microcosmic salt dissolves a large quantity
+of lime into a clear bead, which is milky when cold. When the bead has
+been overcharged with lime, by a less excess, or by an intermittent
+flame, we will perceive in the bead, when cold, fine crystals in the
+form of needles. Lime and its compounds form by ignition with nitrate
+of cobalt, a black or greyish-black infusible mass.
+
+(_d._) _Magnesia_ (MgO).--Magnesia occurs in nature in several
+minerals. It exists in considerable quantity combined with carbonic,
+sulphuric, phosphoric, and silicic acids, etc. Magnesia and its
+hydrate are white and very voluminous, scarcely soluble in hot or cold
+water, and restores moistened red litmus paper to its original blue
+color. Magnesia and its hydrate are infusible, the latter losing its
+water by ignition. The carbonate of magnesia is infusible, loses its
+carbonic acid at a red heat, and shrinks a little. It now exerts upon
+red litmus paper an alkaline reaction. The sulphate of magnesia, at a
+red heat, loses its water and sulphuric acid, is entirely infusible,
+and gives now an alkaline reaction. The artificial Astrachanit (NaO,
+SO^{3} + MgO, SO^{3} + 4HO) fuses easily. When fused on charcoal, the
+greater part of the sulphate of soda is absorbed, and there remains an
+infusible mass.
+
+Magnesia and its compounds do not produce any color in the external
+flame, when heated in the point of the blue flame. The most of the
+magnesia minerals yield some water when heated in a glass tube closed
+at one end.
+
+Magnesia, in the pure state, or as the hydrate, does not fuse with
+soda. Some of its compounds are infusible likewise with soda, and
+swell up slightly, while others of them melt with soda to a slightly
+opaque mass. Some few (such as the borate of magnesia) give a clear
+bead with soda, though it becomes slightly turbid by cooling when
+saturated with magnesia, and crystallizes in large facets.
+
+Magnesia and its compounds give beads with borax and microcosmic salt
+similar to those of lime. By igniting magnesia or its compounds very
+strongly in the oxidizing flame, moistening with nitrate of cobalt,
+and re-igniting in the oxidation flame, they present, after a
+continued blowing, a pale flesh-color, which is more visible when
+cold. It is indispensable that the magnesia compounds should be
+completely white and free of colored substances, or the color referred
+to cannot be discerned. In general the reactions of magnesia before
+the blowpipe are not sufficient, and it will be necessary to confirm
+its presence or absence by aid of reagents applied in the wet way.
+
+
+THIRD GROUP.--THE EARTHS, ALUMINA, GLUCINA, YTTRIA, THORINA, AND
+ZIRCONIA.
+
+The substances of this group are distinguished from the preceding by
+their insolubility in water, in their pure or hydrated state--that
+they have no alkaline reaction upon litmus paper, nor form salts with
+carbonic acid. The earths are not volatile, and, in the pure state,
+are infusible. They cannot be reduced to the metallic state before the
+blowpipe. The organic salts are destroyed by ignition, while the
+earths are left in the pure state, mixed with charcoal, from the
+organic acids. The most of their neutral salts are insoluble in water;
+the soluble neutral salts change blue litmus paper to red, and lose
+their acids when ignited.
+
+(_a._) _Alumina_ (Al^{2}O^{3}).--This earth is one of our most common
+minerals. It occurs free in nature in many minerals, as sapphire,
+etc.; or in combination with sulphuric acid, phosphoric acid, and
+fluorine, and chiefly silicates. Pure alumina is a white crystalline
+powder, or yellowish-white, and amorphous when produced by drying the
+hydrate, separated chemically from its salts. Alumina is quite
+unalterable in the fire; the hydrate, however, losing its water at a
+low red heat. The neutral salts of alumina, with most acids, are
+insoluble in water. Those soluble in it have an acid reaction upon
+litmus paper, changing the blue into red.
+
+The sulphates of alumina eliminate water when heated in a glass tube
+closed at one end. By ignition, sulphurous acid (SO^{2}) is given off,
+which can be recognized by its smell, and by its acid reaction upon
+blue litmus paper, when a small strip of it moistened is brought
+within the orifice of the tube; an infusible residue is left in the
+tube.
+
+The greater part of the alumina compounds give off water with heat;
+the most of them are also infusible, except a few phosphates and
+silicates.
+
+Pure alumina does not fuse with carbonate of soda. The sulphates, when
+exposed upon charcoal with soda to the reducing flame, leave a hepatic
+residue. The phosphates melt with a little soda, with a hissing noise,
+to a semi-transparent mass, but they are infusible with the addition
+of soda, and give only a tough mass. This is the case, likewise, with
+the silicates of alumina. Fluoride of aluminium melts with carbonate
+of soda to a clear bead, spreads by cooling, and appears then
+milk-white. Borax dissolves the alumina compounds slowly in the
+oxidizing and reducing flames to a clear bead, which is also clear
+when cold, or heated intermittingly with a vacillating flame. The bead
+is turbid, as well in the heat as the cold, when an excess of alumina
+is present. When the alumina compound is added to excess in the
+powdered form, the bead appears crystalline upon cooling, and melts
+again with great difficulty.
+
+Alumina and its compounds are slowly dissolved in the microcosmic salt
+to a bead, clear in both flames, and when hot or cold. When alumina is
+added to excess, the undissolved portion appears semi-transparent.
+Alumina melts with bisulphate of potash into a mass soluble in water.
+When the powdered alumina compounds are strongly ignited in the
+oxidizing flame, then moistened with nitrate of cobalt, and re-ignited
+in the oxidizing flame, an infusible mass is left, which appears, when
+cooled, of an intense blue color. The presence of colored metallic
+oxides, in considerable quantity, will alter or suppress this
+reaction. The silicates of the alkalies produce, in a very strong
+heat, or continued heat, with nitrate of cobalt, a pale blue color.
+The blue color produced by alumina is only distinctly visible by
+daylight; by candle-light it appears of a dirty violet color.
+
+(_b._) _Glucina._ (G^{2}O^{3}).--Glucina only occurs in a few rare
+minerals, in combination with silica and alumina. It is white and
+insoluble in the pure state, and its properties generally are similar
+to those of alumina. The most of its compounds are infusible, and
+yield water by distillation. Carbonate of soda does not dissolve
+glucina by ignition. Silicate of glucina melts with carbonate of soda
+to a colorless globule. Borax and microcosmic salt dissolve glucina
+and its compounds to a colorless bead which, when overcharged with
+glucina, or heated with the intermittent flame appears, after cooling,
+turbid or milk-white. Glucina yields, by ignition with nitrate of
+cobalt, a black, or dark grey infusible mass.
+
+(_c._) _Yttria_ (YO) occurs only in a few rare minerals, and usually
+in company with terbium and erbium. Its reactions before the blowpipe
+are similar to the preceding, but for its detection in compounds it
+will be necessary to resort to analysis in the wet way.
+
+(_d._) _Zirconia_ (Zr^{2}O^{3}).--This substance resembles alumina in
+appearance, though it occurs only in a few rare minerals. It is in the
+pure state infusible, and at a red heat produces such a splendid and
+vivid white light that the eyes can scarcely endure it. Its other
+reactions before the blowpipe are analogous to glucina. Microcosmic
+salt does not dissolve so much zirconia as glucina, and is more prone
+to give a turbid bead. Zirconia yields with nitrate of cobalt, when
+ignited, an infusible black mass. To recognize zirconia in compounds
+we must resort to fluid analysis.
+
+(_e._) _Thorina_ (ThO).--This is the rarest among the rare minerals.
+In the pure state it is white and infusible, and will not melt with
+the carbonate of soda. Borax dissolves thorina slowly to a colorless,
+transparent bead, which will remain so when heated with the
+intermittent flame. If overcharged with the thorina, the bead
+presents, on cooling, a milky hue. Microcosmic salt dissolves the
+thorina very tardily. By ignition with nitrate of cobalt, thorina is
+converted into an infusible black mass,
+
+
+CLASS II.
+
+
+FOURTH GROUP. CERIUM, LANTHANIUM, DIDYMIUM, COLUMBIUM, NIOBIUM,
+PELOPIUM, TITANIUM, URANIUM, VANADIUM, CHROMIUM, MANGANESE.
+
+The substances of this group cannot be reduced to the metallic state,
+neither by heating them _per se_, nor by fusing them with reagents.
+They give by fusion with borax or microcosmic salt, colored beads,
+while the preceding groups give colorless beads.
+
+(_a._) _Cerium_ (Ce).--This metal occurs in the oxidated state in a
+few rare minerals, and is associated with lanthanium and didymium,
+combined with fluorine, phosphoric acid, carbonic acid, silica, etc.
+When reduced artificially, it forms a grey metallic powder.
+
+(_a._) _Protoxide of Cerium_ (CeO).--It exists in the pure state as
+the hydrate, and is of a white color. It soon oxidizes and becomes
+yellow, when placed in contact with the air. When heated in the
+oxidation flame, it is converted into the sesquioxide, and then is
+changed into light brick-red color. In the oxidation flame it is
+dissolved by borax into a clear bead, which appears of an orange or
+red while hot, but becomes yellow upon cooling. When highly saturated
+with the metal, or when heated with a fluctuating flame, the bead
+appears enamelled as when cold. In the reduction flame it is dissolved
+by borax to a clear yellow bead, which is colorless when cold. If too
+much of the metal exists in the bead, it then appears enamelled when
+cooled.
+
+Microcosmic salt dissolves it, in the oxidation flame, to a clear
+bead, which is colored dark yellow or orange, but loses its color when
+cold. In the reduction flame the bead is colorless when either hot or
+cold. Even if highly saturated with the metal, the bead remains
+colorless when cold. By fusing it with carbonate of soda upon charcoal
+in the reduction flame, the soda is absorbed by the charcoal, while
+the protoxide of the metal remains as a light grey powder.
+
+(_B._) _Sesquioxide of Cerium_ (Ce^{2}O^{3}).--This oxide, in the pure
+state, is a red powder. When heated with hydrochloric acid, it
+produces chlorine gas, and is dissolved to a salt of the protoxide. It
+is not affected by either the flame of oxidation or of reduction; when
+fused with borax or microcosmic salt, it acts like the protoxide. It
+does not fuse with soda upon charcoal. In the reduction flame it is
+reduced to the protoxide, which remains of a light grey color, while
+the soda is absorbed by the charcoal.
+
+(_b._) _Lanthanium_ (La.)--This metal is invariably associated with
+cerium. It presents, in its metallic state, a dark grey powder, which
+by compression acquires the metallic lustre.
+
+The _oxide of lanthanium_ (LaO) is white, and its salts are colorless.
+Heated upon charcoal, it does not change either in the oxidation flame
+or that of reduction. With borax, in the flame of oxidation or
+reduction, it gives a clear colorless bead. This bead, if saturated,
+and when hot, presents a yellow appearance, but is clouded or
+enamelled when cold. With microcosmic salt the same appearance is
+indicated. It does not fuse with carbonate of soda, but the soda is
+absorbed by the charcoal, while the oxide remains of a grey color.
+
+(_c._) _Didymium_ (D).--This metal occurs only in combination with the
+preceding ones, and it is therefore, like them, a rare one.
+
+_Oxide of Didymium_ (DO).--This oxide is of a brown color, while its
+salts present a reddish-violet or amethyst color. The oxide is
+infusible in the oxidation flame, and in that of reduction it loses
+its brown color and changes to grey. With borax in the oxidation
+flame, it fuses to a clear dark red or violet bead, which retains its
+clearness when highly saturated with the oxide, or if heated with a
+fluctuating flame.
+
+The reactions with microcosmic salt are the same as with borax.
+
+It does not melt with carbonate of soda upon charcoal, but the oxide
+remains with a grey color, while the soda is absorbed by the charcoal.
+
+(_d._) _Columbium,_ (_Tantalum_--Ta).--This rare metal occurs quite
+sparingly in the minerals _tantalite_, _yttrotantalite_, etc., as
+columbic acid. In the metallic state, it presents the appearance of a
+black powder, which, when compressed, exhibits the metallic lustre.
+When heated in the air it is oxidized into columbic acid, and is only
+soluble in hydrofluoric acid, yielding hydrogen. It is oxidized by
+fusion with carbonate of soda or potash.
+
+_Columbic Acid_ (Ta^{2}O^{3}) is a white powder, and is infusible.
+When heated in the flame of oxidation or reduction, it appears of a
+light yellow while hot, but becomes colorless when cold. With borax,
+in the flames of oxidation and reduction, it fuses to a clear bead,
+which appears by a certain degree of saturation, of a yellow color so
+long as it continues hot, but becomes colorless when cold. If
+overcharged, or heated with an intermittent flame, it presents an
+enamel white when cool.
+
+It melts with microcosmic salt quite readily in both of the flames, to
+a clear bead, which appears, if a considerable quantity of columbic
+acid be present, of a yellow color while hot, but colorless when cold,
+and does not become clouded if the intermittent flame be applied to
+it.
+
+With carbonate of soda it fuses with effervescence to a bead which
+spreads over the charcoal. Melted with more soda, it becomes absorbed
+by the charcoal.
+
+It yields, moistened with a solution of nitrate of cobalt, and exposed
+to the oxidation flame after continued blowing, an infusible mass,
+presenting while hot a light grey color, but after being cooled that
+of a light red, similar to the color presented by magnesia under the
+same circumstances. But if there be some alkali mixed with it, a
+fusion at the edges will be manifest, and it will yield by cooling a
+bluish-black mass.
+
+(_e._) _Niobium_ (Ni).--This metal occurs as niobic acid in columbite
+(tantalite). Niobic acid is in its properties similar to columbic
+acid. It is white and infusible. By heating it either in the flames of
+reduction or oxidation, it presents as long as it continues hot, a
+greenish-yellow color, but becomes white when cool. Borax dissolves it
+in the oxidation flame quite readily to a clear bead, which, with a
+considerable quantity of niobic acid, is yellow when hot, but
+transparent and colorless when cold. A saturated bead is clear when
+either hot or cold, but becomes opaque when heated intermittingly.
+
+In the flame of reduction, borax is capable of dissolving more of the
+niobic acid, so that a bead overcharged and opaque in the oxidation
+flame appears quite clear when heated in the flame of reduction. A
+bead overcharged in the flame of reduction, appears by cooling dim and
+bluish-grey.
+
+Microcosmic salt dissolves in the flame of oxidation a great quantity
+of it to a clear bead, which is yellow while hot, but colorless when
+cold.
+
+In the flame of reduction, and in presence of a considerable quantity
+of niobic acid, the bead appears while hot of a light dirty blue
+color, and when cold, of a violet hue; but by the addition of more
+niobic acid, the bead, when hot, is of a dirty dark blue color, and
+when cold, of a transparent blue. In the presence of the oxides of
+iron, the bead is, while hot, of a brownish-red color, but changing
+when cool to a dark yellow.
+
+This acid fuses with an equal quantity of carbonate of soda upon
+charcoal, to a bead which spreads very quickly, and is then infusible.
+When fused with still more soda, it is absorbed.
+
+When moistened with nitrate of cobalt, and heated in the flame of
+oxidation, it yields an infusible mass which appears grey when hot,
+and dirty green when cold; but if the heat has been too strong, it is
+fused a little at the edges, which present a dark bluish-grey color.
+
+_Pelopium_ (Pe).--This metal occurs as an acid in the mineral
+columbite (tantalite), and is very similar to the two preceding
+metals.
+
+(_f._) _Pelopic Acid_ (PeO^{3}).--This acid is white, and appears
+yellow when heated, but resumes its white color when cold. Borax
+dissolves it in the oxidation flame to a clear colorless bead, which
+appears, when overcharged and heated intermittingly, enamel-white when
+cold. This is likewise the case in the flame of reduction, but when
+overcharged the color is light grey, when the bead is cooled.
+
+Microcosmic salt dissolves it in the flame of oxidation, to a clear
+yellow bead, which loses its color when cold. In the reduction flame,
+when the bead is highly saturated, a violet-brown color is produced.
+In presence of the oxides of iron, the reactions are like those of
+niobic acid. With carbonate of soda, the reactions are similar to
+those of niobic acid. By heating with nitrate of cobalt, it yields a
+light grey infusible mass.
+
+(_g._) _Titanium_ (Ti).--This metal occurs occasionally in the slags
+of iron works, in the metallic state, as small cubical crystals of a
+red color. It is a very hard metal, and very infusible. Titanic acid
+occurs in nature crystallized in _anatase_, _arkansite_, _brookite_,
+and _rutile_. Titanium is harder than agate, entirely infusible, and
+loses only a little of its lustre, which can be regained by fusion
+with borax. It does not melt with carbonate of soda, borax, or
+microcosmic salt, and is insoluble in every acid except the
+hydrofluoric. By ignition with saltpetre it is converted into titanic
+acid, which combines with the potassium, forming the titanate of
+potassium.
+
+_Titanic Acid_ (TiO^{2}) is white, insoluble, and, when heated, it
+appears yellow while hot, but resumes upon cooling its white color.
+
+Borax dissolves it in the oxidation flame to a clear yellow bead,
+which when cool is colorless. When overcharged, or heated with the
+intermitting flame, it is enamel-white after being cooled. In the
+reduction flame, the bead appears yellow, if the acid exists in small
+quantity, but if more be added, then it is of an orange, or dark
+yellow, or even brown. The saturated bead, when heated intermittingly,
+appears when cold of an enamelled blue. By addition of the acid, and
+by heating the bead on charcoal in the reduction flame, it becomes
+dark yellow while hot, but dark blue, or black and opaque when cold.
+This bead appears, when heated intermittingly, of a light blue, and
+when cold, enamelled.
+
+Microcosmic salt fuses with it in the oxidation flame to a clear
+colorless bead, which appears yellow only in the presence of a
+quantity of titanic acid, though by cooling it loses its color. In the
+reduction flame this bead exhibits a yellow color when hot, but is red
+while cooling, and when cold of a beautiful bluish-violet. If the bead
+is overcharged, the color becomes so dark that the bead appears
+opaque, though not presenting an enamel appearance. By heating the
+bead again in the oxidation flame the color disappears. The addition
+of some tin promotes the reduction. If the titanic acid contains oxide
+of iron, or if some is added, the bead appears, when cold,
+brownish-yellow, or brownish-red.
+
+By fusion with carbonate of soda, titanic acid is dissolved with
+effervescence to a clear dark yellow bead, which crystallizes by
+cooling, whereby so much heat is eliminated, that the bead, at the
+instant of its crystallization, glows with great brightness. A
+reduction to a metal cannot, however, be effected. By ignition with a
+solution of nitrate of cobalt in the oxidation flame, it yields an
+infusible yellowish-green mass.
+
+(_h._) _Uranium_ (U).--This rare metal occurs in the form of protoxide
+along with other oxides, in the mineral _pitch-blende_; as peroxide in
+_uranite_ and _uran-mica_, associated with phosphoric acid and lime.
+
+In the metallic state it presents the appearance of a dark grey mass,
+which is infusible, and remains unchanged when under water, or when
+exposed to dry air, but, when heated in the oxidation flame, it
+becomes oxidized, with lively sparkling, to a dark green mass,
+composed of the protoxide and peroxide.
+
+The _protoxide of uranium_ (UO) is black, uncrystalline, or forms a
+brown powder. When exposed to heat it is converted partially into
+peroxide, when it has a dark green color.
+
+The _peroxide of uranium_ (U^{2}O^{3}) is of an orange color, while
+its hydrate is of a fine yellow color, and in the form of a powder.
+The salts are yellow.
+
+By heating it in the oxidation flame, it acquires a dark green color,
+and is partly reduced to protoxide. In the reduction flame it presents
+a black appearance, and is there completely reduced to protoxide.
+
+Borax dissolves it in the oxidation flame to a clear dark yellow bead,
+which is colorless when cold, if the metal is not present in great
+quantity. If more of the metal, or peroxide, be added, the bead
+changes to orange when hot, and light yellow when cold. When heated
+with the intermittent flame, it requires a large quantity of the
+peroxide to produce an enamel appearance in the cooled bead.
+
+In the flame of reduction the bead becomes of a dirty green color,
+being partly reduced to protoxide, and appears, with a certain degree
+of saturation, black, when heated intermittingly, but never enamelled.
+The bead appears on charcoal, and with the addition of tin, of a dark
+green color.
+
+It fuses with microcosmic salt in the oxidation flame to a clear
+yellow bead, which is greenish-yellow when cold. In the reduction
+flame it produces a beautiful green bead, which increases when cold.
+
+When fused upon charcoal with the addition of tin, its color is
+darker. Carbonate of soda does not dissolve it, although with a very
+small portion of soda it gives indications of fusion, but with still
+more of the soda it forms a yellow, or light-brown mass, which is
+absorbed by the charcoal, but it is not reduced to the metallic state.
+
+(_i._) _Vanadium_ (V).--This very rare mineral is found in small
+quantity in iron-ores, in Sweden, and as vanadic acid in a few rare
+minerals. The metal presents the appearance of an iron-grey powder,
+and sometimes that of a silver-white mass. It is not oxidized either
+by air or water, and is infusible.
+
+_Vanadic Acid_ (VO^{3}) fuses upon platinum foil to a deep orange
+liquid, which becomes crystalline after cooling. When fused upon
+charcoal, one part of it is absorbed, while the rest remains upon the
+charcoal and is reduced to protoxide similar in appearance to
+graphite.
+
+A small portion of it fuses with borax in the oxidation flame to a
+clear colorless bead, which appears, with the addition of more vanadic
+acid, of a yellow color, but changes to green when cold.
+
+In the reduction flame the bead is brown while hot, but changes, upon
+cooling, to a beautiful sapphire-green. At the moment of
+crystallization, and at a degree of heat by which at daylight no
+glowing of the heated mass is visible it begins to glow again. The
+glow spreads from the periphery to the centre of the mass, and is
+caused by the heat liberated by the sudden crystallization of the
+mass. It now exhibits an orange color, and is composed of needle
+crystals in a compact mass.
+
+Microcosmic salt and vanadic acid fuse in the oxidation flame to a
+dark yellow bead which, upon cooling, loses much of its color.
+
+In the reduction flame the bead is brown while hot, but, upon cooling,
+acquires a beautiful green color.
+
+Vanadic acid fuses with carbonate of soda upon charcoal, and is
+absorbed.
+
+(_k._) _Chromium_ (Cr) occurs in the metallic state only in a very
+small quantity in meteoric iron, but is frequently found in union with
+oxygen, as oxide in chrome iron ore, and as chromic acid in some lead
+ores.
+
+In the metallic state it is of a light grey color, with but little
+metallic lustre, very hard, and not very fusible. Acids do not act
+upon it, except the hydrofluoric; fused with nitre, it forms chromate
+of potassa. It is unaltered in the blowpipe flame.
+
+_Sesquioxide of Chromium_ (Cr^{2}O^{3}).--This oxide forms black
+crystals of great hardness, and is sometimes seen as a green powder.
+Its hydrate (Cr^{2}O^{3} + 6HO) is of a bluish-grey color. It forms
+with acids two classes of isomeric salts, some of which are of a
+green color, and the others violet-red or amethyst. The neutral and
+soluble salts have an acid reaction upon blue litmus paper, and are
+decomposed by ignition.
+
+Sesquioxide of chromium in the oxidation and reduction flames is
+unchangable. When exposed to heat, the hydrate loses its water, and
+gives a peculiarly beautiful flame. In the oxidation flame borax
+dissolves the sesquioxide of chromium slowly to a yellow bead (chromic
+acid) which is yellowish green when cold. Upon the addition of more of
+the oxide, the bead is dark red while hot, but changes to green as it
+becomes cold.
+
+In the reduction flame the bead is of a beautiful green color, both
+while hot and when cold. It is here distinguished from vanadic acid,
+which gives a brownish or yellow bead while hot.
+
+With microcosmic salt it fuses in the oxidation flame to a clear
+yellow bead, which appears, as it cools, of a dirty-green, color, but
+upon being cool is of a fine green color. If there be a superabundance
+of the oxide, so that the microcosmic salt cannot dissolve it, the
+bead swells up, and is converted into a foamy mass, in consequence of
+the development of gases.
+
+In the reduction flame it fuses to a fine green bead. The addition of
+a little tin renders the green still deeper.
+
+Sesquioxide of chromium fuses with carbonate of soda upon platinum
+foil to a brown or yellow bead, which, upon cooling, appears of a
+lighter color and transparent (chromate of sodium).
+
+When fused with soda upon charcoal, the soda is absorbed, and the
+green oxide is left upon it, but is never reduced to the metallic
+state.
+
+_Chromic Acid_ (CrO^{3}) crystallizes in the form of deep ruby red
+needles. It is decomposed into sesquioxide and oxygen when heated.
+This decomposition is attended with a very lively emission of light,
+but this is not the case if the chromic acid has been attained by the
+coöperation of an aqueous solution, unless the reduction is effected
+in the vapor of ammonia. Before the blowpipe chromic acid produces the
+same reactions as the sesquioxide.
+
+(_l._) _Manganese_ (Mn).--This metal occurs in considerable abundance,
+principally as oxides, less frequently as salts, and sometimes in
+combination with sulphur and arsenic. It is found in plants, and
+passes with them into the animal body. In the metallic state, it is
+found frequently in cast iron and steel. It is a hard, brittle metal,
+fusible with difficulty, and of a light grey color. It tarnishes upon
+exposure to the air and under water, and falls into a powder.
+
+_Protoxide of Manganese_ exists as a green powder; as hydrate
+separated by caustic alkalies, it is white, but oxidizes very speedily
+upon exposure to the air. The protoxide is the base of the salts of
+manganese. These salts, which are soluble in water, are decomposed
+when heated in the presence of the air--except the sulphate (MnO,
+SO^{3}), but if the latter is exposed to ignition for awhile, it then
+ceases to be soluble in water, or at least only sparingly so.
+
+_Sesquioxide of Manganese_ (Mn^{2}O^{3}) Occurs very sparingly in
+nature as small black crystals (_Braunite_) which give, when ground, a
+brown powder. When prepared by chemical process, it is in the form of
+a black powder. The hydrate occurs sometimes in nature as black
+crystals (_manganite_). By digestion with acids, it is dissolved into
+salts of the protoxide. With hydrochloric acid, it yields chlorine.
+
+The _prot-sesquioxide of manganese_ (MnO + Mn^{2}O^{3}) occurs
+sometimes in black _crystals_ (_hausmannite_). Prepared artificially,
+it is in the form of a brown powder.
+
+_Peroxide of Manganese_ (MnO^{2}) occurs in considerable abundance as
+a soft black amorphous mass, or crystallized as pyrolusite, also
+reniform and fibrous. It is deprived of a part of its oxygen when
+exposed to ignition. It eliminates a considerable quantity of chlorine
+from hydrochloric acid, and is thereby converted into chloride of
+manganese (ClMn).
+
+Most of the manganese compounds which occur in nature yield water when
+heated in a glass tube closed at one end. The sesquioxide and peroxide
+give out oxygen when strongly heated, which can be readily detected by
+the increased glow which it causes, if a piece of lighted wood or
+paper is brought to the mouth of the tube. The residue left in the
+tube is a brown mass (MnO + Mn^{2}O^{3}).
+
+When exposed to ignition with free access of air, all manganese oxides
+are converted into (MnO + Mn^{2}O^{3}), but without fusion. Such, at
+least, is the statement of some of the German chemists, although it
+will admit perhaps of further investigation.
+
+Manganese oxides fuse with borax in the oxidation flame to a clear and
+intensely colored bead, of a violet hue while hot, but changing to red
+as it cools. If a considerable quantity of the oxide is added, the
+bead acquires a color so dark as to become opaque. If such be the
+case, we have to press it flat, by which its proper color will become
+manifest.
+
+In the reduction flame the bead is colorless. A very dark colored bead
+must be fused upon charcoal with the addition of some tin. The bead
+must be cooled very suddenly, for if it cools too slowly, it then has
+time to oxidize again. This may be effected by pushing it off the
+platinum wire, or the charcoal, and pressing it flat with the forceps.
+
+The oxides of manganese fuse with microcosmic salt in the oxidation
+flame, to a clear brownish-violet bead, which appears reddish-violet
+while cooling. This bead does not become opaque when overcharged with
+manganese. As long as it is kept in fusion a continued boiling or
+effervescence takes place, produced by the expulsion of oxygen, in
+consequence of the fact that the microcosmic salt cannot dissolve much
+sesquioxide, while the rest is reduced to protoxide, is re-oxidated,
+and instantly again reduced. If the manganese is present in such a
+minute quantity as not to perceptibly tinge the bead, the color may be
+made to appear by the contact of a crystal of nitre while hot. The
+bead foams up upon the addition of the nitre, and the foam appears,
+after cooling, of a rose-red or violet color. In the reduction flame
+the bead sometimes becomes colorless.
+
+The oxides of manganese fuse with carbonate of soda upon platinum
+foil or wire, to a clear green bead, which appears bluish-green and
+partially opaque when cold (manganate of soda NaO + MnO^{3}). A very
+minute trace of manganese will produce this green color. The oxides of
+manganese cannot be reduced upon charcoal with carbonate of soda
+before the blowpipe. The soda is absorbed, and (MnO + Mn^{2}O^{3}) is
+left.
+
+
+GROUP FIFTH.--IRON, COBALT, NICKEL.
+
+The oxides of this group are reduced to the metallic state when fused
+with carbonate of soda upon charcoal in the reduction flame. Metals
+when thus reduced form powders, are not fusible or volatile in the
+blowpipe flame, but they are attracted by the magnet.
+
+Furthermore, these oxides are not dissolved by carbonate of soda in
+the oxidation flame, but they produce colored beads with borax and
+microcosmic salt.
+
+(_a._) _Iron._--It occurs in great abundance in nature. It is found in
+several places in America in the metallic state, and it likewise
+occurs in the same state in meteors. It occurs chiefly as the oxide
+(red hematite, brown hematite, magnetic oxide, etc.), and frequently
+in combination with sulphur. Iron also forms a constituent of the
+blood.
+
+Metallic iron is of a grey color, and presents the metallic lustre
+vividly when polished. It is very ductile, malleable, and tenacious.
+It is very hard at common temperatures, but soft and yielding at a red
+heat.
+
+In dry and cold air, iron does not oxidize, but when the air is dry
+and moist, it oxidizes rapidly. This likewise takes place with great
+rapidity when the metal is heated to redness. When submitted to a
+white heat iron burns with brilliant scintillations.
+
+_Protoxide of Iron_ (FeO).--This oxide does not occur pure in nature,
+but in union with the peroxide of iron and other substances. It
+presents the form of a black powder, and has some metallic lustre, is
+brittle, and fuses at a high temperature to a vitreous looking mass.
+It is attracted by the magnet, and of course is susceptible of
+becoming magnetic itself. It forms with water a hydrate, but this
+passes so rapidly into a state of higher oxidation, that it is
+difficult to keep it in the pure state.
+
+_Magnetic Oxide of Iron_ (FeO + Fe^{2}O^{3}).--This peculiar oxide is
+of a dark color, and is magnetic, so that tacks or small nails adhere
+to it when brought in contact with it. It is the variety of the oxide
+termed "loadstone." It is found frequently crystallized in octahedrons
+in Scandinavia and other places. Magnetic oxide of iron is produced
+when red-hot iron is hammered.
+
+_Sesquioxide of Iron_ (Fe^{2}O^{3}).--This oxide is found native in
+great abundance as red hematite and specular iron, crystallized in the
+rhombic form. In the crystalline state it is of a blackish-grey color,
+and possessed of the metallic lustre. When powdered, it forms a
+brownish-red mass. When artificially prepared, it presents the
+appearance of a blood-red powder. It is not magnetic, and has less
+affinity for acids than the protoxide. Its hydrate is found native as
+brown hematite.
+
+By exposing the peroxide of iron to the oxidation flame, it is not
+acted upon, but in the reduction flame it becomes reduced to the
+magnetic oxide.
+
+The oxides of iron are dissolved by borax in the oxidation flame to a
+clear dark-yellow or dark-red bead, which appears lighter while
+cooling, and yellowish when cold. In the presence of a very small
+quantity of iron, the bead appears colorless when cold. If the iron is
+increased, the bead is opaque while cooling, and of a dirty
+dark-yellow color when cold. In the reduction flame, and fused upon
+platinum wire, the bead appears dark green (FeO + Fe^{2}O^{3}). By the
+addition of some tin, and fused upon charcoal, the bead appears
+bluish-green, or not unlike that of sulphate of iron.
+
+Microcosmic salt dissolves the oxides of iron in the oxidation flame
+to a clear bead, which, by the addition of a considerable quantity of
+iron, becomes of an orange color while hot, but gets lighter while
+cooling, presenting finally a greenish hue, and gradually becoming
+lighter, till, when cold, it is colorless. If the iron is increased,
+the hot bead presents a dark red color, but while cooling a
+brownish-red, which changes to a dirty-green, and, when cold, to a
+brownish-red color. The decrease of the color during the transition
+from the hot to the cold state is still greater in the bead formed by
+the microcosmic salt.
+
+In the reduction flame no change is visible if the quantity of iron be
+small. By the addition of more iron, the hot bead appears red, and
+while cooling, changes to yellow, then green, and, when cold, is of a
+dull red. By fusing the bead on charcoal with a small addition of tin,
+it exhibits, while cooling, a bluish-green color, but, when cold, is
+colorless.
+
+The oxides of iron are not dissolved in the oxidation flame by fusion
+with carbonate of soda. By ignition with soda upon charcoal in the
+reduction flame, they are absorbed and reduced to the metallic state.
+Cut out this portion of the charcoal; grind it with the addition of
+some water in an agate mortar, for the purpose of washing off the
+carbon particles, when the iron will remain as a grey magnetic powder.
+
+(_b._) _Cobalt_ (Co) occurs in combination with arsenic and sulphur,
+and associated with nickel and iron. It is found occasionally in
+combination with selenium, and there are a traces of it in meteoric
+iron. In the metallic state it is of a light, reddish-grey color,
+rather brittle, and only fusible at a strong white heat; at common
+temperatures it is unalterable by air or water. At a red heat, it
+oxidizes slowly and decomposes water; at a white heat it burns with a
+red flame. Cobalt is soluble in dilute sulphuric or hydrochloric acid
+by the aid of heat, whereby hydrogen is eliminated. These solutions
+have a fine red color.
+
+_Protoxide of Cobalt_ (CoO).--It is an olive-green powder, but, by
+exposure to the air, it becomes gradually brown. Its hydrate is a rich
+red powder. The solution of its salts is red, but the aqueous solution
+is often blue.
+
+When heated in the oxidation flame, the protoxide is converted into
+the black proto-sesquioxide (CoO + Co^{2}O^{3}). In the reduction
+flame it shrinks and is reduced without fusion to the metallic state.
+It is now attracted by the magnet and acquires lustre by compression.
+
+Borax dissolves it in the oxidation flame, and produces a clear,
+intensely colored blue bead, which remains transparent and of the same
+beautiful blue when cold. This blue is likewise manifest even if the
+bead be heated intermittingly. If the cobalt exists in considerable
+quantity, the color of the bead is so intense as to appear almost
+black.
+
+This reaction of cobalt is so characteristic and sensitive that it can
+detect a minute trace.
+
+With microcosmic salt the same reaction is exhibited, but not so
+sensitive, nor is the bead so intensely colored when cold as that with
+borax.
+
+By fusion with carbonate of soda upon a platinum wire, with a very
+small portion of cobalt, a bright red colored mass is produced which
+appears grey, or slightly green when cold. By fusion upon platinum
+foil the fused portion floats down from the sides, and the foil is
+coated around the undissolved part, with a thin, dark-red sublimate.
+When fused upon charcoal, and in the reduction flame, it is reduced
+with soda to a grey powder, which is attracted by the magnet, and
+exhibits the metallic lustre by compression.
+
+_Sesquioxide of Cobalt_ (Co^{2}O^{3}).--It is a dark brown powder. Its
+hydrate (2HO + Co^{2}O^{3}) is a brown powder. It is soluble only in
+acetic acid as the acetate of the sesquioxide. All other acids
+dissolve its salts to protoxide, the hydrochloric acid producing
+chloric gas. By ignition in the oxidation flame, it is converted into
+the proto-sesquioxide (CoO + Co^{2}O^{3}) and produces with reagents
+before the blowpipe the same reactions as the protoxide.
+
+(_c._) _Nickel_ (Ni).--This metal occurs invariably associated with
+cobalt, and in analogous combinations, chiefly as the arsenical
+nickel. In the metallic state it is greyish, silver-white, has a high
+lustre, is hard, and malleable both cold and hot. At common
+temperatures, it is unalterable either in dry or moist air. When
+ignited, it tarnishes. It is easily dissolved by nitric acid, but very
+slowly by dilute sulphuric or hydrochloric acid, producing hydrogen.
+
+_Protoxide of Nickel _(NiO).--It is in the form of small greyish-black
+octahedrons, or a dark, greenish-grey powder. Its hydrate is a green
+powder. Both are unalterable in the air, and are soluble in nitric,
+sulphuric, and hydrochloric acids, to a green liquid. The protoxide is
+the base of the salts of nickel, which in the anhydrous state are
+yellow, and when hydrated are green. The soluble neutral salts change
+blue litmus paper to red. By ignition in the oxidation flame,
+protoxide of nickel is unaltered. In the reduction flame and upon
+charcoal, it becomes reduced, and forms a grey adherent powder, which
+is infusible, and presents the metallic lustre by compression, and is
+magnetic. Borax dissolves it in the oxidation flame very readily to a
+clear bead, of a reddish-violet or dark yellow color, but yellow or
+light red when cold. If there is but a small quantity of the oxide
+present, it is colorless. If more of the oxide be present, the bead is
+opaque and dark brown, and appears, while cooling, transparent and
+dark red. By the addition of a salt of potassa (the nitrate or
+carbonate) a blue or a dark purple colored bead is produced. The borax
+bead, in the reduction flame, is grey, turbid, or completely opaque
+from the reduced metallic particles. After a continued blast, the bead
+becomes colorless, although the particles are not fused. If the nickel
+contains cobalt, it will now be visible with its peculiar blue color.
+Upon charcoal, and by the addition of some tin, the reduction of the
+oxide of nickel is easily effected, while the reduced nickel fuses
+with the tin.
+
+The oxide of nickel is dissolved by microcosmic salt in the oxidation
+flame to a clear bead, which appears reddish while hot, but yellow and
+sometimes colorless when cooling. If a considerable quantity of nickel
+be present the heated bead is of a brown color, but orange when
+cooled. In the reduction flame, and upon platinum wire, the color of
+the bead is orange when cold; but upon charcoal, and with the addition
+of a little tin, the bead appears grey and opaque. After being
+submitted to the blowpipe flame all the nickel is reduced, and the
+bead becomes colorless.
+
+Carbonate of soda does not affect it in the oxidation flame, but in
+the reduction flame and upon charcoal, it is absorbed and reduced, and
+remains, after washing off the carbon, as a white metallic powder,
+which is infusible, and has a greater attraction for the magnet than
+iron.
+
+_Sesquioxide of Nickel_ (Ni^{2}O^{3}).--It is in the form of a black
+powder, and does not combine with other substances, unless it is
+reduced to the protoxide. It exhibits before the blowpipe the same
+behavior as the protoxide.
+
+
+GROUP SIXTH.--ZINC, CADMIUM, ANTIMONY, TELLURIUM.
+
+The substances of this group can be reduced upon charcoal by fusion
+with carbonate of soda, but the reduced metals are volatilized, and
+cover the charcoal with sublimates.
+
+(_a._) _Zinc_ (Zn).--This metal is found in considerable abundance,
+but never occurs in the pure metallic state, but in combination with
+other substances, chiefly as sulphide in zinc blende, as carbonate in
+calamine, and as the silicate in the kieselzinc ore; also, with
+sulphuric acid, the "vitriol of zinc."
+
+Zinc is of a bluish-white color and metallic lustre, is crystalline
+and brittle when heated 400°F., but malleable and ductile between 200°
+and 300°. It will not oxidize in dry air, but tarnishes if exposed to
+air containing moisture, first becomes grey, and then passes into the
+white carbonate. It decomposes in water at a glowing heat. It is
+dissolved by diluted acids, while hydrogen is eliminated. It melts at
+about 775°, and distills when exposed to a white heat in a close
+vessel. When heated over 1000° in the open air, it takes fire, and
+burns with a bluish-white light, and with a thick white smoke of oxide
+of zinc.
+
+_Oxide of Zinc_ (ZnO).--In the pure state, oxide of zinc is a white
+powder, infusible, and not volatile. It is readily soluble in acids
+after being heated strongly. Its soluble neutral salts, when dissolved
+in water, change blue litmus paper to red. Its salts, with organic
+acids, are decomposed by ignition, and the carbonate of zinc remains.
+
+The oxide of zinc turns yellow by being ignited in the oxidation
+flame, but it is only visible by daylight; this color changes to white
+when cold. It does not melt, but produces a strong light, and it is
+not volatile.
+
+It disappears gradually in the flame of reduction, while a white smoke
+sublimates upon the charcoal. This sublimate is yellow while hot, but
+changes to white when cold. The cause of this is, that the oxide is
+reduced, is volatilized, and re-oxidized, by going through the
+external flame in the form of a metallic vapor.
+
+Borax dissolves oxide of zinc in the flame of oxidation easily to a
+clear bead, which is yellow while hot, and colorless when cold. The
+bead becomes, by the addition of more oxide, enamelled, while cooling.
+If the bead is heated with the intermittent flame, it is milk-white
+when cold. When heated in the flame of reduction upon platinum wire,
+the bead at first appears opaque, and of a greyish color, but becomes
+clear again after a continued blast.
+
+When heated upon charcoal in the reduction flame, it is reduced to a
+metal; but, at the same moment, is volatilized, and sublimes as oxide
+of zinc upon the charcoal, about one line's distance from the assay.
+This is likewise the case with the microcosmic salt, except that it is
+more easily volatilized in the reduction flame.
+
+Carbonate of soda does not dissolve the oxide of zinc in the flame of
+oxidation. In the reduction flame and upon charcoal, the oxide of zinc
+is reduced to the metallic state, and is volatilized with a white
+vapor of the zinc oxide, which sublimes on the charcoal and exhibits a
+yellow color while hot, and which changes to white when cold. By a
+strong heat the reduced zinc burns with a white flame.
+
+Moistened with a solution of cobalt oxide, and heated strongly in the
+flame of oxidation, zinc oxide becomes of a yellowish-green color
+while hot, and changes to a beautiful green color when cold.
+
+(_b._) _Cadmium_ (Cd).--This is one of the rare metals. It occurs in
+combination with sulphur in _greenockite_, and in some ores of zinc.
+It was detected first in the year 1818, and presents itself as a
+tin-white metal of great lustre, and susceptible of a fine polish. It
+has a fibrous structure, crystallizes easily in regular octahedrons,
+presenting often the peculiar arborescent appearance of the fern. It
+is soft, but harder and more tenacious than tin; it can be bent,
+filed, and easily cut: it imparts to paper a color like that of lead.
+It is very malleable and ductile, and can be hammered into thin
+leaves. It is easily fused, and melts before it glows (450°). At a
+temperature not much over the boiling point of mercury, it begins to
+boil, and distills, the vapor of the metal possessing no peculiar
+odor. It is unalterable in the air for a long time, but at length it
+tarnishes and presents a greyish-white, half metallic color. This
+metal easily takes fire when heated in the air, and burns with a
+brownish-yellow vapor, while it deposits a yellow sublimate upon
+surrounding bodies. It is easily soluble in acids with the escape of
+hydrogen, the solutions being colorless. Its salts, soluble in water,
+are decomposed by ignition in free air. Its soluble neutral salts
+change blue litmus paper to red. The salts, insoluble in water, are
+readily dissolved in acids.
+
+_Oxide of Cadmium_ (CdO).--This oxide is of a dark orange color. It
+does not melt, and is not volatile, not even at a very high
+temperature. Its hydrate is white, loses in the heat its hydratic
+water, and absorbs carbonic acid from the air when it is kept in open
+vessels.
+
+Cadmium oxide is unaltered when exposed upon platinum wire in the
+flame of oxidation. When heated upon charcoal in the flame of
+reduction it disappears in a very short time, while the charcoal is
+coated with a dark orange or yellow powder, the color of which is more
+visible after it is cooled. The portions of this sublimate furthest
+from the assay present a visible iridescent appearance. This reaction
+of cadmium is so characteristic and sensitive that minerals (for
+instance, calamine, carbonate of zinc) which contains from one to five
+per cent. of carbonate of cadmium, will give a dark yellowish ring of
+cadmium oxide, a little distance from the assay, after being exposed
+for a few moments to the flame of reduction. This sublimate is more
+visible when cold, and is produced some time previous to the reduction
+of the zinc oxide. If a vapor of the latter should appear, it
+indicates that it has been exposed too great a length of time to the
+flame.
+
+Borax dissolves a considerable quantity of cadmium oxide upon a
+platinum wire to a clear yellow bead, which, when cold, is almost
+colorless. If the bead is nearly saturated with the cadmium oxide, it
+appears milk-white when intermittingly heated. If the bead is
+completely saturated, it retains its opalescent appearance. Upon
+charcoal, and in the flame of reduction, the bead intumesces, the
+cadmium oxide becomes reduced to metal; this becomes volatilized and
+re-oxidized, and sublimes upon the charcoal as the yellow cadmium
+oxide.
+
+In the oxidation flame, microcosmic salt dissolves a large quantity of
+it to a clear bead, which, when highly saturated and while hot, is
+yellowish colored, but colorless when cold. By complete saturation,
+the bead is enamel-white when cold.
+
+Upon charcoal, in the flame of reduction, the bead is slowly and only
+partially reduced, a scanty sublimate being produced on the charcoal.
+The addition of tin promotes the reduction.
+
+Carbonate of soda does not dissolve cadmium oxide in the oxidation
+flame. In the reduction flame, upon charcoal, it is reduced to metal,
+and is volatilized to a red-brown or dark, red sublimate of cadmium
+oxide upon the charcoal, at a little distance from the assay the
+charcoal presenting the characteristic iridescent appearance. This
+reaction is still more sensitive if the cadmium oxide is heated _per
+se_ in the reduction flame.
+
+_Antimony_ (Sb).--This metal is found in almost every country. It
+principally occurs as the tersulphide (SbS^{3}), either pure or
+combined with other sulphides, particularly with basic sulphides.
+Sometimes it occurs as the pure metal, and rarer in a state of
+oxidation as an antimonious acid and as the oxysulphide.
+
+In the pure state, antimony has a silver-white color, with much
+lustre, and presents a crystalline structure. The commercial and
+impure metal is of a tin-white color, and may frequently be split in
+parallel strata. It is brittle and easily pulverized. It melts at a
+low red heat (810°), is volatilized at a white heat, and can be
+distilled. At common temperatures it is not affected by the air. At a
+glowing heat it takes fire, and burns with a white flame, and with
+white fumes, forming volatile antimonious acid. Common acids oxidize
+antimony, but dissolve it slightly. It is soluble in aqua regia
+(nitro-hydrochloric acid).
+
+_Sesquioxide of Antimony_ (Sb^{2}O^{3}).--In the pure state this oxide
+is a white powder, is fusible at a dull red heat to a yellow liquid,
+which, after cooling, is greyish-white and crystalline. If it is
+heated excluded from the air, it can be volatilized completely; it
+sublimes in bright crystals having the form of needles. It occurs
+sometimes in nature as white and very bright crystals. It takes fire
+when heated in the open air, and burns with a white vapor to
+antimonious acid. It fuses with the ter-sulphide of antimony to a red
+bead. It is distinguished from the other oxides of antimony by the
+readiness with which it is reduced to the metallic state upon
+charcoal, and by its easy fusibility and volatility.
+
+The sesquioxide is the base of some salts--for instance, the tartar
+emetic. It is not soluble in nitric acid, but is soluble in
+hydrochloric acid. This solution becomes milky by the addition of
+water. A part of the salts of the sesquioxide of antimony are
+decomposed by ignition. The haloid salts are easily volatilized,
+without decomposition. Its soluble neutral salts change blue litmus
+paper to red, and are converted, by admixture of water, into
+insoluble basic and soluble acid salts.
+
+Antimonious acid (antimoniate of sesquioxide of antimony, Sb^{2}O^{3}
++ Sb^{2}O^{5}) is of a white color, but, when heated, of a light
+yellow color, but changes to white again when cold. It is infusible
+and unaltered by heat. It forms a white hydrate, and both are
+insoluble in water and nitric acid. It is partly soluble in
+hydrochloric acid, with the application of heat. The addition of water
+causes a precipitate in this solution.
+
+_Antimonic Acid _(Sb^{2}O^{5}).--In the pure state this acid is a
+light yellow-colored powder. Its hydrate is white, and is insoluble in
+water and nitric acid. It is sparingly soluble in hot concentrated
+hydrochloric acid. It forms salts with every base, some of which are
+insoluble, and others sparingly so. Notwithstanding that antimonic
+acid is insoluble in water, it expels the carbonic acid from the
+solutions of the carbonates of the alkalies. Antimonic acid and its
+hydrate changes moistened blue litmus paper to red.
+
+
+_Behavior of Antimony and its Oxides before the Blowpipe._
+
+_Metallic Antimony_ fuses easily upon charcoal. When heated to
+glowing, and then removed from the flame, it continues to glow for
+awhile, and produces a thick white smoke. The vapor crystallizes
+gradually, and coats the assay with small crystals which iridesce like
+mother of pearl (sesquioxide of antimony). It is not volatile at the
+temperature of melted glass. Ignited in an open glass tube, it burns
+slowly with a white vapor, which condenses upon the cool part of the
+tube, and exhibits some indications of crystallization. This vapor
+consists of the sesquioxide, and can be driven by heat from one place
+to another, without leaving a residue. If the metallic antimony
+contains sulphide of antimony, there is a corresponding portion of
+antimonious acid produced, which remains as a white sublimate after
+the sesquioxide is removed.
+
+_Sesquioxide of antimony_ melts easily, and sublimes as a white vapor.
+It may be prepared by precipitating and drying. When heated, it takes
+fire previous to melting, glows like tinder, and is converted into
+antimonious acid, which is now infusible. When heated upon charcoal in
+the flame of reduction, it is reduced to the metallic state, and
+partly volatilized. A white vapor sublimates upon the charcoal, while
+the external flame exhibits a greenish-blue color. Antimonious acid is
+infusible, produces a strong light, and is diminished in volume when
+heated in the external flame, during which time a dense white vapor
+sublimes upon the charcoal. It is not, however, in this manner reduced
+to the metallic state like the sesquioxide.
+
+_Antimonic acid_, when first heated, becomes white, and is converted
+into antimonious acid. Hydrated antimonic acid, which is originally
+white, appears at first yellow while giving off water, and then
+becomes white again, while oxygen is expelled, and it is converted
+into antimonious acid.
+
+The oxides of antimony produce, with blowpipe reagents, the following
+reactions: borax dissolves oxides of antimony in the oxidation flame
+in considerable quantity to a clear bead, which is yellow while hot,
+but colorless when cold. If the bead is saturated, a part of the oxide
+is volatilized as a white vapor. Upon charcoal, in the oxidation
+flame, it is completely volatilized, and the charcoal is covered with
+a white sublimate. Heated upon charcoal in the reducing flame, the
+bead is of a greyish color, and partially, if not wholly opaque, from
+the presence of reduced metallic particles. A continued heat will
+volatilize them, and the bead becomes clear. The addition of tin
+promotes the reduction.
+
+Microcosmic salt dissolves the compounds of antimony in the flame of
+oxidation with intumescence, to a clear light-yellow colored bead,
+which when cold is colorless. Heated upon charcoal in the reduction
+flame, the bead is first turbid, but soon becomes transparent. The
+addition of tin renders the bead greyish while cooling, but a
+continued blast renders it transparent. Soda dissolves the compounds
+of antimony upon platinum wire in the oxidation flame, to a clear
+colorless bead, which is white when cold.
+
+Upon charcoal, both in the oxidation and reduction flames, the
+antimony compounds are readily reduced to the metal, which is
+immediately volatilized, and produces a white incrustation of oxide of
+antimony upon the charcoal. If the antimony compounds are heated upon
+charcoal in the flame of reduction, with a mixture of carbonate of
+soda and cyanide of potassium (KCy), there are produced small globules
+of metallic antimony. At the same time, a part of the reduced metal is
+volatilized (this continues after the assay is removed from the flame)
+and re-oxidized. A white incrustation appears upon the charcoal, and
+the metallic globules are covered with small white crystals. If this
+white sublimate upon the charcoal is moistened with a solution of
+cobalt-oxide, and exposed to the reduction flame, a part of it is
+volatilized, while the other part passes into higher oxidation, and
+remains, after cooling, of a dirty dark-green color.
+
+(_d._) _Tellurium_ (Te).--This is one of the rare metals. It occurs
+very seldom in the metallic state, but often with bismuth, lead,
+silver, and gold. Tellurium, in the pure state, is silver-white, very
+bright, of a foliated or lamellar structure, brittle, and easily
+triturated. It is inclined to crystallize. It is soluble in
+concentrated sulphuric acid without oxidation. The solution is of a
+fine purple color, and gives a precipitate with the addition of water.
+
+_Tellurium in the Metallic form._--By the aid of heat it is oxidized
+in sulphuric acid, a portion of the oxygen of the acid oxidizing the
+metal, while sulphurous acid gas escapes. This solution is colorless,
+and is tellurous acid, dissolved in sulphuric acid. It melts at a low
+red heat, and volatilizes at a higher temperature. If tellurium is
+heated with free access of air, it takes fire, and burns with a blue
+color, the flame being greenish at the edges, while a thick white
+vapor escapes, which has a feeble acidulous odor.
+
+_Tellurous Acid_ (TeO^{2}) is of a fine, granulous, crystalline or
+white earthy mass, which is partly soluble in water. The solution has
+a strong metallic taste, and an acid reaction upon litmus paper.
+Heated in a tube closed at one end until it begins to glow, it fuses
+to a yellow liquid which is colorless, crystalline, and opaque when
+cold. Beads of it remain usually transparent like glass. Heated upon
+platinum wire in the flame of oxidation, it melts, and is volatilized
+as a white vapor. When heated upon charcoal in the oxidation flame, it
+melts, and is reduced to the metallic state, but volatilizes and a
+sublimate of white tellurous acid is formed upon the charcoal. The
+edge of this deposit is usually red or dark-yellow.
+
+Heated upon charcoal in the flame of reduction, it is rapidly reduced,
+the external flame exhibiting a bluish-green color.
+
+Borax dissolves it in the oxidation flame upon platinum wire to a
+clear colorless bead which turns grey when heated upon charcoal,
+through the presence of reduced metallic particles. Upon charcoal, in
+the reduction flame, the bead is grey, caused by the reduced metal.
+After a continued blast, tellurium is completely volatilized, and the
+bead appears clear again, while a white sublimate is deposited upon
+the charcoal.
+
+With microcosmic salt, the same reactions are produced.
+
+With carbonate of soda, tellurous acid fuses upon platinum wire to a
+clear colorless bead, which is white when cold. Upon charcoal it is
+reduced, and forms _tellur-sodium_, which is absorbed by the charcoal,
+and metallic tellurium, which is volatilized, and deposits upon the
+charcoal a white incrustation (tellurous acid).
+
+If tellurous acid, finely powdered charcoal, and carbonate of soda are
+mixed together, and the mixture be well ignited in a closed tube,
+until fusion is effected, and a few drops of boiled water are brought
+into the tube, they are colored purple, indicating the presence of
+_tellur-sodium._
+
+_Telluric Acid _(TeO^{3}) forms six-sided prismatic crystals. It has
+not an acid, but rather a metallic taste. It changes blue litmus paper
+to red; is slowly soluble in water, and rather sparingly. Exposed to
+a high temperature, but not until glowing, the crystalline acid loses
+its water, and acquires an orange color, but still it preserves its
+crystalline form, although no longer soluble in water, and is in fact
+so much changed in its properties as to present the instance of an
+isomeric modification.
+
+If telluric acid is heated gently in a closed tube, it loses water and
+turns yellow. Heated still more strongly, it becomes milk-white,
+oxygen is expelled, and it is converted into tellurous acid. The
+presence of oxygen can be recognized by the more lively combustion
+which an ignited splinter of wood undergoes when held in it. Telluric
+acid produces the same reactions with the blowpipe reagents as
+tellurous acid.
+
+
+SEVENTH GROUP.--LEAD, BISMUTH, TIN.
+
+The oxides of these metals are also reduced to the metallic state by
+fusion with soda upon charcoal in the flame of reduction, but they are
+volatilized only after a continued blast, and a sublimate is thrown
+upon the charcoal.
+
+(_a._) _Lead_ (Pb).--This metal occurs in considerable quantity in
+nature, chiefly as galena or lead-glance (sulphide of lead). Likewise,
+but more rarely, as a carbonate; also as a sulphate, and sometimes
+combined with other acids and metals.
+
+In the metallic state, lead is of a bluish-grey color, high lustre,
+and sp. gr. 11.4. It is soft, and communicates a stain to paper. It is
+malleable, ductile, but has very little tenacity. It melts at about
+612°. Exposed to the air it soon tarnishes, being covered with a grey
+matter, which some regard as a suboxide (Pb^{2}O), and others as
+simply a mixture of lead and protoxide. At a glowing heat it is
+oxidized to a protoxide, and at a white heat it is volatilized. It is
+insoluble in most acids. It is, however, soluble in nitric acid, but
+without decomposing water.
+
+(_L._) _Protoxide of Lead_ (PbO).--It is an orange-colored powder,
+which melts at a glowing temperature, and forms a lamellar mass after
+cooling. Protoxide of lead absorbs oxygen from the atmosphere while
+melting, which is given off again by cooling. Being exposed for a
+longer while to the air, it absorbs carbonic acid and water, and
+becomes white on the surface. It is soluble in nitric acid and caustic
+alkalies. It forms with most acids insoluble salts. It is slightly
+soluble in pure water, but not in water which contains alkaline salts.
+This hydrate is white.
+
+([beta].) _Red Oxide of Lead_ (PbO^{2}, PbO).--It forms a puce-colored
+powder. It is insoluble in caustic alkalies. Hydrochloric acid
+dissolves it and forms a yellow liquid, which is soon decomposed into
+chloride of lead and chlorine. It is reduced by ignition to the
+protoxide.
+
+([gamma].) _Peroxide of Lead _(PbO^{2}).--It is a dark-brown powder.
+It yields with hydrochloric acid the chloride of lead and chlorine
+gas. When heated it liberates oxygen, and is reduced to the protoxide.
+
+Lead combinations give the following reactions before the blowpipe:
+Metallic lead tarnishes when heated in the oxidation flame, and is
+instantly covered with a grey matter, consisting of the protoxide and
+the metal. It fuses quickly, and is then covered with a
+yellowish-brown protoxide until all the lead is converted into the
+protoxide, which melts to a yellow liquid. In the reduction flame and
+upon charcoal, it is volatilized, while the charcoal becomes covered
+with a yellow sublimate of oxide. A little distance from the assay,
+this sublimate appears white (carbonate of lead). Protoxide of lead
+melts in the flame of oxidation to a beautiful dark yellow bead. In
+the flame of reduction, and upon charcoal, it is reduced with
+intumescence to metallic lead, which is volatilized by a continued
+blast, and sublimates on charcoal, as mentioned above.
+
+Red oxide of lead turns black when heated in the glass tube closed at
+one end, and liberates oxygen, which is easily detected by the
+introduction of an ignited splinter, when a more lively combustion of
+the wood proves the presence of uncombined oxygen. The red oxide in
+this case is reduced to the protoxide. Heated upon platinum foil, it
+first turns black, is reduced to the protoxide, and melts into a dark
+yellow liquid. In the reduction flame, upon charcoal, it is reduced to
+the metal with intumescence. After a continued blast, a yellow
+sublimate of protoxide is produced upon the charcoal, and at a little
+distance off, around this sublimate, a white one of carbonate of lead
+is produced. This sublimate disappears when touched by the flame of
+reduction, while it communicates an azure blue-tinge to the external
+flame. This is likewise the case with the peroxide of lead.
+
+The different oxides of lead produce with the blowpipe reagents the
+same reactions.
+
+_Borax_ dissolves lead compounds with the greatest readiness upon
+platinum wire in the oxidation flame to a transparent bead, which is
+yellow when hot, but colorless after being cooled. With the addition
+of more of the lead oxide, it becomes opalescent. When heated by the
+intermittent flame, and with still more of the oxide, it acquires a
+yellow enamel after cooling. Heated upon charcoal, in the flame of
+reduction, the bead spreads and becomes opaque. After a continued
+blast, all the oxide is reduced with effervescence to metallic lead,
+which melts and runs towards the edges of the bead, while the bead
+again becomes transparent.
+
+_Microcosmic Salt_ dissolves oxides of lead upon platinum wire in the
+flame of oxidation easily to a clear, colorless bead, which appears,
+when highly saturated, yellow while hot. A saturated bead becomes
+enamel-like after cooling. The bead appears in the flame of reduction,
+and upon charcoal, of a greyish color and dull. By the addition of
+more oxide, a yellow sublimate of protoxide is produced upon the
+charcoal. By the addition of tin, the bead appears of a darker grey,
+but it is never quite opaque.
+
+_Carbonate of Soda_ dissolves oxide of lead in the flame of oxidation
+upon platinum wire quite readily to a transparent bead, which becomes
+yellow when cooling, and is opaque. Upon charcoal in the flame of
+reduction, it is rapidly reduced to metallic lead, which yields,
+after a continued blast, a yellow sublimate of oxide upon the
+charcoal.
+
+(_b._) _Bismuth_ (Bi).--This metal occurs mostly in the metallic
+state, and less frequently as the sulphide. In the pure metallic
+state, it is of a reddish-white color and great lustre. It
+crystallizes in cubes. It is brittle, and may be readily pulverized.
+It melts at 476°, and is volatilized at a white heat. It is soluble in
+nitric acid, and forms the nitrate of bismuth.
+
+([alpha].) _Oxide of Bismuth _(Bi^{2}O^{3}).--This oxide is a light
+yellow powder, fusible at a red heat, insoluble in caustic potash and
+ammonia. It is the base of the salts of bismuth. Its hydrate is white,
+and easily soluble in acids. The addition of water causes these
+solutions to become milky, because they are decomposed into a soluble
+acidulous and an insoluble basic salt of bismuth.
+
+([beta].) _Peroxide of Bismuth_ (BiO^{2}) is a dark-colored powder,
+completely soluble in boiling nitric acid, and yielding oxygen;
+produces, with hydrochloric acid, chlorine gas. It can be heated up to
+the temperature of 620° without being decomposed; but, exposed to a
+temperature of 630° it yields oxygen. Mixed with combustible
+substances, it glows with brightness.
+
+([gamma].) _Bismuthic Acid _(Bi^{2}O^{5}) is a brown powder similar to
+the peroxide, but is converted by boiling nitric acid into a green,
+scarcely soluble substance (Bi^{2}O^{3}, Bi^{2}O^{5}). Its hydrate is
+of a red color.
+
+BLOWPIPE REACTIONS.--Metallic bismuth is converted, when exposed upon
+platinum wire to the flame of oxidation, into a dark brown oxide,
+which turns light yellow while cooling. It is slowly volatilized when
+heated, and a yellow sublimate of oxide is produced upon the charcoal.
+
+Oxide of bismuth melts upon platinum foil in the flame of oxidation
+very easily into a dark-brown liquid, which changes to a light yellow
+while cooling. By too strong a heat, it is reduced and penetrates the
+platinum foil.
+
+Upon charcoal, in the flame of oxidation and of reduction, it is
+reduced to metallic bismuth, which melts into one or more globules.
+By a continued blast they are slowly volatilized, and produce a yellow
+sublimate of oxide upon the charcoal, beyond which a white sublimate
+of carbonate of bismuth is visible. These sublimates disappear in the
+flame of reduction, but without communicating any color to it.
+
+_Borax_ dissolves oxide of bismuth upon platinum wire, in the flame of
+oxidation, easily to a clear yellow bead, which appears colorless
+after cooling. By the addition of more oxide, the hot bead becomes
+orange. It turns more yellow while cooling, and when cool is
+opalescent. Upon charcoal in the flame of reduction, the bead becomes
+turbid and greyish colored. The oxide is reduced with intumescence to
+the metallic state, and the bead becomes clear again. The addition of
+tin promotes the reduction.
+
+_Microcosmic Salt_ dissolves oxide of bismuth upon platinum wire, in
+the flame of oxidation, to a yellow bead, which becomes colorless
+after cooling. By the addition of more oxide, the bead is
+yellowish-brown while hot, and colorless after cooling, but not quite
+transparent. This bead becomes enamelled when heated by the
+intermittent flame; also, by the addition of still more of the oxide,
+after it is cooled.
+
+Upon charcoal, in the flame of reduction, and particularly with the
+addition of tin, the bead is colorless and transparent while hot, but
+while cooling becomes of a dark-gray color and opaque.
+
+Oxide of bismuth is reduced, by fusion with carbonate of soda, as well
+in the oxidating as in the reducing flame, instantly to metallic
+bismuth.
+
+As the above mentioned higher oxides of bismuth are converted by
+ignition into oxide of the metal and free oxygen, they have the same
+behavior before the blowpipe.
+
+As bismuth occurs mostly in the metallic form, it is necessary to know
+how to distinguish it from metals similar to it. Its brittleness
+distinguishes it from lead, zinc and tin, as they are readily
+flattened by a stroke of the hammer, while bismuth is broken to
+pieces. Bismuth, in this latter respect, might perhaps be mistaken
+for antimony or tellurium; but, by the following examination, it is
+easy to separate bismuth from antimony or tellurium.
+
+1. Neither bismuth nor antimony sublimates when heated in a glass tube
+closed at one end. At a temperature which is about to fuse the glass,
+tellurium yields a small quantity of a white vapor (some tellurium is
+oxidized to tellurous acid by the oxygen of the air in the tube).
+After that, a grey metallic sublimate settles on the sides of the
+tube.
+
+2. Heated in an open tube, antimony yields a white vapor, which coats
+the inside of the glass tube, and can be driven by heat from one part
+of the tube to another without leaving a residue. The metallic globule
+is covered with a considerable quantity of fused oxide. Tellurium
+produces, under the same circumstances, an intense vapor, and deposits
+on the glass a white powder, which melts by heat into globules that
+run over the glass. The metallic globules are covered by fused,
+transparent, and nearly colorless oxide, which becomes white while
+cooling. By a high temperature, and with little access of air,
+metallic tellurium sublimes with the deposition of a grey powder.
+Bismuth produces, under similar treatment, scarcely any vapor, unless
+it is combined with sulphur. The metal is enveloped by fused oxide of
+a dark yellow color, which appears light yellow after being cooled. It
+acts upon the glass, and dissolves it.
+
+3. Upon charcoal, exposed to the blowpipe flame, the three metals are
+volatilized, and yield a sublimate upon the charcoal. That of antimony
+is white, while those of bismuth and tellurium are dark yellow. By
+exposing them to the flame of reduction, the sublimate of tellurium
+disappears and communicates an intense green color to the flame. The
+antimony incrustation gives a feeble greenish-blue color, while the
+sublimate of bismuth gives no perceptible color in the light. It is,
+however, worthy of notice that if the operation takes place in the
+dark, a very pale blue flame will be seen with the bismuth.
+
+(_c._) _Tin_ (Sn).--This metal does not occur in nature in the
+metallic state, very seldom in the sulphide, but chiefly in the oxide
+(tinstone). In the metallic state it is silver-white, possesses a very
+high lustre, is soft (but harder than lead), ductile, but has not much
+tenacity, and it is very malleable. The metal when it is cast gives a
+peculiar creaking noise when twisted or bent, which proceeds from the
+crystalline structure of the metal. This crystallization is quite
+clearly manifested by attacking the surface of the metal, or that of
+tin plate, with acids.
+
+Tin is very slightly tarnished by exposure to the air. It fuses at
+442°, and becomes grey, being a mixture of the oxide and the metal. At
+a high temperature even, tin is but little subject to pass off as
+vapor. It is soluble in aqua regia, and with the liberation of
+hydrogen, in hot sulphuric and hydrochloric acids, and in cold dilute
+nitric acid, without decomposing water, or the production of a gas,
+while nitrate of tin and nitrate of ammonia are formed. Concentrated
+nitric acid converts tin into insoluble tin acids.
+
+([alpha].) _Protoxide of Tin_ (SnO) is a dark-grey powder. Its hydrate
+is white, and is soluble in caustic alkalies. When this solution is
+heated, anhydrous crystalline black protoxide is separated. The
+soluble neutral salts of tin-protoxide are decomposed by the addition
+of water, and converted into acid soluble, and basic insoluble salts.
+
+When protoxide of tin is ignited with free access of air, it takes
+fire and is converted with considerable intensity into the acids,
+producing white vapors. This is likewise the case if it is touched by
+a spark of fire from steel. The hydrate of the protoxide of tin can be
+ignited by the flame of a candle, and glows like tinder.
+
+([beta].) _Sesquioxide of Tin_ (Sn^{2}O^{3}) is a greyish-brown
+powder. Its hydrate is white, with a yellow tinge. It is soluble in
+aqua ammonia and in hydrochloric acid; this solution forms with
+solution of gold the "purple of Cassius."
+
+([gamma].) _Stannic Acid_ (peroxide, SnO^{2}).--This acid occurs in
+nature crystallized in quadro-octahedrons, of a brown or an intense
+black color, and of great hardness (tinstone). Artificially prepared,
+it is a white or yellowish-white powder. It exists in two distinct or
+isomeric modifications, one of which is insoluble in acids (natural
+tin-acid) while the other (tin-acid prepared in the wet way) is
+soluble in acids. By ignition the soluble acid is converted into the
+insoluble. Both modifications form hydrates.
+
+_Reactions before the Blowpipe._--Metallic tin melts easily. It is
+covered in the flame of oxidation into a yellowish-white oxide, which
+is carried off sometimes by the stream of air which propels the flame.
+In the reduction flame, and upon charcoal, melting tin retains its
+metallic lustre, while a thin sublimate is produced upon the charcoal.
+This sublimate is light-yellow while hot, and gives a strong light in
+the flame of oxidation, and turns white while cooling. This sublimate
+is found near to the metal, and cannot be volatilized in the oxidation
+flame. In the flame of reduction it is reduced to metallic tin.
+Sometimes this incrustation is so imperceptible that it can scarcely
+be distinguished from the ashes of the charcoal. If such be the case,
+moisten it with a solution of cobalt, and expose it to the flame of
+oxidation, when the sublimate will exhibit, after cooling, a
+bluish-green color.
+
+Protoxide of tin takes fire in the flame of oxidation, and burns with
+flame and some white vapor into tin acid, or stannic acid. In a strong
+and continued reduction flame, it may be reduced to metal, when the
+same sublimate above mentioned is visible. The sesquioxide of tin
+behaves as the above.
+
+Stannic acid, heated in the flame of oxidation, does not melt and is
+not volatilized, but produces a strong light, and appears yellowish
+while hot, but changing as it cools to a dirty-yellow white color. In
+a strong and continued flame of reduction, it may be reduced likewise
+to the metallic state, with the production of the same sublimate as
+the above.
+
+_Borax_ dissolves tin compounds in the flame of oxidation, and upon
+platinum wire, very tardily, and in small quantity, to a transparent
+colorless bead, which remains clear after cooling, and also when
+heated intermittingly. But if a saturated bead, after being completely
+cool, is exposed again to the flame of oxidation, at a low red heat,
+the bead while cooling is opaque, loses its globular form, and
+exhibits an indistinct crystallization. This is the case too in the
+flame of reduction, but if the bead is highly saturated, a part of the
+oxide is reduced.
+
+_Microcosmic Salt_ dissolves the oxides in the flame of reduction very
+tardily in a small quantity to a transparent colorless bead, which
+remains clear while cooling. If to this bead sesquioxide of iron is
+added in proper proportion, the sesquioxide loses its property of
+coloring the bead, but of course an excess of the iron salt will
+communicate to the bead its own characteristic color. In the flame of
+reduction no further alteration is visible.
+
+Tin-oxides combine with carbonate of soda, in the flame of oxidation
+upon platinum wire, with intumescence to a bulky and confused mass,
+which is insoluble in more soda. Upon charcoal, in the reduction
+flame, it is easily reduced to a metallic globule. Certain compounds
+of tin-oxides, particularly if they contain tantalum, are by fusion
+with carbonate of soda reduced with difficulty; but by the addition of
+some borax, the reduction to the metallic state is easily effected.
+
+Tin-oxides exposed to the oxidation flame, then moistened with a
+solution of cobalt, and exposed again to the flame of oxidation, will
+exhibit, after having completely cooled, a bluish-green color.
+
+
+EIGHTH GROUP.--MERCURY, ARSENIC.
+
+These two metals are volatilized at a temperature lower than that of a
+red heat, and produce, therefore, no reactions with borax and
+microcosmic salt. Their oxides are easily reduced to the metallic
+state.
+
+(_a._) _Mercury_ (Hg).--This metal occurs in nature chiefly combined
+with sulphur as a bisulphide.
+
+It occurs still more rarely in the metallic form, or combined with
+silver, selenium, or chlorine.
+
+Mercury, in the metallic state, has a strong lustre, and is liquid at
+ordinary temperatures, whereby it is distinguished from any other
+metal. It freezes at 40° and boils at 620°, but it evaporates at
+common temperatures. Pure mercury is unalterable. Upon being exposed
+to the air, it tarnishes only by admixture with other metals, turns
+grey on the surface, and loses its lustre. It is soluble in cold
+nitric acid and in concentrated hot sulphuric acid, but not in
+hydrochloric acid.
+
+([chi].) _Protoxide of Mercury_ (Hg^{2}O).--It is a black powder,
+which is decomposed by ignition into metallic mercury and oxygen. By
+digestion with certain acids, and particularly with caustic alkalies,
+it is converted into metallic mercury and peroxide. Some neutral salts
+of the protoxide are only partly soluble in water, as they are
+converted into basic insoluble and acid soluble salts.
+
+Protoxide of mercury is completely insoluble in hydrochloric acid. Its
+neutral salts change blue litmus paper to red.
+
+([beta].) _Peroxide of Mercury_ (HgO).--This oxide exists in two
+allotropic modifications. One is of a brick-red color, and the other
+is orange. Being exposed to heat, they turn black, but regain their
+respective colors upon cooling. They are decomposed at a high
+temperature into metallic mercury and oxygen. They yield with acids
+their own peculiar salts.
+
+Mercury, in the metallic form, can never be mistaken for any other
+metal in consequence of its fluid condition at ordinary temperatures.
+
+Exposed to the blowpipe flame, it is instantly volatilized. This is
+also the case with it when combined with other metals. The oxides of
+mercury are, in the oxidation and reduction flames, instantly reduced
+and volatilized. They do not produce any alteration with fluxes, as
+they are volatilized before the bead melts. Heated with carbonate of
+soda in a glass tube closed at one end, they are reduced to metallic
+mercury, which is volatilized, and condenses upon a cool portion of
+the tube as a grey powder. By cautious knocking against the tube, or
+by rubbing with a glass rod, this sublimate can be brought together
+into one globule of metallic mercury. Compounds of mercury can be most
+completely reduced by a mixture of neutral oxalate of potassa and
+cyanide of potassium. If the substance under examination contains such
+a small quantity of mercury that it cannot be distinguished by
+volatilization, a strip of gold leaf may be attached to an iron wire,
+and introduced during the experiment in the glass tube. The smallest
+trace of mercury will whiten the gold leaf in spots.
+
+(_b._) _Arsenic_ (As).--This metal occurs in considerable quantity in
+nature, chiefly combined with sulphur or metals.
+
+Arsenic, in the metallic state, is of a whitish-grey color, high
+lustre, and is crystalline, of a foliated structure, and is so brittle
+that it can be pulverized. It does not melt, but is volatilized at
+356°. Its vapor has a strong alliaceous odor. Arsenic sublimes in
+irregular crystals. By exposure to the air it soon tarnishes, and is
+coated black. Being mixed with nitrate of potassa and inflamed, it
+detonates with vehemence. Mixed with carbonate of potassa, it is
+inflamed by a stroke of the hammer, and detonates violently.
+
+Heated in oxygen gas, it is inflamed, and burns with a pale blue flame
+to arsenious acid.
+
+([beta].) _Arsenious Acid_ (AsO^{3}).--This acid crystallizes in
+octahedrons, or, when fused, forms a colorless glass, which finally
+becomes opaque and enamel-like, or forms a white powder. It sublimes
+without change or decomposition. When heated for a longer while below
+the temperature of sublimation, it melts into a transparent,
+colorless, tough glass. The opaque acid is sparingly soluble in cold
+water, and still more soluble in hot water. It is converted, by
+continued boiling, into the transparent acid, which is much more
+soluble in water. Arsenious acid is easily dissolved by caustic
+potassa. It is also soluble in hydrochloric acid. This acid occurs
+associated with antimonious acid, protoxide of tin, protoxide of lead,
+and oxide of copper. It occurs likewise in very small quantity in
+ferruginous mineral springs.
+
+([gamma].)_Arsenic Acid_ (AsO^{5}) is a white mass, which readily
+absorbs moisture and dissolves. It will not volatilize at a low red
+heat, nor will it decompose. Exposed to a strong heat, it is
+decomposed, yielding oxygen, and passing into arsenious acid.
+
+_Reactions before the Blowpipe._
+
+Metallic arsenic, heated in a glass tube closed at one end, yields a
+black sublimate of a metallic lustre, and at the same time gives out
+the characteristic alliaceous odor. This is the case too with alloys
+of arsenic, if there is a maximum quantity of arsenic present.
+
+When heated in a glass tube open at both ends, metallic arsenic is
+oxidized to arsenious acid, which appears as a white crystalline
+sublimate on the sides of the glass tube. This deposit will occur at
+some distance from the assay, in consequence of the great volatility
+of the arsenic. The sublimate can be driven from one place upon the
+tube to another, by a very low heat. Alloys of arsenic are converted
+into basic arseniates of metal oxides, while surplus arsenic is
+converted into arsenious acid, which sublimes on the tube. If too much
+arsenic is used for this experiment, a dark-brown incrustation will
+sublime upon the sides of the tube which will give an alliaceous
+smell. If this sublimate should be deposited near the assay, then it
+resembles the white sublimate of arsenious acid.
+
+Heated upon charcoal, metallic arsenic is volatilized before it melts,
+and incrusts the charcoal in the flame of oxidation as a white deposit
+of arsenious acid. This sublimate appears sometimes of a greyish
+color, and takes place at some distance from the assay. When heated
+slightly with the blowpipe flame, this sublimate is instantly driven
+away, and being heated rapidly in the reduction flame, it disappears
+with a light blue tinge, while the usual alliaceous or garlic smell
+may be discerned.
+
+Arsenious acid sublimes in both glass tubes very readily, as a white
+crystalline sublimate. These crystals appear to be regular octahedrons
+when observed under the microscope. Upon charcoal it instantly
+volatilizes, and when heated, the characteristic garlic smell may be
+observed.
+
+Arsenic acid yields, heated strongly in a glass tube closed at one
+end, oxygen and arsenious acid, the latter of which sublimes in the
+cool portions of the tube. Compounds of arsenic produce, in
+consequence of their volatility, no reactions with fluxes. Being
+heated upon charcoal with carbonate of soda, they are reduced to
+metallic arsenic which may be detected by the alliaceous odor peculiar
+to all the arsenic compounds when volatilized.
+
+
+NINTH GROUP.--COPPER, SILVER, GOLD.
+
+These metals are not volatile, neither are their oxides. They are
+reduced to the metallic state, by fusion with carbonate of soda, when
+they melt to a metallic grain. The oxides of silver and gold are
+reduced _per se_ to the metallic state by ignition. In the reduction
+of the oxides of this group, no sublimate is visible upon the
+charcoal.
+
+(_a._) _Copper_ (Cu).--This metal occurs in the metallic state, also
+as the protoxide, and as oxides combined with acids in different salts
+(carbonate of copper as malachite, etc.) The sulphide of copper is the
+principal ore of copper occurring in nature. In the metallic state,
+copper is of a red color, has great lustre and tenacity, is ductile
+and malleable, and crystallizes in octahedrons and cubes. It melts at
+a bright red heat, is more difficult than silver to fuse, but fuses
+more readily than gold. It absorbs oxygen while melting. There arises
+from its surface a fine dust of metallic globules, which are covered
+with the protoxide. The surface of the metal is likewise covered with
+the protoxide. Copper exposed to moist air tarnishes, and is
+converted into hydratic carbonate of copper. When ignited in the open
+air, it is soon covered with the brownish-red protoxide.
+
+([chi].) _Protoxide of Copper_ (Cu^{2}O).--This oxide occurs in
+nature, crystallized in octahedrons of a ruby-red color, of a lamellar
+structure, and transparent. Artificially prepared, it forms a powder
+of the same color. It is decomposed by dilute acids into salts of
+peroxide and metal. It is converted by ignition, with free access of
+air, into peroxide.
+
+([beta].) _Oxide of Copper_ (CuO).--This oxide is a dark-brown or
+black powder. It is dissolved by acids, with a blue or green-colored
+solution. It is soluble in aqua ammonia, and the solution is of a dark
+blue color.
+
+_Reactions before the Blowpipe._--Oxide of copper exposed upon
+platinum wire to the inmost flame (the blue flame), communicates to
+the external flame a green color. Heated upon charcoal in the
+oxidation flame, it melts to a black ball, soon spreads over the
+charcoal, and is partially reduced.
+
+Exposed to the reduction flame, at a temperature which will not melt
+copper, it is reduced with a bright metallic lustre, but as soon as
+the blast ceases, the surface of the metal becomes oxidized, and
+appears dark brown or black. If the temperature is continued still
+higher, it melts to a metallic grain.
+
+_Borax_ dissolves the oxide of copper in the flame of oxidation to a
+clear green-colored bead, even if the quantity of oxide be quite
+small, but by cooling, the bead becomes blue. In the flame of
+reduction upon platinum wire, the bead soon becomes colorless, but
+while cooling presents a red color (protoxide of copper). This bead is
+opaque, but, if too much of the oxide is added, a part of it is
+reduced to metal, which is visible by breaking the metallic grain.
+
+Upon charcoal, the oxide is reduced to the metal, and the bead appears
+colorless after cooling. With the addition of some tin, the bead
+becomes brownish-red and opaque after cooling.
+
+_Microcosmic Salt_ dissolves oxide of copper in the flame of oxidation
+to a green bead, not so intensely colored as the borax bead. In the
+reduction flame the bead, if pretty well saturated, becomes dark-green
+while hot, and brownish-red when cool, opaque and enamel-like. If the
+oxide is so little that no reaction is visible, by the addition of
+some tin, the bead appears colorless while hot, and dark brownish-red
+and opaque when cold.
+
+_Carbonate of Soda_ dissolves oxide of copper in the oxidation flame
+upon platinum wire, to a clear, green bead, which loses its color when
+cooling, and becomes opaque.
+
+Upon charcoal, it is reduced to the metal, the soda is absorbed by the
+charcoal, and the metallic particles melt with sufficient heat to a
+grain.
+
+(_b._) _Silver_ (Ag).--This metal occurs in nature in the metallic
+state, and in combination with other metals, particularly with lead.
+It also occurs as the sulphide in several mines. It crystallizes in
+cubes and octahedrons; is of a pure white color, great lustre, is very
+malleable and ductile, and is softer than copper, but harder than
+gold. It is not oxidizable, neither at common temperatures nor at
+those which are considerably higher. It is soluble in dilute nitric
+acid, and in boiling concentrated sulphuric acid.
+
+([chi].) _Protoxide of Silver_ (Ag^{2}O).--It is a black powder. It is
+converted by acids and ammonia into oxide and metal.
+
+([beta].) _Oxide of Silver_ (AgO).--It is a greyish-brown or black
+powder, and is the base of the silver salts. With aqua ammonia, it is
+converted into the black, fulminating silver.
+
+([gamma].) _Superoxide or Binoxide of Silver_ (AgO^{2}).--This oxide
+occurs in black needles or octahedral crystals of great metallic
+lustre. It is dissolved by the oxygen acids with the disengagement of
+oxygen gas.
+
+_Behavior before the Blowpipe._--When exposed to the flames of
+oxidation and reduction, the oxides of silver are instantly reduced to
+the metallic state.
+
+_Borax_ dissolves silver-oxides upon platinum wire in the oxidation
+flame but partially, while the other portion is reduced, the bead
+appearing opalescent after cooling, in correspondence to the degree of
+saturation. The bead becomes grey in the flame of reduction, the
+reduced silver melting to a grain, and the bead is rendered clear and
+colorless again.
+
+_Microcosmic Salt_ dissolves oxides of silver in the flame of
+oxidation upon platinum wire to a transparent yellowish bead, which
+presents, when much of the oxide is present, an opalescent appearance.
+
+In the flame of reduction, the reaction is analogous to that of borax.
+
+By fusion with carbonate of soda in the oxidation and reduction
+flames, the silver oxides are instantly reduced to metallic silver,
+which fuses into one or more grains.
+
+(_c._) _Gold_ (Au).--This metal occurs mostly in the metallic state,
+but frequently mixed with ores, and with other metals. Gold
+crystallizes in cubes and octahedrons, is of a beautiful yellow color,
+great lustre, and is the most malleable and ductile of all the metals.
+It melts at a higher temperature than copper, gives a green colored
+light when fused, and contracts greatly when cooling. It does not
+oxidize at ordinary temperatures, nor when heated much above them. It
+is soluble in nitro-hydrochloric acid (_aqua regia_).
+
+([chi].) _Protoxide of Gold_ (Au^{2}O).--This oxide is a dark violet
+colored powder which is converted by a temperature of 540° into
+metallic gold and oxygen. It is only soluble in aqua regia. Treated
+with hydrochloric acid, it yields the chloride of gold and the metal.
+With aqua ammonia, it yields the fulminating gold, which is a blue
+mass and very explosive.
+
+([chi].) _Peroxide of Gold_ (Au^{2}O^{3}).--This oxide is an
+olive-green or dark brown powder, containing variable quantities of
+water. Decomposed at 530°, it yields metallic gold and oxygen.
+
+_Reactions before the Blowpipe._--Oxides of gold are reduced, in both
+the oxidation and reduction flames, to the metal, which fuses to
+grains.
+
+_Borax_ does not dissolve it, but it is reduced to the metallic state
+in this flux in either flame. The reduced metal fuses upon charcoal to
+a grain.
+
+_Microcosmic Salt_ presents the same reactions as borax.
+
+When fused with soda, upon charcoal, the soda is absorbed, and the
+gold remains as a metallic grain.
+
+
+TENTH GROUP.--MOLYBDENUM, OSMIUM.
+
+These metals are not volatile, and are infusible before the blowpipe;
+but some of their oxides are volatile, and can be reduced to an
+infusible metallic powder.
+
+(_a._) _Molybdenum_ (Mo) occurs in the metallic state; also combined
+with sulphur, or as molybdic acid combined with lead. It is a white,
+brittle metal, and is unaltered by exposure to the air. When heated
+until it begins to glow, it is converted into a brown oxide. Heated at
+a continued dull red heat, it turns blue. At a higher temperature, it
+is oxidized to molybdic acid, when it glimmers and smokes, and is
+converted into crystallized molybdic acid upon the surface.
+
+([chi].) _Protoxide of Molybdenum_ (MoO).--This oxide is a black
+powder.
+
+([chi].) _Deutoxide of Molybdenum_ (MoO^{2}).--This oxide is a dark
+copper-colored crystalline powder.
+
+_Reactions before the Blowpipe._--Metallic molybdenum, its protoxide
+and binoxide, are converted in the oxidation flame into molybdic acid.
+This acid fuses in the flame of oxidation to a brown liquid, which
+spreads, volatilizes, and sublimes upon the charcoal as a yellow
+powder, which appears crystalline in the vicinity of the assay. This
+sublimate becomes white after cooling. Beyond this sublimate there is
+visible a thin and not volatile ore of binoxide, after cooling; this
+is of a dark copper-red color, and presenting a metallic lustre.
+
+Heated in a glass tube, closed at one end, it melts to a brown mass,
+vaporizes and sublimates to a white powder upon a cool portion of the
+tube. Immediately above the assay, yellow crystals are visible; these
+crystals are colorless after cooling, and the fused mass becomes light
+yellow-colored and crystalline.
+
+Upon platinum foil, in the flame of oxidation, it melts and vaporizes,
+and becomes light yellow and crystalline after cooling. In the
+reduction flame it becomes blue, and brown-colored if the heat is
+increased.
+
+Upon charcoal, in the reduction flame, it is absorbed by the charcoal;
+and, with an increase of the temperature, it is reduced to the metal,
+which remains as a grey powder after washing off the particles of
+charcoal.
+
+_Borax_ dissolves it, in the oxidation flame, upon platinum wire
+easily, and in great quantity, to a clear yellow, which becomes
+colorless while cooling. By the addition of more of the molybdenic
+acid the bead is dark yellow, or red while hot, and opalescent when
+cold. In the reduction flame, the color of the bead is changed to
+brown and transparent. By the addition of more of the acid, it becomes
+opaque.
+
+_Microcosmic Salt_ dissolves it in the oxidation flame, upon platinum
+wire, to a clear, yellowish-green bead, which becomes colorless after
+cooling. In the reduction flame the bead is very dark and opaque, but
+becomes of a bright green after cooling. This is the case likewise
+upon charcoal.
+
+_Carbonate of Soda_ dissolves it upon platinum wire in the oxidation
+flame with intumescence, to a clear bead, which appears milk-white
+after cooling. Upon charcoal the soda and the molybdic acid are
+absorbed, the latter is reduced to the metallic state, the metal
+remaining as a grey powder after washing off the particles of
+charcoal. When molybdic acid, or any other oxide of this metal, is
+exposed upon platinum wire, or with platinum tongs, to the point of
+the blue flame, a yellowish-green color is communicated to the
+external flame. If also any of the compounds of molybdenum are mixed
+in the form of a powder with concentrated sulphuric acid and alcohol,
+and the latter inflamed, the flame of the alcohol appears colored
+green.
+
+(_c._) _Osmium_ (Os).--This metal occurs associated with platinum. It
+is of a bluish-grey color, and is very brittle. Ignited in the open
+air, it is oxidized to volatile osmic acid, which is possessed of a
+pungent smell, and affects the eyes. It communicates a bright white
+color to the flame of alcohol. Osmium oxide (OsO^{2}) is converted in
+the oxidation flame to osmic acid, which is volatilized with a
+peculiar smell, leaving a sublimate.
+
+In the reduction flame it is reduced to a dark-brown infusible
+metallic powder. It produces no reactions with fluxes. Carbonate of
+soda reduces it upon charcoal to an infusible metallic powder, which
+appears, after washing off the particles of charcoal, of a dark-brown
+color.
+
+
+ELEVENTH GROUP.--PLATINUM, PALLADIUM, IRIDIUM, RHODIUM, RUTHENIUM.
+
+These metals are infusible before the blowpipe. They are not volatile,
+nor are they oxidizable. Their oxides are, in both flames, reduced to
+a metallic and infusible powder. They give no reactions with fluxes,
+but are separated in the metallic form. These metals are generally
+found associated together in the native platinum, also with traces of
+copper, lead, and iron.
+
+The metal palladium is found native, associated with iridium and
+platinum. This metal generally occurs in greatest quantity in Brazil.
+
+The metal rhodium is found along with platinum, but in very small
+quantities.
+
+Iridium occurs in nature associated with osmium, gold, and platinum,
+in the mines of Russia. Its great hardness has rendered it desirable
+for the points of gold pens. In South America this metal is found
+native, associated with platinum and osmium. The latter metal,
+associated with platinum and iridium, has been found in South America.
+
+As these metals will not oxidize or dissolve, they cannot be separated
+from each other by the blowpipe with the reagents peculiar to that
+species of analysis. It is true that colors may be discerned in the
+beads, but these tints proceed from the presence of small traces of
+copper, iron, etc.
+
+The ore of osmium and iridium can be decomposed, and the former
+recognized by its fetid odor. This metal, strongly ignited in a glass
+tube with nitrate of potash, is converted to the oxide of osmium,
+which gives an odor not unlike the chloride of sulphur.
+
+As the metals of this group are very rare ones, especially the last
+four ones, we shall not devote an especial division to each of them.
+For a more detailed statement of their reactions, the student is
+referred to the large works upon blowpipe analysis.
+
+
+CLASS III.
+
+
+NON-METALLIC SUBSTANCES.
+
+1. _Water_--2. _Nitric Acid_--3. _Carbon_--4. _Phosphorus_
+--5. _Sulphur_--6. _Boron_--7. _Silicon_--8. _Chlorine_
+--9. _Bromine_--10. _Iodine_--11. _Fluorine_--12. _Cyanogen_
+--13. _Selenium_.
+
+
+(1.) _Water_ (HO).--Pure distilled water is composed of one volume of
+oxygen, and two volumes of hydrogen gases; or, by weight, of one part
+of hydrogen to eight parts of oxygen gases. Water is never found pure
+in nature, but possessing great solvent properties, it always is found
+with variable proportions of those substances it is most liable to
+meet with, dissolved in it. Thus it derives various designations
+depending upon the nature of the substance it may hold in solution, as
+lime-water, etc.
+
+In taking cognizance of water in relation to blowpipe analysis, we
+regard it only as existing in minerals. The examination for water is
+generally performed thus: the substance may be placed in a dry tube,
+and then submitted to heat over a spirit-lamp. If the water exists in
+the mineral mechanically it will soon be driven off, but if it exists
+chemically combined, the heat will fail to drive it off, or if it
+does, it will only partially effect it. The water will condense upon
+the cool portions of the tube, where it can be readily discerned. If
+the water exists chemically combined, a much stronger heat must be
+applied in order to separate it.
+
+Many substances may be perhaps mistaken for water by the beginner,
+such as the volatile acids, etc.
+
+
+(2.) _Nitric Acid_ (NO^{5}).--Nitric acid occurs in nature in potash
+and soda saltpetre. These salts are generally impure, containing lime,
+as the sulphate, carbonate and nitrate, and also iron in small
+quantity. The soda saltpetre generally contains a quantity of the
+chloride of sodium. The salts containing nitric acid deflagrate when
+heated on charcoal. Substances containing nitric acid may be heated in
+a glass tube closed at one end, by which the characteristic red fumes
+of nitrous acid are eliminated. If the acid be in too minute a
+quantity to be thus distinguished, a portion of the substance may be
+intimately mixed with some bisulphate of potash, and treated as above.
+The sulphuric acid of the bisulphate combines with the base, and
+liberates the nitric acid, while the tube contains the nitrous acid
+gas.
+
+The nitrate of potassa, when heated in a glass tube, fuses to a clear
+glass, but gives off no water. When fused on platinum wire, it
+communicates to the external flame the characteristic violet color.
+When fused and ignited on charcoal, its surface becomes frothy,
+indicating the nitric acid.
+
+
+(3.) _Carbon_ (C).--Carbon is found in nature in the pure crystallized
+state as the diamond. It occurs likewise in several allotropic states
+as graphite, plumbago, charcoal, anthracite, etc. It exists in large
+quantities combined with oxygen as carbonic acid.
+
+The diamond, although combustible, requires too high a heat for its
+combustion to enable us to burn it with the blowpipe. When excluded
+from the air, it may be heated to whiteness without undergoing fusion,
+but with the free access of air it burns at a temperature of 703° C,
+and is converted into carbonic acid. If mixed with nitre, the potassa
+retains the carbonic acid, and the carbon may be thus easily
+estimated. If a mineral containing carbonic acid is heated, the gas
+escapes with effervescence, or a strong mineral acid as the
+hydrochloric will expel the acid with the characteristic
+effervescence.
+
+
+(4.) _Phosphorus, Phosphoric Acid _(PO^{6}).--This acid occurs in a
+variety of minerals, associated with yttria, copper, uranium, iron,
+lead, manganese, etc. Phosphoric acid may be detected in minerals by
+pursuing the following process: dip a small piece of the mineral in
+sulphuric acid, and place it in the platinum tongs: this is heated at
+the point of the blue flame, when the outer flame will become colored
+of a greenish-blue hue. This color will not be mistaken for those of
+boracic acid, copper, or baryta. Some of the phosphoric minerals, when
+heated in the inner flame, will color the outer flame green.
+
+If alumina be present with the phosphoric acid, the following wet
+method should be adopted for the detection of the latter: the
+substance should be powdered in the agate mortar with a mixture of six
+parts of soda, and one and a half parts of silica. The entire mass
+should now be placed on charcoal, and melted in the flame of
+oxidation. The residue should be treated with boiling water, which
+dissolves the phosphate and the excess of carbonate of soda, while the
+silicate of alumina, with some of the soda, is left. The clear liquor
+is now treated with acetic acid, and heated over the spirit-lamp, and
+a small portion of crystallized nitrate of silver added; a
+lemon-yellow precipitate of phosphate of silver is quickly developed.
+Previous to the addition of the nitrate, the liquor should be well
+heated; otherwise, a white precipitate of dipyrophosphate of silver
+will be produced.
+
+If the examination be of any of the metallic phosphides, the
+substances should be powdered in the agate mortar, and fused with
+nitrate of potassa on the platinum wire; the fused mass should be
+treated with soda in the same manner as any substance containing
+phosphoric acid. The metal and the phosphorus are oxidized, while the
+phosphate of potassa is fused, and the metallic oxide separates.
+
+
+(5.) _Sulphur_ (S).--Sulphur is found native in crystals It is
+frequently found associated with lime, iron, silica, carbon, etc., and
+combined extensively with metals.
+
+The principal acid of sulphur (the sulphuric, SO^{3}) occurs combined
+with the earths, the alkalies, and the metallic oxides. Native sulphur
+is recognized, when heated upon charcoal, by its odor (sulphurous
+acid) and the blue color of its flame. The compounds of sulphur may be
+detected by several methods. If the substance is heated in a glass
+tube, closed at one end, the yellow sublimate of sulphur will subside
+upon the cool portions of the tube; if the substance should also
+contain arsenic, the sublimate will present itself as a light brown
+incrustation, consisting of the sulphide of arsenic.
+
+If the assay is heated in the open glass tube, sulphurous acid will
+thus be generated; but, if the gas is too little to be detected by the
+smell, a strip of moistened litmus paper will indicate the presence of
+the acid.
+
+The assay will give off sulphurous fumes if heated in the flame of
+oxidation.
+
+If the powdered substance is fused with two parts of soda, and one
+part of borax, upon charcoal, the sulphide of sodium is formed. This
+salt, if moistened and applied to a polished silver surface, will
+blacken it. The borax serves no other purpose than to prevent the
+absorption of the formed sulphide of sodium by the charcoal. As
+selenium will blacken silver in the manner above indicated, the
+presence of this substance should be first ascertained, by heating the
+assay; when, if it be present, the characteristic horse-radish odor
+will reveal the fact.
+
+Sulphuric acid may be detected by fusing the substance with two parts
+of soda, and one part of borax, on charcoal, in the flame of
+reduction; the mass must now be wetted with water, and placed in
+contact with a surface of bright silver; when, if sulphuric acid be
+present, the silver will become blackened.
+
+Or the substance may be fused with silicate of soda in the flame of
+reduction. In this case, the soda combines with a portion of the
+sulphuric acid, which is then reduced to the sulphide, while the bead
+becomes of an orange or red color, depending upon the amount of the
+sulphuric acid present. If the assay should, however, be colored, then
+the previous treatment should be resorted to.
+
+
+(6.) _Boron, Boracic Acid_ (BO^{3}).--This acid occurs in nature in
+several minerals combined with various bases, such as magnesia, lime,
+soda, alumina, etc. Combined with water, this acid exists in nature as
+the native boracic acid; this acid gives with test paper prepared from
+Brazil wood, when moistened with water, a characteristic reaction, for
+the paper becomes completely bleached. An alcohol solution turns
+curcuma test paper brown. Heated on charcoal, it fuses to a clear
+bead; but, if the sulphate of lime be present, the bead becomes opaque
+upon cooling.
+
+The following reaction is a certain one: the substance is pulverized
+and mixed with a flux of four and a half parts of bisulphate of
+potassa, and one part of pulverized fluoride of calcium. The whole is
+made into a paste with water, and the assay is placed on the platinum
+wire, and submitted to the point of the blue flame. While the assay is
+melting, fluoboric gas is disengaged, which tinges the outer flame
+green. If but a small portion of boracic acid is present, the color
+will be quite evanescent.
+
+
+(7.) _Silica, Silicic Acid_ (SiO^{3}).--This acid exists in the
+greatest plenty, forming no inconsiderable portion of the solid part
+of this earth. It exists nearly pure in crystallized quartz,
+chalcedony, cornelian, flint, etc., the coloring ingredients of these
+minerals being generally iron or manganese.
+
+With _microcosmic salt_, silica forms a bead in the flame of oxidation
+which, while hot, is clear, while the separated silica floats in it. A
+platinum wire is generally used for the purpose, the end of it being
+first dipped in the salt which is fused into a bead, after which the
+silica must be added, and then the bead submitted to the flame of
+oxidation.
+
+The silicates dissolve in soda but partially, and then with
+effervescence. If the oxygen of the acid be twice that of the base, a
+clear bead will be obtained that will retain its transparency when
+cold. If the soda be added in small quantity, the bead will then be
+opaque. In the first instance, a part of the base which separates is
+re-dissolved, and, therefore, the transparency of the glass; but, if
+too large a quantity of the soda is added, the separation of the base
+is sufficient to render the assay infusible.
+
+
+(8.) _Chlorine_ (Cl).--Chlorine exists in nature always in
+combination, as the chlorides of sodium, potassium, calcium, ammonium,
+magnesia, silver, mercury, lead, copper, etc.
+
+The chlorine existing in metallic chlorides may be detected as
+follows: the wet way may be accomplished in the following manner. If
+the substance is insoluble, it must be melted with soda to render it
+soluble; if it be already soluble it must be dissolved in pure water,
+and nitrate of silver added, when the one ten-thousandth part of
+chlorine will manifest its presence by imparting a milky hue to the
+fluid.
+
+By the blowpipe, chlorine may be detected in the following manner:
+Oxide of copper is dissolved in microcosmic salt on the platinum wire
+in the flame of oxidation, and a clear bead is obtained. The substance
+containing the chlorine is now added, and heat is applied. The assay
+will soon be enveloped by a blue or purplish flame. As none of the
+acids that occur in the mineral kingdom give this reaction, chlorine
+cannot be confounded with them, for those which impart a color to the
+flame, when mixed with a copper salt, will not do so when tested in
+the microcosmic salt bead as above indicated.
+
+If the assay is soluble in water, the following method may be
+followed: a small quantity of sulphate of copper or iron is dissolved;
+a few drops of the solution is placed upon a bright surface of silver,
+and the metallic chloride added; when, if chlorine is present, the
+silver is blackened. If the chloride is insoluble in water, it must be
+rendered soluble by fusion upon a platinum wire with soda, and then
+treated as above.[2]
+
+    [2] Plattner.
+
+
+(9.) _Bromine_ (Br).--The bromide of magnesium and sodium exists in
+many salt springs, and it is from these that the bromine of commerce
+is obtained. The metallic bromides give the same reactions on silver
+with the microcosmic bead and copper salt as the metallic chlorides.
+The purplish color which, however, characterizes the chlorides, is
+more inclined to greenish with the bromides. If the substance be
+placed in a flask or glass tube, and fused with bisulphate of potassa,
+over the spirit-lamp, sulphurous gas and bromine will be eliminated.
+Bromine will be readily detected by its yellow color and its smell.
+Bromine may be readily detected by passing a current of chlorine
+through the fluid, after which ether is added and the whole is
+agitated. The ether rises to the top, carrying with it the bromine in
+solution; after being withdrawn, this ether is mixed with potassa, by
+which the bromide and bromate of potassa are formed. The solution is
+evaporated to dryness, the residue is fused in a platinum vessel, the
+bromate is decomposed, while the bromide remains; this must be
+distilled with sulphuric acid and the binoxide of manganese. A red or
+brown vapor will then appear, indicating the presence of bromine; this
+vapor will color starch paste--which may be put in the receiver on
+purpose--of a deep orange color.
+
+If, to a solution containing a bromide, concentrated sulphuric or
+nitric acid be added, the bromine is liberated and colors the solution
+yellow or red. The hypochlorites act in the same manner. The bromine
+salts are coming into use extensively in photography, in consequence
+of their greater sensitiveness to the action of light than the
+chlorides alone.
+
+
+(10.) _Iodine_ (I).--This element occurs in salt-springs, generally
+combined with sodium; it also exists in rock-salt; it has likewise
+been found in sea-water, also in a mineral from Mexico, in combination
+with silver, and in one from Silesia, in combination with zinc. As
+sea-water contains iodine, we would consequently expect to find it
+existing in the sea-weeds, and it is generally from the ashes of these
+that it is obtained in commerce.
+
+When the metallic iodides are fused with the microcosmic salt and
+copper, as previously indicated, they impart a green color to the
+flame. This color cannot be mistaken for the color imparted to the
+flame by copper alone. When the metallic iodides are fused in a glass
+tube, closed at one end, with the bisulphate of potassa, the vapor of
+iodine is liberated, and may be recognized by its characteristic
+color. Those mineral waters containing iodine can be treated the same
+as for bromine, as previously indicated, while the violet-colored
+vapor of the iodine can be easily discerned. The nitrate of silver is
+the best test for iodine, the yellow color of the iodide of silver
+being not easily mistaken, while its almost insolubility in ammonia
+will confirm its identity. The chloride of silver, on the contrary,
+dissolves in ammonia with the greatest facility.
+
+The reactions of iodine are similar to those of bromine with
+concentrated sulphuric acid and binoxide of manganese, and with nitric
+acid: The iodine is released and, if the quantity be not too great,
+colors the liquid brown. If there be a considerable quantity of iodine
+present, it is precipitated as a dark colored powder. Either of these,
+when heated, gives out the violet-color of the iodine.
+
+With starch paste free iodine combines, producing a deep blue
+compound. If, however, the iodine be in very minute quantity, the
+color, instead of being blue, will be light violet or rose color.
+
+If to a solution of the sulphate of copper, to which a small portion
+of sulphurous acid has been added, a liquid containing iodine and
+bromine is poured in, a dirty, white precipitate of the subiodide of
+copper is produced, and the bromine remains in the solution. The
+latter may then be tested for the bromine by strong sulphuric acid.
+
+
+(11.) _Fluorine_ (Fl).--This element exists combined with sodium,
+calcium, lithium, aluminium, magnesium, yttrium, and cerium. Fluorine
+also exists in the enamel of the teeth, and in the bones of some
+animals. This element has a strong affinity for hydrogen, and,
+therefore, we find it frequently in the form of hydrofluoric acid.
+Brazil-wood paper is the most delicate test for hydrofluoric acid,
+which it tinges of a light yellow color. Phosphoric acid likewise
+colors Brazil paper yellow, but as this acid is not volatile at a heat
+sufficient to examine hydrofluoric acid, there can be no mistake. If
+the substance is supposed to contain this acid, it should be placed on
+a slip of glass, and moistened with hydrochloric acid, when the test
+paper may be applied, and the characteristic yellow color will
+indicate the presence of the fluorine.
+
+As hydrofluoric acid acts upon glass, this property may be used for
+its detection. The substance may be put into a glass tube, and
+sulphuric acid poured upon it in sufficient quantity to moisten it; a
+slight heat applied to the tube will develop the acid, which will act
+upon the glass of the tube. If the acid is retained in the mineral by
+a feeble affinity, and water be present, a piece of it may be put in
+the tube and heated, when the acid gas will be eliminated. The test
+paper will indicate its presence, even before it has time to act upon
+the glass. If the temperature be too high, fluosilicic acid is
+generated, and will form a silicious incrustation upon the cool
+portion of the tube.
+
+If the fluorine is too minute to produce either of the above
+reactions, then the following process, recommended by Plattner, should
+be followed: the assay should be mixed with metaphosphate of soda,
+formed by heating the microcosmic salt to dull redness. The mass must
+then be placed in an open glass tube, in such a position that there
+will be an access of hot air from the flame. Thus aqueous hydrofluoric
+acid is formed, which can be recognized by its smell being more
+suffocating than chlorine, and also by the etching produced by the
+condensation of vapor in the tube. Moist Brazil paper, applied to the
+extremity of the tube, will be instantly colored yellow.
+
+Merlet's method for the detection of this acid is the following:[3]
+Pulverize the substance for examination, then triturate it to an
+impalpable powder, and mix it with an equal part of bisulphate of
+potassa. Heat the mass gradually in a moderately wide test-tube. The
+judicious application of heat must be strictly observed, for if the
+operator first heats the part of the tube where the assay rests, the
+whole may be lost on account of the glass being shattered. The
+spirit-flame must be first applied to the fore part of the tube, and
+then made to recede slowly until it fuses the assay. After the mixture
+has been for some time kept in a molten state, the lamp must be
+withdrawn, and the part containing the assay severed with a file. The
+fore part of the tube must then be well washed, and afterwards dried
+with bibulous paper. Should the fluorine contained in the substance be
+appreciable, the glass tube, when held up to the light, will be found
+to have lost its transparency, and to be very rough to the touch.
+
+    [3] Quoted by Plattner.
+
+Great care should be observed not to allow this very corrosive acid to
+come into contact with the skin, as an ulcer will be the consequence
+that will be extremely difficult to heal.
+
+When hydrofluoric acid comes in contact with any silicious substance,
+hydrofluosilicic acid gas is always formed.
+
+
+(12.) _Selenium_ (Se).--This element occurs in combination with lead
+as the selenide, and with copper as the selenide of copper. It exists
+also combined with cobalt and lead, as the selenide of these metals;
+also as the selenide of lead and mercury.
+
+The smallest trace of selenium may be detected by igniting a small
+piece of charcoal in the flame of oxidation, when the peculiar and
+unmistakable odor of decayed horse-radish will indicate the presence
+of that element. An orange vapor is eliminated if the selenium be
+present in any quantity, while there is an incrustation around the
+assay of a grey color, with a metallic lustre. This incrustation
+frequently presents a reddish-violet color at its exterior edges,
+often running into a deep blue. If a substance containing selenium be
+placed in a glass tube, closed at one end, and submitted to heat, the
+selenium is sublimed, with an orange-colored vapor, and with the
+characteristic odor of that substance. Upon the cool portions of the
+tube a steel-grey sublimate is deposited, and, beyond that, can be
+discerned small crystals of selenic acid. If the mineral be the
+seleniferous lead glance, sulphurous acid gas will be given off, and
+may be detected by the smell, or by a strip of moistened litmus paper.
+
+If arsenic is present, heating upon charcoal will quickly lead to the
+determination of the one from the other.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+TABULAR STATEMENT OF THE REACTIONS OF MINERALS BEFORE THE BLOWPIPE.
+
+
+In PART THIRD of this work, commencing at page 109, the student will
+find a sufficiently explicit description of the blowpipe reactions of
+those principal substances that would be likely to come beneath his
+attention. The following tabular statement of those reactions--which
+we take from Scheerer and Blanford's excellent little work upon the
+blowpipe--will be of great benefit, as a vehicle for consultation,
+when the want of time--or during the hurry of an examination--precludes
+the attentive perusal of the more lengthy descriptions in the text.
+
+In the examination of minerals, before the student avails himself of
+the aid of the blowpipe, he should not neglect to examine the specimen
+rigidly in relation to its physical characters, such as its hardness,
+lustre, color, and peculiar crystallization. It is where the
+difference of two minerals cannot be distinguished by their physical
+appearance, that the aid of the blowpipe comes in most significantly
+as an auxiliary. For instance, the two minerals molybdenite and
+graphite resemble each other very closely, when examined in regard to
+their physical appearance, but the blowpipe will quickly discriminate
+them, for if a small piece of the former mineral be placed in the
+flame of oxidation, a bright green color will be communicated to the
+flame beyond it, while in the latter there will be no color. Thus, in
+a very short time, these two minerals can be distinguished from each
+other by aid of the blowpipe, while no amount of physical examination
+could determine that point. The blowpipe is equally an indispensable
+instrument in the determination of certain minerals which may exist in
+others as essential or non-essential constituents of them. For
+instance, should a minute quantity of manganese be present in a
+mineral, it must be fused with twice its bulk of a mixture of two
+parts of carbonate of soda, and one part of the nitrate of potassa, in
+the flame of oxidation upon platinum foil. The manganate of soda thus
+formed will color the fused mass of a bluish-green tint.
+
+Or a slight quantity of arsenic may be discerned by the following
+process recommended by Plattner:[4] one grain of the finely pulverized
+metal is mixed with six grains of citrate of potassa, and slowly
+heated on the platinum spoon. By this means the metals are oxidized,
+while the arseniate of potassa is obtained. Then boil the fused mass
+in a small quantity of water in a porcelain vessel till all tho
+arseniate is dissolved. The metallic oxides are allowed to subside,
+and the above solution decanted off into another porcelain vessel. A
+few drops of sulphuric acid are added, and the solution boiled to
+expel the nitric acid, after which it is evaporated to dryness. In
+this operation, the sulphuric acid should be added only in sufficient
+quantity to drive off the nitric acid, or, at the utmost, to form a
+bisulphate with the excess of potassa. When dry, the salt thus
+obtained is pulverized in an agate mortar, and mixed with about three
+times its volume of oxalate of potassa, and a little charcoal powder.
+The mixture is introduced into a glass bulb having a narrow neck, and
+gently warmed over a spirit-lamp in order to drive off the moisture,
+which must be absorbed by a piece of blotting-paper in the neck of the
+bulb. After a short time, the temperature is increased to a low red
+heat, at which the arsenious acid is reduced and the metallic arsenic
+sublimed, and which re-condenses in the neck of the bulb. If there
+the arsenic be so small in quantity as to exhibit no metallic lustre,
+the neck of the bulb may be cut off with a file immediately above the
+sublimate, and the latter exposed to the flame of the blowpipe, when
+the arsenic is volatilized, and may be recognized by its garlic odor.
+
+    [4] Quoted by Scheerer.
+
+If the presence of cadmium is suspected in zinc-blende, it may be
+detected by fusing a small piece of the blende upon charcoal in
+carbonate of soda. The peculiar bright yellow sublimate of the oxide
+of cadmium, if it be present, will not fail to indicate it. This
+incrustation can be easily distinguished from that of zinc. Thus, with
+the three illustrations we have given, the student will readily
+comprehend the great utility of the blowpipe in the examination of
+minerals.
+
+Although the following tables were not arranged especially for the
+last part of this work, still this arrangement is so good that by
+their consultation the student will readily comprehend at a glance
+what requires some detail to explain, and we feel no hesitation in
+saying that, although they are not very copious, they will not fail to
+impart a vast amount of information, if consulted with any degree of
+carefulness.
+
+The minerals given are such as are best known to English and American
+mineralogists under the names specified. For more detailed reactions
+than could be crowded into a table, the student will have to consult
+the particular substance as treated in Part Third. If this part is
+perused carefully previous to consulting the tables, these will be
+found eminently serviceable as a refresher of the memory, and may thus
+save much time and trouble.
+
+And, finally, we would certainly recommend the student, after he shall
+have gone through our little volume (if he is ambitious of making
+himself a thorough blowpipe analyst), to then take up the larger works
+of Berzelius and Plattner, for our treatise pretends to nothing more
+than a humble introduction to these more copious and scientific works.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Diamond
+
+Formula.                 C
+
+Behavior
+
+  in glass-bulb.         --
+
+  on platinum foil.      In fine powder is slowly consumed without
+                         residue in a strong oxidizing Flame.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Graphite
+
+Formula.                 C with some iron silica, etc.
+
+Behavior
+
+  in glass-bulb.         Generally gives off water.
+
+  on platinum foil.      Is slowly consumed leaving more or less ash,
+                         principally Fe^{2}O^{3}.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Anthracite
+
+Formula.                 C + x[.H]
+
+Behavior
+
+  in glass-bulb.         Evolves water.
+
+  on platinum foil.      Is slowly consumed with the exception of a small
+                         quantity of ash.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Wallsend-coal
+
+Formula.                 C, H, O, S and ash.
+
+Behavior
+
+  in glass-bulb.         Intumesces and gives off water and tarry matters
+                         which partly condense in bulb, and leave a
+                         porous coke.
+
+  on platinum foil.      Takes fire under blowpipe flame, and burns with
+                         a smoky flame, depositing much soot and leaving
+                         a porous cinder which burns slowly and leaves a
+                         small ash.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Cannel-coal
+
+Formula.                 C, H, N, O, S and ash.
+
+Behavior
+
+  in glass-bulb.         As the preceding but gives off more tar.
+
+  on platinum foil.      Similar to the preceding. If held to the
+                         lamp-flame, takes fire and burns for some
+                         seconds.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+Mineral.                 Brown-coal
+
+Formula.                 C, H, N, O, S, and ash.
+
+Behavior
+
+  in glass-bulb.         Gives off much water and tar, and leaves a
+                         porous cinder retaining the form of the original
+                         fragment.
+
+  on platinum foil.      Burns slowly and without flame, leaving some
+                         ash.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Asphaltum
+
+Formula.                 C + H + O.
+
+Behavior
+
+  in glass-bulb.         Fuses with ease affording an empyreumatic oil
+                         having an alkaline reaction, and combustible
+                         gasses, and leaves a carbonaceous residue,
+                         which is entirely consumed under the blowpipe
+                         flame, except a little ash.
+
+  on platinum foil.      Takes fire and burns with a bright flame and a
+                         thick smoke.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Elaterite
+
+Formula.                 C + H.
+
+Behavior
+
+  in glass-bulb.         Fuses and gives off water having an acid
+                         reaction, naphtha and a tarry fluid, which
+                         chiefly condense in the neck of the bulb, and
+                         leave a light, pulverulent carbonaceous residue.
+
+  on platinum foil.      Fuses, takes fire, and burns with a smoky flame,
+                         leaving a carbonaceous residue, which under the
+                         blowpipe flame, is quickly consumed, with the
+                         exception of the ashes.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Hachettine
+
+Formula.                 C + H.
+
+Behavior
+
+  in glass-bulb.         Fuses to a clear colorless liquid, which
+                         solidifies on cooling and has a tallow-like
+                         smell.
+
+  on platinum foil.      Fuses, takes fire, and burns with a bright flame
+                         until entirely consumed.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Ozokerite
+
+Formula.                 C + H.
+
+Behavior
+
+  in glass-bulb.         Fuses readily to a clear brown oily fluid, which
+                         solidifies on cooling.
+
+  on platinum foil.      As the preceding.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Amber
+
+Formula.                 C + H + O.
+
+Behavior
+
+  in glass-bulb.         Fuses with difficulty, and affords water, an
+                         empyreumatic oil, and succinic acid which
+                         condense in the neck of the bulb leaving a
+                         shining black residue.
+
+  on platinum foil.      Takes fire and burns with a yellow flame and a
+                         peculiar aromatic odor.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Mellite
+
+Formula.                 [...Al][=M]^{3} + 15[.H]
+
+Behavior
+
+  in glass-bulb.         Gives off water. If heated to redness, is
+                         carbonized, and gives a slight empyreumatic odor.
+
+  on platinum foil.      On charcoal burns to a white ash, which moistened
+                         with nitrate of cobalt and heated shows the
+                         alumina reaction.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+                     POTASH.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Nitre
+
+Formula.                 [.K][.....N]
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Fuses readily to a clear liquid and with a
+                         strong heat boils with the evolution of oxygen.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Deflagrates leaving a saline mass, which is
+                         absorbed into charcoal and gives a sulphur
+                         reaction on silver.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        On platinum wire fuses and colors the flame
+                         violet more or less modified by lime and soda.
+
+  (5) in borax.          --
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      --
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   --
+
+  (8) Special reactions. With bisulphate of potassa in the glass-bulb
+                         evolves nitrous fumes.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Polyhalite
+
+Formula.                 [.K][...S]+[.Mg][...S]+2[.Ca][...S]+2[.H]
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Gives off water.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses to a reddish bead, which in the reducing
+                         flame solidifies and shrinks to a hollow crust.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        On platinum wire fuses and colors the flame
+                         yellow from a small quantity of soda.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Dissolves with ebullition to a clear glass,
+                         which is slightly colored by iron, and when
+                         saturated become opaque on cooling.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Fuses. The alkalies are absorbed by the charcoal
+                         leaving the lime and magnesia infusible on the
+                         surface.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. The alkaline mass when laid on silver gives a
+                         sulphur reaction.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+                     SODA.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+Mineral.                 Rock-salt
+
+Formula.                 NaCl.
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Fuses to a clear liquid
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses, is absorbed by the charcoal and partially
+                         volatilized incrusting the charcoal around.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        Fuses with great ease and colors the flame
+                         yellow.
+
+  (5) in borax.          --
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      --
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   --
+
+  (8) Special reactions. Gives the chlorine reactions.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Natron
+
+Formula.                 [.Na][..C] + 10[.H]
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Fuses, with the evolution of water.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses, and is absorbed into the pores of the
+                         charcoal.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        Fuses and behaves as the preceding.
+
+  (5) in borax.          --
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      --
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   --
+
+  (8) Special reactions. Dissolves in acid with violent effervescence.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Soda-nitre
+
+Formula.                 [.Na][.....N].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Fuses and if strongly heated evolves nitrous
+                         fumes.
+  (2) in open tube.
+                         --
+  (3) on charcoal.
+                         Deflagrates and is absorbed into the charcoal.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        Deflagrates on platinum wire, coloring the flame
+                         yellow.
+
+  (5) in borax.          --
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      --
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   --
+
+  (8) Special reactions. In a glass-bulb with bisulphate of potassa,
+                         gives the NO^{5}-reaction.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Glauber-salt
+
+Formula.                 [.Na][...S] + 10[.H].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Fuses and gives off water having a neutral
+                         reaction.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses, and is absorbed by the charcoal. The
+                         saturated charcoal laid upon silver gives the
+                         sulphur reaction
+
+  (4) in forceps.        Fuses and colors the flame yellow.
+
+  (5) in borax.          --
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      --
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   --
+
+  (8) Special reactions. Gives the SO^{3}-reaction.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Glauberite
+
+Formula.                 [.Na][...S] + [.Ca][...S].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Decrepitates with the evolution of more or less
+                         water, and when strongly heated fuses to a clear
+                         liquid.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses to a clear bead, then spreads out; the
+                         soda is absorbed and the lime left on the
+                         surface. Laid on silver, the fused mass gives a
+                         sulphur reaction.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        Fuses easily to a clear glass, coloring the
+                         flame yellow.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Fuses easily and gives the lime reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   As alone in charcoal.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. As in preceding.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Borax
+
+Formula.                 [.Na][...B]^{2}+10[.H].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Intumesces with the evolution of water, and
+                         under a strong heat fuses.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Intumesces and fuses to a clear bead more or
+                         less colored by impurities.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        As on charcoal.
+
+  (5) in borax.          --
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      --
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Fuses to a clear bead, which becomes crystalline
+                         on cooling.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. Gives the boracic-acid-reaction.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Cryolite
+
+Formula.                 3NaFl+Al^{2}Fl^{3}.
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Decrepitates slightly and gives a trace of
+                         water.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      If heated so that the flame be allowed to play
+                         up the tube upon the mineral, flourine is
+                         evolved, which corrodes the interior of the
+                         tube.
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses to a limpid bead, which on cooling becomes
+                         a white enamel. If heated for some time, it
+                         bubbles, gives off fluorine and becomes
+                         infusible.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        Fuses, coloring the flame yellow.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Dissolves to a clear bead, which is rendered
+                         opaque by a large addition.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Fuses to a clear bead, then spreads out on the
+                         charcoal, the soda is absorbed, and an infusible
+                         mass of alumina remains.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. If the alumina residue obtained be moistened
+                         with cobalt solution and heated strongly, it
+                         assumes a beautiful blue color.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+                BARYTA AND STRONTIA.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+Mineral.                 Heavy-spar
+
+Formula.                 [.Ba][...S].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Sometimes decrepitates and gives off more or
+                         less water
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses in the reducing flame.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        Fuses with difficulty on edges. Colors the outer
+                         flame green. In reducing flame forms BaS, which
+                         fuses readily.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Gives the baryta-reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Fuses to a clear bead; then spreads out and is
+                         absorbed into the charcoal. The fused mass laid
+                         on silver gives the S-reaction.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. If fused with potassa on platinum, gives the
+                         SO^{3}-reaction.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Celestine
+
+Formula.                 [.Sr][...S].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     --
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses to a milk-white bead.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        Colors the flame crimson.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Gives the strontia-reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Similar to the preceding.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. Similar to the preceding.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Witherite
+
+Formula.                 [.Ba][..C].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Decrepitates more or less and evolves Water.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses, effervesces, and is partially absorbed by
+                         the charcoal.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        Colors the outer flame intensely green.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Dissolves with effervescence and gives the
+                         baryta-reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Fuses to a clear bead; then spreads out and
+                         passes into the charcoal.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. In dilute HCl dissolves with much effervescence.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Strontianite
+
+Formula.                 [.Sr][..C].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Becomes opaque.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       As in the forceps.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        Exfoliates and becomes arborescent. The
+                         filaments glow brilliantly and fuse on the
+                         point. Colors the flame brilliantly crimson.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Resembles the preceding.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   As the preceding.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. As the preceding.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Barytocalcite.
+
+Formula.                 [.Ba][..C] + [.Ca][..C].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     As in the preceding.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       In powder frits together, but does not fuse.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        Colors the flame green in the centre and red
+                         towards the point.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Dissolves with effervescence. In large
+                         quantities gives a semi-crystalline bead.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax, but the saturated bead is
+                         milk-white.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Fuses, and is partially absorbed leaving the
+                         lime on the surface.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. As witherite.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+                     LIME.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+Mineral.                 Gypsum
+
+Formula.                 [.Ca][...S] + 2[.H].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Turns white, giving off water and being
+                         converted into plaster of Paris.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       In the reducing flame forms CaS, which has an
+                         alkaline reaction on test paper, and gives a
+                         sulphur-reaction when laid on silver and
+                         moistened.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        Fuses with difficulty to a bead, coloring the
+                         flame red.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Dissolves to a clear bead, which gives the lime-
+                         reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Behaves as lime. The alkaline mass laid on
+                         silver and moistened gives the sulphur-reaction.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. Gives the sulphuric-acid reaction.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Apatite
+                              { Cl
+Formula.                 [.Ca]{ -- +3[.Ca]^{3}[.....P]
+                              { Fl
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Occasionally decrepitates and gives off some
+                         water.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       --
+
+  (4) in forceps.        IV. Previously dipped in SO^{3} colors the flame
+                         green, afterwards red.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Dissolves easily and when in some quantity gives
+                         an opaline bead.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      Gives the lime-reaction.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Is infusible. The alkali is absorbed, leaving
+                         the lime on the on the surface of the charcoal.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. With microcosmic salt and oxide of copper, gives
+                         the chlorine-reaction. With microcosmic salt in
+                         the open tube evolves fluorine.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Pharmacolite
+
+Formula.                 [.Ca]^{2}[.....As] + 6[.H].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Gives off water, and emits an arsenical odor.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses to an opaque bead and emits a strong smell
+                         of arsenic.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        Fuses to a translucent violet colored bead, the
+                         color being due to cobalt. Colors the flame blue
+                         at first, then faintly red.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Dissolves readily to a bead strongly colored by
+                         cobalt, which obscures the lime-reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Fuses, and emits As. The alkali is then absorbed
+                         by the charcoal, as in the preceding.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+        *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Calespar
+
+Formula.                 [.Ca][..C].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Turns white and sometimes decrepitates. Strongly
+                         heated loses CO^{2} and becomes caustic.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Turns white, or brown if containing much iron or
+                         manganese and glows brilliantly.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        Glows brilliantly, coloring the flame red.
+                         Becomes caustic and shows a strong alkaline
+                         reaction.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Dissolves with evolution of CO^{2} and when pure
+                         gives the lime-reaction. The bead is generally
+                         more or less colored by iron and manganese.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Fuses, and behaves as other lime-salts.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. Dissolves with effervescence in cold HCl.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Fluorspar
+
+Formula.                 CaFl
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Phosphoresces with various colors, when heated
+                         in the dark.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses easily to a clear bead, which becomes opaque
+                         on cooling, then loses fluorine, glows brilliantly
+                         and becomes infusible.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        As on charcoal. Colors the flame red.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Gives the lime-reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Fuses to a clear bead, opaque on cooling. With
+                         an addition of the alkali behaves as lime.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. With microcosmic salt in open tube gives the
+                         fluorine-reaction.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+                   MAGNESIA.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Brucite
+
+Formula.                 [.Mg][.H].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Evolves water.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       --
+
+  (4) in forceps.        V.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Behaves as magnesia. Sometimes gives a faint
+                         iron-reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Behaves as magnesia.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. With nitrate of cobalt, gives the magnesia
+                         reaction
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Epsomite
+
+Formula.                 [.Mg][...S] + 7[.H].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Evolves water having an acid reaction on test
+                         paper.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Gives of HO and SO^{3}, shines brilliantly, and
+                         becomes alkaline and caustic.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        V. As on charcoal.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Behaves as magnesia.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   The alkali is absorbed leaving the magnesia
+                         on surface of the charcoal. Gives the
+                         sulphur-reaction on silver.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. The magnesian residue obtained on treating with
+                         carbonate of soda (7), assumes a flesh-tint,
+                         when treated with cobalt.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Boracite
+
+Formula.                 [.Mg][...B]^{2} + 2[.Mg][...B].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Occasionally gives off a trace of water.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses with intumescence to a white crystalline
+                         bead.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        I. As on charcoal. Colors the flame green.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Fuses easily to a clear bead, which is
+                         crystalline, when containing much of the
+                         mineral, and is usually slightly tinted by
+                         iron.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   With a small quantity of alkali fuses to a clear
+                         bead on cooling. With a larger quantity gives a
+                         clear, uncrystallizable bead.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Magnesite
+
+Formula.                 [.Mg][..C].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Sometimes gives off a small quantity of water.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Is infusible. With cobalt-solution, assumes a
+                         dusky flesh tint.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        --
+
+  (5) in borax.          Behaves as magnesia. Sometimes a slight
+                         iron-reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Fuses to a bead, the soda is then absorbed,
+                         leaving an infusable mass of magnesia.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. The magnesian residue obtained by fusing with
+                         carbonate of soda gives the magnesian-reaction
+                         with nitrate of cobalt. Dissolves with
+                         effervescence in warm HCl.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Mesitine spar
+
+Formula.                 ([.Mg][.Fe][.Mn])[..C].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     As magnesite.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Is infusible. Assumes a deep brown color.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        V.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Gives the iron and manganese-reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   As magnesite, but the residual mass has a dark
+                         color from iron and manganese.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. Dissolves with effervescense in warm HCl. With
+                         carbonate of soda and nitre gives a
+                         manganese-reaction.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+                     ALUMINA.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Sapphire
+                         Corundum
+                         Emery
+
+Formula.                 [...Al=].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     --
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       --
+
+
+  (4) in forceps.        V.
+
+  (5) in borax.          In fine powder dissolves slowly to a colorless
+                         glass.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   --
+
+  (8) Special reactions. In fine powder moistened with cobalt-solution
+                         and heated yields a blue color.
+
+        *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Websterite
+
+Formula.                 [...Al][...S] + 9[.H].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Gives off water, and, when heated to incipient
+                         redness, sulphurous acid.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Gives off water and SO^{3}, leaving an infusible
+                         mass.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        V.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Behaves as alumina.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Yields an infusible mass, which laid on silver
+                         and moistened, produces a black stain.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. Fused with potassa in platinum has no action on
+                         silver. Cobalt-solution produces the alumina
+                         reaction.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Native Alum
+
+Formula.                 [.R][...S] + [...Al][...S]^{3} + 24[.H].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Intumesces greatly and gives off much water.
+                         Strongly heated, evolves SO^{3}, which reddens
+                         litmus.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Intumesces and become infusible.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        V. Colors the flame violet if a potassa
+                         alum--yellow if soda--be present.
+
+
+  (5) in borax.          Dissolves and gives the iron and manganese
+                         reaction, if these oxides be present. Otherwise
+                         the bead is colorless.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   The alkali is absorbed into the charcoal,
+                         leaving an infusable mass which gives the sulfur
+                         reaction on silver.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. If not containing too much iron or manganese
+                         gives an alumina reaction with nitrate of of
+                         cobalt. In other respects as the preceding.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Turquoise
+
+Formula.                 [...Al=]^{2}[.....P] + 5[.H].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Evolves water, occasionally decrepitates and
+                         turns black.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Turns brown, but remains infusible.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        V. As on charcoal. Colors the outer flame green.
+
+  (5) in borax.          In the oxidizing flame, gives a green bead, due
+                         to copper and iron. In reducing flame, opaque red.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Intumesces, then fuses to a semi-clear glass
+                         colored by iron. With more alkali yields an
+                         infusible mass.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. Gives the phosphoric-acid reaction.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Wavellite
+
+Formula.                 [Al=]F^{3} + 3([...Al=]^{4}[.....P]^{3} + 18[.H].)
+
+Behavior
+
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Evolves water and some fluorine, which attacks
+                         the glass.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Exfoliates and turns white.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        V. As on charcoal. Colors the outer flame green,
+                         especially if moistened with SO^{3}.
+
+  (5) in borax.          As alumina. Generally gives also a slight iron
+                         reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Forms an infusible white mass.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. With cobalt-solution on charcoal gives the
+                         alumina reaction.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Spinel
+
+Formula.                 [.R][...Al=].
+
+Behavior
+
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     --
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       --
+
+  (4) in forceps.        V.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Gives a slight iron reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Fuses partially and forms a porous mass.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. With nitrate of cobalt gives the alumina
+                         reaction. With nitre and carbonate of soda a
+                         slight manganese reaction.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+SILICATES.
+
+
+The presence of silica in a mineral can easily be ascertained by
+treating a small fragment in a bead of microcosmic salt. The bases
+will dissolve out with more or less difficulty in the salt, and the
+silica being insoluble will remain suspended in the bead, retaining
+the original form of the fragment. In borax, the silicates of lime and
+magnesia generally dissolve with considerable ease, but those of
+alumina slowly and with difficulty. The silicates of lime are moreover
+frequently characterized by intumescence or ebullition, when heated in
+the forceps in the blowpipe flame. The minerals presenting this
+character are marked in the table. As the most convenient mode of
+classifying the silicates for blowpipe examination, the following
+arrangement will be adopted:
+
+
+TABLE  I.--ANHYDROUS SILICATES.
+
+TABLE II.--HYDROUS SILICATES.
+
+FUSIBILITY.
+
+  I.  Readily fusible to a bead.
+ II.  With difficulty fusible to a bead.
+III.  Readily fusible on the edges.
+ IV.  With difficulty fusible on the edges.
+  V.  Infusible.
+
+  a. Afford a fluid bead with carbonate of soda.
+  b. Afford a fluid bead with but little of that salt, but with a
+     larger quantity a slaggy mass.
+  c. Afford a slaggy mass only.
+
+
+This classification of minerals, according to their fusibility and
+their behavior with carbonate of soda, was originally proposed by
+_Berzelius_, and a table of the principal oxidized minerals arranged
+according to these characters is given in his handbook of the
+blowpipe, and thence adopted, with some alterations by _Plattner_, in
+the very excellent and detailed work already many times cited. In the
+following general table I., the more important silicates only are
+included, and in table II. are enumerated in alphabetical order those
+which afford characteristic reactions.
+
+
+TABLE I.
+
+
+Anhydrous Silicates.
+________________________________________________________________________
+Fus. alone and with NaC.
+
+      Mineral.                 Formula.
+________________________________________________________________________
+I.
+  a. Axinite      ([.Ca][.Mg])^{3}([...B][...Si])^{3} +
+                    ([...Al=][...Fe=][...Mn=])^{2}([...Si][...B])   Int.
+     Elaolite     ([.K][.Na])^{3}[...Si] + 3[...Al=][...Si]         Int.
+     Garnet       [.R]^{3}[...Si] + [.R=][...Si]
+     Oligoclase   [.Na][...Si] + [...Al=][...Si]^{2}
+     Scapolite    ([.Ca][.Na])^{3}[...Si]^{2} + 2[...Al=][...Si]    Int.
+     Spodumene    ([.Li][.Na])^{3}[...Si]^{2} + 4[...Al=][...Si]^{2}Int.
+  b. Asbestos     As Hornblende
+        to II.
+     Augite       ([.Ca][.Mg][.Fe][.Mn])^{3}[...Si]^{2}             Int.
+       some var.
+     Epidote      ([.Ca]Fe)^{3}[...Si] +                            Int.
+       to III.      2([...Al][...Fe][...Mn])[...Si]
+     Hornblende   ([.Ca][.Mg][.Fe])^{4} + ([...Si][...Al=])^{3}     Int.
+        some var.
+     Sodalite     [.Na]^{3}[...Si] + 3[...Al=][...Si] + NaCl        Int.
+       to III.
+     Vesuvian     3([.Ca][.Mg])^{3}[...Si] +
+                    2([...Al=][...Fe=])[...Si]                      Int.
+  c. Biaxial Mica [.K][...Si] + 4([...Al=][...Fe=])[...Si]
+       to III.
+     Hauyne       ([.K][.Na])^{3}[...Si] + 3[...Al=][...Si] +
+                    [.Na][...Si]
+     Tourmaline   ([.R][...R=][...B])^{4}[...Si]^{3}                Int.
+       to V.
+
+II.
+  a. Labradorite  ([.Ca][.Na][.K])[...Si] +
+                    ([...Al=][...Fe=])[...Si]
+     Lepidolite   (KNaL)F + ([...Al=][...Fe=])[...Si]^{2}?
+     Ryacolite    [.K][...Si] + [...Al=][...Si]^{2}
+     Albite       [.Na][...Si] + [...Al=][...Si]^{3}
+  b. Augite       [.R]^{3}[...Si]^{2}
+        some var.
+     Actinolite   ([.Ca][.Mg][.Fe])^{4}[...Si]^{3}                  Int.
+     Diopside     ([.Ca][.Mg])^{3}[...Si]^{2} |
+     Humboltilite 2([.Ca][.Mg][.Na][.K])[...Si] +
+                    ([...Al=][...Fe=])[...Si]
+     Sahlite      As Augite
+     Tremolite    ([.Ca][.Mg])^{4}[...Si]^{3}
+  c. Pyrope       ([.Ca][.Mg][.Fe])^{3}[...Si] + Al[...Si] +
+                    m[...Cr]?
+
+III.
+  a. Anorthite    ([.Ca][.Mg][.Na][.K])^{3}[...Si] +
+                    3([...Al=][...Fe=])[...Si]
+     Nepheline    ([.Na][.K][.Ca])^{2}[...Si] + 2[...Al=][...Si]
+     Obsidian     [...Si],[...Al=],[...Fe=],[.Fe],[.Ca][.Na][.K]    Int.
+     Orthoclase   ([.K][.Na])[...Si] + [...Al=][...Si]^{3}
+     Petalite     ([.Li][.Na])^{3}[...Si]^{4} + 4[...Al=][...Si]^{4}
+     Pumice       [...Si],[...Al=],[.Ca],[.K],[.Na],[.H]            Int.
+  b. Gadolinite   ([.Y][.Ce][.La][.Fe][.Ca])^{3}[...Si]
+        to V.
+     Nephrite     ([.Ca][.Mg][.Fe])^{4}[...Si]^{3}?                 Int.
+     Wollastonite [.Ca]^{3}[...Si]^{2} |
+  c. Iolite       ([.Mg][.Fe])^{3}[...Si]^{2} + 3[...Al=][...Si]
+
+IV.
+  a. Beryl        [...Be][...Si]^{2} + [...Al=][...Si]^{2}
+  b. Diallage     ([.Ca][.Mg][.Fe])^{3}([...Si][...Al=])^{2}
+     Hypersthene  ([.Mg][.Fe])^{3}[...Si]^{2} |
+  c. Fuchsite     ([.K]^{5}[...Si])^{2} +
+                    9([...Al=][...Cr=])^{6}[...Si]^{6}
+V.
+  a. Leucite      [.K]^{3}[...Si]^{2} + [...Al=][...Si]^{2}
+  b. Chondrodite  ([.Mg],[.Mg]F)^{4}([...Si]SiF^{3})
+     Olivine      ([.Mg][.Fe][.Ca])^{2}[...Si]
+  c. Andalusite   ([...Al=]Fe)^{3}[...Si]^{2}
+     Chrysoberyl  [...Be] + [...Al=]
+     Kaynite      [...Al=]^{3}[...Si]^{2}
+     Pycnite      6[...Al=]^{3}[...Si]^{2} + (3[...Al=]F^{3} +
+                    2[...Si]F^{3})
+     Topaz        6[...Al=]^{3}[...Si]^{2} + (3[...Al=]F^{3} +
+                    2[...Si]F^{3})
+     Zircon       [...Zr=][...Si]
+     Staurolite   ([...Al=]Fe)^{2}[...Si]
+________________________________________________________________________
+
+
+Hydrous Silicates.
+________________________________________________________________________
+Fus. alone and with NaC.
+
+      Mineral.                 Formula.
+________________________________________________________________________
+I.
+  a. Analcime     [.Na]^{3}[...Si]^{2} + 3[...Al=][...Si]^{2}
+                    + 6[.H]                                         Int.
+     Apophyllite  ([.K], KF)([...Si], SiF^{3}) + 6[.Ca][...Si] +
+                    15[.H]                                          Int.
+     Brewsterite  ([.Sr][.Ba])[...Si] + [...Al=][...Si]^{3} + 5[.H] Int.
+     Chabasite    ([.Ca],[.Na],[.K])^{3}[...Si] +
+                    3[...Al=][...Si]^{2} + 18[.H]                   Int.
+     Lapis Lazuli [...Si],[...S],[...Al=], Fe, [.Ca], [.Na], [.H]
+     Laumonite    [.Ca]^{3}[...Si]^{2} + 3[...Al=][...Si]^{2}
+                    + 12[.H]                                        Int.
+     Mesotype     ([.Na][.Ca])[...Si] + [...Al=][...Si] + 3[.H]     Int.
+     Natrolite    [.Na][...Si] + [...Al=][...Si] + 2[.H]            Int.
+     Prehnite     [.Ca]^{2}[...Si] + [...Al=][...Si] + [.H]         Int.
+     Scolezite    [.Ca][...Si] + [...Al=][...Si] + 3[.H]            Int.
+     Thomsonite   ([.Ca][.Na])^{3}[...Si] + 3[...Al=][...Si]
+                    + 7[.H]                                         Int.
+     Datholite    2[.Ca]^{3}[...Si] + [...B]^{3}[...Si]^{2} + 3[.H] Int.
+     Heulandite   [.Ca][...Si] + [...Al=][...Si]^{3} + 5[.H]        Int.
+     Stilbite     [.Ca][...Si] + [...Al=][...Si]^{3} + 6[.H]        Int.
+  b. Okenite      [.Ca]^{3}[...Si]^{4} + 6[.H]                      Int.
+     Pectolite    ([.Ca][.Na])^{4}[...Si]^{3} + [.H]                Int.
+  c. Saponite     2[.Mg]^{3}[...Si]^{2} + [...Al=][...Si]
+                    + 10 or 6[.H]
+II.
+  a. Antrimolite  3([.Ca][.K])[...Si] + 5[...Al=][...Si] +
+                    15[.H]
+     Harmatome    [...Ba][...Si] + [...Al=]S^{2} + 5[.H]
+  b. Brevicite    [.Na][...Si] + [...Al=][...Si] + 2[.H]
+     Orthite      [.R]^{3}[...Si] + [...R=][...Si] + ([.H]?)        Int.
+
+III.
+  c. Pitchstone   [...Si],[...Al=], Fe, [.Mg][.Na], [.K][.H]
+     Talc to V.   [.Mg]^{6}[...Si]^{5} + 2[.H]
+     Chlorite     3([.Mg]Fe)^{3}[...Si] + ([...Al=]Fe)^{2}[...Si]
+                    + 9[.H]
+     Pinite       [...Si],[...Al=],[.Fe],[.K],[.Mg],[.H]
+
+IV.
+  a. Steatite     [.Mg]^{6}[...Si]^{5} + 4[.H]
+  c. Gilbertite   [...Si],[...Al=],[.Fe],[.Mg],[.H]                 Int.
+     Meerschaum   [.Mg][...Si] + [.H] |
+     Serpentine   [.Mg]^{9}[...Si]^{4} + 6[.H] |
+V.
+  a. Gismondine   ([.Ca][.K])^{2}[...Si] + 2[...Al=][...Si] + 9[.H]
+________________________________________________________________________
+
+
+TABLE II.
+
+_______________________________________________________________________
+              |
+Analcime      | If transparent becomes white and opaque when heated,
+              | but on incipient fusion resumes its transparency and
+              | then fuses to a clear glass.
+              |
+Andalusite    | When powdered and treated with cobalt solution on
+              | charcoal, assumes a blue color.
+              |
+Apophyllite   | Fuses to a frothy white glass.
+              |
+Axinite       | Imparts a green color to the blowpipe flame, owing to
+              | the presence of boracic acid. This reaction is
+              | especially distinct, if the mineral be previously mixed
+              | with fluorspar and bisulphate of potassa.
+              |
+Beryl         | Sometimes gives a chromium reaction in borax and
+              | microcosmic salt.
+              |
+Chabasite     | Fuses to a white enamel.
+              |
+Chondrodite   | Evolves fluorine in the glass tube, both when heated
+              | alone and with microcosmic salt. It sometimes also
+              | gives off a trace of water.
+              |
+Chrysoberyl   | Is unattacked by carbonate of soda. With nitrate of
+              | cobalt on charcoal the finely powdered mineral
+              | assumes a blue color.
+              |
+Datholite     | Fuses to a clear glass and colors the flame green.
+              |
+Diallage      | Frequently gives off water in small quantity.
+              |
+Fuchsite      | Gives the chromium reaction with borax and microcosmic
+              | salt.
+              |
+Gadolinite    | That from Hitteroe, if heated in a partially covered
+              | platinum spoon to low redness, glows suddenly and
+              | brilliantly.
+              |
+Hauyne        | Affords the sulphur reaction both on charcoal and when
+              | fused with potassa. It contains both sulphur and
+              | sulphuric acid.
+              |
+Hypersthene   | As Diallage.
+              |
+Kyanite       | As Andalusite.
+              |
+Lapis Lazuli  | Fuses to a white glass, and when treated with carbonate
+              | of soda on charcoal, gives the sulphur reaction on
+              | silver.
+              |
+Laumonite     | When strongly heated, exfoliates and curls up.
+              |
+Lepidolite    | Colors the blowpipe flame crimson, from lithia; also
+              | gives the fluorine reaction with microcosmic salt.
+              |
+Leucite       | Some varieties, when treated with cobalt solution,
+              | assume a blue color.
+              |
+Meerschaum    | In the glass bulb frequently blackens and evolves an
+              | empyreumatic odor due to organic matter. When this is
+              | burnt off, it again becomes white, and if moistened
+              | with nitrate of cobalt solution and heated, assumes
+              | a pink color.
+              |
+Okenite       | Behaves as Apophyllite.
+              |
+Olivine       | Some varieties give off fluorine, when fused with
+              | microcosmic salt.
+              |
+Pectolite     | Similar to Apophyllite.
+              |
+Petalite      | Imparts a slight crimson color to the flame, like
+              | Lepidolite.
+              |
+Prehnite      | As Chabasite.
+              |
+Pycnite       | Assumes a blue color, when treated with nitrate of
+              | cobalt. Gives the fluorine reaction with microcosmic
+              | salt.
+              |
+Pyrope        | Gives the chromium reaction with borax and microcosmic
+              | salt.
+              |
+Scolecite     | Similar to Laumonite, but more marked.
+              |
+Scapolite     | Occasionally contains a small quantity of lithia, and
+              | colors the flame red when fused with fluorspar and
+              | bisulphate of potassa.
+              |
+Sodalite      | If mixed with one-fifth its volume of oxide of copper,
+              | moistened to make the mixture cohere, and a small
+              | portion placed upon charcoal and heated with the blue
+              | oxidizing flame, the outer flame will be colored
+              | intensely blue from chloride of copper.
+              |
+              |
+Spodumene     | When not too strongly heated, colors the blowpipe
+              | flame red, when more strongly, yellow.
+              |
+Stilbite      | As Chabasite.
+              |
+Topaz         | When heated, remains clear. Otherwise as Pycnite.
+              |
+Tourmaline    | Gives the boracic acid reaction with flourspar and
+              | bisulphate of potassa.
+              |
+Wollastonite  | Colors the blowpipe flame faintly red from lime.
+              |
+Zircon        | The colored varieties become white or colorless and
+              | transparent, when heated. Is only slightly attacked
+              | by carbonate of soda.
+______________|________________________________________________________
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+                     URANIUM.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Pitchblende
+
+Formula.                 [.U][...U=] essentially.
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Evolves some water and a small quantity of
+                         sulphur, sulphide of arsenic and metallic
+                         arsenic.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      Evolves SO^{2} and a white sublimate of
+                         arsenious acid.
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Gives off arsenical fumes.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        III. Colors the flame blue beyond the assay,
+                         owing to the presence of Pb. Sometimes also
+                         green towards the point, due to Cu.
+
+  (5) in borax.          The roasted mineral affords the uranium
+                         reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As borax. Also a small residue of silica.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Infusible. Affords the characteristic Pb
+                         incrustation, and sometimes yields minute
+                         particles of Cu.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Uranium ochre
+
+Formula.
+                         [...U=][.H]^{2}.
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Evolves water and assumes a red color.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       V. In reducing flame assumes a green color.
+
+
+  (4) in forceps.        --
+
+  (5) in borax.          Gives the uranium reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   --
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+
+        *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Uranite
+
+Formula.                 ([.Ca] +[...U=]^{2})[.....]P + 8[.H].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Evolves water and becomes yellow and opaque.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses with intumescence to a black bead having a
+                         semi-crystalline surface.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        --
+
+  (5) in borax.          Gives the uranium reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Forms an infusible yellow slag.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. Gives the PO^{5} reaction.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Chalcolite
+
+Formula.                 ([.Cu]+[...U=]^{2})[.....P] + 8[.H].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     As uranite.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       As uranite.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        As uranite.
+
+  (5) in borax.          In the oxidizing flame gives a green bead, which
+                         in the reducing flame becomes of an opaque red,
+                         from Cu.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   In reducing flame yields a metallic bead of Cu.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. As uranite.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+                      IRON.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Iron pyrites
+
+Formula.                 FeS^{2}.
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Gives a considerable yellow sublimate of
+                         sulphur, and sometimes sulphide of arsenic. Also
+                         HS.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      Sulphurous acid and sometimes arsenious acid are
+                         evolved.
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Gives off some sulphur, which burns with a blue
+                         flame. Residue fuses to a magnetic bead.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        --
+
+  (5) in borax.          The roasted mineral gives a strong iron
+                         reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Fuses to a black mass, which spreads out on
+                         charcoal and gives the sulphur reaction on
+                         silver.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Magnetic pyrites
+
+Formula.
+                         [,Fe]^{5}[,,,Fe=].
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     --
+
+  (2) in open tube.      Evolves sulphurous acid.
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses to a magnetic bead black on the surface,
+                         and with a yellow shining fracture.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        --
+
+  (5) in borax.          As iron pyrites.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   As iron pyrites.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Mispickel
+
+Formula.                 FeAs + FeS^{2}.
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     A red sublimate of AsS^{2} is first formed and
+                         then a black sublimate of metallic arsenic.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      Sulphurous and arsenious acids are evolved, the
+                         latter forming a white sublimate.
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Gives off much arsenic forming a white
+                         incrustation and fuses to a magnetic globule.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        --
+
+  (5) in borax.          As iron pyrites.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   As iron pyrites.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Magnetic iron ore
+
+Formula.                 Fe^{3}O^{4}
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     --
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       --
+
+  (4) in forceps.        In the blue flame, fuses on edges and remains
+                         magnetic.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Gives the iron reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   --
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Specular iron
+                         Red haematite
+
+Formula.                 Fe^{2}O^{3}
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     --
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       --
+
+  (4) in forceps.        V. In the blue flame is converted into
+                         Fe^{2}O^{4}, and then behaves as the preceding.
+
+  (5) in borax.          As magnetic iron ore.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   --
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Göthite
+
+Formula.                 [...Fe][.H].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Evolves water.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       --
+
+  (4) in forceps.        As specular iron.
+
+  (5) in borax.          As specular iron.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   --
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Franklinite
+
+Formula.                 ([.Fe][.Zn][.Mn]) ([...Fe=][...Mn=]).
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     --
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Forms a white incrustation on the charcoal,
+                         which moistened with cobalt solution assumes a
+                         green color.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        V. In the blue flame fuses on edges and and
+                         becomes magnetic.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Gives the iron and manganese reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Affords a considerable white incrustation of
+                         ZnO.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. Gives a strong manganese reaction with nitre and
+                         carbonate of soda.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Ilmenite
+
+Formula.                 [...Ti=] and [...Fe=].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     --
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       --
+
+  (4) in forceps.        V. In reducing flame fuses on edges and becomes
+                         magnetic.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Gives the iron reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      In oxidizing flame exhibits the iron reaction.
+                         In reducing flame assumes a deep brownish red
+                         color.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   --
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Chromic iron
+
+Formula.                 [.Fe][...Cr=].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     --
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       --
+
+  (4) in forceps.        As the preceding.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Dissolves slowly and gives the chromium
+                         reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   On platinum foil with nitre and carbonate of
+                         soda affords a yellow mass of chromate of
+                         potassa.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Lievrite
+
+Formula.                 3([.Fe][.Ca])^{3}[...Si] + 2[...Fe=][...Si].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Occasionally gives off some water and turns
+                         black.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses to a black globule, which in the reducing
+                         flame becomes magnetic.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        I. In reducing flame is magnetic.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Gives the iron reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      Gives the iron and silica reactions.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Fuses to a black opaque bead.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. Generally gives the manganese reaction with
+                         nitre and carbonate of soda.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Chloropal
+
+Formula.                 [...Fe=][...Si]^{2} + 3[.H].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Decrepitates more or less, gives off much water
+                         and turns black.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       --
+
+  (4) in forceps.        V. Loses color and turns black.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Gives the iron reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      Gives the iron and silica reaction.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Fuses to a transparent green glass.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Green earth
+
+Formula.                 [...Si],[.Fe],[...Al=],[.Na],[.K],[.H], etc.
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Gives off water and becomes darker in color.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       --
+
+  (4) in forceps.        V. In reducing flame fuses on edges and colors
+                         the outer flame yellow ([.Na]) or violet ([.K]).
+
+  (5) in borax.          As the preceding.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As the preceding.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Forms a slaggy mass.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Siderite
+
+Formula.                 [.Fe][..C].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Occasionally decrepitates. Gives off CO^{2} and
+                         turns black and magnetic.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       As in glass bulb.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        Behaves similarly to the magnetic oxide.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Gives the iron and manganese reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Behaves as an oxide. With nitre and carbonate of
+                         soda on platinum generally gives the manganese
+                         reaction.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. In acid dissolves with effervescense.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Copperas
+
+Formula.                 [.Fe][...S] + 7[.H].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Gives off water, and, when strongly heated,
+                         SO^{2} and SO^{3}, which reddens litmus paper.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      Evolves water and SO^{2}, which may be
+                         recognized by its odor.
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Loses water and SO^{2}, and is converted into
+                         [...Fe=].
+
+  (4) in forceps.        Gives off H and SO^{2}, and then behaves as the
+                         magnetic oxide.
+
+  (5) in borax.          The roasted mineral affords an iron reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Forms sulphide of sodium and oxide of iron. The
+                         former is absorbed into the charcoal, and if cut
+                         out and laid upon silver and moistened gives the
+                         S reaction.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. If dissolved in water, and a strip of
+                         silver-foil be introduced into the solution, the
+                         metal remains untarnished.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Vivianite
+
+Formula.                 [.Fe]^{3}[.....P] + 8[.H].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Gives off water.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Froths up and then fuses to a grey metallic
+                         bead.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        As on charcoal. Singes flame green ([.....P]).
+
+  (5) in borax.          Gives the iron reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   In reducing flame becomes magnetic and fuses to
+                         a black saggy mass.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Iriphyline
+
+Formula.                 ([.Fe][.Mn][.Li])^{3}[.....P].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Gives off water, having an alkaline reaction,
+                         and assumes a metallic lustre resembling
+                         graphite.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses readily to a black magnetic bead with a
+                         metallic lustre.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        I. On platinum wire colors the flame crimson
+                         ([.Li]) and green ([.....P]), towards the point
+                         fuses to a black magnetic bead.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Gives the iron and manganese reactions.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      Gives the iron reaction which overpowers that of
+                         the manganese.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Forms an infusible porous mass, which under
+                         the reducing flame becomes magnetic.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. Gives the manganese reaction with nitre and
+                         carbonate of soda on platinum foil.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Scorodite
+
+Formula.                 [...Fe=][.....As] + 4[.H].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Evolves water.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      Gives off water and AsO^{3}.
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Emits arsenical fume and in the reducing flame
+                         fuses to a magnetic mass having a metallic
+                         lustre.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        I. As on charcoal. Colors the outer flame
+                         blue.
+
+  (5) in borax.          The roasted mineral gives an iron reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   As alone on charcoal.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. Gives the arsenic reactions.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Cube ore
+
+Formula.                 [.Fe]^{3}[.....As] +
+                           [...Fe=]^{3}[.....As]^{2} + 18[.H].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Evolves much water.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      As the preceding.
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       As the preceding.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        As the preceding.
+
+  (5) in borax.          As the preceding.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   As the preceding.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. As the preceding.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+                   MANGANESE.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Manganblende
+
+Formula.                 MnS.
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     --
+
+  (2) in open tube.      Gives off SO^{2} and becomes greyish green on
+                         surface.
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Is slowly roasted and converted into oxide.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        V.
+
+  (5) in borax.          The roasted mineral gives a strong manganese
+                         reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      In the unroasted state, dissolves with much
+                         ebullition and detonation due to elimination of
+                         sulphide of phosphorus. The bead then exhibits
+                         the characteristic violet color of manganese.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Forms a slaggy mass, which laid on silver and
+                         moistened, gives the sulphur reaction.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Pyrolusite
+
+Formula.                 [..Mn].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Frequently gives off a small quantity of water
+                         and, when strongly heated, oxygen.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       --
+
+  (4) in forceps.        V.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Gives the manganese reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Forms a slaggy mass.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Manganite
+
+Formula.                 [...Mn=][.H].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Gives off much water.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       --
+
+  (4) in forceps.        V. Exfoliates slightly.
+
+  (5) in borax.          As the preceding.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   As the preceding.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Psilomelane
+
+Formula.                 ([.Ba],[.Ca],[.Mg],[.K]) [..Mn] + [.H].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Gives off water and, when
+                         strongly heated, oxygen.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       --
+
+  (4) in forceps.        V. Colors flame faintly green(Ba) and red
+                         towards the point (Ca).
+
+  (5) in borax.          As pyrolusite.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   As pyrolusite.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Wad
+
+Formula.                 [..Mn],[.Mn],[.H], also [...Fe=],[...Al=],
+                         [.Ba],[.Cu],[...Pb],[...Si], etc.
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Gives off water.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       --
+
+  (4) in forceps.        V. Colors flame variously according to its
+                         composition.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Gives the manganese reaction, more or less
+                         modified by the presence of other oxides.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   As pyrolusite.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. Various according to composition. When strongly
+                         heated and then moistened has an alkaline
+                         reaction on red litmus paper.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Rhodonite
+
+Formula.                 [.Mn]^{3}[...Si]^{2}.
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Gives off more or less water.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Under a strong flame fuses to a brown opaque
+                         bead.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        II. As on charcoal.
+
+  (5) in borax.          In the oxidizing flame gives the manganese
+                         reaction. In reducing flame the iron reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax, but leaves an insoluble siliceous
+                         skeleton.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   With a small quantity of the alkali fuses to a
+                         black bead. With a larger quantity forms a slag.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+         *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Diallogite
+
+Formula.                 [.Mn][..C].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Frequently decrepitates and gives off more or
+                         less water.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       If strongly heated and moistened has an alkaline
+                         reaction on litmus paper due to the presence of
+                         Ca.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        V. Frequently colors the flame slightly red.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Gives the manganese and iron reactions.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Forms an infusible slag.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. In warm acid dissolves with much effervescence.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Triplite
+
+Formula.                 ([..Mn][.Fe])^{4}[.....P].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Generally gives off more or less
+                         water.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       --
+
+  (4) in forceps.        I. Colors the outer blowpipe flame green
+                         ([.....P]).
+
+  (5) in borax.          Gives the manganese and iron reactions.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Forms an infusible mass.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+               NICKEL AND COBALT.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Millerite
+
+Formula.                 NiS.
+
+Behavior
+
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     --
+
+  (2) in open tube.      Evolves SO^{2}.
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses with much ebullition to a magnetic bead.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        --
+
+  (5) in borax.          The roasted mineral gives a nickel reaction,
+                         slightly modified by small quantities of iron
+                         and copper.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Fuses to a slaggy mass, which on silver gives
+                         the sulphur reaction.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Coppernickel
+
+Formula.                 Ni^{2}As.
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Gives off a little AsO^{3}.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      Gives off much AsO^{3} and some SO^{2} and falls
+                         to powder.
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses to a magnetic bead, with the evolution of
+                         arsenic, which colors the flame blue.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        --
+
+  (5) in borax.          The arsenical bead obtained by fusing the
+                         mineral on charcoal, if fused upon the same
+                         support with borax successively added and
+                         removed, gives firstly an iron reaction, then
+                         cobalt if present, and lastly nickel.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      If the residual bead which has been treated with
+                         borax be further treated with microcosmic salt,
+                         the nickel reaction will be obtained and
+                         sometimes a slight copper reaction.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   --
+
+  (8) Special reactions. Affords a sublimate of metallic arsenic when
+                         treated with cyanide of potassium.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Smaltine
+
+Formula.                 CoAs.
+
+Behavior
+
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     When strongly heated generally evolves metallic
+                         arsenic.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      Gives a crystalline sublimate of AsO^{3}. Also
+                         some SO^{2}.
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Gives off fumes of arsenic, and fuses to a dark
+                         grey magnetic bead, very brittle, colors flame
+                         blue.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        --
+
+  (5) in borax.          As the preceding, but the cobalt being in large
+                         excess requires some time for its perfect
+                         oxidation, before the nickel reaction is
+                         exhibited.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      Gives the cobalt reaction, and after the cobalt
+                         has been, removed that of nickel.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   --
+
+  (8) Special reactions. As the preceding.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Glance cobalt
+
+Formula.                 CoS^{2} + CoAs.
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     --
+
+  (2) in open tube.      As the preceding, but gives off more SO^{2}.
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Gives off S and As, and fuses to a magnetic
+                         bead. Colors flame blue.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        --
+
+  (5) in borax.          Gives a cobalt and slight iron reaction when
+                         treated as the preceding minerals.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Gives a sulphur reaction of silver.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. As the preceding.
+
+        *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Nickel glance
+
+Formula.                 NiS^{2} + NiAs.
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Decrepitates and gives an orange colored
+                         sublimate of AsS^{2}.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      As the preceding.
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       As the preceding.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        --
+
+  (5) in borax.          As copper nickel.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      Gives the nickel reaction occasionally somewhat
+                         obscured by cobalt.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   As the preceding.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. As copper nickel.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Ulmannite
+
+Formula.                 NiS^{2} + Ni(AsSb)^{2}.
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Gives a slight white sublimate of SbO^{3} and
+                         more or less AsS^{3}.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      Gives off thick fumes of SbO^{3} and SbO^{5}
+                         with AsO^{3} and SO^{2}.
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       As glance cobalt, but accompanied by dense fumes
+                         of SbO^{3}.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        --
+
+  (5) in borax.          As copper nickel.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As the preceding.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   As the preceding.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. As copper nickel generally, but arsenic is not
+                         always present.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Cobalt pyrites
+
+Formula.                 ([,Co][,Ni][,Fe]) ([,,,Co=][,,,Ni=][,,,Fe=]).
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     When strongly heated gives off sulphur and
+                         becomes brown.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      Gives off much SO^{2} and a small quantity of
+                         AsO^{3}.
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       In the reducing flame small fragments fuse with
+                         the evolution of sulphur to a magnetic bead
+                         having a bronze colored fracture.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        --
+
+  (5) in borax.          In the oxidizing flame on charcoal gives a
+                         violet colored glass. In the reducing flame the
+                         nickel is reduced and may collected in a gold
+                         bead. When the nickel is removed, the glass
+                         exhibits a slight iron reaction while warm.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax, but the reduction of the nickel is
+                         more difficult than in the latter flux.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   As glance cobalt.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. As copper nickel, but the amount of arsenic is
+                         usually very small.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Emerald nickel
+
+Formula.                 [.Ni]^{3}[..C] + 6[.H].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Gives off much water and turns black.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       --
+
+  (4) in forceps.        --
+
+  (5) in borax.          Dissolves with much effervescence and gives the
+                         nickel reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Forms a slaggy mass.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. In warm dilute HCl dissolves with much
+                         effervescence.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Cobalt Bloom
+
+Formula.                 [.Co]^{3}[.....As] + 8[.H].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Gives off water.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Evolves arsenical fumes and in the reducing
+                         flame fuses to a dark grey bead of arsenide of
+                         cobalt.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        In the point of the blue flame fuses and colors
+                         the outer flame blue (As).
+
+  (5) in borax.          Gives the cobalt reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   --
+
+  (8) Special reactions. Gives off arsenic with cyanide of potassium in
+                         glass tube.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Earthy cobalt
+
+Formula.                 [.Mn],[.Co],[.Cu],[.Fe],[.H], etc.
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Gives off water.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Emits a slight smell of arsenic, but does not
+                         fuse.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        Colors the flame blue.
+
+  (5) in borax.          In oxidizing flame gives the cobalt reaction
+                         which obscures those of [.Mn], [.Cu], etc. In
+                         reducing flame occasionally gives the [.Cu]
+                         reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax. If a saturated bead be treated on
+                         charcoal with tin in the reducing flame for a
+                         few seconds, the [.Cu] reaction is sometimes
+                         obtained.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Forms an infusible mass.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. With carbonate of soda and nitre on platinum
+                         foil, gives a strong manganese reaction.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+                      ZINC.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Zincblende
+
+Formula.                 ZnS.
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Decrepitates strongly.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      Evolves SO and becomes white or yellow if
+                         containing iron.
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       V. In the reducing flame incrusts the charcoal
+                         with ZnO; also with CdO, if that metal be
+                         present.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        --
+
+  (5) in borax.          The roasted mineral gives a zinc reaction, and
+                         sometimes a slight iron reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   As alone on charcoal. Moreover colors the flame
+                         blue. The fused alkali gives a S reaction on
+                         silver.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Red oxide of zinc
+
+Formula.                 [.Zn].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     --
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       In the reducing flame forms a thin incrustation
+                         of oxide of zinc on the charcoal.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        V.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Generally gives a manganese and slight iron
+                         reaction in addition to that of zinc.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   On charcoal, forms a thick incrustation of ZnO.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. With carbonate of soda and nitre on platinum
+                         foil gives manganese reaction.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Electric calamine
+
+Formula.                 2[.Zn]^{3}[...Si] + 3[.H]
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Gives off water and becomes white and opaque.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       --
+
+  (4) in forceps.        V.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Dissolves to a clear glass, which cannot be
+                         rendered opaque by the intermittent flame.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      Dissolves to a clear glass, which becomes opaque
+                         on cooling. Silica remains insoluble.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   With carbonate of soda alone is infusible. With
+                         2 parts of alkali and 1 of borax fuses to a
+                         glass and sets free [.Zn], which incrusts the
+                         charcoal.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Calamine
+
+Formula.                 [.Zn][..C].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Gives off CO^{2} and becomes opaque.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       As the red oxide. Sometimes also gives a lead
+                         incrustation.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        V.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Gives a zinc reaction and frequently an iron and
+                         manganese reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Forms a thick incrustation of zinc, sometimes
+                         also of [.Pb] and [.Co].
+
+  (8) Special reactions. Dissolves with much effervescence in cold acid.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+                    BISMUTH.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Native bismuth
+
+Formula.                 Bi.
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     --
+
+  (2) in open tube.      Fuses and is converted into a yellow oxide.
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses to a bead and incrusts the charcoal with
+                         oxide.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        --
+
+  (5) in borax.          The oxide formed upon charcoal gives the bismuth
+                         reactions.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   --
+
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Bismuthine
+
+Formula.                 BiS.
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     --
+
+  (2) in open tube.      Fuses with ebullition and gives of S and SO^{2}.
+
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses with much spirting and in the reducing
+                         flame yields a metallic bead and incrusts the
+                         charcoal with oxide.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        --
+
+  (5) in borax.          The oxide obtained upon charcoal gives the
+                         bismuth reactions.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   As alone on charcoal. The fused alkali gives the
+                         sulphur reaction on silver.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Bismuthblende
+
+Formula.                 [...Bi=]^{2}[...Si]^{3}.
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Turns yellow and, when strongly heated, fuses.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses with ebullition to a brown globule forming
+                         an incrustation of [...Bi=] on the charcoal.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        I. Fuses with ease to a yellow bead, coloring
+                         the outer flame bluish green, especially if
+                         moistened with HCl. This color is due to
+                         [.....P].
+
+  (5) in borax.          Gives the bismuth and also an iron reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax, but leaves a silicious skeleton.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Fuses to a yellow mass. The bismuth is then
+                         reduced to the metallic state and partially
+                         volatilized, incrusting the charcoal beyond.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Tetradymite
+
+Formula.                 Bi, Te, S.
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Occasionally decrepitates and then fuses,
+                         forming a greyish white sublimate immediately
+                         above the mineral fragment.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      Fuses and gives off white fumes, part of which
+                         pass up the tube and part deposit immediately
+                         above the mineral. This latter if heated fuses
+                         to clear drops (TeO^{3}). The mineral residue
+                         becomes surrounded by fused [...Bi=],
+                         characterized by its yellow color.
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses to a metallic bead, colors the outer flame
+                         bluish green (Te and Se) and incrusts the
+                         charcoal around with the orange [...Bi=], beyond
+                         which is a white incrustation partly consisting
+                         of [...Te].
+
+  (4) in forceps.        --
+
+  (5) in borax.          The yellow oxide obtained upon charcoal gives
+                         the bismuth reaction, and the white incrustation
+                         of bismuth and telluric acid.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   In the reducing flame yields a bead of metallic
+                         bismuth, part of which is part of the tellurium
+                         volatilized and incrusts the charcoal around.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. The fused alkaline mass gives the sulphur
+                         reaction on silver. Also gives the tellurium
+                         reaction with charcoal and carbonate of soda.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+                      LEAD.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Galena
+
+Formula.                 PbS.
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Generally decrepitates and gives off a small
+                         quantity of sulphur.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      Gives off SO^{2}, and when strongly heated, a
+                         white sublimate of [.Pb], [.S].
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses and is reduced affording a bead of
+                         metallic lead, and forming an incrustation of
+                         PbO on the charcoal. Colors the outer flame
+                         blue.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        --
+
+  (5) in borax.          The oxide formed upon charcoal gives the lead
+                         reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   As alone on charcoal. The fused alkali gives a
+                         sulphur reaction on silver.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Clausthalite
+
+Formula.                 PbSe.
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Decrepitates slightly.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      Forms a sublimate of selenium, which is grey
+                         when thickly deposited, and red when thin.
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Gives off fumes smelling strongly of selenium
+                         and coloring the flame blue. In the reducing
+                         flame fuses partially and incrusts the charcoal
+                         with Se and PbO. After some time a black
+                         infusible mass alone remains.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        --
+
+  (5) in borax.          The infusible residue obtained upon charcoal
+                         gives an iron and sometimes copper and cobalt
+                         reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   With carbonate of soda, oxalate of potash yields
+                         a metallic bead, the fused alkali laid upon
+                         silver and moistened produces a stain similar to
+                         that produced by sulfur.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Jamesonite
+
+Formula.                 [,Pb]^{3}[,,,Sb]^{2}.
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Fuses and gives off some sulphur, sulphide of
+                         antimony and antimony which condense in the neck
+                         of the bulb.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      Fuses and emits dense white fumes of SbO^{3},
+                         which pass off and redden blue litmus paper.
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses with great ease evolving much SbO^{3} and
+                         PbO, which incrusts the charcoal around the
+                         mineral. When the fumes have ceased, a small
+                         bead of metallic lead remains.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        --
+
+  (5) in borax.          The yellow incrustation formed upon charcoal
+                         gives the reaction of lead, and the white those
+                         of antimony.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   As alone on charcoal. The fused alkali gives the
+                         sulphur reaction on silver.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Minium
+
+Formula.                 Pb^{3}O^{4}.
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     --
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Is reduced first to litharge (PbO) and then to
+                         metallic lead which forms the usual
+                         incrustation.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        Colors the outer flame blue.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Gives the lead reactions.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   As alone on charcoal.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Mendipite
+
+Formula.                 PbCl + 2PbO.
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Decrepitates slightly and assumes a yellow
+                         color.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses readily and is reduced to metallic lead
+                         with the evolution of acid fumes. Forms a white
+                         incrustation of PbCl, and a yellow one of PbO.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        As the preceding.
+
+  (5) in borax.          As the preceding.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   As alone on charcoal.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. Gives the chlorine reaction with CuO and
+                         microcosmic salt.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Cerusite
+
+Formula.                 [.Pb][..C].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Decrepitates, gives off CO^{2}, turns yellow and
+                         fuses.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Is reduced to metallic lead, incrusting the
+                         charcoal around with PbO.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        As the preceding.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Gives the lead reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   As alone on charcoal.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. In nitric acid dissolves with much
+                         effervescence.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Anglesite
+
+Formula.                 [.Pb][...S].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Decrepitates and gives off a small quantity of
+                         water.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       In the oxidizing flame fuses to a clear bead,
+                         which becomes opaque on cooling. In reducing
+                         flame is reduced with much ebullition to a
+                         metallic bead and incrusts the charcoal around
+                         with PbO.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        As the preceding.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Gives the lead reaction and occasionally a
+                         slight iron and manganese reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Is reduced yielding a metallic lead bead. The
+                         fused alkaline mass gives a sulphur reaction on
+                         silver.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Pyromorphite
+
+Formula.                 PbCl + 3[.Pb]^{3}[.....P].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Decrepitates, and when strongly heated for some
+                         time, gives a slight white sublimate of PbCl.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       In oxidizing flame fuses to a bead having a
+                         crystalline surface on cooling, and forms a thin
+                         film of PbCl on the charcoal In reducing flame
+                         fuses without reduction and on cooling assumes a
+                         polyhedral form. Incrusts the charcoal slightly
+                         with PbO.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        Fuses and colors the flame blue.
+
+  (5) in borax.          --
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      --
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Is reduced yielding a metallic bead and
+                         incrusting the charcoal with PbO.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. Gives the chlorine reaction with microcosmic
+                         salt and CuO. Also the phosphoric acid
+                         reactions.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Mimetene
+
+Formula.                 PbCl+ 3[.Pb]^{3}[.....As]
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     As the preceding.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses, but less easily than the preceding, gives
+                         off AsO^{3} and incrusts the charcoal with
+                         PbCl. Finally is reduced to a metallic bead and
+                         forms an incrustation of PbO.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        As the preceding.
+
+  (5) in borax.          The oxide formed on charcoal gives the lead
+                         reactions.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   As the preceding.
+
+
+
+  (8) Special reactions. Gives the chlorine reaction.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Vanadinite
+
+Formula.                 PbCl + 3[.Pb]^{3}[...V]?
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     As pyromorphite.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       The powdered mineral fuses fuses to a black
+                         shining mass, which in the reducing flame
+                         affords a metallic bead. Incrusts the charcoal
+                         first with a white film of PbCl and afterwards
+                         with PbO.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        As pyromorphite.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Dissolves readily to a clear glass, which, in
+                         the oxidizing flame, is yellow, while hot, and
+                         colorless when cold. In reducing flame becomes
+                         opaque, and on cooling green.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      In oxidizing flame is yellow while hot, becoming
+                         paler on cooling. In reducing flame brown while
+                         warm, and emerald green when cold.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   On platinum wire fuses to a yellow bead, which
+                         is crystalline on cooling. On charcoal yields a
+                         button of metallic lead.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. With microcosmic salt and CuO, gives the chlorine
+                         reaction. If fused in a platinum spoon with from
+                         3 to 4 times its volume of [.K],[...S]^{2} it
+                         forms a fluid yellow mass having an orange color
+                         when cold.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Crocoisite
+
+Formula.                 [.Pb][...Cr].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Decrepitates violently and assumes a dark color.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses and detonates yielding Cr^{2}O^{3} and
+                         metallic lead, and forming an incrustation of
+                         PbO on the charcoal.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        As pyromorphite.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Dissolves readily and colors the glass yellow
+                         while warm, and green when cold. (See Chromium
+                         reaction.)
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   On platinum foil gives a dark yellow mass, which
+                         becomes paler on cooling. On charcoal yields a
+                         metallic button.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. Treated as above with [.K],[...S]^{2} forms a
+                         violet colored mass, which on solidifying
+                         becomes reddish and on cooling pale grey.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Molybdate of lead
+
+Formula.                 [.Pb][...M].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     As the preceding.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses and is partly absorbed into the charcoal
+                         leaving a globule of metallic lead, which is
+                         partially oxidized and incrusts the charcoal.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        As pyromorphite.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Dissolves readily and gives the molybdena
+                         reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Yields metallic lead.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. Fused as above with [.K],[...S]^{2} forms a yellow mass,
+                         which becomes white on cooling. If this be
+                         dissolved in water and a piece of zinc
+                         introduced into the solution, the latter becomes
+                         blue.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Scheeletine
+
+Formula.                 [.Pb][...W].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Decrepitates more or less.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses to a bead incrusting the charcoal with
+                         PbO. The bead on cooling is crystalline and has
+                         a dark metallic surface.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        As pyromorphite.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Dissolves to a clear colorless glass, which in
+                         the reducing flame becomes yellow, and on
+                         cooling grey and opaque.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      Dissolves to a clear colorless glass, which
+                         in the reducing flame assumes a dusky blue
+                         color. After a time becomes opaque.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   As the preceding.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. With carbonate of soda and nitre gives the
+                         manganese reaction.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+                     COPPER.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Native Copper
+
+Formula.                 Cu.
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     --
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses to a brilliant metallic bead, which on
+                         cooling becomes covered with a coating of black
+                         oxide.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        Fuses and colors the outer flame blue.
+
+  (5) in borax.          In the oxidizing flame dissolves and then gives
+                         the copper reactions.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   --
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Vitreous Copper
+
+Formula.                 Cu^{2}S.
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     --
+
+  (2) in open tube.      Evolves SO^{2} and, when pulverized and gently
+                         heated for some time is converted into CuO.
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses to a bead, which spirts considerably and
+                         gives off SO^{2}. When pulverized and gently
+                         roasted, is converted into CuO.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        --
+
+  (5) in borax.          The roasted mineral gives the copper reaction,
+                         and sometimes also a slight iron-reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   In the reducing flame is decomposed, forming NaS
+                         and metallic copper. If the former be cut out
+                         and laid upon silver, it gives the sulfur
+                         reaction.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Copper pyrites
+
+Formula.                 [,Cu=][,,,Fe=].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Decrepitates, sometimes gives a sublimate of
+                         sulphur and becomes bronze colored on the
+                         surface.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      Evolves SO^{2} and is finally converted into a
+                         dark red mixture of Fe^{2}O^{3} and CuO.
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses readily with much ebullition and is
+                         magnetic on cooling.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        --
+
+  (5) in borax.          As the preceding; but when the copper has been
+                         removed by reducing on charcoal, the bead shows
+                         a strong iron color.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As the preceding, but the color in the oxidizing
+                         flame is green, owing to the presence of iron.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Yields a bead of metallic copper and some
+                         magnetic oxide of iron which remains on the
+                         charcoal. The fused gives a sulphur reaction on
+                         silver.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Fahlerz
+
+Formula.                 ([,Cu=][,Ag][,Fe][,Zn])^{4} ([,,,Sb][,,,As]).
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Sometimes decrepitates, fuses, and when very
+                         strongly heated, gives a red sublimate of
+                         [,,,Sb] with [...Sb], also sometimes a black
+                         sublimate of [,Hg] and occasionally [,,,As].
+
+  (2) in open tube.      Fuses and gives off thick fumes of SbO^{3} and
+                         SO^{2}, also generally AsO^{3}, leaving a black
+                         infusible residue. If Hg be present, it is
+                         sublimed and condenses in the tube in small
+                         drops.
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses to a bead, which fumes strongly and
+                         incrusts the charcoal with SbO^{3}, and
+                         sometimes ZnO, which cannot be volatilized.
+                         Emits a strong smell of arsenic.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        --
+
+  (5) in borax.          The residue obtained on charcoal thoroughly
+                         roasted gives a copper reaction, and when the
+                         latter has been removed by reduction upon
+                         charcoal, an iron reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in the preceding.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   With this flux and a little borax yields a bead
+                         of metallic copper; on silver, the alkaline mass
+                         gives a sulphur reaction.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. If the copper bead obtained by fusing upon
+                         carbonate of soda be cupelled with assay lead, a
+                         silver bead will be obtained. Or if dissolved in
+                         nitric acid and a drop or two of HCl added, a
+                         white precipitate of AgCl will be formed, which
+                         may be collected and reduced with carbonate of
+                         soda upon charcoal.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Tennatite
+
+Formula.                 ([,Cu=][,Fe=])^{4}[,,,As].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Decrepitates occasionally and gives a red
+                         sublimate of [,,,As].
+
+  (2) in open tube.      Evolves [..S] and [...As], which condense and
+                         form a white sublimate.
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses to a magnetic bead giving of arsenical and
+                         sulphurous fumes.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        --
+
+  (5) in borax.          As the preceding.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As the preceding.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Yields a copper bead and metallic iron in the
+                         form of a dark grey powder. The fused alkali
+                         gives the sulphur reaction.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Bournonite
+
+Formula.                 ([,Pb]^{2}[,Cu=])[,,,Sb].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Decrepitates giving off sulfur and, when
+                         strongly heated, [,,,Sb] and [...Sb].
+
+  (2) in open tube.      Evolves thick white fumes of [...Sb],[.....Sb]
+                         and [.Pb][...Sb]. Also [.S].
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses readily and incrusts the charcoal with
+                         [...Sb] and [.Pb] leaving a dark colored bead.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        --
+
+  (5) in borax.          If the bead obtained on charcoal be fused on
+                         that support in the reducing flame with borax, a
+                         slight iron reaction is obtained, and after a
+                         time a copper reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As with borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Yields a bead of metallic copper and lead and
+                         incrusts the charcoal with [...Sb] and [.Pb].
+                         The alkaline mass laid on silver and moistened
+                         gives the sulphur reaction.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Red oxide of copper
+
+Formula.                 Cu^{2}O
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     --
+
+  (2) in open tube.      Is converted into the black oxide CuO.
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       In the reducing flame is reduced, forming a
+                         bead of metallic copper.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        Fuses and colors the the flame emerald
+                         green, or if previously moistened with HCl,
+                         blue.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Gives the copper reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As with borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Is reduced to a bead of metallic copper.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Atacamite
+
+Formula.                 CuCl + 3[.Cu] + 6[.H].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Gives off much water, having an acid
+                         reaction, on test paper, and forms a light
+                         grey sublimate of CuCl.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses, colors the flame blue, forms a brown
+                         and a pale grey incrustation on the
+                         charcoal, and is reduced to metallic copper,
+                         leaving a small quantity of slag.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        Fuses and colors the outer flame intensely
+                         blue and green towards the point.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Gives the copper reactions.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As with borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Is reduced, yielding a bead of metallic
+                         copper.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Dioptase
+
+Formula.                 [.Cu]^{3}[...Si]^{2} + 3[.H].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Gives off water and turns black.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       In the oxidizing flame becomes black. In the
+                         reducing flame red.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        V. Colors the outer flame intensely green.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Gives the copper reactions.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As with borax. The silica remains
+                         undissolved.
+
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   With a small quantity of carbonate of soda
+                         fuses to a bead, which on cooling is opaque
+                         and has a red fracture. With more alkali
+                         forms a slag, containing little beads of
+                         reduced copper.
+
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Malachite
+
+Formula.                 [.Cu]^{2}[..C] + [.H].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Gives off water and turns black.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses to a bead with a strong flame is
+                         reduced to metallic copper.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        Fuses and colors the outer flame brilliantly
+                         green.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Gives the copper reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As with borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Yields metallic copper.
+
+
+  (8) Special reactions. Dissolves in HCl with much effervescence.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Blue vitriol
+
+Formula.                 [.Cu][...S] + 5[.H].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Intumesces, gives off water and becomes
+                         white.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      Strongly heated is decomposed, given off
+                         SO^{2} and being converted into CuO.
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       As in the glass-bulb. Then fuses, coloring
+                         the outer flame green, and is reduced to
+                         metallic copper and [,Cu=].
+
+  (4) in forceps.        Fuses and colors the outer flame blue.
+
+  (5) in borax.          The roasted mineral gives copper reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Yields metallic copper. The alkaline mass
+                         laid on silver gives S reaction.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. Gives the sulphuric acid reaction.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Libethenite
+
+Formula.                 [.Cu]^{4}[.....P] + 2[.H].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Gives off water and turns black.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Gradually heated, turns black and fuses to a
+                         bead, having a core of metallic copper.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        Fuses but does not color the flame
+                         distinctly. On cooling is black and
+                         crystalline.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Gives the copper reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   With much of the alkali is decomposed,
+                         yielding metallic copper. With small
+                         portions successively added first fuses and
+                         then intumesces, fuses with a strong flame,
+                         and is then absorbed into the charcoal,
+                         leaving metallic copper.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. Gives the phosphoric acid reaction.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Olivenite
+
+Formula.                 [.Cu]^{4}([.....As][.....P]) + [.H].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Gives off water.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses with detonation and the evolution of
+                         arsenical fumes to a brittle regulus, brown
+                         externally and having a white fracture.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        Fuses and colors the outer flame green. On
+                         cooling has a crystalline surface.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Gives the copper reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Is reduced, yielding metallic copper.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. Gives the arsenic reactions.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+                    ANTIMONY.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Native antimony
+
+Formula.                 Sb.
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Fuses and, when strongly heated, volatilizes
+                         being redeposited in the tube as a dark grey
+                         sublimate.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      Fuses and gives off dense white fumes, which
+                         are partly redeposited on the tube.
+                         Sometimes also gives off arsenical fumes in
+                         small quantity.
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses and gives off dense white fumes, which
+                         thickly incrust the charcoal and color the
+                         flame blue immediately beyond the assay.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        --
+
+  (5) in borax.          The oxide formed upon charcoal gives the
+                         antimony reactions.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   --
+
+  (8) Special reactions. The incrustation on the charcoal, if treated
+                         with nitrate of cobalt assumes the
+                         characteristic green color.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Grey antimony
+
+Formula.                 SbS^{3}.
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Fuses readily and occasionally gives off a
+                         small quantity of sulphur. Strongly heated
+                         forms a brown sublimate of SbS^{3} and
+                         SbO^{3}.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      Fuses and gives off SO^{2}, which passes off
+                         up the tube, and dense white fumes of
+                         SbO^{3} and SbO^{5} which are partly
+                         deposited in the tube.
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses and is partly absorbed by the charcoal
+                         and partly volatilized, incrusting the
+                         charcoal with the characteristic white
+                         oxides. Colors the flame blue.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        --
+
+  (5) in borax.          As the preceding.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Fuses and is reduced, yielding metallic
+                         antimony, which behaves as the preceding
+                         mineral upon charcoal. The alkaline mass
+                         gives the sulphur reaction.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. As the preceding.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Antimony blende
+
+Formula.                 [,,,Sb]^{2} + [...Sb].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Fuses easily, gives off first SbO^{3} and
+                         afterwards an orange colored sublimate.
+                         Strongly heated, is decomposed and gives a
+                         black sublimate, which becomes brown on
+                         cooling.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      As the preceding.
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       As the preceding.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        --
+
+  (5) in borax.          As native antimony.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   As the preceding.
+
+
+  (8) Special reactions. As native antimony.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 White antimony
+
+Formula.                 SbO^{3}.
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Is sublimed and recondensed in the neck of
+                         the tube.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      As in the glass-bulb.
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses with the evolution of dense white
+                         fumes, which incrust the surface of the
+                         charcoal. In the reducing flame is partly
+                         reduced, yielding metallic antimony. Colors
+                         flame blue.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        Fuses and is volatilized, coloring the outer
+                         flame blue.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Gives the antimony reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   In the reducing flame is reduced, yielding
+                         metallic antimony.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. As native antimony.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+                    ARSENIC.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Native arsenic
+
+Formula.                 As.
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Sublimes without fusion and recondenses as a
+                         dark grey metallic sublimate, sometimes
+                         leaving a small residue.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      If gently heated in a good current of air
+                         passes off as AsO^{3}, which is partly
+                         condensed as a white sublimate in the upper
+                         part of the tube.
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Passes off as AsO^{3}, which thinly incrusts
+                         the charcoal beyond the assay.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        Colors the flame blue.
+
+  (5) in borax.          --
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      --
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   --
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Realgar
+
+Formula.                 AsS^{2}.
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Fuses, enters into ebullition and is
+                         sublimed as a transparent red sublimate.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      Gently heated passes off as SO^{2} and
+                         AsO^{3}, the latter of which is redeposited
+                         in the upper part of the tube.
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses and passes off as arsenious and
+                         sulphurous acids.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        Fuses and colors the flame blue.
+
+  (5) in borax.          --
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      --
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   As on charcoal, except that the S combines
+                         with the alkali forming NaS, which on silver
+                         gives the sulphur reaction.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Orpiment
+
+Formula.                 AsS^{3}.
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     As the preceding, except that the sublimate
+                         is of a dark yellow color when cold.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      As the preceding.
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       As the preceding.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        As the preceding.
+
+  (5) in borax.          --
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      --
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   As the preceding.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 White arsenic
+
+Formula.                 AsO^{3}.
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Sublimes without fusion and re-condenses in
+                         white crystals.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Sublimes and is partly recondensed on
+                         charcoal forming a white incrustation.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        Colors the flame blue.
+
+  (5) in borax.          --
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      --
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   --
+
+  (8) Special reactions. Heated with charcoal in a glass-tube sealed
+                         at one end, is reduced and metallic arsenic
+                         sublimes.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+                    MERCURY.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Native mercury
+
+Formula.                 Hg.
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Volatilizes with little or no residue and
+                         recondenses in neck of bulb.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Is volatilized.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        --
+
+  (5) in borax.          --
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      --
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   --
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Cinnabar
+
+Formula.                 HgS.
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Volatilizes sometimes leaving a slight
+                         earthy residue, and re-condenses as a black
+                         sulphide.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      If gently heated is decomposed into metallic
+                         mercury, which volatilizes and recondenses
+                         in the upper part of the tube, and SO^{2},
+                         which passes off as is easily recognized by
+                         its odor and bleaching properties.
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Is volatilized, generally leaving a small
+                         earthy residue.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        --
+
+  (5) in borax.          --
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      --
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   With carbonate of soda and cyanide of
+                         potassium is decomposed and metallic mercury
+                         volatilized.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. When in the preceding experiment the mercury
+                         has been entirely dissipated, the alkaline
+                         residue laid on silver gives a sulphur
+                         reaction.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Native amalgam
+
+Formula.                 AgHg^{2}.
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     As native mercury, but leaves a residue of
+                         pure silver.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       The mercury volatilizes leaving the silver,
+                         which fuses to a bead, and, in the oxidizing
+                         flame, incrusts the charcoal with its
+                         characteristic oxide.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        --
+
+  (5) in borax.          --
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      --
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   --
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+                    SILVER.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Native silver
+
+Formula.                 Ag.
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     --
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses and in a strong oxidizing flame forms
+                         an incrustation of dark brown oxide on the
+                         charcoal. If any antimony be present, it
+                         affords a crimson incrustation.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        --
+
+  (5) in borax.          Gives the silver reactions.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   --
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Antimonial silver
+
+Formula.                 Ag^{2}Sb.
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     --
+
+  (2) in open tube.      Gives off dense white fumes, which are
+                         partly deposited in the tube.
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses, fumes strongly, forming a white
+                         incrustation, and when the antimony is
+                         nearly expelled a crimson one, a nearly pure
+                         silver bead remains.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        --
+
+  (5) in borax.          The incrustation formed on charcoal gives an
+                         antimony reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   As alone on charcoal.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Silver glance
+
+Formula.                 AgS.
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     --
+
+  (2) in open tube.      Gives off sulphurous acid.
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Gives off SO^{2} and is reduced to metallic
+                         silver. If impure, a small quantity of slag
+                         also remains.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        --
+
+  (5) in borax.          The residual slag (if any) obtained upon
+                         charcoal gives an iron reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   As alone on charcoal. The alkaline mass gives
+                         a sulphur reaction on polished silver.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Stephanite
+
+Formula.                 [,Ag]^{6}[,,,Sb].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Decrepitates, fuses and gives a slight
+                         sublimate of sulphide of antimony.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      Fuses and gives off SO^{2} and dense white
+                         antimonial fumes.
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses and incrusts the charcoal with
+                         antimonious acid, leaving Ag with some
+                         antimony. If the flame be continued, a red
+                         incrustation is formed and finally a bead of
+                         pure silver remains surrounded by a small
+                         slag.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        --
+
+  (5) in borax.          The residual slag obtained on the charcoal
+                         gives an iron and copper reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   The silver is reduced and the antimony
+                         passes off in dense fumes. The fused alkali
+                         gives the sulphur reaction on silver.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Pyargyrite
+
+Formula.                 [,Ag]^{3}[,,,Sb].
+
+Behavior
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Sometimes decrepitates, fuses readily, and,
+                         when strongly heated, gives a red sublimate
+                         of SbS^{3}.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      As in the preceding.
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses with much spirting and covers the
+                         charcoal with antimonial fumes. When the
+                         residual AgS is heated for some time in the
+                         oxidizing flame, a bead of pure silver is
+                         obtained.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        --
+
+  (5) in borax.          --
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      --
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   As the preceding.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Proustite
+
+Formula.                 [,Ag]^{3}[,,,As].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Fuses and at a low red heat affords a small
+                         sublimate of AsS^{3}.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      Gradually heated it gives off AsO^{3} and
+                         SO^{2}. Sometimes also antimony fumes.
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       As the preceding, except that a large
+                         quantity of AsO^{3} and but little SbO^{3}
+                         are given off.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        --
+
+  (5) in borax.          --
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      --
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   As stephanite, except that much arsenic is
+                         given off and but little antimony.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Horn silver
+
+Formula.                 AgCl.
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Fuses, but undergoes no further change.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses readily in the oxidizing flame. In the
+                         reducing flame is slowly reduced yielding
+                         metallic silver.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        --
+
+  (5) in borax.          --
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      --
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Is rapidly reduced to metallic silver.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. If cut up into small pieces mixed with oxide
+                         of copper and then heated before the
+                         oxidizing flame upon charcoal, it colors the
+                         flame blue.
+
+
+                    THE END.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Transcriber's Notes:
+
+   Text italicized in the original book is surrounded by '_'.
+
+   This book had many columnar tables, often split across pages. These
+   have been transformed in data sheets for readability.
+
+   The notation ^{#} is used for superscripted numbers, indicating
+   the composition of the various chemical compounds.
+
+   Some of the element symbols were differenced by markings that
+   were not defined in the book, but are supposed to be valence
+   markings. These have been transcribed as follows:
+
+      '.'  or ',' above element symbol   [?.Symbol] or [?,Symbol]
+      '-' above element symbol           [=Symbol]
+      '-' through element symbol         [Symbol=]
+                                           ...
+   So  [...Al]  where the original text had Al
+                                            _
+       [=M]     where the original text had M
+                                            ,,,
+       [,,,Sb]  where the original text had  Sb
+                                            ...
+       [...Fe=] where the original text had  Fe, line through the Fe.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A System of Instruction in the
+Practical Use of the Blowpipe, by Anonymous
+
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of A System of Instruction in the Practical
+Use of the Blowpipe, by Anonymous
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: A System of Instruction in the Practical Use of the Blowpipe
+       Being A Graduated Course Of Analysis For The Use Of Students
+              And All Those Engaged In The Examination Of Metallic
+              Combinations
+
+Author: Anonymous
+
+Release Date: April 7, 2005 [EBook #15576]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK USE OF THE BLOWPIPE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Curtis Weyant, Victoria Woosley and the PG
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at www.pgdp.net.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+<h1>A SYSTEM OF INSTRUCTION <br/>
+IN THE PRACTICAL USE<br /> OF THE BLOWPIPE.</h1>
+
+<h2>BEING A GRADUATED COURSE OF ANALYSIS FOR THE USE OF STUDENTS
+AND ALL THOSE ENGAGED IN THE EXAMINATION OF METALLIC COMBINATIONS.</h2>
+
+<p class="ctr"><br/><br /><br/> NEW YORK:</p>
+<p class="ctr"> H. BAILLI&Egrave;RE, 290 BROADWAY,</p>
+<p class="ctr"> AND 219 REGENT STREET, LONDON.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"> PARIS: J.B. BAILLI&Egrave;RE ET FILS, RUE HAUTEFEUILLE.</p>
+<p class="ctr"> MADRID: C. BAILLY-BAILLI&Egrave;RE, CALLE DEL PRINCIPE.</p>
+<p class="ctr"> 1858.</p>
+
+<hr class="fw" />
+
+<p class="ctr">ENTERED according to Act of Congress, in the year 1858, by<a name="Page_2"></a>
+C.E. BAILLI&Egrave;RE,
+In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States,
+for the Southern District of New York.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"> W.H. TINSON, Printer and Stereotyper, 43 Centre Street.</p>
+
+<hr class="fw" />
+
+<h2><a name="Page_3"></a><a name="TOC"></a>TABLE OF CONTENTS.</h2>
+
+<div class="ctr">
+<table summary="TOC" width="70%">
+<colgroup span="3"><col width="20px" align="left" /><col align="left" /><col width="20px" align="right" /></colgroup>
+<tr><th colspan="2">PART I.</th></tr>
+<tr><th>&nbsp;</th></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2"><a href="#Page_7">Preface,</a></td><td>7</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2"><a href="#Page_9">The Use of the Blowpipe,</a></td><td>9</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2"><a href="#Page_12">Utensils&mdash;The Blowpipe,</a></td><td>12</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#Page_22">The Oil Lamp,</a></td><td>22</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#Page_23">The Spirit Lamp,</a></td><td>23</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#Page_24">Charcoal Support,</a></td><td>24</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#Page_26">Platinum Supports,</a></td><td>26</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#Page_28">Iron Spoons,</a></td><td>28</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#Page_28">Glass Tubes,</a></td><td>28</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2"><a href="#Page_31">Other Apparatus necessary,</a></td><td>31</td></tr>
+<tr><th>&nbsp;</th></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2"><a href="#Page_34">THE REAGENTS,</a></td><td>34</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Page_34">Reagents of General Use,</a></td><td>34</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#Page_34">Carbonate of Soda,</a></td><td>34</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#Page_35">Hydrate of Baryta,</a></td><td>35</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#Page_35">Bi-sulphate of Potassa,</a></td><td>35</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#Page_36">Oxalate of Potassa,</a></td><td>36</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#Page_36">Cyanide of Potassium,</a></td><td>36<a name="Page_4"></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#Page_37">Nitrate of Potassa,</a></td><td>37</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#Page_38">Borax,</a></td><td>38</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#Page_39">Microcosmic Salt,</a></td><td>39</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#Page_40">Nitrate of Cobalt,</a></td><td>40</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#Page_41">Tin,</a></td><td>41</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#Page_42">Silica,</a></td><td>42</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#Page_42">Test Papers,</a></td><td>42</td></tr>
+<tr><th>&nbsp;</th></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2"><a href="#Page_43">ESPECIAL REAGENTS,</a></td><td>43</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#Page_43">Boracic Acid,</a></td><td>43</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#Page_43">Fluorspar,</a></td><td>43</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#Page_43">Oxalate of Nickel,</a></td><td>43</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#Page_43">Oxide of Copper,</a></td><td>43</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#Page_44">Antimoniate of Potassa,</a></td><td>44</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#Page_44">Silver Foil,</a></td><td>44</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#Page_44">Nitroprusside of Sodium,</a></td><td>44</td></tr>
+<tr><th>&nbsp;</th></tr>
+<tr><th colspan="2">PART II.</th></tr>
+<tr><th>&nbsp;</th></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2"><a href="#Page_47">Initiatory Analysis,</a></td><td>47</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2"><a href="#Page_47">Examination with the Glass Bulb,</a></td><td>47</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2"><a href="#Page_52">Examination in the Open Tube,</a></td><td>52</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2"><a href="#Page_55">Examination  upon Charcoal,</a></td><td>55</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2"><a href="#Page_61">Examination in the Platinum Forceps,</a></td><td>61</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2"><a href="#Page_69">Examination in the Borax Bead,</a></td><td>69</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2"><a href="#Page_72">Examination in Microcosmic Salt,</a></td><td>72</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2"><a href="#Page_75">Table I.&mdash;Colors of Beads of Borax and Microcosmic Salt,</a></td><td>75</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2"><a href="#Page_85">Table II.&mdash;Behavior of Metallic Oxydes with Borax and
+Microcosmic Salt,</a></td><td>85</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2"><a href="#Page_103">Examinations with Carbonate of Soda,</a></td><td>103</td></tr>
+<tr><th>&nbsp;</th></tr>
+<tr><th colspan="2">PART III.</th></tr>
+<tr><th>&nbsp;</th></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2"><a href="#Page_109">Special Reactions,</a></td><td>109</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2"><a href="#METALLIC_OXIDES">A.&mdash;METALLIC OXIDES:</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#Page_110">First Group.&mdash;The Alkalies: Potassa, Soda, Ammonia, and Lithia,</a></td><td>110</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#Page_115">Second Group.&mdash;The Alkaline Earths: Baryta, Strontia, Lime, and Magnesia,</a></td><td>115</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#Page_121">Third Group.&mdash;The Earths: Alumina, Glucina, Yttria, Thorina, and Zirconia,</a></td><td>121</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#Page_124">Fourth Group.&mdash;Cerium, Lanthanium, Didymium, Columbium,
+Niobium, Pelopium, Titanium, Uranium, Vanadium, Chromium,
+Manganese,</a></td><td>124</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#Page_135">Fifth Group.&mdash;Iron, Cobalt, Nickel,</a></td><td>135</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#Page_140">Sixth Group.&mdash;Zinc, Cadmium, Antimony, Tellurium,</a></td><td>140</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#Page_149">Seventh Group.&mdash;Lead, Bismuth, Tin,</a></td><td>149</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#Page_157">Eighth Group.&mdash;Mercury, Arsenic,</a></td><td>157</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#Page_161">Ninth Group.&mdash;Copper, Silver, Gold,</a></td><td>161</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#Page_165">Tenth Group.&mdash;Molybdenum, Osmium,</a></td><td>165</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#Page_167">Eleventh Group.&mdash;Platinum, Palladium, Iridium, Rhodium, Ruthenium,</a></td><td>167</td></tr>
+<tr><th>&nbsp;</th></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2"><a href="#Page_168">Non-Metallic Substances,</a></td><td>168</td></tr>
+<tr><th>&nbsp;</th></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2"><a href="#Page_178">Tabular Statement of the Reactions of Minerals before the Blowpipe,</a></td><td>178</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#Page_181">Carbon and Organic Minerals,</a></td><td>181</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#Page_184">Potassa,</a></td><td>184</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#Page_186">Soda,</a></td><td>186</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#Page_190">Baryta and Strontia,</a></td><td>190</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#Page_192">Lime,</a></td><td>192</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#Page_196">Magnesia,</a></td><td>196</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#Page_200">Alumina,</a></td><td>200</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#Page_204">Silicates,</a></td><td>204</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#Page_212">Uranium,</a></td><td>212</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#Page_214">Iron,</a></td><td>214</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#Page_222">Manganese,</a></td><td>222</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#Page_226">Nickel and Cobalt,</a></td><td>226</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#Page_232">Zinc,</a></td><td>232</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#Page_234">Bismuth,</a></td><td>234</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#Page_238">Lead,</a></td><td>238</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#Page_248">Copper,</a></td><td>248</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#Page_256">Antimony,</a></td><td>256</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#Page_260">Arsenic,</a></td><td>260</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#Page_262">Mercury,</a></td><td>262</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#Page_264">Silver,</a></td><td>264</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<hr class="fw" />
+
+<h2><a name="Page_7"></a>PREFACE.</h2>
+
+<p>It is believed the arrangement of the present work is superior to that
+of many of its predecessors, as a vehicle for the facilitation of the
+student's progress. While it does not pretend to any other rank than
+as an introduction to the larger works, it is hoped that the
+arrangement of its matter is such that the beginner may more readily
+comprehend the entire subject of Blowpipe Analysis than if he were to
+begin his studies by the perusal of the more copious works of
+Berzelius and Plattner.</p>
+
+<p>When the student shall have gone through these pages, and repeated the
+various reactions described, then he will be fully prepared to enter
+upon the study of the larger works. To progress through them will then
+be but a comparatively easy task.</p>
+
+
+<p>The arrangement of this little work has been such as the author and
+his friends have considered the best that could be devised for the
+purpose of facilitating the progress of the <a name="Page_8"></a>student. Whether we have
+succeeded is left for the public to decide. The author is indebted to
+several of his friends for valuable contributions and suggestions.</p>
+
+
+<div class="signature"><p>S.</p>
+
+<p>CINCINNATI, <i>June</i>, 1857.</p></div>
+
+<hr class="heavy" />
+
+<h1 id="title2"><a name="Page_9"></a>THE BLOWPIPE.</h1>
+
+<hr class="heavy" />
+
+
+<h2>Part First.</h2>
+
+<h3>THE USE OF THE BLOWPIPE.</h3><p class="rtntoc"><a href="#TOC">Go to TOC</a></p>
+
+
+<p>Perhaps during the last fifty years, no department of chemistry has
+been so enriched as that relating to analysis by means of the
+Blowpipe.</p>
+
+<p>Through the unwearied exertions of men of science, the use of this
+instrument has arrived to such a degree of perfection, that we have a
+right to term its use, &quot;Analysis in the <i>dry</i> way,&quot; in contradistinction
+to analysis &quot;in the <i>wet</i> way.&quot; The manipulations are so simple and
+expeditious, and the results so clear and characteristic, that the
+Blowpipe analysis not only verifies and completes the results of
+analysis in the wet way, but it gives in many cases direct evidences
+of the presence or absence of many substances, which would not be
+otherwise detected, but through a troublesome and tedious process,
+involving both prolixity and time; for instance, the detection of
+manganese in minerals.</p>
+
+<p>Many substances have to go through Blowpipe manipulations before they
+can be submitted to an analysis in the wet way.<a name="Page_10"></a> The apparatus and
+reagents employed are compendious and small in number, so that they
+can be carried easily while on scientific excursions, a considerable
+advantage for mineralogists and metallurgists.</p>
+
+<p>The principal operations with the Blowpipe may be explained briefly as
+follows:</p>
+
+
+<p>(a.) By <i>Ignition</i> is meant the exposure of a substance to such a
+degree of heat, that it glows or emits light, or becomes red-hot. Its
+greatest value is in the separation of a volatile substance from one
+less volatile, or one which is entirely fixed at the temperature of
+the flame. In this case we only take cognizance of the latter or fixed
+substance, although in many instances we make use of ignition for the
+purpose of changing the conditions of a substance, for example, the
+sesquioxide of chromium (Cr<sup>2</sup>O<sup>3</sup>) in its insoluble modification;
+and as a preliminary examination for the purpose of ascertaining
+whether the subject of inquiry be a combination of an organic or
+inorganic nature.</p>
+
+<p>The apparatus used for this purpose are crucibles of platinum or
+silver, platinum foil, a platinum spoon, platinum wire or tongs,
+charcoal, glass tubes, and iron spoons.</p>
+
+
+<p>(b.) <i>Sublimation</i> is that process by which we convert a solid
+substance into vapor by means of a strong heat. These vapors are
+condensed by refrigeration into the solid form. It may be termed a
+distillation of a solid substance. Sublimation is of great consequence
+in the detection of many substances; for instance, arsenic, antimony,
+mercury, etc.</p>
+
+<p>The apparatus used for the purposes of sublimation consist of glass
+tubes closed at one end.</p>
+
+<p>(c.) <i>Fusion</i>.&mdash;Many substances when exposed to a certain degree of
+heat lose their solid form, and are converted into a liquid. Those
+substances which do not become converted into the liquid state by
+heat, are said to be infusible. It is a convenient classification to
+arrange substances into those which are fusible with difficulty, and
+those which are easily fusible. Very often we resort to fusion for the
+purpose of decomposing a <a name="Page_11"></a>substance, or to cause it to enter into
+other combinations, by which means it is the more readily detected. If
+insoluble substances are fused with others more fusible (reagents) for
+the purpose of causing a combination which is soluble in water and
+acids, the operation is termed <i>unclosing</i>. These substances are
+particularly the silicates and the sulphates of the alkaline earths.
+The usual reagents resorted to for this purpose are carbonate of soda
+(NaO, CO<sup>2</sup>), carbonate of potash (KO, CO<sup>2</sup>), or still better, a
+mixture of the two in equal parts. In some cases we use the hydrate of
+barytes (BaO, HO) and the bisulphate of potash (KO, 2SO<sup>3</sup>). The
+platinum spoon is generally used for this manipulation.</p>
+
+<p>Substances are exposed to fusion for the purpose of getting a new
+combination which has such distinctive characteristics that we can
+class it under a certain group; or for the purpose of ascertaining at
+once what the substance may be. The reagents used for this purpose are
+borax (NaO, 2BrO<sup>3</sup>) and the microcosmic salt (NaO, NH<sup>4</sup>O, PO<sup>5</sup>,
+HO). Charcoal and the platinum wire are used as supports for this kind
+of operation.</p>
+
+<p>(d.) <i>Oxidation</i>.&mdash;The chemical combination of any substance with
+oxygen is termed <i>oxidation</i>, and the products are termed <i>oxides</i>. As
+these oxides have qualities differing from those which are
+non-oxidized, it therefore frequently becomes necessary to convert
+substances into oxides; or, if they are such, of a lower degree, to
+convert them into a higher degree of oxidation. These different states
+of oxidation frequently present characteristic marks of identity
+sufficient to enable us to draw conclusions in relation to the
+substance under examination. For instance, the oxidation of manganese,
+of arsenic, etc. The conditions necessary for oxidation, are high
+temperature and the free admission of air to the substance.</p>
+
+<p>If the oxidation is effected through the addition of a substance
+containing oxygen (for instance, the nitrate or chlorate of potash)
+and the heating is accompanied by a lively deflagration and crackling
+noise, it is termed <i>detonation</i>. By this <a name="Page_12"></a>process we frequently
+effect the oxidation of a substance, and thus we prove the presence or
+the absence of a certain class of substances. For instance, if we
+detonate (as it is termed by the German chemists) the sulphide of
+antimony, or the sulphide of arsenic with nitrate of potash, we get
+the nitrate of antimony, or the nitrate of arsenic. The salts of
+nitric or chloric acid are determined by fusing them with the cyanide
+of potassium, because the salts of these acids detonate.</p>
+
+<p>(e.) <i>Reduction</i>.&mdash;If we deprive an oxidized substance of its
+oxygen, we term the process <i>reduction</i>. This is effected by fusing
+the substance under examination with another which possesses a greater
+affinity for oxygen. The agents used for reduction are hydrogen,
+charcoal, soda, cyanide of potassium, etc. Substances generally, when
+in the unoxidized state, have such characteristic qualities, that they
+cannot very readily be mistaken for others. For this reason, reduction
+is a very excellent expedient for the purpose of discerning and
+classifying many substances.</p>
+
+
+<h3>B. UTENSILS.</h3><p class="rtntoc"><a href="#TOC">Go to TOC</a></p>
+<p>We shall give here a brief description of the most necessary apparatus
+used for analysis in the dry way, and of their use.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+<img src="images/fig1.png" width="149" height="500" alt="FIG 1" title="Blowpipe" />
+</div>
+
+<p>
+<i>The Blowpipe</i> is a small instrument, made generally out of brass,
+silver, or German silver, and was principally used in earlier times
+for the purpose of soldering small pieces of metals together. It is
+generally made in the form of a tube, bent at a right angle, but
+without a sharp corner. The largest one is about seven inches long,
+and the smallest about two inches. The latter one terminates with a
+small point, with a small orifice. The first use of the blowpipe that
+we have recorded is that of a Swedish mining officer, who used it in
+the year 1738 for chemical purposes, but we have the most meagre
+accounts of his operations. In 1758 another Swedish mining officer, by
+the name of Cronstedt, published his &quot;Use of the Blowpipe in<a name="Page_13"></a>
+Chemistry and Mineralogy,&quot; translated into English, in 1770, by Van
+Engestroem. Bergman extended its use, and after him Ghan and the
+venerable Berzelius (1821). The blowpipe most generally used in
+chemical examinations is composed of the following parts: (<i>Fig. 1.</i>)
+A is a little reservoir made air-tight by grinding the part B into it.
+This reservoir serves the purpose of retaining the moisture with which
+the air from the mouth is charged. A small conical tube is fitted to
+this reservoir. This tube terminates in a fine orifice. As this small
+point is liable to get clogged up with soot, etc., it is better that
+it should be made of platinum, so that it may be ignited. Two of these
+platinum tubes should be supplied, differing in the size of the
+orifice, by which a stronger or lighter current of flame may be
+projected from it. Metals, such as brass or German silver, are very
+liable to become dirty through oxidation, and when placed between the
+lips are liable to impart a disagreeable taste. To avoid this, the top
+of the tube must be supplied with a mouthpiece of ivory or horn C. The
+blowpipe here represented is the one used by Ghan, and approved by
+Berzelius. The trumpet mouthpiece was adopted by Plattner; it is
+pressed upon the lips while blowing, which is less tiresome than
+holding the mouthpiece between the lips, although many prefer the
+latter mode.
+</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Black's blowpipe is as good an instrument and cheaper.<a name="Page_14"></a> It
+consists of two tubes, soldered at a right angle; the larger one, into
+which the air is blown, is of sufficient capacity to serve as a
+reservoir.</p>
+
+<p>A chemist can, with a blowpipe and a piece of charcoal, determine many
+substances without any reagents, thus enabling him, even when
+travelling, to make useful investigations with means which are always
+at his disposal. There are pocket blowpipes as portable as a pencil
+case, such as Wollaston's and Mitscherlich's; these are objectionable
+for continued use as their construction requires the use of a metallic
+mouthpiece. Mr. Casamajor, of New York, has made one lately which has
+an ivory mouthpiece, and which, when in use, is like Dr. Black's.</p>
+
+<p>The length of the blowpipe is generally seven or eight inches, but
+this depends very much upon the visual angle of the operators. A
+short-sighted person, of course, would <a name="Page_15"></a>require an instrument of less
+length than would suit a far-sighted person.</p>
+
+<p>The purpose required of the blowpipe is to introduce a fine current of
+air into the flame of a candle or lamp, by which a higher degree of
+heat is induced, and consequently combustion is more rapidly
+accomplished.</p>
+
+<div  class="figright"><img src="images/fig2.png"  width="233" height="400" alt="FIG 2" title="" /></div>
+
+<p>By inspecting the flame of a candle burning under usual circumstances,
+we perceive at the bottom of the flame a portion which is of a light
+blue color (<i>a b</i>), <i>Fig</i>. 2, which gradually diminishes in size
+as it recedes from the wick, and disappears when it reaches the
+perpendicular side of the flame. In the midst of the flame there is a
+dark nucleus with a conical form (<i>c</i>). This is enveloped by the
+illuminating portion of the flame (<i>d</i>). At the exterior edge of the
+part <i>d</i> we perceive a thin, scarcely visible veil, <i>a, e, e</i>, which
+is broader near the apex of the flame. The action of the burning
+candle may be thus explained. The radiant heat from the flame melts
+the tallow or wax, which then passes up into the texture of the wick
+by capillary attraction until it reaches the glowing wick, where the
+heat decomposes the combustible matter into carbonated hydrogen
+(C<sup>4</sup>H<sup>4</sup>), and into carbonic oxide (CO).
+</p>
+
+<p>While these gases are rising in hot condition, the air comes in
+contact with them and effects their combustion. The dark portion, <i>c</i>,
+of the flame is where the carbon and gases have not a sufficiency of
+air for their thorough combustion; but gradually they become mixed
+with air, although not then sufficient for complete combustion. The
+hydrogen is first oxidized or burnt, and then the carbon is attacked
+by the air, although particles of carbon are separated, and it is
+these, in a state of intense ignition, which produce the illumination.
+By bringing any oxidizable substance into this portion of the flame,
+it oxidizes very quickly in consequence of the high temperature and
+the free access of air. For that reason this part of the flame is
+termed the oxidizing flame, while the illuminating portion, by its
+tendency to abstract oxygen for the purpose of complete combustion,
+easily reduces oxidated substances <a name="Page_16"></a>brought into it, and it is,
+therefore, called the flame of reduction. In the oxidizing flame, on
+the contrary, all the carbon which exists in the interior of the flame
+is oxidized into carbonic acid (CO<sup>2</sup>) and carbonic oxide (CO), while
+the blue color of the cone of the flame is caused by the complete
+combustion of the carbonic oxide. These two portions of the flame&mdash;the
+oxidizing and the reducing&mdash;are the principal agents of blowpipe
+analysis.</p>
+
+<p>If we introduce a fine current of air into a flame, we notice the
+following: The air strikes first the dark nucleus, and forcing the
+gases beyond it, mixes with them, by which oxygen is mingled freely
+with them. This effects the complete combustion of the gases at a
+certain distance from the point of the blowpipe. At this place the
+flame has the highest temperature, forming there the point of a blue
+cone. The illuminated or reducing portion of the flame is enveloped
+outside and inside by a very hot flame, whereby its own temperature is
+so much increased that in this reduction-flame many substances will
+undergo fusion which would prove perfectly refractory in a common
+flame. The exterior scarcely visible part loses its form, is
+diminished, and pressed more to a point, by which its heating power is
+greatly increased.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Blast of Air</i>.&mdash;By using the blowpipe for chemical purposes, the
+effect intended to be produced is an uninterrupted steady stream of
+air for many minutes together, if necessary, without an instant's
+cessation. Therefore, the blowing can only be effected with the
+muscles of the cheeks, and not by the exertion of the lungs. It is
+only by this means that a steady constant stream of air can be kept
+up, while the lungs will not be injured by the deprival of air. The
+details of the proper manner of using the blowpipe are really more
+difficult to describe than to acquire by practice; therefore the pupil
+is requested to apply himself at once to its practice, by which he
+will soon learn to produce a steady current of air, and to distinguish
+the different flames from each other. We would simply say that the
+tongue must be applied to the roof of the <a name="Page_17"></a>mouth, so as to interrupt
+the communication between the passage of the nostrils and the mouth.
+The operator now fills his mouth with air, which is to be passed
+through the pipe by compressing the muscles of the cheeks, while he
+breathes through the nostrils, and uses the palate as a valve. When
+the mouth becomes nearly empty, it is replenished by the lungs in an
+instant, while the tongue is momentarily withdrawn from the roof of
+the mouth. The stream of air can be continued for a long time, without
+the least fatigue or injury to the lungs. The easiest way for the
+student to accustom himself to the use of the blowpipe, is first to
+learn to fill the mouth with air, and while the lips are kept firmly
+closed to breathe freely through the nostrils. Having effected this
+much, he may introduce the mouthpiece of the blowpipe between his
+lips. By inflating the cheeks, and breathing through the nostrils, he
+will soon learn to use the instrument without the least fatigue. The
+air is forced through the tube against the flame by the action of the
+muscles of the cheeks, while he continues to breathe without
+interruption through the nostrils. Having become acquainted with this
+process, it only requires some practice to produce a steady jet of
+flame. A defect in the nature of the combustible used, as bad oil,
+such as fish oil, or oil thickened by long standing or by dirt, dirty
+cotton wick, or an untrimmed one, or a dirty wickholder, or a want of
+steadiness of the hand that holds the blowpipe, will prevent a steady
+jet of flame. But frequently the fault lies in the orifice of the jet,
+or too small a hole, or its partial stoppage by dirt, which will
+prevent a steady jet of air, and lead to difficulty. With a good
+blowpipe the air projects the entire flame, forming a horizontal, blue
+cone of flame, which converges to a point at about an inch from the
+wick, with a larger, longer, and more luminous flame enveloping it,
+and terminating to a point beyond that of the blue flame.</p>
+
+<p>To produce an efficient flame of oxidation, put the point of the
+blowpipe into the flame about one third the diameter of the wick, and
+about one twelfth of an inch above it. This, <a name="Page_18"></a>however, depends upon
+the size of the flame used. Blow strong enough to keep the flame
+straight and horizontal, using the largest orifice for the purpose.
+Upon examining the flame thus produced, we will observe a long, blue
+flame, <i>a b</i>, Fig. 3, which letters correspond with the same letters
+in Fig. 2. But this flame has changed its form, and contains all the
+combustible gases. It forms now a thin, blue cone, which converges to
+a point about an inch from the wick. This point of the flame possesses
+the highest intensity of temperature, for there the combustion of the
+gases is the most complete. In the original flame, the hottest part
+forms the external envelope, but here it is compressed more into a
+point, forming the cone of the blue flame, and likewise an envelope of
+flame surrounding the blue one, extending beyond it from <i>a</i> to <i>c</i>,
+and presenting a light bluish or brownish color. The external flame
+has the highest temperature at <i>d</i>, but this decreases from <i>d</i> to
+<i>c</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><img src="images/fig3.png" width="400" height="288" alt="FIG 3" title="" /></p>
+
+<p>If there is a very high temperature, the oxidation is not effected so
+readily in many cases, unless the substance is removed a little from
+the flame; but if the heat be not too high, it is readily oxidized in
+the flame, or near its cone. If the current <a name="Page_19"></a>of air is blown too
+freely or violently into the flame, more air is forced there than is
+sufficient to consume the gases. This superfluous air only acts
+detrimentally, by cooling the flame.</p>
+
+<p>In general the operation proceeds best when the substance is kept at a
+dull red heat. The blue cone must be kept free from straggling rays of
+the yellow or reduction flame. If the analysis be effected on
+charcoal, the blast should not be too strong, as a part of the coal
+would be converted into carbonic oxide, which would act
+antagonistically to the oxidation. The oxidation flame requires a
+steady current of air, for the purpose of keeping the blue cone
+constantly of the same length. For the purpose of acquiring practice,
+the following may be done: Melt a little molybdenic acid with some
+borax, upon a platinum wire, about the sixteenth of an inch from the
+point of the blue cone. In the pure oxidation flame, a clear yellowish
+glass is formed; but as soon as the reduction flame reaches it, or the
+point of the blue cone touches it, the color of the bead changes to a
+brown, which, finally, after a little longer blowing, becomes quite
+dark, and loses its transparency. The cause of this is, that the
+molybdenic acid is very easily reduced to a lower degree of oxidation,
+or to the oxide of molybdenum. The flame of oxidation will again
+convert this oxide into the acid, and this conversion is a good test
+of the progress of the student in the use of the blowpipe. In cases
+where we have to separate a more oxidizable substance from a less one,
+we use with success the blue cone, particularly if we wish to
+determine whether a substance has the quality, when submitted to heat
+in the blue cone, of coloring the external flame.</p>
+
+<p>A good <i>reduction</i> flame can be obtained by the use of a small orifice
+at the point of the blowpipe. In order to produce such a flame, hold
+the point of the blowpipe higher above the wick, while the nozzle must
+not enter the flame so far as in the production of the oxidation
+flame. The point of the blowpipe should only touch the flame, while
+the current of air blown into it must be stronger than into the
+oxidation flame. If we project a stream, in the manner mentioned, into
+the flame, from <a name="Page_20"></a>the smaller side of the wick to the middle, we shall
+perceive the flame changed to a long, narrow, luminous cone, <i>a b</i>,
+Fig. 4, the end <i>a</i> of which is enveloped by the same dimly visible
+blueish colored portion of the flame <i>a, c</i>, which we perceive in the
+original flame, with its point at <i>c</i>. The portion close above the
+wick, presenting the dull appearance, is occasioned by the rising
+gases which have not supplied to them enough oxygen to consume them
+entirely. The hydrogen is consumed, while the carbon is separated in a
+state of bright ignition, and forms the internal flame.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><img src="images/fig4.png" width="400" height="321" alt="FIG 4" title="" /></p>
+
+<p>Directly above the wick, the combustion of the gases is least
+complete, and forms there likewise, as is the case in the free flame,
+a dark blue nucleus <i>d</i>.</p>
+
+<p>If the oxide of a metal is brought into the luminous portion of the
+flame produced as above, so that the flame envelopes the substance
+perfectly, the access of air is prevented. The partially consumed
+gases have now a strong affinity for oxygen, under the influence of
+the intense heat of that part of the flame. The substance is thus
+deprived of a part, or the whole, of its oxygen, and becomes <i>reduce</i>
+according to the strength of the affinity <a name="Page_21"></a>which the substance itself
+has for oxygen. If the reduction of a substance is undertaken on
+platinum, by fusion with a flux, and if the oxide is difficult to
+reduce, the reduction will be completely effected only in the luminous
+part of the flame. But if a substance be reduced on charcoal, the
+reduction will take place in the blue part of the flame, as long as
+the access of air is cut off; but it is the luminous part of the flame
+which really possesses the greatest reducing power.</p>
+
+<p>The following should be observed in order to procure a good reduction
+flame:</p>
+
+<div class="indent5"><p>The wick should not be too long, that it may make a smoke, nor
+too short, otherwise the flame will be too small to produce a
+heat strong enough for reduction.</p>
+
+<p>The wick must be free from all loose threads, and from
+charcoal.</p>
+
+<p>The blast should be continued for a considerable time without
+intermission, otherwise reduction cannot be effected.</p></div>
+
+<p>For the purpose of acquiring practice, the student may fuse the oxide
+of manganese with borax, upon a platinum wire, in the oxidation flame,
+when a violet-red glass will be obtained; or if too much of the oxide
+be used, a glass of a dark color and opaque will be obtained. By
+submitting this glass to the reduction flame, it will become colorless
+in correspondence to the perfection with which the flame is produced.
+Or a piece of tin may be fused upon charcoal, and kept in that state
+for a considerable time, while it presents the appearance of a bright
+metal on the surface. This will require dexterity in the operator;
+for, if the oxidation flame should chance to touch the bright metal
+only for a moment, it is coated with an infusible oxide.</p>
+
+
+<div  class="figleft"><img src="images/fig5.png" width="416" height="600" alt="FIG 5" title="" /></div>
+
+<p>COMBUSTION.&mdash;Any flame of sufficient size can be used for blowpipe
+operations. It may be either the flame of a candle of tallow or wax,
+or the flame of a lamp. The flame of a wax candle, or of an oil lamp
+is most generally used. Sometimes a lamp is used filled with a
+solution of spirits of turpentine in strong alcohol. If a candle is
+used, it is well to cut the wick <a name="Page_22"></a>off short, and to bend the wick a
+little toward the substance experimented upon. But candles are not the
+best for blowpipe operations, as the radiant heat, reflecting from the
+substance upon the wax or tallow, will cause it to melt and run down
+the side of the candle; while again, candles do not give heat enough.
+The lamp is much the most desirable. The subjoined figure, from
+Berzelius, is perhaps the best form of lamp. It is made of japanned
+tin-plate, about four inches in length, and has <a name="Page_23"></a>the form and
+arrangement represented in Fig. 5. K is the lamp, fastened on the
+stand, S, by a screw, C, and is movable upwards or downwards, as
+represented in the figure. The posterior end of the lamp may be about
+one inch square, and at its anterior end, E, about three-quarters of
+an inch square. The under side of this box may be round, as seen in
+the figure. The oil is poured into the orifice, A, which has a cap
+screwed over it. C' is a wickholder for a flat lamp-wick. <i>a</i> is a
+socket containing the wick, which, when not in use, is secured from
+dirt by the cap. The figures B and <i>a'</i> give the forms of the cap and
+socket. The best combustible for this lamp is the refined rape-seed
+oil, or pure sweet oil. When this lamp is in use, there must be no
+loose threads, or no charcoal on the wick, or these will produce a
+smoky flame. The wick, likewise, should not be pulled up too high, as
+the same smoky flame would be produced.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>THE SPIRIT-LAMP.&mdash;This is a short, strong glass lamp, with a cap, B,
+Fig. 6, fitted to it by grinding, to prevent the evaporation of the
+alcohol. The neck <i>a</i> contains a tube C, made of silver, or of tin
+plate, and which contains the wick. Brass <a name="Page_24"></a>would not answer so well
+for this tube, as the spirits would oxidize it, and thus impart color
+to the flame. The wickholder must cover the edge of the neck, but not
+fit tight within the tube, otherwise, by its expansion, it will break
+the glass. It is not necessary that alcohol, very highly rectified,
+should be burnt in this lamp, although if too much diluted with water,
+enough heat will not be given out. Alcohol of specific gravity 0.84 to
+0.86 is the best.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><img src="images/fig6.png" width="400" height="408" alt="FIG 6" title="" /></p>
+
+<p>This lamp is generally resorted to by blowpipe analysts, for the
+purpose of experiments in glass apparatus, as the oily combustibles
+will coat the glass with soot. Some substances, when exposed to the
+dark part of the flame, become reduced and, <i>in statu nascendi</i>,
+evaporated; but by passing through the external part of the flame,
+they become oxidized again, and impart a color to the flame. The
+spirit flame is the most efficient one for the examination of
+substances the nature of which we wish to ascertain through color
+imparted to the flame, as that of the spirit-lamp being colorless, is,
+consequently, most easily and thoroughly recognized by the slightest
+tinge imparted to it.</p>
+
+<p>It is necessary that in operating with such minute quantities of
+substances as are used in blowpipe analysis, that they should have
+some appropriate support. In order that no false results may ensue, it
+is necessary that the supports should be of such a nature that they
+will not form a chemical combination with the substance while it is
+exposed to fusion or ignition. Appropriate supports for the different
+blowpipe experiments are charcoal, platinum instruments, and glass
+tubes.</p>
+
+<p>(a.) <i>Charcoal</i>.&mdash;The value of charcoal as a support may be stated
+as follows:</p>
+
+<div class="indent5"><p>1. The charcoal is infusible, and being a poor conductor of
+heat, a substance can be exposed to a higher degree of heat
+upon it than upon any other substance.
+</p>
+
+<p>2. It is very porous, and therefore allows easily fusible
+substances (such as alkalies and fluxes) to pass into it,
+while other substances less fusible, such as metals, to remain
+unabsorbed.</p>
+
+<p>3. It has likewise a great reducing power.</p></div>
+
+<p><a name="Page_25"></a>The best kind of charcoal is that of pinewood, linden, willow, or
+alderwood, or any other soft wood. Coal from the firwood sparkles too
+freely, while that of the hard woods contains too much iron in its
+ashes. Smooth pieces, free from bark and knots, should be selected. It
+should be thoroughly burnt, and the annual rings or growths should be
+as close together as possible.</p>
+
+<p>If the charcoal is in masses, it should be sawed into pieces about six
+inches in length by about two inches broad, but so that the
+year-growths run perpendicular to the broadest side, as the other
+sides, by their unequal structure, burn unevenly.</p>
+
+<p>That the substance under examination may not be carried off by the
+blast, small conical concavities should be cut in the broad side of
+the charcoal, between the year-growths, with a conical tube of tin
+plate about two or three inches long, and one quarter of an inch at
+one end, and half an inch at the other. These edges are made sharp
+with a file. The widest end of this charcoal borer is used for the
+purpose of making cavities for cupellation.</p>
+
+<p>In places where the proper kind of charcoal is difficult to procure,
+it is economical to cut common charcoal into pieces about an inch
+broad, and the third of an inch thick. In each of these little pieces
+small cavities should be cut with the small end of the borer. When
+these pieces of charcoal are required for use, they must be fastened
+to a narrow slip of tin plate, one end of which is bent into the form
+of a hook, under which the plate of charcoal is pushed.</p>
+
+<p>In general, we use the charcoal support where we wish to reduce
+metallic oxides, to prevent oxidation, or to test the fusibility of a
+substance. There is another point to which we would direct the
+student. Those metals which are volatile in the reduction flame,
+appear as oxides in the oxidation flame. These oxides make sublimates
+upon the charcoal close in the vicinity of the substance, or where it
+rested, and by their peculiar color indicate pretty correctly the
+species of minerals experimented upon.<a name="Page_26"></a></p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>.) <i>Platinum Supports</i>.&mdash;The metal platinum is infusible in the
+blowpipe flame, and is such a poor conductor of heat that a strip of
+it may be held close to that portion of it which is red hot without
+the least inconvenience to the fingers. It is necessary that the
+student should be cognizant of those substances which would not be
+appropriate to experiment upon if placed on platinum. Metals should
+not be treated upon platinum apparatus, nor should the easily
+reducible oxides, sulphides, nor chlorides, as these substances will
+combine with the platinum, and thus render it unfit for further use in
+analysis.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>c</i>.) <i>Platinum Wire</i>.&mdash;As the color of the flame cannot be well
+discerned when the substance is supported upon charcoal, in
+consequence of the latter furnishing false colors, by its own
+reflection, to the substances under examination, we use platinum wire
+for that purpose, when we wish to examine those substances which give
+indications by the peculiar color which they impart to fluxes. The
+wire should be about as thick as No. 16 or 18 wire, or about 0.4
+millimetre, and cut into pieces about from two and a half to three
+inches in length. The end of each piece is crooked. In order that
+these pieces should remain clear of dirt, and ready for use, they
+should be kept in a glass of water. To use them, we dip the wetted
+hooked end into the powdered flux (borax or microcosmic salt) some of
+which will adhere, when we fuse it in the flame of the blowpipe to a
+bead. This bead hanging in the hook, must be clear and colorless.
+Should there not adhere a sufficient quantity of the flux in the first
+trial to form a bead sufficiently large, the hook must be dipped a
+second time in the flux and again submitted to the blowpipe flame. To
+fix the substance to be examined to the bead, it is necessary, while
+the latter is hot, to dip it in the powdered substance. If the hook is
+cold, we moisten the powder a little, and then dip the hook into it,
+and then expose it to the oxidation flame, by keeping it exposed to a
+regular blast until the substance and the flux are fused together, and
+no further alteration is produced by the flame.<a name="Page_27"></a></p>
+
+<p>The platinum wire can be used except where reduction to the metallic
+state is required. Every reduction and oxidation experiment, if the
+results are to be known by the color of the fluxes, should be effected
+upon platinum wire. At the termination of the experiment or
+investigation, if it be one, to, clean the wire, place it in water,
+which will dissolve the bead.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>d</i>.) <i>Platinum Foil</i>.&mdash;For the heating or fusing of a substance,
+whereby its reduction would be avoided, we use platinum foil as a
+support. This foil should be of the thickness of good writing paper,
+and from two and a half to three inches long, by about half an inch
+broad, and as even and smooth as possible. If it should become injured
+by long use, cut the injured end off, and if it should prove too short
+to be held with the fingers, a pair of forceps may be used to grasp
+it, or it may be placed on a piece of charcoal.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft"><img src="images/fig7.png" width="250" height="138" alt="FIG 7" title="" /></div>
+
+<p>(<i>e</i>.) <i>Platinum Spoon</i>.&mdash;When we require to fuse substances with the
+acid sulphate of potash, or to oxidize them by detonation with nitrate
+of potash, whereby we wish to preserve the oxide produced, we
+generally use a little spoon of platinum, about from nine to fifteen
+millimetres<a name="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1"><sup>[1]</sup></a> in diameter, and shaped as represented in Fig. 7. The
+handle of this spoon is likewise of platinum, and should fit into a
+piece of cork, or be held with the forceps.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>f</i>.) <i>Platinum Forceps or Tongs</i>.&mdash;We frequently are necessitated to
+examine small splinters of metals or minerals directly in the blowpipe
+flame. These pieces of metallic substances are held with the forceps
+or tongs represented as in<a name="Page_28"></a> Fig. 8, where <i>ac</i> is formed of steel, and
+<i>aa</i> are platinum bars inserted between the steel plates. At <i>bb</i> are
+knobs which by pressure so separate the platinum bars <i>aa</i>, that any
+small substance can be inserted between them.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><img src="images/fig8.png" width="600" height="149" alt="FIG 8" title="" /></p>
+
+<p>(<i>g.</i>) <i>Iron Spoons.</i>&mdash;For a preliminary examination iron spoons are
+desirable. They may be made of sheet iron, about one-third of an inch
+in diameter, and are very useful in many examinations where the use of
+platinum would not be desirable.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>h.</i>) <i>Glass Tubes.</i>&mdash;For the separation and recognition of volatile
+substances before the blowpipe flame, we use glass tubes. These should
+be about one-eighth of an inch in diameter, and cut into pieces about
+five or six inches in length. These tubes should have both ends open.</p>
+
+<div  class="figright"><img src="images/fig9.png" width="343" height="600" alt="FIG 9" title="" /></div>
+<p>Tubes are of great value in the examination of volatile substances
+which require oxidizing or roasting, and heating with free access of
+air. Also to ascertain whether a substance under examination will
+sublimate volatile matter of a certain appearance. Such substances are
+selenium, sulphur, arsenic, antimony, and tellurium. These substances
+condense on a cool part of the tube, and they present characteristic
+appearances, or they may be recognized by their peculiar smell. These
+tubes must be made of the best kind of glass, white and difficult of
+fusion, and entirely free from lead. The substance to be examined must
+be put in the tube near one end, and exposed to the flame of the
+blowpipe. The end containing the substance must be held lower than the
+other end, and must be moved a little over the spirit-lamp before a
+draught of air is produced through the tube. It is a good plan to have
+a number <a name="Page_29"></a>of these tubes on hand. After having used a tube we cut off
+that end of it which contained the substance, with a file, and clean
+it from the sublimate, either by heating it over the spirit-lamp, or
+with a piece of paper wound around a wire. It sometimes happens that
+the substance falls out of the tube <a name="Page_30"></a>before it becomes sufficiently
+melted to adhere to the glass. To obviate this, we bend the tube not
+far from the end, at an obtuse angle, and place the substance in the
+angle, whereby the tube may be lowered as much as necessary. Fig. 9
+will give the student a comprehension of the processes described, and
+of the manner of bending the tubes.</p>
+
+<p>(i.) <i>Glass Tubes closed at one End.</i>&mdash;If we wish to expose volatile
+substances to heat, with the exclusion of air as much as possible, or
+to ascertain the contents of water, or other volatile fluids, or for
+the purpose of heating substances which will decrepitate, we use glass
+tubes closed at one end. These tubes must be about one-eighth of an
+inch wide, and from two to three inches in length. They should be made
+of white glass, difficult of fusion, and free from lead. They should
+be closed at one end, as figured in the margin, Fig. 10.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><img src="images/fig10.png" width="500" height="464" alt="FIG 10" title="" /></p>
+
+<p>When a substance is to be examined for the purpose of <a name="Page_31"></a>ascertaining
+whether it contains combustible matter, as sulphur or arsenic, and
+where we wish to avoid oxidation, we use these tubes without extending
+the closed end, in order that there may be as little air admitted as
+possible, as is represented in tube B. But when a substance to be
+examined is to be tested for water, or other incombustible volatile
+matters, we employ tubes with little bulbs blown at one end, such as
+represented at tube A. Here there is room for a circulation of air at
+the bottom of the tube, by which the volatile matter rises more
+easily. In some cases, it is necessary to draw the closed end out to a
+fine point, as in the tubes C and D. Either one or the other of these
+tubes is employed, depending upon the nature of the substance used.
+The sublimates condense at the upper part of the tube <i>a</i>, and can be
+there examined and recognized. These tubes, before being used, must be
+thoroughly dried and cleaned. In experimenting with them, they should
+not be exposed at once to the hottest part of the flame, but should be
+submitted to the heat gradually. If the substance is of such a nature
+that it will sublime at a low heat, the tube should be held more
+horizontal, while a higher heat is attained by bringing the tube to a
+more vertical position.</p>
+
+
+<h3>VARIOUS APPARATUS NECESSARY.</h3><p class="rtntoc"><a href="#TOC">Go to TOC</a></p>
+
+<div  class="figright"><img src="images/fig11.png" width="400" height="461" alt="FIG 11" title="" /></div>
+
+<p><i>Edulcorator or Washing Bottle.</i>&mdash;Take a glass bottle of the capacity
+of about twelve ounces, and close the mouth of it very tight with a
+cork, through which a short glass tube is fitted airtight. The
+external end of this tube is drawn out to a point, with a very fine
+orifice. The bottle should be filled about half full of water. By
+blowing air into the bottle through the tube, and then turning it
+downwards, the compressed air will expel a fine stream of water
+through the fine orifice with considerable force. We use this washing
+bottle, Fig. 11, for the purpose of rinsing the small particles of
+coal from the reduced metals.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Page_32"></a><i>Agate Mortar and Pestle.</i>&mdash;This mortar is used for the purpose of
+pulverizing hard substances, and for mixing fluxes. As this mortar
+will not yield to abrasion, there is no danger of any foreign matter
+becoming mixed with the substance pulverized in it. It should be
+cleaned after use with pumice stone. Steel mortars are very useful for
+the pulverization of hard bodies; but for all those substances which
+require great care in their analysis, and which can be obtained in
+very minute quantity, the agate mortar alone should be used.</p>
+
+<p>A <i>hammer</i> made of steel is necessary. This should have the edge
+square.</p>
+
+<p>A small <i>anvil</i>, polished on the surface, is also required. It is
+frequently used to test the malleability of metals.</p>
+
+<p>A <i>knife</i>, for the purpose of ascertaining the hardness of minerals.</p>
+
+<p>The student should also be provided with several three-edged files,
+and likewise with some flat ones.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft"><img src="images/fig12.png" width="402" height="207" alt="Fig. 12" title="" /></div>
+
+<p>A <i>microscope</i>, an instrument with two lenses, or with such a
+combination of lenses, that they may be used double or single, <a name="Page_33"></a>is
+frequently necessary for the examination of blowpipe experiments, or
+the reaction of the fluxes. Common lenses, howsoever cheap they may
+be, are certainly not recommended. A microscope with achromatic lenses
+can now be purchased so cheap that there is no longer any necessity of
+procuring one with the common lens. Besides, there is no reliability
+whatever to be placed in the revelations of the common lens; while on
+the contrary, the deceptive appearances which minute objects assume
+beneath such lenses are more injurious than otherwise. A small cheap
+set of magnifying glasses are all that is required for the purpose of
+blowpipe analysis, Fig. 12.
+</p>
+
+<p>A small <i>magnet</i> should be kept on hand, for the purpose of testing
+reduced metals.</p>
+
+<p><i>Nippers</i>, for the purpose of breaking off pieces of minerals for
+analysis, without injuring the entire piece, are indispensable, Fig
+13.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><img src="images/fig13.png" width="500" height="251" alt="FIG 13" title="" /></p>
+
+<p>A pair of <i>scissors</i> is required to trim the wick of the and for the
+trimming of the edge of platinum foil.<a name="Page_34"></a></p>
+
+<p>A small <i>spatula</i> should be kept for the purpose of mixing substances
+with fluxes.</p>
+
+
+<h3>THE REAGENTS.</h3><p class="rtntoc"><a href="#TOC">Go to TOC</a></p>
+
+<p>Those substances which possess the property of acting upon other
+substances, in such a characteristic manner that they can be
+recognized, either by their color, or by their effervescence, or by
+the peculiar precipitation produced, are termed <i>reagents</i>. The
+phenomena thus produced is termed <i>reaction</i>. We use those reagents,
+or <i>tests</i>, for the purpose of ascertaining the presence or the
+absence of certain substances, through the peculiar phenomena produced
+when brought in contact with them.</p>
+
+<p>The number of reagents employed in blowpipe analysis is not great, and
+therefore we shall here give a brief description of their preparation
+and use. It is indispensably necessary that they should be chemically
+pure, as every admixture of a foreign substance would only produce a
+false result. Some of them have a strong affinity for water, or are
+deliquescent, and consequently absorb it greedily from the air. These
+must be kept in glass bottles, with glass stoppers, fitted air-tight
+by grinding.</p>
+
+
+<h4>A. REAGENTS OF GENERAL USE.</h4><p class="rtntoc"><a href="#TOC">Go to TOC</a></p>
+
+<p>1. <i>Carbonate of Soda.</i>&mdash;(NaO, CO<sup>2</sup>) Wash the bicarbonate of soda
+(NaO, 2CO<sup>2</sup>) upon a filter, with cold water, until the filtrate
+ceases to give, after neutralization with diluted nitric acid
+(NO<sup>5</sup>), a precipitate with nitrate of baryta, (BaO, NO<sup>5</sup>), or
+nitrate of silver, (AgO, NO<sup>5</sup>). That left upon the filter we make
+red hot in a platinum, silver, or porcelain dish. One atom of carbonic
+acid is expelled, and the residue is carbonate of soda.</p>
+
+<p>A solution of soda must not be changed by the addition of sulphide of
+ammonium. And when neutralized with hydrochloric acid, and evaporated
+to dryness, and again dissolved in water, there must be no residue
+left.<a name="Page_35"></a></p>
+
+<p>Carbonate of soda is an excellent agent in reduction, in consequence
+of its easy fusibility, whereby it causes the close contact of the
+oxides with the charcoal support, so that the blowpipe flame can reach
+every part of the substance under examination.</p>
+
+<p>For the decomposition and determination of insoluble substances,
+particularly the silicates, carbonate of soda is indispensable. But
+for the latter purpose, we use with advantage a mixture of ten parts
+of soda and thirteen parts of dry carbonate of potash, which mixture
+fuses more easily than the carbonate of soda alone.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>Hydrate of Baryta</i> (BaO, HO).&mdash;This salt is used sometimes for the
+detection of alkalies in silicates. Mix one part of the substance with
+about four parts of the hydrate of baryta, and expose it to the
+blowpipe flame. The hydrate of baryta combines with the silicic acid,
+and forms the super-basic silicate of baryta, while the oxides become
+free. The fused mass must be dissolved in hydrochloric acid, which
+converts the oxides into chlorides. Evaporate to dryness, and dissolve
+the residue in water. The silicic acid remains insoluble.</p>
+
+<p>The hydrate of baryta is prepared by mixing six parts of finely
+powdered heavy-spar (BaO, SO<sub>3</sub>) with one part of charcoal and one
+and a half parts of wheat flour, and exposing this mixture in a
+Hessian crucible with a cover to a strong and continuous red heat. The
+cooled chocolate-brown mass must be boiled with twenty parts of water,
+and, while boiling, there must be added the oxide of copper in
+sufficient quantity, or until the liquid will not impart a black color
+to a solution of acetate of lead (PbO, <span class="overline">A</span>). The liquid must be
+filtered while hot, and as it cools the hydrate of baryta appears in
+crystals. These crystals must be washed with a little cold water, and
+then heated at a low temperature in a porcelain dish until the crystal
+water is expelled. The hydrate of baryta melts by a low red heat
+without losing its water of hydration.</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>Bisulphate of Potassa</i> (KO, 2S0<sup>3</sup>).&mdash;At a red heat the half of
+the sulphuric acid of this salt becomes free, and thus <a name="Page_36"></a>separates and
+expels volatile substances, by which we can recognize lithium, boracic
+acid, nitric acid, fluoric acid, bromine, iodine, chlorine; or it
+decomposes and reveals some other compounds, as, for instance, the
+salts of the titanic, tantalic and tungstic acids. The bisulphate of
+potash is also used for the purpose of converting a substance into
+sulphate, or to free it at once from certain constituents. These
+sulphates are dissolved in water, by which we are enabled to effect
+the separation of its various constituents.</p>
+
+<p>PREPARATION.&mdash;Two parts of coarsely powdered sulphate of potash are
+placed in a porcelain crucible, and one part of pure sulphuric acid is
+poured over it. Expose this to heat over the spirit-lamp, until the
+whole becomes a clear liquid. The cooled mass must be of a pure white
+color, and may be got out of the crucible by inverting it. It must be
+kept in a fine powder.</p>
+
+<p>4. <i>Oxalate of Potassa</i> (KO, <span class="overline">O</span>).&mdash;Dissolve bioxalate of potash in
+water, and neutralize with carbonate of potash. Evaporate the solution
+at a low heat to dryness, stirring constantly towards the close of the
+operation. The dry residue is to be kept in the form of a powder.</p>
+
+<p>The oxalate of potash, at a low red heat, eliminates a considerable
+quantity of carbonic oxide, which, having a strong affinity for
+oxygen, with which it forms carbonic acid, it is therefore a powerful
+agent of reduction. It is in many cases preferable to carbonate of
+soda.</p>
+
+<p>5. <i>Cyanide of Potassium</i> (Cy, K).&mdash;In the dry method of analysis,
+this salt is one of the most efficient agents for the reduction of
+metallic oxides. It separates not only the metals from their oxygen
+compounds, but likewise from their sulphur compounds, while it is
+converted through the action of the oxygen into carbonate of potash,
+or, in the latter case, combines with the sulphur and forms the
+sulphureted cyanide of potassium. This separation is facilitated by
+its easy fusibility. But in many cases it melts too freely, and
+therefore it is better to mix it, for blowpipe analysis, with an equal
+quantity of soda. This mixture has great powers of reduction, and it
+is easily absorbed <a name="Page_37"></a>by the charcoal, while the globules of reduced
+metal are visible in the greatest purity.</p>
+
+<p>PREPARATION.&mdash;Deprive the ferrocyanide of potassium (2KCy + FeCy) of
+its water by heating it over the spirit-lamp in a porcelain dish. Mix
+eight parts of this anhydrous salt with three parts of dry carbonate
+of potash, and fuse the mixture by a low red heat in a Hessian, or
+still better, in an iron crucible with a cover, until the mass flows
+quiet and clear, and a sample taken up with an iron spatula appears
+perfectly white. Pour the clear mass out into a china or porcelain
+dish or an iron plate, but with caution that the fine iron particles
+which have settled to the bottom, do not mix with it. The white fused
+mass must be powdered, and kept from the air. The cyanide of potassium
+thus prepared, contains some of the cyanate of potassa, but the
+admixture does not deteriorate it for blowpipe use. It must be
+perfectly white, free from iron, charcoal, and sulphide of potassium.
+The solution of it in water must give a white precipitate with a
+solution of lead, and when neutralized with hydrochloric acid, and
+evaporated to dryness, it must not give an insoluble residue by
+dissolving it again in water.</p>
+
+<p>6. <i>Nitrate of Potassa, Saltpetre</i> (KO, NO<sup>5</sup>).&mdash;Saturate boiling
+water with commercial saltpetre, filter while hot in a beaker glass,
+which is to be placed in cold water, and stir while the solution is
+cooling. The greater part of the saltpetre will crystallize in very
+fine crystals. Place these crystals upon a filter, and wash them with
+a little cold water, until a solution of nitrate of silver ceases to
+exhibit any reaction upon the filtrate. These crystals must be dried
+and powdered.</p>
+
+<p>Saltpetre, when heated with substances easy of oxidation, yields its
+oxygen quite readily, and is, therefore, a powerful means of
+oxidation. In blowpipe analysis, we use it particularly to convert
+sulphides (as those of arsenic, antimony, &amp;c.) into oxides and acids.
+We furthermore use saltpetre for the purpose of producing a complete
+oxidation of small quantities of metallic oxides, which oxidize with
+difficulty in the oxidation <a name="Page_38"></a>flame, so that the color of the bead, in
+its highest state of oxidation, shall be visible, as for instance,
+manganese dissolved in the microcosmic salt.</p>
+
+<p>7. <i>Biborate of soda, borax</i>&mdash;(NaO + 2BO<sup>3</sup>).&mdash;Commercial borax is
+seldom pure enough for a reagent. A solution of borax must not give a
+precipitate with carbonate of potassa; or, after the addition of
+dilute nitric acid, it must remain clear upon the addition of nitrate
+of silver, or nitrate of baryta. Or a small piece of the dry salt,
+fused upon a platinum wire, must give a clear and uncolored glass, as
+well in the oxidation flame as in the reduction flame. If these tests
+indicate a foreign admixture, the borax must be purified by
+re-crystallization. These crystals are washed upon a filter, dried,
+and heated, to expel the crystal water, or until the mass ceases to
+swell up, and it is reduced to powder.</p>
+
+<p>Boracic acid is incombustible, and has a strong affinity for oxides
+when fused with them; therefore, it not only directly combines with
+oxides, but it expels, by fusion, all other volatile acids from their
+salts. Furthermore, boracic acid promotes the oxidation of metals and
+sulphur, and induces haloid compounds, in the oxidation flame, to
+combine with the rising oxides. Borates thus made, melt generally by
+themselves; but admixed with borate of soda, they fuse much more
+readily, give a clear bead. Borax acts either as a flux, or through
+the formation of double salts.</p>
+
+<p>In borax, we have the action of free boracic acid, as well as borate
+of soda, and for that reason it is an excellent reagent for blowpipe
+analysis.</p>
+
+<p>All experiments in which borax is employed should be effected upon
+platinum wire. The hook of the wire should be heated red hot, and then
+dipped into the powdered borax. This should be exposed to the
+oxidation flame, when it will be fused to a bead, which adheres to the
+hook. This should be then dipped into the powdered substance, which
+will adhere to it if it is hot; but if the bead is cool, it must be
+previously moistened. Expose this bead to the oxidation flame until it
+ceases to <a name="Page_39"></a>change, then allow it to cool, when it should be exposed to
+the reduction flame. Look for the following in the oxidation flame:</p>
+
+<div class="indent5"><p>(1.) Whether the heated substance is fused to a clear bead or not, and
+whether the bead remains transparent after cooling. The beads of some
+substances, for instance those of the alkaline earths, are clear while
+hot; but upon cooling, are milk-white and enamelled. Some substances
+give a clear bead when heated and when cold, but appear enamelled when
+heated intermittingly or with a flame which changes often from
+oxidation to reduction, or with an unsteady flame produced by too
+strong a blast. The reason is an incomplete fusion, while from the
+basic borate compound a part of the base is separated. As the boracic
+acid is capable of dissolving more in the heat, a bead will be clear
+while hot, enamelled when cold, as a part in the latter instance will
+become separated.</p>
+
+<p>(2.) Whether the substance dissolves easily or not, and whether it
+intumesces from arising gases.</p>
+
+<p>(3.) Whether the bead, when exposed to the oxidation flame, exhibits
+any color, and whether the color remains after the bead shall have
+cooled, or whether the color fades.</p>
+
+<p>(4.) Whether the bead exhibits any other reaction in the reduction
+flame.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The bead should not be overcharged with the substance under
+examination, or it will become colored so deeply as not to present any
+transparency, or the color light enough to discern its hue.</p>
+
+<p>8. <i>Microcosmic Salt&mdash;Phosphate of Soda and Ammonia</i>&mdash;(NaO, NH<sup>4</sup>O +
+PO<sup>5</sup>).&mdash;Dissolve six parts of phosphate of soda (2NaO, HO, PO<sup>5</sup>),
+and one part of pure chloride of Ammonium (NH<sup>4</sup>Cl.), in two parts of
+boiling water, and allow it to cool. The greatest part of the formed
+double salt crystallizes, while the mother-liquid contains chloride of
+sodium, and some of the double salt. The crystals must be dissolved in
+as little boiling water as possible, and re-crystallized. These
+crystals must be dried and powdered.</p>
+
+<p>When this double salt is heated, the water and the ammonia <a name="Page_40"></a>escape,
+while the incombustible residue has a composition similar to borax,
+viz., a free acid and an easily fusible salt. The effect of it is,
+therefore, similar to the borax. The free phosphoric acid expels,
+likewise, most other acids from their combinations, and combines with
+metallic oxides.</p>
+
+<p>For supports, the platinum wire may be used, but the hook must be
+smaller than when borax is used, or the bead will not adhere. As for
+all the other experiments with this salt, the microscosmic salt is
+used the same as borax.</p>
+
+<p>9. <i>Nitrate of Cobalt.</i>&mdash;(CoO, NO<sup>5</sup>).&mdash;This salt can be prepared by
+dissolving pure oxide of cobalt in diluted nitric acid, and
+evaporating to dryness with a low heat. The dry residue should be
+dissolved in ten parts of water, and filtered. The filtrate is now
+ready for use, and should be kept in a bottle with a glass stopper. If
+the pure oxide of cobalt cannot be procured, then it may be prepared
+by mixing two parts of finely powdered <i>glance of cobalt</i> with four
+parts of saltpetre, and one part of dry carbonate of potassa with one
+part of water free from carbonate of soda. This mixture should be
+added in successive portions into a red-hot Hessian crucible, and the
+heat continued until the mass is fused, or at least greatly diminished
+in volume. The cooled mass must be triturated with hot water, and then
+heated with hydrochloric acid until it is dissolved and forms a dark
+green solution, which generally presents a gelatinous appearance,
+occasioned by separated silica. The solution is to be evaporated to
+dryness, the dry residue moistened with hydrochloric acid, boiled with
+water, filtered and neutralized while hot with carbonate of ammonia,
+until it ceases to give an acid reaction with test-paper. This must
+now be filtered again, and carbonate of potassa added to the filtrate
+as long as a precipitate is produced. This precipitate is brought upon
+a filter and washed thoroughly, and then dissolved in diluted nitric
+acid. This is evaporated to dryness, and one part of it is dissolved
+in ten parts of water for use.</p>
+
+<p>The oxide of cobalt combines, with strong heat in the oxidation flame,
+with various earths and infusible metallic <a name="Page_41"></a>oxides, and thus produces
+peculiarly colored compounds, and is therefore used for their
+detection; (alumina, magnesia, oxide of zinc, oxide of tin, etc.) Some
+of the powdered substance is heated upon charcoal in the flame of
+oxidation, and moistened with a drop of the solution of the nitrate of
+cobalt, when the oxidation flame is thrown upon it. Alumina gives a
+pure blue color, the oxide of zinc a bright green, magnesia a light
+red, and the oxide of tin a bluish-green color; but the latter is only
+distinctly visible after cooling.</p>
+
+<p>The dropping bottle, is the most useful apparatus for the purpose of
+getting small quantities of fluid. It is composed of a glass tube,
+drawn out to a point, with a small orifice. This tube passes through
+the cork of the bottle. By pressing in the cork into the neck of the
+bottle, the air within will be compressed, and the liquid will rise in
+the tube. If now we draw the cork out, with the tube filled with the
+fluid, and pressing the finger upon the upper orifice, the fluid can
+be forced out in the smallest quantity, even to a fraction of a drop.</p>
+
+<p>10. <i>Tin.</i>&mdash;This metal is used in the form of foil, cut into strips
+about half an inch wide. Tin is very susceptible of oxidation, and
+therefore deprives oxidized substances of their oxygen very quickly,
+when heated in contact with them. It is employed in blowpipe analysis,
+for the purpose of producing in glass beads a lower degree of
+oxidation, particularly if the substance under examination contains
+only a small portion of such oxide. These oxides give a characteristic
+color to the bead, and thus are detected. The bead is heated upon
+charcoal in the reduction flame, with a small portion of the tin,
+whereby some of the tin is melted and mixes with the bead. The bead
+should be reduced quickly in the reduction flame, for by continuing
+the blast too great a while, the oxide of tin separates the other
+oxides in the reduced or metallic state, while we only require that
+they shall only be converted into a sub-oxide, in order that its
+peculiar color may be recognized in the bead. The addition of too much
+tin causes the bead <a name="Page_42"></a>to present an unclean appearance, and prevents
+the required reaction.</p>
+
+<p>11. <i>Silica</i> (SiO<sup>3</sup>).&mdash;This acid does not even expel carbonic acid
+in the wet way, but in a glowing heat it expels the strongest volatile
+acids. In blowpipe analysis, we use it fused with carbonate of soda to
+a bead, as a test for sulphuric acid, and in some cases for phosphoric
+acid. Also with carbonate of soda and borax, for the purpose of
+separating tin from copper.</p>
+
+<p>Finely powdered quartz will answer these purposes. If it cannot be
+procured, take well washed white sand and mix it with two parts of
+carbonate of soda and two parts of carbonate of potassa. Melt the
+materials together, pound up the cooled mass, dissolve in hot water,
+filter, add to the filtrate hydrochloric acid, and evaporate to
+dryness. Moisten the dry residue with hydrochloric acid, and boil in
+water. The silica remains insoluble. It should be washed well, dried,
+and heated, and then reduced to powder.</p>
+
+<p>12. TEST-PAPERS.&mdash;(a.) <i>Blue, Litmus Paper.</i>&mdash;Dissolve one part of
+litmus in six or eight parts of water, and filter. Divide the filtrate
+into two parts. In one of the parts neutralize the free alkali by
+stirring it with a glass rod dipped in diluted sulphuric acid, until
+the fluid appears slightly red. Then mix the two parts together, and
+draw slips of unsized paper, free from alkali, such as fine filtering
+paper. Hang these strips on a line to dry, in the shade and free from
+floating dust. If the litmus solution is too light, it will not give
+sufficient characteristic indications, and if too dark it is not
+sensitive enough. The blue color of the paper should be changed to
+red, when brought in contact with a solution containing the minutest
+trace of free acid; but it should be recollected that the neutral
+salts of the heavy metals produce the same change.</p>
+
+<p>(b.) <i>Red Litmus Paper.</i>&mdash;The preparation of the red litmus paper is
+similar to the above, the acid being added until a red color is
+obtained. Reddened litmus paper is a very sensitive reagent for free
+alkalies, the carbonates of the alkalies, alkaline <a name="Page_43"></a>earths, sulphides
+of the alkalies and of the alkaline earths, and alkaline salts with
+weak acids, such as boracic acid. These substances restore the
+original blue color of the litmus.</p>
+
+<p>(c.) <i>Logwood Paper</i>.&mdash;Take bruised logwood, boil it in water,
+filter, and proceed as above. Logwood paper is a very delicate test
+for free alkalies, which impart a violet tint to it. It is sometimes
+used to detect hydrofluoric acid, which changes its color to yellow.</p>
+
+<p>All the test-papers are to be cut into narrow strips, and preserved in
+closely stopped vials. The especial employment of the test-papers we
+shall allude to in another place.</p>
+
+
+<h4>B. ESPECIAL REAGENTS.</h4><p class="rtntoc"><a href="#TOC">Go to TOC</a></p>
+
+
+<p>13. <i>Fused Boracic Acid</i> (BO<sup>3</sup>).&mdash;The commercial article is
+sufficiently pure for blowpipe analysis. It is employed in some cases
+to detect phosphoric acid, and also minute traces of copper in lead
+compounds.</p>
+
+<p>14. <i>Fluorspar</i> (CaFl<sup>2</sup>).&mdash;This substance should be pounded fine and
+strongly heated. Fluorspar is often mixed with boracic acid, which
+renders it unfit for analytical purposes. Such an admixture can be
+detected if it be mixed with bisulphate of potassa, and exposed upon
+platinum wire to the interior or blue flame. It is soon fused, the
+boracic acid is reduced and evaporated, and by passing through the
+external flame it is reoxidized, and colors the flame green. We use
+fluorspar mixed with bisulphate of potassa as a test for lithia and
+boracic acid in complicated compounds.</p>
+
+<p>15. <i>Oxalate of Nickel</i> (NiO, <span class="overline">O</span>).&mdash;It is prepared by dissolving the
+pure oxide of nickel in diluted hydrochloric acid. Evaporate to
+dryness, dissolve in water, and precipitate with oxalate of ammonia.
+The precipitate must be washed with caution upon a filter, and then
+dried. It is employed in blowpipe analysis to detect salts of potassa
+in the presence of sodium and lithium.</p>
+
+<p>16. <i>Oxide of Copper</i> (CuO).&mdash;Pure metallic copper is dissolved <a name="Page_44"></a>in
+nitric acid. The solution is evaporated in a porcelain dish to
+dryness, and gradually heated over a spirit-lamp, until the blue color
+of the salt has disappeared and the mass presents a uniform black
+color. The oxide of copper so prepared must be powdered, and preserved
+in a vial. It serves to detect, in complicated compounds, minute
+traces of chlorine.</p>
+
+<p>17. <i>Antimoniate of Potassa</i> (KO, SbO<sup>6</sup>).&mdash;Mix four parts of the
+bruised metal of antimony, with nine parts of saltpetre. Throw this
+mixture, in small portions, into a red-hot Hessian crucible, and keep
+it at a glowing heat for awhile after all the mixture is added. Boil
+the cooled mass with water, and dry the residue. Take two parts of
+this, and mix it with one part of dry carbonate of potassa, and expose
+this to a red heat for about half an hour. Then wash the mass in cold
+water, and boil the residue in water; filter, evaporate the filtrate
+to dryness, and then, with a strong heat, render it free of water.
+Powder it while it is warm, and preserve it in closed vials. It is
+used for the detection of small quantities of charcoal in compound
+substances, as it shares its oxygen with the carbonaceous matter, the
+antimony becomes separated, and carbonate of potassa is produced,
+which restores red litmus paper to blue, and effervesces with acids.</p>
+
+<p>18. <i>Silver Foil.</i>&mdash;A small piece of silver foil is used for the
+purpose of detecting sulphur and the sulphides of the metals, which
+impart a dark stain to it. If no silver foil is at hand, strips of
+filtering paper, impregnated with acetate of lead, will answer in many
+cases.</p>
+
+<p>19. <i>Nitroprusside of Sodium</i> (Fe<sup>2</sup>Cy<sup>5</sup>, NO<sup>5</sup>, 2Na).&mdash;This is a
+very delicate test for sulphur, and was discovered by Dr. Playfair.
+This test has lately been examined with considerable ability by Prof.
+J.W. Bailey, of West Point. If any sulphate or sulphide is heated by
+the blowpipe upon charcoal with the carbonate of soda, and the fused
+mass is placed on a watch-glass, with a little water, and a small
+piece of the nitroprusside of sodium is added, there will be produced
+a splendid purple color. This color, or reaction, will be produced
+from any substance containing <a name="Page_45"></a>sulphur, such as the parings of the
+nails, hair, albumen, etc. In regard to these latter substances, the
+carbonate of soda should be mixed with a little starch, which will
+prevent the loss of any of the sulphur by oxidation. Coil a piece of
+hair around a platinum wire, moisten it, and dip it into a mixture of
+carbonate of soda, to which a little starch has been added, and then
+heat it with the blowpipe, when the fused mass will give with the
+nitroprusside of sodium the characteristic purple reaction, indicative
+of the presence of sulphur. With the proper delicacy of manipulation,
+a piece of hair, half an inch in length, will give distinct
+indications of sulphur.</p>
+
+<p><i>Preparation.</i>&mdash;The nitroprussides of sodium and potassium (for either
+salt will give the above reactions), are prepared as follows: One atom
+(422 grains) of pulverized ferrocyanide of potassium is mixed with
+five atoms of commercial nitric acid, diluted with an equal quantity
+of water. One-fifth of this quantity (one atom) of the acid is
+sufficient to transfer the ferrocyanide into nitroprusside; but the
+use of a larger quantity is found to give the best results. The acid
+is poured all at once upon the ferrocyanide, the cold produced by the
+mixing being sufficient to moderate the action. The mixture first
+assumes a milky appearance, but after a little while, the salt
+dissolves, forming a coffee-colored solution, and gases are disengaged
+in abundance. When the salt is completely dissolved, the solution is
+found to contain ferrocyanide (red prussiate) of potassium, mixed with
+nitroprusside and nitrate of the same base. It is then immediately
+decanted into a large flask, and heated over the water-bath. It
+continues to evolve gas, and after awhile, no longer yields a dark
+blue precipitate with ferrous salts, but a dark green or slate-colored
+precipitate. It is then removed from the fire, and left to
+crystallize, whereupon it yields a large quantity of crystals of
+nitre, and more or less oxamide. The strongly-colored mother liquid is
+then neutralized with carbonate of potash or soda, according to the
+salt to be prepared, and the solution is boiled, whereupon it
+generally deposits a green or brown precipitate, <a name="Page_46"></a>which must be
+separated by filtration. The liquid then contains nothing but
+nitroprusside and nitrate of potash or soda. The nitrates being the
+least soluble, are first crystallized, and the remaining liquid, on
+farther evaporation, yields crystals of the nitroprusside. The sodium
+salt crystallizes most easily.&mdash;(PLAYFAIR.)</p>
+
+<p>As some substances, particularly in complicated compounds, are not
+detected with sufficient nicety in the dry way of analysis, it will
+often be necessary to resort to the wet way. It is therefore necessary
+to have prepared the reagents required for such testing, as every
+person, before he can become an expert blowpipe analyst, must be
+acquainted with the characteristic tests as applied in the wet way.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="fw" />
+
+<h2><a name="Page_47"></a><a name="Part_II"></a>Part II.</h2>
+
+<h3>INITIATORY ANALYSIS.</h3><p class="rtntoc"><a href="#TOC">Go to TOC</a></p>
+
+
+<p>Qualitative analysis refers to those examinations which relate simply
+to the presence or the absence of certain substances, irrespective of
+their quantities. But before we take cognizance of special
+examinations, it would facilitate the progress of the student to pass
+through a course of Initiatory Exercises. These at once lead into the
+special analysis of all those substances susceptible of examination by
+the blowpipe. The Initiatory Analysis is best studied by adopting the
+following arrangement:</p>
+
+
+<h3>1. EXAMINATIONS WITH THE GLASS BULB.</h3>
+
+<p>The glass of which the bulb is made should be entirely free from lead,
+otherwise fictitious results will ensue. If the bulb <a name="Page_48"></a>be of flint
+glass, then by heating it, there is a slightly iridescent film caused
+upon the surface of the glass, which may easily be mistaken for
+arsenic. Besides, this kind of glass is easily fusible in the
+oxidating flame of the blowpipe, while, in the reducing flame, its
+ready decomposition would preclude its use entirely. The tube should
+be composed of the potash or hard Bohemian glass, should be perfectly
+white, and very thin, or the heat will crack it.</p>
+
+<p>The tube should be perfectly clean, which can be easily attained by
+wrapping a clean cotton rag around a small stick, and inserting it in
+the tube. Before using the tube, see also that it is perfectly dry.</p>
+
+<p>The quantity of the substance put into the tube for examination should
+be small. From one to three grains is quite sufficient, as a general
+rule, but circumstances vary the quantity. The sides of the tube
+should not catch any of the substance as it is being placed at the
+bottom of the tube, or into the bulb. If any of the powder, however,
+should adhere, it should be pushed down with a roll of clean paper, or
+the clean cotton rag referred to above.</p>
+
+<p>In submitting the tube to the flame, it should be heated at first very
+gently, the heat being increased until the glass begins to soften,
+when the observations of what is ensuing within it may be made.</p>
+
+<p>If the substance be of an organic nature, a peculiar empyreumatic odor
+will be given off. If the substance chars, then it may be inferred
+that it is of an organic nature. The matters which are given off and
+cause the empyreumatic odor, are a peculiar oil, ammonia, carbonic
+acid, acetic acid, water, cyanogen, and frequently other compounds. If
+a piece of paper is heated in the bulb, a dark colored oil condenses
+upon the sides of the tube, which has a strong empyreumatic odor. A
+piece of litmus paper indicates that this oil is acid, as it is
+quickly changed to red by contact with it. A black residue is now left
+in the tube, and upon examination we will find that it is charcoal.
+If, instead of the paper, a piece of animal substance <a name="Page_49"></a>is placed in
+the bulb, the reddened litmus paper will be converted into its
+original blue color, while charcoal will be left at the bottom of the
+tube.</p>
+
+<p>A changing of the substance, however, to a dark color, should not be
+accepted as an invariable indication of charcoal, as some inorganic
+bodies thus change color, but the dark substance will not be likely to
+be mistaken for charcoal. By igniting the suspected substance with
+nitrate of potassa, it can quickly be ascertained whether it is
+organic or not, for if the latter, the vivid deflagration will
+indicate it.</p>
+
+<p>If the substance contains water, it will condense upon the cold
+portion of the tube, and may be there examined as to whether it is
+acid or alkaline. If the former, the matter under examination is,
+perhaps, vegetable; if the latter, it is of an animal nature. The
+water may be that fluid absorbed, or it may form a portion of its
+constitution,</p>
+
+<p>If the substance contain <i>sulphur</i>, the sublimate upon the cold part
+of the tube may be recognized by its characteristic appearance,
+especially if the substance should be a sulphide of tin, copper,
+antimony, or iron. The hyposulphites, and several other sulphides,
+also give off sulphur when heated. The volatile metals, mercury and
+arsenic, will, however, sublime without undergoing decomposition. As
+the sulphide of arsenic may be mistaken, from its color and
+appearance, for sulphur, it must be examined especially for the
+purpose of determining that point.</p>
+
+<p><i>Selenium</i> will likewise sublime by heat as does sulphur. This is the
+case if selenides are present. Selenium gives off the smell of decayed
+horse-radish.</p>
+
+<p>When the persalts are heated they are reduced to protosalts, with the
+elimination of a part of their acid. This will be indicated by the
+blue litmus paper.</p>
+
+<p>If some of the neutral salts containing a volatile acid be present,
+they will become decomposed. For instance, the red nitrous acid water
+of the nitrates will indicate the decomposition of the salt,
+especially if it be the nitrate of a metallic oxide.<a name="Page_50"></a></p>
+
+<p>If there is an odor of sulphur, then it is quite probable, if no free
+sulphur be present, that a hyposulphite is decomposed.</p>
+
+<p>If an oxalate be present, it is decomposed with the evolution of
+carbonic oxide, which may be inflamed at the mouth of the tube; but
+there are oxalates that give off carbonic acid gas, which, of course,
+will not burn. A cyanide will become decomposed and eliminate nitrogen
+gas, while the residue is charred. Some cyanides are, however, not
+thus decomposed, as the dry cyanides of the earths and alkalies.</p>
+
+<p>There are several oxides of metals which will sublime, and may be thus
+examined in the tube. <i>Arsenious acid</i> sublimes with great ease in
+minute octohedral crystals. The oxides of tellurium and antimony will
+sublime, the latter in minute glittering needles.</p>
+
+<p>There are several metals which will sublime, and may be examined in
+the cold portion of the tube. <i>Mercury</i> condenses upon the tube in
+minute globules. These often do not present the metallic appearance
+until they are disturbed with a glass rod, when they attract each
+other, and adhere as small globules. Place in the tube about a grain
+of red precipitate of the drug stores and apply heat, when the oxide
+will become decomposed, its oxygen will escape while the vaporized
+mercury will condense upon the cold portion of the tube, and may there
+be examined with a magnifying glass.</p>
+
+<p><i>Arsenic</i>, when vaporized, may be known by its peculiar alliaceous
+odor. Arsenic is vaporized from its metallic state, and likewise from
+its alloys. Several compounds which contain arsenic will also sublime,
+such as the arsenical cobalt. Place in the bulb a small piece of
+arsenical cobalt or &quot;fly-stone,&quot; and apply heat. The sulphide of
+arsenic will first rise, but soon the arsenic will adhere to the sides
+of the tube.</p>
+
+<p>The metals tellurium and cadmium are susceptible of solution, but the
+heat required is a high one. This is best done upon charcoal.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>perchloride of mercury</i> sublimes undecomposed in the bulb,
+previously undergoing fusion.<a name="Page_51"></a></p>
+
+<p>The <i>protochloride of mercury</i> likewise sublimes, but it does not
+undergo fusion first, as is the case with the corrosive sublimate.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>ammoniacal salts</i> all are susceptible of sublimation, which they
+do without leaving a residue. There are, however, several which
+contain fixed acids, which latter are left in the bulb. This is
+particularly the case with the phosphates and borates. A piece of red
+litmus paper will readily detect the escaping ammonia, while its odor
+will indicate its presence with great certainty. The halogen compounds
+of mercury, we should have mentioned, also sublime, the red iodide
+giving a yellow sublimate.</p>
+
+<p>The bulb is also a convenient little instrument for the purpose of
+heating those substances which phosphoresce, and likewise those salts
+that decrepitate.</p>
+
+<p>Should the above reactions not be readily discerned, it should not be
+considered as an indication that the substances are not present, for
+they are frequently expelled in such combinations that the above
+reactions will not take place. This is often the case with sulphur,
+selenium, arsenic, and tellurium. It frequently happens, likewise,
+that these substances are in such combinations that heat alone will
+not sublime them; or else two or more of them may arise together, and
+thus complicate the sublimate, so that the eye cannot readily detect
+either substance. Sometimes sulphur and arsenic will coat the tube
+with a metal-like appearance, which is deceptive. This coating
+presents a metallic lustre at its lower portion, but changing, as it
+progresses upward, to a dark brown, light brown, orange or yellow;
+this sublimate being due to combinations of arsenic and sulphur, which
+compounds are volatilized at a lower temperature than metallic
+arsenic.</p>
+
+<p>If certain reagents are mixed with many substances, changes are
+effected which would not ensue with heat alone. <i>Formiate of soda</i>
+possesses the property of readily reducing metallic oxides. When this
+salt is heated, it gives off a quantity of carbonic oxide gas. This
+gas, when in the presence of a metallic oxide, easily reduces the
+metal, by withdrawing its oxygen <a name="Page_52"></a>from it, and being changed into
+carbonic oxide. If a little fly-stone is mixed with some formiate of
+soda, and heated in the bulb, the arsenic is reduced, volatilized, and
+condenses in the cool portion of the tube. By this method, the
+smallest portion of a grain of the arsenical compound may be thus
+examined with the greatest readiness. If the residue is now washed, by
+which the soda is got rid of, the metallic arsenic may be obtained in
+small spangles. If the compound examined be the sulphide of antimony,
+the one-thousandth part can be readily detected, and hence this method
+is admirably adapted to the examination of medicinal antimonial
+compounds. The arsenites of silver and copper are reduced by the
+formiate of soda to their metals, mixed with metallic arsenic. The
+mercurial salts are all reduced with the metal plainly visible as a
+bright silvery ring on the cool portion of the tube. The chloride and
+nitrate of silver are completely reduced, and may be obtained after
+working out the soda, as bright metallic spangles. The salts of
+antimony and zinc are thus reduced; also the sulphate of cadmium. The
+sublimate of the latter, although in appearance not unlike that of
+arsenic, can easily be distinguished by its brighter color. It is, in
+fact, the rich yellow of this sublimate which has led artists to adopt
+it as one of their most valued pigments.</p>
+
+
+<h3>2. EXAMINATIONS IN THE OPEN TUBE.</h3><p class="rtntoc"><a href="#TOC">Go to TOC</a></p>
+
+<p>The substance to be operated upon should be placed in the tube, about
+half an inch from the end, and the flame applied at first very
+cautiously, increasing gradually to the required temperature. The
+tube, in all these <i>roasting</i> operations, as they are termed, should
+be held in an inclined position. The nearer perpendicular the tube is
+held, the stronger is the draught of air that passes through it. If
+but little heat is required in the open tube operation, the
+spirit-lamp is the best method of applying the heat. But if a greater
+temperature is required, then recourse must be had to the blowpipe.
+Upon the angle of inclination of the tube depends the amount of air
+that passes <a name="Page_53"></a>through it, and therefore, the rapidity of the draught
+may be easily regulated at the will of the operator. The inclination
+of the tube may, as a general rule, be about the angle represented in
+Fig. 14.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><img src="./images/fig14.png" width="486" height="504" alt="FIG 14" title="" /></p>
+
+<p>The length of the tube must be about six inches, so that the portion
+upon which the substance rested in a previous examination may be cut
+off. The portion of the tube left will answer for several similar
+operations.</p>
+
+<p>When the substance is under examination, we should devote our
+attention to the nature of the sublimates, and to that of the <i>odors</i>
+of the gases. If sulphur be in the substance experimented upon, the
+characteristic odor of sulphurous acid gas will readily indicate the
+sulphur. If metallic sulphides, for instance, are experimented upon,
+the sulphurous acid gas eliminated will readily reveal their presence.
+As it is a property of this gas to bleach, a piece of Brazil-wood test
+paper should be held in the mouth of the tube, when its loss of color
+will indicate the presence of the sulphurous acid. It often happens,
+too, that a slight deposition of sulphur will be observed upon the
+cool portion <a name="Page_54"></a>of the tube. This is particularly the case with those
+sulphides, which yield sublimates of sulphur when heated in the bulb.</p>
+
+<p><i>Selenium</i> undergoes but slight oxidation, but it becomes readily
+volatilized, and may be observed on the cool portion of the tube. At
+the same time the nose, if applied close to the end of the tube, will
+detect the characteristic odor of rotten horse-radish. Arsenic also
+gives its peculiar alliaceous odor, which is so characteristic that it
+can be easily detected. A few of the arsenides produce this odor. The
+<i>sublimates</i> should be carefully observed, as they indicate often with
+great certainty the presence of certain substances; for instance, that
+of arsenic. The sublimate, in this case, presents itself as the
+arsenious acid, or the metallic arsenic itself. If it be the former,
+it may be discerned by aid of the magnifying glass as beautiful
+glittering octohedral crystals. If the latter, the metallic lustre
+will reveal it.</p>
+
+<p>But it will be observed that while some of the arsenides are sublimed
+at a comparatively low temperature, others require a very high one.</p>
+
+<p><i>Antimony</i> gives a white sublimate when its salts are roasted, as the
+sulphide, or the antimonides themselves, or the oxide of this metal.
+This white sublimate is not antimonious acid, but there is mixed with
+it the oxide of antimony with which the acid is sublimed. As is the
+case with arsenious acid, the antimonious acid may, by dexterous
+heating, be driven from one portion of the tube to another.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tellurium</i>, or its acid and oxide, may be got as a sublimate in the
+tube. The tellurious acid, unlike the arsenious and antimonious acids,
+cannot be driven from one portion of the tube to another, but, on the
+contrary, it fuses into small clear globules, visible to the naked eye
+sometimes, but quite so with the aid of the magnifying glass.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lead</i>, or its chloride, sublimes like tellurium, and, like that
+substance, fuses into globules or drops.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bismuth</i>, or its sulphide, sublimes into an orange or brownish
+<a name="Page_55"></a>globules, when it is melted, as directed above, for tellurium. The
+color of the bismuth and lead oxides are somewhat similar, although
+that of the latter is paler.</p>
+
+<p>If any mineral containing <i>fluorine</i>, is fused, first with the
+microcosmic salt bead, then put into the tube, and the flame of the
+blowpipe be directed <i>into</i> the tube upon the bead, hydrofluoric acid
+is disengaged and attacks the inside of the tube. The fluoride of
+calcium, or fluorspar, may be used for this experiment.</p>
+
+<p>During the roasting, a brisk current of air should be allowed to pass
+through the tube, whereby unoxidized matter may be prevented from
+volatilization, and the clogging up of the substance under examination
+be prevented.</p>
+
+
+<h3>3. EXAMINATIONS UPON CHARCOAL.</h3><p class="rtntoc"><a href="#TOC">Go to TOC</a></p>
+
+<p>In making examinations upon charcoal, it is quite necessary that the
+student should make himself familiar with the different and
+characteristic appearances of the deposits upon the charcoal. In this
+case I have found the advice given by Dr. Sherer to be the best; that
+is, to begin with the examination of the pure materials first, until
+the eye becomes familiarized with the appearances of their
+incrustations upon charcoal.</p>
+
+<p>The greater part of the metals fuse when submitted to the heat of the
+blowpipe, and if exposed to the outer flame, they oxidize. These
+metals, termed the noble metals, do not oxidize, but they fuse. The
+metals platinum, iridium, rhodium, osmium and palladium do not fuse.
+The metal osmium, if exposed to the flame of oxidation, fuses and is
+finally dissipated as osmic acid. In the latter flame, the salts of
+the noble metals are reduced to the metallic state, and the charcoal
+is covered with the bright metal.</p>
+
+<p>We shall give a brief description of the appearance of the principal
+elementary bodies upon being fused with charcoal. This plan is that
+deemed the most conducive to the progress of the student, by
+Berzelius, Plattner, and Sherer. Experience <a name="Page_56"></a>has taught us that this
+method is the most efficient that could have been devised as an
+initiatory exercise for the student, ere he commences a more concise
+and methodical method of analysis. In these reactions upon charcoal,
+we shall follow nearly the language of Plattner and Sherer.</p>
+
+<p>SELENIUM is not difficult of fusion, and gives off brown fumes in
+either the oxidation or reduction flame. The deposit upon the charcoal
+is of a steel-grey color, with a slightly metallic lustre. The deposit
+however that fuses outside of this steel-grey one is of a dull violet
+color, shading off to a light brown. Under the flame of oxidation this
+deposit is easily driven from one portion of the charcoal to another,
+while the application of the reducing flame volatilizes it with the
+evolution of a beautiful blue light. The characteristic odor of
+decayed horse-radish distinguishes the volatilization of this metal.</p>
+
+<p>TELLURIUM.&mdash;This metal fuses with the greatest readiness, and is
+reduced to vapor under both flames with fumes, and coats the charcoal
+with a deposit of tellurous acid. This deposit is white near the
+centre, and is of a dark yellow near the edges. It may be driven from
+place to place by the flame of oxidation, while that of reduction
+volatilizes it with a green flame. If there be a mixture of selenium
+present, then the color of the flame is bluish-green.</p>
+
+<p>ARSENIC.&mdash;This metal is volatilized without fusing, and covers the
+charcoal both in the oxidizing and reducing flames with a deposit of
+arsenious acid. This coating is white in the centre, and grey towards
+the edges, and is found some distance from the assay. By the most
+gentle application of the flame, it is immediately volatilized, and if
+touched for a moment with the reducing flame, it disappears, tinging
+the flame pale blue. During volatilization a strong garlic odor is
+distinctly perceptible, very characteristic of arsenic, and by which
+its presence in any compound may be immediately recognized.</p>
+
+<p>ANTIMONY.&mdash;This metal fuses readily, and coats the charcoal under both
+flames with antimonious acid. This incrustation is of a white color
+where thick, but of a bluish tint where it is <a name="Page_57"></a>thin, and is found
+nearer to the assay than that of arsenic. When greatly heated by the
+flame of oxidation, it is driven from place to place without coloring
+the flame, but when volatilized by the flame of reduction, it tinges
+the flame blue. As antimonious acid is not so volatile as arsenious
+acid, they may thus be easily distinguished from one another.</p>
+
+<p>When metallic antimony is fused upon charcoal, and the metallic bead
+raised to a red heat, if the blast be suspended, the fluid bead
+remains for some time at this temperature, giving off opaque white
+fumes, which are at first deposited on the surrounding charcoal, and
+then upon the bead itself, covering it with white, pearly crystals.
+The phenomenon is dependent upon the fact, that the heated button of
+antimony, in absorbing oxygen from the air, developes sufficient heat
+to maintain the metal in a fluid state, until it becomes entirely
+covered with crystals of antimonious acid so formed.</p>
+
+<p>BISMUTH.&mdash;This metal fuses with ease, and under both flames covers the
+charcoal with a coating of oxide, which, while hot, is of an
+orange-yellow color, and after cooling, of a lemon-yellow color,
+passing, at the edges, into a bluish white. This white coating
+consists of the carbonate of bismuth. The sublimate from bismuth is
+formed at a less distance from the assay than is the case with
+antimony. It may be driven from place to place by the application of
+either flame; but in so doing, the oxide is first reduced by the
+heated charcoal, and the metallic bismuth so formed is volatilized and
+reoxidized. The flame is uncolored.</p>
+
+<p>LEAD.&mdash;This metal readily fuses under either flame, and incrusts the
+charcoal with oxide at about the same distance from the assay as is
+the case with bismuth. The oxide is, while hot, of a dark lemon-yellow
+color, but upon cooling, becomes of a sulphur yellow. The carbonate
+which is formed upon the charcoal, beyond the oxide, is of a
+bluish-white color. If the yellow incrustation of the oxide be heated
+with the flame of oxidation, it disappears, undergoing changes similar
+to those of <a name="Page_58"></a>bismuth above mentioned. Under the flame of reduction,
+it, however, disappears, tinging the flame blue.</p>
+
+<p>CADMIUM.&mdash;This metal fuses with ease, and, in the flame of oxidation,
+takes fire, and burns with a deep yellow color, giving off brown
+fumes, which coat the charcoal, to within a small distance of the
+assay, with oxide of cadmium. This coating exhibits its characteristic
+reddish-brown color most clearly when cold. Where the coating is very
+thin, it passes to an orange color. As oxide of cadmium is easily
+reduced, and the metal very volatile, the coating of oxide may be
+driven from place to place by the application of either flame, to
+neither of which does it impart any color. Around the deposit of
+oxide, the charcoal has occasionally a variegated tarnish.</p>
+
+<p>ZINC.&mdash;This metal fuses with ease, and takes fire in the flame of
+oxidation, burning with a brilliant greenish-white light, and forming
+thick white fumes of oxide of zinc, which coat the charcoal round the
+assay. This coating is yellow while hot, but when perfectly cooled,
+becomes white. If heated with the flame of oxidation, it shines
+brilliantly, but is not volatilized, since the heated charcoal is,
+under these circumstances, insufficient to effect its reduction. Even
+under the reducing flame, it disappears very slowly.</p>
+
+<p>TIN.&mdash;This metal fuses readily, and, in the flame of oxidation,
+becomes covered with oxide, which, by a strong blast, may be easily
+blown off. In the reducing flame, the fused metal assumes a white
+surface, and the charcoal becomes covered with oxide. This oxide is of
+a pale yellow color while hot, and is quite brilliant when the flame
+of oxidation is directed upon it. After cooling, it becomes white. It
+is found immediately around the assay, and cannot be volatilized by
+the application of either flame.</p>
+
+<p>MOLYBDENUM.&mdash;This metal, in powder, is infusible before the blowpipe.
+If heated in the outer flame, it becomes gradually oxidized, and
+incrusts the charcoal, at a small distance from the assay, with
+molybdic acid, which, near the assay, forms <a name="Page_59"></a>transparent crystalline
+scales, and is elsewhere deposited as a fine powder. The incrustation,
+while hot, is of a yellow color, but becomes white after cooling. It
+may be volatilized by heating with either flame, and leaves the
+surface of the charcoal, when perfectly cooled, of a dark-red copper
+color, with a metallic lustre, due to the oxide of molybdenum, which
+has been formed by the reducing action of the charcoal upon the
+molybdic acid. In the reducing flame, metallic molybdenum remains
+unchanged.</p>
+
+<p>SILVER.&mdash;This metal, when fused alone, and kept in this state for some
+time, under a strong oxidizing flame, covers the charcoal with a thin
+film of dark reddish-brown oxide. If the silver be alloyed with lead,
+a yellow incrustation of the oxide of that metal is first formed, and
+afterwards, as the silver becomes more pure, a dark red deposit is
+formed on the charcoal beyond. If the silver contains a small quantity
+of antimony, a white incrustation of antimonious acid is formed, which
+becomes red on the surface if the blast be continued. And if lead and
+antimony are both present in the silver, after the greater part of
+these metals have been volatilized, a beautiful crimson incrustation
+is produced upon the charcoal. This result is sometimes obtained in
+fusing rich silver ores on charcoal.</p>
+
+
+<h4>SULPHIDES, CHLORIDES, IODIDES, AND BROMIDES.</h4><p class="rtntoc"><a href="#TOC">Go to TOC</a></p>
+
+<p>In blowpipe experiments, it rarely occurs that we have to deal with
+pure metals, which, if not absolutely non-volatile, are recognized by
+the incrustation they form upon charcoal. Some compound substances,
+when heated upon charcoal, form white incrustations, resembling that
+formed by antimony, and which, when heated, may, in like manner, be
+driven from place to place. Among these are certain sulphides, as
+sulphide of potassium, and sulphide of sodium, which are formed by the
+action of the reducing flame upon the sulphates of potassa and soda,
+and are, when volatilized, reconverted into those sulphates, and as
+such deposited on the charcoal. No incrustation is, <a name="Page_60"></a>however, formed,
+until the whole of the alkaline sulphate has been absorbed into the
+charcoal, and has parted with its oxygen. As sulphide of potassium is
+more volatile than sulphide of sodium, an incrustation is formed from
+the former sooner than from the latter of these salts, and is
+considerably thicker in the former case. If the potash incrustation be
+touched with the reducing flame, it disappears with a violet-colored
+flame; and if a soda incrustation be treated in like manner, an
+orange-yellow flame is produced.</p>
+
+<p>Sulphide of lithium, formed by heating the sulphate in the reducing
+flame, is volatilized in similar manner by a strong blast, although
+less readily than the sulphide of sodium. It affords a greyish white
+film, which disappears with a crimson flame when submitted to the
+reducing flame.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the above, the sulphides of bismuth and lead give, when heated
+in either flame, two different incrustations, of which the more
+volatile is of a white color, and consists in the one case of sulphate
+of lead, and in the other of sulphate of bismuth. If either of these
+be heated under the reducing flame, it disappears in the former case
+with a bluish flame, in the latter unaccompanied by any visible flame.
+The incrustation formed nearest to the assay consists of the oxide of
+lead or bismuth, and is easily recognized by its color when hot and
+after cooling. There are many other metallic sulphides, which, when
+heated by the blowpipe flame, cover the charcoal with a white
+incrustation, as sulphide of antimony, sulphide of zinc, and sulphide
+of tin. In all these cases, however, the incrustation consists of the
+metallic oxide alone, and either volatilizes or remains unchanged,
+when submitted to the oxidizing flame.</p>
+
+<p>Of the metallic chlorides there are many which, when heated on
+charcoal with the blowpipe flame, are volatilized and redeposited as a
+white incrustation. Among these are the chlorides of potassium,
+sodium, and lithium, which volatilize and cover the charcoal
+immediately around the assay with a thin white film, after they have
+been fused and absorbed into the charcoal, chloride of potassium forms
+the thickest deposit, <a name="Page_61"></a>and chloride of lithium the thinnest, the
+latter being moreover of a greyish-white color. The chlorides of
+ammonium, mercury, and antimony volatilize without fusing.</p>
+
+<p>The chlorides of zinc, cadmium, lead, bismuth, and tin first fuse and
+then cover the charcoal with two different incrustations, one of which
+is a white volatile chloride, and the other a less volatile oxide of
+the metal.</p>
+
+<p>Some of the incrustations formed by metallic chlorides disappear with
+a colored flame when heated with the reducing flame; thus chloride of
+potassium affords a violet flame, chloride of sodium an orange one,
+chloride of lithium a crimson flame, and chloride of lead a blue one.
+The other metals mentioned above volatilize without coloring the
+flame.</p>
+
+<p>The chloride of copper fuses and colors the flame of a beautiful blue.
+Moreover, if a continuous blast be directed upon the salt, a part of
+it is driven off in the form of white fumes which smell strongly of
+chlorine, and the charcoal is covered with incrustations of three
+different colors. That which is formed nearest to the assay is of a
+dark grey color, the next, a dark yellow passing into brown, and the
+most distant of a bluish white color. If this incrustation be heated
+under the reducing flame, it disappears with a blue flame.</p>
+
+<p>Metallic iodides and bromides behave upon charcoal in a similar manner
+to the chlorides. Those principally deserving of mention are the
+bromides and iodides of potassium and sodium. These fuse upon
+charcoal, are absorbed into its pores, and volatilize in the form of
+white fumes, which are deposited upon the charcoal at some distance
+from the assay. When the saline films so formed are submitted to the
+reducing flame, they disappear, coloring the flame in the same manner
+as the corresponding chlorides.</p>
+
+
+<h3>4. EXAMINATIONS IN THE PLATINUM FORCEPS.</h3><p class="rtntoc"><a href="#TOC">Go to TOC</a></p>
+
+
+<p>Before the student attempts to make an examination in the platinum
+forceps or tongs, he should first ascertain whether <a name="Page_62"></a>or not it will
+act upon the platinum. If the substance to be examined shall act
+chemically upon the platinum, then it should be examined on the
+charcoal, and the color of the flame ascertained as rigidly as
+possible. The following list of substances produce the color attached
+to them.</p>
+
+<div class="ctr"><table summary="Compound, Color">
+<colgroup span="3" align="left"><col width="20%" /><col span="2" /></colgroup>
+<tr><th>A. VIOLET.</th></tr>
+<tr><th>&nbsp;</th></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td colspan="2">Potash, and all its compounds, with the exception of the phosphate and
+the borate, tinge the color of the flame violet.</td></tr>
+<tr><th>&nbsp;</th></tr>
+<tr><th colspan="2">B. BLUE.</th></tr>
+<tr><th>&nbsp;</th></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Chloride of copper,</td><td>Intense blue.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Lead,</td><td>Pale clear blue.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Bromide of copper,</td><td>Bluish green.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Antimony,</td><td>Bluish green.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Selenium,</td><td>Blue.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Arsenic,</td><td>English green.</td></tr>
+<tr><th>&nbsp;</th></tr>
+<tr><th>C. GREEN.</th></tr>
+<tr><th>&nbsp;</th></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Ammonia,</td><td>Dark green.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Boracic acid,</td><td>Dark green.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Copper,</td><td>Dark green.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Tellurium,</td><td>Dark green.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Zinc,</td><td>Light green.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Baryta</td><td>Apple green.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Phosphoric acid,</td><td>Pale green.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Molybdic acid,</td><td>Apple green.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Telluric acid,</td><td>Light green.</td></tr>
+<tr><th>&nbsp;</th></tr>
+<tr><th>D. YELLOW.</th></tr>
+<tr><th>&nbsp;</th></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Soda,</td><td>Intense yellow.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Water,</td><td>Feeble yellow.</td></tr>
+<tr><th>&nbsp;</th></tr>
+<tr><th>E. RED.</th></tr>
+<tr><th>&nbsp;</th></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Strontia,</td><td>Intense crimson.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Lithia,</td><td>Purplish red.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Potash,</td><td>Violet red.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Lime,</td><td>Purplish red.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><a name="Page_63"></a>The student may often be deceived in regard to the colors: for
+instance, if a small splinter of almost any mineral be held at the
+point of the flame of oxidation, it will impart a very slight yellow
+to the flame. This is caused, doubtless, by the water contained in the
+mineral. If the piece of platinum wire is used, and it should be wet
+with the saliva, as is frequently done by the student, then the small
+quantity of soda existing in that fluid will color the flame of a
+light yellow hue.</p>
+
+
+<h4>A. THE VIOLET COLOR.</h4><p class="rtntoc"><a href="#TOC">Go to TOC</a></p>
+
+<p>The salts of potash, with the exception of the borate and the
+phosphate, color the flame of a rich violet hue. This color is best
+discovered in the outer flame of the blowpipe, as is the case with all
+the other colors. The flame should be a small one, with a lamp having
+a small wick, while the orifice of the blowpipe must be quite small.
+These experiments should likewise be made in a dark room, so that the
+colors may be discerned with the greatest ease. In investigating with
+potash for the discernment of color, it should be borne in mind that
+the least quantity of soda will entirely destroy the violet color of
+the potash, by the substitution of its own strong yellow color. If
+there be not more than the two hundredth part of soda, the violet
+reaction of the potash will be destroyed. This is likewise the case
+with the presence of lithia, for its peculiar red color will destroy
+the violet of the potash. Therefore in making investigations with the
+silicates which contain potash, the violet color of the latter can
+only be discerned when they are free from soda and lithia.</p>
+
+
+<h4>B. THE BLUE COLOR.</h4><p class="rtntoc"><a href="#TOC">Go to TOC</a></p>
+
+<p>(a.) <i>The Chloride of Copper</i>.&mdash;Any of the chlorides produce a blue
+color in the blowpipe flame, or any salt which contains chlorine will
+show the blue tint, as the color in this case is referable to the
+chlorine itself. There are, however, some <a name="Page_64"></a>chlorides which, in
+consequence of the peculiar reactions of their bases, will not produce
+the blue color, although in these cases the blue of the chlorine will
+be very likely to blend itself with the color produced by the base.
+The chloride of copper communicates an intense blue to the flame, when
+fused on the platinum wire. If the heat be continued until the
+chlorine is driven off, then the greenish hue of the oxide of copper
+will be discerned.</p>
+
+<p>(b.) <i>Lead</i>.&mdash;Metallic lead communicates to the flame a pale blue
+color. The oxide reacts in the same manner. The lead-salts, whose
+acids do not interfere with the color, impart also a fine blue to the
+flame, either in the platina forceps, or the crooked wire.</p>
+
+<p>(c.) <i>Bromide of Copper</i>.&mdash;This salt colors the flame of a
+bluish-green color, but when the bromine is driven off, then we have
+the green of the oxide of copper.</p>
+
+<p>(d.) <i>Antimony</i>.&mdash;This metal imparts a blue color to the blowpipe
+flame, but if the metal is in too small a quantity, then the color is
+a brilliant white. If antimony is fused on charcoal, the fused metal
+gives a blue color. The white sublimate which surrounds the fused
+metal, being subjected to the flame of oxidation, disappears from the
+charcoal with a bluish-green color.</p>
+
+<p>(e.) <i>Selenium</i>.&mdash;If fused in the flame of oxidation, it imparts to
+the flame a deep blue color. The incrustation upon charcoal gives to
+the flame the same rich color.</p>
+
+<p>(f.) <i>Arsenic</i>.&mdash;The arseniates and metallic arsenic itself impart
+to the blowpipe flame a fine blue color, provided that there is no
+other body present which may have a tendency to color the flame with
+its characteristic hue. The sublimate of arsenious acid which
+surrounds the assay, will give the same blue flame, when dissipated by
+the oxidation flame. The platinum forceps will answer for the
+exhibition of the color of arsenic, even though the salts be
+arseniates, whose bases possess the property of imparting their
+peculiar color to the flame, such as the arseniate of lime.<a name="Page_65"></a></p>
+
+
+<h4>C. THE GREEN COLOR.</h4><p class="rtntoc"><a href="#TOC">Go to TOC</a></p>
+
+<p>(a.) <i>Ammonia</i>.&mdash;The salts of ammonia, when heated before the
+blowpipe, and just upon the point of disappearing, impart to the flame
+a feeble though dark green color. This color, however, can only be
+discerned in a dark room.</p>
+
+<p>(b.) <i>Boracic Acid</i>.&mdash;If any one of the borates is mixed with two
+parts of a flux composed of one part of pulverized fluorspar, and four
+and a half parts of bisulphate of potash, and after being melted, is
+put upon the coil of a platinum wire, and held at the point of the
+blue flame, soon after fusion takes place a dark green color is
+discerned, but it is not of long duration. The above process is that
+recommended by Dr. Turner. The green color of the borates may be
+readily seen by dipping them, previously moistened with sulphuric
+acid, into the upper part of the blue flame, when the color can be
+readily discerned. If soda be present, then the rich green of the
+boracic acid is marred by the yellow of the soda. Borax, or the
+biborate of soda (NaO, 2BO<sub>3</sub>) may be used for this latter reaction,
+but if it be moistened with sulphuric acid, the green of the boracic
+acid can then be seen. If the borates, or minerals which contain
+boracic acid, are fused on charcoal with carbonate of potash, then
+moistened with sulphuric acid and alcohol, then the bright green of
+the boracic acid is produced, even if the mineral contains but a
+minute portion of the boracic acid.</p>
+
+<p>(c.) <i>Copper</i>. Nearly all the ores of copper and its salts, give a
+bright green color to the blowpipe flame. Metallic copper likewise
+colors the flame green, being first oxidized. If iodine, chlorine, and
+bromine are present, the flame is considerably modified, but the
+former at least intensifies the color. Many ores containing copper
+also color the flame green, but the internal portion is of a bright
+blue color if the compound contains lead, the latter color being due
+to the lead. The native sulphide and carbonate of copper should be
+moistened <a name="Page_66"></a>with sulphuric acid, while the former should be previously
+roasted. If hydrochloric acid is used for moistening the salts, then
+the rich green given by that moistened with the sulphuric acid is
+changed to a blue, being thus modified by the chlorine of the acid.
+Silicates containing copper, if heated in the flame in the platinum
+forceps, impart a rich green color to the outer flame. In fact, if any
+substance containing copper be submitted to the blowpipe flame, it
+will tinge it green, provided there be no other substance present to
+impart its own color to the flame, and thus modify or mar that of the
+copper.</p>
+
+<p>(d.) <i>Tellurium</i>.&mdash;If the flame of reduction is directed upon the
+oxide of tellurium placed upon charcoal, a green color is imparted to
+it. If the telluric acid be placed upon platinum wire in the reduction
+flame, the oxidation flame is colored green. Or if the sublimate be
+dissipated by the flame of oxidation, it gives a green color. If
+selenium be present, the green color is changed to a blue.</p>
+
+<p>(e.) <i>Zinc</i>.&mdash;The oxide of zinc, when strongly heated, gives a blue
+flame. This is especially the case in the reducing flame. The flame is
+a small one, however, and not very characteristic, as with certain
+preparations of zinc the blue color is changed to a bright white. The
+soluble salts of zinc give no blue color.</p>
+
+<p>(f.) <i>Baryta</i>.&mdash;The soluble salts of baryta, moistened, and then
+submitted to the reduction flame, produce a green color. The salt
+should be moistened, when the color will be strongly marked in the
+outer flame. The insoluble salts do not produce so vivid a color as
+the soluble salts, and they are brighter when they have previously
+been moistened. The carbonate does not give a strong color, but the
+acetate does, so long as it is not allowed to turn to a carbonate. The
+chloride, when fused on the platinum wire, in the point of the
+reduction flame, imparts a fine green color to the oxidation flame.
+This tint changes finally to a faint dirty green color. The sulphate
+of baryta colors the flame green when heated at the point of the
+reduction flame. But neither the sulphate, carbonate, nor, in fact,
+any other salt of baryta, gives such a fine green color as the
+<a name="Page_67"></a>chloride. The presence of lime does interfere with the reaction of
+baryta, but still does not destroy its color.</p>
+
+<p>(g.) <i>Phosphoric Acid</i>.&mdash;The phosphates give a green color to the
+oxidation flame, especially when they are moistened with sulphuric
+acid. This is best shown with the platinum forceps. The green of
+phosphoric, or the phosphates, is much less intense than that of the
+borates or boracic acid, but yet the reaction is a certain one, and is
+susceptible of considerable delicacy, either with the forceps, or
+still better upon platinum wire. Sulphuric acid is a great aid to the
+development of the color, especially if other salts be present which
+would be liable to hide the color of the phosphoric acid. In this
+reaction with phosphates, the water should be expelled from them
+previous to melting them with sulphuric acid. They should likewise be
+pulverized. Should soda be present it will only exhibit its peculiar
+color after the phosphoric acid shall have been expelled; therefore,
+the green color of the phosphoric acid should be looked for
+immediately upon submitting the phosphate to heat.</p>
+
+<p>(h.) <i>Molybdic Acid</i>.&mdash;If this acid or the oxide of molybdenum be
+exposed upon a platinum wire to the point of the reduction flame, a
+bright green color is communicated to the flame of oxidation. Take a
+small piece of the native sulphide of molybdenum, and expose it in the
+platinum tongs to the flame referred to above, when the green color
+characteristic of this metal will be exhibited.</p>
+
+<p>(i.) <i>Telluric Acid</i>.&mdash;If the flame of reduction is directed upon a
+small piece of the oxide of tellurium placed upon charcoal, a bright
+green color is produced. Or if telluric acid be submitted to the
+reduction flame upon the loop of a platinum wire, it communicates to
+the outer flame the bright green of tellurium. If the sublimate found
+upon the charcoal in the first experiment be submitted to the blowpipe
+flame, the green color of tellurium is produced while the sublimate is
+volatilized. If selenium be present the green color is changed to a
+deep blue one.<a name="Page_68"></a></p>
+
+
+<h4>D. YELLOW.</h4><p class="rtntoc"><a href="#TOC">Go to TOC</a></p>
+
+<p>The salts of soda all give a bright yellow color when heated in the
+platinum loop in the reduction flame. This color is very persistent,
+and will destroy the color of almost any other substance. Every
+mineral of which soda is a constituent, give this bright orange-yellow
+reaction. Even the silicate of soda itself imparts to the flame of
+oxidation the characteristic yellow of soda.</p>
+
+
+<h4>E. RED.</h4>
+
+<p>(a.) <i>Strontia</i>.&mdash;Moisten a small piece of the chloride of
+strontium, put it in the platinum forceps and submit it to the flame
+of reduction, when the outer flame will become colored of an intense
+red. If the salt of strontia should be a soluble one, the reaction is
+of a deeper color than if an insoluble salt is used, while the color
+is of a deeper crimson if the salt is moistened. If the salt be a
+soluble one, it should be moistened and dipped into the flame, while
+if it be an insoluble salt, it should be kept dry and exposed beyond
+the point of the flame. The carbonate of strontia should be moistened
+with hydrochloric acid instead of water, by which its color similates
+that of the chloride of strontium when moistened with water. In
+consequence of the decided red color which strontia communicates to
+flame, it is used by pyrotechnists for the purpose of making their
+&quot;crimson fire.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>(b.) <i>Lithia</i>.&mdash;The color of the flame of lithia is slightly
+inclined to purple. The chloride, when placed in the platinum loop,
+gives to the outer flame a bright red color, sometimes with a slight
+tinge of purple. Potash does not prevent this reaction, although it
+may modify it to violet; but the decided color of soda changes the red
+of lithia to an orange color. If much soda be present, the color of
+the lithia is lost entirely. The color of the chloride of lithium may
+be distinctly produced before the point of the blue flame, and its
+durability may be <a name="Page_69"></a>the means of determining it from that of lithium,
+as the latter, under the same conditions, is quite evanescent. The
+minerals which contain lithia, frequently contain soda, and thus the
+latter destroys the color of the former.</p>
+
+<p>(c.) <i>Potash.</i>&mdash;The salts of potash, if the acid does not interfere,
+give a purplish-red color before the blowpipe; but as the color is
+more discernibly a purple, we have classed it under that color.</p>
+
+<p>(d.) <i>Lime.</i>&mdash;The color of the flame of lime does not greatly differ
+from that of strontia, with the exception that it is not so decided.
+Arragonite and calcareous spar, moistened with hydrochloric acid, and
+tried as directed for strontia, produce a red light, not unlike that
+of strontia. The chloride of calcium gives a red tinge, but not nearly
+so decided as the chloride of strontium. The carbonate of lime will
+produce a yellowish flame for a while, until the carbonic acid is
+driven off, when the red color of the lime may be discerned.</p>
+
+<p>If the borate or phosphate of lime be used, the green color of the
+acids predominates over the red of the lime. Baryta also destroys the
+red color of the lime, by mixing its green color with it. There is but
+one silicate of lime which colors the flame red, it is the variety
+termed tabular spar.</p>
+
+
+<h3>5. EXAMINATIONS IN THE BORAX BEAD.</h3><p class="rtntoc"><a href="#TOC">Go to TOC</a></p>
+
+<p>In order to examine a substance in borax, the loop of the platinum
+wire should, after being thoroughly cleaned, and heated to redness, be
+quickly dipped into the powdered borax, and then quickly transferred
+to the flame of oxidation, and there fused. If the bead is not large
+enough to fill the loop of the wire, it must be subjected again to the
+same process. By examining the bead, both when hot and cold, by
+holding it up against the light, it can be soon ascertained whether it
+is free from dirt by the transparency, or the want of it, of the bead.</p>
+
+<p>In order to make the examination of a substance, the bead <a name="Page_70"></a>should be
+melted and pressed against it, when enough will adhere to answer the
+purpose. This powder should then be fused in the oxidation flame until
+it mixes with, and is thoroughly dissolved by the borax bead.</p>
+
+<p>The principal objects to be determined now are: the color of the borax
+bead, both when heated and when cooled; also the rapidity with which
+the substance dissolves in the bead, and if any gas is eliminated.</p>
+
+<p>If the color of the bead is the object desired, the quantity of the
+substance employed must be very small, else the bead will be so deeply
+colored, as in some cases to appear almost opaque, as, for instance,
+in that of cobalt. Should this be the case, then, while the bead is
+still red hot, it should be pressed flat with the forceps; or it may,
+while soft, be pulled out to a thin thread, whereby the color can be
+distinctly discovered.</p>
+
+<p>Some bodies, when heated in the borax bead, present a clear bead both
+while hot and cold; but if the bead be heated with the intermittent
+flame, or in the flame of reduction, it becomes opalescent, opaque or
+milk-white. The alkaline earths are instances of this kind of
+reaction, also glucina oxide of cerium, tantalic and titanic acids,
+yttria and zirconia. But if a small portion of silica should be
+present, then the bead becomes clear. This is likewise the case with
+some silicates, provided there be not too large a quantity present,
+that is: over the quantity necessary to saturate the borax, for, in
+that case, the bead will be opaque when cool.</p>
+
+<p>If the bead be heated on charcoal, a small tube or cavity must be
+scooped out of the charcoal, the bead placed in it, and the flame of
+reduction played upon it. When the bead is perfectly fused, it is
+taken up between the platinum forceps and pressed flat, so that the
+color may be the more readily discerned. This quick cooling also
+prevents the protoxides, if there be any present, from passing into a
+higher degree of oxidation.</p>
+
+<p>The bead should first be submitted to the oxidation flame, and any
+reaction carefully observed. Then the bead should be submitted to the
+flame of reduction. It must be observed that <a name="Page_71"></a>the platinum forceps
+should not be used when there is danger of a metallic oxide being
+reduced, as in this case the metal would alloy with the platinum and
+spoil the forceps. In this case charcoal should be used for the
+support. If, however, there be oxides present which are not reduced by
+the borax, then the platinum loop may be used. Tin is frequently used
+for the purpose of enabling the bead to acquire a color for an oxide
+in the reducing flame, by its affinity for oxygen. The oxide, thus
+being reduced to a lower degree of oxidation, imparts its peculiar
+tinge to the bead as it cools.</p>
+
+<p>The arsenides and sulphides, before being examined, should be roasted,
+and then heated with the borax bead. The arsenic of the former, it
+should be observed, will act on the glass tube in which the
+sublimation is proceeding, if the glass should contain lead.</p>
+
+<p>It should be recollected that earths, metallic oxides, and metallic
+acids are soluble in borax, except those of the easily reducible
+metals, such as platinum or gold, or of mercury, which too readily
+vaporize. Also the metallic sulphides, after the sulphur has been
+driven off. Also the salts of metals, after their acids are driven off
+by heat. Also the nitrates and carbonates, after their acids are
+driven off during the fusion. Also the salts of the halogens, such as
+the chlorides, iodides, bromides, etc., of the metals. Also the
+silicates, but with great tardiness. Also the phosphates and borates
+that fuse in the bead without suffering decomposition. The metallic
+sulphides are insoluble in borax, and many of the metals in the pure
+state.</p>
+
+<p>There are many substances which give clear beads with borax both while
+hot and cold, but which, upon being heated with the intermittent
+oxidation flame, become enamelled and opaque. The intermittent flame
+may be readily attained, not by varying the force of the air from the
+mouth, but by raising and depressing the bead before the point of the
+steady oxidating flame. The addition of a little nitrate of potash
+will often greatly facilitate the production of a color, as it
+<a name="Page_72"></a>oxidizes the metal. The hot bead should be pressed upon a small
+crystal of the nitrate, when the bead swells, intumesces, and the
+color is manifested in the surface of the bead,</p>
+
+
+<h3>6. EXAMINATIONS IN MICROCOSMIC SALT.</h3><p class="rtntoc"><a href="#TOC">Go to TOC</a></p>
+
+<p>Microcosmic salt is a better flux for many metallic oxides than borax,
+as the colors are exhibited in it with more strength and character.
+Microcosmic salt is the phosphate of soda and ammonia. When it is
+ignited it passes into the biphosphate of soda, the ammonia being
+driven off. This biphosphate of soda possesses an excess of phosphoric
+acid, and thus has the property of dissolving a great number of
+substances, in fact almost any one, with the exception of silica. If
+the substances treated with this salt consist of sulphides or
+arsenides, the bead must be heated on charcoal. But if the substance
+experimented upon consists of earthly ingredients or metallic oxides,
+the platinum wire is the best. If the latter is used a few additional
+turns should be given to the wire in consequence of the greater
+fluidity of the bead over that of borax. The microcosmic salt bead
+possesses the advantage over that of borax, that the colors of many
+substances are better discerned in it, and that it separates the
+acids, the more volatile ones being dissipated, while the fixed ones
+combine with a portion of the base equally with the phosphoric acid,
+or else do not combine at all, but float about in the bead, as is the
+case particularly with silicic acid. Many of the silicates give with
+borax a clear bead, while they form with microcosmic salt an
+opalescent one.</p>
+
+<p>It frequently happens, that if a metallic oxide will not give its
+peculiar color in one of the flames, that it will in the other, as the
+difference in degree with which the metal is oxidized often determines
+the color. If the bead is heated in the reducing flame, it is well
+that it should be cooled rapidly to prevent a reoxidation. Reduction
+is much facilitated by the employment of metallic tin, whereby the
+protoxide or the <a name="Page_73"></a>reduced metal may be obtained in a comparatively
+brief time.</p>
+
+<p>The following tables, taken from Plattner and Sherer, will present the
+reactions of the metallic oxides, and some of the metallic acids, in
+such a clear light, that the student cannot very easily be led astray,
+if he gives the least attention to them. It frequently happens that a
+tabular statement of reactions will impress facts upon the memory when
+long detailed descriptions will fail to do so. It is for this purpose
+that we subjoin the following excellent tables.</p>
+
+<hr  />
+
+
+
+<h3><a name="Page_75"></a><a name="TABLE_I"></a>TABLE I.</h3><p class="rtntoc"><a href="#TOC">Go to TOC</a></p>
+
+
+<p>A. BORAX.</p>
+<div class="indent5"><p>1. Oxydizing flame.<br />
+2. Reducing flame.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>B. MICROCOSMIC SALT.</p>
+<div class="indent5"><p>1. Oxydizing flame.<br />
+2. Reducing flame.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<h3><a name="Page_76"></a>A. BORAX</h3><p class="rtntoc"><a href="#TOC">Go to TOC</a></p>
+
+<h4>1. Oxydizing flame</h4>
+
+
+<table border="1"  class="full" summary="TABLE I Oxidizing Flame">
+<colgroup align="left" span="5"><col width="5%" /><col width="25%" />
+<col width="20%" /><col width="25%" /><col width="20%" /></colgroup>
+<tr><th colspan="5" align="left">Color of Bead.</th></tr>
+<tr><th></th><th colspan="4" align="center">Substances which produce this color</th></tr>
+<tr><th></th><th colspan="2" align="center">in the hot bead.</th><th colspan="2" align="center">in the cold bead.</th></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="5" align="left">Colorless.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Silica</td><td class="multirow" rowspan="18">In all proportions.</td><td>Silica</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Alumina</td><td>Alumina</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Tin</td><td>Oxide of Tin</td><td class="multirow" rowspan="20">With intermittent flame opaque white.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Telluric Acid</td><td>Telluric Acid</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Baryta</td><td>Baryta</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Strontia</td><td>Strontia</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Lime</td><td>Lime</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Magnesia</td><td>Magnesia</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Glucina</td><td>Glucina</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Yttria</td><td>Yttria</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Zirconia</td><td>Zirconia</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Thoria</td><td>Thoria</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Lanthanum</td><td>Oxide of Lanthanum</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td></td><td>Oxide of Silver</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Tantalic Acid</td><td>Tantalic Acid</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Niobic Acid</td><td>Niobic Acid</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Pelopic Acid</td><td>Pelopic Acid</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Titanic Acid</td><td>Titanic Acid</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Tungstic Acid</td><td class="multirow" rowspan="7">In small quantity only. In large quantity yellow.</td><td>Tungstic Acid</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Molybdic Acid</td><td>Molybdic Acid</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Zinc</td><td>Oxide of Zinc</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Cadmium</td><td>Oxide of Cadmium</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Lead</td><td>Oxide of Lead</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Bismuth</td><td>Oxide of Bismuth</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Antimony</td><td>Oxide of Antimony</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="5" align="left">Yellow, orange-red and reddish-brown.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Titanic Acid, yellow</td><td class="multirow" rowspan="8"> When in large quantity. Otherwise colorless.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Tungstic Acid, yellow</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Molybdic Acid, dark yellow</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Zinc, pale-yellow</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Cadmium, pale-yellow</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Lead, yellow</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Bismuth, orange</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Antimony, yellow</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Cerium, red</td><td></td><td>Oxide of Cerium</td><td>with interm. flame opaque white.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Iron, dark red</td><td></td><td>Oxide of Iron,</td><td>yellow.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Uranium, red</td><td></td><td>Oxide of Uranium</td><td> with interm. flame opaque yellow.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Silver</td><td></td><td>Oxide of Silver</td><td> in large proportion, with interm. flame yellow.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Vanadic Acid, yellow</td><td></td><td>Vanadic Acid,</td><td>yellow.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Chromium, dark-red</td><td></td><td>Oxide of Nickel,</td><td>reddish-brown.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Oxide of Manganese,</td><td>red to violet.</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="5" align="left">Violet or Amethyst.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Nickel</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Manganese</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Didymium</td><td></td><td>Oxide of Didymium.</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="5" align="left">Blue.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Cobalt</td><td></td><td>Oxide of Cobalt.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Oxide of Copper,</td><td>blue to greenish-blue.</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="5" align="left">Green.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Copper</td><td></td><td>Oxide of Chromium,</td><td>with yellowish tinge.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<h3>A. BORAX</h3><p class="rtntoc"><a href="#TOC">Go to TOC</a></p>
+
+<h4>2. Reducing flame</h4>
+
+
+<table class="full" border="1" summary="TABLE I Oxidizing Flame">
+<colgroup align="left" span="5"><col width="5%" /><col width="25%" />
+<col width="20%" /><col width="25%" /><col width="20%" /></colgroup>
+<tr><th colspan="5" align="left">Color of Bead.</th></tr>
+<tr><th></th><th colspan="4" align="center">Substances which produce this color</th></tr>
+<tr><th></th><th colspan="2" align="center">in the hot bead.</th><th colspan="2" align="center">in the cold bead.</th></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="5" align="left">Colorless</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Silica</td><td></td><td>Silica</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Alumina</td><td></td><td>Alumina</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Tin</td><td></td><td>Oxide of Tin</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Baryta</td><td></td><td>Baryta</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Strontia</td><td></td><td>Strontia</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Lime</td><td></td><td>Lime</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Magnesia</td><td></td><td>Magnesia</td><td class="multirow" rowspan="10">With intermittent flame opaque-white.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Glucina</td><td></td><td>Glucina</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Yttria</td><td></td><td>Yttria</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Zirconia</td><td></td><td>Zirconia</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Thoria</td><td></td><td>Thoria only when saturated </td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Lanthanum</td><td></td><td>Oxide of Lanthanum</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Cerium</td><td></td><td>Oxide of Cerium</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Tantalic Acid</td><td></td><td>Tantalic Acid</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Didymium</td><td></td><td>Oxide of Didymium</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Manganese</td><td></td><td>Oxide of Manganese</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Niobic Acid</td><td class="multirow" rowspan="2">In small proportions.</td><td>Niobic Acid</td><td class="multirow" rowspan="2">In small proportions. </td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Pelopic Acid</td><td>Pelopic Acid</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Silver</td><td class="multirow" rowspan="8">After long continued blowing. Otherwise grey.</td><td>Oxide of Silver</td><td class="multirow" rowspan="8"> After long continued blowing. Otherwise grey. </td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Zinc</td><td>Oxide of Zinc </td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Cadmium</td><td>Oxide of Cadmium xx</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Lead</td><td>Oxide of Lead</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Bismuth</td><td>Oxide of Bismuth</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Antimony</td><td>Oxide of Antimony</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Nickel</td><td>Oxide of Nickel</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Telluric Acid</td><td>Telluric Acid</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="5" align="left">Yellow to brown.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Titanic Acid</td><td></td><td>Titanic Acid.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Tungstic Acid</td><td></td><td>Tungstic Acid</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Molybdic Acid</td><td></td><td>Molybdic Acid</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td colspan="2"></td><td>Vanadic Acid</td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="5" align="left">Blue.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Cobalt.</td><td></td><td>Oxide of Cobalt.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td colspan="2"></td><td>Titanic Acid</td><td>with intermittent flame opaque-blue.</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="5" align="left">Green.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Iron</td><td></td><td>Oxide of Iron,</td><td>bottle-green.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Uranium</td><td></td><td>Oxide of Uranium,</td><td>bottle-green.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Chromium</td><td></td><td>Oxide of Chromium,</td><td>emerald-green.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td colspan="2"></td><td>Vanadic Acid, emerald-green.</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="5" align="left">Opaque-grey. (The opacity generally becomes distinct during cooling.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Silver</td><td class="multirow" rowspan="8">After short blowing. Otherwise colorless.</td><td>Oxide of Silver.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Zinc</td><td>Oxide of Zinc</td><td class="multirow" rowspan="7">After short blowing. Otherwise colorless.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Cadmium</td><td>Oxide of Cadmium</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Lead</td><td>Oxide of Lead</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Bismuth</td><td>Oxide of Bismuth</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Antimony</td><td>Oxide of Antimony </td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Nickel</td><td>Oxide of Nickel</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Telluric Acid</td><td>Telluric Acid</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Niobic Acid</td><td class="multirow" rowspan="2">After long continued blowing and in considerable proportion.</td><td>Niobic Acid</td><td rowspan="2" class="multirow">After long continued blowing and in considerable proportion.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Pelopic Acid</td><td>Pelopic Acid</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="5" align="left">Opaque red and reddish-brown.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Copper</td><td></td><td>Oxide of Copper.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<h3>B. MICROCOSMIC SALT.</h3><p class="rtntoc"><a href="#TOC">Go to TOC</a></p>
+
+<h4>1. Oxydizing flame.</h4>
+
+<table class="full" border="1" summary="">
+<colgroup span="5" align="left"><col width="5%" /><col width="25%" />
+<col width="20%" /><col width="25%" /><col width="20%" /></colgroup>
+<tr><th align="left" colspan="5">Color of Bead.</th></tr>
+<tr><th></th><th align="center" colspan="4">Substances which produce this color</th></tr>
+<tr><th></th><th align="center" colspan="2">in the hot bead.</th><th align="center" colspan="2">in the cold bead.</th></tr>
+<tr><th colspan="5" align="left">Colorless</th></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Silica (only slightly soluble)</td><td class="multirow" rowspan="16">In all proportions.</td><td>Silica</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Alumina</td><td>Alumina</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Tin</td><td>Oxide of Tin</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Telluric Acid</td><td>Telluric Acid</td><td class="multirow" rowspan="10">With intermittent flame opaque white.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Baryta</td><td>Baryta</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Strontia</td><td>Strontia</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Lime</td><td>Lime</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Magnesia</td><td>Magnesia</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Glucina</td><td>Glucina </td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Yttria</td><td>Yttria</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Zirconia</td><td>Zirconia </td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Thoria</td><td>Thoria</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Lanthanum</td><td>Oxide of Lanthanum</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Cerium</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Niobic Acid</td><td>Niobic Acid</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Pelopic Acid</td><td>Pelopic Acid</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Tantalic Acid</td><td></td><td>Tantalic Acid</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Titanic Acid</td><td></td><td>Titanic Acid</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Tungstic Acid</td><td></td><td>Tungstic Acid</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Zinc</td><td class="multirow" rowspan="5">In small quantity only. In large quantity yellow.</td><td>Oxide of Zinc</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Cadmium</td><td>Oxide of Cadmium</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Lead</td><td>Oxide of Lead</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Bismuth</td><td>Oxide of Bismuth</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Antimony</td><td>Oxide of Antimony</td></tr>
+
+<tr><th colspan="5" align="left">Yellow, orange, red and brown.</th></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Tantalic Acid</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Titanic Acid</td><td class="multirow" rowspan="7">In large quantity.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Tunstic Acid</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Zinc</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Cadmium</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Lead</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Bismuth</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Antimony</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Silver</td><td></td><td>Oxide of Silver.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Cerium </td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Iron</td><td></td><td>Oxide of Iron.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Nickel</td><td></td><td>Oxide of Nickel.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Uranium</td><td></td><td>Oxide of Uranium,</td><td>yellowish-green.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Vanadic Acid</td><td></td><td>Vanadic Acid.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Chromium</td></tr>
+<tr><th colspan="5" align="left">Violet or Amethyst.</th></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Manganese</td><td></td><td>Oxide of Manganese.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Didymium</td><td></td><td>Oxide of Didymium.</td></tr>
+<tr><th colspan="5" align="left">Blue.</th></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Cobalt</td><td></td><td>Oxide of Cobalt</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td colspan="2"></td><td>Oxide of Copper,</td><td>to greenish-blue.</td></tr>
+<tr><th colspan="5" align="left">Green.</th></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Molybdic Acid,</td><td>yellowish-green</td><td>Molybdic Acid,</td><td>yellowish-green.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Copper</td><td></td><td>Oxide of Uranium,</td><td>yellowish-green.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Chromium,</td><td>emerald-green.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<h3>B. MICROCOSMIC SALT.</h3><p class="rtntoc"><a href="#TOC">Go to TOC</a></p>
+<h4>2. Reducing flame.</h4>
+
+<table class="full" border="1" summary="">
+<colgroup span="5" align="left"><col width="5%" /><col width="25%" />
+<col width="20%" /><col width="25%" /><col width="20%" /></colgroup>
+<tr><th align="left" colspan="5">Color of Bead.</th></tr>
+<tr><th></th><th align="center" colspan="4">Substances which produce this color</th></tr>
+<tr><th></th><th align="center" colspan="2">in the hot bead.</th><th align="center" colspan="2">in the cold bead.</th></tr>
+<tr><th align="left" colspan="5">Colorless</th></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Silica (only slightly soluble)</td><td></td><td>Silica (only slightly soluble).</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Alumina</td><td></td><td>Alumina.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Tin</td><td></td><td>Oxide of Tin.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Baryta</td><td></td><td>Baryta</td><td class="multirow" rowspan="9">With an intermittent flame opaque-white.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Strontia</td><td></td><td>Strontia</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Lime</td><td></td><td>Lime</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Magnesia</td><td></td><td>Magnesia</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Glucina</td><td></td><td>Glucina</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Yttria</td><td></td><td>Yttria</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Zirconia</td><td></td><td>Zirconia</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Thoria</td><td></td><td>Thoria only when saturated</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Lanthanum</td><td></td><td>Oxide of Lanthanum</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Cerium</td><td></td><td>Oxide of Cerium.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Didymium</td><td></td><td>Oxide of Didymium.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Manganese</td><td></td><td>Oxide of Manganese.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Tantalic Acid</td><td></td><td>Tantalic Acid.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Silver</td><td class="multirow" rowspan="8">After long continued blowing. Otherwise grey.</td><td>Oxide of Silver </td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Zinc</td><td>Oxide of Zinc</td><td class="multirow" rowspan="7">After long continued blowing. Otherwise grey.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Cadmium</td><td>Oxide of Cadmium</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Lead</td><td>Oxide of Lead</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Bismuth</td><td>Oxide of Bismuth</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Antimony</td><td>Oxide of Antimony</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Nickel</td><td>Oxide of Nickel</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Telluric Acid</td><td>Telluric Acid</td></tr>
+<tr><th align="left" colspan="5">Yellow, red, and brown.</th></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Iron,</td><td>red</td><td>Oxide of Iron.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Titanic Acid,</td><td>yellow</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Pelopic Acid,</td><td>brown</td><td>Pelopic Acid.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Ferruginous Titanic Acid,</td><td>blood&nbsp;red</td><td>Ferruginous Titanic Acid.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Ferruginous Niobic Acid,</td><td>blood&nbsp;red</td><td>Ferruginous Niobic Acid.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Ferruginous Pelopic Acid,</td><td>blood&nbsp;red</td><td>Ferruginous Pelopic Acid.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Ferruginous Tungstic Acid,</td><td>blood&nbsp;red</td><td>Ferruginous Tungstic Acid.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Vanadic Acid</td><td> brownish</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Chromium,</td><td>reddish</td></tr>
+
+<tr><th align="left" colspan="5">Violet or Amethyst.</th></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Niobic Acid</td><td>in large proportion</td><td>Niobic Acid</td><td>in large proportion.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Titanic Acid.</td></tr>
+<tr><th align="left" colspan="5">Blue.</th></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Cobalt</td><td></td><td>Oxide of Cobalt.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Tungstic Acid</td><td></td><td>Tungstic Acid.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Niobic Acid</td><td>in very large proportion.</td><td>Niobic Acid</td><td>in very large proportion.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><th align="left" colspan="5">Green.</th></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Uranium</td><td></td><td>Oxide of Uranium.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Molybdic Acid</td><td></td><td>Molybdic Acid.</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="3"></td><td>Vanadic Acid</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="3"></td><td>Oxide of Chromium.</td></tr>
+<tr><th align="left" colspan="5">Opaque-grey. (The opacity generally becomes distinct during cooling.)</th></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Silver</td><td></td><td>Oxide of Silver.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Zinc</td><td></td><td>Oxide of Zinc.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Cadmium</td><td></td><td>Oxide of Cadmium.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Lead</td><td></td><td>Oxide of Lead.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Bismuth</td><td></td><td>Oxide of Bismuth.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Antimony</td><td></td><td>Oxide of Antimony.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Nickel</td><td></td><td>Oxide of Nickel.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Telluric Acid</td><td></td><td>Telluric Acid.</td></tr>
+<tr><th align="left" colspan="5">Opaque-red and reddish brown.</th></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxide of Copper</td><td></td><td>Oxide of Copper.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<h3><a name="TABLE_II"></a><a name="Page_85"></a>TABLE II.<a name="Page_86"></a></h3><p class="rtntoc"><a href="#TOC">Go to TOC</a></p>
+
+<table class="full" border="1" summary="">
+<colgroup span="3" align="left" valign="top"><col width="10%"/><col span="2" width="45%"/></colgroup>
+<tr><th>Metallic Oxide.</th><th>Behavior with Borax on Platinum wire</th><th>Behavior with Mic. Salt on Platinum wire</th></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="3">1. Oxide of Cerium, C<sup>2</sup>O<sup>3</sup>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><th>in the oxidizing flame.</th>
+<td>Dissolves into a red or dark yellow glass (similar to that
+produced by iron). During cooling, the color diminishes in the
+intensity and becomes finally yellow. If much oxide be dissolved,
+an opaque bead may be obtained with an intermittent flame, and a
+still larger quantity renders it opaque spontaneously.</td>
+<td>The color of the bead becomes paler, so that a bead, which is
+yellow in the oxidizing flame, is rendered colorless. With a
+large quantity of oxide the bead becomes white and crystalline
+on cooling.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><th>in the reducing flame.</th>
+
+<td>As with borax. During the process of cooling the color entirely
+disappears.</td>
+
+<td>Both, when hot and cold, the bead is colorless, by which
+character oxide of cerium may be distinguished from oxide of
+iron. The glass remains clear even when containing a large
+quantity of the oxide.</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="3">2. Oxide of Lanthanum, LaO.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><th>in the oxidizing flame.</th>
+<td>Dissolves into a colorless glass, which, when sufficient oxide
+is present, may be rendered opaque with an intermittent flame,
+and becomes so spontaneously on cooling, when a still larger
+amount is dissolved.</td>
+<td>As with borax.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><th>in the reducing flame.</th>
+<td>As in the oxidizing flame.</td>
+<td>No reaction.</td></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td colspan="3"><a name="Page_87"></a>3. Oxide of Didymium, DO.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><th>in the oxidizing flame.</th>
+
+<td>Dissolves to a clear dark amethystine glass.</td>
+<td>As with borax.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><th>in the reducing flame.</th>
+
+<td>No reaction.</td>
+
+<td>No reaction.</td></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td colspan="3">4. Oxide of Manganese, Mn<sup>2</sup>O<sup>3</sup>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><th>in the oxidizing flame.</th>
+
+<td>Affords an intense amethyst color, which on cooling becomes
+violet. A large quantity of the oxide produces an apparently
+black bead, which however, if pressed flat, is seen to be
+transparent.</td>
+<td>With a considerable quantity of oxide an amethyst color is
+obtained, but never so dark as in borax. With but little oxide a
+colorless bead is obtained, in which, however, the
+amethyst-color may be brought out by adding a little nitre.
+While the bead is kept fused, it froths and gives off bubbles of
+gas.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><th>in the reducing flame.</th>
+
+<td>The colored bead becomes colorless. With a large amount of the
+oxide, this reaction is best obtained upon charcoal, and is
+facilitated by the addition of tin foil.</td>
+<td>The colored bead immediately loses its color, either on platinum
+wire or on charcoal. After the reduction the fluid bead remains
+still.</td></tr>
+
+
+
+<tr><td colspan="3"><a name="Page_88"></a>5. Oxide of Iron, Fe<sup>2</sup>O<sup>3</sup>.</td></tr>
+<tr><th>in the oxidizing flame.</th>
+
+<td>With a small proportion of oxide, the glass is of a yellow
+color, while warm, and colorless when cold; with a larger
+proportion, red, while warm, and yellow, when cold; and with a
+still larger amount, dark-red, while warm, and dark-yellow, when
+cold.</td>
+<td>With a certain amount of oxide, the glass is of a yellowish-red
+color, which on cooling changes to yellow, then green, and
+finally becomes colorless. With a large addition of oxide, the
+color is, when warm, dark red, and passes, while cooling, into
+brownish-red, dark green, and finally brownish-red. During the
+cooling process, the colors change more rapidly than with borax.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><th>in the reducing flame.</th>
+
+<td>Treated alone on platinum wire, the glass becomes of a
+bottle-green color (F<sup>3</sup>O<sup>4</sup>), and if touched with tin, it
+becomes of a pale sea-green. On charcoal with tin, it assumes at
+first a bottle-green color, which by continued blowing changes
+to a sea-green (FeO).</td>
+<td>With a small proportion of oxide there is no reaction. With a
+larger amount the bead is red, while warm, and becomes on
+cooling successively yellow, green, and russet. With the
+addition of tin the glass becomes, during cooling, first green
+and then colorless.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="3">6. Oxide of Cobalt, CoO.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><th>in the oxidizing flame.</th>
+
+<td>Colors the glass of an intense smalt blue both whilst hot and
+when cold. When much oxide is present, the color is so deep as
+to appear black.</td>
+
+<td>As with borax, but less intensively colored. During cooling the
+color becomes somewhat paler.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><th>in the reducing flame.</th>
+
+<td>As in the oxidizing flame.</td>
+
+<td>As in the oxidizing flames.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="3"><a name="Page_89"></a>7. Oxide of Nickel, NiO.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><th>in the oxidizing flame.</th>
+
+<td>Colors intensely. A small amount of oxide affords a glass which,
+while warm, is violet, and becomes of a pale reddish-brown on
+cooling. A larger addition produces a dark violet color in the
+warm and reddish-brown in the cold bead.</td>
+
+<td>Dissolves into a reddish glass which becomes yellow on cooling.
+With a large addition of the oxide, the glass is brownish while
+hot, and orange when cold.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><th>in the reducing flame.</th>
+
+<td>The oxide is reduced and the metallic particles give the bead a
+turbid grey appearance. If the blast be continued the metallic
+particles fall together without fusing, and the glass becomes
+colorless. This reaction is readily obtained with tin upon
+charcoal, and the reduced nickel fuses to a bead with the tin.</td>
+
+<td>On platinum wire the nickeliferous bead undergoes no change.
+Treated with tin upon charcoal, it becomes at first opaque and
+grey, and after long continued blowing the reduced nickel forms
+a bead, and the glass remains colorless.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="3"><a name="Page_90"></a>8. Oxide of Zinc, ZnO.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><th>in the oxidizing flame.</th>
+
+<td>Dissolves easily into a clear colorless glass, which, when much
+oxide is present, may be rendered opaque and flocculent by an
+intermittent flame, and becomes so spontaneously with a still
+larger addition. When a considerable quantity is dissolved, a
+glass is obtained which is pale yellow, while hot, and colorless
+when cold.</td>
+
+<td>As with borax.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><th>in the reducing flame.</th>
+
+<td>On platinum wire the saturated glass becomes at first opaque and
+grey, but by a sustained blast is again rendered clear. On
+charcoal the oxide is gradually reduced; the metal is
+volatilized and in crusts the charcoal with oxide.</td>
+
+<td>As with borax.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="3">9. Oxide of Cadmium, CdO.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><th>in the oxidizing flame.</th>
+
+<td>When in very large proportion, dissolves to a clear yellow
+glass, which becomes nearly colorless on cooling. When the oxide
+is present in any considerable quantity, the glass can be
+rendered opaque with an intermittent flame, and, with a larger
+addition, it becomes so spontaneously on cooling.</td>
+
+<td>When in very large proportion dissolves to a clear glass, having
+a yellow tinge, while hot, which disappears on cooling, and when
+perfectly saturated, becomes milk-white.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><th>in the reducing flame.</th>
+
+<td>Upon charcoal ebullition takes place and the oxide is reduced.
+The metallic cadmium is volatilized and incrusts the charcoal
+with its characteristic deep yellow oxide.</td>
+
+<td>On charcoal the oxide is slowly and imperfectly reduced. The
+reduced metal forms the characteristic incrustation on the
+charcoal, but the is thin and does not exhibit its color clearly
+until quite cold. The addition of tin hastens the reaction.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="3"><a name="Page_91"></a>10. Oxide of Lead, PbO.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><th>in the oxidizing flame.</th>
+
+<td>Dissolves readily to a clear yellow glass, which loses its color
+upon cooling, and when containing much oxide can be rendered
+dull under an intermittent flame. With a still larger addition
+of oxide it becomes opaline yellow on cooling.</td>
+
+<td>As with borax, but a larger addition of oxide, required to
+produce a yellow color in the warm bead.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><th>in the reducing flame.</th>
+
+<td>The plumbiferous glass spreads out on charcoal, becomes turbid,
+bubbles up, until the whole of the oxide is reduced, when it
+again becomes clear. It is, however, difficult to bring the lead
+together into a bead.</td>
+
+<td>On charcoal the plumbiferous glass becomes grey and dull. With
+an over dose of oxide a part is volatilized and forms an
+incrustation on the charcoal beyond the bead. The addition of
+tin does not render the glass opaque, but somewhat more dull and
+grey than in its absence.</td></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td colspan="3"><a name="Page_92"></a>11. Oxide of Tin, SnO<sup>2</sup>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><th>in the oxidizing flame.</th>
+
+<td>In small quantity dissolves slowly into a clear colorless glass,
+which, when cold, remains clear, and cannot be rendered opaque
+with an intermittent flame. If a saturated bead, which has been
+allowed to cool, be reheated to incipient redness, it loses its
+rounded form and exhibits imperfect crystallization.</td>
+
+<td>In small quantity dissolves very slowly to a colorless glass,
+which remains clear on cooling.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><th>in the reducing flame.</th>
+
+<td>A glass containing but little oxide undergoes no change. If much
+of the latter be present, a part may be reduced upon charcoal.</td>
+<td>The glass undergoes no change, either on charcoal or platinum wire.</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="3">12. Oxide of Bismuth, BiO<sup>3</sup>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><th>in the oxidizing flame.</th>
+
+<td>Dissolves readily to a clear glass which with a small amount of
+the oxide is yellow, while warm, and becomes colorless on
+cooling. With a larger addition, the glass is, in the hot state,
+of a deep orange color, which changes to yellow and finally
+becomes opaline in process of cooling.</td>
+
+<td>Dissolves in small quantity to a clear colorless glass. A larger
+addition affords a glass which, while warm, is yellow, and
+becomes colorless on cooling. When in sufficient proportion the
+glass may be rendered opaque under an intermittent flame, and a
+still larger addition of oxide renders the bead spontaneously
+opaque on cooling.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><th>in the reducing flame.</th>
+
+<td>A glass becomes at first grey and turbid, then begins to
+effervesce, which action continues during the reduction of the
+oxide, and it finally becomes perfectly clear. If tin be added,
+the glass becomes at first grey from the reduced bismuth, but,
+when the metal is collected into a bead, the glass is again
+clear and colorless.</td>
+
+<td>On charcoal, and especially with the addition of tin, the glass
+remains colorless and clear, while warm, but becomes on cooling
+of a dark grey color and opaque.</td></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td colspan="3"><a name="Page_93"></a>13. Oxide of Uranium, U<sup>2</sup>O<sup>3</sup>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><th>in the oxidizing flame.</th>
+
+<td>Behaves similarly to oxide of iron, with the exception that the
+color of the former is somewhat paler. When sufficiently
+saturated, the glass may be rendered of an opaque yellow by an
+intermittent flame.</td>
+
+<td>Dissolves to a clear yellow glass, which assumes a
+yellowish-green color on cooling.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><th>in the reducing flame.</th>
+
+<td>Affords the same color as the oxide of iron. The green glass
+obtained in this flame, if sufficiently saturated, can be
+rendered black by an intermittent flame, but it has under these
+circumstances no enameline appearance. On charcoal, with the
+addition of tin, the glass takes a dark green color.</td>
+
+<td>The glass assumes a beautiful green color, which becomes more
+brilliant as the bead cools. The addition of tin upon charcoal
+produces no further change.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="3"><a name="Page_94"></a>14. Oxide of Copper, CuO.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><th>in the oxidizing flame.</th>
+
+<td>Produces an intense coloration. If in small quantity, the glass
+is green, while warm, and becomes blue on cooling. If in large
+proportion, the green color is so intense as to appear black.
+When cool, this becomes paler, and changes to a greenish blue.</td>
+
+<td>With an equal proportion of oxide, this salt is not so strongly
+colored as borax. A small amount imparts a green color in the
+warm and a blue in the cold. With a very large addition of
+oxide, the glass is opaque in the hot state, and after cooling
+of a greenish-blue.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><th>in the reducing flame.</th>
+
+<td>If not too saturated, the cupriferous glass soon becomes nearly
+colorless, but immediately on solidifying assumes a red color
+and becomes opaque. By long continued blowing on charcoal, the
+copper in the bead is reduced and separates out as a small
+metallic bead, leaving the glass colorless. With the addition of
+tin, the glass becomes of an opaque dull-red on cooling.</td>
+
+<td>A tolerably saturated glass assumes a dark green color under a
+good flame, and on cooling becomes of an opaque brick-red, the
+moment it solidifies. A glass containing but a small proportion
+of the oxide becomes equally red and opaque on cooling, if
+treated with tin upon charcoal.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="3">15. Oxide of Mercury, HgO.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><th>in the oxidizing flame.</th>
+
+<td>No reaction.</td>
+
+<td>No reaction.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><th>in the reducing flame.</th>
+
+<td>No reaction.</td>
+
+<td>No reaction.</td></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td colspan="3"><a name="Page_95"></a>16. Oxide of Silver, AgO.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><th>in the oxidizing flame.</th>
+
+<td>The oxide is partly dissolved and partly reduced. In small
+quantity, it colors the glass yellow while warm, the color
+disappearing on cooling. In larger quantity, the glass is yellow
+while warm, but during cooling becomes paler to a certain point,
+and then again deeper. If reheated slightly, the glass becomes
+opalescent.</td>
+
+<td>Both the oxide and the metal afford a yellowish glass, which,
+when containing much oxide becomes opaline, exhibiting a yellow
+color by daylight and a red one by artificial light.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><th>in the reducing flame.</th>
+
+<td>On charcoal the argentiferous glass becomes at first grey from
+the reduced metal, but afterwards, when the silver is collected
+into a bead, it becomes clear and colorless.</td>
+
+<td>As in borax.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="3">17. Oxide of Platinum, PtO<sup>2</sup>.<br />
+18. Oxide of Palladium, PdO<sup>2</sup>.<br />
+19. Oxide of Rhodium, R<sup>2</sup>O<sup>3</sup>.<br />
+20. Oxide of Iridium, Ir<sup>2</sup>O<sup>3</sup>.<br />
+21. Oxide of Ruthenium, Ru<sup>2</sup>O<sup>9</sup>.<br />
+22. Oxide of Osmium OsO<sup>2</sup>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><th>in the oxidizing flame.</th>
+
+<td>Are reduced without being dissolved. The reduced metal, being
+infusible, cannot however be collected into a bead.</td>
+
+<td>As in borax.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><th>in the reducing flame.</th>
+
+<td>As in the oxidizing flame.</td>
+
+<td>As in borax.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="3"><a name="Page_96"></a>23. Oxide of Gold, Au<sup>2</sup>O<sup>3</sup>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><th>in the oxidizing flame.</th>
+<td>Is reduced without being dissolved and can be collected into a
+bead on charcoal.</td>
+<td>As in borax.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><th>in the reducing flame.</th>
+<td>As in the oxidizing flame.</td>
+<td>As in borax.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="3">24. Titanic Acid, TiO<sup>2</sup></td></tr>
+
+<tr><th>in the oxidizing flame.</th>
+
+<td>Dissolves readily to a clear glass which, when but little acid
+is present, is colorless, but when in larger proportion, yellow,
+and, on cooling, colorless. When sufficiently saturated, it may
+be rendered opaque with an intermittent flame, and with a still
+larger addition of the acid becomes so spontaneously on cooling.</td>
+
+<td>Dissolves readily to a clear glass, which, when sufficiently
+saturated, is yellow white hot, and becomes colorless on
+cooling.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><th>in the reducing flame.</th>
+
+<td>In small proportion, it renders the glass yellow in larger
+quantity dark-yellow or brown. A saturated bead assumes a
+blue enamel-like appearance under an intermittent flame.</td>
+
+<td>The glass obtained in the oxidizing glame becomes yellow in the
+hot state, but on cooling assumes a beautiful violet color. If
+too saturated, this color is so deep as to appear opaque, but is
+not enameline. If the titanic acid contains iron, the glass
+becomes on cooling of a brownish-yellow or red color. The
+addition of tin neutralizes the iron, and the glass then becomes
+violet.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="3"><a name="Page_97"></a>25. Tantalic Acid, TaO<sup>3</sup>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><th>in the oxidizing flame.</th>
+
+<td>Dissolves readily to a clear colorless glass, which, when
+sufficiently saturated, may be rendered opaque with an
+intermittent flame, and with a larger addition of the acid
+becomes spontaneously enameline on cooling.</td>
+
+<td>Dissolves readily to a clear glass, which, when it contains a
+large proportion of the acid, is yellow while warm, but becomes
+colorless on cooling.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><th>in the reducing flame.</th>
+
+<td>As in the oxidizing flame.</td>
+
+<td>The glass obtained in the oxidizing flame undergoes no change,
+nor does it, according to <i>H. Rose</i>, alter by the addition of
+sulphate of iron.</td></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td colspan="3"><a name="Page_98"></a>26. Niobic Acid, Ni<sup>2</sup>O<sup>3</sup></td></tr>
+
+<tr><th>in the oxidizing flame.</th>
+
+<td>Behaves in a similar manner to tantalic acid, but the glass
+requires a very large dose of the acid to render it opaque under
+an intermittent flame. With an increased amount of the acid, the
+glass is clear and yellow, while warm, but becomes on cooling
+turbid, and when quite cold is white.</td>
+
+<td>Dissolves in large quantities to a clear colorless glass.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><th>in the reducing flame.</th>
+
+<td>The glass obtained in the oxidizing flame and which has become
+opalescent on cooling, is rendered clear in the reducing flame.
+With a larger addition of the acid, it becomes dull, and of a
+bluish-grey color on cooling, and a still larger amount of
+renders it opaque and bluish grey.</td>
+
+<td>If the acid be not present in too large a proportion, the glass
+remains unchanged. An additional amount of the acid renders it
+violet, and a still larger quantity affords a beautiful pure
+blue color, similar to that produced by tungstic acid. If to
+such a bead some sulphate of iron be added, the glass becomes
+blood-red. The addition of peroxide of iron renders the glass
+deep yellow while warm, the color becomes paler on cooling.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="3"><a name="Page_99"></a>27. Pelopic Acid, Pp<sup>2</sup>O<sup>3</sup>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><th>in the oxidizing flame.</th>
+
+<td>Behaves similarly to the preceding.</td>
+<td>Dissolves even in large quantity to a colorless glass.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><th>in the reducing flame.</th>
+
+<td>A bead containing sufficient of the acid to render it
+spontaneously opaque on cooling, has a greyish color.</td>
+<td>With sufficient dose of the acid, the bead becomes brown with a
+violet tinge. This reaction is readily obtained upon charcoal.
+Sulphate of iron renders the bead blood-red.</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="3">28. Oxide of Antimony, SbO<sup>3</sup>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><th>in the oxidizing flame.</th>
+
+<td>Even when in large proportion, dissolves to a clear glass, which
+is yellow when warm, but almost entirely loses its color on
+cooling. On charcoal, the antimonious acid may be almost
+expelled, so that tin produces no further change.</td>
+
+<td>Dissolves with ebullition to a glass of a pale yellow color
+while warm.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><th>in the reducing flame.</th>
+
+<td>A bead, that has only been treated for a short time in the
+oxidizing flame, when submitted to the reducing flame becomes
+grey and turbid from the reduced antimony. This soon volatizes
+and the glass again becomes clear. The addition of tin renders
+the glass ash-grey or black, according to the amount of oxide it
+contains.</td>
+
+<td>On charcoal, the saturated glass becomes at first dull, but as
+soon as the reduced antimony is volatilized, it again becomes
+clear. With tin, the glass is at first rendered grey by the
+reduced antimony, but by continued blowing is restored to
+clearness. Even when the glass contains but little oxide, tin
+produces this reaction.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="3"><a name="Page_100"></a>29. Tungstic Acid, WO<sup>3</sup>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><th>in the oxidizing flame.</th>
+
+<td>Dissolves readily to a clear colorless glass. In large
+proportion it renders the borax yellow, while warm, and with a
+still greater addition the bead may be made opaque with an
+intermittent flame. If more be then added, this reaction takes
+place spontaneously.</td>
+<td>Dissolves to a clear glass, which, when saturated, is yellow in
+the hot state.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><th>in the reducing flame.</th>
+
+<td>When the oxide is present in small quantity, the glass undergoes
+no change. With a larger proportion, the glass is deep yellow
+while warm, and yellowish-brown when cold. This reaction takes
+place upon charcoal, with a small quantity of the acid. Tin
+produces a dark coloration, when the acid is not present in too
+great a quantity.</td>
+<td>The glass is of a pure blue. If the tungstic acid contain iron,
+the glass becomes blood-red on cooling, similar to titanic acid.
+In this case, tin restores the blue color, or, if iron be in
+considerable quantity, renders it green.</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="3">30. Molydbic Acid, MO<sup>3</sup>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><th>in the oxidizing flame.</th>
+
+<td>Dissolves readily and in large quantity. When but little is
+dissolved, the glass is yellow while hot and colorless when
+cold. When in larger quantity yellow while warm and opaline when
+cold, and a further addition of acid renders it yellow when
+warm, the color, on cooling, changing first to a pale enamel
+blue, and then to an enamel white.</td>
+
+<td>Dissolves to a clear glass, which, when sufficient acid is
+present, is of a yellowish-green color when warm, and becomes
+nearly colorless on cooling. On charcoal, the glass becomes
+dark, and when cool has a beautiful green color.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><th>in the reducing flame.</th>
+
+<td>The glass, which has been treated in the oxidizing flame,
+becomes, when the acid is not present in too large a quantity,
+brown, and when in large quantity, perfectly opaque. In a
+strong flame, oxide of molybdenum is formed which is visible in
+the yellow glass in the form of black flakes. If the glass
+appear opaque, it should be flattened with the forceps.</td>
+
+<td>The glass becomes of a bottle-green color, which on cooling,
+changes to a brilliant green, similar to that produced by oxide
+of chromium. The reaction on charcoal is precisely similar. Tin
+renders the color somewhat darker.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="3"><a name="Page_101"></a>31. Vanadic Acid, VaO<sup>8</sup>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><th>in the oxidizing flame.</th>
+
+<td>Dissolves to a clear glass, which is colorless when only a small
+quantity of acid is present, and yellow when containing a larger
+proportion.</td>
+<td>As with borax.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><th>in the reducing flame.</th>
+
+<td>The yellow color of the glass changes to a brown when warm and a
+chrome-green on cooling.</td>
+<td>As with borax.</td></tr>
+
+
+
+<tr><td colspan="3"><a name="Page_102"></a>32. Oxide of Chromium, Cr<sup>2</sup>O<sup>3</sup>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><th>in the oxidizing flame.</th>
+
+<td>Affords an intense color, but dissolves slowly. A small
+proportion colors the glass yellow when warm, and yellowish
+green when cold; a larger addition produces a dark red color
+when warm, which, on cooling, becomes yellow and finally a
+brilliant green with a tinge of yellow.</td>
+<td>Dissolves to a clear glass which has a pink tinge while warm,
+but on cooling becomes dusky green, and finally brilliantly
+green.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><th>in the reducing flame.</th>
+
+<td>A small quantity of the oxide renders the glass beautifully
+green both when warm and when cold. A larger addition changes it
+to a darker emerald green. Tin produces no change in the color.</td>
+<td>As in the oxidizing flame, except that the colors are somewhat
+darker. Tin produces no further change.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="3">33. Arsenious Acid, AsO<sup>3</sup>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><th>in the oxidizing flame.</th>
+
+<td>No reaction.</td>
+<td>No reaction.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><th>in the reducing flame.</th>
+
+<td>No reaction.</td>
+<td>No reaction.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="3">34. Tellurous Acid, TeO<sup>2</sup>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><th>in the oxidizing flame.</th>
+
+<td>Dissolves to a clear colorless glass which, when treated on
+charcoal, becomes grey and dull from particles of reduced
+tellurium.</td>
+<td>As with borax.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><th>in the reducing flame.</th>
+
+<td>As in the oxidizing flame.</td>
+<td>As with borax.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<h3><a name="Page_103"></a>7. EXAMINATIONS WITH CARBONATE OF SODA.</h3><p class="rtntoc"><a href="#TOC">Go to TOC</a></p>
+
+<p>The carbonate of soda is pulverized and then kneaded to a paste with
+water; the substance to be examined, in fine powder, is also mixed
+with it. A small portion of this paste is placed on the charcoal, and
+gradually heated until the moisture is expelled, when the heat is
+brought to the fusion of the bead, or as high as it can be raised.
+Several phenomena will take place, which must be closely observed.
+Notice whether the substance fuses with the bead, and if so, whether
+there is intumescence or not. Or, whether the substance undergoes
+reduction; or, whether neither of these reactions takes place, and, on
+the contrary, the soda sinks into the charcoal, leaving the substance
+intact upon its surface. If intumescence takes place, the presence of
+either tartaric acid, molybdic acid, silicic, or tungstic acid, is
+indicated. The silicic acid will fuse into a bead, which becomes clear
+when it is cold. Titanic acid will fuse into the bead, but may be
+easily distinguished from the silicic acid by the bead remaining
+opaque when cold.</p>
+
+<p>Strontia and baryta will flow into the charcoal, but lime will not.
+The molybdic and tungstic acids combine with the soda, forming the
+respective salts. These salts are absorbed by the charcoal. If too
+great a quantity of soda is used, the bead will be quite likely to
+become opaque upon cooling, while, if too small a quantity of soda is
+used, a portion of the substance will remain undissolved. These can be
+equally avoided by either the addition of soda, or the substance
+experimented upon, as may be required.</p>
+
+<p>As silica and titanic acid are the only two substances that produce a
+clear bead, the student, if he gets a clear bead, may almost conclude
+that he is experimenting with silica, titanic acid being a rare
+substance. When soda is heated with silica, a slight effervescence
+will be the first phenomenon noticed. This is the escape of the
+carbonic acid of the carbonate of soda, while the silicic acid takes
+its place, forming a glass <a name="Page_104"></a>with the soda. As titanic acid will not
+act in the same manner as silica, it can be easily distinguished by
+its bead not being perfectly pellucid. If the bead with which silica
+is fused should be tinted of a hyacinth or yellow color, this may be
+attributed to the presence of a small quantity of sulphur or a
+sulphate, and this sometimes happens from the fact of the flux
+containing sulphate of soda. The following metals, when exposed with
+carbonate of soda to the reducing flame, are wholly or partially
+reduced, viz. the oxides of all the noble metals, the oxides and acids
+of tungsten, molybdenum, arsenic, antimony, mercury, copper,
+tellurium, zinc, lead, bismuth, tin, cadmium, iron, nickel, and
+cobalt. Mercury and arsenic, as soon as they are reduced, are
+dissipated, while tellurium, bismuth, lead, antimony, cadmium, and
+zinc, are only partially volatilized, and, therefore, form sublimates
+on the charcoal. Those metals which are difficult of reduction should
+be fused with oxalate of potassa, instead of the carbonate of soda.
+The carbonic oxide formed from the combustion of the acid of this salt
+is very efficient in the reduction of these metals. Carbonate of soda
+is very efficient for the detection of minute quantities of manganese.
+The mixture of the carbonate of soda with a small addition of nitrate
+of potassa, and the mineral containing manganese, must be fused on
+platinum foil. The fused mass, when cooled, presents a fine blue
+color.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p>1. The following minerals, according to Griffin, produce beads with
+soda, but do not fuse when heated alone: quartz, agalmatolyte,
+dioptase, hisingerite, sideroschilosite, leucite, rutile,
+pyrophyllite, wolckonskoite.</p>
+
+<p>2. The following minerals produce only slags with soda: allophane,
+cymophane, polymignite, &aelig;schynite, &oelig;rstedtite, titaniferous iron,
+tantalite, oxides of iron, yttro-tantalite, oxides of manganese,
+peroxide of tin (is reduced), hydrate of alumina, hydrate of magnesia,
+spinel, gahnite, worthite, carbonate of zinc, pechuran, zircon,
+thorite, andalusite, staurolite, gehlenite, chlorite spar, chrome
+ochre, uwarowite, chromate of iron, carbonates of the earths,
+carbonates of the metallic oxides, basic <a name="Page_105"></a>phosphate of yttria, do. of
+alumina, do. of lime, persulphate of iron, sulphate of alumina,
+aluminite, alumstone, fluoride of cerium, yttrocerite, topaz,
+corundum, pleonaste, chondrodite.</p>
+
+<p>3. The following minerals produce beads with a small quantity of soda,
+but produce slags if too much soda is added: phenakite, pierosmine,
+olivine, cerite, cyanite, talc, gadolinite, lithium-tourmaline.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p>1. The following minerals, when fused alone, produce beads. Of these
+minerals the following produce beads with soda: the zeolites,
+spodumene, soda-spodumene, labrador, scapolite, sodalite (Greenland),
+el&aelig;olite, mica from primitive lime-stone, black talc, acmite,
+krokidolite, lievrite, cronstedtite, garnet, cerine, helvine,
+gadolinite, boracic acid, hydroboracite, tincal, boracite, datholite,
+botryolite, axinite, lapis lazuli, eudialyte, pyrosmalite, cryolite.</p>
+
+<p>2. The following minerals produce beads with a small quantity of soda,
+but if too much is added they produce slags: okenite, pectolite, red
+silicate of manganese, black hydro-silicate of manganese, idocrase,
+manganesian garnets, orthite, pyrorthite, sordawalite, sodalite,
+fluorspar.</p>
+
+<p>3. The following minerals produce a slag with soda: brevicite,
+amphodelite, chlorite, fahlunite, pyrope, soap-stone (Cornish) red
+dichroite, pyrargillite, black potash tourmaline, wolfram,
+pharmacolite, scorodite, arseniate of iron, tetraphyline, hetepozite,
+uranite, phosphate of iron, do. of strontia, do. of magnesia,
+polyhalite, hauyne.</p>
+
+<p>4. The following metals are reduced by soda: tungstate of lead,
+molybdate of lead, vanadate of lead, chromate of lead, vauquelinite,
+cobalt bloom, nickel ochre, phosphate of copper, sulphate of lead,
+chloride of lead, and chloride of silver.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p>The following minerals fuse on the edges alone, when heated in the
+blowpipe flame:</p>
+
+<p>1. The following produce beads with soda: steatite, meerschaum,
+felspar, albite, petalite, nepheline, anorthite, emerald, euclase,
+turquois, sodalite (Vesuvius).</p>
+
+<p>2. The following minerals produce beads with a small quantity <a name="Page_106"></a>of
+soda, but with the addition of more produce slags: tabular spar,
+diallage, hypersthene, epidote, zoisite.</p>
+
+<p>3. The following minerals produce slags only with soda:
+stilpnosiderite, plombgomme, serpentine, silicate of manganese (from
+Piedmont), mica from granite, pimelite, pinite, blue dichroite,
+sphenc, karpholite, pyrochlore, tungstate of lime, green soda
+tourmaline, lazulite, heavy spar, gypsum.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p>The reactions of substances, when fused with soda in the flame of
+oxidation may be of use to the student. A few of them are therefore
+given. Silica gives a clear glass.</p>
+
+<p>The oxide of tellurium and telluric acid gives a clear bead when it is
+hot, but white after it is cooled.</p>
+
+<p>Titanic acid gives a yellow bead when hot.</p>
+
+<p>The oxide of chromium gives also a clear yellow glass when hot, but is
+opaque when cold.</p>
+
+<p>Molybdic acid gives a clear bead when hot, but is turbid and white
+after cooling.</p>
+
+<p>The oxides and acids of antimony give a clear and colorless bead while
+hot, and white after cooling.</p>
+
+<p>Vanadic acid is absorbed by the charcoal, although it is not reduced.</p>
+
+<p>Tungstic acid gives a dark yellow clear bead while hot, but is opaque
+and yellow when cold.</p>
+
+<p>The oxides of manganese give to the soda bead a fine characteristic
+green color. This is the case with a very small quantity. This
+reaction is best exhibited on platinum foil.</p>
+
+<p>Oxide of cobalt gives to the bead while hot a red color, which, upon
+being cooled, becomes grey.</p>
+
+<p>The oxide of copper gives a clear green bead while hot.</p>
+
+<p>The oxide of lead gives a clear colorless bead while hot, which
+becomes, upon cooling, of a dirty yellow color and opaque.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p>The following metals, when they are fused with soda on charcoal, in
+the flame of reduction, produce volatile oxides, and leave an
+incrustation around the assay, viz. bismuth, zinc, lead, cadmium,
+antimony, selenium, tellurium, and arsenic.<a name="Page_107"></a></p>
+
+<p><i>Bismuth</i>, under the reduction flame, yields small particles of metal,
+which are brittle and easily crushed. The incrustation is of a flesh
+color, or orange, when hot, but gets lighter as it cools. The
+sublimate may be driven about the charcoal from place to place, by
+either flame, but is finally dissipated. While antimony and tellurium,
+in the act of dissipation, give color to the flame, bismuth does not,
+and may thus be distinguished from them.</p>
+
+<p><i>Zinc</i> deposits an incrustation about the assay, which is yellow while
+hot, but fades to white when cold. The reduction flame dissipates this
+deposit, but not that of oxidation. All the zinc minerals deposit the
+oxide incrustation about the assay, which, when moistened with a
+solution of cobalt and heated, changes to green.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lead</i> is very easily reduced, in small particles, and may be easily
+distinguished by its flattening under the hammer, unlike bismuth. It
+leaves an incrustation around the assay resembling that of bismuth, in
+the color of it, and in the peculiar manner in which it lies around
+the assay.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cadmium</i> deposits a dull reddish incrustation around the assay.
+Either of the flames dissipate the sublimate with the greatest
+readiness.</p>
+
+<p><i>Antimony</i> reduces with readiness. At the same time it yields
+considerable vapor, and deposits an incrustation around the assay.
+This deposit can be driven about on the charcoal by either of the
+flames. The flame of reduction, however, produces the light blue color
+of the antimony.</p>
+
+<p><i>Selenium</i> is deposited on the charcoal as a grey metallic-looking
+sublimate, but sometimes appearing purple or blue. If the reduction
+flame is directed on this deposit, it is dissipated with a blue light.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tellurium</i> is deposited on the charcoal as a white sublimate,
+sometimes changing at the margin to an orange or red color. The
+oxidation flame drives the deposit over the charcoal, while the
+reduction-flame dissipates it with a greenish color.</p>
+
+<p><i>Arsenic</i> is vaporized rapidly, while there is deposited around <a name="Page_108"></a>the
+assay a white incrustation of arsenious acid. This deposit will extend
+to some distance from the assay, and is readily volatilized, the
+reducing flame producing the characteristic alliaceous color.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p>The following metals, or their compounds, are reduced when fused with
+soda on charcoal, in the flame of reduction. They are reduced to
+metallic particles, but give no incrustation, viz. nickel, cobalt,
+iron, tin, copper, gold, silver, platinum, tungsten, and molybdenum.</p>
+
+<p>The particles of iron, nickel, and cobalt, it should be borne in mind,
+are attracted by the magnet.</p>
+
+<p>The following substances are neither fused nor reduced in soda, viz.
+alumina, magnesia, lime, baryta, strontia, the oxide of uranium, the
+oxides of cerium, zirconia, tantalic acid, thorina, glucina, and
+yttria. Neither are the alkalies, as they sink into the charcoal. The
+carbonates of the earths, strontia, and baryta fuse.</p>
+
+<hr  class="fw" />
+
+<h2><a name="Page_109"></a><a name="Part_III"></a>Part III</h2>
+
+
+<h3>SPECIAL REACTIONS; OR, THE BEHAVIOR OF SUBSTANCES BEFORE THE BLOWPIPE.</h3><p class="rtntoc"><a href="#TOC">Go to TOC</a></p>
+
+
+<p>Analytical chemistry may be termed the art of converting the unknown
+constituents of substances, by means of certain operations, into new
+combinations which we recognize through the physical and chemical
+properties which they manifest.</p>
+
+<p>It is, therefore, indispensably necessary, not only to be cognizant of
+the peculiar conditions by which these operations can be effected, but
+it is absolutely necessary to be acquainted with the forms and
+combinations of the resulting product, and with every modification
+which may be produced by altering the conditions of the analysis.</p>
+
+<p>We shall first give the behavior of simple substances before the
+blowpipe; and the student should study this part thoroughly, by
+repeating each reaction, so that he can acquire a knowledge of the
+color, form, and physical properties in general, of the resulting
+combination. There is nothing, perhaps, which will contribute more
+readily to the progress of the pupil, than thorough practice with the
+reactions recommended in this part of the work, for when once the
+student shall have acquired a practical eye in the discernment of the
+peculiar appearances <a name="Page_110"></a>of substances after they have undergone the
+decompositions produced by the strong heat of the blowpipe flame,
+together with the reactions incident to these changes, then he will
+have greatly progressed in his study, and the rest will be
+comparatively simple.</p>
+
+
+<h3><a name="METALLIC_OXIDES"></a>A. METALLIC OXIDES.</h3><p class="rtntoc"><a href="#TOC">Go to TOC</a></p>
+
+<h4>GROUP FIRST.&mdash;THE ALKALIES: POTASSA, SODA, AMMONIA, AND LITHIA.</h4>
+
+<p>The alkalies, in their pure, or carbonated state, render reddened
+litmus paper blue. This is likewise the case with the sulphides of the
+alkalies. The neutral salts of the alkalies, formed with the strong
+acids, do not change litmus paper, but the salts formed with the weak
+acids, render the red litmus paper blue; for instance, the alkaline
+salts with boracic acid. Fused with borax, soda, or microcosmic salt,
+they give a clear bead. The alkalies and their salts melt at a low red
+heat. The alkalies cannot be reduced to the metallic state before the
+blowpipe. They are not volatile when red hot, except the alkali
+ammonia, but they are volatile at a white heat.</p>
+
+<p>(a.) <i>Potassa.</i>(KO).&mdash;It is not found free, but in combination with
+inorganic and organic acids, as well in the animal as in the vegetable
+organism, as in the mineral kingdom. In the pure, or anhydrous state,
+or as the carbonate, potassa absorbs moisture, and becomes fluid, or
+is deliquescent, as it is termed. By exposing potassa, or its easily
+fusible salts (except the phosphate or borate), upon platinum wire, to
+the point of the blue flame, there is communicated to the external
+flame a violet color, in consequence of a reduction and reoxidation.
+This color, though characteristic of all the potassa compounds, is
+scarcely visible with the phosphate or borate salts of that alkali.
+The admixture of a very little soda (1/300th) destroys the color
+imparted by the potassa, while the flame assumes a yellow color,
+characteristic of the soda. The presence of lithia changes the violet
+color of the potash into red. The silicates <a name="Page_111"></a>of potassa must exist in
+pretty large proportion before they can be detected by the violet
+color of the flame, and those minerals must melt easily at the edges.
+The presence of a little soda in these instances conceals the reaction
+in the potassa entirely.</p>
+
+<p>If alcohol is poured over potassa compounds which are powdered, and
+then set on fire, the external flame appears violet-colored,
+particularly when stirred with a glass rod, and when the alcohol is
+really consumed. The presence of soda in lithia will, in this case
+likewise, hide by their own characteristic color, that of the potassa.</p>
+
+<p>The salts of potassa are absorbed when fused upon charcoal. The
+sulphur, bromine, chlorine, and iodine compounds of potassa give a
+white, but easily volatile sublimate upon the charcoal, around the
+place where the fused substance reposed. This white sublimate
+manifests itself only when the substance is melted and absorbed within
+the charcoal, and ceases to be visible as soon as it is submitted to
+the reducing flame, while the external flame is colored violet;
+sulphate of potassa, for instance, is reduced by the glowing charcoal
+into the sulphide. This latter is somewhat volatile, but by passing
+through the oxidation flame, it is again oxidized into the sulphate.
+This, being less volatile, sublimes upon the charcoal, but by exposing
+it again to the flame of reduction, it is reduced and carried off to
+be again oxidized by its passage through the oxidation flame.</p>
+
+<p>Potassa and its compounds give, with soda, borax or microcosmic salt,
+as well when hot as cold, colorless beads, unless the acid associated
+with the alkali should itself produce a color. When borax is fused
+with some pure boracic acid, and sufficient of the oxide of nickel is
+added, so that the beads appear of a brown color after being cooled,
+and then the bead thus produced fused with the substance suspected to
+contain potassa, in the oxidation flame, the brown color is changed to
+blue. The presence of the other alkalies does not prevent this
+reaction. As it is not possible to detect potassa compounds with
+unerring certainty by the blowpipe flame, the <a name="Page_112"></a>the wet method should
+be resorted to for the purpose of confirming it.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>silicates of potassa</i> must be prepared as follows, for analytical
+purposes by the wet way. Mix one part of the finely powdered substance
+with two parts of soda (free from potassa), and one part of borax.
+Fuse the mixture upon charcoal in the oxidation flame to a clear,
+transparent bead. This is to be exposed again with the pincers to the
+oxidation flame, to burn off the adhering coal particles. Then
+pulverize and dissolve in hydrochloric acid to separate the silica;
+evaporate to dryness, dissolve the residue in water, with the
+admixture of a little alcohol, and test the filtrate with chloride of
+platinum for potassa.</p>
+
+<p>(b.) <i>Soda</i> (NaO).&mdash;This is one of the most abundant substances,
+although seldom found free, but combined with chlorine or some other
+less abundant compound. Soda, its hydrate and salts manifest in
+general the same properties as their respective potash compounds; but
+the salts of soda mostly contain crystal water, which leaves the salts
+if they are exposed to the air, and the salts effervesce.</p>
+
+<p>By exposing soda or its compounds upon a platinum wire to the blue
+flame, a reddish-yellow color is communicated to the external flame,
+which appears as a long brilliant stream and considerably increased in
+volume. The presence of potash does not prevent this reaction of soda.
+If there is too large a quantity of potash, the flame near to the
+substance is violet-colored, but the edge of the flame exhibits the
+characteristic tint of the soda. The presence of lithia changes the
+yellow color to a shade of red.</p>
+
+<p>When alcohol is poured over powdered soda compounds and lighted, the
+flame exhibits a reddish-yellow color, particularly if the alcohol is
+stirred up with a glass rod, or if the alcohol is nearly consumed.</p>
+
+<p>Fused upon charcoal, soda compounds are absorbed by the coal. The
+sulphide, chloride, iodide, and bromide of soda yield a white
+sublimate around the spot where the substance is <a name="Page_113"></a>laid, but this
+sublimate is not so copious as that of the potash compounds, and
+disappears when touched with the reduction flame, communicating a
+yellow color to the external flame. The presence of soda in compounds
+must likewise be confined by reactions in the wet way.</p>
+
+<p>(c.) <i>Ammonia</i> (NH<sup>4</sup>O).&mdash;In the fused state, and at the usual
+temperature, ammonia is a pungent gas, and exerts a reaction upon
+litmus paper similar to potash and soda. Ammonium is considered by
+chemists as a metal, from the nature of its behavior with other
+substances. It has not been isolated, but its existence is now
+generally conceded by all chemists. The ammonia salts are volatile,
+and many of them sublimate without being decomposed.</p>
+
+<p>The salts of ammonia, on being heated in the point of the blue flame,
+produce a feeble green color in the external flame, just previous to
+their being converted into vapor. But this color is scarcely visible,
+and presents nothing characteristic. When the ammonia salts are mixed
+with the carbonate of soda, and heated in a glass tube closed at one
+end, carbonate of ammonia is sublimed, which can be readily recognized
+by its penetrating smell of spirits of hartshorn.</p>
+
+<p>This sublimate will render blue a slip of red litmus paper. This can
+be easily done by moistening the litmus paper, and then inserting the
+end of it in the tube. By holding a glass rod, moistened with dilute
+hydrochloric acid, over the mouth of the tube, a white vapor is
+instantly rendered visible (sal ammoniac).</p>
+
+<p>(d.) <i>Lithia</i> (LiO).&mdash;In the pure state, lithia is white and
+crystalline, not easily soluble in water, and does not absorb
+moisture. It changes red litmus to blue, and at a low red heat it
+melts. Lithia or its salts, exposed to the point of the blue flame,
+communicates a red color to the external or oxidation flame, in
+consequence of a reduction, sublimation, and re-oxidation of the
+lithia. An admixture of potash communicates to this flame a
+reddish-violet color, and the presence of soda that of a yellowish-red
+or orange. If the <a name="Page_114"></a>soda, however, is in too great proportion, then its
+intense yellow hides the red of the lithia. In the latter case the
+substance under test must be only imperfectly fused in the oxidation
+flame, and then dipped in wax or tallow. By exposing it now to the
+reduction flame, the red color imparted to the external flame by the
+lithia becomes visible, even if a considerable quantity of soda be
+present. A particular phenomenon appears with the phosphate of lithia,
+viz., the phosphoric acid itself possesses the property of
+communicating to the flame a bluish-green color. By its combination
+with lithia it still exhibits its characteristic color, while the
+latter presents likewise its peculiar tint. Then we perceive a green
+flame in the centre of the flame, while the red color of lithia
+surrounds it.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>silicates</i>, which contain only a little lithia, produce only a
+slight hue in the flame, and often none at all. We have to mix one
+part of the silicate with two parts of a mixture composed of one part
+of fluorspar and one and a half parts of bisulphate of potassa.
+Moisten the mass with water so that the mass will adhere, and then
+melt it upon a platinum wire in the reduction flame, when that of
+oxidation will present the red color of lithia.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Borates of lithia</i> produce at first a green color, but it soon
+yields to the red of lithia. When alcohol is poured over lithia or its
+compounds, and inflamed, it burns with a deep red color, particularly
+if the fluid is stirred up with a glass rod, or when the alcohol is
+nearly consumed. This color presents the same modifications as the
+corresponding ones communicated to the blowpipe as mentioned above.</p>
+
+<p>The salts of lithia are absorbed by charcoal when fused upon it. The
+sulphide, bromide, iodide, and chloride of lithia produce upon the
+charcoal a greyish-white sublimate, although not so copiously as the
+corresponding compounds of potash and soda. This sublimate disappears
+when touched by the reduction flame, while the oxidation flame gives
+the characteristic color of lithia.<a name="Page_115"></a></p>
+
+
+<h4>SECOND GROUP.&mdash;THE ALKALINE EARTHS, BARYTA, STRONTIA, LIME, AND
+MAGNESIA.</h4><p class="rtntoc"><a href="#TOC">Go to TOC</a></p>
+
+<p>In the pure state, the alkaline earths are caustic, cause red litmus
+paper to become blue, and are more or less soluble in water. Their
+sulphides are also soluble. The carbonates and phosphates of the
+alkaline earths are insoluble in water. By igniting the carbonates,
+their carbonic acid is expelled, and the alkaline earths are left in
+the caustic state. The alkaline earths are not volatile, and their
+organic salts are converted, by ignition, into carbonates.</p>
+
+<p>(a.) <i>Baryta.</i> (BaO).&mdash;This alkaline earth does not occur free in
+nature, but combined with acids, particularly with carbonic and
+sulphuric acids. In the pure state, baryta is of a greyish-white
+color, presents an earthy appearance, and is easily powdered. When
+sparingly moistened with water, it slakes, becomes heated, and forms a
+dry, white powder. With still more water it forms a crystalline mass,
+the hydrate of baryta, which is completely soluble in hot water. Pure
+baryta is infusible; the hydrate fuses at a red heat, without the loss
+of its hydratic water; if caustic baryta is exposed for too great a
+length of time to the flame, it absorbs water, originated by the
+combustion, and becomes a hydrate, when it will melt. Salts of baryta,
+formed with most acids, are insoluble in water; for instance, the
+salts with sulphuric, carbonic, arsenic, phosphoric, and boracic
+acids. The salts of baryta, soluble in water, are decomposed by
+ignition, except the chloride.</p>
+
+<p>Carbonate of baryta loses its carbonic acid at a red heat, becomes
+caustic, and colors red litmus paper blue.</p>
+
+<p>By exposing baryta or its compounds upon a platinum wire, or a
+splinter of the substance held with the platinum tongs, to the point
+of the blue flame, a pale apple-green color is communicated to the
+external flame. This color appears at first very pale, but soon
+becomes more intense. This color is most visible <a name="Page_116"></a>if the substance is
+operated with in small quantities. The chloride of barium produces the
+deepest color. This color is less intense if the carbonate or sulphate
+is used. The presence of strontia, lime, or magnesia, does not
+suppress the reaction of the baryta, unless they greatly predominate.</p>
+
+<p>When alcohol is poured over baryta or its salts, and inflamed, a
+feeble green color is communicated to the flame, but this color should
+not be considered a characteristic of the salt.</p>
+
+<p>Baryta and its compounds give, when fused with carbonate of soda upon
+platinum foil, a clear bead. Fused with soda upon charcoal, it is
+absorbed. The sulphate fuses at first to a clear bead, which soon
+spreads, and is absorbed and converted while boiling into a hepatic
+mass. If this mass is taken out, placed upon a piece of polished
+silver and moistened with a little water, a black spot of sulphide of
+silver is left after washing off the mass with water.</p>
+
+<p>Borax dissolves baryta and its compounds with a hissing noise, as well
+in the flame of oxidation as in that of reduction. There is formed a
+clear bead which, with a certain degree of saturation, is clear when
+cold, but appears milk-white when overcharged, and of an opal, enamel
+appearance, when heated intermittingly, or with a vacillating flame,
+that changes frequently from the oxidating to the reducing flame.
+Baryta and its compounds produce the same reactions with microcosmic
+salt.</p>
+
+<p>Baryta and its compounds fuse when exposed to ignition in the
+oxidizing flame. Moistened with the solution of nitrate of cobalt, and
+heated in the oxidation flame, it presents a bead, colored from
+brick-red to brown, according to the quantity used. This color
+disappears when cold, and the bead falls to a pale grey powder after
+being exposed awhile to the air. When heated again, the color does not
+appear until fusion is effected. If carbonate of soda is fused upon
+platinum wire with so much of the sesquioxide of manganese that a
+green bead is produced, this bead, when fused with a sufficient
+quantity of baryta, or its compounds, after cooling, will appear of a
+bluish-green, or light blue color.<a name="Page_117"></a></p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>.) <i>Strontia</i> (SrO).&mdash;Strontia and its compounds are analogous to
+the respective ones of baryta. The hydrate of strontia has the same
+properties as the hydrate of baryta, except that it is less soluble in
+water. The carbonate of strontia fuses a little at a red heat, swells,
+and bubbles up like cauliflower. This produces, in the blowpipe flame,
+an intense and splendid light, and now produces an alkaline reaction
+upon red litmus paper. The sulphate of strontia melts in the oxidation
+flame upon platinum foil, or upon charcoal, to a milk-white globule.
+This fuses upon charcoal, spreads and is reduced to the sulphide,
+which is absorbed by the charcoal. It now produces the same reactions
+upon polished silver as the sulphate of baryta under the same
+conditions. By exposing strontia and its compounds upon platinum wire,
+or as a splinter with the platinum tongs, to the point of the blue
+flame, the external flame appears of an intense crimson color. The
+deepest red color is produced by the chloride of strontium,
+particularly at the first moment of applying the heat. After the salt
+is fused, the red color ceases to be visible in the flame, by which it
+is distinguished from the chloride of lithium. The carbonate of
+strontia swells up and produces a splendid white light, while the
+external flame is colored of a fine purple-red. The color produced by
+the sulphate of strontia is less intense. The presence of baryta
+destroys the reaction of the strontia, the flame presenting the light
+green color of the baryta.</p>
+
+<p>If alcohol is poured over powdered strontia and inflamed, the flame
+appears purple or deep crimson, particularly if the fluid is stirred
+with a glass rod, and when the alcohol is nearly consumed.</p>
+
+<p>The insoluble salts of strontia do not produce a very intense color.
+Baryta does not prevent the reaction of the soluble salts of strontia,
+unless it exists greatly in excess. In the presence of baryta,
+strontia can be detected by the following process: mix some of the
+substance under examination with some pure graphite and water, by
+grinding in an agate mortar. Place the mixture upon charcoal, and
+expose it for a while to <a name="Page_118"></a>the reduction flame. The substance becomes
+reduced to sulphide of barium and sulphide of strontium, when it
+should be dissolved in hydrochloric acid. The solution should be
+evaporated to dryness, redissolved in a little water, and enough
+alcohol added that a spirit of 80 per cent. is produced. Inflame the
+spirit, and if strontia is present, the flame is tinged of a red
+color. This color can be discerned more distinctly by moistening some
+cotton with this spirit and inflaming it.</p>
+
+<p>If strontia or its compounds are fused with a green bead of carbonate
+of soda and sesquioxide of manganese, as described under the head of
+baryta, a bead of a brown, brownish-green, or dark grey color is
+produced. Carbonate of soda does not dissolve pure strontia. The
+carbonate and sulphate of strontia melt with soda upon platinum foil
+to a bead, which is milk-white when cold, but fused upon charcoal they
+are absorbed. Strontia or its compounds produce with borax, or
+microcosmic salt, the same reactions as baryta. When they are
+moistened with nitrate of cobalt, and ignited in the oxidizing flame,
+a black, or grey infusible mass is produced.</p>
+
+<p>(c.) <i>Lime, Oxide of Calcium (CaO)</i>.&mdash;Lime does not occur free in
+nature, but in combination with acids, chiefly the carbonic and
+sulphuric. The phosphate occurs principally in bones. The hydrate and
+the salts of lime are in their properties similar to those of the two
+preceding alkaline earths. In the pure state, the oxide of calcium is
+white; it slakes, produces a high temperature, and falls into a white
+powder when sprinkled with a little water. It is now a hydrate, and
+has greatly increased in volume. The hydrate of lime is far less
+soluble in water than either those of baryta or strontia, and is less
+soluble in hot water than in cold. Lime, its hydrate and sulphide of
+calcium, have a strong alkaline reaction upon red litmus paper. Lime
+and its hydrate are infusible, but produce at a strong red heat a very
+intense and splendid white light, while the hydrate loses its water.
+The carbonate of lime is also infusible, but at a red heat the
+carbonic acid is expelled, and the residue becomes caustic, <a name="Page_119"></a>appears
+whiter, and produces an intenser light. The sulphate of lime melts
+with difficulty, and presents the appearance of an enamelled mass when
+cold. By heating it upon charcoal it fuses in the reducing flame, and
+is reduced to a sulphide. This has a strong hepatic odor, and exerts
+an alkaline reaction upon red litmus paper. By exposing lime, or its
+compounds, upon platinum wire&mdash;or as a small splinter of the mineral
+in the platinum tongs&mdash;to the point of the blue flame, a purple color,
+similar to that of lithia and strontia, is communicated to the
+external flame, but this color is not so intense as that produced by
+strontia, and appears mixed with a slight tinge of yellow. This color
+is most intense with the chloride of calcium, while the carbonate of
+lime produces at first a yellowish color, which becomes red, after the
+expulsion of the carbonic acid. Sulphate of lime produces the same
+color, but not so intense. Among the silicates of lime only the
+tablespar (3CaO, 2SiO<sup>3</sup>) produces a red color. Fluorspar (CaFl)
+produces a red as intense as pure lime, and fuses into a bead.
+Phosphate and borate of lime produce a green flame which is only
+characteristic of their acids. The presence of baryta communicates a
+green color to the flame. The presence of soda produces only a yellow
+color in the external flame.</p>
+
+<p>If alcohol is poured over lime or its compounds and inflamed, a red
+color is communicated to the flame. The presence of baryta or soda
+prevents this reaction. Lime and its compounds do not dissolve much by
+fusion with carbonate of soda. If this fusion is effected on charcoal,
+the carbonate of soda is absorbed and the lime remains as a
+half-globular infusible mass on the charcoal. This is what
+distinguishes lime from baryta and strontia, and is a good method of
+separating the former from the latter. Lime and its compounds fuse
+with borax in the oxidizing and reducing flames to a clear bead, which
+remains clear when cold, but when overcharged with an excess or heated
+intermittingly, the bead appears, when cold, crystalline and uneven,
+and is not so milk-white as the bead of baryta or strontia, produced
+under the same circumstances. The carbonate of lime is dissolved <a name="Page_120"></a>with
+a peculiar hissing noise. Microcosmic salt dissolves a large quantity
+of lime into a clear bead, which is milky when cold. When the bead has
+been overcharged with lime, by a less excess, or by an intermittent
+flame, we will perceive in the bead, when cold, fine crystals in the
+form of needles. Lime and its compounds form by ignition with nitrate
+of cobalt, a black or greyish-black infusible mass.</p>
+
+<p>(d.) <i>Magnesia</i> (MgO).&mdash;Magnesia occurs in nature in several
+minerals. It exists in considerable quantity combined with carbonic,
+sulphuric, phosphoric, and silicic acids, etc. Magnesia and its
+hydrate are white and very voluminous, scarcely soluble in hot or cold
+water, and restores moistened red litmus paper to its original blue
+color. Magnesia and its hydrate are infusible, the latter losing its
+water by ignition. The carbonate of magnesia is infusible, loses its
+carbonic acid at a red heat, and shrinks a little. It now exerts upon
+red litmus paper an alkaline reaction. The sulphate of magnesia, at a
+red heat, loses its water and sulphuric acid, is entirely infusible,
+and gives now an alkaline reaction. The artificial Astrachanit (NaO,
+SO<sup>3</sup> + MgO, SO<sup>3</sup> + 4HO) fuses easily. When fused on charcoal, the
+greater part of the sulphate of soda is absorbed, and there remains an
+infusible mass.</p>
+
+<p>Magnesia and its compounds do not produce any color in the external
+flame, when heated in the point of the blue flame. The most of the
+magnesia minerals yield some water when heated in a glass tube closed
+at one end.</p>
+
+<p>Magnesia, in the pure state, or as the hydrate, does not fuse with
+soda. Some of its compounds are infusible likewise with soda, and
+swell up slightly, while others of them melt with soda to a slightly
+opaque mass. Some few (such as the borate of magnesia) give a clear
+bead with soda, though it becomes slightly turbid by cooling when
+saturated with magnesia, and crystallizes in large facets.</p>
+
+<p>Magnesia and its compounds give beads with borax and microcosmic salt
+similar to those of lime. By igniting magnesia or its compounds very
+strongly in the oxidizing flame, <a name="Page_121"></a>moistening with nitrate of cobalt,
+and re-igniting in the oxidation flame, they present, after a
+continued blowing, a pale flesh-color, which is more visible when
+cold. It is indispensable that the magnesia compounds should be
+completely white and free of colored substances, or the color referred
+to cannot be discerned. In general the reactions of magnesia before
+the blowpipe are not sufficient, and it will be necessary to confirm
+its presence or absence by aid of reagents applied in the wet way.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THIRD GROUP.&mdash;THE EARTHS, ALUMINA, GLUCINA, YTTRIA, THORINA, AND
+ZIRCONIA.</h4><p class="rtntoc"><a href="#TOC">Go to TOC</a></p>
+
+<p>The substances of this group are distinguished from the preceding by
+their insolubility in water, in their pure or hydrated state&mdash;that
+they have no alkaline reaction upon litmus paper, nor form salts with
+carbonic acid. The earths are not volatile, and, in the pure state,
+are infusible. They cannot be reduced to the metallic state before the
+blowpipe. The organic salts are destroyed by ignition, while the
+earths are left in the pure state, mixed with charcoal, from the
+organic acids. The most of their neutral salts are insoluble in water;
+the soluble neutral salts change blue litmus paper to red, and lose
+their acids when ignited.</p>
+
+<p>(a.) <i>Alumina</i> (Al<sup>2</sup>O<sup>3</sup>).&mdash;This earth is one of our most common
+minerals. It occurs free in nature in many minerals, as sapphire,
+etc.; or in combination with sulphuric acid, phosphoric acid, and
+fluorine, and chiefly silicates. Pure alumina is a white crystalline
+powder, or yellowish-white, and amorphous when produced by drying the
+hydrate, separated chemically from its salts. Alumina is quite
+unalterable in the fire; the hydrate, however, losing its water at a
+low red heat. The neutral salts of alumina, with most acids, are
+insoluble in water. Those soluble in it have an acid reaction upon
+litmus paper, changing the blue into red.<a name="Page_122"></a></p>
+
+<p>The sulphates of alumina eliminate water when heated in a glass tube
+closed at one end. By ignition, sulphurous acid (SO<sup>2</sup>) is given off,
+which can be recognized by its smell, and by its acid reaction upon
+blue litmus paper, when a small strip of it moistened is brought
+within the orifice of the tube; an infusible residue is left in the
+tube.</p>
+
+<p>The greater part of the alumina compounds give off water with heat;
+the most of them are also infusible, except a few phosphates and
+silicates.</p>
+
+<p>Pure alumina does not fuse with carbonate of soda. The sulphates, when
+exposed upon charcoal with soda to the reducing flame, leave a hepatic
+residue. The phosphates melt with a little soda, with a hissing noise,
+to a semi-transparent mass, but they are infusible with the addition
+of soda, and give only a tough mass. This is the case, likewise, with
+the silicates of alumina. Fluoride of aluminium melts with carbonate
+of soda to a clear bead, spreads by cooling, and appears then
+milk-white. Borax dissolves the alumina compounds slowly in the
+oxidizing and reducing flames to a clear bead, which is also clear
+when cold, or heated intermittingly with a vacillating flame. The bead
+is turbid, as well in the heat as the cold, when an excess of alumina
+is present. When the alumina compound is added to excess in the
+powdered form, the bead appears crystalline upon cooling, and melts
+again with great difficulty.</p>
+
+<p>Alumina and its compounds are slowly dissolved in the microcosmic salt
+to a bead, clear in both flames, and when hot or cold. When alumina is
+added to excess, the undissolved portion appears semi-transparent.
+Alumina melts with bisulphate of potash into a mass soluble in water.
+When the powdered alumina compounds are strongly ignited in the
+oxidizing flame, then moistened with nitrate of cobalt, and re-ignited
+in the oxidizing flame, an infusible mass is left, which appears, when
+cooled, of an intense blue color. The presence of colored metallic
+oxides, in considerable quantity, will alter or suppress this
+reaction. The silicates of the alkalies produce, in a very strong
+heat, or continued heat, with nitrate of cobalt, a pale <a name="Page_123"></a>blue color.
+The blue color produced by alumina is only distinctly visible by
+daylight; by candle-light it appears of a dirty violet color.</p>
+
+<p>(b.) <i>Glucina.</i> (G<sup>2</sup>O<sup>3</sup>).&mdash;Glucina only occurs in a few rare
+minerals, in combination with silica and alumina. It is white and
+insoluble in the pure state, and its properties generally are similar
+to those of alumina. The most of its compounds are infusible, and
+yield water by distillation. Carbonate of soda does not dissolve
+glucina by ignition. Silicate of glucina melts with carbonate of soda
+to a colorless globule. Borax and microcosmic salt dissolve glucina
+and its compounds to a colorless bead which, when overcharged with
+glucina, or heated with the intermittent flame appears, after cooling,
+turbid or milk-white. Glucina yields, by ignition with nitrate of
+cobalt, a black, or dark grey infusible mass.</p>
+
+<p>(c.) <i>Yttria</i> (YO) occurs only in a few rare minerals, and usually
+in company with terbium and erbium. Its reactions before the blowpipe
+are similar to the preceding, but for its detection in compounds it
+will be necessary to resort to analysis in the wet way.</p>
+
+<p>(d.) <i>Zirconia</i> (Zr<sup>2</sup>O<sup>3</sup>).&mdash;This substance resembles alumina in
+appearance, though it occurs only in a few rare minerals. It is in the
+pure state infusible, and at a red heat produces such a splendid and
+vivid white light that the eyes can scarcely endure it. Its other
+reactions before the blowpipe are analogous to glucina. Microcosmic
+salt does not dissolve so much zirconia as glucina, and is more prone
+to give a turbid bead. Zirconia yields with nitrate of cobalt, when
+ignited, an infusible black mass. To recognize zirconia in compounds
+we must resort to fluid analysis.</p>
+
+<p>(e.) <i>Thorina</i> (ThO).&mdash;This is the rarest among the rare minerals.
+In the pure state it is white and infusible, and will not melt with
+the carbonate of soda. Borax dissolves thorina slowly to a colorless,
+transparent bead, which will remain so when heated with the
+intermittent flame. If overcharged with the thorina, the bead
+presents, on cooling, a milky hue. Microcosmic <a name="Page_124"></a>salt dissolves the
+thorina very tardily. By ignition with nitrate of cobalt, thorina is
+converted into an infusible black mass,</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h3>CLASS II.</h3><p class="rtntoc"><a href="#TOC">Go to TOC</a></p>
+
+<h4>FOURTH GROUP. CERIUM, LANTHANIUM, DIDYMIUM, COLUMBIUM, NIOBIUM,
+PELOPIUM, TITANIUM, URANIUM, VANADIUM, CHROMIUM, MANGANESE.</h4>
+
+<p>The substances of this group cannot be reduced to the metallic state,
+neither by heating them <i>per se</i>, nor by fusing them with reagents.
+They give by fusion with borax or microcosmic salt, colored beads,
+while the preceding groups give colorless beads.</p>
+
+<p>(a.) <i>Cerium</i> (Ce).&mdash;This metal occurs in the oxidated state in a
+few rare minerals, and is associated with lanthanium and didymium,
+combined with fluorine, phosphoric acid, carbonic acid, silica, etc.
+When reduced artificially, it forms a grey metallic powder.</p>
+
+<p>(a.) <i>Protoxide of Cerium</i> (CeO).&mdash;It exists in the pure state as
+the hydrate, and is of a white color. It soon oxidizes and becomes
+yellow, when placed in contact with the air. When heated in the
+oxidation flame, it is converted into the sesquioxide, and then is
+changed into light brick-red color. In the oxidation flame it is
+dissolved by borax into a clear bead, which appears of an orange or
+red while hot, but becomes yellow upon cooling. When highly saturated
+with the metal, or when heated with a fluctuating flame, the bead
+appears enamelled as when cold. In the reduction flame it is dissolved
+by borax to a clear yellow bead, which is colorless when cold. If too
+much of the metal exists in the bead, it then appears enamelled when
+cooled.</p>
+
+<p>Microcosmic salt dissolves it, in the oxidation flame, to a clear
+bead, which is colored dark yellow or orange, but loses its color when
+cold. In the reduction flame the bead is colorless <a name="Page_125"></a>when either hot or
+cold. Even if highly saturated with the metal, the bead remains
+colorless when cold. By fusing it with carbonate of soda upon charcoal
+in the reduction flame, the soda is absorbed by the charcoal, while
+the protoxide of the metal remains as a light grey powder.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>B.</i>) <i>Sesquioxide of Cerium</i> (Ce<sup>2</sup>O<sup>3</sup>).&mdash;This oxide, in the pure
+state, is a red powder. When heated with hydrochloric acid, it
+produces chlorine gas, and is dissolved to a salt of the protoxide. It
+is not affected by either the flame of oxidation or of reduction; when
+fused with borax or microcosmic salt, it acts like the protoxide. It
+does not fuse with soda upon charcoal. In the reduction flame it is
+reduced to the protoxide, which remains of a light grey color, while
+the soda is absorbed by the charcoal.</p>
+
+<p>(b.) <i>Lanthanium</i> (La.)&mdash;This metal is invariably associated with
+cerium. It presents, in its metallic state, a dark grey powder, which
+by compression acquires the metallic lustre.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>oxide of lanthanium</i> (LaO) is white, and its salts are colorless.
+Heated upon charcoal, it does not change either in the oxidation flame
+or that of reduction. With borax, in the flame of oxidation or
+reduction, it gives a clear colorless bead. This bead, if saturated,
+and when hot, presents a yellow appearance, but is clouded or
+enamelled when cold. With microcosmic salt the same appearance is
+indicated. It does not fuse with carbonate of soda, but the soda is
+absorbed by the charcoal, while the oxide remains of a grey color.</p>
+
+<p>(c.) <i>Didymium</i> (D).&mdash;This metal occurs only in combination with the
+preceding ones, and it is therefore, like them, a rare one.</p>
+
+<p><i>Oxide of Didymium</i> (DO).&mdash;This oxide is of a brown color, while its
+salts present a reddish-violet or amethyst color. The oxide is
+infusible in the oxidation flame, and in that of reduction it loses
+its brown color and changes to grey. With borax in the oxidation
+flame, it fuses to a clear dark red or violet bead, which retains its
+clearness when highly saturated with the oxide, or if heated with a
+fluctuating flame.<a name="Page_126"></a></p>
+
+<p>The reactions with microcosmic salt are the same as with borax.</p>
+
+<p>It does not melt with carbonate of soda upon charcoal, but the oxide
+remains with a grey color, while the soda is absorbed by the charcoal.</p>
+
+<p>(d.) <i>Columbium,</i> (<i>Tantalum</i>&mdash;Ta).&mdash;This rare metal occurs quite
+sparingly in the minerals <i>tantalite</i>, <i>yttrotantalite</i>, etc., as
+columbic acid. In the metallic state, it presents the appearance of a
+black powder, which, when compressed, exhibits the metallic lustre.
+When heated in the air it is oxidized into columbic acid, and is only
+soluble in hydrofluoric acid, yielding hydrogen. It is oxidized by
+fusion with carbonate of soda or potash.</p>
+
+<p><i>Columbic Acid</i> (Ta<sup>2</sup>O<sup>3</sup>) is a white powder, and is infusible.
+When heated in the flame of oxidation or reduction, it appears of a
+light yellow while hot, but becomes colorless when cold. With borax,
+in the flames of oxidation and reduction, it fuses to a clear bead,
+which appears by a certain degree of saturation, of a yellow color so
+long as it continues hot, but becomes colorless when cold. If
+overcharged, or heated with an intermittent flame, it presents an
+enamel white when cool.</p>
+
+<p>It melts with microcosmic salt quite readily in both of the flames, to
+a clear bead, which appears, if a considerable quantity of columbic
+acid be present, of a yellow color while hot, but colorless when cold,
+and does not become clouded if the intermittent flame be applied to
+it.</p>
+
+<p>With carbonate of soda it fuses with effervescence to a bead which
+spreads over the charcoal. Melted with more soda, it becomes absorbed
+by the charcoal.</p>
+
+<p>It yields, moistened with a solution of nitrate of cobalt, and exposed
+to the oxidation flame after continued blowing, an infusible mass,
+presenting while hot a light grey color, but after being cooled that
+of a light red, similar to the color presented by magnesia under the
+same circumstances. But if there be some alkali mixed with it, a
+fusion at the edges will be manifest, and it will yield by cooling a
+bluish-black mass.<a name="Page_127"></a></p>
+
+<p>(e.) <i>Niobium</i> (Ni).&mdash;This metal occurs as niobic acid in columbite
+(tantalite). Niobic acid is in its properties similar to columbic
+acid. It is white and infusible. By heating it either in the flames of
+reduction or oxidation, it presents as long as it continues hot, a
+greenish-yellow color, but becomes white when cool. Borax dissolves it
+in the oxidation flame quite readily to a clear bead, which, with a
+considerable quantity of niobic acid, is yellow when hot, but
+transparent and colorless when cold. A saturated bead is clear when
+either hot or cold, but becomes opaque when heated intermittingly.</p>
+
+<p>In the flame of reduction, borax is capable of dissolving more of the
+niobic acid, so that a bead overcharged and opaque in the oxidation
+flame appears quite clear when heated in the flame of reduction. A
+bead overcharged in the flame of reduction, appears by cooling dim and
+bluish-grey.</p>
+
+<p>Microcosmic salt dissolves in the flame of oxidation a great quantity
+of it to a clear bead, which is yellow while hot, but colorless when
+cold.</p>
+
+<p>In the flame of reduction, and in presence of a considerable quantity
+of niobic acid, the bead appears while hot of a light dirty blue
+color, and when cold, of a violet hue; but by the addition of more
+niobic acid, the bead, when hot, is of a dirty dark blue color, and
+when cold, of a transparent blue. In the presence of the oxides of
+iron, the bead is, while hot, of a brownish-red color, but changing
+when cool to a dark yellow.</p>
+
+<p>This acid fuses with an equal quantity of carbonate of soda upon
+charcoal, to a bead which spreads very quickly, and is then infusible.
+When fused with still more soda, it is absorbed.</p>
+
+<p>When moistened with nitrate of cobalt, and heated in the flame of
+oxidation, it yields an infusible mass which appears grey when hot,
+and dirty green when cold; but if the heat has been too strong, it is
+fused a little at the edges, which present a dark bluish-grey color.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pelopium</i> (Pe).&mdash;This metal occurs as an acid in the mineral
+columbite (tantalite), and is very similar to the two preceding
+metals.<a name="Page_128"></a></p>
+
+<p>(<i>f</i>.) <i>Pelopic Acid</i> (PeO<sup>3</sup>).&mdash;This acid is white, and appears
+yellow when heated, but resumes its white color when cold. Borax
+dissolves it in the oxidation flame to a clear colorless bead, which
+appears, when overcharged and heated intermittingly, enamel-white when
+cold. This is likewise the case in the flame of reduction, but when
+overcharged the color is light grey, when the bead is cooled.</p>
+
+<p>Microcosmic salt dissolves it in the flame of oxidation, to a clear
+yellow bead, which loses its color when cold. In the reduction flame,
+when the bead is highly saturated, a violet-brown color is produced.
+In presence of the oxides of iron, the reactions are like those of
+niobic acid. With carbonate of soda, the reactions are similar to
+those of niobic acid. By heating with nitrate of cobalt, it yields a
+light grey infusible mass.</p>
+
+<p>(g.) <i>Titanium</i> (Ti).&mdash;This metal occurs occasionally in the slags
+of iron works, in the metallic state, as small cubical crystals of a
+red color. It is a very hard metal, and very infusible. Titanic acid
+occurs in nature crystallized in <i>anatase</i>, <i>arkansite</i>, <i>brookite</i>,
+and <i>rutile</i>. Titanium is harder than agate, entirely infusible, and
+loses only a little of its lustre, which can be regained by fusion
+with borax. It does not melt with carbonate of soda, borax, or
+microcosmic salt, and is insoluble in every acid except the
+hydrofluoric. By ignition with saltpetre it is converted into titanic
+acid, which combines with the potassium, forming the titanate of
+potassium.</p>
+
+<p><i>Titanic Acid</i> (TiO<sup>2</sup>) is white, insoluble, and, when heated, it
+appears yellow while hot, but resumes upon cooling its white color.</p>
+
+<p>Borax dissolves it in the oxidation flame to a clear yellow bead,
+which when cool is colorless. When overcharged, or heated with the
+intermitting flame, it is enamel-white after being cooled. In the
+reduction flame, the bead appears yellow, if the acid exists in small
+quantity, but if more be added, then it is of an orange, or dark
+yellow, or even brown. The saturated bead, when heated intermittingly,
+appears when <a name="Page_129"></a>cold of an enamelled blue. By addition of the acid, and
+by heating the bead on charcoal in the reduction flame, it becomes
+dark yellow while hot, but dark blue, or black and opaque when cold.
+This bead appears, when heated intermittingly, of a light blue, and
+when cold, enamelled.</p>
+
+<p>Microcosmic salt fuses with it in the oxidation flame to a clear
+colorless bead, which appears yellow only in the presence of a
+quantity of titanic acid, though by cooling it loses its color. In the
+reduction flame this bead exhibits a yellow color when hot, but is red
+while cooling, and when cold of a beautiful bluish-violet. If the bead
+is overcharged, the color becomes so dark that the bead appears
+opaque, though not presenting an enamel appearance. By heating the
+bead again in the oxidation flame the color disappears. The addition
+of some tin promotes the reduction. If the titanic acid contains oxide
+of iron, or if some is added, the bead appears, when cold,
+brownish-yellow, or brownish-red.</p>
+
+<p>By fusion with carbonate of soda, titanic acid is dissolved with
+effervescence to a clear dark yellow bead, which crystallizes by
+cooling, whereby so much heat is eliminated, that the bead, at the
+instant of its crystallization, glows with great brightness. A
+reduction to a metal cannot, however, be effected. By ignition with a
+solution of nitrate of cobalt in the oxidation flame, it yields an
+infusible yellowish-green mass.</p>
+
+<p>(h.) <i>Uranium</i> (U).&mdash;This rare metal occurs in the form of protoxide
+along with other oxides, in the mineral <i>pitch-blende_; as peroxide in
+_uranite</i> and <i>uran-mica</i>, associated with phosphoric acid and lime.</p>
+
+<p>In the metallic state it presents the appearance of a dark grey mass,
+which is infusible, and remains unchanged when under water, or when
+exposed to dry air, but, when heated in the oxidation flame, it
+becomes oxidized, with lively sparkling, to a dark green mass,
+composed of the protoxide and peroxide.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>protoxide of uranium</i> (UO) is black, uncrystalline, or forms a
+brown powder. When exposed to heat it is converted partially into
+peroxide, when it has a dark green color.<a name="Page_130"></a></p>
+
+<p>The <i>peroxide of uranium</i> (U<sup>2</sup>O<sup>3</sup>) is of an orange color, while
+its hydrate is of a fine yellow color, and in the form of a powder.
+The salts are yellow.</p>
+
+<p>By heating it in the oxidation flame, it acquires a dark green color,
+and is partly reduced to protoxide. In the reduction flame it presents
+a black appearance, and is there completely reduced to protoxide.</p>
+
+<p>Borax dissolves it in the oxidation flame to a clear dark yellow bead,
+which is colorless when cold, if the metal is not present in great
+quantity. If more of the metal, or peroxide, be added, the bead
+changes to orange when hot, and light yellow when cold. When heated
+with the intermittent flame, it requires a large quantity of the
+peroxide to produce an enamel appearance in the cooled bead.</p>
+
+<p>In the flame of reduction the bead becomes of a dirty green color,
+being partly reduced to protoxide, and appears, with a certain degree
+of saturation, black, when heated intermittingly, but never enamelled.
+The bead appears on charcoal, and with the addition of tin, of a dark
+green color.</p>
+
+<p>It fuses with microcosmic salt in the oxidation flame to a clear
+yellow bead, which is greenish-yellow when cold. In the reduction
+flame it produces a beautiful green bead, which increases when cold.</p>
+
+<p>When fused upon charcoal with the addition of tin, its color is
+darker. Carbonate of soda does not dissolve it, although with a very
+small portion of soda it gives indications of fusion, but with still
+more of the soda it forms a yellow, or light-brown mass, which is
+absorbed by the charcoal, but it is not reduced to the metallic state.</p>
+
+<p>(i.) <i>Vanadium</i> (V).&mdash;This very rare mineral is found in small
+quantity in iron-ores, in Sweden, and as vanadic acid in a few rare
+minerals. The metal presents the appearance of an iron-grey powder,
+and sometimes that of a silver-white mass. It is not oxidized either
+by air or water, and is infusible.</p>
+
+<p><i>Vanadic Acid</i> (VO<sup>3</sup>) fuses upon platinum foil to a deep orange
+liquid, which becomes crystalline after cooling. When <a name="Page_131"></a>fused upon
+charcoal, one part of it is absorbed, while the rest remains upon the
+charcoal and is reduced to protoxide similar in appearance to
+graphite.</p>
+
+<p>A small portion of it fuses with borax in the oxidation flame to a
+clear colorless bead, which appears, with the addition of more vanadic
+acid, of a yellow color, but changes to green when cold.</p>
+
+<p>In the reduction flame the bead is brown while hot, but changes, upon
+cooling, to a beautiful sapphire-green. At the moment of
+crystallization, and at a degree of heat by which at daylight no
+glowing of the heated mass is visible it begins to glow again. The
+glow spreads from the periphery to the centre of the mass, and is
+caused by the heat liberated by the sudden crystallization of the
+mass. It now exhibits an orange color, and is composed of needle
+crystals in a compact mass.</p>
+
+<p>Microcosmic salt and vanadic acid fuse in the oxidation flame to a
+dark yellow bead which, upon cooling, loses much of its color.</p>
+
+<p>In the reduction flame the bead is brown while hot, but, upon cooling,
+acquires a beautiful green color.</p>
+
+<p>Vanadic acid fuses with carbonate of soda upon charcoal, and is
+absorbed.</p>
+
+<p>(k.) <i>Chromium</i> (Cr) occurs in the metallic state only in a very
+small quantity in meteoric iron, but is frequently found in union with
+oxygen, as oxide in chrome iron ore, and as chromic acid in some lead
+ores.</p>
+
+<p>In the metallic state it is of a light grey color, with but little
+metallic lustre, very hard, and not very fusible. Acids do not act
+upon it, except the hydrofluoric; fused with nitre, it forms chromate
+of potassa. It is unaltered in the blowpipe flame.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sesquioxide of Chromium</i> (Cr<sup>2</sup>O<sup>3</sup>).&mdash;This oxide forms black
+crystals of great hardness, and is sometimes seen as a green powder.
+Its hydrate (Cr<sup>2</sup>O<sup>3</sup> + 6HO) is of a bluish-grey color. It forms
+with acids two classes of isomeric salts, some <a name="Page_132"></a>of which are of a
+green color, and the others violet-red or amethyst. The neutral and
+soluble salts have an acid reaction upon blue litmus paper, and are
+decomposed by ignition.</p>
+
+<p>Sesquioxide of chromium in the oxidation and reduction flames is
+unchangable. When exposed to heat, the hydrate loses its water, and
+gives a peculiarly beautiful flame. In the oxidation flame borax
+dissolves the sesquioxide of chromium slowly to a yellow bead (chromic
+acid) which is yellowish green when cold. Upon the addition of more of
+the oxide, the bead is dark red while hot, but changes to green as it
+becomes cold.</p>
+
+<p>In the reduction flame the bead is of a beautiful green color, both
+while hot and when cold. It is here distinguished from vanadic acid,
+which gives a brownish or yellow bead while hot.</p>
+
+<p>With microcosmic salt it fuses in the oxidation flame to a clear
+yellow bead, which appears, as it cools, of a dirty-green, color, but
+upon being cool is of a fine green color. If there be a superabundance
+of the oxide, so that the microcosmic salt cannot dissolve it, the
+bead swells up, and is converted into a foamy mass, in consequence of
+the development of gases.</p>
+
+<p>In the reduction flame it fuses to a fine green bead. The addition of
+a little tin renders the green still deeper.</p>
+
+<p>Sesquioxide of chromium fuses with carbonate of soda upon platinum
+foil to a brown or yellow bead, which, upon cooling, appears of a
+lighter color and transparent (chromate of sodium).</p>
+
+<p>When fused with soda upon charcoal, the soda is absorbed, and the
+green oxide is left upon it, but is never reduced to the metallic
+state.</p>
+
+<p><i>Chromic Acid</i> (CrO<sup>3</sup>) crystallizes in the form of deep ruby red
+needles. It is decomposed into sesquioxide and oxygen when heated.
+This decomposition is attended with a very lively emission of light,
+but this is not the case if the chromic acid has been attained by the
+co&ouml;peration of an aqueous solution, unless the reduction is effected
+in the vapor of ammonia. Before the blowpipe chromic acid produces the
+same reactions as the sesquioxide.<a name="Page_133"></a></p>
+
+<p>(l.) <i>Manganese</i> (Mn).&mdash;This metal occurs in considerable abundance,
+principally as oxides, less frequently as salts, and sometimes in
+combination with sulphur and arsenic. It is found in plants, and
+passes with them into the animal body. In the metallic state, it is
+found frequently in cast iron and steel. It is a hard, brittle metal,
+fusible with difficulty, and of a light grey color. It tarnishes upon
+exposure to the air and under water, and falls into a powder.</p>
+
+<p><i>Protoxide of Manganese</i> exists as a green powder; as hydrate
+separated by caustic alkalies, it is white, but oxidizes very speedily
+upon exposure to the air. The protoxide is the base of the salts of
+manganese. These salts, which are soluble in water, are decomposed
+when heated in the presence of the air&mdash;except the sulphate (MnO,
+SO<sup>3</sup>), but if the latter is exposed to ignition for awhile, it then
+ceases to be soluble in water, or at least only sparingly so.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sesquioxide of Manganese</i> (Mn<sup>2</sup>O<sup>3</sup>) Occurs very sparingly in
+nature as small black crystals (<i>Braunite</i>) which give, when ground, a
+brown powder. When prepared by chemical process, it is in the form of
+a black powder. The hydrate occurs sometimes in nature as black
+crystals (<i>manganite</i>). By digestion with acids, it is dissolved into
+salts of the protoxide. With hydrochloric acid, it yields chlorine.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>prot-sesquioxide of manganese</i> (MnO + Mn<sup>2</sup>O<sup>3</sup>) occurs
+sometimes in black <i>crystals</i> (<i>hausmannite</i>). Prepared artificially,
+it is in the form of a brown powder.</p>
+
+<p><i>Peroxide of Manganese</i> (MnO<sup>2</sup>) occurs in considerable abundance as
+a soft black amorphous mass, or crystallized as pyrolusite, also
+reniform and fibrous. It is deprived of a part of its oxygen when
+exposed to ignition. It eliminates a considerable quantity of chlorine
+from hydrochloric acid, and is thereby converted into chloride of
+manganese (ClMn).</p>
+
+<p>Most of the manganese compounds which occur in nature yield water when
+heated in a glass tube closed at one end. The sesquioxide and peroxide
+give out oxygen when strongly heated, which can be readily detected by
+the <a name="Page_134"></a>increased glow which it causes, if a piece of lighted wood or
+paper is brought to the mouth of the tube. The residue left in the
+tube is a brown mass (MnO + Mn<sup>2</sup>O<sup>3</sup>).</p>
+
+<p>When exposed to ignition with free access of air, all manganese oxides
+are converted into (MnO + Mn<sup>2</sup>O<sup>3</sup>), but without fusion. Such, at
+least, is the statement of some of the German chemists, although it
+will admit perhaps of further investigation.</p>
+
+<p>Manganese oxides fuse with borax in the oxidation flame to a clear and
+intensely colored bead, of a violet hue while hot, but changing to red
+as it cools. If a considerable quantity of the oxide is added, the
+bead acquires a color so dark as to become opaque. If such be the
+case, we have to press it flat, by which its proper color will become
+manifest.</p>
+
+<p>In the reduction flame the bead is colorless. A very dark colored bead
+must be fused upon charcoal with the addition of some tin. The bead
+must be cooled very suddenly, for if it cools too slowly, it then has
+time to oxidize again. This may be effected by pushing it off the
+platinum wire, or the charcoal, and pressing it flat with the forceps.</p>
+
+<p>The oxides of manganese fuse with microcosmic salt in the oxidation
+flame, to a clear brownish-violet bead, which appears reddish-violet
+while cooling. This bead does not become opaque when overcharged with
+manganese. As long as it is kept in fusion a continued boiling or
+effervescence takes place, produced by the expulsion of oxygen, in
+consequence of the fact that the microcosmic salt cannot dissolve much
+sesquioxide, while the rest is reduced to protoxide, is re-oxidated,
+and instantly again reduced. If the manganese is present in such a
+minute quantity as not to perceptibly tinge the bead, the color may be
+made to appear by the contact of a crystal of nitre while hot. The
+bead foams up upon the addition of the nitre, and the foam appears,
+after cooling, of a rose-red or violet color. In the reduction flame
+the bead sometimes becomes colorless.</p>
+
+<p>The oxides of manganese fuse with carbonate of soda upon <a name="Page_135"></a>platinum
+foil or wire, to a clear green bead, which appears bluish-green and
+partially opaque when cold (manganate of soda NaO + MnO<sup>3</sup>). A very
+minute trace of manganese will produce this green color. The oxides of
+manganese cannot be reduced upon charcoal with carbonate of soda
+before the blowpipe. The soda is absorbed, and (MnO + Mn<sup>2</sup>O<sup>3</sup>) is
+left.</p>
+
+
+<h4>GROUP FIFTH.&mdash;IRON, COBALT, NICKEL.</h4><p class="rtntoc"><a href="#TOC">Go to TOC</a></p>
+
+<p>The oxides of this group are reduced to the metallic state when fused
+with carbonate of soda upon charcoal in the reduction flame. Metals
+when thus reduced form powders, are not fusible or volatile in the
+blowpipe flame, but they are attracted by the magnet.</p>
+
+<p>Furthermore, these oxides are not dissolved by carbonate of soda in
+the oxidation flame, but they produce colored beads with borax and
+microcosmic salt.</p>
+
+<p>(a.) <i>Iron.</i>&mdash;It occurs in great abundance in nature. It is found in
+several places in America in the metallic state, and it likewise
+occurs in the same state in meteors. It occurs chiefly as the oxide
+(red hematite, brown hematite, magnetic oxide, etc.), and frequently
+in combination with sulphur. Iron also forms a constituent of the
+blood.</p>
+
+<p>Metallic iron is of a grey color, and presents the metallic lustre
+vividly when polished. It is very ductile, malleable, and tenacious.
+It is very hard at common temperatures, but soft and yielding at a red
+heat.</p>
+
+<p>In dry and cold air, iron does not oxidize, but when the air is dry
+and moist, it oxidizes rapidly. This likewise takes place with great
+rapidity when the metal is heated to redness. When submitted to a
+white heat iron burns with brilliant scintillations.</p>
+
+<p><i>Protoxide of Iron</i> (FeO).&mdash;This oxide does not occur pure in nature,
+but in union with the peroxide of iron and other substances. It
+presents the form of a black powder, and has <a name="Page_136"></a>some metallic lustre, is
+brittle, and fuses at a high temperature to a vitreous looking mass.
+It is attracted by the magnet, and of course is susceptible of
+becoming magnetic itself. It forms with water a hydrate, but this
+passes so rapidly into a state of higher oxidation, that it is
+difficult to keep it in the pure state.</p>
+
+<p><i>Magnetic Oxide of Iron</i> (FeO + Fe<sup>2</sup>O<sup>3</sup>).&mdash;This peculiar oxide is
+of a dark color, and is magnetic, so that tacks or small nails adhere
+to it when brought in contact with it. It is the variety of the oxide
+termed &quot;loadstone.&quot; It is found frequently crystallized in octahedrons
+in Scandinavia and other places. Magnetic oxide of iron is produced
+when red-hot iron is hammered.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sesquioxide of Iron</i> (Fe<sup>2</sup>O<sup>3</sup>).&mdash;This oxide is found native in
+great abundance as red hematite and specular iron, crystallized in the
+rhombic form. In the crystalline state it is of a blackish-grey color,
+and possessed of the metallic lustre. When powdered, it forms a
+brownish-red mass. When artificially prepared, it presents the
+appearance of a blood-red powder. It is not magnetic, and has less
+affinity for acids than the protoxide. Its hydrate is found native as
+brown hematite.</p>
+
+<p>By exposing the peroxide of iron to the oxidation flame, it is not
+acted upon, but in the reduction flame it becomes reduced to the
+magnetic oxide.</p>
+
+<p>The oxides of iron are dissolved by borax in the oxidation flame to a
+clear dark-yellow or dark-red bead, which appears lighter while
+cooling, and yellowish when cold. In the presence of a very small
+quantity of iron, the bead appears colorless when cold. If the iron is
+increased, the bead is opaque while cooling, and of a dirty
+dark-yellow color when cold. In the reduction flame, and fused upon
+platinum wire, the bead appears dark green (FeO + Fe<sup>2</sup>O<sup>3</sup>). By the
+addition of some tin, and fused upon charcoal, the bead appears
+bluish-green, or not unlike that of sulphate of iron.</p>
+
+<p>Microcosmic salt dissolves the oxides of iron in the oxidation flame
+to a clear bead, which, by the addition of a considerable <a name="Page_137"></a>quantity of
+iron, becomes of an orange color while hot, but gets lighter while
+cooling, presenting finally a greenish hue, and gradually becoming
+lighter, till, when cold, it is colorless. If the iron is increased,
+the hot bead presents a dark red color, but while cooling a
+brownish-red, which changes to a dirty-green, and, when cold, to a
+brownish-red color. The decrease of the color during the transition
+from the hot to the cold state is still greater in the bead formed by
+the microcosmic salt.</p>
+
+<p>In the reduction flame no change is visible if the quantity of iron be
+small. By the addition of more iron, the hot bead appears red, and
+while cooling, changes to yellow, then green, and, when cold, is of a
+dull red. By fusing the bead on charcoal with a small addition of tin,
+it exhibits, while cooling, a bluish-green color, but, when cold, is
+colorless.</p>
+
+<p>The oxides of iron are not dissolved in the oxidation flame by fusion
+with carbonate of soda. By ignition with soda upon charcoal in the
+reduction flame, they are absorbed and reduced to the metallic state.
+Cut out this portion of the charcoal; grind it with the addition of
+some water in an agate mortar, for the purpose of washing off the
+carbon particles, when the iron will remain as a grey magnetic powder.</p>
+
+<p>(b.) <i>Cobalt</i> (Co) occurs in combination with arsenic and sulphur,
+and associated with nickel and iron. It is found occasionally in
+combination with selenium, and there are a traces of it in meteoric
+iron. In the metallic state it is of a light, reddish-grey color,
+rather brittle, and only fusible at a strong white heat; at common
+temperatures it is unalterable by air or water. At a red heat, it
+oxidizes slowly and decomposes water; at a white heat it burns with a
+red flame. Cobalt is soluble in dilute sulphuric or hydrochloric acid
+by the aid of heat, whereby hydrogen is eliminated. These solutions
+have a fine red color.</p>
+
+<p><i>Protoxide of Cobalt</i> (CoO).&mdash;It is an olive-green powder, but, by
+exposure to the air, it becomes gradually brown. Its hydrate is a rich
+red powder. The solution of its salts is red, but the aqueous solution
+is often blue.<a name="Page_138"></a></p>
+
+<p>When heated in the oxidation flame, the protoxide is converted into
+the black proto-sesquioxide (CoO + Co<sup>2</sup>O<sup>3</sup>). In the reduction
+flame it shrinks and is reduced without fusion to the metallic state.
+It is now attracted by the magnet and acquires lustre by compression.</p>
+
+<p>Borax dissolves it in the oxidation flame, and produces a clear,
+intensely colored blue bead, which remains transparent and of the same
+beautiful blue when cold. This blue is likewise manifest even if the
+bead be heated intermittingly. If the cobalt exists in considerable
+quantity, the color of the bead is so intense as to appear almost
+black.</p>
+
+<p>This reaction of cobalt is so characteristic and sensitive that it can
+detect a minute trace.</p>
+
+<p>With microcosmic salt the same reaction is exhibited, but not so
+sensitive, nor is the bead so intensely colored when cold as that with
+borax.</p>
+
+<p>By fusion with carbonate of soda upon a platinum wire, with a very
+small portion of cobalt, a bright red colored mass is produced which
+appears grey, or slightly green when cold. By fusion upon platinum
+foil the fused portion floats down from the sides, and the foil is
+coated around the undissolved part, with a thin, dark-red sublimate.
+When fused upon charcoal, and in the reduction flame, it is reduced
+with soda to a grey powder, which is attracted by the magnet, and
+exhibits the metallic lustre by compression.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sesquioxide of Cobalt</i> (Co<sup>2</sup>O<sup>3</sup>).&mdash;It is a dark brown powder. Its
+hydrate (2HO + Co<sup>2</sup>O<sup>3</sup>) is a brown powder. It is soluble only in
+acetic acid as the acetate of the sesquioxide. All other acids
+dissolve its salts to protoxide, the hydrochloric acid producing
+chloric gas. By ignition in the oxidation flame, it is converted into
+the proto-sesquioxide (CoO + Co<sup>2</sup>O<sup>3</sup>) and produces with reagents
+before the blowpipe the same reactions as the protoxide.</p>
+
+<p>(c.) <i>Nickel</i> (Ni).&mdash;This metal occurs invariably associated with
+cobalt, and in analogous combinations, chiefly as the arsenical
+nickel. In the metallic state it is greyish, silver-white, <a name="Page_139"></a>has a high
+lustre, is hard, and malleable both cold and hot. At common
+temperatures, it is unalterable either in dry or moist air. When
+ignited, it tarnishes. It is easily dissolved by nitric acid, but very
+slowly by dilute sulphuric or hydrochloric acid, producing hydrogen.</p>
+
+<p><i>Protoxide of Nickel</i> (NiO).&mdash;It is in the form of small greyish-black
+octahedrons, or a dark, greenish-grey powder. Its hydrate is a green
+powder. Both are unalterable in the air, and are soluble in nitric,
+sulphuric, and hydrochloric acids, to a green liquid. The protoxide is
+the base of the salts of nickel, which in the anhydrous state are
+yellow, and when hydrated are green. The soluble neutral salts change
+blue litmus paper to red. By ignition in the oxidation flame,
+protoxide of nickel is unaltered. In the reduction flame and upon
+charcoal, it becomes reduced, and forms a grey adherent powder, which
+is infusible, and presents the metallic lustre by compression, and is
+magnetic. Borax dissolves it in the oxidation flame very readily to a
+clear bead, of a reddish-violet or dark yellow color, but yellow or
+light red when cold. If there is but a small quantity of the oxide
+present, it is colorless. If more of the oxide be present, the bead is
+opaque and dark brown, and appears, while cooling, transparent and
+dark red. By the addition of a salt of potassa (the nitrate or
+carbonate) a blue or a dark purple colored bead is produced. The borax
+bead, in the reduction flame, is grey, turbid, or completely opaque
+from the reduced metallic particles. After a continued blast, the bead
+becomes colorless, although the particles are not fused. If the nickel
+contains cobalt, it will now be visible with its peculiar blue color.
+Upon charcoal, and by the addition of some tin, the reduction of the
+oxide of nickel is easily effected, while the reduced nickel fuses
+with the tin.</p>
+
+<p>The oxide of nickel is dissolved by microcosmic salt in the oxidation
+flame to a clear bead, which appears reddish while hot, but yellow and
+sometimes colorless when cooling. If a considerable quantity of nickel
+be present the heated bead is of a brown color, but orange when
+cooled. In the reduction <a name="Page_140"></a>flame, and upon platinum wire, the color of
+the bead is orange when cold; but upon charcoal, and with the addition
+of a little tin, the bead appears grey and opaque. After being
+submitted to the blowpipe flame all the nickel is reduced, and the
+bead becomes colorless.</p>
+
+<p>Carbonate of soda does not affect it in the oxidation flame, but in
+the reduction flame and upon charcoal, it is absorbed and reduced, and
+remains, after washing off the carbon, as a white metallic powder,
+which is infusible, and has a greater attraction for the magnet than
+iron.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sesquioxide of Nickel</i> (Ni<sup>2</sup>O<sup>3</sup>).&mdash;It is in the form of a black
+powder, and does not combine with other substances, unless it is
+reduced to the protoxide. It exhibits before the blowpipe the same
+behavior as the protoxide.</p>
+
+
+<h4>GROUP SIXTH.&mdash;ZINC, CADMIUM, ANTIMONY, TELLURIUM.</h4><p class="rtntoc"><a href="#TOC">Go to TOC</a></p>
+
+<p>The substances of this group can be reduced upon charcoal by fusion
+with carbonate of soda, but the reduced metals are volatilized, and
+cover the charcoal with sublimates.</p>
+
+<p>(a.) <i>Zinc</i> (Zn).&mdash;This metal is found in considerable abundance,
+but never occurs in the pure metallic state, but in combination with
+other substances, chiefly as sulphide in zinc blende, as carbonate in
+calamine, and as the silicate in the kieselzinc ore; also, with
+sulphuric acid, the &quot;vitriol of zinc.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>Zinc is of a bluish-white color and metallic lustre, is crystalline
+and brittle when heated 400&deg;F., but malleable and ductile between 200&deg;
+and 300&deg;. It will not oxidize in dry air, but tarnishes if exposed to
+air containing moisture, first becomes grey, and then passes into the
+white carbonate. It decomposes in water at a glowing heat. It is
+dissolved by diluted acids, while hydrogen is eliminated. It melts at
+about 775&deg;, and distills when exposed to a white heat in a close
+vessel. When heated over 1000&deg; in the open air, it takes fire, and
+burns with a bluish-white light, and with a thick white smoke of oxide
+of zinc.<a name="Page_141"></a></p>
+
+<p><i>Oxide of Zinc</i> (ZnO).&mdash;In the pure state, oxide of zinc is a white
+powder, infusible, and not volatile. It is readily soluble in acids
+after being heated strongly. Its soluble neutral salts, when dissolved
+in water, change blue litmus paper to red. Its salts, with organic
+acids, are decomposed by ignition, and the carbonate of zinc remains.</p>
+
+<p>The oxide of zinc turns yellow by being ignited in the oxidation
+flame, but it is only visible by daylight; this color changes to white
+when cold. It does not melt, but produces a strong light, and it is
+not volatile.</p>
+
+<p>It disappears gradually in the flame of reduction, while a white smoke
+sublimates upon the charcoal. This sublimate is yellow while hot, but
+changes to white when cold. The cause of this is, that the oxide is
+reduced, is volatilized, and re-oxidized, by going through the
+external flame in the form of a metallic vapor.</p>
+
+<p>Borax dissolves oxide of zinc in the flame of oxidation easily to a
+clear bead, which is yellow while hot, and colorless when cold. The
+bead becomes, by the addition of more oxide, enamelled, while cooling.
+If the bead is heated with the intermittent flame, it is milk-white
+when cold. When heated in the flame of reduction upon platinum wire,
+the bead at first appears opaque, and of a greyish color, but becomes
+clear again after a continued blast.</p>
+
+<p>When heated upon charcoal in the reduction flame, it is reduced to a
+metal; but, at the same moment, is volatilized, and sublimes as oxide
+of zinc upon the charcoal, about one line's distance from the assay.
+This is likewise the case with the microcosmic salt, except that it is
+more easily volatilized in the reduction flame.</p>
+
+<p>Carbonate of soda does not dissolve the oxide of zinc in the flame of
+oxidation. In the reduction flame and upon charcoal, the oxide of zinc
+is reduced to the metallic state, and is volatilized with a white
+vapor of the zinc oxide, which sublimes on the charcoal and exhibits a
+yellow color while hot, and which <a name="Page_142"></a>changes to white when cold. By a
+strong heat the reduced zinc burns with a white flame.</p>
+
+<p>Moistened with a solution of cobalt oxide, and heated strongly in the
+flame of oxidation, zinc oxide becomes of a yellowish-green color
+while hot, and changes to a beautiful green color when cold.</p>
+
+<p>(b.) <i>Cadmium</i> (Cd).&mdash;This is one of the rare metals. It occurs in
+combination with sulphur in <i>greenockite</i>, and in some ores of zinc.
+It was detected first in the year 1818, and presents itself as a
+tin-white metal of great lustre, and susceptible of a fine polish. It
+has a fibrous structure, crystallizes easily in regular octahedrons,
+presenting often the peculiar arborescent appearance of the fern. It
+is soft, but harder and more tenacious than tin; it can be bent,
+filed, and easily cut: it imparts to paper a color like that of lead.
+It is very malleable and ductile, and can be hammered into thin
+leaves. It is easily fused, and melts before it glows (450&deg;). At a
+temperature not much over the boiling point of mercury, it begins to
+boil, and distills, the vapor of the metal possessing no peculiar
+odor. It is unalterable in the air for a long time, but at length it
+tarnishes and presents a greyish-white, half metallic color. This
+metal easily takes fire when heated in the air, and burns with a
+brownish-yellow vapor, while it deposits a yellow sublimate upon
+surrounding bodies. It is easily soluble in acids with the escape of
+hydrogen, the solutions being colorless. Its salts, soluble in water,
+are decomposed by ignition in free air. Its soluble neutral salts
+change blue litmus paper to red. The salts, insoluble in water, are
+readily dissolved in acids.</p>
+
+<p><i>Oxide of Cadmium</i> (CdO).&mdash;This oxide is of a dark orange color. It
+does not melt, and is not volatile, not even at a very high
+temperature. Its hydrate is white, loses in the heat its hydratic
+water, and absorbs carbonic acid from the air when it is kept in open
+vessels.</p>
+
+<p>Cadmium oxide is unaltered when exposed upon platinum wire in the
+flame of oxidation. When heated upon charcoal in the flame of
+reduction it disappears in a very short time, while <a name="Page_143"></a>the charcoal is
+coated with a dark orange or yellow powder, the color of which is more
+visible after it is cooled. The portions of this sublimate furthest
+from the assay present a visible iridescent appearance. This reaction
+of cadmium is so characteristic and sensitive that minerals (for
+instance, calamine, carbonate of zinc) which contains from one to five
+per cent. of carbonate of cadmium, will give a dark yellowish ring of
+cadmium oxide, a little distance from the assay, after being exposed
+for a few moments to the flame of reduction. This sublimate is more
+visible when cold, and is produced some time previous to the reduction
+of the zinc oxide. If a vapor of the latter should appear, it
+indicates that it has been exposed too great a length of time to the
+flame.</p>
+
+<p>Borax dissolves a considerable quantity of cadmium oxide upon a
+platinum wire to a clear yellow bead, which, when cold, is almost
+colorless. If the bead is nearly saturated with the cadmium oxide, it
+appears milk-white when intermittingly heated. If the bead is
+completely saturated, it retains its opalescent appearance. Upon
+charcoal, and in the flame of reduction, the bead intumesces, the
+cadmium oxide becomes reduced to metal; this becomes volatilized and
+re-oxidized, and sublimes upon the charcoal as the yellow cadmium
+oxide.</p>
+
+<p>In the oxidation flame, microcosmic salt dissolves a large quantity of
+it to a clear bead, which, when highly saturated and while hot, is
+yellowish colored, but colorless when cold. By complete saturation,
+the bead is enamel-white when cold.</p>
+
+<p>Upon charcoal, in the flame of reduction, the bead is slowly and only
+partially reduced, a scanty sublimate being produced on the charcoal.
+The addition of tin promotes the reduction.</p>
+
+<p>Carbonate of soda does not dissolve cadmium oxide in the oxidation
+flame. In the reduction flame, upon charcoal, it is reduced to metal,
+and is volatilized to a red-brown or dark, red sublimate of cadmium
+oxide upon the charcoal, at a little distance from the assay the
+charcoal presenting the characteristic iridescent appearance. This
+reaction is still more sensitive if the cadmium oxide is heated <i>per
+se</i> in the reduction flame.<a name="Page_144"></a></p>
+
+<p><i>Antimony</i> (Sb).&mdash;This metal is found in almost every country. It
+principally occurs as the tersulphide (SbS<sup>3</sup>), either pure or
+combined with other sulphides, particularly with basic sulphides.
+Sometimes it occurs as the pure metal, and rarer in a state of
+oxidation as an antimonious acid and as the oxysulphide.</p>
+
+<p>In the pure state, antimony has a silver-white color, with much
+lustre, and presents a crystalline structure. The commercial and
+impure metal is of a tin-white color, and may frequently be split in
+parallel strata. It is brittle and easily pulverized. It melts at a
+low red heat (810&deg;), is volatilized at a white heat, and can be
+distilled. At common temperatures it is not affected by the air. At a
+glowing heat it takes fire, and burns with a white flame, and with
+white fumes, forming volatile antimonious acid. Common acids oxidize
+antimony, but dissolve it slightly. It is soluble in aqua regia
+(nitro-hydrochloric acid).</p>
+
+<p><i>Sesquioxide of Antimony</i> (Sb<sup>2</sup>O<sup>3</sup>).&mdash;In the pure state this oxide
+is a white powder, is fusible at a dull red heat to a yellow liquid,
+which, after cooling, is greyish-white and crystalline. If it is
+heated excluded from the air, it can be volatilized completely; it
+sublimes in bright crystals having the form of needles. It occurs
+sometimes in nature as white and very bright crystals. It takes fire
+when heated in the open air, and burns with a white vapor to
+antimonious acid. It fuses with the ter-sulphide of antimony to a red
+bead. It is distinguished from the other oxides of antimony by the
+readiness with which it is reduced to the metallic state upon
+charcoal, and by its easy fusibility and volatility.</p>
+
+<p>The sesquioxide is the base of some salts&mdash;for instance, the tartar
+emetic. It is not soluble in nitric acid, but is soluble in
+hydrochloric acid. This solution becomes milky by the addition of
+water. A part of the salts of the sesquioxide of antimony are
+decomposed by ignition. The haloid salts are easily volatilized,
+without decomposition. Its soluble neutral salts change blue litmus
+paper to red, and are converted, by <a name="Page_145"></a>admixture of water, into
+insoluble basic and soluble acid salts.</p>
+
+<p>Antimonious acid (antimoniate of sesquioxide of antimony, Sb<sup>2</sup>O<sup>3</sup>
++ Sb<sup>2</sup>O<sup>5</sup>) is of a white color, but, when heated, of a light
+yellow color, but changes to white again when cold. It is infusible
+and unaltered by heat. It forms a white hydrate, and both are
+insoluble in water and nitric acid. It is partly soluble in
+hydrochloric acid, with the application of heat. The addition of water
+causes a precipitate in this solution.</p>
+
+<p><i>Antimonic Acid</i> (Sb<sup>2</sup>O<sup>5</sup>).&mdash;In the pure state this acid is a
+light yellow-colored powder. Its hydrate is white, and is insoluble in
+water and nitric acid. It is sparingly soluble in hot concentrated
+hydrochloric acid. It forms salts with every base, some of which are
+insoluble, and others sparingly so. Notwithstanding that antimonic
+acid is insoluble in water, it expels the carbonic acid from the
+solutions of the carbonates of the alkalies. Antimonic acid and its
+hydrate changes moistened blue litmus paper to red.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Behavior of Antimony and its Oxides before the Blowpipe.</i></p>
+
+<p><i>Metallic Antimony</i> fuses easily upon charcoal. When heated to
+glowing, and then removed from the flame, it continues to glow for
+awhile, and produces a thick white smoke. The vapor crystallizes
+gradually, and coats the assay with small crystals which iridesce like
+mother of pearl (sesquioxide of antimony). It is not volatile at the
+temperature of melted glass. Ignited in an open glass tube, it burns
+slowly with a white vapor, which condenses upon the cool part of the
+tube, and exhibits some indications of crystallization. This vapor
+consists of the sesquioxide, and can be driven by heat from one place
+to another, without leaving a residue. If the metallic antimony
+contains sulphide of antimony, there is a corresponding portion of
+antimonious acid produced, which remains as a white sublimate after
+the sesquioxide is removed.<a name="Page_146"></a></p>
+
+<p><i>Sesquioxide of antimony</i> melts easily, and sublimes as a white vapor.
+It may be prepared by precipitating and drying. When heated, it takes
+fire previous to melting, glows like tinder, and is converted into
+antimonious acid, which is now infusible. When heated upon charcoal in
+the flame of reduction, it is reduced to the metallic state, and
+partly volatilized. A white vapor sublimates upon the charcoal, while
+the external flame exhibits a greenish-blue color. Antimonious acid is
+infusible, produces a strong light, and is diminished in volume when
+heated in the external flame, during which time a dense white vapor
+sublimes upon the charcoal. It is not, however, in this manner reduced
+to the metallic state like the sesquioxide.</p>
+
+<p><i>Antimonic acid</i>, when first heated, becomes white, and is converted
+into antimonious acid. Hydrated antimonic acid, which is originally
+white, appears at first yellow while giving off water, and then
+becomes white again, while oxygen is expelled, and it is converted
+into antimonious acid.</p>
+
+<p>The oxides of antimony produce, with blowpipe reagents, the following
+reactions: borax dissolves oxides of antimony in the oxidation flame
+in considerable quantity to a clear bead, which is yellow while hot,
+but colorless when cold. If the bead is saturated, a part of the oxide
+is volatilized as a white vapor. Upon charcoal, in the oxidation
+flame, it is completely volatilized, and the charcoal is covered with
+a white sublimate. Heated upon charcoal in the reducing flame, the
+bead is of a greyish color, and partially, if not wholly opaque, from
+the presence of reduced metallic particles. A continued heat will
+volatilize them, and the bead becomes clear. The addition of tin
+promotes the reduction.</p>
+
+<p>Microcosmic salt dissolves the compounds of antimony in the flame of
+oxidation with intumescence, to a clear light-yellow colored bead,
+which when cold is colorless. Heated upon charcoal in the reduction
+flame, the bead is first turbid, but soon becomes transparent. The
+addition of tin renders the bead greyish while cooling, but a
+continued blast renders it <a name="Page_147"></a>transparent. Soda dissolves the compounds
+of antimony upon platinum wire in the oxidation flame, to a clear
+colorless bead, which is white when cold.</p>
+
+<p>Upon charcoal, both in the oxidation and reduction flames, the
+antimony compounds are readily reduced to the metal, which is
+immediately volatilized, and produces a white incrustation of oxide of
+antimony upon the charcoal. If the antimony compounds are heated upon
+charcoal in the flame of reduction, with a mixture of carbonate of
+soda and cyanide of potassium (KCy), there are produced small globules
+of metallic antimony. At the same time, a part of the reduced metal is
+volatilized (this continues after the assay is removed from the flame)
+and re-oxidized. A white incrustation appears upon the charcoal, and
+the metallic globules are covered with small white crystals. If this
+white sublimate upon the charcoal is moistened with a solution of
+cobalt-oxide, and exposed to the reduction flame, a part of it is
+volatilized, while the other part passes into higher oxidation, and
+remains, after cooling, of a dirty dark-green color.</p>
+
+<p>(d.) <i>Tellurium</i> (Te).&mdash;This is one of the rare metals. It occurs
+very seldom in the metallic state, but often with bismuth, lead,
+silver, and gold. Tellurium, in the pure state, is silver-white, very
+bright, of a foliated or lamellar structure, brittle, and easily
+triturated. It is inclined to crystallize. It is soluble in
+concentrated sulphuric acid without oxidation. The solution is of a
+fine purple color, and gives a precipitate with the addition of water.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tellurium in the Metallic form.</i>&mdash;By the aid of heat it is oxidized
+in sulphuric acid, a portion of the oxygen of the acid oxidizing the
+metal, while sulphurous acid gas escapes. This solution is colorless,
+and is tellurous acid, dissolved in sulphuric acid. It melts at a low
+red heat, and volatilizes at a higher temperature. If tellurium is
+heated with free access of air, it takes fire, and burns with a blue
+color, the flame being greenish at the edges, while a thick white
+vapor escapes, which has a feeble acidulous odor.<a name="Page_148"></a></p>
+
+<p><i>Tellurous Acid</i> (TeO<sup>2</sup>) is of a fine, granulous, crystalline or
+white earthy mass, which is partly soluble in water. The solution has
+a strong metallic taste, and an acid reaction upon litmus paper.
+Heated in a tube closed at one end until it begins to glow, it fuses
+to a yellow liquid which is colorless, crystalline, and opaque when
+cold. Beads of it remain usually transparent like glass. Heated upon
+platinum wire in the flame of oxidation, it melts, and is volatilized
+as a white vapor. When heated upon charcoal in the oxidation flame, it
+melts, and is reduced to the metallic state, but volatilizes and a
+sublimate of white tellurous acid is formed upon the charcoal. The
+edge of this deposit is usually red or dark-yellow.</p>
+
+<p>Heated upon charcoal in the flame of reduction, it is rapidly reduced,
+the external flame exhibiting a bluish-green color.</p>
+
+<p>Borax dissolves it in the oxidation flame upon platinum wire to a
+clear colorless bead which turns grey when heated upon charcoal,
+through the presence of reduced metallic particles. Upon charcoal, in
+the reduction flame, the bead is grey, caused by the reduced metal.
+After a continued blast, tellurium is completely volatilized, and the
+bead appears clear again, while a white sublimate is deposited upon
+the charcoal.</p>
+
+<p>With microcosmic salt, the same reactions are produced.</p>
+
+<p>With carbonate of soda, tellurous acid fuses upon platinum wire to a
+clear colorless bead, which is white when cold. Upon charcoal it is
+reduced, and forms <i>tellur-sodium</i>, which is absorbed by the charcoal,
+and metallic tellurium, which is volatilized, and deposits upon the
+charcoal a white incrustation (tellurous acid).</p>
+
+<p>If tellurous acid, finely powdered charcoal, and carbonate of soda are
+mixed together, and the mixture be well ignited in a closed tube,
+until fusion is effected, and a few drops of boiled water are brought
+into the tube, they are colored purple, indicating the presence of
+<i>tellur-sodium.</i></p>
+
+<p><i>Telluric Acid</i> (TeO<sup>3</sup>) forms six-sided prismatic crystals. It has
+not an acid, but rather a metallic taste. It changes blue litmus paper
+to red; is slowly soluble in water, and rather <a name="Page_149"></a>sparingly. Exposed to
+a high temperature, but not until glowing, the crystalline acid loses
+its water, and acquires an orange color, but still it preserves its
+crystalline form, although no longer soluble in water, and is in fact
+so much changed in its properties as to present the instance of an
+isomeric modification.</p>
+
+<p>If telluric acid is heated gently in a closed tube, it loses water and
+turns yellow. Heated still more strongly, it becomes milk-white,
+oxygen is expelled, and it is converted into tellurous acid. The
+presence of oxygen can be recognized by the more lively combustion
+which an ignited splinter of wood undergoes when held in it. Telluric
+acid produces the same reactions with the blowpipe reagents as
+tellurous acid.</p>
+
+
+<h4>SEVENTH GROUP.&mdash;LEAD, BISMUTH, TIN.</h4><p class="rtntoc"><a href="#TOC">Go to TOC</a></p>
+
+<p>The oxides of these metals are also reduced to the metallic state by
+fusion with soda upon charcoal in the flame of reduction, but they are
+volatilized only after a continued blast, and a sublimate is thrown
+upon the charcoal.</p>
+
+<p>(a.) <i>Lead</i> (Pb).&mdash;This metal occurs in considerable quantity in
+nature, chiefly as galena or lead-glance (sulphide of lead). Likewise,
+but more rarely, as a carbonate; also as a sulphate, and sometimes
+combined with other acids and metals.</p>
+
+<p>In the metallic state, lead is of a bluish-grey color, high lustre,
+and sp. gr. 11.4. It is soft, and communicates a stain to paper. It is
+malleable, ductile, but has very little tenacity. It melts at about
+612&deg;. Exposed to the air it soon tarnishes, being covered with a grey
+matter, which some regard as a suboxide (Pb<sup>2</sup>O), and others as
+simply a mixture of lead and protoxide. At a glowing heat it is
+oxidized to a protoxide, and at a white heat it is volatilized. It is
+insoluble in most acids. It is, however, soluble in nitric acid, but
+without decomposing water.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>L.</i>) <i>Protoxide of Lead</i> (PbO).&mdash;It is an orange-colored powder,
+which melts at a glowing temperature, and forms a <a name="Page_150"></a>lamellar mass after
+cooling. Protoxide of lead absorbs oxygen from the atmosphere while
+melting, which is given off again by cooling. Being exposed for a
+longer while to the air, it absorbs carbonic acid and water, and
+becomes white on the surface. It is soluble in nitric acid and caustic
+alkalies. It forms with most acids insoluble salts. It is slightly
+soluble in pure water, but not in water which contains alkaline salts.
+This hydrate is white.</p>
+
+<p>(&beta;.) <i>Red Oxide of Lead</i> (PbO<sup>2</sup>, PbO).&mdash;It forms a puce-colored
+powder. It is insoluble in caustic alkalies. Hydrochloric acid
+dissolves it and forms a yellow liquid, which is soon decomposed into
+chloride of lead and chlorine. It is reduced by ignition to the
+protoxide.</p>
+
+<p>(&gamma;.) <i>Peroxide of Lead</i> (PbO<sup>2</sup>).&mdash;It is a dark-brown powder.
+It yields with hydrochloric acid the chloride of lead and chlorine
+gas. When heated it liberates oxygen, and is reduced to the protoxide.</p>
+
+<p>Lead combinations give the following reactions before the blowpipe:
+Metallic lead tarnishes when heated in the oxidation flame, and is
+instantly covered with a grey matter, consisting of the protoxide and
+the metal. It fuses quickly, and is then covered with a
+yellowish-brown protoxide until all the lead is converted into the
+protoxide, which melts to a yellow liquid. In the reduction flame and
+upon charcoal, it is volatilized, while the charcoal becomes covered
+with a yellow sublimate of oxide. A little distance from the assay,
+this sublimate appears white (carbonate of lead). Protoxide of lead
+melts in the flame of oxidation to a beautiful dark yellow bead. In
+the flame of reduction, and upon charcoal, it is reduced with
+intumescence to metallic lead, which is volatilized by a continued
+blast, and sublimates on charcoal, as mentioned above.</p>
+
+<p>Red oxide of lead turns black when heated in the glass tube closed at
+one end, and liberates oxygen, which is easily detected by the
+introduction of an ignited splinter, when a more lively combustion of
+the wood proves the presence of uncombined oxygen. The red oxide in
+this case is reduced to the protoxide.<a name="Page_151"></a> Heated upon platinum foil, it
+first turns black, is reduced to the protoxide, and melts into a dark
+yellow liquid. In the reduction flame, upon charcoal, it is reduced to
+the metal with intumescence. After a continued blast, a yellow
+sublimate of protoxide is produced upon the charcoal, and at a little
+distance off, around this sublimate, a white one of carbonate of lead
+is produced. This sublimate disappears when touched by the flame of
+reduction, while it communicates an azure blue-tinge to the external
+flame. This is likewise the case with the peroxide of lead.</p>
+
+<p>The different oxides of lead produce with the blowpipe reagents the
+same reactions.</p>
+
+<p><i>Borax</i> dissolves lead compounds with the greatest readiness upon
+platinum wire in the oxidation flame to a transparent bead, which is
+yellow when hot, but colorless after being cooled. With the addition
+of more of the lead oxide, it becomes opalescent. When heated by the
+intermittent flame, and with still more of the oxide, it acquires a
+yellow enamel after cooling. Heated upon charcoal, in the flame of
+reduction, the bead spreads and becomes opaque. After a continued
+blast, all the oxide is reduced with effervescence to metallic lead,
+which melts and runs towards the edges of the bead, while the bead
+again becomes transparent.</p>
+
+<p><i>Microcosmic Salt</i> dissolves oxides of lead upon platinum wire in the
+flame of oxidation easily to a clear, colorless bead, which appears,
+when highly saturated, yellow while hot. A saturated bead becomes
+enamel-like after cooling. The bead appears in the flame of reduction,
+and upon charcoal, of a greyish color and dull. By the addition of
+more oxide, a yellow sublimate of protoxide is produced upon the
+charcoal. By the addition of tin, the bead appears of a darker grey,
+but it is never quite opaque.</p>
+
+<p><i>Carbonate of Soda</i> dissolves oxide of lead in the flame of oxidation
+upon platinum wire quite readily to a transparent bead, which becomes
+yellow when cooling, and is opaque. Upon charcoal in the flame of
+reduction, it is rapidly reduced to metallic <a name="Page_152"></a>lead, which yields,
+after a continued blast, a yellow sublimate of oxide upon the
+charcoal.</p>
+
+<p>(b.) <i>Bismuth</i> (Bi).&mdash;This metal occurs mostly in the metallic
+state, and less frequently as the sulphide. In the pure metallic
+state, it is of a reddish-white color and great lustre. It
+crystallizes in cubes. It is brittle, and may be readily pulverized.
+It melts at 476&deg;, and is volatilized at a white heat. It is soluble in
+nitric acid, and forms the nitrate of bismuth.</p>
+
+<p>(&alpha;.) <i>Oxide of Bismuth</i> (Bi<sup>2</sup>O<sup>3</sup>).&mdash;This oxide is a light
+yellow powder, fusible at a red heat, insoluble in caustic potash and
+ammonia. It is the base of the salts of bismuth. Its hydrate is white,
+and easily soluble in acids. The addition of water causes these
+solutions to become milky, because they are decomposed into a soluble
+acidulous and an insoluble basic salt of bismuth.</p>
+
+<p>(&beta;.) <i>Peroxide of Bismuth</i> (BiO<sup>2</sup>) is a dark-colored powder,
+completely soluble in boiling nitric acid, and yielding oxygen;
+produces, with hydrochloric acid, chlorine gas. It can be heated up to
+the temperature of 620&deg; without being decomposed; but, exposed to a
+temperature of 630&deg; it yields oxygen. Mixed with combustible
+substances, it glows with brightness.</p>
+
+<p>(&gamma;.) <i>Bismuthic Acid</i> (Bi<sup>2</sup>O<sup>5</sup>) is a brown powder similar to
+the peroxide, but is converted by boiling nitric acid into a green,
+scarcely soluble substance (Bi<sup>2</sup>O<sup>3</sup>, Bi<sup>2</sup>O<sup>5</sup>). Its hydrate is
+of a red color.</p>
+
+<p>BLOWPIPE REACTIONS.&mdash;Metallic bismuth is converted, when exposed upon
+platinum wire to the flame of oxidation, into a dark brown oxide,
+which turns light yellow while cooling. It is slowly volatilized when
+heated, and a yellow sublimate of oxide is produced upon the charcoal.</p>
+
+<p>Oxide of bismuth melts upon platinum foil in the flame of oxidation
+very easily into a dark-brown liquid, which changes to a light yellow
+while cooling. By too strong a heat, it is reduced and penetrates the
+platinum foil.</p>
+
+<p>Upon charcoal, in the flame of oxidation and of reduction, it is
+reduced to metallic bismuth, which melts into one or more <a name="Page_153"></a>globules.
+By a continued blast they are slowly volatilized, and produce a yellow
+sublimate of oxide upon the charcoal, beyond which a white sublimate
+of carbonate of bismuth is visible. These sublimates disappear in the
+flame of reduction, but without communicating any color to it.</p>
+
+<p><i>Borax</i> dissolves oxide of bismuth upon platinum wire, in the flame of
+oxidation, easily to a clear yellow bead, which appears colorless
+after cooling. By the addition of more oxide, the hot bead becomes
+orange. It turns more yellow while cooling, and when cool is
+opalescent. Upon charcoal in the flame of reduction, the bead becomes
+turbid and greyish colored. The oxide is reduced with intumescence to
+the metallic state, and the bead becomes clear again. The addition of
+tin promotes the reduction.</p>
+
+<p><i>Microcosmic Salt</i> dissolves oxide of bismuth upon platinum wire, in
+the flame of oxidation, to a yellow bead, which becomes colorless
+after cooling. By the addition of more oxide, the bead is
+yellowish-brown while hot, and colorless after cooling, but not quite
+transparent. This bead becomes enamelled when heated by the
+intermittent flame; also, by the addition of still more of the oxide,
+after it is cooled.</p>
+
+<p>Upon charcoal, in the flame of reduction, and particularly with the
+addition of tin, the bead is colorless and transparent while hot, but
+while cooling becomes of a dark-gray color and opaque.</p>
+
+<p>Oxide of bismuth is reduced, by fusion with carbonate of soda, as well
+in the oxidating as in the reducing flame, instantly to metallic
+bismuth.</p>
+
+<p>As the above mentioned higher oxides of bismuth are converted by
+ignition into oxide of the metal and free oxygen, they have the same
+behavior before the blowpipe.</p>
+
+<p>As bismuth occurs mostly in the metallic form, it is necessary to know
+how to distinguish it from metals similar to it. Its brittleness
+distinguishes it from lead, zinc and tin, as they are readily
+flattened by a stroke of the hammer, while bismuth is broken to
+pieces. Bismuth, in this latter respect, <a name="Page_154"></a>might perhaps be mistaken
+for antimony or tellurium; but, by the following examination, it is
+easy to separate bismuth from antimony or tellurium.</p>
+
+<p>1. Neither bismuth nor antimony sublimates when heated in a glass tube
+closed at one end. At a temperature which is about to fuse the glass,
+tellurium yields a small quantity of a white vapor (some tellurium is
+oxidized to tellurous acid by the oxygen of the air in the tube).
+After that, a grey metallic sublimate settles on the sides of the
+tube.</p>
+
+<p>2. Heated in an open tube, antimony yields a white vapor, which coats
+the inside of the glass tube, and can be driven by heat from one part
+of the tube to another without leaving a residue. The metallic globule
+is covered with a considerable quantity of fused oxide. Tellurium
+produces, under the same circumstances, an intense vapor, and deposits
+on the glass a white powder, which melts by heat into globules that
+run over the glass. The metallic globules are covered by fused,
+transparent, and nearly colorless oxide, which becomes white while
+cooling. By a high temperature, and with little access of air,
+metallic tellurium sublimes with the deposition of a grey powder.
+Bismuth produces, under similar treatment, scarcely any vapor, unless
+it is combined with sulphur. The metal is enveloped by fused oxide of
+a dark yellow color, which appears light yellow after being cooled. It
+acts upon the glass, and dissolves it.</p>
+
+<p>3. Upon charcoal, exposed to the blowpipe flame, the three metals are
+volatilized, and yield a sublimate upon the charcoal. That of antimony
+is white, while those of bismuth and tellurium are dark yellow. By
+exposing them to the flame of reduction, the sublimate of tellurium
+disappears and communicates an intense green color to the flame. The
+antimony incrustation gives a feeble greenish-blue color, while the
+sublimate of bismuth gives no perceptible color in the light. It is,
+however, worthy of notice that if the operation takes place in the
+dark, a very pale blue flame will be seen with the bismuth.</p>
+
+<p>(c.) <i>Tin</i> (Sn).&mdash;This metal does not occur in nature in the
+<a name="Page_155"></a>metallic state, very seldom in the sulphide, but chiefly in the oxide
+(tinstone). In the metallic state it is silver-white, possesses a very
+high lustre, is soft (but harder than lead), ductile, but has not much
+tenacity, and it is very malleable. The metal when it is cast gives a
+peculiar creaking noise when twisted or bent, which proceeds from the
+crystalline structure of the metal. This crystallization is quite
+clearly manifested by attacking the surface of the metal, or that of
+tin plate, with acids.</p>
+
+<p>Tin is very slightly tarnished by exposure to the air. It fuses at
+442&deg;, and becomes grey, being a mixture of the oxide and the metal. At
+a high temperature even, tin is but little subject to pass off as
+vapor. It is soluble in aqua regia, and with the liberation of
+hydrogen, in hot sulphuric and hydrochloric acids, and in cold dilute
+nitric acid, without decomposing water, or the production of a gas,
+while nitrate of tin and nitrate of ammonia are formed. Concentrated
+nitric acid converts tin into insoluble tin acids.</p>
+
+<p>(&alpha;.) <i>Protoxide of Tin</i> (SnO) is a dark-grey powder. Its hydrate
+is white, and is soluble in caustic alkalies. When this solution is
+heated, anhydrous crystalline black protoxide is separated. The
+soluble neutral salts of tin-protoxide are decomposed by the addition
+of water, and converted into acid soluble, and basic insoluble salts.</p>
+
+<p>When protoxide of tin is ignited with free access of air, it takes
+fire and is converted with considerable intensity into the acids,
+producing white vapors. This is likewise the case if it is touched by
+a spark of fire from steel. The hydrate of the protoxide of tin can be
+ignited by the flame of a candle, and glows like tinder.</p>
+
+<p>(&beta;.) <i>Sesquioxide of Tin</i> (Sn<sup>2</sup>O<sup>3</sup>) is a greyish-brown
+powder. Its hydrate is white, with a yellow tinge. It is soluble in
+aqua ammonia and in hydrochloric acid; this solution forms with
+solution of gold the &quot;purple of Cassius.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>(&gamma;.) <i>Stannic Acid</i> (peroxide, SnO<sup>2</sup>).&mdash;This acid occurs in
+nature crystallized in quadro-octahedrons, of a brown or an intense
+<a name="Page_156"></a>black color, and of great hardness (tinstone). Artificially prepared,
+it is a white or yellowish-white powder. It exists in two distinct or
+isomeric modifications, one of which is insoluble in acids (natural
+tin-acid) while the other (tin-acid prepared in the wet way) is
+soluble in acids. By ignition the soluble acid is converted into the
+insoluble. Both modifications form hydrates.</p>
+
+<p><i>Reactions before the Blowpipe.</i>&mdash;Metallic tin melts easily. It is
+covered in the flame of oxidation into a yellowish-white oxide, which
+is carried off sometimes by the stream of air which propels the flame.
+In the reduction flame, and upon charcoal, melting tin retains its
+metallic lustre, while a thin sublimate is produced upon the charcoal.
+This sublimate is light-yellow while hot, and gives a strong light in
+the flame of oxidation, and turns white while cooling. This sublimate
+is found near to the metal, and cannot be volatilized in the oxidation
+flame. In the flame of reduction it is reduced to metallic tin.
+Sometimes this incrustation is so imperceptible that it can scarcely
+be distinguished from the ashes of the charcoal. If such be the case,
+moisten it with a solution of cobalt, and expose it to the flame of
+oxidation, when the sublimate will exhibit, after cooling, a
+bluish-green color.</p>
+
+<p>Protoxide of tin takes fire in the flame of oxidation, and burns with
+flame and some white vapor into tin acid, or stannic acid. In a strong
+and continued reduction flame, it may be reduced to metal, when the
+same sublimate above mentioned is visible. The sesquioxide of tin
+behaves as the above.</p>
+
+<p>Stannic acid, heated in the flame of oxidation, does not melt and is
+not volatilized, but produces a strong light, and appears yellowish
+while hot, but changing as it cools to a dirty-yellow white color. In
+a strong and continued flame of reduction, it may be reduced likewise
+to the metallic state, with the production of the same sublimate as
+the above.</p>
+
+<p><i>Borax</i> dissolves tin compounds in the flame of oxidation, and upon
+platinum wire, very tardily, and in small quantity, to a transparent
+colorless bead, which remains clear after cooling,<a name="Page_157"></a> and also when
+heated intermittingly. But if a saturated bead, after being completely
+cool, is exposed again to the flame of oxidation, at a low red heat,
+the bead while cooling is opaque, loses its globular form, and
+exhibits an indistinct crystallization. This is the case too in the
+flame of reduction, but if the bead is highly saturated, a part of the
+oxide is reduced.</p>
+
+<p><i>Microcosmic Salt</i> dissolves the oxides in the flame of reduction very
+tardily in a small quantity to a transparent colorless bead, which
+remains clear while cooling. If to this bead sesquioxide of iron is
+added in proper proportion, the sesquioxide loses its property of
+coloring the bead, but of course an excess of the iron salt will
+communicate to the bead its own characteristic color. In the flame of
+reduction no further alteration is visible.</p>
+
+<p>Tin-oxides combine with carbonate of soda, in the flame of oxidation
+upon platinum wire, with intumescence to a bulky and confused mass,
+which is insoluble in more soda. Upon charcoal, in the reduction
+flame, it is easily reduced to a metallic globule. Certain compounds
+of tin-oxides, particularly if they contain tantalum, are by fusion
+with carbonate of soda reduced with difficulty; but by the addition of
+some borax, the reduction to the metallic state is easily effected.</p>
+
+<p>Tin-oxides exposed to the oxidation flame, then moistened with a
+solution of cobalt, and exposed again to the flame of oxidation, will
+exhibit, after having completely cooled, a bluish-green color.</p>
+
+
+<h4>EIGHTH GROUP.&mdash;MERCURY, ARSENIC.</h4><p class="rtntoc"><a href="#TOC">Go to TOC</a></p>
+
+<p>These two metals are volatilized at a temperature lower than that of a
+red heat, and produce, therefore, no reactions with borax and
+microcosmic salt. Their oxides are easily reduced to the metallic
+state.</p>
+
+<p>(a.) <i>Mercury</i> (Hg).&mdash;This metal occurs in nature chiefly combined
+with sulphur as a bisulphide.<a name="Page_158"></a></p>
+
+<p>It occurs still more rarely in the metallic form, or combined with
+silver, selenium, or chlorine.</p>
+
+<p>Mercury, in the metallic state, has a strong lustre, and is liquid at
+ordinary temperatures, whereby it is distinguished from any other
+metal. It freezes at 40&deg; and boils at 620&deg;, but it evaporates at
+common temperatures. Pure mercury is unalterable. Upon being exposed
+to the air, it tarnishes only by admixture with other metals, turns
+grey on the surface, and loses its lustre. It is soluble in cold
+nitric acid and in concentrated hot sulphuric acid, but not in
+hydrochloric acid.</p>
+
+<p>(&chi;.) <i>Protoxide of Mercury</i> (Hg<sup>2</sup>O).&mdash;It is a black powder,
+which is decomposed by ignition into metallic mercury and oxygen. By
+digestion with certain acids, and particularly with caustic alkalies,
+it is converted into metallic mercury and peroxide. Some neutral salts
+of the protoxide are only partly soluble in water, as they are
+converted into basic insoluble and acid soluble salts.</p>
+
+<p>Protoxide of mercury is completely insoluble in hydrochloric acid. Its
+neutral salts change blue litmus paper to red.</p>
+
+<p>(&beta;.) <i>Peroxide of Mercury</i> (HgO).&mdash;This oxide exists in two
+allotropic modifications. One is of a brick-red color, and the other
+is orange. Being exposed to heat, they turn black, but regain their
+respective colors upon cooling. They are decomposed at a high
+temperature into metallic mercury and oxygen. They yield with acids
+their own peculiar salts.</p>
+
+<p>Mercury, in the metallic form, can never be mistaken for any other
+metal in consequence of its fluid condition at ordinary temperatures.</p>
+
+<p>Exposed to the blowpipe flame, it is instantly volatilized. This is
+also the case with it when combined with other metals. The oxides of
+mercury are, in the oxidation and reduction flames, instantly reduced
+and volatilized. They do not produce any alteration with fluxes, as
+they are volatilized before the bead melts. Heated with carbonate of
+soda in a glass tube closed at one end, they are reduced to metallic
+mercury, which is volatilized, and condenses upon a cool portion of
+<a name="Page_159"></a>the tube as a grey powder. By cautious knocking against the tube, or
+by rubbing with a glass rod, this sublimate can be brought together
+into one globule of metallic mercury. Compounds of mercury can be most
+completely reduced by a mixture of neutral oxalate of potassa and
+cyanide of potassium. If the substance under examination contains such
+a small quantity of mercury that it cannot be distinguished by
+volatilization, a strip of gold leaf may be attached to an iron wire,
+and introduced during the experiment in the glass tube. The smallest
+trace of mercury will whiten the gold leaf in spots.</p>
+
+<p>(b.) <i>Arsenic</i> (As).&mdash;This metal occurs in considerable quantity in
+nature, chiefly combined with sulphur or metals.</p>
+
+<p>Arsenic, in the metallic state, is of a whitish-grey color, high
+lustre, and is crystalline, of a foliated structure, and is so brittle
+that it can be pulverized. It does not melt, but is volatilized at
+356&deg;. Its vapor has a strong alliaceous odor. Arsenic sublimes in
+irregular crystals. By exposure to the air it soon tarnishes, and is
+coated black. Being mixed with nitrate of potassa and inflamed, it
+detonates with vehemence. Mixed with carbonate of potassa, it is
+inflamed by a stroke of the hammer, and detonates violently.</p>
+
+<p>Heated in oxygen gas, it is inflamed, and burns with a pale blue flame
+to arsenious acid.</p>
+
+<p>(&beta;.) <i>Arsenious Acid</i> (AsO<sup>3</sup>).&mdash;This acid crystallizes in
+octahedrons, or, when fused, forms a colorless glass, which finally
+becomes opaque and enamel-like, or forms a white powder. It sublimes
+without change or decomposition. When heated for a longer while below
+the temperature of sublimation, it melts into a transparent,
+colorless, tough glass. The opaque acid is sparingly soluble in cold
+water, and still more soluble in hot water. It is converted, by
+continued boiling, into the transparent acid, which is much more
+soluble in water. Arsenious acid is easily dissolved by caustic
+potassa. It is also soluble in hydrochloric acid. This acid occurs
+associated with antimonious acid, protoxide of tin, protoxide of lead,
+and oxide of <a name="Page_160"></a>copper. It occurs likewise in very small quantity in
+ferruginous mineral springs.</p>
+
+<p>(&gamma;.) <i>Arsenic Acid</i> (AsO<sup>5</sup>) is a white mass, which readily
+absorbs moisture and dissolves. It will not volatilize at a low red
+heat, nor will it decompose. Exposed to a strong heat, it is
+decomposed, yielding oxygen, and passing into arsenious acid.</p>
+
+<p><i>Reactions before the Blowpipe.</i></p>
+
+<p>Metallic arsenic, heated in a glass tube closed at one end, yields a
+black sublimate of a metallic lustre, and at the same time gives out
+the characteristic alliaceous odor. This is the case too with alloys
+of arsenic, if there is a maximum quantity of arsenic present.</p>
+
+<p>When heated in a glass tube open at both ends, metallic arsenic is
+oxidized to arsenious acid, which appears as a white crystalline
+sublimate on the sides of the glass tube. This deposit will occur at
+some distance from the assay, in consequence of the great volatility
+of the arsenic. The sublimate can be driven from one place upon the
+tube to another, by a very low heat. Alloys of arsenic are converted
+into basic arseniates of metal oxides, while surplus arsenic is
+converted into arsenious acid, which sublimes on the tube. If too much
+arsenic is used for this experiment, a dark-brown incrustation will
+sublime upon the sides of the tube which will give an alliaceous
+smell. If this sublimate should be deposited near the assay, then it
+resembles the white sublimate of arsenious acid.</p>
+
+<p>Heated upon charcoal, metallic arsenic is volatilized before it melts,
+and incrusts the charcoal in the flame of oxidation as a white deposit
+of arsenious acid. This sublimate appears sometimes of a greyish
+color, and takes place at some distance from the assay. When heated
+slightly with the blowpipe flame, this sublimate is instantly driven
+away, and being heated rapidly in the reduction flame, it disappears
+with a <a name="Page_161"></a>light blue tinge, while the usual alliaceous or garlic smell
+may be discerned.</p>
+
+<p>Arsenious acid sublimes in both glass tubes very readily, as a white
+crystalline sublimate. These crystals appear to be regular octahedrons
+when observed under the microscope. Upon charcoal it instantly
+volatilizes, and when heated, the characteristic garlic smell may be
+observed.</p>
+
+<p>Arsenic acid yields, heated strongly in a glass tube closed at one
+end, oxygen and arsenious acid, the latter of which sublimes in the
+cool portions of the tube. Compounds of arsenic produce, in
+consequence of their volatility, no reactions with fluxes. Being
+heated upon charcoal with carbonate of soda, they are reduced to
+metallic arsenic which may be detected by the alliaceous odor peculiar
+to all the arsenic compounds when volatilized.</p>
+
+
+<h4>NINTH GROUP.&mdash;COPPER, SILVER, GOLD.</h4><p class="rtntoc"><a href="#TOC">Go to TOC</a></p>
+
+<p>These metals are not volatile, neither are their oxides. They are
+reduced to the metallic state, by fusion with carbonate of soda, when
+they melt to a metallic grain. The oxides of silver and gold are
+reduced <i>per se</i> to the metallic state by ignition. In the reduction
+of the oxides of this group, no sublimate is visible upon the
+charcoal.</p>
+
+<p>(a.) <i>Copper</i> (Cu).&mdash;This metal occurs in the metallic state, also
+as the protoxide, and as oxides combined with acids in different salts
+(carbonate of copper as malachite, etc.) The sulphide of copper is the
+principal ore of copper occurring in nature. In the metallic state,
+copper is of a red color, has great lustre and tenacity, is ductile
+and malleable, and crystallizes in octahedrons and cubes. It melts at
+a bright red heat, is more difficult than silver to fuse, but fuses
+more readily than gold. It absorbs oxygen while melting. There arises
+from its surface a fine dust of metallic globules, which are covered
+with the protoxide. The surface of the metal is likewise covered with
+<a name="Page_162"></a>the protoxide. Copper exposed to moist air tarnishes, and is
+converted into hydratic carbonate of copper. When ignited in the open
+air, it is soon covered with the brownish-red protoxide.</p>
+
+<p>(&chi;.) <i>Protoxide of Copper</i> (Cu<sup>2</sup>O).&mdash;This oxide occurs in
+nature, crystallized in octahedrons of a ruby-red color, of a lamellar
+structure, and transparent. Artificially prepared, it forms a powder
+of the same color. It is decomposed by dilute acids into salts of
+peroxide and metal. It is converted by ignition, with free access of
+air, into peroxide.</p>
+
+<p>(&beta;.) <i>Oxide of Copper</i> (CuO).&mdash;This oxide is a dark-brown or
+black powder. It is dissolved by acids, with a blue or green-colored
+solution. It is soluble in aqua ammonia, and the solution is of a dark
+blue color.</p>
+
+<p><i>Reactions before the Blowpipe.</i>&mdash;Oxide of copper exposed upon
+platinum wire to the inmost flame (the blue flame), communicates to
+the external flame a green color. Heated upon charcoal in the
+oxidation flame, it melts to a black ball, soon spreads over the
+charcoal, and is partially reduced.</p>
+
+<p>Exposed to the reduction flame, at a temperature which will not melt
+copper, it is reduced with a bright metallic lustre, but as soon as
+the blast ceases, the surface of the metal becomes oxidized, and
+appears dark brown or black. If the temperature is continued still
+higher, it melts to a metallic grain.</p>
+
+<p><i>Borax</i> dissolves the oxide of copper in the flame of oxidation to a
+clear green-colored bead, even if the quantity of oxide be quite
+small, but by cooling, the bead becomes blue. In the flame of
+reduction upon platinum wire, the bead soon becomes colorless, but
+while cooling presents a red color (protoxide of copper). This bead is
+opaque, but, if too much of the oxide is added, a part of it is
+reduced to metal, which is visible by breaking the metallic grain.</p>
+
+<p>Upon charcoal, the oxide is reduced to the metal, and the bead appears
+colorless after cooling. With the addition of some tin, the bead
+becomes brownish-red and opaque after cooling.<a name="Page_163"></a></p>
+
+<p><i>Microcosmic Salt</i> dissolves oxide of copper in the flame of oxidation
+to a green bead, not so intensely colored as the borax bead. In the
+reduction flame the bead, if pretty well saturated, becomes dark-green
+while hot, and brownish-red when cool, opaque and enamel-like. If the
+oxide is so little that no reaction is visible, by the addition of
+some tin, the bead appears colorless while hot, and dark brownish-red
+and opaque when cold.</p>
+
+<p><i>Carbonate of Soda</i> dissolves oxide of copper in the oxidation flame
+upon platinum wire, to a clear, green bead, which loses its color when
+cooling, and becomes opaque.</p>
+
+<p>Upon charcoal, it is reduced to the metal, the soda is absorbed by the
+charcoal, and the metallic particles melt with sufficient heat to a
+grain.</p>
+
+<p>(b.) <i>Silver</i> (Ag).&mdash;This metal occurs in nature in the metallic
+state, and in combination with other metals, particularly with lead.
+It also occurs as the sulphide in several mines. It crystallizes in
+cubes and octahedrons; is of a pure white color, great lustre, is very
+malleable and ductile, and is softer than copper, but harder than
+gold. It is not oxidizable, neither at common temperatures nor at
+those which are considerably higher. It is soluble in dilute nitric
+acid, and in boiling concentrated sulphuric acid.</p>
+
+<p>(&chi;.) <i>Protoxide of Silver</i> (Ag<sup>2</sup>O).&mdash;It is a black powder. It is
+converted by acids and ammonia into oxide and metal.</p>
+
+<p>(&beta;.) <i>Oxide of Silver</i> (AgO).&mdash;It is a greyish-brown or black
+powder, and is the base of the silver salts. With aqua ammonia, it is
+converted into the black, fulminating silver.</p>
+
+<p>(&gamma;.) <i>Superoxide or Binoxide of Silver</i> (AgO<sup>2</sup>).&mdash;This oxide
+occurs in black needles or octahedral crystals of great metallic
+lustre. It is dissolved by the oxygen acids with the disengagement of
+oxygen gas.</p>
+
+<p><i>Behavior before the Blowpipe.</i>&mdash;When exposed to the flames of
+oxidation and reduction, the oxides of silver are instantly reduced to
+the metallic state.</p>
+
+<p><i>Borax</i> dissolves silver-oxides upon platinum wire in the <a name="Page_164"></a>oxidation
+flame but partially, while the other portion is reduced, the bead
+appearing opalescent after cooling, in correspondence to the degree of
+saturation. The bead becomes grey in the flame of reduction, the
+reduced silver melting to a grain, and the bead is rendered clear and
+colorless again.</p>
+
+<p><i>Microcosmic Salt</i> dissolves oxides of silver in the flame of
+oxidation upon platinum wire to a transparent yellowish bead, which
+presents, when much of the oxide is present, an opalescent appearance.</p>
+
+<p>In the flame of reduction, the reaction is analogous to that of borax.</p>
+
+<p>By fusion with carbonate of soda in the oxidation and reduction
+flames, the silver oxides are instantly reduced to metallic silver,
+which fuses into one or more grains.</p>
+
+<p>(c.) <i>Gold</i> (Au).&mdash;This metal occurs mostly in the metallic state,
+but frequently mixed with ores, and with other metals. Gold
+crystallizes in cubes and octahedrons, is of a beautiful yellow color,
+great lustre, and is the most malleable and ductile of all the metals.
+It melts at a higher temperature than copper, gives a green colored
+light when fused, and contracts greatly when cooling. It does not
+oxidize at ordinary temperatures, nor when heated much above them. It
+is soluble in nitro-hydrochloric acid (<i>aqua regia</i>).</p>
+
+<p>(&chi;.) <i>Protoxide of Gold</i> (Au<sup>2</sup>O).&mdash;This oxide is a dark violet
+colored powder which is converted by a temperature of 540&deg; into
+metallic gold and oxygen. It is only soluble in aqua regia. Treated
+with hydrochloric acid, it yields the chloride of gold and the metal.
+With aqua ammonia, it yields the fulminating gold, which is a blue
+mass and very explosive.</p>
+
+<p>(&chi;.) <i>Peroxide of Gold</i> (Au<sup>2</sup>O<sup>3</sup>).&mdash;This oxide is an
+olive-green or dark brown powder, containing variable quantities of
+water. Decomposed at 530&deg;, it yields metallic gold and oxygen.</p>
+
+<p><i>Reactions before the Blowpipe.</i>&mdash;Oxides of gold are reduced, in both
+the oxidation and reduction flames, to the metal, which fuses to
+grains.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Page_165"></a><i>Borax</i> does not dissolve it, but it is reduced to the metallic state
+in this flux in either flame. The reduced metal fuses upon charcoal to
+a grain.</p>
+
+<p><i>Microcosmic Salt</i> presents the same reactions as borax.</p>
+
+<p>When fused with soda, upon charcoal, the soda is absorbed, and the
+gold remains as a metallic grain.</p>
+
+
+<h4>TENTH GROUP.&mdash;MOLYBDENUM, OSMIUM.</h4><p class="rtntoc"><a href="#TOC">Go to TOC</a></p>
+
+<p>These metals are not volatile, and are infusible before the blowpipe;
+but some of their oxides are volatile, and can be reduced to an
+infusible metallic powder.</p>
+
+<p>(a.) <i>Molybdenum</i> (Mo) occurs in the metallic state; also combined
+with sulphur, or as molybdic acid combined with lead. It is a white,
+brittle metal, and is unaltered by exposure to the air. When heated
+until it begins to glow, it is converted into a brown oxide. Heated at
+a continued dull red heat, it turns blue. At a higher temperature, it
+is oxidized to molybdic acid, when it glimmers and smokes, and is
+converted into crystallized molybdic acid upon the surface.</p>
+
+<p>(&chi;.) <i>Protoxide of Molybdenum</i> (MoO).&mdash;This oxide is a black
+powder.</p>
+
+<p>(&chi;.) <i>Deutoxide of Molybdenum</i> (MoO<sup>2</sup>).&mdash;This oxide is a dark
+copper-colored crystalline powder.</p>
+
+<p><i>Reactions before the Blowpipe.</i>&mdash;Metallic molybdenum, its protoxide
+and binoxide, are converted in the oxidation flame into molybdic acid.
+This acid fuses in the flame of oxidation to a brown liquid, which
+spreads, volatilizes, and sublimes upon the charcoal as a yellow
+powder, which appears crystalline in the vicinity of the assay. This
+sublimate becomes white after cooling. Beyond this sublimate there is
+visible a thin and not volatile ore of binoxide, after cooling; this
+is of a dark copper-red color, and presenting a metallic lustre.</p>
+
+<p>Heated in a glass tube, closed at one end, it melts to a brown mass,
+vaporizes and sublimates to a white powder upon a cool portion of the
+tube. Immediately above the assay, yellow <a name="Page_166"></a>crystals are visible; these
+crystals are colorless after cooling, and the fused mass becomes light
+yellow-colored and crystalline.</p>
+
+<p>Upon platinum foil, in the flame of oxidation, it melts and vaporizes,
+and becomes light yellow and crystalline after cooling. In the
+reduction flame it becomes blue, and brown-colored if the heat is
+increased.</p>
+
+<p>Upon charcoal, in the reduction flame, it is absorbed by the charcoal;
+and, with an increase of the temperature, it is reduced to the metal,
+which remains as a grey powder after washing off the particles of
+charcoal.</p>
+
+<p><i>Borax</i> dissolves it, in the oxidation flame, upon platinum wire
+easily, and in great quantity, to a clear yellow, which becomes
+colorless while cooling. By the addition of more of the molybdenic
+acid the bead is dark yellow, or red while hot, and opalescent when
+cold. In the reduction flame, the color of the bead is changed to
+brown and transparent. By the addition of more of the acid, it becomes
+opaque.</p>
+
+<p><i>Microcosmic Salt</i> dissolves it in the oxidation flame, upon platinum
+wire, to a clear, yellowish-green bead, which becomes colorless after
+cooling. In the reduction flame the bead is very dark and opaque, but
+becomes of a bright green after cooling. This is the case likewise
+upon charcoal.</p>
+
+<p><i>Carbonate of Soda</i> dissolves it upon platinum wire in the oxidation
+flame with intumescence, to a clear bead, which appears milk-white
+after cooling. Upon charcoal the soda and the molybdic acid are
+absorbed, the latter is reduced to the metallic state, the metal
+remaining as a grey powder after washing off the particles of
+charcoal. When molybdic acid, or any other oxide of this metal, is
+exposed upon platinum wire, or with platinum tongs, to the point of
+the blue flame, a yellowish-green color is communicated to the
+external flame. If also any of the compounds of molybdenum are mixed
+in the form of a powder with concentrated sulphuric acid and alcohol,
+and the latter inflamed, the flame of the alcohol appears colored
+green.</p>
+
+<p>(c.) <i>Osmium</i> (Os).&mdash;This metal occurs associated with platinum.<a name="Page_167"></a> It
+is of a bluish-grey color, and is very brittle. Ignited in the open
+air, it is oxidized to volatile osmic acid, which is possessed of a
+pungent smell, and affects the eyes. It communicates a bright white
+color to the flame of alcohol. Osmium oxide (OsO<sup>2</sup>) is converted in
+the oxidation flame to osmic acid, which is volatilized with a
+peculiar smell, leaving a sublimate.</p>
+
+<p>In the reduction flame it is reduced to a dark-brown infusible
+metallic powder. It produces no reactions with fluxes. Carbonate of
+soda reduces it upon charcoal to an infusible metallic powder, which
+appears, after washing off the particles of charcoal, of a dark-brown
+color.</p>
+
+
+<h4>ELEVENTH GROUP.&mdash;PLATINUM, PALLADIUM, IRIDIUM, RHODIUM, RUTHENIUM.</h4><p class="rtntoc"><a href="#TOC">Go to TOC</a></p>
+
+<p>These metals are infusible before the blowpipe. They are not volatile,
+nor are they oxidizable. Their oxides are, in both flames, reduced to
+a metallic and infusible powder. They give no reactions with fluxes,
+but are separated in the metallic form. These metals are generally
+found associated together in the native platinum, also with traces of
+copper, lead, and iron.</p>
+
+<p>The metal palladium is found native, associated with iridium and
+platinum. This metal generally occurs in greatest quantity in Brazil.</p>
+
+<p>The metal rhodium is found along with platinum, but in very small
+quantities.</p>
+
+<p>Iridium occurs in nature associated with osmium, gold, and platinum,
+in the mines of Russia. Its great hardness has rendered it desirable
+for the points of gold pens. In South America this metal is found
+native, associated with platinum and osmium. The latter metal,
+associated with platinum and iridium, has been found in South America.</p>
+
+<p>As these metals will not oxidize or dissolve, they cannot be separated
+from each other by the blowpipe with the reagents peculiar to that
+species of analysis. It is true that colors may <a name="Page_168"></a>be discerned in the
+beads, but these tints proceed from the presence of small traces of
+copper, iron, etc.</p>
+
+<p>The ore of osmium and iridium can be decomposed, and the former
+recognized by its fetid odor. This metal, strongly ignited in a glass
+tube with nitrate of potash, is converted to the oxide of osmium,
+which gives an odor not unlike the chloride of sulphur.</p>
+
+<p>As the metals of this group are very rare ones, especially the last
+four ones, we shall not devote an especial division to each of them.
+For a more detailed statement of their reactions, the student is
+referred to the large works upon blowpipe analysis.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h3><a name="CLASS_III"></a>CLASS III.</h3>
+
+<h3>NON-METALLIC SUBSTANCES.</h3><p class="rtntoc"><a href="#TOC">Go to TOC</a></p>
+
+
+<p>1. <i>Water</i>&mdash;2. <i>Nitric Acid</i>&mdash;3. <i>Carbon</i>&mdash;4. <i>Phosphorus</i>
+&mdash;5. <i>Sulphur</i>&mdash;6. <i>Boron</i>&mdash;7. <i>Silicon</i>&mdash;8. <i>Chlorine</i>
+&mdash;9. <i>Bromine</i>&mdash;10. <i>Iodine</i>&mdash;11. <i>Fluorine</i>&mdash;12. <i>Cyanogen</i>
+&mdash;13. <i>Selenium</i>.</p>
+
+
+<p>(1.) <i>Water</i> (HO).&mdash;Pure distilled water is composed of one volume of
+oxygen, and two volumes of hydrogen gases; or, by weight, of one part
+of hydrogen to eight parts of oxygen gases. Water is never found pure
+in nature, but possessing great solvent properties, it always is found
+with variable proportions of those substances it is most liable to
+meet with, dissolved in it. Thus it derives various designations
+depending upon the nature of the substance it may hold in solution, as
+lime-water, etc.</p>
+
+<p>In taking cognizance of water in relation to blowpipe analysis, we
+regard it only as existing in minerals. The examination for water is
+generally performed thus: the substance may be placed in a dry tube,
+and then submitted to heat over a spirit-lamp. If the water exists in
+the mineral mechanically it will soon be driven off, but if it exists
+chemically combined, the heat will fail to drive it off, or if it
+does, it will only partially <a name="Page_169"></a>effect it. The water will condense upon
+the cool portions of the tube, where it can be readily discerned. If
+the water exists chemically combined, a much stronger heat must be
+applied in order to separate it.</p>
+
+<p>Many substances may be perhaps mistaken for water by the beginner,
+such as the volatile acids, etc.</p>
+
+
+<p>(2.) <i>Nitric Acid</i> (NO<sup>5</sup>).&mdash;Nitric acid occurs in nature in potash
+and soda saltpetre. These salts are generally impure, containing lime,
+as the sulphate, carbonate and nitrate, and also iron in small
+quantity. The soda saltpetre generally contains a quantity of the
+chloride of sodium. The salts containing nitric acid deflagrate when
+heated on charcoal. Substances containing nitric acid may be heated in
+a glass tube closed at one end, by which the characteristic red fumes
+of nitrous acid are eliminated. If the acid be in too minute a
+quantity to be thus distinguished, a portion of the substance may be
+intimately mixed with some bisulphate of potash, and treated as above.
+The sulphuric acid of the bisulphate combines with the base, and
+liberates the nitric acid, while the tube contains the nitrous acid
+gas.</p>
+
+<p>The nitrate of potassa, when heated in a glass tube, fuses to a clear
+glass, but gives off no water. When fused on platinum wire, it
+communicates to the external flame the characteristic violet color.
+When fused and ignited on charcoal, its surface becomes frothy,
+indicating the nitric acid.</p>
+
+
+<p>(3.) <i>Carbon</i> (C).&mdash;Carbon is found in nature in the pure crystallized
+state as the diamond. It occurs likewise in several allotropic states
+as graphite, plumbago, charcoal, anthracite, etc. It exists in large
+quantities combined with oxygen as carbonic acid.</p>
+
+<p>The diamond, although combustible, requires too high a heat for its
+combustion to enable us to burn it with the blowpipe. When excluded
+from the air, it may be heated to whiteness without undergoing fusion,
+but with the free access of air it burns at a temperature of 703&deg; C,
+and is converted into carbonic acid. If mixed with nitre, the potassa
+retains the carbonic <a name="Page_170"></a>acid, and the carbon may be thus easily
+estimated. If a mineral containing carbonic acid is heated, the gas
+escapes with effervescence, or a strong mineral acid as the
+hydrochloric will expel the acid with the characteristic
+effervescence.</p>
+
+
+<p>(4.) <i>Phosphorus, Phosphoric Acid</i> (PO<sup>6</sup>).&mdash;This acid occurs in a
+variety of minerals, associated with yttria, copper, uranium, iron,
+lead, manganese, etc. Phosphoric acid may be detected in minerals by
+pursuing the following process: dip a small piece of the mineral in
+sulphuric acid, and place it in the platinum tongs: this is heated at
+the point of the blue flame, when the outer flame will become colored
+of a greenish-blue hue. This color will not be mistaken for those of
+boracic acid, copper, or baryta. Some of the phosphoric minerals, when
+heated in the inner flame, will color the outer flame green.</p>
+
+<p>If alumina be present with the phosphoric acid, the following wet
+method should be adopted for the detection of the latter: the
+substance should be powdered in the agate mortar with a mixture of six
+parts of soda, and one and a half parts of silica. The entire mass
+should now be placed on charcoal, and melted in the flame of
+oxidation. The residue should be treated with boiling water, which
+dissolves the phosphate and the excess of carbonate of soda, while the
+silicate of alumina, with some of the soda, is left. The clear liquor
+is now treated with acetic acid, and heated over the spirit-lamp, and
+a small portion of crystallized nitrate of silver added; a
+lemon-yellow precipitate of phosphate of silver is quickly developed.
+Previous to the addition of the nitrate, the liquor should be well
+heated; otherwise, a white precipitate of dipyrophosphate of silver
+will be produced.</p>
+
+<p>If the examination be of any of the metallic phosphides, the
+substances should be powdered in the agate mortar, and fused with
+nitrate of potassa on the platinum wire; the fused mass should be
+treated with soda in the same manner as any substance containing
+phosphoric acid. The metal and the phosphorus are oxidized, while the
+phosphate of potassa is fused, and the metallic oxide separates.<a name="Page_171"></a></p>
+
+
+<p>(5.) <i>Sulphur</i> (S).&mdash;Sulphur is found native in crystals It is
+frequently found associated with lime, iron, silica, carbon, etc., and
+combined extensively with metals.</p>
+
+<p>The principal acid of sulphur (the sulphuric, SO<sup>3</sup>) occurs combined
+with the earths, the alkalies, and the metallic oxides. Native sulphur
+is recognized, when heated upon charcoal, by its odor (sulphurous
+acid) and the blue color of its flame. The compounds of sulphur may be
+detected by several methods. If the substance is heated in a glass
+tube, closed at one end, the yellow sublimate of sulphur will subside
+upon the cool portions of the tube; if the substance should also
+contain arsenic, the sublimate will present itself as a light brown
+incrustation, consisting of the sulphide of arsenic.</p>
+
+<p>If the assay is heated in the open glass tube, sulphurous acid will
+thus be generated; but, if the gas is too little to be detected by the
+smell, a strip of moistened litmus paper will indicate the presence of
+the acid.</p>
+
+<p>The assay will give off sulphurous fumes if heated in the flame of
+oxidation.</p>
+
+<p>If the powdered substance is fused with two parts of soda, and one
+part of borax, upon charcoal, the sulphide of sodium is formed. This
+salt, if moistened and applied to a polished silver surface, will
+blacken it. The borax serves no other purpose than to prevent the
+absorption of the formed sulphide of sodium by the charcoal. As
+selenium will blacken silver in the manner above indicated, the
+presence of this substance should be first ascertained, by heating the
+assay; when, if it be present, the characteristic horse-radish odor
+will reveal the fact.</p>
+
+<p>Sulphuric acid may be detected by fusing the substance with two parts
+of soda, and one part of borax, on charcoal, in the flame of
+reduction; the mass must now be wetted with water, and placed in
+contact with a surface of bright silver; when, if sulphuric acid be
+present, the silver will become blackened.</p>
+
+<p>Or the substance may be fused with silicate of soda in the flame of
+reduction. In this case, the soda combines with a portion of the
+sulphuric acid, which is then reduced to the sulphide, <a name="Page_172"></a>while the bead
+becomes of an orange or red color, depending upon the amount of the
+sulphuric acid present. If the assay should, however, be colored, then
+the previous treatment should be resorted to.</p>
+
+
+<p>(6.) <i>Boron, Boracic Acid</i> (BO<sup>3</sup>).&mdash;This acid occurs in nature in
+several minerals combined with various bases, such as magnesia, lime,
+soda, alumina, etc. Combined with water, this acid exists in nature as
+the native boracic acid; this acid gives with test paper prepared from
+Brazil wood, when moistened with water, a characteristic reaction, for
+the paper becomes completely bleached. An alcohol solution turns
+curcuma test paper brown. Heated on charcoal, it fuses to a clear
+bead; but, if the sulphate of lime be present, the bead becomes opaque
+upon cooling.</p>
+
+<p>The following reaction is a certain one: the substance is pulverized
+and mixed with a flux of four and a half parts of bisulphate of
+potassa, and one part of pulverized fluoride of calcium. The whole is
+made into a paste with water, and the assay is placed on the platinum
+wire, and submitted to the point of the blue flame. While the assay is
+melting, fluoboric gas is disengaged, which tinges the outer flame
+green. If but a small portion of boracic acid is present, the color
+will be quite evanescent.</p>
+
+
+<p>(7.) <i>Silica, Silicic Acid</i> (SiO<sup>3</sup>).&mdash;This acid exists in the
+greatest plenty, forming no inconsiderable portion of the solid part
+of this earth. It exists nearly pure in crystallized quartz,
+chalcedony, cornelian, flint, etc., the coloring ingredients of these
+minerals being generally iron or manganese.</p>
+
+<p>With <i>microcosmic salt</i>, silica forms a bead in the flame of oxidation
+which, while hot, is clear, while the separated silica floats in it. A
+platinum wire is generally used for the purpose, the end of it being
+first dipped in the salt which is fused into a bead, after which the
+silica must be added, and then the bead submitted to the flame of
+oxidation.</p>
+
+<p>The silicates dissolve in soda but partially, and then with
+effervescence. If the oxygen of the acid be twice that of <a name="Page_173"></a>the base, a
+clear bead will be obtained that will retain its transparency when
+cold. If the soda be added in small quantity, the bead will then be
+opaque. In the first instance, a part of the base which separates is
+re-dissolved, and, therefore, the transparency of the glass; but, if
+too large a quantity of the soda is added, the separation of the base
+is sufficient to render the assay infusible.</p>
+
+<p>(8.) <i>Chlorine</i> (Cl).&mdash;Chlorine exists in nature always in
+combination, as the chlorides of sodium, potassium, calcium, ammonium,
+magnesia, silver, mercury, lead, copper, etc.</p>
+
+<p>The chlorine existing in metallic chlorides may be detected as
+follows: the wet way may be accomplished in the following manner. If
+the substance is insoluble, it must be melted with soda to render it
+soluble; if it be already soluble it must be dissolved in pure water,
+and nitrate of silver added, when the one ten-thousandth part of
+chlorine will manifest its presence by imparting a milky hue to the
+fluid.</p>
+
+<p>By the blowpipe, chlorine may be detected in the following manner:
+Oxide of copper is dissolved in microcosmic salt on the platinum wire
+in the flame of oxidation, and a clear bead is obtained. The substance
+containing the chlorine is now added, and heat is applied. The assay
+will soon be enveloped by a blue or purplish flame. As none of the
+acids that occur in the mineral kingdom give this reaction, chlorine
+cannot be confounded with them, for those which impart a color to the
+flame, when mixed with a copper salt, will not do so when tested in
+the microcosmic salt bead as above indicated.</p>
+
+<p>If the assay is soluble in water, the following method may be
+followed: a small quantity of sulphate of copper or iron is dissolved;
+a few drops of the solution is placed upon a bright surface of silver,
+and the metallic chloride added; when, if chlorine is present, the
+silver is blackened. If the chloride is insoluble in water, it must be
+rendered soluble by fusion upon a platinum wire with soda, and then
+treated as above.<a name="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2"><sup>[2]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>(9.) <i>Bromine</i> (Br).&mdash;The bromide of magnesium and sodium exists in
+many salt springs, and it is from these that the bromine of commerce
+is obtained. The metallic bromides give the same reactions on silver
+with the microcosmic bead and copper salt as the metallic chlorides.
+The purplish color which, however, characterizes the chlorides, is
+more inclined to greenish with the bromides. If the substance be
+placed in a flask or glass tube, and fused with bisulphate of potassa,
+over the spirit-lamp, sulphurous gas and bromine will be eliminated.
+Bromine will be readily detected by its yellow color and its smell.
+Bromine may be readily detected by passing a current of chlorine
+through the fluid, after which ether is added and the whole is
+agitated. The ether rises to the top, carrying with it the bromine in
+solution; after being withdrawn, this ether is mixed with potassa, by
+which the bromide and bromate of potassa are formed. The solution is
+evaporated to dryness, the residue is fused in a platinum vessel, the
+bromate is decomposed, while the bromide remains; this must be
+distilled with sulphuric acid and the binoxide of manganese. A red or
+brown vapor will then appear, indicating the presence of bromine; this
+vapor will color starch paste&mdash;which may be put in the receiver on
+purpose&mdash;of a deep orange color.</p>
+
+<p>If, to a solution containing a bromide, concentrated sulphuric or
+nitric acid be added, the bromine is liberated and colors the solution
+yellow or red. The hypochlorites act in the same manner. The bromine
+salts are coming into use extensively in photography, in consequence
+of their greater sensitiveness to the action of light than the
+chlorides alone.</p>
+
+
+<p>(10.) <i>Iodine</i> (I).&mdash;This element occurs in salt-springs, generally
+combined with sodium; it also exists in rock-salt; it has likewise
+been found in sea-water, also in a mineral from Mexico, in combination
+with silver, and in one from Silesia, in combination with zinc. As
+sea-water contains iodine, we would consequently expect to find it
+existing in the sea-weeds, and it is generally from the ashes of these
+that it is obtained in commerce.<a name="Page_175"></a></p>
+
+<p>When the metallic iodides are fused with the microcosmic salt and
+copper, as previously indicated, they impart a green color to the
+flame. This color cannot be mistaken for the color imparted to the
+flame by copper alone. When the metallic iodides are fused in a glass
+tube, closed at one end, with the bisulphate of potassa, the vapor of
+iodine is liberated, and may be recognized by its characteristic
+color. Those mineral waters containing iodine can be treated the same
+as for bromine, as previously indicated, while the violet-colored
+vapor of the iodine can be easily discerned. The nitrate of silver is
+the best test for iodine, the yellow color of the iodide of silver
+being not easily mistaken, while its almost insolubility in ammonia
+will confirm its identity. The chloride of silver, on the contrary,
+dissolves in ammonia with the greatest facility.</p>
+
+<p>The reactions of iodine are similar to those of bromine with
+concentrated sulphuric acid and binoxide of manganese, and with nitric
+acid: The iodine is released and, if the quantity be not too great,
+colors the liquid brown. If there be a considerable quantity of iodine
+present, it is precipitated as a dark colored powder. Either of these,
+when heated, gives out the violet-color of the iodine.</p>
+
+<p>With starch paste free iodine combines, producing a deep blue
+compound. If, however, the iodine be in very minute quantity, the
+color, instead of being blue, will be light violet or rose color.</p>
+
+<p>If to a solution of the sulphate of copper, to which a small portion
+of sulphurous acid has been added, a liquid containing iodine and
+bromine is poured in, a dirty, white precipitate of the subiodide of
+copper is produced, and the bromine remains in the solution. The
+latter may then be tested for the bromine by strong sulphuric acid.</p>
+
+
+<p>(11.) <i>Fluorine</i> (Fl).&mdash;This element exists combined with sodium,
+calcium, lithium, aluminium, magnesium, yttrium, and cerium. Fluorine
+also exists in the enamel of the teeth, and in the bones of some
+animals. This element has a strong affinity for hydrogen, and,
+therefore, we find it frequently in <a name="Page_176"></a>the form of hydrofluoric acid.
+Brazil-wood paper is the most delicate test for hydrofluoric acid,
+which it tinges of a light yellow color. Phosphoric acid likewise
+colors Brazil paper yellow, but as this acid is not volatile at a heat
+sufficient to examine hydrofluoric acid, there can be no mistake. If
+the substance is supposed to contain this acid, it should be placed on
+a slip of glass, and moistened with hydrochloric acid, when the test
+paper may be applied, and the characteristic yellow color will
+indicate the presence of the fluorine.</p>
+
+<p>As hydrofluoric acid acts upon glass, this property may be used for
+its detection. The substance may be put into a glass tube, and
+sulphuric acid poured upon it in sufficient quantity to moisten it; a
+slight heat applied to the tube will develop the acid, which will act
+upon the glass of the tube. If the acid is retained in the mineral by
+a feeble affinity, and water be present, a piece of it may be put in
+the tube and heated, when the acid gas will be eliminated. The test
+paper will indicate its presence, even before it has time to act upon
+the glass. If the temperature be too high, fluosilicic acid is
+generated, and will form a silicious incrustation upon the cool
+portion of the tube.</p>
+
+<p>If the fluorine is too minute to produce either of the above
+reactions, then the following process, recommended by Plattner, should
+be followed: the assay should be mixed with metaphosphate of soda,
+formed by heating the microcosmic salt to dull redness. The mass must
+then be placed in an open glass tube, in such a position that there
+will be an access of hot air from the flame. Thus aqueous hydrofluoric
+acid is formed, which can be recognized by its smell being more
+suffocating than chlorine, and also by the etching produced by the
+condensation of vapor in the tube. Moist Brazil paper, applied to the
+extremity of the tube, will be instantly colored yellow.</p>
+
+<p>Merlet's method for the detection of this acid is the following:<a name="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3"><sup>[3]</sup></a>
+Pulverize the substance for examination, then triturate <a name="Page_177"></a>it to an
+impalpable powder, and mix it with an equal part of bisulphate of
+potassa. Heat the mass gradually in a moderately wide test-tube. The
+judicious application of heat must be strictly observed, for if the
+operator first heats the part of the tube where the assay rests, the
+whole may be lost on account of the glass being shattered. The
+spirit-flame must be first applied to the fore part of the tube, and
+then made to recede slowly until it fuses the assay. After the mixture
+has been for some time kept in a molten state, the lamp must be
+withdrawn, and the part containing the assay severed with a file. The
+fore part of the tube must then be well washed, and afterwards dried
+with bibulous paper. Should the fluorine contained in the substance be
+appreciable, the glass tube, when held up to the light, will be found
+to have lost its transparency, and to be very rough to the touch.</p>
+
+<p>Great care should be observed not to allow this very corrosive acid to
+come into contact with the skin, as an ulcer will be the consequence
+that will be extremely difficult to heal.</p>
+
+<p>When hydrofluoric acid comes in contact with any silicious substance,
+hydrofluosilicic acid gas is always formed.</p>
+
+
+<p>(12.) <i>Selenium</i> (Se).&mdash;This element occurs in combination with lead
+as the selenide, and with copper as the selenide of copper. It exists
+also combined with cobalt and lead, as the selenide of these metals;
+also as the selenide of lead and mercury.</p>
+
+<p>The smallest trace of selenium may be detected by igniting a small
+piece of charcoal in the flame of oxidation, when the peculiar and
+unmistakable odor of decayed horse-radish will indicate the presence
+of that element. An orange vapor is eliminated if the selenium be
+present in any quantity, while there is an incrustation around the
+assay of a grey color, with a metallic lustre. This incrustation
+frequently presents a reddish-violet color at its exterior edges,
+often running into a deep blue. If a substance containing selenium be
+placed in a glass tube, closed at one end, and submitted to heat, the
+selenium is sublimed, with an orange-colored vapor, and with the
+characteristic <a name="Page_178"></a>odor of that substance. Upon the cool portions of the
+tube a steel-grey sublimate is deposited, and, beyond that, can be
+discerned small crystals of selenic acid. If the mineral be the
+seleniferous lead glance, sulphurous acid gas will be given off, and
+may be detected by the smell, or by a strip of moistened litmus paper.</p>
+
+<p>If arsenic is present, heating upon charcoal will quickly lead to the
+determination of the one from the other.</p>
+
+<hr class="fw" />
+
+<h3>TABULAR STATEMENT OF THE REACTIONS OF MINERALS BEFORE THE BLOWPIPE.</h3><p class="rtntoc"><a href="#TOC">Go to TOC</a></p>
+
+<p>In PART THIRD of this work, commencing at page 109, the student will
+find a sufficiently explicit description of the blowpipe reactions of
+those principal substances that would be likely to come beneath his
+attention. The following tabular statement of those reactions&mdash;which
+we take from Scheerer and Blanford's excellent little work upon the
+blowpipe&mdash;will be of great benefit, as a vehicle for consultation,
+when the want of time&mdash;or during the hurry of an examination&mdash;precludes
+the attentive perusal of the more lengthy descriptions in the text.</p>
+
+<p>In the examination of minerals, before the student avails himself of
+the aid of the blowpipe, he should not neglect to examine the specimen
+rigidly in relation to its physical characters, such as its hardness,
+lustre, color, and peculiar crystallization. It is where the
+difference of two minerals cannot be distinguished by their physical
+appearance, that the aid of the blowpipe comes in most significantly
+as an auxiliary. For instance, the two minerals molybdenite and
+graphite resemble each other very closely, when examined in regard to
+their physical appearance, but the blowpipe will quickly discriminate
+them, for if a small piece of the former mineral be placed in the
+flame of oxidation, a bright green color will be communicated to the
+flame beyond it, while in the latter there will be no color. Thus, in
+a very short time, these two minerals can <a name="Page_179"></a>be distinguished from each
+other by aid of the blowpipe, while no amount of physical examination
+could determine that point. The blowpipe is equally an indispensable
+instrument in the determination of certain minerals which may exist in
+others as essential or non-essential constituents of them. For
+instance, should a minute quantity of manganese be present in a
+mineral, it must be fused with twice its bulk of a mixture of two
+parts of carbonate of soda, and one part of the nitrate of potassa, in
+the flame of oxidation upon platinum foil. The manganate of soda thus
+formed will color the fused mass of a bluish-green tint.</p>
+
+<p>Or a slight quantity of arsenic may be discerned by the following
+process recommended by Plattner:<a name="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4"><sup>[4]</sup></a> one grain of the finely pulverized
+metal is mixed with six grains of citrate of potassa, and slowly
+heated on the platinum spoon. By this means the metals are oxidized,
+while the arseniate of potassa is obtained. Then boil the fused mass
+in a small quantity of water in a porcelain vessel till all tho
+arseniate is dissolved. The metallic oxides are allowed to subside,
+and the above solution decanted off into another porcelain vessel. A
+few drops of sulphuric acid are added, and the solution boiled to
+expel the nitric acid, after which it is evaporated to dryness. In
+this operation, the sulphuric acid should be added only in sufficient
+quantity to drive off the nitric acid, or, at the utmost, to form a
+bisulphate with the excess of potassa. When dry, the salt thus
+obtained is pulverized in an agate mortar, and mixed with about three
+times its volume of oxalate of potassa, and a little charcoal powder.
+The mixture is introduced into a glass bulb having a narrow neck, and
+gently warmed over a spirit-lamp in order to drive off the moisture,
+which must be absorbed by a piece of blotting-paper in the neck of the
+bulb. After a short time, the temperature is increased to a low red
+heat, at which the arsenious acid is reduced and the metallic arsenic
+sublimed, and which re-condenses in the neck of the <a name="Page_180"></a>bulb. If there
+the arsenic be so small in quantity as to exhibit no metallic lustre,
+the neck of the bulb may be cut off with a file immediately above the
+sublimate, and the latter exposed to the flame of the blowpipe, when
+the arsenic is volatilized, and may be recognized by its garlic odor.</p>
+
+<p>If the presence of cadmium is suspected in zinc-blende, it may be
+detected by fusing a small piece of the blende upon charcoal in
+carbonate of soda. The peculiar bright yellow sublimate of the oxide
+of cadmium, if it be present, will not fail to indicate it. This
+incrustation can be easily distinguished from that of zinc. Thus, with
+the three illustrations we have given, the student will readily
+comprehend the great utility of the blowpipe in the examination of
+minerals.</p>
+
+<p>Although the following tables were not arranged especially for the
+last part of this work, still this arrangement is so good that by
+their consultation the student will readily comprehend at a glance
+what requires some detail to explain, and we feel no hesitation in
+saying that, although they are not very copious, they will not fail to
+impart a vast amount of information, if consulted with any degree of
+carefulness.</p>
+
+<p>The minerals given are such as are best known to English and American
+mineralogists under the names specified. For more detailed reactions
+than could be crowded into a table, the student will have to consult
+the particular substance as treated in Part Third. If this part is
+perused carefully previous to consulting the tables, these will be
+found eminently serviceable as a refresher of the memory, and may thus
+save much time and trouble.</p>
+
+<p>And, finally, we would certainly recommend the student, after he shall
+have gone through our little volume (if he is ambitious of making
+himself a thorough blowpipe analyst), to then take up the larger works
+of Berzelius and Plattner, for our treatise pretends to nothing more
+than a humble introduction to these more copious and scientific works.<br /><br /></p>
+
+
+<table summary="" border="1" class="full">
+<colgroup span="2" align="left"></colgroup>
+<tr><th><a name="Page_181"></a>Mineral.</th><th>Formula.</th></tr>
+<tr><th align="right">Behavior in glass-bulb.</th><th align="right">on platinum foil.</th></tr>
+<tr><td class="mineral">Diamond</td><td class="formula" align="left">C</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&mdash;</td><td>In fine powder is slowly consumed without
+residue in a strong oxidizing Flame.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td class="mineral">Graphite</td>
+<td class="formula" align="left">C with some iron silica, etc.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Generally gives off water.</td>
+<td>Is slowly consumed leaving more or less ash,
+principally Fe<sup>2</sup>O<sup>3</sup>.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="mineral">Anthracite</td>
+<td class="formula" align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.<br/>C + xH</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Evolves water.</td>
+<td>Is slowly consumed with the exception of a small
+quantity of ash.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Wallsend-coal</td>
+<td class="formula" align="left">C, H, O, S and ash.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Intumesces and gives off water and tarry matters
+which partly condense in bulb, and leave a
+porous coke.</td>
+<td>Takes fire under blowpipe flame, and burns with
+a smoky flame, depositing much soot and leaving
+a porous cinder which burns slowly and leaves a
+small ash.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td class="mineral">Cannel-coal</td>
+<td class="formula" align="left">C, H, N, O, S and ash.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>As the preceding but gives off more tar.</td><td>Similar to the preceding. If held to the
+lamp-flame, takes fire and burns for some
+seconds.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td class="mineral">Brown-coal</td>
+<td class="formula" align="left">C, H, N, O, S, and ash.</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td>Gives off much water and tar, and leaves a
+porous cinder retaining the form of the original
+fragment.</td>
+<td>Burns slowly and without flame, leaving some
+ash.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td class="mineral">Asphaltum</td>
+<td class="formula" align="left">C + H + O.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Fuses with ease affording an empyreumatic oil
+having an alkaline reaction, and combustible
+gasses, and leaves a carbonaceous residue,
+which is entirely consumed under the blowpipe
+flame, except a little ash.</td>
+<td>Takes fire and burns with a bright flame and a
+thick smoke.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td class="mineral"><a name="Page_182"></a>Elaterite</td>
+<td class="formula" align="left">C + H.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Fuses and gives off water having an acid
+reaction, naphtha and a tarry fluid, which
+chiefly condense in the neck of the bulb, and
+leave a light, pulverulent carbonaceous residue.</td>
+<td>Fuses, takes fire, and burns with a smoky flame,
+leaving a carbonaceous residue, which under the
+blowpipe flame, is quickly consumed, with the
+exception of the ashes.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Hachettine</td>
+<td class="formula" align="left">C + H.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Fuses to a clear colorless liquid, which
+solidifies on cooling and has a tallow-like
+smell.</td>
+<td>Fuses, takes fire, and burns with a bright flame
+until entirely consumed.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td class="mineral">Ozokerite</td>
+<td class="formula" align="left">C + H.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Fuses readily to a clear brown oily fluid, which
+solidifies on cooling.</td><td>As the preceding.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td class="mineral">Amber</td>
+<td class="formula" align="left">C + H + O.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Fuses with difficulty, and affords water, an
+empyreumatic oil, and succinic acid which
+condense in the neck of the bulb leaving a
+shining black residue.</td>
+<td>Takes fire and burns with a yellow flame and a
+peculiar aromatic odor.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td><a name="Page_183"></a><b>Mellite</b></td>
+<td class="formula" align="left">...&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.<br />&nbsp;Al<span class="overline">M</span><sup>3</sup> + 15H</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Gives off water. If heated to redness, is
+carbonized, and gives a slight empyreumatic odor.</td>
+<td>On charcoal burns to a white ash, which moistened
+with nitrate of cobalt and heated shows the
+alumina reaction.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<h3><a name="Page_184"></a>POTASH.</h3><p class="rtntoc"><a href="#TOC">Go to TOC</a></p>
+
+
+<table class="full" border="1" summary="Mineral, Formula, Behaviors 1-8">
+<colgroup span="8" width="12%" align="center" valign="top"></colgroup>
+<tr><th align="left">Mineral.</th><th colspan="7" align="left">Formula.</th></tr>
+<tr><th>(1) in glass bulb.</th><th>(2) in open tube.</th><th>(3) on charcoal.</th><th>(4) in forceps.</th>
+<th>(5) in borax.</th><th>(6) in mic. salt.</th><th>(7) in carb. soda.</th><th>(8) Special Reactions.</th></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Nitre</td>
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;...<br />.&nbsp;..<br />K&nbsp;N</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Fuses readily to a clear liquid and with a
+strong heat boils with the evolution of oxygen.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>Deflagrates leaving a saline mass, which is
+absorbed into charcoal and gives a sulphur
+reaction on silver.</td>
+<td>On platinum wire fuses and colors the flame
+violet more or less modified by lime and soda.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>With bisulphate of potassa in the glass-bulb
+evolves nitrous fumes.<a name="Page_185"></a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Polyhalite</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">.&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;.&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;.<br />K&nbsp;S&nbsp;&nbsp;+&nbsp;MgS&nbsp;&nbsp;+&nbsp;2CaS&nbsp;+&nbsp;2H</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Gives off water.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>Fuses to a reddish bead, which in the reducing
+flame solidifies and shrinks to a hollow crust.</td>
+<td>On platinum wire fuses and colors the flame
+yellow from a small quantity of soda.</td>
+<td>Dissolves with ebullition to a clear glass,
+which is slightly colored by iron, and when
+saturated become opaque on cooling.</td>
+<td>As in borax.</td>
+<td>Fuses. The alkalies are absorbed by the charcoal
+leaving the lime and magnesia infusible on the
+surface.</td>
+<td>The alkaline mass when laid on silver gives a
+sulphur reaction.</td></tr></table>
+
+<h3><a name="Page_186"></a>SODA.</h3><p class="rtntoc"><a href="#TOC">Go to TOC</a></p>
+
+<table class="full" border="1" summary="Mineral, Formula, Behaviors 1-8">
+<colgroup span="8" width="12%" align="center" valign="top"></colgroup>
+<tr><th align="left">Mineral.</th><th colspan="7" align="left">Formula.</th></tr>
+<tr><th>(1) in glass bulb.</th><th>(2) in open tube.</th><th>(3) on charcoal.</th><th>(4) in forceps.</th>
+<th>(5) in borax.</th><th>(6) in mic. salt.</th><th>(7) in carb. soda.</th><th>(8) Special Reactions.</th></tr>
+<tr><td class="mineral">Rock-salt</td>
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">NaCl.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Fuses to a clear liquid.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>Fuses, is absorbed by the charcoal and partially
+volatilized incrusting the charcoal around.</td>
+<td>Fuses with great ease and colors the flame
+yellow.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>Gives the chlorine reactions.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Natron</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">.&nbsp;..&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.<br/>NaC + 10H</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Fuses, with the evolution of water.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>Fuses, and is absorbed into the pores of the
+charcoal.</td>
+<td>Fuses and behaves as the preceding.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>Dissolves in acid with violent effervescence.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Soda-nitre</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;...<br />.&nbsp;..<br />NaN.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Fuses and if strongly heated evolves nitrous
+fumes.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>Deflagrates and is absorbed into the charcoal.</td>
+<td>Deflagrates on platinum wire, coloring the flame
+yellow.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>In a glass-bulb with bisulphate of potassa,
+gives the NO<sup>5</sup>-reaction.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral"><a name="Page_187"></a>Glauber-salt</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">.&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.<br/>NaS&nbsp;&nbsp;+ 10H.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Fuses and gives off water having a neutral
+reaction.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>Fuses, and is absorbed by the charcoal. The
+saturated charcoal laid upon silver gives the
+sulphur reaction</td>
+<td>Fuses and colors the flame yellow.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>Gives the SO<sup>3</sup>-reaction.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Glauberite</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">.&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;.&nbsp;...<br />NaS&nbsp;&nbsp;+ CaS.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Decrepitates with the evolution of more or less
+water, and when strongly heated fuses to a clear
+liquid.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>Fuses to a clear bead, then spreads out; the
+soda is absorbed and the lime left on the
+surface. Laid on silver, the fused mass gives a
+sulphur reaction.</td>
+<td>Fuses easily to a clear glass, coloring the
+flame yellow.</td>
+<td>Fuses easily and gives the lime reaction.</td>
+<td>As in borax.</td>
+<td>As alone in charcoal.</td>
+<td>As in preceding.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral"><a name="Page_188"></a>Borax</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">.&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.<br />NaB<sup>2</sup> + 10H.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Intumesces with the evolution of water, and
+under a strong heat fuses.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>Intumesces and fuses to a clear bead more or
+less colored by impurities.</td>
+<td>As on charcoal.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>Fuses to a clear bead, which becomes crystalline
+on cooling.</td>
+<td>Gives the boracic-acid-reaction.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Cryolite</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">3NaFl+Al<sup>2</sup>Fl<sup>3</sup>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Decrepitates slightly and gives a trace of
+water.</td>
+<td>If heated so that the flame be allowed to play
+up the tube upon the mineral, flourine is
+evolved, which corrodes the interior of the
+tube.</td>
+<td>Fuses to a limpid bead, which on cooling becomes
+a white enamel. If heated for some time, it
+bubbles, gives off fluorine and becomes
+infusible.<a name="Page_189"></a></td>
+<td>Fuses, coloring the flame yellow.</td>
+<td>Dissolves to a clear bead, which is rendered
+opaque by a large addition.</td>
+<td>As in borax.</td>
+<td>Fuses to a clear bead, then spreads out on the
+charcoal, the soda is absorbed, and an infusible
+mass of alumina remains.</td>
+<td>If the alumina residue obtained be moistened
+with cobalt solution and heated strongly, it
+assumes a beautiful blue color.</td></tr></table>
+
+
+<h3><a name="Page_190"></a>BARYTA AND STRONTIA.</h3><p class="rtntoc"><a href="#TOC">Go to TOC</a></p>
+
+<table class="full" border="1" summary="Mineral, Formula, Behaviors 1-8">
+<colgroup span="8" width="12%" align="center" valign="top"></colgroup>
+<tr><th align="left">Mineral.</th><th colspan="7" align="left">Formula.</th></tr>
+<tr><th>(1) in glass bulb.</th><th>(2) in open tube.</th><th>(3) on charcoal.</th><th>(4) in forceps.</th>
+<th>(5) in borax.</th><th>(6) in mic. salt.</th><th>(7) in carb. soda.</th><th>(8) Special Reactions.</th></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="mineral">Heavy-spar</td>
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">.&nbsp;...<br />BaS.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td>Sometimes decrepitates and gives off more or
+less water</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>Fuses in the reducing flame.</td>
+<td>Fuses with difficulty on edges. Colors the outer
+flame green. In reducing flame forms BaS, which
+fuses readily.</td>
+<td>Gives the baryta-reaction.</td>
+<td>As in borax.</td>
+<td>Fuses to a clear bead; then spreads out and is
+absorbed into the charcoal. The fused mass laid
+on silver gives the S-reaction.</td>
+<td>If fused with potassa on platinum, gives the
+SO<sup>3</sup>-reaction.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Celestine</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">.&nbsp;...<br />SrS.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>Fuses to a milk-white bead.</td>
+<td>Colors the flame crimson.</td>
+<td>Gives the strontia-reaction.</td>
+<td>As in borax.</td>
+<td>Similar to the preceding.</td>
+<td>Similar to the preceding.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Witherite</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">.&nbsp;..<br />BaC.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Decrepitates more or less and evolves Water.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>Fuses, effervesces, and is partially absorbed by
+the charcoal.</td>
+<td>Colors the outer flame intensely green.</td>
+<td>Dissolves with effervescence and gives the
+baryta-reaction.</td>
+<td>As in borax.</td>
+<td>Fuses to a clear bead; then spreads out and
+passes into the charcoal.</td>
+<td>In dilute HCl dissolves with much effervescence.<a name="Page_191"></a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Strontianite</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">.&nbsp;..<br />SrC.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Becomes opaque.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>As in the forceps.</td>
+<td>Exfoliates and becomes arborescent. The
+filaments glow brilliantly and fuse on the point.
+Colors the flame brilliantly crimson.</td>
+<td>Resembles the preceding.</td>
+<td>As in borax.</td>
+<td>As the preceding.</td>
+<td>As the preceding.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Barytocalcite.</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">.&nbsp;..&nbsp;&nbsp;.&nbsp;..<br />BaC + CaC.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>As in the preceding.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>In powder frits together, but does not fuse.</td>
+<td>Colors the flame green in the centre and red
+towards the point.</td>
+<td>Dissolves with effervescence. In large
+quantities gives a semi-crystalline bead.</td>
+<td>As in borax, but the saturated bead is
+milk-white.</td>
+<td>Fuses, and is partially absorbed leaving the
+lime on the surface.</td>
+<td>As witherite.</td></tr></table>
+
+<h3><a name="Page_192"></a>LIME.</h3><p class="rtntoc"><a href="#TOC">Go to TOC</a></p>
+
+<table class="full" border="1" summary="Mineral, Formula, Behaviors 1-8">
+<colgroup span="8" width="12%" align="center" valign="top"></colgroup>
+<tr><th align="left">Mineral.</th><th colspan="7" align="left">Formula.</th></tr>
+<tr><th>(1) in glass bulb.</th><th>(2) in open tube.</th><th>(3) on charcoal.</th><th>(4) in forceps.</th>
+<th>(5) in borax.</th><th>(6) in mic. salt.</th><th>(7) in carb. soda.</th><th>(8) Special Reactions.</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Gypsum</td>
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">.&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.<br />CaS&nbsp;&nbsp;+ 2H.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Turns white, giving off water and being
+converted into plaster of Paris.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>In the reducing flame forms CaS, which has an
+alkaline reaction on test paper, and gives a
+sulphur-reaction when laid on silver and
+moistened.</td>
+<td>Fuses with difficulty to a bead, coloring the
+flame red.</td>
+<td>Dissolves to a clear bead, which gives the lime-reaction.</td>
+<td>As in borax.</td>
+<td>Behaves as lime. The alkaline mass laid on
+silver and moistened gives the sulphur-reaction.</td>
+<td>Gives the sulphuric-acid reaction.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Apatite</td>
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;...<br />.&nbsp;{Cl&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.&nbsp;&nbsp;..<br />Ca{&mdash;&mdash; + 3Ca<sup>3</sup>P<br />&nbsp;&nbsp;{Fl</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Occasionally decrepitates and gives off some
+water.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>IV.<br /> Previously dipped in SO<sup>3</sup> colors the flame
+green, afterwards red.</td>
+<td>Dissolves easily and when in some quantity gives
+an opaline bead.</td>
+<td>Gives the lime-reaction.</td>
+<td>Is infusible. The alkali is absorbed, leaving
+the lime on the on the surface of the charcoal.</td>
+<td>With microcosmic salt and oxide of copper, gives
+the chlorine-reaction. With microcosmic salt in
+the open tube evolves fluorine.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral"><a name="Page_193"></a>Pharmacolite</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">.&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.<br />Ca<sup>2</sup>As&nbsp;&nbsp;+ 6H.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Gives off water, and emits an arsenical odor.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>Fuses to an opaque bead and emits a strong smell
+of arsenic.</td>
+<td>Fuses to a translucent violet colored bead, the
+color being due to cobalt. Colors the flame blue
+at first, then faintly red.</td>
+<td>Dissolves readily to a bead strongly colored by
+cobalt, which obscures the lime-reaction.</td>
+<td>As in borax.</td>
+<td>Fuses, and emits As. The alkali is then absorbed
+by the charcoal, as in the preceding.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Calespar</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">.&nbsp;..<br />CaC.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Turns white and sometimes decrepitates. Strongly
+heated loses CO<sup>2</sup> and becomes caustic.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>Turns white, or brown if containing much iron or
+manganese and glows brilliantly.</td>
+<td>Glows brilliantly, coloring the flame red.
+Becomes caustic and shows a strong alkaline
+reaction.</td>
+<td>Dissolves with evolution of CO<sup>2</sup> and when pure
+gives the lime-reaction. The bead is generally
+more or less colored by iron and manganese.</td>
+<td>As in borax.</td>
+<td>Fuses, and behaves as other lime-salts.</td>
+<td>Dissolves with effervescence in cold HCl.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral"><a name="Page_194"></a>Fluorspar</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">CaFl</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Phosphoresces with various colors, when heated
+in the dark.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>Fuses easily to a clear bead, which becomes opaque
+on cooling, then loses fluorine, glows brilliantly
+and becomes infusible.</td>
+<td><a name="Page_195"></a>As on charcoal. Colors the flame red.</td>
+<td>Gives the lime-reaction.</td>
+<td>As in borax.</td>
+<td>Fuses to a clear bead, opaque on cooling. With
+an addition of the alkali behaves as lime.</td>
+<td>With microcosmic salt in open tube gives the
+fluorine-reaction.</td></tr></table>
+
+
+<h3><a name="Page_196"></a>MAGNESIA.</h3><p class="rtntoc"><a href="#TOC">Go to TOC</a></p>
+
+<table class="full" border="1" summary="Mineral, Formula, Behaviors 1-8">
+<colgroup span="8" width="12%" align="center" valign="top"></colgroup>
+<tr><th align="left">Mineral.</th><th colspan="7" align="left">Formula.</th></tr>
+<tr><th>(1) in glass bulb.</th><th>(2) in open tube.</th><th>(3) on charcoal.</th><th>(4) in forceps.</th>
+<th>(5) in borax.</th><th>(6) in mic. salt.</th><th>(7) in carb. soda.</th><th>(8) Special Reactions.</th></tr>
+<tr><td class="mineral">Brucite</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">.&nbsp;.<br />MgH.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Evolves water.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>V.</td>
+<td>Behaves as magnesia. Sometimes gives a faint
+iron-reaction.</td>
+<td>As in borax.</td>
+<td>Behaves as magnesia.</td>
+<td>With nitrate of cobalt, gives the magnesia
+reaction</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Epsomite</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">.&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.<br />MgS&nbsp;&nbsp;+ 7H.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Evolves water having an acid reaction on test
+paper.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>Gives of HO and SO<sup>3</sup>, shines brilliantly, and
+becomes alkaline and caustic.</td>
+<td>V.<br /> As on charcoal.</td>
+<td>Behaves as magnesia.</td>
+<td>As in borax.</td>
+<td>The alkali is absorbed leaving the magnesia
+on surface of the charcoal. Gives the
+sulphur-reaction on silver.</td>
+<td>The magnesian residue obtained on treating with
+carbonate of soda (7), assumes a flesh-tint,
+when treated with cobalt.<a name="Page_197"></a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Boracite</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">.&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.&nbsp;...<br />MgB<sup>2</sup>&nbsp;&nbsp;+ 2MgB.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Occasionally gives off a trace of water.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>Fuses with intumescence to a white crystalline
+bead.</td>
+<td>I.<br />As on charcoal. Colors the flame green.</td>
+<td>Fuses easily to a clear bead, which is
+crystalline, when containing much of the
+mineral, and is usually slightly tinted by
+iron.</td>
+<td>As in borax.</td>
+<td>With a small quantity of alkali fuses to a clear
+bead on cooling. With a larger quantity gives a
+clear, uncrystallizable bead.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Magnesite</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">.&nbsp;..<br />MgC.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Sometimes gives off a small quantity of water.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>Is infusible. With cobalt-solution, assumes a
+dusky flesh tint.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>Behaves as magnesia. Sometimes a slight
+iron-reaction.</td>
+<td>As in borax.</td>
+<td>Fuses to a bead, the soda is then absorbed,
+leaving an infusible mass of magnesia.</td>
+<td>The magnesian residue obtained by fusing with
+carbonate of soda gives the magnesian-reaction
+with nitrate of cobalt. Dissolves with
+effervescence in warm HCl.<a name="Page_198"></a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Mesitine spar</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;&nbsp;..<br />(MgFeMn)C.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>As magnesite.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>Is infusible. Assumes a deep brown color.<a name="Page_199"></a></td>
+<td>V.</td>
+<td>Gives the iron and manganese-reaction.</td>
+<td>As in borax.</td>
+<td>As magnesite, but the residual mass has a dark
+color from iron and manganese.</td>
+<td>Dissolves with effervescense in warm HCl. With
+carbonate of soda and nitre gives a
+manganese-reaction.</td></tr></table>
+
+
+<h3><a name="Page_200"></a>ALUMINA.</h3><p class="rtntoc"><a href="#TOC">Go to TOC</a></p>
+
+
+<table class="full" border="1" summary="Mineral, Formula, Behaviors 1-8">
+<colgroup span="8" width="12%" align="center" valign="top"></colgroup>
+<tr><th align="left">Mineral.</th><th colspan="7" align="left">Formula.</th></tr>
+<tr><th>(1) in glass bulb.</th><th>(2) in open tube.</th><th>(3) on charcoal.</th><th>(4) in forceps.</th>
+<th>(5) in borax.</th><th>(6) in mic. salt.</th><th>(7) in carb. soda.</th><th>(8) Special Reactions.</th></tr>
+<tr><td class="mineral">Sapphire<br />
+Corundum<br />
+Emery</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">...<br /><span class="linethru">Al</span>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>&mdash;
+</td>
+<td>V.</td>
+<td>In fine powder dissolves slowly to a colorless
+glass.</td>
+<td>As in borax.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>In fine powder moistened with cobalt-solution
+and heated yields a blue color.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Websterite</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">.&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.<br />AlS&nbsp;&nbsp;+ 9H.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Gives off water, and, when heated to incipient
+redness, sulphurous acid.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>Gives off water and SO<sup>3</sup>, leaving an infusible
+mass.</td>
+<td>V.</td>
+<td>Behaves as alumina.</td>
+<td>As in borax.</td>
+<td>Yields an infusible mass, which laid on silver
+and moistened, produces a black stain.</td>
+<td>Fused with potassa in platinum has no action on
+silver. Cobalt-solution produces the alumina
+reaction.<a name="Page_201"></a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Native Alum</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">.&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;.&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.<br/>R&nbsp;S&nbsp;&nbsp;+ AlS<sup>3</sup> + 24H.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Intumesces greatly and gives off much water.
+Strongly heated, evolves SO<sup>3</sup>, which reddens
+litmus.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>Intumesces and become infusible.</td>
+<td>V.<br />Colors the flame violet if a potassa
+alum&mdash;yellow if soda&mdash;be present.
+</td>
+<td>Dissolves and gives the iron and manganese
+reaction, if these oxides be present. Otherwise
+the bead is colorless.</td>
+<td>As in borax.</td>
+<td>The alkali is absorbed into the charcoal,
+leaving an infusible mass which gives the sulfur
+reaction on silver.</td>
+<td>If not containing too much iron or manganese
+gives an alumina reaction with nitrate of of
+cobalt. In other respects as the preceding.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Turquoise</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;...<br/>.&nbsp;&nbsp;..&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.<br/><span class="linethru">Al</span><sup>2</sup>P + 5H.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Evolves water, occasionally decrepitates and
+turns black.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>Turns brown, but remains infusible.</td>
+<td>V.<br />As on charcoal. Colors the outer flame green.</td>
+<td>In the oxidizing flame, gives a green bead, due to copper and iron.
+In reducing flame, opaque red.</td>
+<td>As in borax.</td>
+<td>Intumesces, then fuses to a semi-clear glass colored by iron. With more
+alkali yields an infusible mass.</td>
+<td>Gives the phosphoric-acid reaction.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral"><a name="Page_202"></a>Wavellite</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;...<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;..&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.<br/>
+<span class="linethru">Al</span>F<sup>3</sup> + 3(<span class="linethru">Al</span><sup>4</sup>P<sup>3</sup> + 18H.)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Evolves water and some fluorine, which attacks
+the glass.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>Exfoliates and turns white.</td>
+<td>V.<br />As on charcoal. Colors the outer flame green,
+especially if moistened with SO<sup>3</sup>.</td>
+<td>As alumina. Generally gives also a slight iron
+reaction.</td>
+<td>As in borax.</td>
+<td>Forms an infusible white mass.</td>
+<td>With cobalt-solution on charcoal gives the
+alumina reaction.<a name="Page_203"></a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Spinel</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">.&nbsp;...<br />R&nbsp;<span class="linethru">Al</span>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>V.</td>
+<td>Gives a slight iron reaction.</td>
+<td>As in borax.</td>
+<td>Fuses partially and forms a porous mass.</td>
+<td>With nitrate of cobalt gives the alumina
+reaction. With nitre and carbonate of soda a
+slight manganese reaction.</td></tr></table>
+
+
+<h3><a name="SILICATES"></a><a name="Page_204"></a>SILICATES.</h3><p class="rtntoc"><a href="#TOC">Go to TOC</a></p>
+
+
+<p>The presence of silica in a mineral can easily be ascertained by
+treating a small fragment in a bead of microcosmic salt. The bases
+will dissolve out with more or less difficulty in the salt, and the
+silica being insoluble will remain suspended in the bead, retaining
+the original form of the fragment. In borax, the silicates of lime and
+magnesia generally dissolve with considerable ease, but those of
+alumina slowly and with difficulty. The silicates of lime are moreover
+frequently characterized by intumescence or ebullition, when heated in
+the forceps in the blowpipe flame. The minerals presenting this
+character are marked in the table. As the most convenient mode of
+classifying the silicates for blowpipe examination, the following
+arrangement will be adopted:</p>
+
+
+<div class="indent5">
+<p>TABLE  I.&mdash;ANHYDROUS SILICATES.</p>
+
+<p>TABLE II.&mdash;HYDROUS SILICATES.</p>
+
+<p>FUSIBILITY.</p>
+
+<ol id="otab1">
+<li>Readily fusible to a bead.</li>
+<li>With difficulty fusible to a bead.</li>
+<li>Readily fusible on the edges.</li>
+<li>With difficulty fusible on the edges.</li>
+<li>Infusible.</li>
+</ol>
+
+<ul id="utab1"><li>a. Afford a fluid bead with carbonate of soda.</li>
+<li>b. Afford a fluid bead with but little of that salt, but with a
+larger quantity a slaggy mass.</li>
+<li>c. Afford a slaggy mass only.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>This classification of minerals, according to their fusibility and
+their behavior with carbonate of soda, was originally proposed by
+<i>Berzelius</i>, and a table of the principal oxidized minerals arranged
+according to these characters is given in his handbook of the
+blowpipe, and thence adopted, with some alterations by <i>Plattner</i>, in
+the very excellent and detailed work already many times cited. In the
+following general table I., the more important silicates only are
+included, and in table II. are enumerated in alphabetical order those
+which afford characteristic reactions.<a name="Page_205"></a></p>
+</div>
+
+<h4>TABLE I.</h4>
+
+<h5>Anhydrous Silicates.</h5>
+<p class="ctr">Fus. alone and with NaC.</p>
+
+<div class="ctr"><table border="1" width="80%" summary="">
+<colgroup span="4" align="left"></colgroup>
+<tr><th colspan="2" align="center">Mineral.</th><th>Formula.</th></tr>
+<tr><td>I.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">a.</td><td>Axinite</td>
+<td class="formula" align="left">&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;...&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;...
+<br/>(CaMg)<sup>3</sup> ( B Si )<sup>3</sup> + ( <span class="linethru">Al</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="linethru">Fe</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="linethru">Mn</span>)<sup>2</sup>( Si B )</td><td>Int.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Elaolite</td>
+<td class="formula" align="left">&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;...<br />
+(KNa)<sup>3</sup>Si + 3&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="linethru">Al</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;Si</td><td>Int.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Garnet</td>
+<td class="formula" align="left">
+.&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.&nbsp;...<br />
+R<sup>3</sup>Si&nbsp;&nbsp;+&nbsp;<span class="linethru">R</span>&nbsp;Si</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oligoclase</td>
+<td class="formula" align="left">
+.&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;...<br />
+NaSi&nbsp;&nbsp;+ <span class="linethru">Al</span>&nbsp;Si<sup>2</sup></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Scapolite</td>
+<td class="formula" align="left">
+&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;...<br />
+(CaNa)<sup>3</sup>Si<sup>2</sup> + 2&nbsp;<span class="linethru">Al</span> Si</td><td>Int.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Spodumene</td>
+<td class="formula" align="left">
+&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;...<br />
+(LiNa)<sup>3</sup>Si<sup>2</sup> + 4 <span class="linethru">Al</span>Si<sup>2</sup>Int.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">b.</td><td>Asbestos to II.</td><td>As Hornblende </td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Augite some var.</td>
+<td class="formula" align="left">
+&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;...<br />
+(CaMgFeMn)<sup>3</sup>Si<sup>2</sup></td><td>Int.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Epidote to III.</td>
+<td class="formula" align="left">
+&nbsp;.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;...&nbsp;...&nbsp;...<br />
+(CaFe)<sup>3</sup>Si + 2( <span class="linethru">Al</span> <span class="linethru">Fe</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="linethru">Mn</span> )Si</td><td>Int.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Hornblende some var.</td>
+<td class="formula" align="left">
+&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;...<br />
+(CaMgFe)<sup>4</sup> + ( Si <span class="linethru">Al</span> )<sup>3</sup></td><td>Int.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Sodalite to III.</td>
+<td class="formula" align="left">
+.&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;...<br />
+Na<sup>3</sup>Si + 3 <span class="linethru">Al</span> Si + NaCl</td><td>Int.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Vesuvian</td>
+<td class="formula" align="left">
+&nbsp;&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;...&nbsp;...<br />
+3(CaMg)<sup>3</sup>Si + 2( <span class="linethru">Al </span><span class="linethru">Fe</span> )Si</td><td>Int.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">c.</td><td>Biaxial Mica to III.</td>
+<td class="formula" align="left">
+.&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;...&nbsp;...<br />
+K Si + 4( <span class="linethru">Al</span><span class="linethru"> Fe</span> )Si</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Hauyne</td>
+<td class="formula" align="left">
+&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;.&nbsp;...<br />
+(KNa)<sup>3</sup>Si + 3 <span class="linethru">Al</span> Si + NaSi</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Tourmaline to V.</td>
+<td class="formula" align="left">
+&nbsp;.&nbsp;...&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;...<br />
+(R&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="linethru">R</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;B )<sup>4</sup> Si<sup>3</sup></td><td>Int.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>II.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">a.</td><td>Labradorite</td>
+<td class="formula" align="left">&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;...<br />
+(CaNaK)Si + (&nbsp;<span class="linethru">Al</span>&nbsp;<span class="linethru">Fe</span>)&nbsp;&nbsp;Si</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Lepidolite</td>
+<td class="formula" align="left">
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;...&nbsp;...<br />
+(KNaL)F + (<span class="linethru">Al</span>&nbsp;<span class="linethru">Fe</span>) Si<sup>2</sup>?</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Ryacolite</td>
+<td class="formula" align="left">
+.&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;...<br />
+K Si +&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="linethru">Al</span>&nbsp;Si<sup>2</sup></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Albite</td>
+<td class="formula" align="left">
+.&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;...<br />
+NaSi +&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="linethru">Al</span>&nbsp;Si<sup>3</sup></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">b.</td><td>Augite some var.</td>
+<td class="formula" align="left">
+.&nbsp;...<br />
+R<sup>3</sup>Si<sup>2</sup></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Actinolite</td>
+<td class="formula" align="left">&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;...<br />
+(CaMgFe)<sup>4</sup>Si<sup>3</sup></td><td>Int</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Diopside</td>
+<td class="formula" align="left">&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;...<br />
+(CaMg)<sup>3</sup>Si<sup>2</sup></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Humboltilite</td>
+<td class="formula" align="left">
+&nbsp;&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;...&nbsp;...<br />
+2(CaMgNaK)Si + ( <span class="linethru">Al</span> <span class="linethru">Fe</span> )Si</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Sahlite</td><td>As Augite</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Tremolite</td>
+<td class="formula" align="left">
+&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;...<br />
+(CaMg)<sup>4</sup>Si<sup>3</sup></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">c.</td><td>Pyrope</td>
+<td class="formula" align="left">&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;...&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;...<br />
+(CaMgFe)<sup>3</sup>Si + Al Si + mCr?</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>III.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">a.</td><td>Anorthite</td>
+<td class="formula" align="left">
+&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;...&nbsp;...<br />
+(CaMgNaK)<sup>3</sup>Si + 3( <span class="linethru">Al</span> <span class="linethru">Fe</span> )Si</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Nepheline</td>
+<td class="formula" align="left">
+&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;...<br />
+(NaKCa)<sup>2</sup>Si + 2 <span class="linethru">Al</span> Si</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Obsidian</td>
+<td class="formula" align="left">
+...&nbsp;...&nbsp;...&nbsp;.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;&nbsp;.<br />
+Si, <span class="linethru">Al</span>, <span class="linethru">Fe</span>, Fe, CaNaK</td><td>Int.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Orthoclase</td>
+<td class="formula" align="left">
+&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;...<br />
+(KNa)Si +&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="linethru">Al</span>&nbsp;Si<sup>3</sup></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Petalite</td>
+<td class="formula" align="left">
+&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;...<br />
+(LiNa)<sup>3</sup>Si<sup>4</sup> + 4&nbsp;<span class="linethru">Al</span>&nbsp;Si<sup>4</sup></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Pumice</td>
+<td class="formula" align="left">
+...&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;.&nbsp;&nbsp;.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.<br />
+Si, <span class="linethru">Al</span>, Ca, K, Na, H</td><td>Int.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">b.</td><td>Gadolinite to V.</td>
+<td class="formula" align="left">
+&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;&nbsp;...<br />
+(YCeLaFeCa)<sup>3</sup>Si</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Nephrite</td>
+<td class="formula" align="left">
+&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;...<br />
+(CaMgFe)<sup>4</sup>Si<sup>3</sup>?</td><td>Int.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Wollastonite</td>
+<td class="formula" align="left">
+.&nbsp;&nbsp;...<br />
+Ca<sup>3</sup>Si<sup>2</sup></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">c.</td><td>Iolite</td>
+<td class="formula" align="left">
+&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;...<br />
+(MgFe)<sup>3</sup>Si<sup>2</sup> + 3&nbsp;<span class="linethru">Al</span>&nbsp;Si</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>IV.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">a.</td><td>Beryl</td>
+<td class="formula" align="left">
+...&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;...<br />
+&nbsp;Be&nbsp;Si<sup>2</sup> +&nbsp;<span class="linethru">Al</span>&nbsp;Si<sup>2</sup></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">b.</td><td>Diallage</td>
+<td class="formula" align="left">
+&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;...<br />
+(CaMgFe)<sup>3</sup>(&nbsp;Si&nbsp;<span class="linethru">Al</span>)<sup>2</sup></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Hypersthene</td>
+<td class="formula" align="left">&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;...<br />
+(MgFe)<sup>3</sup>Si<sup>2</sup></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">c.</td><td>Fuchsite</td>
+<td class="formula" align="left">
+&nbsp;.&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;...&nbsp;...<br />
+(K<sup>5</sup>Si&nbsp;)<sup>2</sup> + 9(&nbsp;<span class="linethru">Al</span>&nbsp;<span class="linethru">Cr</span>)<sup>6</sup>Si<sup>6</sup></td></tr>
+<tr><td>V.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">a.</td><td>Leucite</td>
+<td class="formula" align="left">
+.&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;...<br />
+K<sup>3</sup>Si<sup>2</sup> +&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="linethru">Al</span>&nbsp;Si<sup>2</sup></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">b.</td>
+<td>Chondrodite</td>
+<td class="formula" align="left">
+&nbsp;&nbsp;.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;...<br />
+(Mg, MgF)<sup>4</sup>(&nbsp;SiSiF<sup>3</sup>)</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Olivine</td>
+<td class="formula" align="left">&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;...<br />
+(MgFeCa)<sup>2</sup>Si</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">c.</td><td>Andalusite</td>
+<td class="formula" align="left">
+&nbsp;...&nbsp;...&nbsp;...<br />
+(&nbsp;<span class="linethru">Al</span>&nbsp;<span class="linethru">Fe</span>)<sup>3</sup>Si<sup>2</sup></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Chrysoberyl</td>
+<td class="formula" align="left">
+...&nbsp;&nbsp;...<br />
+Be + <span class="linethru">Al</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Kaynite</td>
+<td class="formula" align="left">
+...&nbsp;...<br />
+&nbsp;<span class="linethru">Al</span><sup>3</sup>Si<sup>2</sup></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Pycnite<br />
+Topaz</td>
+<td class="formula" align="left">
+&nbsp;...&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;...<br />
+6<span class="linethru">Al</span> <sup>3</sup>Si<sup>2</sup> + (3 <span class="linethru">Al</span>F<sup>3</sup> + 2SiF<sup>3</sup>)</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td></td><td>Zircon</td>
+<td class="formula" align="left">
+...&nbsp;...&nbsp;<br />
+&nbsp;<span class="linethru">Zr</span>&nbsp;Si</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Staurolite</td>
+<td class="formula" align="left">
+...&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;...<br />
+(<span class="linethru">Al</span> <span class="linethru">Fe</span>)<sup>2</sup> Si</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<h5><a name="Page_207"></a>Hydrous Silicates.</h5>
+
+<p class="ctr">Fus. alone and with NaC.</p>
+
+<div class="ctr"><table border="1" width="80%" summary="">
+<colgroup span="4" align="left"></colgroup>
+<tr><th colspan="2" align="center">Mineral.</th><th>Formula.</th></tr>
+<tr><td>I.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">a.</td><td>Analcime</td><td class="formula" align="left">.&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.<br />
+Na<sup>3</sup>Si<sup>2</sup> + 3<span class="linethru">Al</span> Si<sup>2</sup> + 6H</td><td>Int.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Apophyllite</td><td class="formula" align="left">
+&nbsp;.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.<br />
+(K,KF)(Si, SiF<sup>3</sup>) + 6CaSi + 15H</td><td>Int.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Brewsterite</td><td class="formula" align="left">
+&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.<br />
+(SrBa)Si +&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="linethru">Al</span> Si<sup>3</sup> + 5H</td><td>Int.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Chabasite</td><td class="formula" align="left">
+&nbsp;.&nbsp;&nbsp;.&nbsp;&nbsp;.&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.<br />
+(Ca,Na,K)<sup>3</sup>Si + 3&nbsp;<span class="linethru">Al</span>&nbsp;Si<sup>2</sup> + 18H</td><td>Int.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Lapis Lazuli</td><td class="formula" align="left">
+...&nbsp;...&nbsp;...&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.&nbsp;&nbsp;.<br />
+Si, S,&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="linethru">Al</span>, <span class="linethru">Fe</span>, Ca, Na, H</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Laumonite</td><td class="formula" align="left">
+.&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.<br />
+Ca<sup>3</sup>Si<sup>2</sup> + 3&nbsp;<span class="linethru">Al</span>&nbsp;Si<sup>2</sup> + 12H</td><td>Int.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Mesotype</td><td class="formula" align="left">
+&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;...&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.<br />
+(NaCa)Si + <span class="linethru">Al</span> Si + 3H</td><td>Int.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Natrolite</td><td class="formula" align="left">
+.&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.<br />
+NaSi +&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="linethru">Al</span>&nbsp;Si + 2H</td><td>Int.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Prehnite</td><td class="formula" align="left">
+.&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;.<br />
+Ca<sup>2</sup>Si +&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="linethru">Al</span>&nbsp;Si + H</td><td>Int.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Scolezite</td><td class="formula" align="left">
+.&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.<br />
+CaSi +&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="linethru">Al</span>&nbsp;Si + 3H</td><td>Int.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Thomsonite</td><td class="formula" align="left">
+&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.<br />
+(CaNa)<sup>3</sup>Si + 3 <span class="linethru">Al</span> Si + 7H</td><td>Int.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Datholite</td><td class="formula" align="left">
+&nbsp;.&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;...&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.<br />
+2Ca<sup>3</sup>Si + B<sup>3</sup>&nbsp;Si<sup>2</sup> + 3H</td><td>Int.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Heulandite</td><td class="formula" align="left">
+.&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.<br />
+CaSi + <span class="linethru">Al</span>&nbsp;Si<sup>3</sup> + 5H</td><td>Int.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Stilbite</td><td class="formula" align="left">
+.&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.<br />
+CaSi + <span class="linethru">Al</span>&nbsp;Si<sup>3</sup> + 6H</td><td>Int.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">b.</td><td>Okenite</td><td class="formula" align="left">
+.&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.<br />
+Ca<sup>3</sup>Si<sup>4</sup> + 6H</td><td>Int.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Pectolite</td><td class="formula" align="left">
+&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.<br />
+(CaNa)<sup>4</sup>Si<sup>3</sup> + H</td><td>Int.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">c.</td><td>Saponite</td><td class="formula" align="left">
+&nbsp;.&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.<br />
+2Mg<sup>3</sup>Si<sup>2</sup> + <span class="linethru">Al</span>&nbsp;Si + 10 or 6H</td></tr>
+<tr><td>II.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">a.</td><td>Antrimolite</td><td class="formula" align="left">
+&nbsp;&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.<br />
+3(CaK)Si + 5&nbsp;<span class="linethru">Al</span>&nbsp;Si + 15H</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Harmatome</td><td class="formula" align="left">
+.&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.<br />
+BaSi +&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="linethru">Al</span>&nbsp;S<sup>2</sup> + 5H</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">b.</td><td>Brevicite</td><td class="formula" align="left">
+.&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.<br />
+NaSi +&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="linethru">Al</span>&nbsp;Si + 2H</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Orthite</td><td class="formula" align="left">
+.&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.<br />
+R<sup>3</sup>Si +&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="linethru">R</span>&nbsp;Si + (H?)</td><td>Int.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>III.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">c.</td><td>Pitchstone</td><td class="formula" align="left">
+...&nbsp;...&nbsp;...&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;&nbsp;.&nbsp;.<br />
+Si, <span class="linethru">Al</span>, <span class="linethru">Fe</span>, MgNa, KH</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Talc to V.</td><td class="formula" align="left">
+.&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.<br />
+Mg<sup>6</sup>Si<sup>5</sup> + 2H</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Chlorite</td><td class="formula" align="left">
+&nbsp;&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.<br />
+3(MgFe)<sup>3</sup>Si + ( <span class="linethru">Al</span> <span class="linethru">Fe</span> )<sup>2</sup>Si + 9H</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Pinite</td><td class="formula" align="left">
+...&nbsp;...&nbsp;.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.&nbsp;&nbsp;.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.<br />
+Si, <span class="linethru">Al</span>, Fe, K, Mg, H</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>IV.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">a.</td><td>Steatite</td><td class="formula" align="left">
+.&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.<br />
+Mg<sup>6</sup>Si<sup>5</sup> + 4H</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">c.</td><td>Gilbertite</td><td class="formula" align="left">
+...&nbsp;...&nbsp;.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.<br />
+Si, <span class="linethru">Al</span>, Fe, Mg, H</td><td>Int.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Meerschaum</td><td class="formula" align="left">
+.&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;.<br />
+MgSi + H</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Serpentine</td><td class="formula" align="left">
+.&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.<br />
+Mg<sup>9</sup>Si<sup>4</sup> + 6H</td></tr>
+<tr><td>V.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">a.</td><td>Gismondine</td><td class="formula" align="left">
+&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.<br />
+(CaK)<sup>2</sup>Si + 2 <span class="linethru">Al</span> Si + 9H</td></tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+
+<h3><a name="Page_209"></a>TABLE II.</h3><p class="rtntoc"><a href="#TOC">Go to TOC</a></p>
+
+<div class="ctr"><table summary="Mineral, Behavior" border="1">
+<colgroup span="2" align="left"></colgroup>
+<tr><td>Analcime</td><td>If transparent becomes white and opaque when heated,
+but on incipient fusion resumes its transparency and
+then fuses to a clear glass.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Andalusite</td><td>When powdered and treated with cobalt solution on
+charcoal, assumes a blue color.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Apophyllite</td><td>Fuses to a frothy white glass.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Axinite</td><td>Imparts a green color to the blowpipe flame, owing to
+the presence of boracic acid. This reaction is
+especially distinct, if the mineral be previously mixed
+with fluorspar and bisulphate of potassa.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Beryl</td><td>Sometimes gives a chromium reaction in borax and
+microcosmic salt.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Chabasite</td><td>Fuses to a white enamel.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Chondrodite</td><td>Evolves fluorine in the glass tube, both when heated
+alone and with microcosmic salt. It sometimes also
+gives off a trace of water.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Chrysoberyl</td><td>Is unattacked by carbonate of soda. With nitrate of
+cobalt on charcoal the finely powdered mineral
+assumes a blue color.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Datholite</td><td>Fuses to a clear glass and colors the flame green.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Diallage</td><td>Frequently gives off water in small quantity.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Fuchsite</td><td>Gives the chromium reaction with borax and microcosmic
+salt.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Gadolinite</td><td>That from Hitteroe, if heated in a partially covered
+platinum spoon to low redness, glows suddenly and
+brilliantly.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Hauyne </td><td>Affords the sulphur reaction both on charcoal and when
+fused with potassa. It contains both sulphur and
+sulphuric acid.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Hypersthene</td><td>As Diallage.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Kyanite</td><td>As Andalusite.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Lapis Lazuli</td><td>Fuses to a white glass, and when treated with carbonate
+of soda on charcoal, gives the sulphur reaction on
+silver.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Laumonite</td><td>When strongly heated, exfoliates and curls up.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Lepidolite</td><td>Colors the blowpipe flame crimson, from lithia; also
+gives the fluorine reaction with microcosmic salt.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Leucite</td><td>Some varieties, when treated with cobalt solution,
+assume a blue color.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Meerschaum</td><td>In the glass bulb frequently blackens and evolves an
+empyreumatic odor due to organic matter. When this is
+burnt off, it again becomes white, and if moistened
+with nitrate of cobalt solution and heated, assumes
+a pink color.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Okenite</td><td>Behaves as Apophyllite.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Olivine</td><td>Some varieties give off fluorine, when fused with
+microcosmic salt.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Pectolite</td><td>Similar to Apophyllite.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Petalite</td><td>Imparts a slight crimson color to the flame, like
+Lepidolite.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Prehnite</td><td>As Chabasite.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Pycnite</td><td>Assumes a blue color, when treated with nitrate of
+cobalt. Gives the fluorine reaction with microcosmic
+salt.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Pyrope</td><td>Gives the chromium reaction with borax and microcosmic
+salt.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Scolecite</td><td>Similar to Laumonite, but more marked.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Scapolite</td><td>Occasionally contains a small quantity of lithia, and
+colors the flame red when fused with fluorspar and
+bisulphate of potassa.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Sodalite</td><td>If mixed with one-fifth its volume of oxide of copper,
+moistened to make the mixture cohere, and a small
+portion placed upon charcoal and heated with the blue
+oxidizing flame, the outer flame will be colored
+intensely blue from chloride of copper.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Spodumene</td><td>When not too strongly heated, colors the blowpipe
+flame red, when more strongly, yellow.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Stilbite</td><td>As Chabasite.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Topaz</td><td>When heated, remains clear. Otherwise as Pycnite.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Tourmaline</td><td>Gives the boracic acid reaction with flourspar and
+bisulphate of potassa.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Wollastonite</td><td>Colors the blowpipe flame faintly red from lime.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Zircon</td><td>The colored varieties become white or colorless and
+transparent, when heated. Is only slightly attacked
+by carbonate of soda.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<h3><a name="Page_212"></a>URANIUM.</h3><p class="rtntoc"><a href="#TOC">Go to TOC</a></p>
+
+<table class="full" border="1" summary="Mineral, Formula, Behaviors 1-8">
+<colgroup span="8" width="12%" align="center" valign="top"></colgroup>
+<tr><th align="left">Mineral.</th><th colspan="7" align="left">Formula.</th></tr>
+<tr><th>(1) in glass bulb.</th><th>(2) in open tube.</th><th>(3) on charcoal.</th><th>(4) in forceps.</th>
+<th>(5) in borax.</th><th>(6) in mic. salt.</th><th>(7) in carb. soda.</th><th>(8) Special Reactions.</th></tr>
+<tr><td class="mineral">Pitchblende</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">.&nbsp;...<br />U <span class="linethru">U</span> essentially.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Evolves some water and a small quantity of
+sulphur, sulphide of arsenic and metallic
+arsenic.</td>
+<td>Evolves SO<sup>2</sup> and a white sublimate of
+arsenious acid.</td>
+<td>Gives off arsenical fumes.</td>
+<td>III. Colors the flame blue beyond the assay,
+owing to the presence of Pb. Sometimes also
+green towards the point, due to Cu.</td>
+<td>The roasted mineral affords the uranium
+reaction.</td>
+<td>As borax. Also a small residue of silica.</td>
+<td>Infusible. Affords the characteristic Pb
+incrustation, and sometimes yields minute
+particles of Cu.</td>
+<td>&mdash;
+</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Uranium ochre</td>
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">...&nbsp;.<br />&nbsp;<span class="linethru">U</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;H<sup>2</sup>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Evolves water and assumes a red color.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>V.<br />In reducing flame assumes a green color.
+</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>Gives the uranium reaction.</td>
+<td>As in borax.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>&mdash;
+<a name="Page_213"></a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Uranite</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;...<br />
+&nbsp;.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;..&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.<br />
+(Ca + <span class="linethru">U</span><sup>2</sup>)P + 8H.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Evolves water and becomes yellow and opaque.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>Fuses with intumescence to a black bead having a
+semi-crystalline surface.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>Gives the uranium reaction.</td>
+<td>As in borax.</td>
+<td>Forms an infusible yellow slag.</td>
+<td>Gives the PO<sup>5</sup> reaction.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Chalcolite</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;...<br />
+&nbsp;.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;..&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.<br />
+(Cu + <span class="linethru">U</span><sup>2</sup>)P + 8H.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>As uranite.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>As uranite.</td>
+<td>As uranite.</td>
+<td>In the oxidizing flame gives a green bead, which
+in the reducing flame becomes of an opaque red,
+from Cu.</td>
+<td>As in borax.</td>
+<td>In reducing flame yields a metallic bead of Cu.</td>
+<td>As uranite.</td></tr></table>
+
+
+<h3><a name="Page_214"></a>IRON.</h3><p class="rtntoc"><a href="#TOC">Go to TOC</a></p>
+
+
+<table class="full" border="1" summary="Mineral, Formula, Behaviors 1-8">
+<colgroup span="8" width="12%" align="center" valign="top"></colgroup>
+<tr><th align="left">Mineral.</th><th colspan="7" align="left">Formula.</th></tr>
+<tr><th>(1) in glass bulb.</th><th>(2) in open tube.</th><th>(3) on charcoal.</th><th>(4) in forceps.</th>
+<th>(5) in borax.</th><th>(6) in mic. salt.</th><th>(7) in carb. soda.</th><th>(8) Special Reactions.</th></tr>
+<tr><td class="mineral">Iron pyrites</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">FeS<sup>2</sup>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Gives a considerable yellow sublimate of
+sulphur, and sometimes sulphide of arsenic. Also
+HS.</td>
+<td>Sulphurous acid and sometimes arsenious acid are
+evolved.</td>
+<td>Gives off some sulphur, which burns with a blue
+flame. Residue fuses to a magnetic bead.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>The roasted mineral gives a strong iron
+reaction.</td>
+<td>As in borax.</td>
+<td>Fuses to a black mass, which spreads out on
+charcoal and gives the sulphur reaction on
+silver.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Magnetic pyrites</td>
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">,&nbsp;&nbsp;,,,<br />Fe<sup>5</sup><span class="linethru">Fe</span>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>Evolves sulphurous acid.</td>
+<td>Fuses to a magnetic bead black on the surface,
+and with a yellow shining fracture.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>As iron pyrites.</td>
+<td>As in borax.</td>
+<td>As iron pyrites.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Mispickel</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">FeAs + FeS<sup>2</sup>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>A red sublimate of AsS<sup>2</sup> is first formed and
+then a black sublimate of metallic arsenic.</td>
+<td>Sulphurous and arsenious acids are evolved, the
+latter forming a white sublimate.</td>
+<td>Gives off much arsenic forming a white
+incrustation and fuses to a magnetic globule.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>As iron pyrites.</td>
+<td>As in borax.</td>
+<td>As iron pyrites.</td>
+<td>&mdash;<a name="Page_215"></a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Magnetic iron ore</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">Fe<sup>3</sup>O<sup>4</sup></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>In the blue flame, fuses on edges and remains
+magnetic.</td>
+<td>Gives the iron reaction.</td>
+<td>As in borax.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Specular iron<br />Red haematite</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">Fe<sup>2</sup>O<sup>3</sup></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>V.<br />In the blue flame is converted into
+Fe<sup>2</sup>O<sup>4</sup>, and then behaves as the preceding.</td>
+<td>As magnetic iron ore.</td>
+<td>As in borax.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>&mdash;<a name="Page_216"></a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">G&ouml;thite</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">...&nbsp;.<br /> Fe H.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Evolves water.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>As specular iron.</td>
+<td>As specular iron.</td>
+<td>As in borax.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Franklinite</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">
+&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;...<br />
+(FeZnMn)(<span class="linethru">Fe</span> <span class="linethru">Mn</span>).</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>Forms a white incrustation on the charcoal,
+which moistened with cobalt solution assumes a
+green color.</td>
+<td>V.<br />In the blue flame fuses on edges and and
+becomes magnetic.</td>
+<td>Gives the iron and manganese reaction.</td>
+<td>As in borax.</td>
+<td>Affords a considerable white incrustation of
+ZnO.</td>
+<td>Gives a strong manganese reaction with nitre and
+carbonate of soda.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Ilmenite</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">
+...&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;...<br /><span class="linethru">Ti</span> and <span class="linethru">Fe</span>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>V.<br />In reducing flame fuses on edges and becomes
+magnetic.</td>
+<td>Gives the iron reaction.</td>
+<td>In oxidizing flame exhibits the iron reaction.
+In reducing flame assumes a deep brownish red
+color.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>&mdash;<a name="Page_217"></a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Chromic iron</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">
+.&nbsp;...<br />Fe<span class="linethru">Cr</span>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>As the preceding.</td>
+<td>Dissolves slowly and gives the chromium
+reaction.</td>
+<td>As in borax.</td>
+<td>On platinum foil with nitre and carbonate of
+soda affords a yellow mass of chromate of
+potassa.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Lievrite</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">
+&nbsp;&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;...<br />
+3(FeCa)<sup>3</sup>Si + 2<span class="linethru">Fe</span> Si.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Occasionally gives off some water and turns
+black.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>Fuses to a black globule, which in the reducing
+flame becomes magnetic.</td>
+<td>I.<br />In reducing flame is magnetic.</td>
+<td>Gives the iron reaction.</td>
+<td>Gives the iron and silica reactions.</td>
+<td>Fuses to a black opaque bead.</td>
+<td>Generally gives the manganese reaction with
+nitre and carbonate of soda.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Chloropal</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">
+...&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.<br />
+&nbsp;<span class="linethru">Fe</span> Si<sup>2</sup> + 3H.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Decrepitates more or less, gives off much water
+and turns black.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>V.<br />Loses color and turns black.</td>
+<td>Gives the iron reaction.</td>
+<td>Gives the iron and silica reaction.</td>
+<td>Fuses to a transparent green glass.</td>
+<td>&mdash;<a name="Page_218"></a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Green earth</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">
+...&nbsp;&nbsp;.&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;.&nbsp;&nbsp;.&nbsp;&nbsp;.<br />
+Si, Fe, <span class="linethru">Al</span>, Na, K, H, etc.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Gives off water and becomes darker in color.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>V.<br />In reducing flame fuses on edges and colors
+the outer flame yellow<br /><b>.</b><br />(Na)<br /> or violet <br /><b>.</b><br />(K).</td>
+<td>As the preceding.</td>
+<td>As the preceding.</td>
+<td>Forms a slaggy mass.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Siderite</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">.&nbsp;..<br />FeC.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Occasionally decrepitates. Gives off CO<sup>2</sup> and
+turns black and magnetic.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>As in glass bulb.</td>
+<td>Behaves similarly to the magnetic oxide.</td>
+<td>Gives the iron and manganese reaction.</td>
+<td>As in borax.</td>
+<td>Behaves as an oxide. With nitre and carbonate of
+soda on platinum generally gives the manganese
+reaction.</td>
+<td>In acid dissolves with effervescense.<a name="Page_219"></a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Copperas</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">
+.&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.<br />
+Fe S + 7H.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Gives off water, and, when strongly heated,
+SO<sup>2</sup> and SO<sup>3</sup>, which reddens litmus paper.</td>
+<td>Evolves water and SO<sup>2</sup>, which may be
+recognized by its odor.</td>
+<td>Loses water and SO<sup>2</sup>, and is converted into
+<br /><b>...</b><br /><span class="linethru">Fe</span>.</td>
+<td>Gives off H and SO<sup>2</sup>, and then behaves as the
+magnetic oxide.</td>
+<td>The roasted mineral affords an iron reaction.</td>
+<td>As in borax.</td>
+<td>Forms sulphide of sodium and oxide of iron. The
+former is absorbed into the charcoal, and if cut
+out and laid upon silver and moistened gives the
+S reaction.</td>
+<td>If dissolved in water, and a strip of
+silver-foil be introduced into the solution, the
+metal remains untarnished.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Vivianite</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;...<br />
+.&nbsp;&nbsp;..&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.<br />
+Fe<sup>3</sup>P + 8H.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Gives off water.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>Froths up and then fuses to a grey metallic
+bead.</td>
+<td>As on charcoal. Singes flame green <br /><b>.....</b><br />(P).</td>
+<td>Gives the iron reaction.</td>
+<td>As in borax.</td>
+<td>In reducing flame becomes magnetic and fuses to
+a black saggy mass.</td>
+<td>&mdash;<a name="Page_220"></a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Iriphyline</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;...<br />
+&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;..<br />
+(FeMnLi)<sup>3</sup>P.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Gives off water, having an alkaline reaction,
+and assumes a metallic lustre resembling
+graphite.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>Fuses readily to a black magnetic bead with a
+metallic lustre.</td>
+<td>I.<br />On platinum wire colors the flame crimson
+<br /><b>.</b><br />(Li)<br /> and green <br /><b>.....</b><br />(P),<br />towards the point fuses to a
+black magnetic bead.</td>
+<td>Gives the iron and manganese reactions.</td>
+<td>Gives the iron reaction which overpowers that of
+the manganese.</td>
+<td>Forms an infusible porous mass, which under
+the reducing flame becomes magnetic.</td>
+<td>Gives the manganese reaction with nitre and
+carbonate of soda on platinum foil.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Scorodite</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;...<br />
+...&nbsp;..&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.<br />
+&nbsp;<span class="linethru">Fe</span>As + 4H.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Evolves water.</td>
+<td>Gives off water and AsO<sup>3</sup>.</td>
+<td>Emits arsenical fume and in the reducing flame
+fuses to a magnetic mass having a metallic
+lustre.</td>
+<td>I.<br />As on charcoal. Colors the outer flame
+blue.</td>
+<td>The roasted mineral gives an iron reaction.</td>
+<td>As in borax.</td>
+<td>As alone on charcoal.</td>
+<td>Gives the arsenic reactions.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral"><a name="Page_221"></a>Cube ore</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;...<br />
+ .&nbsp;&nbsp;..&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;..&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.<br />
+Fe<sup>3</sup>As +
+<span class="linethru">Fe</span><sup>3</sup> As<sup>2</sup> + 18H.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Evolves much water.</td>
+<td>As the preceding.</td>
+<td>As the preceding.</td>
+<td>As the preceding.</td>
+<td>As the preceding.</td>
+<td>As in borax.</td>
+<td>As the preceding.</td>
+<td>As the preceding.</td></tr></table>
+
+
+<h3><a name="Page_222"></a>MANGANESE.</h3><p class="rtntoc"><a href="#TOC">Go to TOC</a></p>
+
+<table class="full" border="1" summary="Mineral, Formula, Behaviors 1-8">
+<colgroup span="8" width="12%" align="center" valign="top"></colgroup>
+<tr><th align="left">Mineral.</th><th colspan="7" align="left">Formula.</th></tr>
+<tr><th>(1) in glass bulb.</th><th>(2) in open tube.</th><th>(3) on charcoal.</th><th>(4) in forceps.</th>
+<th>(5) in borax.</th><th>(6) in mic. salt.</th><th>(7) in carb. soda.</th><th>(8) Special Reactions.</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Manganblende</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">MnS.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>Gives off SO<sup>2</sup> and becomes greyish green on
+surface.</td>
+<td>Is slowly roasted and converted into oxide.</td>
+<td>V.</td>
+<td>The roasted mineral gives a strong manganese
+reaction.</td>
+<td>In the unroasted state, dissolves with much
+ebullition and detonation due to elimination of
+sulphide of phosphorus. The bead then exhibits
+the characteristic violet color of manganese.</td>
+<td>Forms a slaggy mass, which laid on silver and
+moistened, gives the sulphur reaction.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Pyrolusite</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">..<br />Mn.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Frequently gives off a small quantity of water
+and, when strongly heated, oxygen.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>V.</td>
+<td>Gives the manganese reaction.</td>
+<td>As in borax.</td>
+<td>Forms a slaggy mass.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Manganite</td>
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">...&nbsp;.<br />&nbsp;<span class="linethru">Mn</span> H.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Gives off much water.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>V.<br />Exfoliates slightly.</td>
+<td>As the preceding.</td>
+<td>As in borax.</td>
+<td>As the preceding.</td>
+<td>&mdash;<a name="Page_223"></a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Psilomelane</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">
+&nbsp;.&nbsp;&nbsp;.&nbsp;&nbsp;.&nbsp;&nbsp;.&nbsp;..&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.<br />
+(Ba,Ca,Mg,K)Mn + H.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Gives off water and, when
+strongly heated, oxygen.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>V.>br />Colors flame faintly green(Ba) and red
+towards the point (Ca).</td>
+<td>As pyrolusite.</td>
+<td>As in borax.</td>
+<td>As pyrolusite.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Wad</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">
+..&nbsp;&nbsp;.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;...&nbsp;.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;...<br />
+Mn, Mn, H, also <span class="linethru">Fe</span>, <span class="linethru">Al</span>,
+ Ba, Cu, Pb, Si, etc.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Gives off water.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>V.<br />Colors flame variously according to its
+composition.</td>
+<td>Gives the manganese reaction, more or less
+modified by the presence of other oxides.</td>
+<td>As in borax.</td>
+<td>As pyrolusite.</td>
+<td>Various according to composition. When strongly
+heated and then moistened has an alkaline
+reaction on red litmus paper.<a name="Page_224"></a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Rhodonite</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">
+.&nbsp;&nbsp;...<br />
+Mn<sup>3</sup>Si<sup>2</sup>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Gives off more or less water.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>Under a strong flame fuses to a brown opaque
+bead.</td>
+<td>II.<br />As on charcoal.</td>
+<td>In the oxidizing flame gives the manganese
+reaction. In reducing flame the iron reaction.</td>
+<td>As in borax, but leaves an insoluble siliceous
+skeleton.</td>
+<td>With a small quantity of the alkali fuses to a
+black bead. With a larger quantity forms a slag.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Diallogite</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">.&nbsp;..<br />MnC.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Frequently decrepitates and gives off more or
+less water.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>If strongly heated and moistened has an alkaline
+reaction on litmus paper due to the presence of
+<br /><b>.</b><br />Ca.</td>
+<td>V.<br />Frequently colors the flame slightly red.</td>
+<td>Gives the manganese and iron reactions.</td>
+<td>As in borax.</td>
+<td>Forms an infusible slag.</td>
+<td>In warm acid dissolves with much effervescence.
+<a name="Page_225"></a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Triplite</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;...<br />
+&nbsp;..&nbsp;.&nbsp;&nbsp;..<br />
+(MnFe)<sup>4</sup>P.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Generally gives off more or less
+water.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>I.<br />Colors the outer blowpipe flame green <br /><b>.....</b><br />(P).</td>
+<td>Gives the manganese and iron reactions.</td>
+<td>As in borax.</td>
+<td>Forms an infusible mass.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td></tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<h3><a name="Page_226"></a>NICKEL AND COBALT.</h3><p class="rtntoc"><a href="#TOC">Go to TOC</a></p>
+
+<table class="full" border="1" summary="Mineral, Formula, Behaviors 1-8">
+<colgroup span="8" width="12%" align="center" valign="top"></colgroup>
+<tr><th align="left">Mineral.</th><th colspan="7" align="left">Formula.</th></tr>
+<tr><th>(1) in glass bulb.</th><th>(2) in open tube.</th><th>(3) on charcoal.</th><th>(4) in forceps.</th>
+<th>(5) in borax.</th><th>(6) in mic. salt.</th><th>(7) in carb. soda.</th><th>(8) Special Reactions.</th></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="mineral">Millerite</td>
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">NiS.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>Evolves SO<sup>2</sup>.</td>
+<td>Fuses with much ebullition to a magnetic bead.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>The roasted mineral gives a nickel reaction,
+slightly modified by small quantities of iron
+and copper.</td>
+<td>As in borax.</td>
+<td>Fuses to a slaggy mass, which on silver gives
+the sulphur reaction.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Coppernickel</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">Ni<sup>2</sup>As.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Gives off a little AsO<sup>3</sup>.</td>
+<td>Gives off much AsO<sup>3</sup> and some SO<sup>2</sup> and falls
+to powder.</td>
+<td>Fuses to a magnetic bead, with the
+evolution of arsenic, which colors the flame
+blue.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>The arsenical bead obtained by fusing the
+mineral on charcoal, if fused upon the same
+support with borax successively added and
+removed, gives firstly an iron reaction, then
+cobalt if present, and lastly nickel.</td>
+<td>If the residual bead which has been treated with
+borax be further treated with microcosmic salt,
+the nickel reaction will be obtained and
+sometimes a slight copper reaction.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>Affords a sublimate of metallic arsenic when
+treated with cyanide of potassium.<a name="Page_227"></a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Smaltine</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">CoAs.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>When strongly heated generally evolves metallic
+arsenic.</td>
+<td>Gives a crystalline sublimate of AsO<sup>3</sup>. Also
+some SO<sup>2</sup>.</td>
+<td>Gives off fumes of arsenic, and fuses to a dark
+grey magnetic bead, very brittle, colors flame
+blue.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>As the preceding, but the cobalt being in large
+excess requires some time for its perfect
+oxidation, before the nickel reaction is
+exhibited.</td>
+<td>Gives the cobalt reaction, and after the cobalt
+has been, removed that of nickel.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>As the preceding.<a name="Page_228"></a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Glance cobalt</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">CoS<sup>2</sup> + CoAs.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>As the preceding, but gives off more SO<sup>2</sup>.</td>
+<td>Gives off S and As, and fuses to a magnetic
+bead. Colors flame blue.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>Gives a cobalt and slight iron reaction when
+treated as the preceding minerals.</td>
+<td>As in borax.</td>
+<td>Gives a sulphur reaction of silver.</td>
+<td>As the preceding.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Nickel glance</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">NiS<sup>2</sup> + NiAs.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Decrepitates and gives an orange colored
+sublimate of AsS<sup>2</sup>.</td>
+<td>As the preceding.</td>
+<td>As the preceding.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>As copper nickel.</td>
+<td>Gives the nickel reaction occasionally somewhat
+obscured by cobalt.</td>
+<td>As the preceding.</td>
+<td>As copper nickel.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Ulmannite</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">NiS<sup>2</sup> + Ni(AsSb)<sup>2</sup>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Gives a slight white sublimate of SbO<sup>3</sup> and
+more or less AsS<sup>3</sup>.</td>
+<td>Gives off thick fumes of SbO<sup>3</sup> and SbO<sup>5</sup>
+with AsO<sup>3</sup> and SO<sup>2</sup>.</td>
+<td>As glance cobalt, but accompanied by dense fumes
+of SbO<sup>3</sup>.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>As copper nickel.</td>
+<td>As the preceding.</td>
+<td>As the preceding.</td>
+<td>As copper nickel generally, but arsenic is not
+always present.<a name="Page_229"></a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Cobalt pyrites</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">
+&nbsp;,&nbsp;,&nbsp;,&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;,,,&nbsp;,,,&nbsp;,,,<br />
+(CoNiFe)(<span class="linethru">Co</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="linethru">Ni</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="linethru">Fe</span>).</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>When strongly heated gives off sulphur and
+becomes brown.</td>
+<td>Gives off much SO<sup>2</sup> and a small quantity of
+AsO<sup>3</sup>.</td>
+<td>In the reducing flame small fragments fuse with
+the evolution of sulphur to a magnetic bead
+having a bronze colored fracture.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>In the oxidizing flame on charcoal gives a
+violet colored glass. In the reducing flame the
+nickel is reduced and may collected in a gold
+bead. When the nickel is removed, the glass
+exhibits a slight iron reaction while warm.</td>
+<td>As in borax, but the reduction of the nickel is
+more difficult than in the latter flux.</td>
+<td>As glance cobalt.</td>
+<td>As copper nickel, but the amount of arsenic is
+usually very small.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Emerald nickel</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">
+.&nbsp;&nbsp;..&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.<br />
+Ni<sup>3</sup>C + 6H.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Gives off much water and turns black.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>Dissolves with much effervescence and gives the
+nickel reaction.</td>
+<td>As in borax.</td>
+<td>Forms a slaggy mass.</td>
+<td>In warm dilute HCl dissolves with much
+effervescence.<a name="Page_230"></a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Cobalt Bloom</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">.&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.<br />Co<sup>3</sup>As + 8H.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Gives off water.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>Evolves arsenical fumes and in the reducing
+flame fuses to a dark grey bead of arsenide of
+cobalt.</td>
+<td>In the point of the blue flame fuses and colors
+the outer flame blue (As).</td>
+<td>Gives the cobalt reaction.</td>
+<td>As in borax.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>Gives off arsenic with cyanide of potassium in
+glass tube.<a name="Page_231"></a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Earthy cobalt</td>
+
+<td colspan="7"  class="formula" align="left">.&nbsp;&nbsp;.&nbsp;&nbsp;.&nbsp;&nbsp;.&nbsp;&nbsp;.<br />Mn,Co,Cu,Fe,H, etc.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Gives off water.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>Emits a slight smell of arsenic, but does not
+fuse.</td>
+<td>Colors the flame blue.
+</td>
+<td>In oxidizing flame gives the cobalt reaction
+which obscures those of <br /><b>.</b><br />Mn,<br /><b>.</b><br />Cu,<br />etc. In reducing
+flame occasionally gives the <br /><b>.</b><br />Cu<br /> reaction.
+</td>
+<td>As in borax. If a saturated bead be treated on
+charcoal with tin in the reducing flame for a
+few seconds, the <br/><b>.</b><br />Cu<br />reaction is sometimes
+obtained.</td>
+<td>Forms an infusible mass.</td>
+<td>With carbonate of soda and nitre on platinum
+foil, gives a strong manganese reaction.</td></tr></table>
+
+<h3><a name="Page_232"></a>ZINC.</h3><p class="rtntoc"><a href="#TOC">Go to TOC</a></p>
+
+<table class="full" border="1" summary="Mineral, Formula, Behaviors 1-8">
+<colgroup span="8" width="12%" align="center" valign="top"></colgroup>
+<tr><th align="left">Mineral.</th><th colspan="7" align="left">Formula.</th></tr>
+<tr><th>(1) in glass bulb.</th><th>(2) in open tube.</th><th>(3) on charcoal.</th><th>(4) in forceps.</th>
+<th>(5) in borax.</th><th>(6) in mic. salt.</th><th>(7) in carb. soda.</th><th>(8) Special Reactions.</th></tr>
+<tr><td class="mineral">Zincblende</td>
+
+<td colspan="7"  class="formula" align="left">ZnS.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Decrepitates strongly.
+</td>
+<td>Evolves SO and becomes white or yellow if
+containing iron.</td>
+<td>V.<br />In the reducing flame incrusts the charcoal
+with ZnO; also with CdO, if that metal be
+present.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>The roasted mineral gives a zinc reaction, and
+sometimes a slight iron reaction.</td>
+<td>As in borax.</td>
+<td>As alone on charcoal. Moreover colors the flame
+blue. The fused alkali gives a S reaction on
+silver.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Red oxide of zinc</td>
+
+<td colspan="7"  class="formula" align="left">.<br />Zn.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>In the reducing flame forms a thin incrustation
+of oxide of zinc on the charcoal.</td>
+<td>V.</td>
+<td>Generally gives a manganese and slight iron
+reaction in addition to that of zinc.
+</td>
+<td>As in borax.</td>
+<td>On charcoal, forms a thick incrustation of ZnO.</td>
+<td>With carbonate of soda and nitre on platinum
+foil gives manganese reaction.<a name="Page_233"></a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Electric calamine</td>
+
+<td colspan="7"  class="formula" align="left">&nbsp;.&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.<br />
+2Zn<sup>3</sup>Si + 3H</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Gives off water and becomes white and opaque.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>V.</td>
+<td>Dissolves to a clear glass, which cannot be
+rendered opaque by the intermittent flame.</td>
+<td>Dissolves to a clear glass, which becomes opaque
+on cooling. Silica remains insoluble.</td>
+<td>With carbonate of soda alone is infusible. With
+2 parts of alkali and 1 of borax fuses to a
+glass and sets free <br /><b>.</b><br />Zn,<br /> which incrusts the
+charcoal.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Calamine</td>
+
+<td colspan="7"  class="formula" align="left">.&nbsp;..<br />ZnC.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Gives off CO<sup>2</sup> and becomes opaque.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>As the red oxide. Sometimes also gives a lead
+incrustation.</td>
+<td>V.</td>
+<td>Gives a zinc reaction and frequently an iron and
+manganese reaction.</td>
+<td>As in borax.</td>
+<td>Forms a thick incrustation of zinc, sometimes
+also of <br /><b>.</b><br />Pb<br /> and <br /><b>.</b><br />Co.</td>
+<td>Dissolves with much effervescence in cold acid.</td></tr></table>
+
+
+<h3><a name="Page_234"></a>BISMUTH.</h3><p class="rtntoc"><a href="#TOC">Go to TOC</a></p>
+
+<table class="full" border="1" summary="Mineral, Formula, Behaviors 1-8">
+<colgroup span="8" width="12%" align="center" valign="top"></colgroup>
+<tr><th align="left">Mineral.</th><th colspan="7" align="left">Formula.</th></tr>
+<tr><th>(1) in glass bulb.</th><th>(2) in open tube.</th><th>(3) on charcoal.</th><th>(4) in forceps.</th>
+<th>(5) in borax.</th><th>(6) in mic. salt.</th><th>(7) in carb. soda.</th><th>(8) Special Reactions.</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Native bismuth</td>
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">Bi.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>Fuses and is converted into a yellow oxide.</td>
+<td>Fuses to a bead and incrusts the charcoal with
+oxide.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>The oxide formed upon charcoal gives the bismuth
+reactions.</td>
+<td>As in borax.</td>
+<td>&mdash;
+</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Bismuthine</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">BiS.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>Fuses with ebullition and gives of S and SO<sup>2</sup>.
+</td>
+<td>Fuses with much spirting and in the reducing
+flame yields a metallic bead and incrusts the
+charcoal with oxide.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>The oxide obtained upon charcoal gives the
+bismuth reactions.</td>
+<td>As in borax.</td>
+<td>As alone on charcoal. The fused alkali gives the
+sulphur reaction on silver.</td>
+<td>&mdash;<a name="Page_235"></a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Bismuthblende</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">...&nbsp;...<br /> <span class="linethru">Bi</span><sup>2</sup> Si<sup>3</sup>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Turns yellow and, when strongly heated, fuses.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>Fuses with ebullition to a brown globule forming an incrustation of
+<br /><b>...</b><br /><span class="linethru">Bi</span><br />on the charcoal.</td>
+<td>I.<br />Fuses with ease to a yellow bead, coloring
+the outer flame bluish green, especially if
+moistened with HCl. This color is due to <br /><b>.....</b><br />P.</td>
+<td>Gives the bismuth and also an iron reaction.</td>
+<td>As in borax, but leaves a silicious skeleton.</td>
+<td>Fuses to a yellow mass. The bismuth is then
+reduced to the metallic state and partially
+volatilized, incrusting the charcoal beyond.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral"><a name="Page_236"></a>Tetradymite</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">Bi, Te, S.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Occasionally decrepitates and then fuses, forming
+a greyish white sublimate immediately above the
+mineral fragment.</td>
+<td>Fuses and gives off white fumes, part of which
+pass up the tube and part deposit immediately
+above the mineral. This latter if heated fuses
+to clear drops (TeO<sup>3</sup>). The mineral residue
+becomes surrounded by fused<br /><b>...</b><br /><span class="linethru">Bi</span>,<br /> characterized by
+its yellow color.</td>
+<td>Fuses to a metallic bead, colors the outer flame
+bluish green (Te and Se) and incrusts the
+charcoal around with the orange
+<br /><b>...</b><br /><span class="linethru">Bi</span>,<br /> beyond which
+is a white incrustation partly consisting of<br /><b>...</b><br />Te.</td>
+<td><a name="Page_237"></a>&mdash;</td>
+<td>The yellow oxide obtained upon charcoal gives
+the bismuth reaction, and the white incrustation
+of bismuth and telluric acid.</td>
+<td>As in borax.</td>
+<td>In the reducing flame yields a bead of metallic
+bismuth, part of which is part of the tellurium
+volatilized and incrusts the charcoal around.</td>
+<td>The fused alkaline mass gives the sulphur
+reaction on silver. Also gives the tellurium
+reaction with charcoal and carbonate of soda.</td></tr></table>
+
+<h3><a name="Page_238"></a>LEAD.</h3><p class="rtntoc"><a href="#TOC">Go to TOC</a></p>
+
+
+<table class="full" border="1" summary="Mineral, Formula, Behaviors 1-8">
+<colgroup span="8" width="12%" align="center" valign="top"></colgroup>
+<tr><th align="left">Mineral.</th><th colspan="7" align="left">Formula.</th></tr>
+<tr><th>(1) in glass bulb.</th><th>(2) in open tube.</th><th>(3) on charcoal.</th><th>(4) in forceps.</th>
+<th>(5) in borax.</th><th>(6) in mic. salt.</th><th>(7) in carb. soda.</th><th>(8) Special Reactions.</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Galena</td>
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">PbS.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Generally decrepitates and gives off a small
+quantity of sulphur.</td>
+<td>Gives off SO<sup>2</sup>, and when strongly heated, a
+white sublimate of <br /><b>.</b><br />Pb,<br /><b>.</b><br />S.</td>
+<td>Fuses and is reduced affording a bead of
+metallic lead, and forming an incrustation of
+PbO on the charcoal. Colors the outer flame
+blue.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>The oxide formed upon charcoal gives the lead
+reaction.</td>
+<td>As in borax.</td>
+<td>As alone on charcoal. The fused alkali gives a
+sulphur reaction on silver.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Clausthalite</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">PbSe.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Decrepitates slightly.</td>
+<td>Forms a sublimate of selenium, which is grey
+when thickly deposited, and red when thin.</td>
+<td>Gives off fumes smelling strongly of selenium
+and coloring the flame blue. In the reducing
+flame fuses partially and incrusts the charcoal
+with Se and PbO. After some time a black
+infusible mass alone remains.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>The infusible residue obtained upon charcoal
+gives an iron and sometimes copper and cobalt
+reaction.</td>
+<td>As in borax.</td>
+<td>With carbonate of soda, oxalate of potash yields
+a metallic bead, the fused alkali laid upon
+silver and moistened produces a stain similar to
+that produced by sulfur.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral"><a name="Page_239"></a>Jamesonite</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">,&nbsp;&nbsp;,,,<br />Pb<sup>3</sup>Sb<sup>2</sup>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Fuses and gives off some sulphur, sulphide of
+antimony and antimony which condense in the neck
+of the bulb.</td>
+<td>Fuses and emits dense white fumes of SbO<sup>3</sup>,
+which pass off and redden blue litmus paper.</td>
+<td>Fuses with great ease evolving much SbO<sup>3</sup> and
+PbO, which incrusts the charcoal around the
+mineral. When the fumes have ceased, a small
+bead of metallic lead remains.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>The yellow incrustation formed upon charcoal
+gives the reaction of lead, and the white those
+of antimony.</td>
+<td>As in borax.</td>
+<td>As alone on charcoal. The fused alkali gives the
+sulphur reaction on silver.</td>
+<td>&mdash;<a name="Page_240"></a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Minium</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">Pb<sup>3</sup>O<sup>4</sup>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>Is reduced first to litharge (PbO) and then to
+metallic lead which forms the usual
+incrustation.</td>
+<td>Colors the outer flame blue.</td>
+<td>Gives the lead reactions.</td>
+<td>As in borax.</td>
+<td>As alone on charcoal.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Mendipite</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">PbCl + 2PbO.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Decrepitates slightly and assumes a yellow
+color.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>Fuses readily and is reduced to metallic lead
+with the evolution of acid fumes. Forms a white
+incrustation of PbCl, and a yellow one of PbO.</td>
+<td>As the preceding.</td>
+<td>As the preceding.</td>
+<td>As in borax.</td>
+<td>As alone on charcoal.</td>
+<td>Gives the chlorine reaction with CuO and
+microcosmic salt.<a name="Page_241"></a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Cerusite</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">.&nbsp;..<br />PbC.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Decrepitates, gives off CO<sup>2</sup>, turns yellow and
+fuses.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>Is reduced to metallic lead, incrusting the
+charcoal around with PbO.</td>
+<td>As the preceding.</td>
+<td>Gives the lead reaction.</td>
+<td>As in borax.</td>
+<td>As alone on charcoal.</td>
+<td>In nitric acid dissolves with much
+effervescence.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Anglesite</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">.&nbsp;...<br />PbS.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Decrepitates and gives off a small quantity of
+water.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>In the oxidizing flame fuses to a clear bead,
+which becomes opaque on cooling. In reducing
+flame is reduced with much ebullition to a
+metallic bead and incrusts the charcoal around
+with PbO.</td>
+<td>As the preceding.</td>
+<td>Gives the lead reaction and occasionally a
+slight iron and manganese reaction.</td>
+<td>As in borax.</td>
+<td>Is reduced yielding a metallic lead bead. The
+fused alkaline mass gives a sulphur reaction on
+silver.</td>
+<td>&mdash;<a name="Page_242"></a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Pyromorphite</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;...<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.&nbsp;&nbsp;..<br />
+PbCl + 3Pb<sup>3</sup>P.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Decrepitates, and when strongly heated for some
+time, gives a slight white sublimate of PbCl.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>In oxidizing flame fuses to a bead having a
+crystalline surface on cooling, and forms a thin
+film of PbCl on the charcoal In reducing flame
+fuses without reduction and on cooling assumes a
+polyhedral form. Incrusts the charcoal slightly
+with PbO.</td>
+<td>Fuses and colors the flame blue.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>Is reduced yielding a metallic bead and
+incrusting the charcoal with PbO.</td>
+<td>Gives the chlorine reaction with microcosmic
+salt and CuO. Also the phosphoric acid
+reactions.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral"><a name="Page_243"></a>Mimetene</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.&nbsp;&nbsp;...<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.&nbsp;&nbsp;..<br />
+PbCl+ 3Pb<sup>3</sup>As</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>As the preceding.
+</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>Fuses, but less easily than the preceding, gives
+off AsO<sup>3</sup> and incrusts the charcoal with
+PbCl. Finally is reduced to a metallic bead and
+forms an incrustation of PbO.</td>
+<td>As the preceding.</td>
+<td>The oxide formed on charcoal gives the lead
+reactions.</td>
+<td>As in borax.</td>
+<td>As the preceding.</td>
+<td>Gives the chlorine reaction.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral"><a name="Page_244"></a>Vanadinite</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.&nbsp;&nbsp;...<br />
+PbCl + 3Pb<sup>3</sup>V?</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>As pyromorphite.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>The powdered mineral fuses fuses to a black
+shining mass, which in the reducing flame
+affords a metallic bead. Incrusts the charcoal
+first with a white film of PbCl and afterwards
+with PbO.</td>
+<td>As pyromorphite.</td>
+<td>Dissolves readily to a clear glass, which, in
+the oxidizing flame, is yellow, while hot, and
+colorless when cold. In reducing flame becomes
+opaque, and on cooling green.</td>
+<td>In oxidizing flame is yellow while hot, becoming
+paler on cooling. In reducing flame brown while
+warm, and emerald green when cold.</td>
+<td>On platinum wire fuses to a yellow bead, which
+is crystalline on cooling. On charcoal yields a
+button of metallic lead.</td>
+<td>With microcosmic salt and CuO, gives the
+chlorine reaction. If fused in a platinum spoon
+with from 3 to 4 times its volume of <br />
+<span class="valence"><b>.&nbsp;...</b><br/>K,S<sup>2</sup></span><br /> it
+forms a fluid yellow mass having an orange color
+when cold.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Crocoisite</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">.&nbsp;...<br />PbCr.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Decrepitates violently and assumes a dark color.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>Fuses and detonates yielding Cr<sup>2</sup>O<sup>3</sup> and
+metallic lead, and forming an incrustation of
+PbO on the charcoal.</td>
+<td>As pyromorphite.</td>
+<td>Dissolves readily and colors the glass yellow
+while warm, and green when cold. (See Chromium
+reaction.)</td>
+<td>As in borax.</td>
+<td>On platinum foil gives a dark yellow mass, which
+becomes paler on cooling. On charcoal yields a
+metallic button.</td>
+<td>Treated as above with <br />
+<span class="valence"><b>.&nbsp;...</b><br/>K,S<sup>2</sup></span><br />
+forms a violet
+colored mass, which on solidifying becomes
+reddish and on cooling pale grey.<a name="Page_245"></a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Molybdate of lead</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">.&nbsp;...<br />PbM.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>As the preceding.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>Fuses and is partly absorbed into the charcoal
+leaving a globule of metallic lead, which is
+partially oxidized and incrusts the charcoal.</td>
+<td>As pyromorphite.</td>
+<td>Dissolves readily and gives the molybdena
+reaction.
+</td>
+<td>As in borax.</td>
+<td>Yields metallic lead.
+</td>
+<td>Fused as above with <br />
+<span class="valence"><b>.&nbsp;...</b><br/>K,S<sup>2</sup></span><br /> forms a yellow mass,
+which becomes white on cooling. If this be
+dissolved in water and a piece of zinc
+introduced into the solution, the latter becomes
+blue.<a name="Page_246"></a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Scheeletine</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">
+.&nbsp;...<br />
+PbW.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Decrepitates more or less.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>Fuses to a bead incrusting the charcoal with
+PbO. The bead on cooling is crystalline and has
+a dark metallic surface.<a name="Page_247"></a></td>
+<td>As pyromorphite.</td>
+<td>Dissolves to a clear colorless glass, which in
+the reducing flame becomes yellow, and on
+cooling grey and opaque.</td>
+<td>Dissolves to a clear colorless glass,
+which in the reducing flame assumes a dusky blue
+color. After a time becomes opaque.</td>
+<td>As the preceding.</td>
+<td>With carbonate of soda and nitre gives the
+manganese reaction.</td></tr></table>
+
+
+<h3><a name="Page_248"></a>COPPER.</h3><p class="rtntoc"><a href="#TOC">Go to TOC</a></p>
+
+<table class="full" border="1" summary="Mineral, Formula, Behaviors 1-8">
+<colgroup span="8" width="12%" align="center" valign="top"></colgroup>
+<tr><th align="left">Mineral.</th><th colspan="7" align="left">Formula.</th></tr>
+<tr><th>(1) in glass bulb.</th><th>(2) in open tube.</th><th>(3) on charcoal.</th><th>(4) in forceps.</th>
+<th>(5) in borax.</th><th>(6) in mic. salt.</th><th>(7) in carb. soda.</th><th>(8) Special Reactions.</th></tr>
+<tr><td class="mineral">Native Copper</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">
+Cu.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>Fuses to a brilliant metallic bead, which on
+cooling becomes covered with a coating of black
+oxide.</td>
+<td>Fuses and colors the outer flame blue.</td>
+<td>In the oxidizing flame dissolves and then gives
+the copper reactions.</td>
+<td>As in borax.</td>
+<td>&mdash;
+</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Vitreous Copper</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">Cu<sup>2</sup>S.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>Evolves SO<sup>2</sup> and, when pulverized and gently
+heated for some time is converted into CuO.</td>
+<td>Fuses to a bead, which spirts considerably and
+gives off SO<sup>2</sup>. When pulverized and gently
+roasted, is converted into CuO.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>The roasted mineral gives the copper reaction,
+and sometimes also a slight iron-reaction.</td>
+<td>As in borax.</td>
+<td>In the reducing flame is decomposed, forming NaS
+and metallic copper. If the former be cut out
+and laid upon silver, it gives the sulfur
+reaction.</td>
+<td>&mdash;<a name="Page_249"></a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Copper pyrites</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">
+,&nbsp;,,,<br />
+<span class="linethru">Cu</span>&nbsp;<span class="linethru">Fe</span>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Decrepitates, sometimes gives a sublimate of
+sulphur and becomes bronze colored on the
+surface.</td>
+<td>Evolves SO<sup>2</sup> and is finally converted into a
+dark red mixture of Fe<sup>2</sup>O<sup>3</sup> and CuO.
+</td>
+<td>Fuses readily with much ebullition and is
+magnetic on cooling.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>As the preceding; but when the copper has been
+removed by reducing on charcoal, the bead shows
+a strong iron color.
+</td>
+<td>As the preceding, but the color in the oxidizing
+flame is green, owing to the presence of iron.</td>
+<td>Yields a bead of metallic copper and some
+magnetic oxide of iron which remains on the
+charcoal. The fused gives a sulphur reaction on
+silver.</td>
+<td>&mdash;<a name="Page_250"></a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Fahlerz</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">
+&nbsp;,&nbsp;,&nbsp;,&nbsp;,&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;,,,&nbsp;,,,<br />
+(<span class="linethru">Cu</span>AgFeZn)<sup>4</sup> (Sb As).</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Sometimes decrepitates, fuses, and when very
+strongly heated, gives a red sublimate of <br/><b>,,,</b><br />Sb<br />
+with <br/><b>...</b><br />Sb,<br /> also sometimes a black sublimate of <br/><b>,</b><br />Hg
+<br />and occasionally <br/><b>,,,</b><br />As.</td>
+<td>Fuses and gives off thick fumes of SbO<sup>3</sup> and
+SO<sup>2</sup>, also generally AsO<sup>3</sup>, leaving a black
+infusible residue. If Hg be present, it is
+sublimed and condenses in the tube in small
+drops.</td>
+<td>Fuses to a bead, which fumes strongly and
+incrusts the charcoal with SbO<sup>3</sup>, and
+sometimes ZnO, which cannot be volatilized.
+Emits a strong smell of arsenic.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>The residue obtained on charcoal thoroughly
+roasted gives a copper reaction, and when the
+latter has been removed by reduction upon
+charcoal, an iron reaction.</td>
+<td>As in the preceding.</td>
+<td>With this flux and a little borax yields a bead
+of metallic copper; on silver, the alkaline mass
+gives a sulphur reaction.</td>
+<td>If the copper bead obtained by fusing upon
+carbonate of soda be cupelled with assay lead, a
+silver bead will be obtained. Or if dissolved in
+nitric acid and a drop or two of HCl added, a
+white precipitate of AgCl will be formed, which
+may be collected and reduced with carbonate of
+soda upon charcoal.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Tennatite</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">
+&nbsp;,&nbsp;,&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;,,,<br />
+(<span class="linethru">Cu</span><span class="linethru">Fe</span>)<sup>4</sup>As.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Decrepitates occasionally and gives a red
+sublimate of <br/><b>,,,</b><br />As.</td>
+<td>Evolves <br/><b>..</b><br />S<br /> and <br/><b>,,,</b><br />As,<br /> which condense and form a
+white sublimate.</td>
+<td>Fuses to a magnetic bead giving of arsenical and
+sulphurous fumes.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>As the preceding.</td>
+<td>As the preceding.</td>
+<td>Yields a copper bead and metallic iron in the
+form of a dark grey powder. The fused alkali
+gives the sulphur reaction.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral"><a name="Page_251"></a>Bournonite</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">
+&nbsp;&nbsp;,&nbsp;&nbsp;,&nbsp;,,,<br />
+(Pb<sup>2</sup><span class="linethru">Cu</span>)Sb.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Decrepitates giving off sulfur and, when
+strongly heated, <br /><b>,,,</b><br />Sb<br /> and <br /><b>...</b><br />Sb.</td>
+<td>Evolves thick white fumes of <br />
+<span class="valence"><b>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;...<br/>...&nbsp;..</b><br/>Sb,Sb</span><br/>
+and <br />
+<span class="valence">&nbsp;&nbsp;<b>...<br/>.&nbsp;..</b><br/>PbSb.<br /></span>
+Also <br /><b>.</b><br />S.</td>
+<td>Fuses readily and incrusts the charcoal with <br /><b>...</b><br />Sb<br />
+and <br /><b>.</b><br />Pb<br /> leaving a dark colored bead.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>If the bead obtained on charcoal be fused on
+that support in the reducing flame with borax, a
+slight iron reaction is obtained, and after a
+time a copper reaction.</td>
+<td>As with borax.</td>
+<td>Yields a bead of metallic copper and lead and
+incrusts the charcoal with <br /><b>...</b><br />Sb<br />and <br /><b>.</b><br />Pb.<br />
+The alkaline mass laid on silver and moistened
+gives the sulphur reaction.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral"><a name="Page_252"></a>Red oxide of copper</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">
+Cu<sup>2</sup>O</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>Is converted into the black oxide CuO.</td>
+<td>In the reducing flame is reduced, forming a
+bead of metallic copper.</td>
+<td>Fuses and colors the the flame emerald
+green, or if previously moistened with HCl,
+blue.</td>
+<td>Gives the copper reaction.</td>
+<td>As with borax.</td>
+<td>Is reduced to a bead of metallic copper.</td>
+<td>&mdash;
+</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Atacamite</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.<br />
+CuCl + 3Cu + 6H.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Gives off much water, having an acid
+reaction, on test paper, and forms a light
+grey sublimate of CuCl.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>Fuses, colors the flame blue, forms a brown
+and a pale grey incrustation on the
+charcoal, and is reduced to metallic copper,
+leaving a small quantity of slag.</td>
+<td>Fuses and colors the outer flame intensely
+blue and green towards the point.</td>
+<td>Gives the copper reactions.</td>
+<td>As with borax.</td>
+<td>Is reduced, yielding a bead of metallic
+copper.</td>
+<td>&mdash;
+</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Dioptase</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">
+.&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.<br />
+Cu<sup>3</sup>Si<sup>2</sup> + 3H.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Gives off water and turns black.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>In the oxidizing flame becomes black. In the
+reducing flame red.<a name="Page_253"></a></td>
+<td>V.<br />Colors the outer flame intensely green.</td>
+<td>Gives the copper reactions.
+</td>
+<td>As with borax. The silica remains
+undissolved.
+</td>
+<td>With a small quantity of carbonate of soda
+fuses to a bead, which on cooling is opaque
+and has a red fracture. With more alkali
+forms a slag, containing little beads of
+reduced copper.
+</td>
+<td>&mdash;
+</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Malachite</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">
+.&nbsp;&nbsp;..&nbsp;&nbsp;.<br />
+Cu<sup>2</sup>C + H.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Gives off water and turns black.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>Fuses to a bead with a strong flame is
+reduced to metallic copper.</td>
+<td>Fuses and colors the outer flame brilliantly
+green.</td>
+<td>Gives the copper reaction.</td>
+<td>As with borax.</td>
+<td>Yields metallic copper.
+</td>
+<td>Dissolves in HCl with much effervescence.<a name="Page_254"></a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Blue vitriol</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">
+.&nbsp;...&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.<br />
+Cu&nbsp;S&nbsp;&nbsp;+ 5H.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Intumesces, gives off water and becomes
+white.</td>
+<td>Strongly heated is decomposed, given off
+SO<sup>2</sup> and being converted into CuO.</td>
+<td>As in the glass-bulb. Then fuses, coloring
+the outer flame green, and is reduced to
+metallic copper and <br /><b>,</b><br /><span class="linethru">Cu.</span></td>
+<td>Fuses and colors the outer flame blue.</td>
+<td>The roasted mineral gives copper reaction.</td>
+<td>As in borax.</td>
+<td>Yields metallic copper. The alkaline mass
+laid on silver gives S reaction.</td>
+<td>Gives the sulphuric acid reaction.
+</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Libethenite</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;...<br />
+.&nbsp;&nbsp;..&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.<br />
+Cu<sup>4</sup>P + 2H.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Gives off water and turns black.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>Gradually heated, turns black and fuses to a
+bead, having a core of metallic copper.<a name="Page_255"></a></td>
+<td>Fuses but does not color the flame
+distinctly. On cooling is black and
+crystalline.</td>
+<td>Gives the copper reaction.</td>
+<td>As in borax.</td>
+<td>With much of the alkali is decomposed,
+yielding metallic copper. With small
+portions successively added first fuses and
+then intumesces, fuses with a strong flame,
+and is then absorbed into the charcoal,
+leaving metallic copper.</td>
+<td>Gives the phosphoric acid reaction.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Olivenite</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;...&nbsp;...<br />
+&nbsp;.&nbsp;&nbsp;..&nbsp;&nbsp;..&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.<br />
+Cu<sup>4</sup>( As P ) + H.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Gives off water.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>Fuses with detonation and the evolution of
+arsenical fumes to a brittle regulus, brown
+externally and having a white fracture.</td>
+<td>Fuses and colors the outer flame green. On
+cooling has a crystalline surface.</td>
+<td>Gives the copper reaction.</td>
+<td>As in borax.</td>
+<td>Is reduced, yielding metallic copper.</td>
+<td>Gives the arsenic reactions.
+</td></tr></table>
+
+<h3><a name="Page_256"></a>ANTIMONY.</h3><p class="rtntoc"><a href="#TOC">Go to TOC</a></p>
+
+<table class="full" border="1" summary="Mineral, Formula, Behaviors 1-8">
+<colgroup span="8" width="12%" align="center" valign="top"></colgroup>
+<tr><th align="left">Mineral.</th><th colspan="7" align="left">Formula.</th></tr>
+<tr><th>(1) in glass bulb.</th><th>(2) in open tube.</th><th>(3) on charcoal.</th><th>(4) in forceps.</th>
+<th>(5) in borax.</th><th>(6) in mic. salt.</th><th>(7) in carb. soda.</th><th>(8) Special Reactions.</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Native antimony</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">Sb.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Fuses and, when strongly heated, volatilizes
+being redeposited in the tube as a dark grey
+sublimate.</td>
+<td>Fuses and gives off dense white fumes, which
+are partly redeposited on the tube.
+Sometimes also gives off arsenical fumes in
+small quantity.</td>
+<td>Fuses and gives off dense white fumes, which
+thickly incrust the charcoal and color the
+flame blue immediately beyond the assay.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>The oxide formed upon charcoal gives the
+antimony reactions.</td>
+<td>As in borax.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>The incrustation on the charcoal, if treated
+with nitrate of cobalt assumes the
+characteristic green color.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Grey antimony</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">SbS<sup>3</sup>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Fuses readily and occasionally gives off a
+small quantity of sulphur. Strongly heated
+forms a brown sublimate of SbS<sup>3</sup> and
+SbO<sup>3</sup>.</td>
+<td>Fuses and gives off SO<sup>2</sup>, which passes off
+up the tube, and dense white fumes of
+SbO<sup>3</sup> and SbO<sup>5</sup> which are partly
+deposited in the tube.</td>
+<td>Fuses and is partly absorbed by the charcoal
+and partly volatilized, incrusting the
+charcoal with the characteristic white
+oxides. Colors the flame blue.<a name="Page_257"></a></td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>As the preceding.</td>
+<td>As in borax.</td>
+<td>Fuses and is reduced, yielding metallic
+antimony, which behaves as the preceding
+mineral upon charcoal. The alkaline mass
+gives the sulphur reaction.</td>
+<td>As the preceding.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Antimony blende</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">
+,,,&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;...<br />
+Sb<sup>2</sup> + Sb.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Fuses easily, gives off first SbO<sup>3</sup> and
+afterwards an orange colored sublimate.
+Strongly heated, is decomposed and gives a
+black sublimate, which becomes brown on
+cooling.</td>
+<td>As the preceding.</td>
+<td>As the preceding.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>As native antimony.</td>
+<td>As in borax.
+</td>
+<td>As the preceding.
+</td>
+<td>As native antimony.<a name="Page_258"></a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">White antimony</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">SbO<sup>3</sup>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Is sublimed and recondensed in the neck of
+the tube.</td>
+<td>As in the glass-bulb.</td>
+<td>Fuses with the evolution of dense white
+fumes, which incrust the surface of the
+charcoal. In the reducing flame is partly
+reduced, yielding metallic antimony. Colors
+flame blue.<a name="Page_259"></a></td>
+<td>Fuses and is volatilized, coloring the outer
+flame blue.</td>
+<td>Gives the antimony reaction.</td>
+<td>As in borax.</td>
+<td>In the reducing flame is reduced, yielding
+metallic antimony.</td>
+<td>As native antimony.</td></tr></table>
+
+<h3><a name="Page_260"></a>ARSENIC.</h3><p class="rtntoc"><a href="#TOC">Go to TOC</a></p>
+
+<table class="full" border="1" summary="Mineral, Formula, Behaviors 1-8">
+<colgroup span="8" width="12%" align="center" valign="top"></colgroup>
+<tr><th align="left">Mineral.</th><th colspan="7" align="left">Formula.</th></tr>
+<tr><th>(1) in glass bulb.</th><th>(2) in open tube.</th><th>(3) on charcoal.</th><th>(4) in forceps.</th>
+<th>(5) in borax.</th><th>(6) in mic. salt.</th><th>(7) in carb. soda.</th><th>(8) Special Reactions.</th></tr>
+<tr><td class="mineral">Native arsenic</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">As.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Sublimes without fusion and recondenses as a
+dark grey metallic sublimate, sometimes
+leaving a small residue.</td>
+<td>If gently heated in a good current of air
+passes off as AsO<sup>3</sup>, which is partly
+condensed as a white sublimate in the upper
+part of the tube.</td>
+<td>Passes off as AsO<sup>3</sup>, which thinly incrusts
+the charcoal beyond the assay.</td>
+<td>Colors the flame blue.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Realgar</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">AsS<sup>2</sup>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Fuses, enters into ebullition and is
+sublimed as a transparent red sublimate.</td>
+<td>Gently heated passes off as SO<sup>2</sup> and
+AsO<sup>3</sup>, the latter of which is redeposited
+in the upper part of the tube.</td>
+<td>Fuses and passes off as arsenious and
+sulphurous acids.</td>
+<td>Fuses and colors the flame blue.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>As on charcoal, except that the S combines
+with the alkali forming NaS, which on silver
+gives the sulphur reaction.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral"><a name="Page_261"></a>Orpiment</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">AsS<sup>3</sup>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>As the preceding, except that the sublimate
+is of a dark yellow color when cold.</td>
+<td>As the preceding.</td>
+<td>As the preceding.</td>
+<td>As the preceding.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>As the preceding.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">White arsenic</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">AsO<sup>3</sup>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Sublimes without fusion and re-condenses in
+white crystals.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>Sublimes and is partly recondensed on
+charcoal forming a white incrustation.</td>
+<td>Colors the flame blue.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>Heated with charcoal in a glass-tube sealed
+at one end, is reduced and metallic arsenic
+sublimes.</td></tr></table>
+
+<h3><a name="Page_262"></a>MERCURY.</h3><p class="rtntoc"><a href="#TOC">Go to TOC</a></p>
+
+<table class="full" border="1" summary="Mineral, Formula, Behaviors 1-8">
+<colgroup span="8" width="12%" align="center" valign="top"></colgroup>
+<tr><th align="left">Mineral.</th><th colspan="7" align="left">Formula.</th></tr>
+<tr><th>(1) in glass bulb.</th><th>(2) in open tube.</th><th>(3) on charcoal.</th><th>(4) in forceps.</th>
+<th>(5) in borax.</th><th>(6) in mic. salt.</th><th>(7) in carb. soda.</th><th>(8) Special Reactions.</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Native mercury</td>
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">Hg.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td>Volatilizes with little or no residue and
+recondenses in neck of bulb.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>Is volatilized.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>&mdash;<a name="Page_263"></a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Cinnabar</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">HgS.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Volatilizes sometimes leaving a slight
+earthy residue, and recondenses as a black
+sulphide.</td>
+<td>If gently heated is decomposed into metallic
+mercury, which volatilizes and re-condenses
+in the upper part of the tube, and SO<sup>2</sup>,
+which passes off as is easily recognized by
+its odor and bleaching properties.</td>
+<td>Is volatilized, generally leaving a small
+earthy residue.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>With carbonate of soda and cyanide of
+potassium is decomposed and metallic mercury
+volatilized.</td>
+<td>When in the preceding experiment the mercury
+has been entirely dissipated, the alkaline
+residue laid on silver gives a sulphur
+reaction.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Native amalgam</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">AgHg<sup>2</sup>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>As native mercury, but leaves a residue of
+pure silver.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>The mercury volatilizes leaving the silver,
+which fuses to a bead, and, in the oxidizing
+flame, incrusts the charcoal with its
+characteristic oxide.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td></tr></table>
+
+
+<h3><a name="Page_264"></a>SILVER.</h3><p class="rtntoc"><a href="#TOC">Go to TOC</a></p>
+
+<table class="full" border="1" summary="Mineral, Formula, Behaviors 1-8">
+<colgroup span="8" width="12%" align="center" valign="top"></colgroup>
+<tr><th align="left">Mineral.</th><th colspan="7" align="left">Formula.</th></tr>
+<tr><th>(1) in glass bulb.</th><th>(2) in open tube.</th><th>(3) on charcoal.</th><th>(4) in forceps.</th>
+<th>(5) in borax.</th><th>(6) in mic. salt.</th><th>(7) in carb. soda.</th><th>(8) Special Reactions.</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Native silver</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">Ag.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>Fuses and in a strong oxidizing flame forms
+an incrustation of dark brown oxide on the
+charcoal. If any antimony be present, it
+affords a crimson incrustation.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>Gives the silver reactions.</td>
+<td>As in borax.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral"><a name="Page_265"></a>Antimonial silver</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">Ag<sup>2</sup>Sb.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>Gives off dense white fumes, which are
+partly deposited in the tube.</td>
+<td>Fuses, fumes strongly, forming a white
+incrustation, and when the antimony is
+nearly expelled a crimson one, a nearly pure
+silver bead remains.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>The incrustation formed on charcoal gives an
+antimony reaction.</td>
+<td>As in borax.</td>
+<td>As alone on charcoal.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Silver glance</td>
+
+<td>AgS.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>Gives off sulphurous acid.</td>
+<td>Gives off SO<sup>2</sup> and is reduced to metallic
+silver. If impure, a small quantity of slag
+also remains.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>The residual slag (if any) obtained upon
+charcoal gives an iron reaction.</td>
+<td>As in borax.</td>
+<td>As alone on charcoal. The alkaline mass gives a sulphur reaction
+on polished silver.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral"><a name="Page_266"></a>Stephanite</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">&nbsp;,&nbsp;,,,<br/>Ag<sup>6</sup>Sb.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Decrepitates, fuses and gives a slight
+sublimate of sulphide of antimony.</td>
+<td>Fuses and gives off SO<sup>2</sup> and dense white
+antimonial fumes.</td>
+<td>Fuses and incrusts the charcoal with
+antimonious acid, leaving Ag with some
+antimony. If the flame be continued, a red
+incrustation is formed and finally a bead of
+pure sliver remains surrounded by a small
+slag.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>The residual slag obtained on the charcoal
+gives an iron and copper reaction.</td>
+<td>As in borax.</td>
+<td>The silver is reduced and the antimony
+passes off in dense fumes. The fused alkali
+gives the sulphur reaction on silver.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Pyargyrite</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">&nbsp;,&nbsp;,,,<br/>Ag<sup>3</sup>Sb.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Sometimes decrepitates, fuses readily, and,
+when strongly heated, gives a red sublimate
+of SbS<sup>3</sup>.</td>
+<td>As in the preceding.</td>
+<td>Fuses with much spirting and covers the
+charcoal with antimonial fumes. When the
+residual AgS is heated for some time in the
+oxidizing flame, a bead of pure silver is
+obtained.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>As the preceding.</td>
+<td>&mdash;<a name="Page_267"></a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Proustite</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">&nbsp;,&nbsp;,,,<br/>Ag<sup>3</sup>As.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Fuses and at a low red heat affords a small
+sublimate of AsS<sup>3</sup>.</td>
+<td>Gradually heated it gives off AsO<sup>3</sup> and
+SO<sup>2</sup>. Sometimes also antimony fumes.</td>
+<td>As the preceding, except that a large
+quantity of AsO<sup>3</sup> and but little SbO<sup>3</sup>
+are given off.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>As stephanite, except that much arsenic is
+given off and but little antimony.</td>
+<td>&mdash;<a name="Page_268"></a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="mineral">Horn silver</td>
+
+<td colspan="7" class="formula" align="left">AgCl.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Fuses, but undergoes no further change.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>Fuses readily in the oxidizing flame. In the
+reducing flame is slowly reduced yielding
+metallic silver.<a name="Page_269"></a></td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td>Is rapidly reduced to metallic silver.</td>
+<td>If cut up into small pieces mixed with oxide
+of copper and then heated before the
+oxidizing flame upon charcoal, it colors the
+flame blue.</td></tr> </table>
+
+<h2>Footnotes</h2>
+
+<div class="note">
+<p><a name="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1">[1]</a> The French millimetre is about the twenty-fifth part of
+an English inch.</p>
+<p><a name="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2">[2]</a> Plattner.</p>
+<p><a name="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3">[3]</a> Quoted by Plattner.</p>
+<p><a name="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4">[4]</a> Quoted by Scheerer.</p></div>
+
+<h2>THE END.</h2>
+
+<pre>
+Transcriber's Notes:
+
+   This book had many columnar tables, often split across pages. These
+   have been combined and reformatted for readability.
+
+   Some of the element symbols were differenced by markings that
+   were not defined in the book, but are supposed to be valence
+   markings. These have been transcribed as closely as possible to
+   the look of original text.</pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A System of Instruction in the
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of A System of Instruction in the Practical
+Use of the Blowpipe, by Anonymous
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: A System of Instruction in the Practical Use of the Blowpipe
+       Being A Graduated Course Of Analysis For The Use Of Students
+       And All Those Engaged In The Examination Of Metallic
+       Combinations
+
+Author: Anonymous
+
+Release Date: April 7, 2005 [EBook #15576]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK USE OF THE BLOWPIPE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Curtis Weyant, Victoria Woosley and the PG
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at www.pgdp.net.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+                             A
+                    SYSTEM OF INSTRUCTION
+                            IN
+                     THE PRACTICAL USE
+                            OF
+                       THE BLOWPIPE.
+
+
+   BEING A GRADUATED COURSE OF ANALYSIS FOR THE USE OF STUDENTS
+      AND ALL THOSE ENGAGED IN THE EXAMINATION OF METALLIC
+                       COMBINATIONS.
+
+
+                        NEW YORK:
+               H. BAILLIERE, 290 BROADWAY,
+              AND 219 REGENT STREET, LONDON.
+
+      PARIS: J.B. BAILLIERE ET FILS, RUE HAUTEFEUILLE.
+      MADRID: C. BAILLY-BAILLIERE, CALLE DEL PRINCIPE.
+                          1858.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+    ENTERED according to Act of Congress, in the year 1858, by
+                     C.E. BAILLIERE,
+ In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States,
+        for the Southern District of New York.
+
+
+      W.H. TINSON, Printer and Stereotyper, 43 Centre Street.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS.
+
+
+PART I.
+
+Preface,                                                             7
+The Use of the Blowpipe,                                             9
+Utensils--The Blowpipe,                                             12
+The Oil Lamp,                                                       22
+The Spirit Lamp,                                                    23
+Charcoal Support,                                                   24
+Platinum Supports,                                                  26
+Iron Spoons,                                                        28
+Glass Tubes,                                                        28
+Other Apparatus necessary,                                          31
+THE REAGENTS,                                                       34
+  Reagents of General Use,                                          34
+  Carbonate of Soda,                                                34
+  Hydrate of Baryta,                                                35
+  Bi-sulphate of Potassa,                                           35
+  Oxalate of Potassa,                                               36
+  Cyanide of Potassium,                                             36
+Nitrate of Potassa,                                                 37
+  Borax,                                                            38
+  Microcosmic Salt,                                                 39
+  Nitrate of Cobalt,                                                40
+  Tin,                                                              41
+  Silica,                                                           42
+  Test Papers,                                                      42
+ESPECIAL REAGENTS,                                                  43
+  Boracic Acid,                                                     43
+  Fluorspar,                                                        43
+  Oxalate of Nickel,                                                43
+  Oxide of Copper,                                                  43
+  Antimoniate of Potassa,                                           44
+  Silver Foil,                                                      44
+  Nitroprusside of Sodium,                                          44
+
+
+PART II.
+
+Initiatory Analysis,                                                47
+Examination with the Glass Bulb,                                    47
+      "     in the Open Tube,                                       52
+      "     upon Charcoal,                                          55
+      "     in the Platinum Forceps,                                61
+      "     in the Borax Bead,                                      69
+      "     in Microcosmic Salt,                                    72
+Table I.--Colors of Beads of Borax and Microcosmic Salt,            75
+Table II.--Behavior of Metallic Oxydes with Borax and
+  Microcosmic Salt,                                                 85
+Examinations with Carbonate of Soda,                               103
+
+
+PART III.
+
+Special Reactions,                                                 109
+A.--METALLIC OXIDES:
+  First Group.--The Alkalies: Potassa, Soda, Ammonia, and Lithia,  110
+  Second Group.--The Alkaline Earths: Baryta, Strontia, Lime,
+    and Magnesia,                                                  115
+  Third Group.--The Earths: Alumina, Glucina, Yttria, Thorina,
+    and Zirconia,                                                  121
+  Fourth Group.--Cerium, Lanthanium, Didymium, Columbium,
+    Niobium, Pelopium, Titanium, Uranium, Vanadium, Chromium,
+    Manganese,                                                     124
+  Fifth Group.--Iron, Cobalt, Nickel,                              135
+  Sixth Group.--Zinc, Cadmium, Antimony, Tellurium,                140
+  Seventh Group.--Lead, Bismuth, Tin,                              149
+  Eighth Group.--Mercury, Arsenic,                                 157
+  Ninth Group.--Copper, Silver, Gold,                              161
+  Tenth Group.--Molybdenum, Osmium,                                165
+  Eleventh Group.--Platinum, Palladium, Iridium, Rhodium,
+    Ruthenium,                                                     167
+
+Non-Metallic Substances,                                           168
+
+
+Tabular Statement of the Reactions of Minerals before
+    the Blowpipe,                                                  178
+  Carbon and Organic Minerals,                                     181
+  Potassa,                                                         184
+  Soda,                                                            186
+  Baryta and Strontia,                                             190
+  Lime,                                                            192
+  Magnesia,                                                        196
+  Alumina,                                                         200
+  Silicates,                                                       204
+  Uranium,                                                         212
+  Iron,                                                            214
+  Manganese,                                                       222
+  Nickel and Cobalt,                                               226
+  Zinc,                                                            232
+  Bismuth,                                                         234
+  Lead,                                                            238
+  Copper,                                                          248
+  Antimony,                                                        256
+  Arsenic,                                                         260
+  Mercury,                                                         262
+  Silver,                                                          264
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+It is believed the arrangement of the present work is superior to that
+of many of its predecessors, as a vehicle for the facilitation of the
+student's progress. While it does not pretend to any other rank than
+as an introduction to the larger works, it is hoped that the
+arrangement of its matter is such that the beginner may more readily
+comprehend the entire subject of Blowpipe Analysis than if he were to
+begin his studies by the perusal of the more copious works of
+Berzelius and Plattner.
+
+When the student shall have gone through these pages, and repeated the
+various reactions described, then he will be fully prepared to enter
+upon the study of the larger works. To progress through them will then
+be but a comparatively easy task.
+
+The arrangement of this little work has been such as the author and
+his friends have considered the best that could be devised for the
+purpose of facilitating the progress of the student. Whether we have
+succeeded is left for the public to decide. The author is indebted to
+several of his friends for valuable contributions and suggestions.
+
+S.
+
+CINCINNATI, _June, 1857_.
+
+*       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+         THE BLOWPIPE.
+
+
+
+
+*       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+Part First.
+
+THE USE OF THE BLOWPIPE.
+
+
+Perhaps during the last fifty years, no department of chemistry has
+been so enriched as that relating to analysis by means of the
+Blowpipe.
+
+Through the unwearied exertions of men of science, the use of this
+instrument has arrived to such a degree of perfection, that we have a
+right to term its use, "Analysis in the _dry_ way," in contradistinction
+to analysis "in the _wet_ way." The manipulations are so simple and
+expeditious, and the results so clear and characteristic, that the
+Blowpipe analysis not only verifies and completes the results of
+analysis in the wet way, but it gives in many cases direct evidences
+of the presence or absence of many substances, which would not be
+otherwise detected, but through a troublesome and tedious process,
+involving both prolixity and time; for instance, the detection of
+manganese in minerals.
+
+Many substances have to go through Blowpipe manipulations before they
+can be submitted to an analysis in the wet way. The apparatus and
+reagents employed are compendious and small in number, so that they
+can be carried easily while on scientific excursions, a considerable
+advantage for mineralogists and metallurgists.
+
+The principal operations with the Blowpipe may be explained briefly as
+follows:
+
+
+(_a._) By _Ignition_ is meant the exposure of a substance to such a
+degree of heat, that it glows or emits light, or becomes red-hot. Its
+greatest value is in the separation of a volatile substance from one
+less volatile, or one which is entirely fixed at the temperature of
+the flame. In this case we only take cognizance of the latter or fixed
+substance, although in many instances we make use of ignition for the
+purpose of changing the conditions of a substance, for example, the
+sesquioxide of chromium (Cr^{2}O^{3}) in its insoluble modification;
+and as a preliminary examination for the purpose of ascertaining
+whether the subject of inquiry be a combination of an organic or
+inorganic nature.
+
+The apparatus used for this purpose are crucibles of platinum or
+silver, platinum foil, a platinum spoon, platinum wire or tongs,
+charcoal, glass tubes, and iron spoons.
+
+
+(_b._) _Sublimation_ is that process by which we convert a solid
+substance into vapor by means of a strong heat. These vapors are
+condensed by refrigeration into the solid form. It may be termed a
+distillation of a solid substance. Sublimation is of great consequence
+in the detection of many substances; for instance, arsenic, antimony,
+mercury, etc.
+
+The apparatus used for the purposes of sublimation consist of glass
+tubes closed at one end.
+
+
+(_c._) _Fusion._--Many substances when exposed to a certain degree of
+heat lose their solid form, and are converted into a liquid. Those
+substances which do not become converted into the liquid state by
+heat, are said to be infusible. It is a convenient classification to
+arrange substances into those which are fusible with difficulty, and
+those which are easily fusible. Very often we resort to fusion for the
+purpose of decomposing a substance, or to cause it to enter into
+other combinations, by which means it is the more readily detected. If
+insoluble substances are fused with others more fusible (reagents) for
+the purpose of causing a combination which is soluble in water and
+acids, the operation is termed _unclosing_. These substances are
+particularly the silicates and the sulphates of the alkaline earths.
+The usual reagents resorted to for this purpose are carbonate of soda
+(NaO, CO^{2}), carbonate of potash (KO, CO^{2}), or still better, a
+mixture of the two in equal parts. In some cases we use the hydrate of
+barytes (BaO, HO) and the bisulphate of potash (KO, 2SO^{3}). The
+platinum spoon is generally used for this manipulation.
+
+Substances are exposed to fusion for the purpose of getting a new
+combination which has such distinctive characteristics that we can
+class it under a certain group; or for the purpose of ascertaining at
+once what the substance may be. The reagents used for this purpose are
+borax (NaO, 2BrO^{3}) and the microcosmic salt (NaO, NH^{4}O, PO^{5},
+HO). Charcoal and the platinum wire are used as supports for this kind
+of operation.
+
+
+(_d._) _Oxidation._--The chemical combination of any substance with
+oxygen is termed _oxidation_, and the products are termed _oxides_. As
+these oxides have qualities differing from those which are
+non-oxidized, it therefore frequently becomes necessary to convert
+substances into oxides; or, if they are such, of a lower degree, to
+convert them into a higher degree of oxidation. These different states
+of oxidation frequently present characteristic marks of identity
+sufficient to enable us to draw conclusions in relation to the
+substance under examination. For instance, the oxidation of manganese,
+of arsenic, etc. The conditions necessary for oxidation, are high
+temperature and the free admission of air to the substance.
+
+If the oxidation is effected through the addition of a substance
+containing oxygen (for instance, the nitrate or chlorate of potash)
+and the heating is accompanied by a lively deflagration and crackling
+noise, it is termed _detonation_. By this process we frequently
+effect the oxidation of a substance, and thus we prove the presence or
+the absence of a certain class of substances. For instance, if we
+detonate (as it is termed by the German chemists) the sulphide of
+antimony, or the sulphide of arsenic with nitrate of potash, we get
+the nitrate of antimony, or the nitrate of arsenic. The salts of
+nitric or chloric acid are determined by fusing them with the cyanide
+of potassium, because the salts of these acids detonate.
+
+
+(_e._) _Reduction._--If we deprive an oxidized substance of its
+oxygen, we term the process _reduction_. This is effected by fusing
+the substance under examination with another which possesses a greater
+affinity for oxygen. The agents used for reduction are hydrogen,
+charcoal, soda, cyanide of potassium, etc. Substances generally, when
+in the unoxidized state, have such characteristic qualities, that they
+cannot very readily be mistaken for others. For this reason, reduction
+is a very excellent expedient for the purpose of discerning and
+classifying many substances.
+
+
+B. UTENSILS.
+
+We shall give here a brief description of the most necessary apparatus
+used for analysis in the dry way, and of their use.
+
+_The Blowpipe_ is a small instrument, made generally out of brass,
+silver, or German silver, and was principally used in earlier times
+for the purpose of soldering small pieces of metals together. It is
+generally made in the form of a tube, bent at a right angle, but
+without a sharp corner. The largest one is about seven inches long,
+and the smallest about two inches. The latter one terminates with a
+small point, with a small orifice. The first use of the blowpipe that
+we have recorded is that of a Swedish mining officer, who used it in
+the year 1738 for chemical purposes, but we have the most meagre
+accounts of his operations. In 1758 another Swedish mining officer, by
+the name of Cronstedt, published his "Use of the Blowpipe in
+Chemistry and Mineralogy," translated into English, in 1770, by Van
+Engestroem. Bergman extended its use, and after him Ghan and the
+venerable Berzelius (1821). The blowpipe most generally used in
+chemical examinations is composed of the following parts: (_Fig._ 1.)
+A is a little reservoir made air-tight by grinding the part B into it.
+This reservoir serves the purpose of retaining the moisture with which
+the air from the mouth is charged. A small conical tube is fitted to
+this reservoir. This tube terminates in a fine orifice. As this small
+point is liable to get clogged up with soot, etc., it is better that
+it should be made of platinum, so that it may be ignited. Two of these
+platinum tubes should be supplied, differing in the size of the
+orifice, by which a stronger or lighter current of flame may be
+projected from it. Metals, such as brass or German silver, are very
+liable to become dirty through oxidation, and when placed between the
+lips are liable to impart a disagreeable taste. To avoid this, the top
+of the tube must be supplied with a mouthpiece of ivory or horn C. The
+blowpipe here represented is the one used by Ghan, and approved by
+Berzelius. The trumpet mouthpiece was adopted by Plattner; it is
+pressed upon the lips while blowing, which is less tiresome than
+holding the mouthpiece between the lips, although many prefer the
+latter mode.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1]
+
+Dr. Black's blowpipe is as good an instrument and cheaper. It
+consists of two tubes, soldered at a right angle; the larger one, into
+which the air is blown, is of sufficient capacity to serve as a
+reservoir.
+
+A chemist can, with a blowpipe and a piece of charcoal, determine many
+substances without any reagents, thus enabling him, even when
+travelling, to make useful investigations with means which are always
+at his disposal. There are pocket blowpipes as portable as a pencil
+case, such as Wollaston's and Mitscherlich's; these are objectionable
+for continued use as their construction requires the use of a metallic
+mouthpiece. Mr. Casamajor, of New York, has made one lately which has
+an ivory mouthpiece, and which, when in use, is like Dr. Black's.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2]
+
+The length of the blowpipe is generally seven or eight inches, but
+this depends very much upon the visual angle of the operators. A
+short-sighted person, of course, would require an instrument of less
+length than would suit a far-sighted person.
+
+The purpose required of the blowpipe is to introduce a fine current of
+air into the flame of a candle or lamp, by which a higher degree of
+heat is induced, and consequently combustion is more rapidly
+accomplished.
+
+By inspecting the flame of a candle burning under usual circumstances,
+we perceive at the bottom of the flame a portion which is of a light
+blue color (_a b_), _Fig._ 2, which gradually diminishes in size
+as it recedes from the wick, and disappears when it reaches the
+perpendicular side of the flame. In the midst of the flame there is a
+dark nucleus with a conical form (_c_). This is enveloped by the
+illuminating portion of the flame (_d_). At the exterior edge of the
+part _d_ we perceive a thin, scarcely visible veil, _a, e, e_, which
+is broader near the apex of the flame. The action of the burning
+candle may be thus explained. The radiant heat from the flame melts
+the tallow or wax, which then passes up into the texture of the wick
+by capillary attraction until it reaches the glowing wick, where the
+heat decomposes the combustible matter into carbonated hydrogen
+(C^{4}H^{4}), and into carbonic oxide (CO).
+
+While these gases are rising in hot condition, the air comes in
+contact with them and effects their combustion. The dark portion, _c_,
+of the flame is where the carbon and gases have not a sufficiency of
+air for their thorough combustion; but gradually they become mixed
+with air, although not then sufficient for complete combustion. The
+hydrogen is first oxidized or burnt, and then the carbon is attacked
+by the air, although particles of carbon are separated, and it is
+these, in a state of intense ignition, which produce the illumination.
+By bringing any oxidizable substance into this portion of the flame,
+it oxidizes very quickly in consequence of the high temperature and
+the free access of air. For that reason this part of the flame is
+termed the oxidizing flame, while the illuminating portion, by its
+tendency to abstract oxygen for the purpose of complete combustion,
+easily reduces oxidated substances brought into it, and it is,
+therefore, called the flame of reduction. In the oxidizing flame, on
+the contrary, all the carbon which exists in the interior of the flame
+is oxidized into carbonic acid (CO^{2}) and carbonic oxide (CO), while
+the blue color of the cone of the flame is caused by the complete
+combustion of the carbonic oxide. These two portions of the flame--the
+oxidizing and the reducing--are the principal agents of blowpipe
+analysis.
+
+If we introduce a fine current of air into a flame, we notice the
+following: The air strikes first the dark nucleus, and forcing the
+gases beyond it, mixes with them, by which oxygen is mingled freely
+with them. This effects the complete combustion of the gases at a
+certain distance from the point of the blowpipe. At this place the
+flame has the highest temperature, forming there the point of a blue
+cone. The illuminated or reducing portion of the flame is enveloped
+outside and inside by a very hot flame, whereby its own temperature is
+so much increased that in this reduction-flame many substances will
+undergo fusion which would prove perfectly refractory in a common
+flame. The exterior scarcely visible part loses its form, is
+diminished, and pressed more to a point, by which its heating power is
+greatly increased.
+
+_The Blast of Air._--By using the blowpipe for chemical purposes, the
+effect intended to be produced is an uninterrupted steady stream of
+air for many minutes together, if necessary, without an instant's
+cessation. Therefore, the blowing can only be effected with the
+muscles of the cheeks, and not by the exertion of the lungs. It is
+only by this means that a steady constant stream of air can be kept
+up, while the lungs will not be injured by the deprival of air. The
+details of the proper manner of using the blowpipe are really more
+difficult to describe than to acquire by practice; therefore the pupil
+is requested to apply himself at once to its practice, by which he
+will soon learn to produce a steady current of air, and to distinguish
+the different flames from each other. We would simply say that the
+tongue must be applied to the roof of the mouth, so as to interrupt
+the communication between the passage of the nostrils and the mouth.
+The operator now fills his mouth with air, which is to be passed
+through the pipe by compressing the muscles of the cheeks, while he
+breathes through the nostrils, and uses the palate as a valve. When
+the mouth becomes nearly empty, it is replenished by the lungs in an
+instant, while the tongue is momentarily withdrawn from the roof of
+the mouth. The stream of air can be continued for a long time, without
+the least fatigue or injury to the lungs. The easiest way for the
+student to accustom himself to the use of the blowpipe, is first to
+learn to fill the mouth with air, and while the lips are kept firmly
+closed to breathe freely through the nostrils. Having effected this
+much, he may introduce the mouthpiece of the blowpipe between his
+lips. By inflating the cheeks, and breathing through the nostrils, he
+will soon learn to use the instrument without the least fatigue. The
+air is forced through the tube against the flame by the action of the
+muscles of the cheeks, while he continues to breathe without
+interruption through the nostrils. Having become acquainted with this
+process, it only requires some practice to produce a steady jet of
+flame. A defect in the nature of the combustible used, as bad oil,
+such as fish oil, or oil thickened by long standing or by dirt, dirty
+cotton wick, or an untrimmed one, or a dirty wickholder, or a want of
+steadiness of the hand that holds the blowpipe, will prevent a steady
+jet of flame. But frequently the fault lies in the orifice of the jet,
+or too small a hole, or its partial stoppage by dirt, which will
+prevent a steady jet of air, and lead to difficulty. With a good
+blowpipe the air projects the entire flame, forming a horizontal, blue
+cone of flame, which converges to a point at about an inch from the
+wick, with a larger, longer, and more luminous flame enveloping it,
+and terminating to a point beyond that of the blue flame.
+
+To produce an efficient flame of oxidation, put the point of the
+blowpipe into the flame about one third the diameter of the wick, and
+about one twelfth of an inch above it. This, however, depends upon
+the size of the flame used. Blow strong enough to keep the flame
+straight and horizontal, using the largest orifice for the purpose.
+Upon examining the flame thus produced, we will observe a long, blue
+flame, _a b_, Fig. 3, which letters correspond with the same letters
+in Fig. 2. But this flame has changed its form, and contains all the
+combustible gases. It forms now a thin, blue cone, which converges to
+a point about an inch from the wick. This point of the flame possesses
+the highest intensity of temperature, for there the combustion of the
+gases is the most complete. In the original flame, the hottest part
+forms the external envelope, but here it is compressed more into a
+point, forming the cone of the blue flame, and likewise an envelope of
+flame surrounding the blue one, extending beyond it from _a_ to _c_,
+and presenting a light bluish or brownish color. The external flame
+has the highest temperature at _d_, but this decreases from _d_ to
+_c_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3]
+
+If there is a very high temperature, the oxidation is not effected so
+readily in many cases, unless the substance is removed a little from
+the flame; but if the heat be not too high, it is readily oxidized in
+the flame, or near its cone. If the current of air is blown too
+freely or violently into the flame, more air is forced there than is
+sufficient to consume the gases. This superfluous air only acts
+detrimentally, by cooling the flame.
+
+In general the operation proceeds best when the substance is kept at a
+dull red heat. The blue cone must be kept free from straggling rays of
+the yellow or reduction flame. If the analysis be effected on
+charcoal, the blast should not be too strong, as a part of the coal
+would be converted into carbonic oxide, which would act
+antagonistically to the oxidation. The oxidation flame requires a
+steady current of air, for the purpose of keeping the blue cone
+constantly of the same length. For the purpose of acquiring practice,
+the following may be done: Melt a little molybdenic acid with some
+borax, upon a platinum wire, about the sixteenth of an inch from the
+point of the blue cone. In the pure oxidation flame, a clear yellowish
+glass is formed; but as soon as the reduction flame reaches it, or the
+point of the blue cone touches it, the color of the bead changes to a
+brown, which, finally, after a little longer blowing, becomes quite
+dark, and loses its transparency. The cause of this is, that the
+molybdenic acid is very easily reduced to a lower degree of oxidation,
+or to the oxide of molybdenum. The flame of oxidation will again
+convert this oxide into the acid, and this conversion is a good test
+of the progress of the student in the use of the blowpipe. In cases
+where we have to separate a more oxidizable substance from a less one,
+we use with success the blue cone, particularly if we wish to
+determine whether a substance has the quality, when submitted to heat
+in the blue cone, of coloring the external flame.
+
+A good _reduction_ flame can be obtained by the use of a small orifice
+at the point of the blowpipe. In order to produce such a flame, hold
+the point of the blowpipe higher above the wick, while the nozzle must
+not enter the flame so far as in the production of the oxidation
+flame. The point of the blowpipe should only touch the flame, while
+the current of air blown into it must be stronger than into the
+oxidation flame. If we project a stream, in the manner mentioned, into
+the flame, from the smaller side of the wick to the middle, we shall
+perceive the flame changed to a long, narrow, luminous cone, _a b_,
+Fig. 4, the end _a_ of which is enveloped by the same dimly visible
+blueish colored portion of the flame _a, c_, which we perceive in the
+original flame, with its point at _c_. The portion close above the
+wick, presenting the dull appearance, is occasioned by the rising
+gases which have not supplied to them enough oxygen to consume them
+entirely. The hydrogen is consumed, while the carbon is separated in a
+state of bright ignition, and forms the internal flame.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4]
+
+Directly above the wick, the combustion of the gases is least
+complete, and forms there likewise, as is the case in the free flame,
+a dark blue nucleus _d_.
+
+If the oxide of a metal is brought into the luminous portion of the
+flame produced as above, so that the flame envelopes the substance
+perfectly, the access of air is prevented. The partially consumed
+gases have now a strong affinity for oxygen, under the influence of
+the intense heat of that part of the flame. The substance is thus
+deprived of a part, or the whole, of its oxygen, and becomes _reduced_
+according to the strength of the affinity which the substance itself
+has for oxygen. If the reduction of a substance is undertaken on
+platinum, by fusion with a flux, and if the oxide is difficult to
+reduce, the reduction will be completely effected only in the luminous
+part of the flame. But if a substance be reduced on charcoal, the
+reduction will take place in the blue part of the flame, as long as
+the access of air is cut off; but it is the luminous part of the flame
+which really possesses the greatest reducing power.
+
+The following should be observed in order to procure a good reduction
+flame:
+
+    The wick should not be too long, that it may make a smoke, nor
+    too short, otherwise the flame will be too small to produce a
+    heat strong enough for reduction.
+
+    The wick must be free from all loose threads, and from
+    charcoal.
+
+    The blast should be continued for a considerable time without
+    intermission, otherwise reduction cannot be effected.
+
+For the purpose of acquiring practice, the student may fuse the oxide
+of manganese with borax, upon a platinum wire, in the oxidation flame,
+when a violet-red glass will be obtained; or if too much of the oxide
+be used, a glass of a dark color and opaque will be obtained. By
+submitting this glass to the reduction flame, it will become colorless
+in correspondence to the perfection with which the flame is produced.
+Or a piece of tin may be fused upon charcoal, and kept in that state
+for a considerable time, while it presents the appearance of a bright
+metal on the surface. This will require dexterity in the operator;
+for, if the oxidation flame should chance to touch the bright metal
+only for a moment, it is coated with an infusible oxide.
+
+
+COMBUSTION.--Any flame of sufficient size can be used for blowpipe
+operations. It may be either the flame of a candle of tallow or wax,
+or the flame of a lamp. The flame of a wax candle, or of an oil lamp
+is most generally used. Sometimes a lamp is used filled with a
+solution of spirits of turpentine in strong alcohol. If a candle is
+used, it is well to cut the wick off short, and to bend the wick a
+little toward the substance experimented upon. But candles are not the
+best for blowpipe operations, as the radiant heat, reflecting from the
+substance upon the wax or tallow, will cause it to melt and run down
+the side of the candle; while again, candles do not give heat enough.
+The lamp is much the most desirable. The subjoined figure, from
+Berzelius, is perhaps the best form of lamp. It is made of japanned
+tin-plate, about four inches in length, and has the form and
+arrangement represented in Fig. 5. K is the lamp, fastened on the
+stand, S, by a screw, C, and is movable upwards or downwards, as
+represented in the figure. The posterior end of the lamp may be about
+one inch square, and at its anterior end, E, about three-quarters of
+an inch square. The under side of this box may be round, as seen in
+the figure. The oil is poured into the orifice, A, which has a cap
+screwed over it. C' is a wickholder for a flat lamp-wick. _a_ is a
+socket containing the wick, which, when not in use, is secured from
+dirt by the cap. The figures B and _a'_ give the forms of the cap and
+socket. The best combustible for this lamp is the refined rape-seed
+oil, or pure sweet oil. When this lamp is in use, there must be no
+loose threads, or no charcoal on the wick, or these will produce a
+smoky flame. The wick, likewise, should not be pulled up too high, as
+the same smoky flame would be produced.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 5]
+
+
+THE SPIRIT-LAMP.--This is a short, strong glass lamp, with a cap, B,
+Fig. 6, fitted to it by grinding, to prevent the evaporation of the
+alcohol. The neck _a_ contains a tube C, made of silver, or of tin
+plate, and which contains the wick. Brass would not answer so well
+for this tube, as the spirits would oxidize it, and thus impart color
+to the flame. The wickholder must cover the edge of the neck, but not
+fit tight within the tube, otherwise, by its expansion, it will break
+the glass. It is not necessary that alcohol, very highly rectified,
+should be burnt in this lamp, although if too much diluted with water,
+enough heat will not be given out. Alcohol of specific gravity 0.84 to
+0.86 is the best.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 6]
+
+This lamp is generally resorted to by blowpipe analysts, for the
+purpose of experiments in glass apparatus, as the oily combustibles
+will coat the glass with soot. Some substances, when exposed to the
+dark part of the flame, become reduced and, _in statu nascendi_,
+evaporated; but by passing through the external part of the flame,
+they become oxidized again, and impart a color to the flame. The
+spirit flame is the most efficient one for the examination of
+substances the nature of which we wish to ascertain through color
+imparted to the flame, as that of the spirit-lamp being colorless, is,
+consequently, most easily and thoroughly recognized by the slightest
+tinge imparted to it.
+
+It is necessary that in operating with such minute quantities of
+substances as are used in blowpipe analysis, that they should have
+some appropriate support. In order that no false results may ensue, it
+is necessary that the supports should be of such a nature that they
+will not form a chemical combination with the substance while it is
+exposed to fusion or ignition. Appropriate supports for the different
+blowpipe experiments are charcoal, platinum instruments, and glass
+tubes.
+
+(_a._) _Charcoal._--The value of charcoal as a support may be stated
+as follows:
+
+    1. The charcoal is infusible, and being a poor conductor of
+    heat, a substance can be exposed to a higher degree of heat
+    upon it than upon any other substance.
+
+    2. It is very porous, and therefore allows easily fusible
+    substances (such as alkalies and fluxes) to pass into it,
+    while other substances less fusible, such as metals, to remain
+    unabsorbed.
+
+    3. It has likewise a great reducing power.
+
+The best kind of charcoal is that of pinewood, linden, willow, or
+alderwood, or any other soft wood. Coal from the firwood sparkles too
+freely, while that of the hard woods contains too much iron in its
+ashes. Smooth pieces, free from bark and knots, should be selected. It
+should be thoroughly burnt, and the annual rings or growths should be
+as close together as possible.
+
+If the charcoal is in masses, it should be sawed into pieces about six
+inches in length by about two inches broad, but so that the
+year-growths run perpendicular to the broadest side, as the other
+sides, by their unequal structure, burn unevenly.
+
+That the substance under examination may not be carried off by the
+blast, small conical concavities should be cut in the broad side of
+the charcoal, between the year-growths, with a conical tube of tin
+plate about two or three inches long, and one quarter of an inch at
+one end, and half an inch at the other. These edges are made sharp
+with a file. The widest end of this charcoal borer is used for the
+purpose of making cavities for cupellation.
+
+In places where the proper kind of charcoal is difficult to procure,
+it is economical to cut common charcoal into pieces about an inch
+broad, and the third of an inch thick. In each of these little pieces
+small cavities should be cut with the small end of the borer. When
+these pieces of charcoal are required for use, they must be fastened
+to a narrow slip of tin plate, one end of which is bent into the form
+of a hook, under which the plate of charcoal is pushed.
+
+In general, we use the charcoal support where we wish to reduce
+metallic oxides, to prevent oxidation, or to test the fusibility of a
+substance. There is another point to which we would direct the
+student. Those metals which are volatile in the reduction flame,
+appear as oxides in the oxidation flame. These oxides make sublimates
+upon the charcoal close in the vicinity of the substance, or where it
+rested, and by their peculiar color indicate pretty correctly the
+species of minerals experimented upon.
+
+(_b._) _Platinum Supports._--The metal platinum is infusible in the
+blowpipe flame, and is such a poor conductor of heat that a strip of
+it may be held close to that portion of it which is red hot without
+the least inconvenience to the fingers. It is necessary that the
+student should be cognizant of those substances which would not be
+appropriate to experiment upon if placed on platinum. Metals should
+not be treated upon platinum apparatus, nor should the easily
+reducible oxides, sulphides, nor chlorides, as these substances will
+combine with the platinum, and thus render it unfit for further use in
+analysis.
+
+(_c._) _Platinum Wire._--As the color of the flame cannot be well
+discerned when the substance is supported upon charcoal, in
+consequence of the latter furnishing false colors, by its own
+reflection, to the substances under examination, we use platinum wire
+for that purpose, when we wish to examine those substances which give
+indications by the peculiar color which they impart to fluxes. The
+wire should be about as thick as No. 16 or 18 wire, or about 0.4
+millimetre, and cut into pieces about from two and a half to three
+inches in length. The end of each piece is crooked. In order that
+these pieces should remain clear of dirt, and ready for use, they
+should be kept in a glass of water. To use them, we dip the wetted
+hooked end into the powdered flux (borax or microcosmic salt) some of
+which will adhere, when we fuse it in the flame of the blowpipe to a
+bead. This bead hanging in the hook, must be clear and colorless.
+Should there not adhere a sufficient quantity of the flux in the first
+trial to form a bead sufficiently large, the hook must be dipped a
+second time in the flux and again submitted to the blowpipe flame. To
+fix the substance to be examined to the bead, it is necessary, while
+the latter is hot, to dip it in the powdered substance. If the hook is
+cold, we moisten the powder a little, and then dip the hook into it,
+and then expose it to the oxidation flame, by keeping it exposed to a
+regular blast until the substance and the flux are fused together, and
+no further alteration is produced by the flame.
+
+The platinum wire can be used except where reduction to the metallic
+state is required. Every reduction and oxidation experiment, if the
+results are to be known by the color of the fluxes, should be effected
+upon platinum wire. At the termination of the experiment or
+investigation, if it be one, to, clean the wire, place it in water,
+which will dissolve the bead.
+
+(_d._) _Platinum Foil._--For the heating or fusing of a substance,
+whereby its reduction would be avoided, we use platinum foil as a
+support. This foil should be of the thickness of good writing paper,
+and from two and a half to three inches long, by about half an inch
+broad, and as even and smooth as possible. If it should become injured
+by long use, cut the injured end off, and if it should prove too short
+to be held with the fingers, a pair of forceps may be used to grasp
+it, or it may be placed on a piece of charcoal.
+
+(_e._) _Platinum Spoon._--When we require to fuse substances with the
+acid sulphate of potash, or to oxidize them by detonation with nitrate
+of potash, whereby we wish to preserve the oxide produced, we
+generally use a little spoon of platinum, about from nine to fifteen
+millimetres[1] in diameter, and shaped as represented in Fig. 7. The
+handle of this spoon is likewise of platinum, and should fit into a
+piece of cork, or be held with the forceps.
+
+    [1] The French millimetre is about the twenty-fifth part of an
+    English inch.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 7.]
+
+(_f._) _Platinum Forceps or Tongs._--We frequently are necessitated to
+examine small splinters of metals or minerals directly in the blowpipe
+flame. These pieces of metallic substances are held with the forceps
+or tongs represented as in Fig. 8, where _ac_ is formed of steel, and
+_aa_ are platinum bars inserted between the steel plates. At _bb_ are
+knobs which by pressure so separate the platinum bars _aa_, that any
+small substance can be inserted between them.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 8.]
+
+(_g._) _Iron Spoons._--For a preliminary examination iron spoons are
+desirable. They may be made of sheet iron, about one-third of an inch
+in diameter, and are very useful in many examinations where the use of
+platinum would not be desirable.
+
+(_h._) _Glass Tubes._--For the separation and recognition of volatile
+substances before the blowpipe flame, we use glass tubes. These should
+be about one-eighth of an inch in diameter, and cut into pieces about
+five or six inches in length. These tubes should have both ends open.
+
+Tubes are of great value in the examination of volatile substances
+which require oxidizing or roasting, and heating with free access of
+air. Also to ascertain whether a substance under examination will
+sublimate volatile matter of a certain appearance. Such substances are
+selenium, sulphur, arsenic, antimony, and tellurium. These substances
+condense on a cool part of the tube, and they present characteristic
+appearances, or they may be recognized by their peculiar smell. These
+tubes must be made of the best kind of glass, white and difficult of
+fusion, and entirely free from lead. The substance to be examined must
+be put in the tube near one end, and exposed to the flame of the
+blowpipe. The end containing the substance must be held lower than the
+other end, and must be moved a little over the spirit-lamp before a
+draught of air is produced through the tube. It is a good plan to have
+a number of these tubes on hand. After having used a tube we cut off
+that end of it which contained the substance, with a file, and clean
+it from the sublimate, either by heating it over the spirit-lamp, or
+with a piece of paper wound around a wire. It sometimes happens that
+the substance falls out of the tube before it becomes sufficiently
+melted to adhere to the glass. To obviate this, we bend the tube not
+far from the end, at an obtuse angle, and place the substance in the
+angle, whereby the tube may be lowered as much as necessary. Fig. 9
+will give the student a comprehension of the processes described, and
+of the manner of bending the tubes.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 9.]
+
+(_i._) _Glass Tubes closed at one End._--If we wish to expose volatile
+substances to heat, with the exclusion of air as much as possible, or
+to ascertain the contents of water, or other volatile fluids, or for
+the purpose of heating substances which will decrepitate, we use glass
+tubes closed at one end. These tubes must be about one-eighth of an
+inch wide, and from two to three inches in length. They should be made
+of white glass, difficult of fusion, and free from lead. They should
+be closed at one end, as figured in the margin, Fig. 10.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 10.]
+
+When a substance is to be examined for the purpose of ascertaining
+whether it contains combustible matter, as sulphur or arsenic, and
+where we wish to avoid oxidation, we use these tubes without extending
+the closed end, in order that there may be as little air admitted as
+possible, as is represented in tube B. But when a substance to be
+examined is to be tested for water, or other incombustible volatile
+matters, we employ tubes with little bulbs blown at one end, such as
+represented at tube A. Here there is room for a circulation of air at
+the bottom of the tube, by which the volatile matter rises more
+easily. In some cases, it is necessary to draw the closed end out to a
+fine point, as in the tubes C and D. Either one or the other of these
+tubes is employed, depending upon the nature of the substance used.
+The sublimates condense at the upper part of the tube _a_, and can be
+there examined and recognized. These tubes, before being used, must be
+thoroughly dried and cleaned. In experimenting with them, they should
+not be exposed at once to the hottest part of the flame, but should be
+submitted to the heat gradually. If the substance is of such a nature
+that it will sublime at a low heat, the tube should be held more
+horizontal, while a higher heat is attained by bringing the tube to a
+more vertical position.
+
+
+VARIOUS APPARATUS NECESSARY.
+
+_Edulcorator or Washing Bottle._--Take a glass bottle of the capacity
+of about twelve ounces, and close the mouth of it very tight with a
+cork, through which a short glass tube is fitted airtight. The
+external end of this tube is drawn out to a point, with a very fine
+orifice. The bottle should be filled about half full of water. By
+blowing air into the bottle through the tube, and then turning it
+downwards, the compressed air will expel a fine stream of water
+through the fine orifice with considerable force. We use this washing
+bottle, Fig. 11, for the purpose of rinsing the small particles of
+coal from the reduced metals.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 11.]
+
+_Agate Mortar and Pestle._--This mortar is used for the purpose of
+pulverizing hard substances, and for mixing fluxes. As this mortar
+will not yield to abrasion, there is no danger of any foreign matter
+becoming mixed with the substance pulverized in it. It should be
+cleaned after use with pumice stone. Steel mortars are very useful for
+the pulverization of hard bodies; but for all those substances which
+require great care in their analysis, and which can be obtained in
+very minute quantity, the agate mortar alone should be used.
+
+A _hammer_ made of steel is necessary. This should have the edge
+square.
+
+A small _anvil_, polished on the surface, is also required. It is
+frequently used to test the malleability of metals.
+
+A _knife_, for the purpose of ascertaining the hardness of minerals.
+
+The student should also be provided with several three-edged files,
+and likewise with some flat ones.
+
+A _microscope_, an instrument with two lenses, or with such a
+combination of lenses, that they may be used double or single, is
+frequently necessary for the examination of blowpipe experiments, or
+the reaction of the fluxes. Common lenses, howsoever cheap they may
+be, are certainly not recommended. A microscope with achromatic lenses
+can now be purchased so cheap that there is no longer any necessity of
+procuring one with the common lens. Besides, there is no reliability
+whatever to be placed in the revelations of the common lens; while on
+the contrary, the deceptive appearances which minute objects assume
+beneath such lenses are more injurious than otherwise. A small cheap
+set of magnifying glasses are all that is required for the purpose of
+blowpipe analysis, Fig. 12.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 12.]
+
+A small _magnet_ should be kept on hand, for the purpose of testing
+reduced metals.
+
+_Nippers_, for the purpose of breaking off pieces of minerals for
+analysis, without injuring the entire piece, are indispensable, Fig
+13.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 13.]
+
+A pair of _scissors_ is required to trim the wick of the and for the
+trimming of the edge of platinum foil.
+
+A small _spatula_ should be kept for the purpose of mixing substances
+with fluxes.
+
+
+
+
+THE REAGENTS.
+
+
+Those substances which possess the property of acting upon other
+substances, in such a characteristic manner that they can be
+recognized, either by their color, or by their effervescence, or by
+the peculiar precipitation produced, are termed _reagents_. The
+phenomena thus produced is termed _reaction_. We use those reagents,
+or _tests_, for the purpose of ascertaining the presence or the
+absence of certain substances, through the peculiar phenomena produced
+when brought in contact with them.
+
+The number of reagents employed in blowpipe analysis is not great, and
+therefore we shall here give a brief description of their preparation
+and use. It is indispensably necessary that they should be chemically
+pure, as every admixture of a foreign substance would only produce a
+false result. Some of them have a strong affinity for water, or are
+deliquescent, and consequently absorb it greedily from the air. These
+must be kept in glass bottles, with glass stoppers, fitted air-tight
+by grinding.
+
+
+A. REAGENTS OF GENERAL USE.
+
+
+1. _Carbonate of Soda._--(NaO, CO^{2}) Wash the bicarbonate of soda
+(NaO, 2CO^{2}) upon a filter, with cold water, until the filtrate
+ceases to give, after neutralization with diluted nitric acid
+(NO^{5}), a precipitate with nitrate of baryta, (BaO, NO^{5}), or
+nitrate of silver, (AgO, NO^{5}). That left upon the filter we make
+red hot in a platinum, silver, or porcelain dish. One atom of carbonic
+acid is expelled, and the residue is carbonate of soda.
+
+A solution of soda must not be changed by the addition of sulphide of
+ammonium. And when neutralized with hydrochloric acid, and evaporated
+to dryness, and again dissolved in water, there must be no residue
+left.
+
+Carbonate of soda is an excellent agent in reduction, in consequence
+of its easy fusibility, whereby it causes the close contact of the
+oxides with the charcoal support, so that the blowpipe flame can reach
+every part of the substance under examination.
+
+For the decomposition and determination of insoluble substances,
+particularly the silicates, carbonate of soda is indispensable. But
+for the latter purpose, we use with advantage a mixture of ten parts
+of soda and thirteen parts of dry carbonate of potash, which mixture
+fuses more easily than the carbonate of soda alone.
+
+
+2. _Hydrate of Baryta_ (BaO, HO).--This salt is used sometimes for the
+detection of alkalies in silicates. Mix one part of the substance with
+about four parts of the hydrate of baryta, and expose it to the
+blowpipe flame. The hydrate of baryta combines with the silicic acid,
+and forms the super-basic silicate of baryta, while the oxides become
+free. The fused mass must be dissolved in hydrochloric acid, which
+converts the oxides into chlorides. Evaporate to dryness, and dissolve
+the residue in water. The silicic acid remains insoluble.
+
+The hydrate of baryta is prepared by mixing six parts of finely
+powdered heavy-spar (BaO, SO_{3}) with one part of charcoal and one
+and a half parts of wheat flour, and exposing this mixture in a
+Hessian crucible with a cover to a strong and continuous red heat. The
+cooled chocolate-brown mass must be boiled with twenty parts of water,
+and, while boiling, there must be added the oxide of copper in
+sufficient quantity, or until the liquid will not impart a black color
+to a solution of acetate of lead (PbO, [=]A). The liquid must be
+filtered while hot, and as it cools the hydrate of baryta appears in
+crystals. These crystals must be washed with a little cold water, and
+then heated at a low temperature in a porcelain dish until the crystal
+water is expelled. The hydrate of baryta melts by a low red heat
+without losing its water of hydration.
+
+
+3. _Bisulphate of Potassa_ (KO, 2SO^{3}).--At a red heat the half of
+the sulphuric acid of this salt becomes free, and thus separates and
+expels volatile substances, by which we can recognize lithium, boracic
+acid, nitric acid, fluoric acid, bromine, iodine, chlorine; or it
+decomposes and reveals some other compounds, as, for instance, the
+salts of the titanic, tantalic and tungstic acids. The bisulphate of
+potash is also used for the purpose of converting a substance into
+sulphate, or to free it at once from certain constituents. These
+sulphates are dissolved in water, by which we are enabled to effect
+the separation of its various constituents.
+
+PREPARATION.--Two parts of coarsely powdered sulphate of potash are
+placed in a porcelain crucible, and one part of pure sulphuric acid is
+poured over it. Expose this to heat over the spirit-lamp, until the
+whole becomes a clear liquid. The cooled mass must be of a pure white
+color, and may be got out of the crucible by inverting it. It must be
+kept in a fine powder.
+
+
+4. _Oxalate of Potassa_ (KO, [=]O).--Dissolve bioxalate of potash in
+water, and neutralize with carbonate of potash. Evaporate the solution
+at a low heat to dryness, stirring constantly towards the close of the
+operation. The dry residue is to be kept in the form of a powder.
+
+The oxalate of potash, at a low red heat, eliminates a considerable
+quantity of carbonic oxide, which, having a strong affinity for
+oxygen, with which it forms carbonic acid, it is therefore a powerful
+agent of reduction. It is in many cases preferable to carbonate of
+soda.
+
+
+5. _Cyanide of Potassium_ (Cy, K).--In the dry method of analysis,
+this salt is one of the most efficient agents for the reduction of
+metallic oxides. It separates not only the metals from their oxygen
+compounds, but likewise from their sulphur compounds, while it is
+converted through the action of the oxygen into carbonate of potash,
+or, in the latter case, combines with the sulphur and forms the
+sulphureted cyanide of potassium. This separation is facilitated by
+its easy fusibility. But in many cases it melts too freely, and
+therefore it is better to mix it, for blowpipe analysis, with an equal
+quantity of soda. This mixture has great powers of reduction, and it
+is easily absorbed by the charcoal, while the globules of reduced
+metal are visible in the greatest purity.
+
+PREPARATION.--Deprive the ferrocyanide of potassium (2KCy + FeCy) of
+its water by heating it over the spirit-lamp in a porcelain dish. Mix
+eight parts of this anhydrous salt with three parts of dry carbonate
+of potash, and fuse the mixture by a low red heat in a Hessian, or
+still better, in an iron crucible with a cover, until the mass flows
+quiet and clear, and a sample taken up with an iron spatula appears
+perfectly white. Pour the clear mass out into a china or porcelain
+dish or an iron plate, but with caution that the fine iron particles
+which have settled to the bottom, do not mix with it. The white fused
+mass must be powdered, and kept from the air. The cyanide of potassium
+thus prepared, contains some of the cyanate of potassa, but the
+admixture does not deteriorate it for blowpipe use. It must be
+perfectly white, free from iron, charcoal, and sulphide of potassium.
+The solution of it in water must give a white precipitate with a
+solution of lead, and when neutralized with hydrochloric acid, and
+evaporated to dryness, it must not give an insoluble residue by
+dissolving it again in water.
+
+
+6. _Nitrate of Potassa, Saltpetre_ (KO, NO^{5}).--Saturate boiling
+water with commercial saltpetre, filter while hot in a beaker glass,
+which is to be placed in cold water, and stir while the solution is
+cooling. The greater part of the saltpetre will crystallize in very
+fine crystals. Place these crystals upon a filter, and wash them with
+a little cold water, until a solution of nitrate of silver ceases to
+exhibit any reaction upon the filtrate. These crystals must be dried
+and powdered.
+
+Saltpetre, when heated with substances easy of oxidation, yields its
+oxygen quite readily, and is, therefore, a powerful means of
+oxidation. In blowpipe analysis, we use it particularly to convert
+sulphides (as those of arsenic, antimony, &c.) into oxides and acids.
+We furthermore use saltpetre for the purpose of producing a complete
+oxidation of small quantities of metallic oxides, which oxidize with
+difficulty in the oxidation flame, so that the color of the bead, in
+its highest state of oxidation, shall be visible, as for instance,
+manganese dissolved in the microcosmic salt.
+
+
+7. _Biborate of soda, borax_--(NaO + 2BO^{3}).--Commercial borax is
+seldom pure enough for a reagent. A solution of borax must not give a
+precipitate with carbonate of potassa; or, after the addition of
+dilute nitric acid, it must remain clear upon the addition of nitrate
+of silver, or nitrate of baryta. Or a small piece of the dry salt,
+fused upon a platinum wire, must give a clear and uncolored glass, as
+well in the oxidation flame as in the reduction flame. If these tests
+indicate a foreign admixture, the borax must be purified by
+re-crystallization. These crystals are washed upon a filter, dried,
+and heated, to expel the crystal water, or until the mass ceases to
+swell up, and it is reduced to powder.
+
+Boracic acid is incombustible, and has a strong affinity for oxides
+when fused with them; therefore, it not only directly combines with
+oxides, but it expels, by fusion, all other volatile acids from their
+salts. Furthermore, boracic acid promotes the oxidation of metals and
+sulphur, and induces haloid compounds, in the oxidation flame, to
+combine with the rising oxides. Borates thus made, melt generally by
+themselves; but admixed with borate of soda, they fuse much more
+readily, give a clear bead. Borax acts either as a flux, or through
+the formation of double salts.
+
+In borax, we have the action of free boracic acid, as well as borate
+of soda, and for that reason it is an excellent reagent for blowpipe
+analysis.
+
+All experiments in which borax is employed should be effected upon
+platinum wire. The hook of the wire should be heated red hot, and then
+dipped into the powdered borax. This should be exposed to the
+oxidation flame, when it will be fused to a bead, which adheres to the
+hook. This should be then dipped into the powdered substance, which
+will adhere to it if it is hot; but if the bead is cool, it must be
+previously moistened. Expose this bead to the oxidation flame until it
+ceases to change, then allow it to cool, when it should be exposed to
+the reduction flame. Look for the following in the oxidation flame:
+
+   (1.) Whether the heated substance is fused to a clear bead or
+   not, and whether the bead remains transparent after cooling. The
+   beads of some substances, for instance those of the alkaline
+   earths, are clear while hot; but upon cooling, are milk-white and
+   enamelled. Some substances give a clear bead when heated and when
+   cold, but appear enamelled when heated intermittingly or with a
+   flame which changes often from oxidation to reduction, or with an
+   unsteady flame produced by too strong a blast. The reason is an
+   incomplete fusion, while from the basic borate compound a part of
+   the base is separated. As the boracic acid is capable of
+   dissolving more in the heat, a bead will be clear while hot,
+   enamelled when cold, as a part in the latter instance will become
+   separated.
+
+   (2.) Whether the substance dissolves easily or not, and whether
+   it intumesces from arising gases.
+
+   (3.) Whether the bead, when exposed to the oxidation flame,
+   exhibits any color, and whether the color remains after the bead
+   shall have cooled, or whether the color fades.
+
+   (4.) Whether the bead exhibits any other reaction in the
+   reduction flame.
+
+The bead should not be overcharged with the substance under
+examination, or it will become colored so deeply as not to present any
+transparency, or the color light enough to discern its hue.
+
+
+8. _Microcosmic Salt--Phosphate of Soda and Ammonia_--(NaO, NH^{4}O +
+PO^{5}).--Dissolve six parts of phosphate of soda (2NaO, HO, PO^{5}),
+and one part of pure chloride of Ammonium (NH^{4}Cl.), in two parts of
+boiling water, and allow it to cool. The greatest part of the formed
+double salt crystallizes, while the mother-liquid contains chloride of
+sodium, and some of the double salt. The crystals must be dissolved in
+as little boiling water as possible, and re-crystallized. These
+crystals must be dried and powdered.
+
+When this double salt is heated, the water and the ammonia escape,
+while the incombustible residue has a composition similar to borax,
+viz., a free acid and an easily fusible salt. The effect of it is,
+therefore, similar to the borax. The free phosphoric acid expels,
+likewise, most other acids from their combinations, and combines with
+metallic oxides.
+
+For supports, the platinum wire may be used, but the hook must be
+smaller than when borax is used, or the bead will not adhere. As for
+all the other experiments with this salt, the microscosmic salt is
+used the same as borax.
+
+
+9. _Nitrate of Cobalt._--(CoO, NO^{5}).--This salt can be prepared by
+dissolving pure oxide of cobalt in diluted nitric acid, and
+evaporating to dryness with a low heat. The dry residue should be
+dissolved in ten parts of water, and filtered. The filtrate is now
+ready for use, and should be kept in a bottle with a glass stopper. If
+the pure oxide of cobalt cannot be procured, then it may be prepared
+by mixing two parts of finely powdered _glance of cobalt_ with four
+parts of saltpetre, and one part of dry carbonate of potassa with one
+part of water free from carbonate of soda. This mixture should be
+added in successive portions into a red-hot Hessian crucible, and the
+heat continued until the mass is fused, or at least greatly diminished
+in volume. The cooled mass must be triturated with hot water, and then
+heated with hydrochloric acid until it is dissolved and forms a dark
+green solution, which generally presents a gelatinous appearance,
+occasioned by separated silica. The solution is to be evaporated to
+dryness, the dry residue moistened with hydrochloric acid, boiled with
+water, filtered and neutralized while hot with carbonate of ammonia,
+until it ceases to give an acid reaction with test-paper. This must
+now be filtered again, and carbonate of potassa added to the filtrate
+as long as a precipitate is produced. This precipitate is brought upon
+a filter and washed thoroughly, and then dissolved in diluted nitric
+acid. This is evaporated to dryness, and one part of it is dissolved
+in ten parts of water for use.
+
+The oxide of cobalt combines, with strong heat in the oxidation flame,
+with various earths and infusible metallic oxides, and thus produces
+peculiarly colored compounds, and is therefore used for their
+detection; (alumina, magnesia, oxide of zinc, oxide of tin, etc.) Some
+of the powdered substance is heated upon charcoal in the flame of
+oxidation, and moistened with a drop of the solution of the nitrate of
+cobalt, when the oxidation flame is thrown upon it. Alumina gives a
+pure blue color, the oxide of zinc a bright green, magnesia a light
+red, and the oxide of tin a bluish-green color; but the latter is only
+distinctly visible after cooling.
+
+The dropping bottle, is the most useful apparatus for the purpose of
+getting small quantities of fluid. It is composed of a glass tube,
+drawn out to a point, with a small orifice. This tube passes through
+the cork of the bottle. By pressing in the cork into the neck of the
+bottle, the air within will be compressed, and the liquid will rise in
+the tube. If now we draw the cork out, with the tube filled with the
+fluid, and pressing the finger upon the upper orifice, the fluid can
+be forced out in the smallest quantity, even to a fraction of a drop.
+
+
+10. _Tin._--This metal is used in the form of foil, cut into strips
+about half an inch wide. Tin is very susceptible of oxidation, and
+therefore deprives oxidized substances of their oxygen very quickly,
+when heated in contact with them. It is employed in blowpipe analysis,
+for the purpose of producing in glass beads a lower degree of
+oxidation, particularly if the substance under examination contains
+only a small portion of such oxide. These oxides give a characteristic
+color to the bead, and thus are detected. The bead is heated upon
+charcoal in the reduction flame, with a small portion of the tin,
+whereby some of the tin is melted and mixes with the bead. The bead
+should be reduced quickly in the reduction flame, for by continuing
+the blast too great a while, the oxide of tin separates the other
+oxides in the reduced or metallic state, while we only require that
+they shall only be converted into a sub-oxide, in order that its
+peculiar color may be recognized in the bead. The addition of too much
+tin causes the bead to present an unclean appearance, and prevents
+the required reaction.
+
+
+11. _Silica_ (SiO^{3}).--This acid does not even expel carbonic acid
+in the wet way, but in a glowing heat it expels the strongest volatile
+acids. In blowpipe analysis, we use it fused with carbonate of soda to
+a bead, as a test for sulphuric acid, and in some cases for phosphoric
+acid. Also with carbonate of soda and borax, for the purpose of
+separating tin from copper.
+
+Finely powdered quartz will answer these purposes. If it cannot be
+procured, take well washed white sand and mix it with two parts of
+carbonate of soda and two parts of carbonate of potassa. Melt the
+materials together, pound up the cooled mass, dissolve in hot water,
+filter, add to the filtrate hydrochloric acid, and evaporate to
+dryness. Moisten the dry residue with hydrochloric acid, and boil in
+water. The silica remains insoluble. It should be washed well, dried,
+and heated, and then reduced to powder.
+
+
+12. TEST-PAPERS.--(_a._) _Blue, Litmus Paper._--Dissolve one part of
+litmus in six or eight parts of water, and filter. Divide the filtrate
+into two parts. In one of the parts neutralize the free alkali by
+stirring it with a glass rod dipped in diluted sulphuric acid, until
+the fluid appears slightly red. Then mix the two parts together, and
+draw slips of unsized paper, free from alkali, such as fine filtering
+paper. Hang these strips on a line to dry, in the shade and free from
+floating dust. If the litmus solution is too light, it will not give
+sufficient characteristic indications, and if too dark it is not
+sensitive enough. The blue color of the paper should be changed to
+red, when brought in contact with a solution containing the minutest
+trace of free acid; but it should be recollected that the neutral
+salts of the heavy metals produce the same change.
+
+(_b._) _Red Litmus Paper._--The preparation of the red litmus paper is
+similar to the above, the acid being added until a red color is
+obtained. Reddened litmus paper is a very sensitive reagent for free
+alkalies, the carbonates of the alkalies, alkaline earths, sulphides
+of the alkalies and of the alkaline earths, and alkaline salts with
+weak acids, such as boracic acid. These substances restore the
+original blue color of the litmus.
+
+(_c._) _Logwood Paper._--Take bruised logwood, boil it in water,
+filter, and proceed as above. Logwood paper is a very delicate test
+for free alkalies, which impart a violet tint to it. It is sometimes
+used to detect hydrofluoric acid, which changes its color to yellow.
+
+All the test-papers are to be cut into narrow strips, and preserved in
+closely stopped vials. The especial employment of the test-papers we
+shall allude to in another place.
+
+
+B. ESPECIAL REAGENTS.
+
+
+13. _Fused Boracic Acid_ (BO^{3}).--The commercial article is
+sufficiently pure for blowpipe analysis. It is employed in some cases
+to detect phosphoric acid, and also minute traces of copper in lead
+compounds.
+
+
+14. _Fluorspar_ (CaFl^{2}).--This substance should be pounded fine and
+strongly heated. Fluorspar is often mixed with boracic acid, which
+renders it unfit for analytical purposes. Such an admixture can be
+detected if it be mixed with bisulphate of potassa, and exposed upon
+platinum wire to the interior or blue flame. It is soon fused, the
+boracic acid is reduced and evaporated, and by passing through the
+external flame it is reoxidized, and colors the flame green. We use
+fluorspar mixed with bisulphate of potassa as a test for lithia and
+boracic acid in complicated compounds.
+
+
+15. _Oxalate of Nickel_ (NiO, [=]O).--It is prepared by dissolving the
+pure oxide of nickel in diluted hydrochloric acid. Evaporate to
+dryness, dissolve in water, and precipitate with oxalate of ammonia.
+The precipitate must be washed with caution upon a filter, and then
+dried. It is employed in blowpipe analysis to detect salts of potassa
+in the presence of sodium and lithium.
+
+
+16. _Oxide of Copper_ (CuO).--Pure metallic copper is dissolved in
+nitric acid. The solution is evaporated in a porcelain dish to
+dryness, and gradually heated over a spirit-lamp, until the blue color
+of the salt has disappeared and the mass presents a uniform black
+color. The oxide of copper so prepared must be powdered, and preserved
+in a vial. It serves to detect, in complicated compounds, minute
+traces of chlorine.
+
+
+17. _Antimoniate of Potassa_ (KO, SbO^{6}).--Mix four parts of the
+bruised metal of antimony, with nine parts of saltpetre. Throw this
+mixture, in small portions, into a red-hot Hessian crucible, and keep
+it at a glowing heat for awhile after all the mixture is added. Boil
+the cooled mass with water, and dry the residue. Take two parts of
+this, and mix it with one part of dry carbonate of potassa, and expose
+this to a red heat for about half an hour. Then wash the mass in cold
+water, and boil the residue in water; filter, evaporate the filtrate
+to dryness, and then, with a strong heat, render it free of water.
+Powder it while it is warm, and preserve it in closed vials. It is
+used for the detection of small quantities of charcoal in compound
+substances, as it shares its oxygen with the carbonaceous matter, the
+antimony becomes separated, and carbonate of potassa is produced,
+which restores red litmus paper to blue, and effervesces with acids.
+
+
+18. _Silver Foil._--A small piece of silver foil is used for the
+purpose of detecting sulphur and the sulphides of the metals, which
+impart a dark stain to it. If no silver foil is at hand, strips of
+filtering paper, impregnated with acetate of lead, will answer in many
+cases.
+
+
+19. _Nitroprusside of Sodium_ (Fe^{2}Cy^{5}, NO^{5}, 2Na).--This is a
+very delicate test for sulphur, and was discovered by Dr. Playfair.
+This test has lately been examined with considerable ability by Prof.
+J.W. Bailey, of West Point. If any sulphate or sulphide is heated by
+the blowpipe upon charcoal with the carbonate of soda, and the fused
+mass is placed on a watch-glass, with a little water, and a small
+piece of the nitroprusside of sodium is added, there will be produced
+a splendid purple color. This color, or reaction, will be produced
+from any substance containing sulphur, such as the parings of the
+nails, hair, albumen, etc. In regard to these latter substances, the
+carbonate of soda should be mixed with a little starch, which will
+prevent the loss of any of the sulphur by oxidation. Coil a piece of
+hair around a platinum wire, moisten it, and dip it into a mixture of
+carbonate of soda, to which a little starch has been added, and then
+heat it with the blowpipe, when the fused mass will give with the
+nitroprusside of sodium the characteristic purple reaction, indicative
+of the presence of sulphur. With the proper delicacy of manipulation,
+a piece of hair, half an inch in length, will give distinct
+indications of sulphur.
+
+_Preparation._--The nitroprussides of sodium and potassium (for either
+salt will give the above reactions), are prepared as follows: One atom
+(422 grains) of pulverized ferrocyanide of potassium is mixed with
+five atoms of commercial nitric acid, diluted with an equal quantity
+of water. One-fifth of this quantity (one atom) of the acid is
+sufficient to transfer the ferrocyanide into nitroprusside; but the
+use of a larger quantity is found to give the best results. The acid
+is poured all at once upon the ferrocyanide, the cold produced by the
+mixing being sufficient to moderate the action. The mixture first
+assumes a milky appearance, but after a little while, the salt
+dissolves, forming a coffee-colored solution, and gases are disengaged
+in abundance. When the salt is completely dissolved, the solution is
+found to contain ferrocyanide (red prussiate) of potassium, mixed with
+nitroprusside and nitrate of the same base. It is then immediately
+decanted into a large flask, and heated over the water-bath. It
+continues to evolve gas, and after awhile, no longer yields a dark
+blue precipitate with ferrous salts, but a dark green or slate-colored
+precipitate. It is then removed from the fire, and left to
+crystallize, whereupon it yields a large quantity of crystals of
+nitre, and more or less oxamide. The strongly-colored mother liquid is
+then neutralized with carbonate of potash or soda, according to the
+salt to be prepared, and the solution is boiled, whereupon it
+generally deposits a green or brown precipitate, which must be
+separated by filtration. The liquid then contains nothing but
+nitroprusside and nitrate of potash or soda. The nitrates being the
+least soluble, are first crystallized, and the remaining liquid, on
+farther evaporation, yields crystals of the nitroprusside. The sodium
+salt crystallizes most easily.--(PLAYFAIR.)
+
+As some substances, particularly in complicated compounds, are not
+detected with sufficient nicety in the dry way of analysis, it will
+often be necessary to resort to the wet way. It is therefore necessary
+to have prepared the reagents required for such testing, as every
+person, before he can become an expert blowpipe analyst, must be
+acquainted with the characteristic tests as applied in the wet way.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+Part II.
+
+INITIATORY ANALYSIS.
+
+
+Qualitative analysis refers to those examinations which relate simply
+to the presence or the absence of certain substances, irrespective of
+their quantities. But before we take cognizance of special
+examinations, it would facilitate the progress of the student to pass
+through a course of Initiatory Exercises. These at once lead into the
+special analysis of all those substances susceptible of examination by
+the blowpipe. The Initiatory Analysis is best studied by adopting the
+following arrangement:
+
+
+1. EXAMINATIONS WITH THE GLASS BULB.
+
+
+The glass of which the bulb is made should be entirely free from lead,
+otherwise fictitious results will ensue. If the bulb be of flint
+glass, then by heating it, there is a slightly iridescent film caused
+upon the surface of the glass, which may easily be mistaken for
+arsenic. Besides, this kind of glass is easily fusible in the
+oxidating flame of the blowpipe, while, in the reducing flame, its
+ready decomposition would preclude its use entirely. The tube should
+be composed of the potash or hard Bohemian glass, should be perfectly
+white, and very thin, or the heat will crack it.
+
+The tube should be perfectly clean, which can be easily attained by
+wrapping a clean cotton rag around a small stick, and inserting it in
+the tube. Before using the tube, see also that it is perfectly dry.
+
+The quantity of the substance put into the tube for examination should
+be small. From one to three grains is quite sufficient, as a general
+rule, but circumstances vary the quantity. The sides of the tube
+should not catch any of the substance as it is being placed at the
+bottom of the tube, or into the bulb. If any of the powder, however,
+should adhere, it should be pushed down with a roll of clean paper, or
+the clean cotton rag referred to above.
+
+In submitting the tube to the flame, it should be heated at first very
+gently, the heat being increased until the glass begins to soften,
+when the observations of what is ensuing within it may be made.
+
+If the substance be of an organic nature, a peculiar empyreumatic odor
+will be given off. If the substance chars, then it may be inferred
+that it is of an organic nature. The matters which are given off and
+cause the empyreumatic odor, are a peculiar oil, ammonia, carbonic
+acid, acetic acid, water, cyanogen, and frequently other compounds. If
+a piece of paper is heated in the bulb, a dark colored oil condenses
+upon the sides of the tube, which has a strong empyreumatic odor. A
+piece of litmus paper indicates that this oil is acid, as it is
+quickly changed to red by contact with it. A black residue is now left
+in the tube, and upon examination we will find that it is charcoal.
+If, instead of the paper, a piece of animal substance is placed in
+the bulb, the reddened litmus paper will be converted into its
+original blue color, while charcoal will be left at the bottom of the
+tube.
+
+A changing of the substance, however, to a dark color, should not be
+accepted as an invariable indication of charcoal, as some inorganic
+bodies thus change color, but the dark substance will not be likely to
+be mistaken for charcoal. By igniting the suspected substance with
+nitrate of potassa, it can quickly be ascertained whether it is
+organic or not, for if the latter, the vivid deflagration will
+indicate it.
+
+If the substance contains water, it will condense upon the cold
+portion of the tube, and may be there examined as to whether it is
+acid or alkaline. If the former, the matter under examination is,
+perhaps, vegetable; if the latter, it is of an animal nature. The
+water may be that fluid absorbed, or it may form a portion of its
+constitution,
+
+If the substance contain _sulphur_, the sublimate upon the cold part
+of the tube may be recognized by its characteristic appearance,
+especially if the substance should be a sulphide of tin, copper,
+antimony, or iron. The hyposulphites, and several other sulphides,
+also give off sulphur when heated. The volatile metals, mercury and
+arsenic, will, however, sublime without undergoing decomposition. As
+the sulphide of arsenic may be mistaken, from its color and
+appearance, for sulphur, it must be examined especially for the
+purpose of determining that point.
+
+_Selenium_ will likewise sublime by heat as does sulphur. This is the
+case if selenides are present. Selenium gives off the smell of decayed
+horse-radish.
+
+When the persalts are heated they are reduced to protosalts, with the
+elimination of a part of their acid. This will be indicated by the
+blue litmus paper.
+
+If some of the neutral salts containing a volatile acid be present,
+they will become decomposed. For instance, the red nitrous acid water
+of the nitrates will indicate the decomposition of the salt,
+especially if it be the nitrate of a metallic oxide.
+
+If there is an odor of sulphur, then it is quite probable, if no free
+sulphur be present, that a hyposulphite is decomposed.
+
+If an oxalate be present, it is decomposed with the evolution of
+carbonic oxide, which may be inflamed at the mouth of the tube; but
+there are oxalates that give off carbonic acid gas, which, of course,
+will not burn. A cyanide will become decomposed and eliminate nitrogen
+gas, while the residue is charred. Some cyanides are, however, not
+thus decomposed, as the dry cyanides of the earths and alkalies.
+
+There are several oxides of metals which will sublime, and may be thus
+examined in the tube. _Arsenious acid_ sublimes with great ease in
+minute octohedral crystals. The oxides of tellurium and antimony will
+sublime, the latter in minute glittering needles.
+
+There are several metals which will sublime, and may be examined in
+the cold portion of the tube. _Mercury_ condenses upon the tube in
+minute globules. These often do not present the metallic appearance
+until they are disturbed with a glass rod, when they attract each
+other, and adhere as small globules. Place in the tube about a grain
+of red precipitate of the drug stores and apply heat, when the oxide
+will become decomposed, its oxygen will escape while the vaporized
+mercury will condense upon the cold portion of the tube, and may there
+be examined with a magnifying glass.
+
+_Arsenic_, when vaporized, may be known by its peculiar alliaceous
+odor. Arsenic is vaporized from its metallic state, and likewise from
+its alloys. Several compounds which contain arsenic will also sublime,
+such as the arsenical cobalt. Place in the bulb a small piece of
+arsenical cobalt or "fly-stone," and apply heat. The sulphide of
+arsenic will first rise, but soon the arsenic will adhere to the sides
+of the tube.
+
+The metals tellurium and cadmium are susceptible of solution, but the
+heat required is a high one. This is best done upon charcoal.
+
+The _perchloride of mercury_ sublimes undecomposed in the bulb,
+previously undergoing fusion.
+
+The _protochloride of mercury_ likewise sublimes, but it does not
+undergo fusion first, as is the case with the corrosive sublimate.
+
+The _ammoniacal salts_ all are susceptible of sublimation, which they
+do without leaving a residue. There are, however, several which
+contain fixed acids, which latter are left in the bulb. This is
+particularly the case with the phosphates and borates. A piece of red
+litmus paper will readily detect the escaping ammonia, while its odor
+will indicate its presence with great certainty. The halogen compounds
+of mercury, we should have mentioned, also sublime, the red iodide
+giving a yellow sublimate.
+
+The bulb is also a convenient little instrument for the purpose of
+heating those substances which phosphoresce, and likewise those salts
+that decrepitate.
+
+Should the above reactions not be readily discerned, it should not be
+considered as an indication that the substances are not present, for
+they are frequently expelled in such combinations that the above
+reactions will not take place. This is often the case with sulphur,
+selenium, arsenic, and tellurium. It frequently happens, likewise,
+that these substances are in such combinations that heat alone will
+not sublime them; or else two or more of them may arise together, and
+thus complicate the sublimate, so that the eye cannot readily detect
+either substance. Sometimes sulphur and arsenic will coat the tube
+with a metal-like appearance, which is deceptive. This coating
+presents a metallic lustre at its lower portion, but changing, as it
+progresses upward, to a dark brown, light brown, orange or yellow;
+this sublimate being due to combinations of arsenic and sulphur, which
+compounds are volatilized at a lower temperature than metallic
+arsenic.
+
+If certain reagents are mixed with many substances, changes are
+effected which would not ensue with heat alone. _Formiate of soda_
+possesses the property of readily reducing metallic oxides. When this
+salt is heated, it gives off a quantity of carbonic oxide gas. This
+gas, when in the presence of a metallic oxide, easily reduces the
+metal, by withdrawing its oxygen from it, and being changed into
+carbonic oxide. If a little fly-stone is mixed with some formiate of
+soda, and heated in the bulb, the arsenic is reduced, volatilized, and
+condenses in the cool portion of the tube. By this method, the
+smallest portion of a grain of the arsenical compound may be thus
+examined with the greatest readiness. If the residue is now washed, by
+which the soda is got rid of, the metallic arsenic may be obtained in
+small spangles. If the compound examined be the sulphide of antimony,
+the one-thousandth part can be readily detected, and hence this method
+is admirably adapted to the examination of medicinal antimonial
+compounds. The arsenites of silver and copper are reduced by the
+formiate of soda to their metals, mixed with metallic arsenic. The
+mercurial salts are all reduced with the metal plainly visible as a
+bright silvery ring on the cool portion of the tube. The chloride and
+nitrate of silver are completely reduced, and may be obtained after
+working out the soda, as bright metallic spangles. The salts of
+antimony and zinc are thus reduced; also the sulphate of cadmium. The
+sublimate of the latter, although in appearance not unlike that of
+arsenic, can easily be distinguished by its brighter color. It is, in
+fact, the rich yellow of this sublimate which has led artists to adopt
+it as one of their most valued pigments.
+
+
+2. EXAMINATIONS IN THE OPEN TUBE.
+
+
+The substance to be operated upon should be placed in the tube, about
+half an inch from the end, and the flame applied at first very
+cautiously, increasing gradually to the required temperature. The
+tube, in all these _roasting_ operations, as they are termed, should
+be held in an inclined position. The nearer perpendicular the tube is
+held, the stronger is the draught of air that passes through it. If
+but little heat is required in the open tube operation, the
+spirit-lamp is the best method of applying the heat. But if a greater
+temperature is required, then recourse must be had to the blowpipe.
+Upon the angle of inclination of the tube depends the amount of air
+that passes through it, and therefore, the rapidity of the draught
+may be easily regulated at the will of the operator. The inclination
+of the tube may, as a general rule, be about the angle represented in
+Fig. 14.
+
+[Illustration Fig. 14.]
+
+The length of the tube must be about six inches, so that the portion
+upon which the substance rested in a previous examination may be cut
+off. The portion of the tube left will answer for several similar
+operations.
+
+When the substance is under examination, we should devote our
+attention to the nature of the sublimates, and to that of the _odors_
+of the gases. If sulphur be in the substance experimented upon, the
+characteristic odor of sulphurous acid gas will readily indicate the
+sulphur. If metallic sulphides, for instance, are experimented upon,
+the sulphurous acid gas eliminated will readily reveal their presence.
+As it is a property of this gas to bleach, a piece of Brazil-wood test
+paper should be held in the mouth of the tube, when its loss of color
+will indicate the presence of the sulphurous acid. It often happens,
+too, that a slight deposition of sulphur will be observed upon the
+cool portion of the tube. This is particularly the case with those
+sulphides, which yield sublimates of sulphur when heated in the bulb.
+
+_Selenium_ undergoes but slight oxidation, but it becomes readily
+volatilized, and may be observed on the cool portion of the tube. At
+the same time the nose, if applied close to the end of the tube, will
+detect the characteristic odor of rotten horse-radish. Arsenic also
+gives its peculiar alliaceous odor, which is so characteristic that it
+can be easily detected. A few of the arsenides produce this odor. The
+_sublimates_ should be carefully observed, as they indicate often with
+great certainty the presence of certain substances; for instance, that
+of arsenic. The sublimate, in this case, presents itself as the
+arsenious acid, or the metallic arsenic itself. If it be the former,
+it may be discerned by aid of the magnifying glass as beautiful
+glittering octohedral crystals. If the latter, the metallic lustre
+will reveal it.
+
+But it will be observed that while some of the arsenides are sublimed
+at a comparatively low temperature, others require a very high one.
+
+_Antimony_ gives a white sublimate when its salts are roasted, as the
+sulphide, or the antimonides themselves, or the oxide of this metal.
+This white sublimate is not antimonious acid, but there is mixed with
+it the oxide of antimony with which the acid is sublimed. As is the
+case with arsenious acid, the antimonious acid may, by dexterous
+heating, be driven from one portion of the tube to another.
+
+_Tellurium_, or its acid and oxide, may be got as a sublimate in the
+tube. The tellurious acid, unlike the arsenious and antimonious acids,
+cannot be driven from one portion of the tube to another, but, on the
+contrary, it fuses into small clear globules, visible to the naked eye
+sometimes, but quite so with the aid of the magnifying glass.
+
+_Lead_, or its chloride, sublimes like tellurium, and, like that
+substance, fuses into globules or drops.
+
+_Bismuth_, or its sulphide, sublimes into an orange or brownish
+globules, when it is melted, as directed above, for tellurium. The
+color of the bismuth and lead oxides are somewhat similar, although
+that of the latter is paler.
+
+If any mineral containing _fluorine_, is fused, first with the
+microcosmic salt bead, then put into the tube, and the flame of the
+blowpipe be directed _into_ the tube upon the bead, hydrofluoric acid
+is disengaged and attacks the inside of the tube. The fluoride of
+calcium, or fluorspar, may be used for this experiment.
+
+During the roasting, a brisk current of air should be allowed to pass
+through the tube, whereby unoxidized matter may be prevented from
+volatilization, and the clogging up of the substance under examination
+be prevented.
+
+
+3. EXAMINATIONS UPON CHARCOAL.
+
+
+In making examinations upon charcoal, it is quite necessary that the
+student should make himself familiar with the different and
+characteristic appearances of the deposits upon the charcoal. In this
+case I have found the advice given by Dr. Sherer to be the best; that
+is, to begin with the examination of the pure materials first, until
+the eye becomes familiarized with the appearances of their
+incrustations upon charcoal.
+
+The greater part of the metals fuse when submitted to the heat of the
+blowpipe, and if exposed to the outer flame, they oxidize. These
+metals, termed the noble metals, do not oxidize, but they fuse. The
+metals platinum, iridium, rhodium, osmium and palladium do not fuse.
+The metal osmium, if exposed to the flame of oxidation, fuses and is
+finally dissipated as osmic acid. In the latter flame, the salts of
+the noble metals are reduced to the metallic state, and the charcoal
+is covered with the bright metal.
+
+We shall give a brief description of the appearance of the principal
+elementary bodies upon being fused with charcoal. This plan is that
+deemed the most conducive to the progress of the student, by
+Berzelius, Plattner, and Sherer. Experience has taught us that this
+method is the most efficient that could have been devised as an
+initiatory exercise for the student, ere he commences a more concise
+and methodical method of analysis. In these reactions upon charcoal,
+we shall follow nearly the language of Plattner and Sherer.
+
+SELENIUM is not difficult of fusion, and gives off brown fumes in
+either the oxidation or reduction flame. The deposit upon the charcoal
+is of a steel-grey color, with a slightly metallic lustre. The deposit
+however that fuses outside of this steel-grey one is of a dull violet
+color, shading off to a light brown. Under the flame of oxidation this
+deposit is easily driven from one portion of the charcoal to another,
+while the application of the reducing flame volatilizes it with the
+evolution of a beautiful blue light. The characteristic odor of
+decayed horse-radish distinguishes the volatilization of this metal.
+
+TELLURIUM.--This metal fuses with the greatest readiness, and is
+reduced to vapor under both flames with fumes, and coats the charcoal
+with a deposit of tellurous acid. This deposit is white near the
+centre, and is of a dark yellow near the edges. It may be driven from
+place to place by the flame of oxidation, while that of reduction
+volatilizes it with a green flame. If there be a mixture of selenium
+present, then the color of the flame is bluish-green.
+
+ARSENIC.--This metal is volatilized without fusing, and covers the
+charcoal both in the oxidizing and reducing flames with a deposit of
+arsenious acid. This coating is white in the centre, and grey towards
+the edges, and is found some distance from the assay. By the most
+gentle application of the flame, it is immediately volatilized, and if
+touched for a moment with the reducing flame, it disappears, tinging
+the flame pale blue. During volatilization a strong garlic odor is
+distinctly perceptible, very characteristic of arsenic, and by which
+its presence in any compound may be immediately recognized.
+
+ANTIMONY.--This metal fuses readily, and coats the charcoal under both
+flames with antimonious acid. This incrustation is of a white color
+where thick, but of a bluish tint where it is thin, and is found
+nearer to the assay than that of arsenic. When greatly heated by the
+flame of oxidation, it is driven from place to place without coloring
+the flame, but when volatilized by the flame of reduction, it tinges
+the flame blue. As antimonious acid is not so volatile as arsenious
+acid, they may thus be easily distinguished from one another.
+
+When metallic antimony is fused upon charcoal, and the metallic bead
+raised to a red heat, if the blast be suspended, the fluid bead
+remains for some time at this temperature, giving off opaque white
+fumes, which are at first deposited on the surrounding charcoal, and
+then upon the bead itself, covering it with white, pearly crystals.
+The phenomenon is dependent upon the fact, that the heated button of
+antimony, in absorbing oxygen from the air, developes sufficient heat
+to maintain the metal in a fluid state, until it becomes entirely
+covered with crystals of antimonious acid so formed.
+
+BISMUTH.--This metal fuses with ease, and under both flames covers the
+charcoal with a coating of oxide, which, while hot, is of an
+orange-yellow color, and after cooling, of a lemon-yellow color,
+passing, at the edges, into a bluish white. This white coating
+consists of the carbonate of bismuth. The sublimate from bismuth is
+formed at a less distance from the assay than is the case with
+antimony. It may be driven from place to place by the application of
+either flame; but in so doing, the oxide is first reduced by the
+heated charcoal, and the metallic bismuth so formed is volatilized and
+reoxidized. The flame is uncolored.
+
+LEAD.--This metal readily fuses under either flame, and incrusts the
+charcoal with oxide at about the same distance from the assay as is
+the case with bismuth. The oxide is, while hot, of a dark lemon-yellow
+color, but upon cooling, becomes of a sulphur yellow. The carbonate
+which is formed upon the charcoal, beyond the oxide, is of a
+bluish-white color. If the yellow incrustation of the oxide be heated
+with the flame of oxidation, it disappears, undergoing changes similar
+to those of bismuth above mentioned. Under the flame of reduction,
+it, however, disappears, tinging the flame blue.
+
+CADMIUM.--This metal fuses with ease, and, in the flame of oxidation,
+takes fire, and burns with a deep yellow color, giving off brown
+fumes, which coat the charcoal, to within a small distance of the
+assay, with oxide of cadmium. This coating exhibits its characteristic
+reddish-brown color most clearly when cold. Where the coating is very
+thin, it passes to an orange color. As oxide of cadmium is easily
+reduced, and the metal very volatile, the coating of oxide may be
+driven from place to place by the application of either flame, to
+neither of which does it impart any color. Around the deposit of
+oxide, the charcoal has occasionally a variegated tarnish.
+
+ZINC.--This metal fuses with ease, and takes fire in the flame of
+oxidation, burning with a brilliant greenish-white light, and forming
+thick white fumes of oxide of zinc, which coat the charcoal round the
+assay. This coating is yellow while hot, but when perfectly cooled,
+becomes white. If heated with the flame of oxidation, it shines
+brilliantly, but is not volatilized, since the heated charcoal is,
+under these circumstances, insufficient to effect its reduction. Even
+under the reducing flame, it disappears very slowly.
+
+TIN.--This metal fuses readily, and, in the flame of oxidation,
+becomes covered with oxide, which, by a strong blast, may be easily
+blown off. In the reducing flame, the fused metal assumes a white
+surface, and the charcoal becomes covered with oxide. This oxide is of
+a pale yellow color while hot, and is quite brilliant when the flame
+of oxidation is directed upon it. After cooling, it becomes white. It
+is found immediately around the assay, and cannot be volatilized by
+the application of either flame.
+
+MOLYBDENUM.--This metal, in powder, is infusible before the blowpipe.
+If heated in the outer flame, it becomes gradually oxidized, and
+incrusts the charcoal, at a small distance from the assay, with
+molybdic acid, which, near the assay, forms transparent crystalline
+scales, and is elsewhere deposited as a fine powder. The incrustation,
+while hot, is of a yellow color, but becomes white after cooling. It
+may be volatilized by heating with either flame, and leaves the
+surface of the charcoal, when perfectly cooled, of a dark-red copper
+color, with a metallic lustre, due to the oxide of molybdenum, which
+has been formed by the reducing action of the charcoal upon the
+molybdic acid. In the reducing flame, metallic molybdenum remains
+unchanged.
+
+SILVER.--This metal, when fused alone, and kept in this state for some
+time, under a strong oxidizing flame, covers the charcoal with a thin
+film of dark reddish-brown oxide. If the silver be alloyed with lead,
+a yellow incrustation of the oxide of that metal is first formed, and
+afterwards, as the silver becomes more pure, a dark red deposit is
+formed on the charcoal beyond. If the silver contains a small quantity
+of antimony, a white incrustation of antimonious acid is formed, which
+becomes red on the surface if the blast be continued. And if lead and
+antimony are both present in the silver, after the greater part of
+these metals have been volatilized, a beautiful crimson incrustation
+is produced upon the charcoal. This result is sometimes obtained in
+fusing rich silver ores on charcoal.
+
+
+SULPHIDES, CHLORIDES, IODIDES, AND BROMIDES.
+
+In blowpipe experiments, it rarely occurs that we have to deal with
+pure metals, which, if not absolutely non-volatile, are recognized by
+the incrustation they form upon charcoal. Some compound substances,
+when heated upon charcoal, form white incrustations, resembling that
+formed by antimony, and which, when heated, may, in like manner, be
+driven from place to place. Among these are certain sulphides, as
+sulphide of potassium, and sulphide of sodium, which are formed by the
+action of the reducing flame upon the sulphates of potassa and soda,
+and are, when volatilized, reconverted into those sulphates, and as
+such deposited on the charcoal. No incrustation is, however, formed,
+until the whole of the alkaline sulphate has been absorbed into the
+charcoal, and has parted with its oxygen. As sulphide of potassium is
+more volatile than sulphide of sodium, an incrustation is formed from
+the former sooner than from the latter of these salts, and is
+considerably thicker in the former case. If the potash incrustation be
+touched with the reducing flame, it disappears with a violet-colored
+flame; and if a soda incrustation be treated in like manner, an
+orange-yellow flame is produced.
+
+Sulphide of lithium, formed by heating the sulphate in the reducing
+flame, is volatilized in similar manner by a strong blast, although
+less readily than the sulphide of sodium. It affords a greyish white
+film, which disappears with a crimson flame when submitted to the
+reducing flame.
+
+Besides the above, the sulphides of bismuth and lead give, when heated
+in either flame, two different incrustations, of which the more
+volatile is of a white color, and consists in the one case of sulphate
+of lead, and in the other of sulphate of bismuth. If either of these
+be heated under the reducing flame, it disappears in the former case
+with a bluish flame, in the latter unaccompanied by any visible flame.
+The incrustation formed nearest to the assay consists of the oxide of
+lead or bismuth, and is easily recognized by its color when hot and
+after cooling. There are many other metallic sulphides, which, when
+heated by the blowpipe flame, cover the charcoal with a white
+incrustation, as sulphide of antimony, sulphide of zinc, and sulphide
+of tin. In all these cases, however, the incrustation consists of the
+metallic oxide alone, and either volatilizes or remains unchanged,
+when submitted to the oxidizing flame.
+
+Of the metallic chlorides there are many which, when heated on
+charcoal with the blowpipe flame, are volatilized and redeposited as a
+white incrustation. Among these are the chlorides of potassium,
+sodium, and lithium, which volatilize and cover the charcoal
+immediately around the assay with a thin white film, after they have
+been fused and absorbed into the charcoal, chloride of potassium forms
+the thickest deposit, and chloride of lithium the thinnest, the
+latter being moreover of a greyish-white color. The chlorides of
+ammonium, mercury, and antimony volatilize without fusing.
+
+The chlorides of zinc, cadmium, lead, bismuth, and tin first fuse and
+then cover the charcoal with two different incrustations, one of which
+is a white volatile chloride, and the other a less volatile oxide of
+the metal.
+
+Some of the incrustations formed by metallic chlorides disappear with
+a colored flame when heated with the reducing flame; thus chloride of
+potassium affords a violet flame, chloride of sodium an orange one,
+chloride of lithium a crimson flame, and chloride of lead a blue one.
+The other metals mentioned above volatilize without coloring the
+flame.
+
+The chloride of copper fuses and colors the flame of a beautiful blue.
+Moreover, if a continuous blast be directed upon the salt, a part of
+it is driven off in the form of white fumes which smell strongly of
+chlorine, and the charcoal is covered with incrustations of three
+different colors. That which is formed nearest to the assay is of a
+dark grey color, the next, a dark yellow passing into brown, and the
+most distant of a bluish white color. If this incrustation be heated
+under the reducing flame, it disappears with a blue flame.
+
+Metallic iodides and bromides behave upon charcoal in a similar manner
+to the chlorides. Those principally deserving of mention are the
+bromides and iodides of potassium and sodium. These fuse upon
+charcoal, are absorbed into its pores, and volatilize in the form of
+white fumes, which are deposited upon the charcoal at some distance
+from the assay. When the saline films so formed are submitted to the
+reducing flame, they disappear, coloring the flame in the same manner
+as the corresponding chlorides.
+
+
+4. EXAMINATIONS IN THE PLATINUM FORCEPS.
+
+
+Before the student attempts to make an examination in the platinum
+forceps or tongs, he should first ascertain whether or not it will
+act upon the platinum. If the substance to be examined shall act
+chemically upon the platinum, then it should be examined on the
+charcoal, and the color of the flame ascertained as rigidly as
+possible. The following list of substances produce the color attached
+to them.
+
+A. VIOLET.
+
+  Potash, and all its compounds, with the exception of the phosphate
+  and the borate, tinge the color of the flame violet.
+
+B. BLUE.
+
+  Chloride of copper,  Intense blue.
+  Lead,                Pale clear blue.
+  Bromide of copper,   Bluish green.
+  Antimony,            Bluish green.
+  Selenium,            Blue.
+  Arsenic,             English green.
+
+C. GREEN.
+
+  Ammonia,             Dark green.
+  Boracic acid,        Dark green.
+  Copper,              Dark green.
+  Tellurium,           Dark green.
+  Zinc,                Light green.
+  Baryta               Apple green.
+  Phosphoric acid,     Pale green.
+  Molybdic acid,       Apple green.
+  Telluric acid,       Light green.
+
+D. YELLOW.
+
+  Soda,                Intense yellow.
+  Water,               Feeble yellow.
+
+E. RED.
+
+  Strontia,            Intense crimson.
+  Lithia,              Purplish red.
+  Potash,              Violet red.
+  Lime,                Purplish red.
+
+The student may often be deceived in regard to the colors: for
+instance, if a small splinter of almost any mineral be held at the
+point of the flame of oxidation, it will impart a very slight yellow
+to the flame. This is caused, doubtless, by the water contained in the
+mineral. If the piece of platinum wire is used, and it should be wet
+with the saliva, as is frequently done by the student, then the small
+quantity of soda existing in that fluid will color the flame of a
+light yellow hue.
+
+
+A. THE VIOLET COLOR.
+
+The salts of potash, with the exception of the borate and the
+phosphate, color the flame of a rich violet hue. This color is best
+discovered in the outer flame of the blowpipe, as is the case with all
+the other colors. The flame should be a small one, with a lamp having
+a small wick, while the orifice of the blowpipe must be quite small.
+These experiments should likewise be made in a dark room, so that the
+colors may be discerned with the greatest ease. In investigating with
+potash for the discernment of color, it should be borne in mind that
+the least quantity of soda will entirely destroy the violet color of
+the potash, by the substitution of its own strong yellow color. If
+there be not more than the two hundredth part of soda, the violet
+reaction of the potash will be destroyed. This is likewise the case
+with the presence of lithia, for its peculiar red color will destroy
+the violet of the potash. Therefore in making investigations with the
+silicates which contain potash, the violet color of the latter can
+only be discerned when they are free from soda and lithia.
+
+
+B. THE BLUE COLOR.
+
+(_a._) _The Chloride of Copper._--Any of the chlorides produce a blue
+color in the blowpipe flame, or any salt which contains chlorine will
+show the blue tint, as the color in this case is referable to the
+chlorine itself. There are, however, some chlorides which, in
+consequence of the peculiar reactions of their bases, will not produce
+the blue color, although in these cases the blue of the chlorine will
+be very likely to blend itself with the color produced by the base.
+The chloride of copper communicates an intense blue to the flame, when
+fused on the platinum wire. If the heat be continued until the
+chlorine is driven off, then the greenish hue of the oxide of copper
+will be discerned.
+
+(_b._) _Lead._--Metallic lead communicates to the flame a pale blue
+color. The oxide reacts in the same manner. The lead-salts, whose
+acids do not interfere with the color, impart also a fine blue to the
+flame, either in the platina forceps, or the crooked wire.
+
+(_c._) _Bromide of Copper._--This salt colors the flame of a
+bluish-green color, but when the bromine is driven off, then we have
+the green of the oxide of copper.
+
+(_d._) _Antimony._--This metal imparts a blue color to the blowpipe
+flame, but if the metal is in too small a quantity, then the color is
+a brilliant white. If antimony is fused on charcoal, the fused metal
+gives a blue color. The white sublimate which surrounds the fused
+metal, being subjected to the flame of oxidation, disappears from the
+charcoal with a bluish-green color.
+
+(_e._) _Selenium._--If fused in the flame of oxidation, it imparts to
+the flame a deep blue color. The incrustation upon charcoal gives to
+the flame the same rich color.
+
+(_f._) _Arsenic._--The arseniates and metallic arsenic itself impart
+to the blowpipe flame a fine blue color, provided that there is no
+other body present which may have a tendency to color the flame with
+its characteristic hue. The sublimate of arsenious acid which
+surrounds the assay, will give the same blue flame, when dissipated by
+the oxidation flame. The platinum forceps will answer for the
+exhibition of the color of arsenic, even though the salts be
+arseniates, whose bases possess the property of imparting their
+peculiar color to the flame, such as the arseniate of lime.
+
+
+C. THE GREEN COLOR.
+
+(_a._) _Ammonia._--The salts of ammonia, when heated before the
+blowpipe, and just upon the point of disappearing, impart to the flame
+a feeble though dark green color. This color, however, can only be
+discerned in a dark room.
+
+(_b._) _Boracic Acid._--If any one of the borates is mixed with two
+parts of a flux composed of one part of pulverized fluorspar, and four
+and a half parts of bisulphate of potash, and after being melted, is
+put upon the coil of a platinum wire, and held at the point of the
+blue flame, soon after fusion takes place a dark green color is
+discerned, but it is not of long duration. The above process is that
+recommended by Dr. Turner. The green color of the borates may be
+readily seen by dipping them, previously moistened with sulphuric
+acid, into the upper part of the blue flame, when the color can be
+readily discerned. If soda be present, then the rich green of the
+boracic acid is marred by the yellow of the soda. Borax, or the
+biborate of soda (NaO, 2BO_{3}) may be used for this latter reaction,
+but if it be moistened with sulphuric acid, the green of the boracic
+acid can then be seen. If the borates, or minerals which contain
+boracic acid, are fused on charcoal with carbonate of potash, then
+moistened with sulphuric acid and alcohol, then the bright green of
+the boracic acid is produced, even if the mineral contains but a
+minute portion of the boracic acid.
+
+(_c._) _Copper_. Nearly all the ores of copper and its salts, give a
+bright green color to the blowpipe flame. Metallic copper likewise
+colors the flame green, being first oxidized. If iodine, chlorine, and
+bromine are present, the flame is considerably modified, but the
+former at least intensifies the color. Many ores containing copper
+also color the flame green, but the internal portion is of a bright
+blue color if the compound contains lead, the latter color being due
+to the lead. The native sulphide and carbonate of copper should be
+moistened with sulphuric acid, while the former should be previously
+roasted. If hydrochloric acid is used for moistening the salts, then
+the rich green given by that moistened with the sulphuric acid is
+changed to a blue, being thus modified by the chlorine of the acid.
+Silicates containing copper, if heated in the flame in the platinum
+forceps, impart a rich green color to the outer flame. In fact, if any
+substance containing copper be submitted to the blowpipe flame, it
+will tinge it green, provided there be no other substance present to
+impart its own color to the flame, and thus modify or mar that of the
+copper.
+
+(_d._) _Tellurium._--If the flame of reduction is directed upon the
+oxide of tellurium placed upon charcoal, a green color is imparted to
+it. If the telluric acid be placed upon platinum wire in the reduction
+flame, the oxidation flame is colored green. Or if the sublimate be
+dissipated by the flame of oxidation, it gives a green color. If
+selenium be present, the green color is changed to a blue.
+
+(_e._) _Zinc._--The oxide of zinc, when strongly heated, gives a blue
+flame. This is especially the case in the reducing flame. The flame is
+a small one, however, and not very characteristic, as with certain
+preparations of zinc the blue color is changed to a bright white. The
+soluble salts of zinc give no blue color.
+
+(_f._) _Baryta._--The soluble salts of baryta, moistened, and then
+submitted to the reduction flame, produce a green color. The salt
+should be moistened, when the color will be strongly marked in the
+outer flame. The insoluble salts do not produce so vivid a color as
+the soluble salts, and they are brighter when they have previously
+been moistened. The carbonate does not give a strong color, but the
+acetate does, so long as it is not allowed to turn to a carbonate. The
+chloride, when fused on the platinum wire, in the point of the
+reduction flame, imparts a fine green color to the oxidation flame.
+This tint changes finally to a faint dirty green color. The sulphate
+of baryta colors the flame green when heated at the point of the
+reduction flame. But neither the sulphate, carbonate, nor, in fact,
+any other salt of baryta, gives such a fine green color as the
+chloride. The presence of lime does interfere with the reaction of
+baryta, but still does not destroy its color.
+
+(_g._) _Phosphoric Acid._--The phosphates give a green color to the
+oxidation flame, especially when they are moistened with sulphuric
+acid. This is best shown with the platinum forceps. The green of
+phosphoric, or the phosphates, is much less intense than that of the
+borates or boracic acid, but yet the reaction is a certain one, and is
+susceptible of considerable delicacy, either with the forceps, or
+still better upon platinum wire. Sulphuric acid is a great aid to the
+development of the color, especially if other salts be present which
+would be liable to hide the color of the phosphoric acid. In this
+reaction with phosphates, the water should be expelled from them
+previous to melting them with sulphuric acid. They should likewise be
+pulverized. Should soda be present it will only exhibit its peculiar
+color after the phosphoric acid shall have been expelled; therefore,
+the green color of the phosphoric acid should be looked for
+immediately upon submitting the phosphate to heat.
+
+(_h._) _Molybdic Acid._--If this acid or the oxide of molybdenum be
+exposed upon a platinum wire to the point of the reduction flame, a
+bright green color is communicated to the flame of oxidation. Take a
+small piece of the native sulphide of molybdenum, and expose it in the
+platinum tongs to the flame referred to above, when the green color
+characteristic of this metal will be exhibited.
+
+(_i._) _Telluric Acid._--If the flame of reduction is directed upon a
+small piece of the oxide of tellurium placed upon charcoal, a bright
+green color is produced. Or if telluric acid be submitted to the
+reduction flame upon the loop of a platinum wire, it communicates to
+the outer flame the bright green of tellurium. If the sublimate found
+upon the charcoal in the first experiment be submitted to the blowpipe
+flame, the green color of tellurium is produced while the sublimate is
+volatilized. If selenium be present the green color is changed to a
+deep blue one.
+
+
+D. YELLOW.
+
+The salts of soda all give a bright yellow color when heated in the
+platinum loop in the reduction flame. This color is very persistent,
+and will destroy the color of almost any other substance. Every
+mineral of which soda is a constituent, give this bright orange-yellow
+reaction. Even the silicate of soda itself imparts to the flame of
+oxidation the characteristic yellow of soda.
+
+
+E. RED.
+
+(_a._) _Strontia._--Moisten a small piece of the chloride of
+strontium, put it in the platinum forceps and submit it to the flame
+of reduction, when the outer flame will become colored of an intense
+red. If the salt of strontia should be a soluble one, the reaction is
+of a deeper color than if an insoluble salt is used, while the color
+is of a deeper crimson if the salt is moistened. If the salt be a
+soluble one, it should be moistened and dipped into the flame, while
+if it be an insoluble salt, it should be kept dry and exposed beyond
+the point of the flame. The carbonate of strontia should be moistened
+with hydrochloric acid instead of water, by which its color similates
+that of the chloride of strontium when moistened with water. In
+consequence of the decided red color which strontia communicates to
+flame, it is used by pyrotechnists for the purpose of making their
+"crimson fire."
+
+(_b._) _Lithia._--The color of the flame of lithia is slightly
+inclined to purple. The chloride, when placed in the platinum loop,
+gives to the outer flame a bright red color, sometimes with a slight
+tinge of purple. Potash does not prevent this reaction, although it
+may modify it to violet; but the decided color of soda changes the red
+of lithia to an orange color. If much soda be present, the color of
+the lithia is lost entirely. The color of the chloride of lithium may
+be distinctly produced before the point of the blue flame, and its
+durability may be the means of determining it from that of lithium,
+as the latter, under the same conditions, is quite evanescent. The
+minerals which contain lithia, frequently contain soda, and thus the
+latter destroys the color of the former.
+
+(_c._) _Potash._--The salts of potash, if the acid does not interfere,
+give a purplish-red color before the blowpipe; but as the color is
+more discernibly a purple, we have classed it under that color.
+
+(_d._) _Lime._--The color of the flame of lime does not greatly differ
+from that of strontia, with the exception that it is not so decided.
+Arragonite and calcareous spar, moistened with hydrochloric acid, and
+tried as directed for strontia, produce a red light, not unlike that
+of strontia. The chloride of calcium gives a red tinge, but not nearly
+so decided as the chloride of strontium. The carbonate of lime will
+produce a yellowish flame for a while, until the carbonic acid is
+driven off, when the red color of the lime may be discerned.
+
+If the borate or phosphate of lime be used, the green color of the
+acids predominates over the red of the lime. Baryta also destroys the
+red color of the lime, by mixing its green color with it. There is but
+one silicate of lime which colors the flame red, it is the variety
+termed tabular spar.
+
+
+5. EXAMINATIONS IN THE BORAX BEAD.
+
+
+In order to examine a substance in borax, the loop of the platinum
+wire should, after being thoroughly cleaned, and heated to redness, be
+quickly dipped into the powdered borax, and then quickly transferred
+to the flame of oxidation, and there fused. If the bead is not large
+enough to fill the loop of the wire, it must be subjected again to the
+same process. By examining the bead, both when hot and cold, by
+holding it up against the light, it can be soon ascertained whether it
+is free from dirt by the transparency, or the want of it, of the bead.
+
+In order to make the examination of a substance, the bead should be
+melted and pressed against it, when enough will adhere to answer the
+purpose. This powder should then be fused in the oxidation flame until
+it mixes with, and is thoroughly dissolved by the borax bead.
+
+The principal objects to be determined now are: the color of the borax
+bead, both when heated and when cooled; also the rapidity with which
+the substance dissolves in the bead, and if any gas is eliminated.
+
+If the color of the bead is the object desired, the quantity of the
+substance employed must be very small, else the bead will be so deeply
+colored, as in some cases to appear almost opaque, as, for instance,
+in that of cobalt. Should this be the case, then, while the bead is
+still red hot, it should be pressed flat with the forceps; or it may,
+while soft, be pulled out to a thin thread, whereby the color can be
+distinctly discovered.
+
+Some bodies, when heated in the borax bead, present a clear bead both
+while hot and cold; but if the bead be heated with the intermittent
+flame, or in the flame of reduction, it becomes opalescent, opaque or
+milk-white. The alkaline earths are instances of this kind of
+reaction, also glucina oxide of cerium, tantalic and titanic acids,
+yttria and zirconia. But if a small portion of silica should be
+present, then the bead becomes clear. This is likewise the case with
+some silicates, provided there be not too large a quantity present,
+that is: over the quantity necessary to saturate the borax, for, in
+that case, the bead will be opaque when cool.
+
+If the bead be heated on charcoal, a small tube or cavity must be
+scooped out of the charcoal, the bead placed in it, and the flame of
+reduction played upon it. When the bead is perfectly fused, it is
+taken up between the platinum forceps and pressed flat, so that the
+color may be the more readily discerned. This quick cooling also
+prevents the protoxides, if there be any present, from passing into a
+higher degree of oxidation.
+
+The bead should first be submitted to the oxidation flame, and any
+reaction carefully observed. Then the bead should be submitted to the
+flame of reduction. It must be observed that the platinum forceps
+should not be used when there is danger of a metallic oxide being
+reduced, as in this case the metal would alloy with the platinum and
+spoil the forceps. In this case charcoal should be used for the
+support. If, however, there be oxides present which are not reduced by
+the borax, then the platinum loop may be used. Tin is frequently used
+for the purpose of enabling the bead to acquire a color for an oxide
+in the reducing flame, by its affinity for oxygen. The oxide, thus
+being reduced to a lower degree of oxidation, imparts its peculiar
+tinge to the bead as it cools.
+
+The arsenides and sulphides, before being examined, should be roasted,
+and then heated with the borax bead. The arsenic of the former, it
+should be observed, will act on the glass tube in which the
+sublimation is proceeding, if the glass should contain lead.
+
+It should be recollected that earths, metallic oxides, and metallic
+acids are soluble in borax, except those of the easily reducible
+metals, such as platinum or gold, or of mercury, which too readily
+vaporize. Also the metallic sulphides, after the sulphur has been
+driven off. Also the salts of metals, after their acids are driven off
+by heat. Also the nitrates and carbonates, after their acids are
+driven off during the fusion. Also the salts of the halogens, such as
+the chlorides, iodides, bromides, etc., of the metals. Also the
+silicates, but with great tardiness. Also the phosphates and borates
+that fuse in the bead without suffering decomposition. The metallic
+sulphides are insoluble in borax, and many of the metals in the pure
+state.
+
+There are many substances which give clear beads with borax both while
+hot and cold, but which, upon being heated with the intermittent
+oxidation flame, become enamelled and opaque. The intermittent flame
+may be readily attained, not by varying the force of the air from the
+mouth, but by raising and depressing the bead before the point of the
+steady oxidating flame. The addition of a little nitrate of potash
+will often greatly facilitate the production of a color, as it
+oxidizes the metal. The hot bead should be pressed upon a small
+crystal of the nitrate, when the bead swells, intumesces, and the
+color is manifested in the surface of the bead,
+
+
+6. EXAMINATIONS IN MICROCOSMIC SALT.
+
+
+Microcosmic salt is a better flux for many metallic oxides than borax,
+as the colors are exhibited in it with more strength and character.
+Microcosmic salt is the phosphate of soda and ammonia. When it is
+ignited it passes into the biphosphate of soda, the ammonia being
+driven off. This biphosphate of soda possesses an excess of phosphoric
+acid, and thus has the property of dissolving a great number of
+substances, in fact almost any one, with the exception of silica. If
+the substances treated with this salt consist of sulphides or
+arsenides, the bead must be heated on charcoal. But if the substance
+experimented upon consists of earthly ingredients or metallic oxides,
+the platinum wire is the best. If the latter is used a few additional
+turns should be given to the wire in consequence of the greater
+fluidity of the bead over that of borax. The microcosmic salt bead
+possesses the advantage over that of borax, that the colors of many
+substances are better discerned in it, and that it separates the
+acids, the more volatile ones being dissipated, while the fixed ones
+combine with a portion of the base equally with the phosphoric acid,
+or else do not combine at all, but float about in the bead, as is the
+case particularly with silicic acid. Many of the silicates give with
+borax a clear bead, while they form with microcosmic salt an
+opalescent one.
+
+It frequently happens, that if a metallic oxide will not give its
+peculiar color in one of the flames, that it will in the other, as the
+difference in degree with which the metal is oxidized often determines
+the color. If the bead is heated in the reducing flame, it is well
+that it should be cooled rapidly to prevent a reoxidation. Reduction
+is much facilitated by the employment of metallic tin, whereby the
+protoxide or the reduced metal may be obtained in a comparatively
+brief time.
+
+The following tables, taken from Plattner and Sherer, will present the
+reactions of the metallic oxides, and some of the metallic acids, in
+such a clear light, that the student cannot very easily be led astray,
+if he gives the least attention to them. It frequently happens that a
+tabular statement of reactions will impress facts upon the memory when
+long detailed descriptions will fail to do so. It is for this purpose
+that we subjoin the following excellent tables.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+TABLE I.
+
+
+  A. BORAX.
+    1. Oxydizing flame.
+    2. Reducing    "
+
+  B. MICROCOSMIC SALT.
+    1. Oxydizing flame.
+    2. Reducing    "
+
+
+A. BORAX
+
+1. Oxydizing flame
+
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------
+Color of Bead.
+--+-----------------------------------------------------------------------
+  |               Substances which produce this color
+  +--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+  |    in the hot bead.                  |      in the cold bead.
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+Colorless
+-----------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+  | Silica            \                  | Silica
+  | Alumina            \                 | Alumina        _
+  | Oxide of Tin       |                 | Oxide of Tin    \
+  | Telluric Acid      |                 | Telluric Acid    \
+  | Baryta             |                 | Baryta            \
+  | Strontia           |                 | Strontia           |
+  | Lime               |                 | Lime               |
+  | Magnesia           |                 | Magnesia           |
+  | Glucina            | In all          | Glucina            |
+  | Yttria             } proportions.    | Yttria             |
+  | Zirconia           |                 | Zirconia           |
+  | Thoria             |                 | Thoria             |With
+  | Oxide of Lanthanum |                 | Oxide of Lanthanum |intermittent
+  |                    |                 |   "   "  Silver    }flame
+  | Tantalic Acid      |                 | Tantalic Acid      |opaque
+  | Niobic    "        |                 | Niobic    "        |white.
+  | Pelopic   "        /                 | Pelopic   "        |
+  | Titanic   "      _/                  | Titanic   "        |
+  |                _                     |                    |
+  | Tungstic  "       \  In small        | Tungstic  "        |
+  | Molybdic  "        \ quantity        | Molybdic  "        |
+  | Oxide of Zinc      | only.           | Oxide of Zinc     /
+  |   "   "  Cadmium   }                 |   "   "  Cadmium_/
+  |   "   "  Lead      | In large        |   "   "  Lead
+  |   "   "  Bismuth   / quantity        |   "   "  Bismuth
+  |   "   "  Antimony /  yellow.         |   "   "  Antimony
+--+-----------+--------------------------+--------------------------------
+Yellow, orange-red and reddish-brown.
+--+-----------+--------------------------+--------------------------------
+  |                         _            |
+  | Titanic Acid, yellow     \           |
+  | Tungstic Acid, yellow     \          |
+  | Molybdic Acid, dark yellow|when in   |
+  | Oxide of Zinc, pale-yellow|large     |
+  | Oxide of Cadmium,         }quantity. |
+  |    pale-yellow            |Otherwise |
+  | Oxide of Lead, yellow     |colorless.|
+  | Oxide of Bismuth, orange  /          |
+  | Oxide of Antimony, yellow/           |
+  | Oxide of Cerium, red                 | Oxide of Cerium with interm.
+  | Oxide of Iron, dark red              |   flame opaque white.
+  | Oxide of Uranium, red                | Oxide of Iron, yellow
+  | Oxide of Silver                      | Oxide of Uranium with interm.
+  |                                      |   flame opaque yellow.
+  |                                      | Oxide of Silver in large
+  |                                      |   proportion, with interm.
+  |                                      |   flame yellow.
+  | Vanadic Acid, yellow                 | Vanadic Acid, yellow.
+  | Oxide of Chromium,  dark-red         | Oxide of Nickel,
+  |                                      |   reddish-brown.
+  |                                      | Oxide of Manganese, red to
+  |                                      |   violet.
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+Violet or Amethyst.
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+  | Oxide of Nickel                      |
+  |   "   "  Manganese                   | Oxide of Didymium.
+  |   "   "  Didymium                    |
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+Blue.
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+  | Oxide of Cobalt                      | Oxide of Cobalt.
+  |                                      |     "    Copper, blue to
+  |                                      |    greenish-blue.
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+Green.
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+  | Oxide of Copper                      | Oxide of Chromium, with
+  |                                      |   yellowish tinge.
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+
+
+A. BORAX
+
+2. Reducing flame
+
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+Color of Bead.
+--+-----------------------------------------------------------------------
+  |               Substances which produce this color
+  +--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+  |    in the hot bead.                  |      in the cold bead.
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+Colorless
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+  | Silica                               | Silica
+  | Alumina                              | Alumina
+  | Oxide of Tin                         | Oxide of Tin    _
+  | Baryta                               | Baryta           \
+  | Strontia                             | Strontia          \
+  | Lime                                 | Lime               |
+  | Magnesia                             | Magnesia           |With
+  | Glucina                              | Glucina            |intermittent
+  | Yttria                               | Yttria             }flame
+  | Zirconia                             | Zirconia           |opaque-white.
+  | Thoria                               | Thoria only when   |
+  |                                      |   saturated        |
+  | Oxide of Lanthanum                   | Oxide of Lanthanum |
+  |   "   "  Cerium                      |   "   "  Cerium   /
+  | Tantalic Acid                        | Tantalic Acid   _/
+  | Oxide of Didymium                    | Oxide of Didymium
+  |   "   "  Manganese                   |   "   "  Manganese
+  |                 _                    |               _
+  | Niobic   Acid    \ In small          | Niobic   Acid  \ In small
+  | Pelopic   "       } proportions.     | Pelopic   "    } proportions.
+  |                 _/                   |               _/
+  |                _                     |                  _
+  | Oxide of Silver \                    | Oxide of Silver   \  After
+  |   "   "  Zinc    \ After long        |   "   "  Zinc      \ long
+  |   "   "  Cadmium | continued         |   "   "  Cadmium   | continued
+  |   "   "  Lead    } blowing.          |   "   "  Lead      } blowing.
+  |   "   "  Bismuth | Otherwise         |   "   "  Bismuth   | Otherwise
+  |   "   "  Antimony| grey.             |   "   "  Antimony  | grey.
+  |   "   "  Nickel  /                   |   "   "  Nickel    /
+  | Telluric Acid  _/                    | Telluric Acid    _/
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+Yellow to brown.
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+  | Titanic Acid                         | Titanic Acid.
+  | Tungstic "                           | Tungstic "
+  | Molybdic "                           | Molybdic "
+  | Vanadic  "                           |
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+Blue.
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+  | Oxide of Cobalt.                     | Oxide of Cobalt.
+  |                                      | Titanic Acid with intermittent
+  |                                      | flame opaque-blue.
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+Green.
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+  | Oxide of Iron                        | Oxide of Iron, bottle-green.
+  |   "   "  Uranium                     | Oxide of Uranium, bottle-
+  |   "   "  Chromium                    |   green.
+  |                                      | Oxide of Chromium, emerald-
+  |                                      |   green.
+  |                                      | Vanadic Acid, emerald-green.
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+Opaque-grey. (The opacity generally becomes distinct during cooling.)
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+  |                _                     |
+  | Oxide of Silver \                    | Oxide of Silver._
+  |   "   "  Zinc    \ After             |   "   "  Zinc    \ After
+  |   "   "  Cadmium | short             |   "   "  Cadmium  \short
+  |   "   "  Lead    } blowing.          |   "   "  Lead     |blowing.
+  |   "   "  Bismuth | Otherwise         |   "   "  Bismuth  }Otherwise
+  |   "   "  Antimony| colorless.        |   "   "  Antimony |colorless.
+  |   "   "  Nickel  /                   |   "   "  Nickel   /
+  | Telluric Acid  _/                    | Telluric Acid   _/
+  |                 _                    |           _
+  | Niobic Acid      \ After long        | Niobic Acid\ After long
+  | Pelopic "        | continued blowing | Pelopic "  | continued
+  |                  } and in            |            } blowing and
+  |                  | considerable      |            | in considerable
+  |                 _/ proportion.       |           _/ proportion.
+  |                                      |
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+Opaque red and reddish-brown.
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+  | Oxide of Copper                      | Oxide of Copper.
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+
+
+B. MICROCOSMIC SALT.
+
+1. Oxydizing flame.
+
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+Color of Bead.
+--+-----------------------------------------------------------------------
+  |               Substances which produce this color
+  +--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+  |    in the hot bead.                  |      in the cold bead.
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+Colorless
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+  |                  _                   |
+  | Silica (only      \                  | Silica
+  |   slightly soluble)\                 |
+  | Alumina             |                | Alumina
+  | Oxide of Tin        |                | Oxide of Tin     _
+  | Telluric Acid       |                | Telluric Acid     \
+  | Baryta              |                | Baryta             \
+  | Strontia            |                | Strontia            |With
+  | Lime                | In all         | Lime                |intermittent
+  | Magnesia            } proportions.   | Magnesia            }flame
+  | Glucina             |                | Glucina             |opaque
+  | Yttria              |                | Yttria              |white.
+  | Zirconia            |                | Zirconia            |
+  | Thoria              |                | Thoria             /
+  | Oxide of Lanthanum  |                | Oxide of Lanthanum/
+  |                     |                |   "   "  Cerium
+  | Niobic   Acid      /                 | Niobic   Acid
+  | Pelopic   "      _/                  | Pelopic  "
+  | Tantalic  "                          | Tantalic "
+  | Titanic   "                          | Titanic  "
+  | Tungstic  "      _                   | Tungstic "
+  | Oxide of Zinc     \  In small        | Oxide of Zinc
+  |   "   "  Cadmium   \ quantity only.  |   "   "  Cadmium
+  |   "   "  Lead      } In large        |   "   "  Lead
+  |   "   "  Bismuth   | quantity        |   "   "  Bismuth
+  |   "   "  Antimony  /  yellow.        |   "   "  Antimony
+  |                  _/                  |
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+Yellow, orange, red and brown.
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+  | Tantalic Acid     _                  |
+  | Titanic   "        \                 |
+  | Tungstic  "        |                 |
+  | Oxide of Zinc      | In large        |
+  |   "   "  Cadmium   } quantity.       |
+  |   "   "  Lead      |                 |
+  |   "   "  Bismuth   |                 |
+  |   "   "  Antimony _/                 |
+  |   "   "  Silver                      | Oxide of Silver.
+  |   "   "  Cerium                      |
+  |   "   "  Iron                        | Oxide of Iron.
+  |   "   "  Nickel                      |   "   "  Nickel.
+  |   "   "  Uranium                     |   "   "  Uranium,
+  |                                      |   yellowish-green.
+  | Vanadic Acid                         | Vanadic Acid.
+  | Oxide of Chromium                    |
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+Violet or Amethyst.
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+  | Oxide of Manganese                   | Oxide of Manganese.
+  |   "   "  Didymium                    |   "   "  Didymium.
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+Blue.
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+  | Oxide of Cobalt                      | Oxide of Cobalt
+  |                                      | Oxide of Copper, to
+  |                                      |   greenish-blue.
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+Green.
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+  | Molybdic Acid, yellowish-green       | Molybdic Acid, yellowish-green.
+  | Oxide of Copper                      | Oxide of Uranium,
+  |                                      |   yellowish-green.
+  |                                      | Oxide of Chromium,
+  |                                      |   emerald-green.
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+
+
+B. MICROCOSMIC SALT.
+
+2. Reducing flame.
+
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+Color of Bead.
+--+-----------------------------------------------------------------------
+  |               Substances which produce this color
+  +--------------------------------------+---------------------------------
+  |    in the hot bead.                  |      in the cold bead.
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+Colorless
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+  | Silica (only slightly soluble)       | Silica (only slightly soluble).
+  | Alumina                              | Alumina.
+  | Oxide of Tin                         | Oxide of Tin.    _
+  | Baryta                               | Baryta            \
+  | Strontia                             | Strontia           \
+  | Lime                                 | Lime                |
+  | Magnesia                             | Magnesia            |With an
+  | Glucina                              | Glucina             }intermittent
+  | Yttria                               | Yttria              |flame
+  | Zirconia                             | Zirconia            |opaque-
+  | Thoria                               | Thoria only when    |white.
+  |                                      |        saturated   /
+  | Oxide of Lanthanum                   | Oxide of Lanthanum/
+  |   "   "  Cerium                      |   "   "  Cerium.
+  |   "   "  Didymium                    |   "   "  Didymium.
+  |   "   "  Manganese                   |   "   "  Manganese.
+  | Tantalic Acid   _                    | Tantalic Acid.
+  | Oxide of Silver  \                   | Oxide of Silver _
+  |   "   "  Zinc     \                  |   "   "  Zinc    \  After
+  |   "   "  Cadmium   | After long      |   "   "  Cadmium  \ long
+  |   "   "  Lead      } continued       |   "   "  Lead      | continued
+  |   "   "  Bismuth   | blowing.        |   "   "  Bismuth   } blowing.
+  |   "   "  Antimony  | Otherwise grey. |   "   "  Antimony  | Otherwise
+  |   "   "  Nickel   /                  |   "   "  Nickel   / grey.
+  | Telluric Acid   _/                   | Telluric Acid   _/
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+Yellow, red, and brown.
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+  | Oxide of Iron, red                   | Oxide of Iron.
+  | Titanic Acid, yellow                 |
+  | Pelopic Acid, brown                  | Pelopic Acid.
+  | Ferruginous Titanic Acid, blood red  | Ferruginous Titanic Acid.
+  |      "      Niobic   "       "       |      "      Niobic   "
+  |      "      Pelopic  "       "       |      "      Pelopic  "
+  |      "      Tungstic "       "       |      "      Tungstic "
+  | Vanadic Acid, brownish               |
+  | Oxide of Chromium, reddish           |
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+Violet or Amethyst.
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+  | Niobic Acid in large proportion      | Niobic Acid in large proportion.
+  |                                      | Titanic Acid.
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+Blue.
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+  | Oxide of Cobalt                      | Oxide of Cobalt.
+  | Tungstic Acid                        | Tungstic Acid.
+  | Niobic Acid in very large proportion.| Niobic Acid in very large
+  |                                      |   proportion.
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+Green.
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+  | Oxide of Uranium                     | Oxide of Uranium.
+  | Molybdic Acid                        | Molybdic Acid.
+  |                                      | Vanadic  "
+  |                                      | Oxide of Chromium.
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+Opaque-grey. (The opacity generally becomes distinct during cooling.)
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+  | Oxide of Silver                      | Oxide of Silver.
+  |   "   "  Zinc                        |   "   "  Zinc.
+  |   "   "  Cadmium                     |   "   "  Cadmium.
+  |   "   "  Lead                        |   "   "  Lead.
+  |   "   "  Bismuth                     |   "   "  Bismuth.
+  |   "   "  Antimony                    |   "   "  Antimony.
+  |   "   "  Nickel                      |   "   "  Nickel.
+  | Telluric Acid                        | Telluric Acid.
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+Opaque-red and reddish brown.
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+  | Oxide of Copper                      | Oxide of Copper.
+--+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+TABLE II.
+
+
+Metallic Oxides
+
+1. Oxide of Cerium, C^{2}O^{3}.
+
+  Behavior with Borax on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      Dissolves into a red or dark yellow glass (similar to that
+      produced by iron). During cooling, the color diminishes in the
+      intensity and becomes finally yellow. If much oxide be dissolved,
+      an opaque bead may be obtained with an intermittent flame, and a
+      still larger quantity renders it opaque spontaneously.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      The color of the bead becomes paler, so that a bead, which is
+      yellow in the oxidizing flame, is rendered colorless. With a
+      large quantity of oxide the bead becomes white and crystalline
+      on cooling.
+
+  Behavior with Mic. Salt on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      As with borax. During the process of cooling the color entirely
+      disappears.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      Both, when hot and cold, the bead is colorless, by which
+      character oxide of cerium may be distinguished from oxide of
+      iron. The glass remains clear even when containing a large
+      quantity of the oxide.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+2. Oxide of Lanthanum, LaO.
+
+  Behavior with Borax on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      Dissolves into a colorless glass, which, when sufficient oxide
+      is present, may be rendered opaque with an intermittent flame,
+      and becomes so spontaneously on cooling, when a still larger
+      amount is dissolved.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      As in the oxidizing flame.
+
+  Behavior with Mic. Salt on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      As with borax.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      No reaction.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+3. Oxide of Didymium, DO.
+
+  Behavior with Borax on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame:
+
+      Dissolves to a clear dark amethystine glass.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      No reaction.
+
+  Behavior with Mic. Salt on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      As with borax.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      No reaction.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+4. Oxide of Manganese, Mn^{2}O^{3}.
+
+  Behavior with Borax on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      Affords an intense amethyst color, which on cooling becomes
+      violet. A large quantity of the oxide produces an apparently
+      black bead, which however, if pressed flat, is seen to be
+      transparent.
+
+   in the reducing flame.
+
+      The colored bead becomes colorless. With a large amount of the
+      oxide, this reaction is best obtained upon charcoal, and is
+      facilitated by the addition of tin foil.
+
+  Behavior with Mic. Salt on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      With a considerable quantity of oxide an amethyst color is
+      obtained, but never so dark as in borax. With but little oxide a
+      colorless bead is obtained, in which, however, the
+      amethyst-color may be brought out by adding a little nitre.
+      While the bead is kept fused, it froths and gives off bubbles of
+      gas.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      The colored bead immediately loses its color, either on platinum
+      wire or on charcoal. After the reduction the fluid bead remains
+      still.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+5. Oxide of Iron, Fe^{2}O^{3}.
+
+  Behavior with Borax on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      With a small proportion of oxide, the glass is of a yellow
+      color, while warm, and colorless when cold; with a larger
+      proportion, red, while warm, and yellow, when cold; and with a
+      still larger amount, dark-red, while warm, and dark-yellow, when
+      cold.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      Treated alone on platinum wire, the glass becomes of a
+      bottle-green color (F^{3}O^{4}), and if touched with tin, it
+      becomes of a pale sea-green. On charcoal with tin, it assumes at
+      first a bottle-green color, which by continued blowing changes
+      to a sea-green (FeO).
+
+  Behavior with Mic. Salt on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      With a certain amount of oxide, the glass is of a yellowish-red
+      color, which on cooling changes to yellow, then green, and
+      finally becomes colorless. With a large addition of oxide, the
+      color is, when warm, dark red, and passes, while cooling, into
+      brownish-red, dark green, and finally brownish-red. During the
+      cooling process, the colors change more rapidly than with borax.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      With a small proportion of oxide there is no reaction. With a
+      larger amount the bead is red, while warm, and becomes on
+      cooling successively yellow, green, and russet. With the
+      addition of tin the glass becomes, during cooling, first green
+      and then colorless.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+6. Oxide of Cobalt, CoO.
+
+  Behavior with Borax on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame:
+
+      Colors the glass of an intense smalt blue both whilst hot and
+      when cold. When much oxide is present, the color is so deep as
+      to appear black.
+
+   in the reducing flame:
+
+      As in the oxidizing flame.
+
+  Behavior with Mic. Salt on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      As with borax, but less intensively colored. During cooling the
+      color becomes somewhat paler.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      As in the oxidizing flames.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+7. Oxide of Nickel, NiO.
+
+  Behavior with Borax on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      Colors intensely. A small amount of oxide affords a glass which,
+      while warm, is violet, and becomes of a pale reddish-brown on
+      cooling. A larger addition produces a dark violet color in the
+      warm and reddish-brown in the cold bead.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      The oxide is reduced and the metallic particles give the bead a
+      turbid grey appearance. If the blast be continued the metallic
+      particles fall together without fusing, and the glass becomes
+      colorless. This reaction is readily obtained with tin upon
+      charcoal, and the reduced nickel fuses to a bead with the tin.
+
+  Behavior with Mic. Salt on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      Dissolves into a reddish glass which becomes yellow on cooling.
+      With a large addition of the oxide, the glass is brownish while
+      hot, and orange when cold.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      On platinum wire the nickeliferous bead undergoes no change.
+      Treated with tin upon charcoal, it becomes at first opaque and
+      grey, and after long continued blowing the reduced nickel forms
+      a bead, and the glass remains colorless.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+8. Oxide of Zinc, ZnO.
+
+  Behavior with Borax on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      Dissolves easily into a clear colorless glass, which, when much
+      oxide is present, may be rendered opaque and flocculent by an
+      intermittent flame, and becomes so spontaneously with a still
+      larger addition. When a considerable quantity is dissolved, a
+      glass is obtained which is pale yellow, while hot, and colorless
+      when cold.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      On platinum wire the saturated glass becomes at first opaque and
+      grey, but by a sustained blast is again rendered clear. On
+      charcoal the oxide is gradually reduced; the metal is
+      volatilized and in crusts the charcoal with oxide.
+
+  Behavior with Mic. Salt on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      As with borax.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      As with borax.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+9. Oxide of Cadmium, CdO.
+
+  Behavior with Borax on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      When in very large proportion, dissolves to a clear yellow
+      glass, which becomes nearly colorless on cooling. When the oxide
+      is present in any considerable quantity, the glass can be
+      rendered opaque with an intermittent flame, and, with a larger
+      addition, it becomes so spontaneously on cooling.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      Upon charcoal ebullition takes place and the oxide is reduced.
+      The metallic cadmium is volatilized and incrusts the charcoal
+      with its characteristic deep yellow oxide.
+
+  Behavior with Mic. Salt on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      When in very large proportion dissolves to a clear glass, having
+      a yellow tinge, while hot, which disappears on cooling, and when
+      perfectly saturated, becomes milk-white.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      On charcoal the oxide is slowly and imperfectly reduced. The
+      reduced metal forms the characteristic incrustation on the
+      charcoal, but the is thin and does not exhibit its color clearly
+      until quite cold. The addition of tin hastens the reaction.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+10. Oxide of Lead, PbO.
+
+  Behavior with Borax on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      Dissolves readily to a clear yellow glass, which loses its color
+      upon cooling, and when containing much oxide can be rendered
+      dull under an intermittent flame. With a still larger addition
+      of oxide it becomes opaline yellow on cooling.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      The plumbiferous glass spreads out on charcoal, becomes turbid,
+      bubbles up, until the whole of the oxide is reduced, when it
+      again becomes clear. It is, however, difficult to bring the lead
+      together into a bead.
+
+  Behavior with Mic. Salt on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      As with borax, but a larger addition of oxide, required to
+      produce a yellow color in the warm bead.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      On charcoal the plumbiferous glass becomes grey and dull. With
+      an over dose of oxide a part is volatilized and forms an
+      incrustation on the charcoal beyond the bead. The addition of
+      tin does not render the glass opaque, but somewhat more dull and
+      grey than in its absence.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+11. Oxide of Tin, SnO^{2}.
+
+  Behavior with Borax on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      In small quantity dissolves slowly into a clear colorless glass,
+      which, when cold, remains clear, and cannot be rendered opaque
+      with an intermittent flame. If a saturated bead, which has been
+      allowed to cool, be reheated to incipient redness, it loses its
+      rounded form and exhibits imperfect crystallization.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      A glass containing but little oxide undergoes no change. If much
+      of the latter be present, a part may be reduced upon charcoal.
+
+  Behavior with Mic. Salt on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      In small quantity dissolves very slowly to a colorless glass,
+      which remains clear on cooling.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      The glass undergoes no change, either on charcoal or platinum wire.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+12. Oxide of Bismuth, BiO^{3}.
+
+  Behavior with Borax on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      Dissolves readily to a clear glass which with a small amount of
+      the oxide is yellow, while warm, and becomes colorless on
+      cooling. With a larger addition, the glass is, in the hot state,
+      of a deep orange color, which changes to yellow and finally
+      becomes opaline in process of cooling.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      A glass becomes at first grey and turbid, then begins to
+      effervesce, which action continues during the reduction of the
+      oxide, and it finally becomes perfectly clear. If tin be added,
+      the glass becomes at first grey from the reduced bismuth, but,
+      when the metal is collected into a bead, the glass is again
+      clear and colorless.
+
+  Behavior with Mic. Salt on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      Dissolves in small quantity to a clear colorless glass. A larger
+      addition affords a glass which, while warm, is yellow, and
+      becomes colorless on cooling. When in sufficient proportion the
+      glass may be rendered opaque under an intermittent flame, and a
+      still larger addition of oxide renders the bead spontaneously
+      opaque on cooling.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      On charcoal, and especially with the addition of tin, the glass
+      remains colorless and clear, while warm, but becomes on cooling
+      of a dark grey color and opaque.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+13. Oxide of Uranium, U^{2}O^{3}.
+
+  Behavior with Borax on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      Behaves similarly to oxide of iron, with the exception that the
+      color of the former is somewhat paler. When sufficiently
+      saturated, the glass may be rendered of an opaque yellow by an
+      intermittent flame.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      Affords the same color as the oxide of iron. The green glass
+      obtained in this flame, if sufficiently saturated, can be
+      rendered black by an intermittent flame, but it has under these
+      circumstances no enameline appearance. On charcoal, with the
+      addition of tin, the glass takes a dark green color.
+
+  Behavior with Mic. Salt on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      Dissolves to a clear yellow glass, which assumes a
+      yellowish-green color on cooling.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      The glass assumes a beautiful green color, which becomes more
+      brilliant as the bead cools. The addition of tin upon charcoal
+      produces no further change.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+14. Oxide of Copper, CuO.
+
+  Behavior with Borax on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      Produces an intense coloration. If in small quantity, the glass
+      is green, while warm, and becomes blue on cooling. If in large
+      proportion, the green color is so intense as to appear black.
+      When cool, this becomes paler, and changes to a greenish blue.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      If not too saturated, the cupriferous glass soon becomes nearly
+      colorless, but immediately on solidifying assumes a red color
+      and becomes opaque. By long continued blowing on charcoal, the
+      copper in the bead is reduced and separates out as a small
+      metallic bead, leaving the glass colorless. With the addition of
+      tin, the glass becomes of an opaque dull-red on cooling.
+
+  Behavior with Mic. Salt on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      With an equal proportion of oxide, this salt is not so strongly
+      colored as borax. A small amount imparts a green color in the
+      warm and a blue in the cold. With a very large addition of
+      oxide, the glass is opaque in the hot state, and after cooling
+      of a greenish-blue.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      A tolerably saturated glass assumes a dark green color under a
+      good flame, and on cooling becomes of an opaque brick-red, the
+      moment it solidifies. A glass containing but a small proportion
+      of the oxide becomes equally red and opaque on cooling, if
+      treated with tin upon charcoal.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+15. Oxide of Mercury, HgO.
+
+  Behavior with Borax on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      No reaction.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      No reaction.
+
+  Behavior with Mic. Salt on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      No reaction.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      No reaction.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+16. Oxide of Silver, AgO.
+
+  Behavior with Borax on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      The oxide is partly dissolved and partly reduced. In small
+      quantity, it colors the glass yellow while warm, the color
+      disappearing on cooling. In larger quantity, the glass is yellow
+      while warm, but during cooling becomes paler to a certain point,
+      and then again deeper. If reheated slightly, the glass becomes
+      opalescent.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      On charcoal the argentiferous glass becomes at first grey from
+      the reduced metal, but afterwards, when the silver is collected
+      into a bead, it becomes clear and colorless.
+
+  Behavior with Mic. Salt on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      Both the oxide and the metal afford a yellowish glass, which,
+      when containing much oxide becomes opaline, exhibiting a yellow
+      color by daylight and a red one by artificial light.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      As in borax.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+17. Oxide of Platinum, PtO^{2}.
+18. Oxide of Palladium, PdO^{2}.
+19. Oxide of Rhodium, R^{2}O^{3}.
+20. Oxide of Iridium, Ir^{2}O^{3}.
+21. Oxide of Ruthenium, Ru^{2}O^{9}.
+22. Oxide of Osmium OsO^{2}.
+
+  Behavior with Borax on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      Are reduced without being dissolved. The reduced metal, being
+      infusible, cannot however be collected into a bead.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      As in the oxidizing flame.
+
+  Behavior with Mic. Salt on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      As in borax.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      As in borax.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+23. Oxide of Gold, Au^{2}O^{3}.
+
+  Behavior with Borax on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      Is reduced without being dissolved and can be collected into a
+      bead on charcoal.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      As in the oxidizing flame.
+
+  Behavior with Mic. Salt on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      As in borax.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      As in borax.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+24. Titanic Acid, TiO^{2}
+
+  Behavior with Borax on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      Dissolves readily to a clear glass which, when but little acid
+      is present, is colorless, but when in larger proportion, yellow,
+      and, on cooling, colorless. When sufficiently saturated, it may
+      be rendered opaque with an intermittent flame, and with a still
+      larger addition of the acid becomes so spontaneously on cooling.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      In small proportion, it renders the glass yellow in larger
+      quantity dark-yellow or brown. A saturated bead assumes a
+      blue enamel-like appearance under an intermittent flame.
+
+  Behavior with Mic. Salt on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      Dissolves readily to a clear glass, which, when sufficiently
+      saturated, is yellow white hot, and becomes colorless on
+      cooling.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      The glass obtained in the oxidizing glame becomes yellow in the
+      hot state, but on cooling assumes a beautiful violet color. If
+      too saturated, this color is so deep as to appear opaque, but is
+      not enameline. If the titanic acid contains iron, the glass
+      becomes on cooling of a brownish-yellow or red color. The
+      addition of tin neutralizes the iron, and the glass then becomes
+      violet.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+25. Tantalic Acid, TaO^{3}.
+
+  Behavior with Borax on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      Dissolves readily to a clear colorless glass, which, when
+      sufficiently saturated, may be rendered opaque with an
+      intermittent flame, and with a larger addition of the acid
+      becomes spontaneously enameline on cooling.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      As in the oxidizing flame.
+
+  Behavior with Mic. Salt on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      Dissolves readily to a clear glass, which, when it contains a
+      large proportion of the acid, is yellow while warm, but becomes
+      colorless on cooling.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      The glass obtained in the oxidizing flame undergoes no change,
+      nor does it, according to _H. Rose_, alter by the addition of
+      sulphate of iron.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+26. Niobic Acid, Ni^{2}O{3}
+
+  Behavior with Borax on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      Behaves in a similar manner to tantalic acid, but the glass
+      requires a very large dose of the acid to render it opaque under
+      an intermittent flame. With an increased amount of the acid, the
+      glass is clear and yellow, while warm, but becomes on cooling
+      turbid, and when quite cold is white.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      The glass obtained in the oxidizing flame and which has become
+      opalescent on cooling, is rendered clear in the reducing flame.
+      With a larger addition of the acid, it becomes dull, and of a
+      bluish-grey color on cooling, and a still larger amount of
+      renders it opaque and bluish grey.
+
+  Behavior with Mic. Salt on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      Dissolves in large quantities to a clear colorless glass.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      If the acid be not present in too large a proportion, the glass
+      remains unchanged. An additional amount of the acid renders it
+      violet, and a still larger quantity affords a beautiful pure
+      blue color, similar to that produced by tungstic acid. If to
+      such a bead some sulphate of iron be added, the glass becomes
+      blood-red. The addition of peroxide of iron renders the glass
+      deep yellow while warm, the color becomes paler on cooling.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+27. Pelopic Acid, Pp^{2}O^{3}.
+
+  Behavior with Borax on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      Behaves similarly to the preceding.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      A bead containing sufficient of the acid to render it
+      spontaneously opaque on cooling, has a greyish color.
+
+  Behavior with Mic. Salt on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      Dissolves even in large quantity to a colorless glass.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      With sufficient dose of the acid, the bead becomes brown with a
+      violet tinge. This reaction is readily obtained upon charcoal.
+      Sulphate of iron renders the bead blood-red.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+28. Oxide of Antimony, SbO^{3}.
+
+  Behavior with Borax on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      Even when in large proportion, dissolves to a clear glass, which
+      is yellow when warm, but almost entirely loses its color on
+      cooling. On charcoal, the antimonious acid may be almost
+      expelled, so that tin produces no further change.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      A bead, that has only been treated for a short time in the
+      oxidizing flame, when submitted to the reducing flame becomes
+      grey and turbid from the reduced antimony. This soon volatizes
+      and the glass again becomes clear. The addition of tin renders
+      the glass ash-grey or black, according to the amount of oxide it
+      contains.
+
+  Behavior with Mic. Salt on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      Dissolves with ebullition to a glass of a pale yellow color
+      while warm.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      On charcoal, the saturated glass becomes at first dull, but as
+      soon as the reduced antimony is volatilized, it again becomes
+      clear. With tin, the glass is at first rendered grey by the
+      reduced antimony, but by continued blowing is restored to
+      clearness. Even when the glass contains but little oxide, tin
+      produces this reaction.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+29. Tungstic Acid, WO^{3}.
+
+  Behavior with Borax on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      Dissolves readily to a clear colorless glass. In large
+      proportion it renders the borax yellow, while warm, and with a
+      still greater addition the bead may be made opaque with an
+      intermittent flame. If more be then added, this reaction takes
+      place spontaneously.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      When the oxide is present in small quantity, the glass undergoes
+      no change. With a larger proportion, the glass is deep yellow
+      while warm, and yellowish-brown when cold. This reaction takes
+      place upon charcoal, with a small quantity of the acid. Tin
+      produces a dark coloration, when the acid is not present in too
+      great a quantity.
+
+  Behavior with Mic. Salt on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      Dissolves to a clear glass, which, when saturated, is yellow in
+      the hot state.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      The glass is of a pure blue. If the tungstic acid contain iron,
+      the glass becomes blood-red on cooling, similar to titanic acid.
+      In this case, tin restores the blue color, or, if iron be in
+      considerable quantity, renders it green.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+30. Molydbic Acid, MO^{3}.
+
+  Behavior with Borax on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      Dissolves readily and in large quantity. When but little is
+      dissolved, the glass is yellow while hot and colorless when
+      cold. When in larger quantity yellow while warm and opaline when
+      cold, and a further addition of acid renders it yellow when
+      warm, the color, on cooling, changing first to a pale enamel
+      blue, and then to an enamel white.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      The glass, which has been treated in the oxidizing flame,
+      becomes, when the acid is not present in too large a quantity,
+      brown, and when in large quantity, perfectly opaque. In a
+      strong flame, oxide of molybdenum is formed which is visible in
+      the yellow glass in the form of black flakes. If the glass
+      appear opaque, it should be flattened with the forceps.
+
+  Behavior with Mic. Salt on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      Dissolves to a clear glass, which, when sufficient acid is
+      present, is of a yellowish-green color when warm, and becomes
+      nearly colorless on cooling. On charcoal, the glass becomes
+      dark, and when cool has a beautiful green color.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      The glass becomes of a bottle-green color, which on cooling,
+      changes to a brilliant green, similar to that produced by oxide
+      of chromium. The reaction on charcoal is precisely similar. Tin
+      renders the color somewhat darker.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+31. Vanadic Acid, VaO^{8}.
+
+  Behavior with Borax on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      Dissolves to a clear glass, which is colorless when only a small
+      quantity of acid is present, and yellow when containing a larger
+      proportion.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      The yellow color of the glass changes to a brown when warm and a
+      chrome-green on cooling.
+
+  Behavior with Mic. Salt on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      As with borax.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      As with borax.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+32. Oxide of Chromium, Cr^{2}O^{3}.
+
+  Behavior with Borax on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      Affords an intense color, but dissolves slowly. A small
+      proportion colors the glass yellow when warm, and yellowish
+      green when cold; a larger addition produces a dark red color
+      when warm, which, on cooling, becomes yellow and finally a
+      brilliant green with a tinge of yellow.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      A small quantity of the oxide renders the glass beautifully
+      green both when warm and when cold. A larger addition changes it
+      to a darker emerald green. Tin produces no change in the color.
+
+  Behavior with Mic. Salt on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      Dissolves to a clear glass which has a pink tinge while warm,
+      but on cooling becomes dusky green, and finally brilliantly
+      green.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+      As in the oxidizing flame, except that the colors are somewhat
+      darker. Tin produces no further change.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+33. Arsenious Acid, AsO^{3}.
+
+  Behavior with Borax on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+       No reaction.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+       No reaction.
+
+  Behavior with Mic. Salt on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+       No reaction.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+       No reaction.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+34. Tellurous Acid, TeO^{2}.
+
+  Behavior with Borax on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+      Dissolves to a clear colorless glass which, when treated on
+      charcoal, becomes grey and dull from particles of reduced
+      tellurium.
+
+    in the reducing flame.
+
+       As in the oxidizing flame.
+
+  Behavior with Mic. Salt on Platinum wire
+
+    in the oxidizing flame.
+
+       As with borax.
+
+     in the reducing flame.
+
+       As with borax.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+7. EXAMINATIONS WITH CARBONATE OF SODA.
+
+
+The carbonate of soda is pulverized and then kneaded to a paste with
+water; the substance to be examined, in fine powder, is also mixed
+with it. A small portion of this paste is placed on the charcoal, and
+gradually heated until the moisture is expelled, when the heat is
+brought to the fusion of the bead, or as high as it can be raised.
+Several phenomena will take place, which must be closely observed.
+Notice whether the substance fuses with the bead, and if so, whether
+there is intumescence or not. Or, whether the substance undergoes
+reduction; or, whether neither of these reactions takes place, and, on
+the contrary, the soda sinks into the charcoal, leaving the substance
+intact upon its surface. If intumescence takes place, the presence of
+either tartaric acid, molybdic acid, silicic, or tungstic acid, is
+indicated. The silicic acid will fuse into a bead, which becomes clear
+when it is cold. Titanic acid will fuse into the bead, but may be
+easily distinguished from the silicic acid by the bead remaining
+opaque when cold.
+
+Strontia and baryta will flow into the charcoal, but lime will not.
+The molybdic and tungstic acids combine with the soda, forming the
+respective salts. These salts are absorbed by the charcoal. If too
+great a quantity of soda is used, the bead will be quite likely to
+become opaque upon cooling, while, if too small a quantity of soda is
+used, a portion of the substance will remain undissolved. These can be
+equally avoided by either the addition of soda, or the substance
+experimented upon, as may be required.
+
+As silica and titanic acid are the only two substances that produce a
+clear bead, the student, if he gets a clear bead, may almost conclude
+that he is experimenting with silica, titanic acid being a rare
+substance. When soda is heated with silica, a slight effervescence
+will be the first phenomenon noticed. This is the escape of the
+carbonic acid of the carbonate of soda, while the silicic acid takes
+its place, forming a glass with the soda. As titanic acid will not
+act in the same manner as silica, it can be easily distinguished by
+its bead not being perfectly pellucid. If the bead with which silica
+is fused should be tinted of a hyacinth or yellow color, this may be
+attributed to the presence of a small quantity of sulphur or a
+sulphate, and this sometimes happens from the fact of the flux
+containing sulphate of soda. The following metals, when exposed with
+carbonate of soda to the reducing flame, are wholly or partially
+reduced, viz. the oxides of all the noble metals, the oxides and acids
+of tungsten, molybdenum, arsenic, antimony, mercury, copper,
+tellurium, zinc, lead, bismuth, tin, cadmium, iron, nickel, and
+cobalt. Mercury and arsenic, as soon as they are reduced, are
+dissipated, while tellurium, bismuth, lead, antimony, cadmium, and
+zinc, are only partially volatilized, and, therefore, form sublimates
+on the charcoal. Those metals which are difficult of reduction should
+be fused with oxalate of potassa, instead of the carbonate of soda.
+The carbonic oxide formed from the combustion of the acid of this salt
+is very efficient in the reduction of these metals. Carbonate of soda
+is very efficient for the detection of minute quantities of manganese.
+The mixture of the carbonate of soda with a small addition of nitrate
+of potassa, and the mineral containing manganese, must be fused on
+platinum foil. The fused mass, when cooled, presents a fine blue
+color.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+1. The following minerals, according to Griffin, produce beads with
+soda, but do not fuse when heated alone: quartz, agalmatolyte,
+dioptase, hisingerite, sideroschilosite, leucite, rutile,
+pyrophyllite, wolckonskoite.
+
+2. The following minerals produce only slags with soda: allophane,
+cymophane, polymignite, aeschynite, oerstedtite, titaniferous iron,
+tantalite, oxides of iron, yttro-tantalite, oxides of manganese,
+peroxide of tin (is reduced), hydrate of alumina, hydrate of magnesia,
+spinel, gahnite, worthite, carbonate of zinc, pechuran, zircon,
+thorite, andalusite, staurolite, gehlenite, chlorite spar, chrome
+ochre, uwarowite, chromate of iron, carbonates of the earths,
+carbonates of the metallic oxides, basic phosphate of yttria, do. of
+alumina, do. of lime, persulphate of iron, sulphate of alumina,
+aluminite, alumstone, fluoride of cerium, yttrocerite, topaz,
+corundum, pleonaste, chondrodite.
+
+3. The following minerals produce beads with a small quantity of soda,
+but produce slags if too much soda is added: phenakite, pierosmine,
+olivine, cerite, cyanite, talc, gadolinite, lithium-tourmaline.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+1. The following minerals, when fused alone, produce beads. Of these
+minerals the following produce beads with soda: the zeolites,
+spodumene, soda-spodumene, labrador, scapolite, sodalite (Greenland),
+elaeolite, mica from primitive lime-stone, black talc, acmite,
+krokidolite, lievrite, cronstedtite, garnet, cerine, helvine,
+gadolinite, boracic acid, hydroboracite, tincal, boracite, datholite,
+botryolite, axinite, lapis lazuli, eudialyte, pyrosmalite, cryolite.
+
+2. The following minerals produce beads with a small quantity of soda,
+but if too much is added they produce slags: okenite, pectolite, red
+silicate of manganese, black hydro-silicate of manganese, idocrase,
+manganesian garnets, orthite, pyrorthite, sordawalite, sodalite,
+fluorspar.
+
+3. The following minerals produce a slag with soda: brevicite,
+amphodelite, chlorite, fahlunite, pyrope, soap-stone (Cornish) red
+dichroite, pyrargillite, black potash tourmaline, wolfram,
+pharmacolite, scorodite, arseniate of iron, tetraphyline, hetepozite,
+uranite, phosphate of iron, do. of strontia, do. of magnesia,
+polyhalite, hauyne.
+
+4. The following metals are reduced by soda: tungstate of lead,
+molybdate of lead, vanadate of lead, chromate of lead, vauquelinite,
+cobalt bloom, nickel ochre, phosphate of copper, sulphate of lead,
+chloride of lead, and chloride of silver.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The following minerals fuse on the edges alone, when heated in the
+blowpipe flame:
+
+1. The following produce beads with soda: steatite, meerschaum,
+felspar, albite, petalite, nepheline, anorthite, emerald, euclase,
+turquois, sodalite (Vesuvius).
+
+2. The following minerals produce beads with a small quantity of
+soda, but with the addition of more produce slags: tabular spar,
+diallage, hypersthene, epidote, zoisite.
+
+3. The following minerals produce slags only with soda:
+stilpnosiderite, plombgomme, serpentine, silicate of manganese (from
+Piedmont), mica from granite, pimelite, pinite, blue dichroite,
+sphenc, karpholite, pyrochlore, tungstate of lime, green soda
+tourmaline, lazulite, heavy spar, gypsum.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The reactions of substances, when fused with soda in the flame of
+oxidation may be of use to the student. A few of them are therefore
+given. Silica gives a clear glass.
+
+The oxide of tellurium and telluric acid gives a clear bead when it is
+hot, but white after it is cooled.
+
+Titanic acid gives a yellow bead when hot.
+
+The oxide of chromium gives also a clear yellow glass when hot, but is
+opaque when cold.
+
+Molybdic acid gives a clear bead when hot, but is turbid and white
+after cooling.
+
+The oxides and acids of antimony give a clear and colorless bead while
+hot, and white after cooling.
+
+Vanadic acid is absorbed by the charcoal, although it is not reduced.
+
+Tungstic acid gives a dark yellow clear bead while hot, but is opaque
+and yellow when cold.
+
+The oxides of manganese give to the soda bead a fine characteristic
+green color. This is the case with a very small quantity. This
+reaction is best exhibited on platinum foil.
+
+Oxide of cobalt gives to the bead while hot a red color, which, upon
+being cooled, becomes grey.
+
+The oxide of copper gives a clear green bead while hot.
+
+The oxide of lead gives a clear colorless bead while hot, which
+becomes, upon cooling, of a dirty yellow color and opaque.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The following metals, when they are fused with soda on charcoal, in
+the flame of reduction, produce volatile oxides, and leave an
+incrustation around the assay, viz. bismuth, zinc, lead, cadmium,
+antimony, selenium, tellurium, and arsenic.
+
+_Bismuth_, under the reduction flame, yields small particles of metal,
+which are brittle and easily crushed. The incrustation is of a flesh
+color, or orange, when hot, but gets lighter as it cools. The
+sublimate may be driven about the charcoal from place to place, by
+either flame, but is finally dissipated. While antimony and tellurium,
+in the act of dissipation, give color to the flame, bismuth does not,
+and may thus be distinguished from them.
+
+_Zinc_ deposits an incrustation about the assay, which is yellow while
+hot, but fades to white when cold. The reduction flame dissipates this
+deposit, but not that of oxidation. All the zinc minerals deposit the
+oxide incrustation about the assay, which, when moistened with a
+solution of cobalt and heated, changes to green.
+
+_Lead_ is very easily reduced, in small particles, and may be easily
+distinguished by its flattening under the hammer, unlike bismuth. It
+leaves an incrustation around the assay resembling that of bismuth, in
+the color of it, and in the peculiar manner in which it lies around
+the assay.
+
+_Cadmium_ deposits a dull reddish incrustation around the assay.
+Either of the flames dissipate the sublimate with the greatest
+readiness.
+
+_Antimony_ reduces with readiness. At the same time it yields
+considerable vapor, and deposits an incrustation around the assay.
+This deposit can be driven about on the charcoal by either of the
+flames. The flame of reduction, however, produces the light blue color
+of the antimony.
+
+_Selenium_ is deposited on the charcoal as a grey metallic-looking
+sublimate, but sometimes appearing purple or blue. If the reduction
+flame is directed on this deposit, it is dissipated with a blue light.
+
+_Tellurium_ is deposited on the charcoal as a white sublimate,
+sometimes changing at the margin to an orange or red color. The
+oxidation flame drives the deposit over the charcoal, while the
+reduction-flame dissipates it with a greenish color.
+
+_Arsenic_ is vaporized rapidly, while there is deposited around the
+assay a white incrustation of arsenious acid. This deposit will extend
+to some distance from the assay, and is readily volatilized, the
+reducing flame producing the characteristic alliaceous color.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The following metals, or their compounds, are reduced when fused with
+soda on charcoal, in the flame of reduction. They are reduced to
+metallic particles, but give no incrustation, viz. nickel, cobalt,
+iron, tin, copper, gold, silver, platinum, tungsten, and molybdenum.
+
+The particles of iron, nickel, and cobalt, it should be borne in mind,
+are attracted by the magnet.
+
+The following substances are neither fused nor reduced in soda, viz.
+alumina, magnesia, lime, baryta, strontia, the oxide of uranium, the
+oxides of cerium, zirconia, tantalic acid, thorina, glucina, and
+yttria. Neither are the alkalies, as they sink into the charcoal. The
+carbonates of the earths, strontia, and baryta fuse.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+Part III
+
+SPECIAL REACTIONS; OR, THE BEHAVIOR OF SUBSTANCES BEFORE THE BLOWPIPE.
+
+
+Analytical chemistry may be termed the art of converting the unknown
+constituents of substances, by means of certain operations, into new
+combinations which we recognize through the physical and chemical
+properties which they manifest.
+
+It is, therefore, indispensably necessary, not only to be cognizant of
+the peculiar conditions by which these operations can be effected, but
+it is absolutely necessary to be acquainted with the forms and
+combinations of the resulting product, and with every modification
+which may be produced by altering the conditions of the analysis.
+
+We shall first give the behavior of simple substances before the
+blowpipe; and the student should study this part thoroughly, by
+repeating each reaction, so that he can acquire a knowledge of the
+color, form, and physical properties in general, of the resulting
+combination. There is nothing, perhaps, which will contribute more
+readily to the progress of the pupil, than thorough practice with the
+reactions recommended in this part of the work, for when once the
+student shall have acquired a practical eye in the discernment of the
+peculiar appearances of substances after they have undergone the
+decompositions produced by the strong heat of the blowpipe flame,
+together with the reactions incident to these changes, then he will
+have greatly progressed in his study, and the rest will be
+comparatively simple.
+
+
+A. METALLIC OXIDES.
+
+
+GROUP FIRST.--THE ALKALIES: POTASSA, SODA, AMMONIA, AND LITHIA.
+
+The alkalies, in their pure, or carbonated state, render reddened
+litmus paper blue. This is likewise the case with the sulphides of the
+alkalies. The neutral salts of the alkalies, formed with the strong
+acids, do not change litmus paper, but the salts formed with the weak
+acids, render the red litmus paper blue; for instance, the alkaline
+salts with boracic acid. Fused with borax, soda, or microcosmic salt,
+they give a clear bead. The alkalies and their salts melt at a low red
+heat. The alkalies cannot be reduced to the metallic state before the
+blowpipe. They are not volatile when red hot, except the alkali
+ammonia, but they are volatile at a white heat.
+
+(_a._) _Potassa._(KO).--It is not found free, but in combination with
+inorganic and organic acids, as well in the animal as in the vegetable
+organism, as in the mineral kingdom. In the pure, or anhydrous state,
+or as the carbonate, potassa absorbs moisture, and becomes fluid, or
+is deliquescent, as it is termed. By exposing potassa, or its easily
+fusible salts (except the phosphate or borate), upon platinum wire, to
+the point of the blue flame, there is communicated to the external
+flame a violet color, in consequence of a reduction and reoxidation.
+This color, though characteristic of all the potassa compounds, is
+scarcely visible with the phosphate or borate salts of that alkali.
+The admixture of a very little soda (1/300th) destroys the color
+imparted by the potassa, while the flame assumes a yellow color,
+characteristic of the soda. The presence of lithia changes the violet
+color of the potash into red. The silicates of potassa must exist in
+pretty large proportion before they can be detected by the violet
+color of the flame, and those minerals must melt easily at the edges.
+The presence of a little soda in these instances conceals the reaction
+in the potassa entirely.
+
+If alcohol is poured over potassa compounds which are powdered, and
+then set on fire, the external flame appears violet-colored,
+particularly when stirred with a glass rod, and when the alcohol is
+really consumed. The presence of soda in lithia will, in this case
+likewise, hide by their own characteristic color, that of the potassa.
+
+The salts of potassa are absorbed when fused upon charcoal. The
+sulphur, bromine, chlorine, and iodine compounds of potassa give a
+white, but easily volatile sublimate upon the charcoal, around the
+place where the fused substance reposed. This white sublimate
+manifests itself only when the substance is melted and absorbed within
+the charcoal, and ceases to be visible as soon as it is submitted to
+the reducing flame, while the external flame is colored violet;
+sulphate of potassa, for instance, is reduced by the glowing charcoal
+into the sulphide. This latter is somewhat volatile, but by passing
+through the oxidation flame, it is again oxidized into the sulphate.
+This, being less volatile, sublimes upon the charcoal, but by exposing
+it again to the flame of reduction, it is reduced and carried off to
+be again oxidized by its passage through the oxidation flame.
+
+Potassa and its compounds give, with soda, borax or microcosmic salt,
+as well when hot as cold, colorless beads, unless the acid associated
+with the alkali should itself produce a color. When borax is fused
+with some pure boracic acid, and sufficient of the oxide of nickel is
+added, so that the beads appear of a brown color after being cooled,
+and then the bead thus produced fused with the substance suspected to
+contain potassa, in the oxidation flame, the brown color is changed to
+blue. The presence of the other alkalies does not prevent this
+reaction. As it is not possible to detect potassa compounds with
+unerring certainty by the blowpipe flame, the the wet method should
+be resorted to for the purpose of confirming it.
+
+The _silicates of potassa_ must be prepared as follows, for analytical
+purposes by the wet way. Mix one part of the finely powdered substance
+with two parts of soda (free from potassa), and one part of borax.
+Fuse the mixture upon charcoal in the oxidation flame to a clear,
+transparent bead. This is to be exposed again with the pincers to the
+oxidation flame, to burn off the adhering coal particles. Then
+pulverize and dissolve in hydrochloric acid to separate the silica;
+evaporate to dryness, dissolve the residue in water, with the
+admixture of a little alcohol, and test the filtrate with chloride of
+platinum for potassa.
+
+(_b._) _Soda_ (NaO).--This is one of the most abundant substances,
+although seldom found free, but combined with chlorine or some other
+less abundant compound. Soda, its hydrate and salts manifest in
+general the same properties as their respective potash compounds; but
+the salts of soda mostly contain crystal water, which leaves the salts
+if they are exposed to the air, and the salts effervesce.
+
+By exposing soda or its compounds upon a platinum wire to the blue
+flame, a reddish-yellow color is communicated to the external flame,
+which appears as a long brilliant stream and considerably increased in
+volume. The presence of potash does not prevent this reaction of soda.
+If there is too large a quantity of potash, the flame near to the
+substance is violet-colored, but the edge of the flame exhibits the
+characteristic tint of the soda. The presence of lithia changes the
+yellow color to a shade of red.
+
+When alcohol is poured over powdered soda compounds and lighted, the
+flame exhibits a reddish-yellow color, particularly if the alcohol is
+stirred up with a glass rod, or if the alcohol is nearly consumed.
+
+Fused upon charcoal, soda compounds are absorbed by the coal. The
+sulphide, chloride, iodide, and bromide of soda yield a white
+sublimate around the spot where the substance is laid, but this
+sublimate is not so copious as that of the potash compounds, and
+disappears when touched with the reduction flame, communicating a
+yellow color to the external flame. The presence of soda in compounds
+must likewise be confined by reactions in the wet way.
+
+(_c._) _Ammonia_ (NH^{4}O).--In the fused state, and at the usual
+temperature, ammonia is a pungent gas, and exerts a reaction upon
+litmus paper similar to potash and soda. Ammonium is considered by
+chemists as a metal, from the nature of its behavior with other
+substances. It has not been isolated, but its existence is now
+generally conceded by all chemists. The ammonia salts are volatile,
+and many of them sublimate without being decomposed.
+
+The salts of ammonia, on being heated in the point of the blue flame,
+produce a feeble green color in the external flame, just previous to
+their being converted into vapor. But this color is scarcely visible,
+and presents nothing characteristic. When the ammonia salts are mixed
+with the carbonate of soda, and heated in a glass tube closed at one
+end, carbonate of ammonia is sublimed, which can be readily recognized
+by its penetrating smell of spirits of hartshorn.
+
+This sublimate will render blue a slip of red litmus paper. This can
+be easily done by moistening the litmus paper, and then inserting the
+end of it in the tube. By holding a glass rod, moistened with dilute
+hydrochloric acid, over the mouth of the tube, a white vapor is
+instantly rendered visible (sal ammoniac).
+
+(_d._) _Lithia_ (LiO).--In the pure state, lithia is white and
+crystalline, not easily soluble in water, and does not absorb
+moisture. It changes red litmus to blue, and at a low red heat it
+melts. Lithia or its salts, exposed to the point of the blue flame,
+communicates a red color to the external or oxidation flame, in
+consequence of a reduction, sublimation, and re-oxidation of the
+lithia. An admixture of potash communicates to this flame a
+reddish-violet color, and the presence of soda that of a yellowish-red
+or orange. If the soda, however, is in too great proportion, then its
+intense yellow hides the red of the lithia. In the latter case the
+substance under test must be only imperfectly fused in the oxidation
+flame, and then dipped in wax or tallow. By exposing it now to the
+reduction flame, the red color imparted to the external flame by the
+lithia becomes visible, even if a considerable quantity of soda be
+present. A particular phenomenon appears with the phosphate of lithia,
+viz., the phosphoric acid itself possesses the property of
+communicating to the flame a bluish-green color. By its combination
+with lithia it still exhibits its characteristic color, while the
+latter presents likewise its peculiar tint. Then we perceive a green
+flame in the centre of the flame, while the red color of lithia
+surrounds it.
+
+The _silicates_, which contain only a little lithia, produce only a
+slight hue in the flame, and often none at all. We have to mix one
+part of the silicate with two parts of a mixture composed of one part
+of fluorspar and one and a half parts of bisulphate of potassa.
+Moisten the mass with water so that the mass will adhere, and then
+melt it upon a platinum wire in the reduction flame, when that of
+oxidation will present the red color of lithia.
+
+The _Borates of lithia_ produce at first a green color, but it soon
+yields to the red of lithia. When alcohol is poured over lithia or its
+compounds, and inflamed, it burns with a deep red color, particularly
+if the fluid is stirred up with a glass rod, or when the alcohol is
+nearly consumed. This color presents the same modifications as the
+corresponding ones communicated to the blowpipe as mentioned above.
+
+The salts of lithia are absorbed by charcoal when fused upon it. The
+sulphide, bromide, iodide, and chloride of lithia produce upon the
+charcoal a greyish-white sublimate, although not so copiously as the
+corresponding compounds of potash and soda. This sublimate disappears
+when touched by the reduction flame, while the oxidation flame gives
+the characteristic color of lithia.
+
+
+SECOND GROUP.--THE ALKALINE EARTHS, BARYTA, STRONTIA, LIME, AND
+MAGNESIA.
+
+In the pure state, the alkaline earths are caustic, cause red litmus
+paper to become blue, and are more or less soluble in water. Their
+sulphides are also soluble. The carbonates and phosphates of the
+alkaline earths are insoluble in water. By igniting the carbonates,
+their carbonic acid is expelled, and the alkaline earths are left in
+the caustic state. The alkaline earths are not volatile, and their
+organic salts are converted, by ignition, into carbonates.
+
+(_a._) _Baryta._ (BaO).--This alkaline earth does not occur free in
+nature, but combined with acids, particularly with carbonic and
+sulphuric acids. In the pure state, baryta is of a greyish-white
+color, presents an earthy appearance, and is easily powdered. When
+sparingly moistened with water, it slakes, becomes heated, and forms a
+dry, white powder. With still more water it forms a crystalline mass,
+the hydrate of baryta, which is completely soluble in hot water. Pure
+baryta is infusible; the hydrate fuses at a red heat, without the loss
+of its hydratic water; if caustic baryta is exposed for too great a
+length of time to the flame, it absorbs water, originated by the
+combustion, and becomes a hydrate, when it will melt. Salts of baryta,
+formed with most acids, are insoluble in water; for instance, the
+salts with sulphuric, carbonic, arsenic, phosphoric, and boracic
+acids. The salts of baryta, soluble in water, are decomposed by
+ignition, except the chloride.
+
+Carbonate of baryta loses its carbonic acid at a red heat, becomes
+caustic, and colors red litmus paper blue.
+
+By exposing baryta or its compounds upon a platinum wire, or a
+splinter of the substance held with the platinum tongs, to the point
+of the blue flame, a pale apple-green color is communicated to the
+external flame. This color appears at first very pale, but soon
+becomes more intense. This color is most visible if the substance is
+operated with in small quantities. The chloride of barium produces the
+deepest color. This color is less intense if the carbonate or sulphate
+is used. The presence of strontia, lime, or magnesia, does not
+suppress the reaction of the baryta, unless they greatly predominate.
+
+When alcohol is poured over baryta or its salts, and inflamed, a
+feeble green color is communicated to the flame, but this color should
+not be considered a characteristic of the salt.
+
+Baryta and its compounds give, when fused with carbonate of soda upon
+platinum foil, a clear bead. Fused with soda upon charcoal, it is
+absorbed. The sulphate fuses at first to a clear bead, which soon
+spreads, and is absorbed and converted while boiling into a hepatic
+mass. If this mass is taken out, placed upon a piece of polished
+silver and moistened with a little water, a black spot of sulphide of
+silver is left after washing off the mass with water.
+
+Borax dissolves baryta and its compounds with a hissing noise, as well
+in the flame of oxidation as in that of reduction. There is formed a
+clear bead which, with a certain degree of saturation, is clear when
+cold, but appears milk-white when overcharged, and of an opal, enamel
+appearance, when heated intermittingly, or with a vacillating flame,
+that changes frequently from the oxidating to the reducing flame.
+Baryta and its compounds produce the same reactions with microcosmic
+salt.
+
+Baryta and its compounds fuse when exposed to ignition in the
+oxidizing flame. Moistened with the solution of nitrate of cobalt, and
+heated in the oxidation flame, it presents a bead, colored from
+brick-red to brown, according to the quantity used. This color
+disappears when cold, and the bead falls to a pale grey powder after
+being exposed awhile to the air. When heated again, the color does not
+appear until fusion is effected. If carbonate of soda is fused upon
+platinum wire with so much of the sesquioxide of manganese that a
+green bead is produced, this bead, when fused with a sufficient
+quantity of baryta, or its compounds, after cooling, will appear of a
+bluish-green, or light blue color.
+
+(_b._) _Strontia_ (SrO).--Strontia and its compounds are analogous to
+the respective ones of baryta. The hydrate of strontia has the same
+properties as the hydrate of baryta, except that it is less soluble in
+water. The carbonate of strontia fuses a little at a red heat, swells,
+and bubbles up like cauliflower. This produces, in the blowpipe flame,
+an intense and splendid light, and now produces an alkaline reaction
+upon red litmus paper. The sulphate of strontia melts in the oxidation
+flame upon platinum foil, or upon charcoal, to a milk-white globule.
+This fuses upon charcoal, spreads and is reduced to the sulphide,
+which is absorbed by the charcoal. It now produces the same reactions
+upon polished silver as the sulphate of baryta under the same
+conditions. By exposing strontia and its compounds upon platinum wire,
+or as a splinter with the platinum tongs, to the point of the blue
+flame, the external flame appears of an intense crimson color. The
+deepest red color is produced by the chloride of strontium,
+particularly at the first moment of applying the heat. After the salt
+is fused, the red color ceases to be visible in the flame, by which it
+is distinguished from the chloride of lithium. The carbonate of
+strontia swells up and produces a splendid white light, while the
+external flame is colored of a fine purple-red. The color produced by
+the sulphate of strontia is less intense. The presence of baryta
+destroys the reaction of the strontia, the flame presenting the light
+green color of the baryta.
+
+If alcohol is poured over powdered strontia and inflamed, the flame
+appears purple or deep crimson, particularly if the fluid is stirred
+with a glass rod, and when the alcohol is nearly consumed.
+
+The insoluble salts of strontia do not produce a very intense color.
+Baryta does not prevent the reaction of the soluble salts of strontia,
+unless it exists greatly in excess. In the presence of baryta,
+strontia can be detected by the following process: mix some of the
+substance under examination with some pure graphite and water, by
+grinding in an agate mortar. Place the mixture upon charcoal, and
+expose it for a while to the reduction flame. The substance becomes
+reduced to sulphide of barium and sulphide of strontium, when it
+should be dissolved in hydrochloric acid. The solution should be
+evaporated to dryness, redissolved in a little water, and enough
+alcohol added that a spirit of 80 per cent. is produced. Inflame the
+spirit, and if strontia is present, the flame is tinged of a red
+color. This color can be discerned more distinctly by moistening some
+cotton with this spirit and inflaming it.
+
+If strontia or its compounds are fused with a green bead of carbonate
+of soda and sesquioxide of manganese, as described under the head of
+baryta, a bead of a brown, brownish-green, or dark grey color is
+produced. Carbonate of soda does not dissolve pure strontia. The
+carbonate and sulphate of strontia melt with soda upon platinum foil
+to a bead, which is milk-white when cold, but fused upon charcoal they
+are absorbed. Strontia or its compounds produce with borax, or
+microcosmic salt, the same reactions as baryta. When they are
+moistened with nitrate of cobalt, and ignited in the oxidizing flame,
+a black, or grey infusible mass is produced.
+
+(_c._) _Lime, Oxide of Calcium _(CaO).--Lime does not occur free in
+nature, but in combination with acids, chiefly the carbonic and
+sulphuric. The phosphate occurs principally in bones. The hydrate and
+the salts of lime are in their properties similar to those of the two
+preceding alkaline earths. In the pure state, the oxide of calcium is
+white; it slakes, produces a high temperature, and falls into a white
+powder when sprinkled with a little water. It is now a hydrate, and
+has greatly increased in volume. The hydrate of lime is far less
+soluble in water than either those of baryta or strontia, and is less
+soluble in hot water than in cold. Lime, its hydrate and sulphide of
+calcium, have a strong alkaline reaction upon red litmus paper. Lime
+and its hydrate are infusible, but produce at a strong red heat a very
+intense and splendid white light, while the hydrate loses its water.
+The carbonate of lime is also infusible, but at a red heat the
+carbonic acid is expelled, and the residue becomes caustic, appears
+whiter, and produces an intenser light. The sulphate of lime melts
+with difficulty, and presents the appearance of an enamelled mass when
+cold. By heating it upon charcoal it fuses in the reducing flame, and
+is reduced to a sulphide. This has a strong hepatic odor, and exerts
+an alkaline reaction upon red litmus paper. By exposing lime, or its
+compounds, upon platinum wire--or as a small splinter of the mineral
+in the platinum tongs--to the point of the blue flame, a purple color,
+similar to that of lithia and strontia, is communicated to the
+external flame, but this color is not so intense as that produced by
+strontia, and appears mixed with a slight tinge of yellow. This color
+is most intense with the chloride of calcium, while the carbonate of
+lime produces at first a yellowish color, which becomes red, after the
+expulsion of the carbonic acid. Sulphate of lime produces the same
+color, but not so intense. Among the silicates of lime only the
+tablespar (3CaO, 2SiO^{3}) produces a red color. Fluorspar (CaFl)
+produces a red as intense as pure lime, and fuses into a bead.
+Phosphate and borate of lime produce a green flame which is only
+characteristic of their acids. The presence of baryta communicates a
+green color to the flame. The presence of soda produces only a yellow
+color in the external flame.
+
+If alcohol is poured over lime or its compounds and inflamed, a red
+color is communicated to the flame. The presence of baryta or soda
+prevents this reaction. Lime and its compounds do not dissolve much by
+fusion with carbonate of soda. If this fusion is effected on charcoal,
+the carbonate of soda is absorbed and the lime remains as a
+half-globular infusible mass on the charcoal. This is what
+distinguishes lime from baryta and strontia, and is a good method of
+separating the former from the latter. Lime and its compounds fuse
+with borax in the oxidizing and reducing flames to a clear bead, which
+remains clear when cold, but when overcharged with an excess or heated
+intermittingly, the bead appears, when cold, crystalline and uneven,
+and is not so milk-white as the bead of baryta or strontia, produced
+under the same circumstances. The carbonate of lime is dissolved with
+a peculiar hissing noise. Microcosmic salt dissolves a large quantity
+of lime into a clear bead, which is milky when cold. When the bead has
+been overcharged with lime, by a less excess, or by an intermittent
+flame, we will perceive in the bead, when cold, fine crystals in the
+form of needles. Lime and its compounds form by ignition with nitrate
+of cobalt, a black or greyish-black infusible mass.
+
+(_d._) _Magnesia_ (MgO).--Magnesia occurs in nature in several
+minerals. It exists in considerable quantity combined with carbonic,
+sulphuric, phosphoric, and silicic acids, etc. Magnesia and its
+hydrate are white and very voluminous, scarcely soluble in hot or cold
+water, and restores moistened red litmus paper to its original blue
+color. Magnesia and its hydrate are infusible, the latter losing its
+water by ignition. The carbonate of magnesia is infusible, loses its
+carbonic acid at a red heat, and shrinks a little. It now exerts upon
+red litmus paper an alkaline reaction. The sulphate of magnesia, at a
+red heat, loses its water and sulphuric acid, is entirely infusible,
+and gives now an alkaline reaction. The artificial Astrachanit (NaO,
+SO^{3} + MgO, SO^{3} + 4HO) fuses easily. When fused on charcoal, the
+greater part of the sulphate of soda is absorbed, and there remains an
+infusible mass.
+
+Magnesia and its compounds do not produce any color in the external
+flame, when heated in the point of the blue flame. The most of the
+magnesia minerals yield some water when heated in a glass tube closed
+at one end.
+
+Magnesia, in the pure state, or as the hydrate, does not fuse with
+soda. Some of its compounds are infusible likewise with soda, and
+swell up slightly, while others of them melt with soda to a slightly
+opaque mass. Some few (such as the borate of magnesia) give a clear
+bead with soda, though it becomes slightly turbid by cooling when
+saturated with magnesia, and crystallizes in large facets.
+
+Magnesia and its compounds give beads with borax and microcosmic salt
+similar to those of lime. By igniting magnesia or its compounds very
+strongly in the oxidizing flame, moistening with nitrate of cobalt,
+and re-igniting in the oxidation flame, they present, after a
+continued blowing, a pale flesh-color, which is more visible when
+cold. It is indispensable that the magnesia compounds should be
+completely white and free of colored substances, or the color referred
+to cannot be discerned. In general the reactions of magnesia before
+the blowpipe are not sufficient, and it will be necessary to confirm
+its presence or absence by aid of reagents applied in the wet way.
+
+
+THIRD GROUP.--THE EARTHS, ALUMINA, GLUCINA, YTTRIA, THORINA, AND
+ZIRCONIA.
+
+The substances of this group are distinguished from the preceding by
+their insolubility in water, in their pure or hydrated state--that
+they have no alkaline reaction upon litmus paper, nor form salts with
+carbonic acid. The earths are not volatile, and, in the pure state,
+are infusible. They cannot be reduced to the metallic state before the
+blowpipe. The organic salts are destroyed by ignition, while the
+earths are left in the pure state, mixed with charcoal, from the
+organic acids. The most of their neutral salts are insoluble in water;
+the soluble neutral salts change blue litmus paper to red, and lose
+their acids when ignited.
+
+(_a._) _Alumina_ (Al^{2}O^{3}).--This earth is one of our most common
+minerals. It occurs free in nature in many minerals, as sapphire,
+etc.; or in combination with sulphuric acid, phosphoric acid, and
+fluorine, and chiefly silicates. Pure alumina is a white crystalline
+powder, or yellowish-white, and amorphous when produced by drying the
+hydrate, separated chemically from its salts. Alumina is quite
+unalterable in the fire; the hydrate, however, losing its water at a
+low red heat. The neutral salts of alumina, with most acids, are
+insoluble in water. Those soluble in it have an acid reaction upon
+litmus paper, changing the blue into red.
+
+The sulphates of alumina eliminate water when heated in a glass tube
+closed at one end. By ignition, sulphurous acid (SO^{2}) is given off,
+which can be recognized by its smell, and by its acid reaction upon
+blue litmus paper, when a small strip of it moistened is brought
+within the orifice of the tube; an infusible residue is left in the
+tube.
+
+The greater part of the alumina compounds give off water with heat;
+the most of them are also infusible, except a few phosphates and
+silicates.
+
+Pure alumina does not fuse with carbonate of soda. The sulphates, when
+exposed upon charcoal with soda to the reducing flame, leave a hepatic
+residue. The phosphates melt with a little soda, with a hissing noise,
+to a semi-transparent mass, but they are infusible with the addition
+of soda, and give only a tough mass. This is the case, likewise, with
+the silicates of alumina. Fluoride of aluminium melts with carbonate
+of soda to a clear bead, spreads by cooling, and appears then
+milk-white. Borax dissolves the alumina compounds slowly in the
+oxidizing and reducing flames to a clear bead, which is also clear
+when cold, or heated intermittingly with a vacillating flame. The bead
+is turbid, as well in the heat as the cold, when an excess of alumina
+is present. When the alumina compound is added to excess in the
+powdered form, the bead appears crystalline upon cooling, and melts
+again with great difficulty.
+
+Alumina and its compounds are slowly dissolved in the microcosmic salt
+to a bead, clear in both flames, and when hot or cold. When alumina is
+added to excess, the undissolved portion appears semi-transparent.
+Alumina melts with bisulphate of potash into a mass soluble in water.
+When the powdered alumina compounds are strongly ignited in the
+oxidizing flame, then moistened with nitrate of cobalt, and re-ignited
+in the oxidizing flame, an infusible mass is left, which appears, when
+cooled, of an intense blue color. The presence of colored metallic
+oxides, in considerable quantity, will alter or suppress this
+reaction. The silicates of the alkalies produce, in a very strong
+heat, or continued heat, with nitrate of cobalt, a pale blue color.
+The blue color produced by alumina is only distinctly visible by
+daylight; by candle-light it appears of a dirty violet color.
+
+(_b._) _Glucina._ (G^{2}O^{3}).--Glucina only occurs in a few rare
+minerals, in combination with silica and alumina. It is white and
+insoluble in the pure state, and its properties generally are similar
+to those of alumina. The most of its compounds are infusible, and
+yield water by distillation. Carbonate of soda does not dissolve
+glucina by ignition. Silicate of glucina melts with carbonate of soda
+to a colorless globule. Borax and microcosmic salt dissolve glucina
+and its compounds to a colorless bead which, when overcharged with
+glucina, or heated with the intermittent flame appears, after cooling,
+turbid or milk-white. Glucina yields, by ignition with nitrate of
+cobalt, a black, or dark grey infusible mass.
+
+(_c._) _Yttria_ (YO) occurs only in a few rare minerals, and usually
+in company with terbium and erbium. Its reactions before the blowpipe
+are similar to the preceding, but for its detection in compounds it
+will be necessary to resort to analysis in the wet way.
+
+(_d._) _Zirconia_ (Zr^{2}O^{3}).--This substance resembles alumina in
+appearance, though it occurs only in a few rare minerals. It is in the
+pure state infusible, and at a red heat produces such a splendid and
+vivid white light that the eyes can scarcely endure it. Its other
+reactions before the blowpipe are analogous to glucina. Microcosmic
+salt does not dissolve so much zirconia as glucina, and is more prone
+to give a turbid bead. Zirconia yields with nitrate of cobalt, when
+ignited, an infusible black mass. To recognize zirconia in compounds
+we must resort to fluid analysis.
+
+(_e._) _Thorina_ (ThO).--This is the rarest among the rare minerals.
+In the pure state it is white and infusible, and will not melt with
+the carbonate of soda. Borax dissolves thorina slowly to a colorless,
+transparent bead, which will remain so when heated with the
+intermittent flame. If overcharged with the thorina, the bead
+presents, on cooling, a milky hue. Microcosmic salt dissolves the
+thorina very tardily. By ignition with nitrate of cobalt, thorina is
+converted into an infusible black mass,
+
+
+CLASS II.
+
+
+FOURTH GROUP. CERIUM, LANTHANIUM, DIDYMIUM, COLUMBIUM, NIOBIUM,
+PELOPIUM, TITANIUM, URANIUM, VANADIUM, CHROMIUM, MANGANESE.
+
+The substances of this group cannot be reduced to the metallic state,
+neither by heating them _per se_, nor by fusing them with reagents.
+They give by fusion with borax or microcosmic salt, colored beads,
+while the preceding groups give colorless beads.
+
+(_a._) _Cerium_ (Ce).--This metal occurs in the oxidated state in a
+few rare minerals, and is associated with lanthanium and didymium,
+combined with fluorine, phosphoric acid, carbonic acid, silica, etc.
+When reduced artificially, it forms a grey metallic powder.
+
+(_a._) _Protoxide of Cerium_ (CeO).--It exists in the pure state as
+the hydrate, and is of a white color. It soon oxidizes and becomes
+yellow, when placed in contact with the air. When heated in the
+oxidation flame, it is converted into the sesquioxide, and then is
+changed into light brick-red color. In the oxidation flame it is
+dissolved by borax into a clear bead, which appears of an orange or
+red while hot, but becomes yellow upon cooling. When highly saturated
+with the metal, or when heated with a fluctuating flame, the bead
+appears enamelled as when cold. In the reduction flame it is dissolved
+by borax to a clear yellow bead, which is colorless when cold. If too
+much of the metal exists in the bead, it then appears enamelled when
+cooled.
+
+Microcosmic salt dissolves it, in the oxidation flame, to a clear
+bead, which is colored dark yellow or orange, but loses its color when
+cold. In the reduction flame the bead is colorless when either hot or
+cold. Even if highly saturated with the metal, the bead remains
+colorless when cold. By fusing it with carbonate of soda upon charcoal
+in the reduction flame, the soda is absorbed by the charcoal, while
+the protoxide of the metal remains as a light grey powder.
+
+(_B._) _Sesquioxide of Cerium_ (Ce^{2}O^{3}).--This oxide, in the pure
+state, is a red powder. When heated with hydrochloric acid, it
+produces chlorine gas, and is dissolved to a salt of the protoxide. It
+is not affected by either the flame of oxidation or of reduction; when
+fused with borax or microcosmic salt, it acts like the protoxide. It
+does not fuse with soda upon charcoal. In the reduction flame it is
+reduced to the protoxide, which remains of a light grey color, while
+the soda is absorbed by the charcoal.
+
+(_b._) _Lanthanium_ (La.)--This metal is invariably associated with
+cerium. It presents, in its metallic state, a dark grey powder, which
+by compression acquires the metallic lustre.
+
+The _oxide of lanthanium_ (LaO) is white, and its salts are colorless.
+Heated upon charcoal, it does not change either in the oxidation flame
+or that of reduction. With borax, in the flame of oxidation or
+reduction, it gives a clear colorless bead. This bead, if saturated,
+and when hot, presents a yellow appearance, but is clouded or
+enamelled when cold. With microcosmic salt the same appearance is
+indicated. It does not fuse with carbonate of soda, but the soda is
+absorbed by the charcoal, while the oxide remains of a grey color.
+
+(_c._) _Didymium_ (D).--This metal occurs only in combination with the
+preceding ones, and it is therefore, like them, a rare one.
+
+_Oxide of Didymium_ (DO).--This oxide is of a brown color, while its
+salts present a reddish-violet or amethyst color. The oxide is
+infusible in the oxidation flame, and in that of reduction it loses
+its brown color and changes to grey. With borax in the oxidation
+flame, it fuses to a clear dark red or violet bead, which retains its
+clearness when highly saturated with the oxide, or if heated with a
+fluctuating flame.
+
+The reactions with microcosmic salt are the same as with borax.
+
+It does not melt with carbonate of soda upon charcoal, but the oxide
+remains with a grey color, while the soda is absorbed by the charcoal.
+
+(_d._) _Columbium,_ (_Tantalum_--Ta).--This rare metal occurs quite
+sparingly in the minerals _tantalite_, _yttrotantalite_, etc., as
+columbic acid. In the metallic state, it presents the appearance of a
+black powder, which, when compressed, exhibits the metallic lustre.
+When heated in the air it is oxidized into columbic acid, and is only
+soluble in hydrofluoric acid, yielding hydrogen. It is oxidized by
+fusion with carbonate of soda or potash.
+
+_Columbic Acid_ (Ta^{2}O^{3}) is a white powder, and is infusible.
+When heated in the flame of oxidation or reduction, it appears of a
+light yellow while hot, but becomes colorless when cold. With borax,
+in the flames of oxidation and reduction, it fuses to a clear bead,
+which appears by a certain degree of saturation, of a yellow color so
+long as it continues hot, but becomes colorless when cold. If
+overcharged, or heated with an intermittent flame, it presents an
+enamel white when cool.
+
+It melts with microcosmic salt quite readily in both of the flames, to
+a clear bead, which appears, if a considerable quantity of columbic
+acid be present, of a yellow color while hot, but colorless when cold,
+and does not become clouded if the intermittent flame be applied to
+it.
+
+With carbonate of soda it fuses with effervescence to a bead which
+spreads over the charcoal. Melted with more soda, it becomes absorbed
+by the charcoal.
+
+It yields, moistened with a solution of nitrate of cobalt, and exposed
+to the oxidation flame after continued blowing, an infusible mass,
+presenting while hot a light grey color, but after being cooled that
+of a light red, similar to the color presented by magnesia under the
+same circumstances. But if there be some alkali mixed with it, a
+fusion at the edges will be manifest, and it will yield by cooling a
+bluish-black mass.
+
+(_e._) _Niobium_ (Ni).--This metal occurs as niobic acid in columbite
+(tantalite). Niobic acid is in its properties similar to columbic
+acid. It is white and infusible. By heating it either in the flames of
+reduction or oxidation, it presents as long as it continues hot, a
+greenish-yellow color, but becomes white when cool. Borax dissolves it
+in the oxidation flame quite readily to a clear bead, which, with a
+considerable quantity of niobic acid, is yellow when hot, but
+transparent and colorless when cold. A saturated bead is clear when
+either hot or cold, but becomes opaque when heated intermittingly.
+
+In the flame of reduction, borax is capable of dissolving more of the
+niobic acid, so that a bead overcharged and opaque in the oxidation
+flame appears quite clear when heated in the flame of reduction. A
+bead overcharged in the flame of reduction, appears by cooling dim and
+bluish-grey.
+
+Microcosmic salt dissolves in the flame of oxidation a great quantity
+of it to a clear bead, which is yellow while hot, but colorless when
+cold.
+
+In the flame of reduction, and in presence of a considerable quantity
+of niobic acid, the bead appears while hot of a light dirty blue
+color, and when cold, of a violet hue; but by the addition of more
+niobic acid, the bead, when hot, is of a dirty dark blue color, and
+when cold, of a transparent blue. In the presence of the oxides of
+iron, the bead is, while hot, of a brownish-red color, but changing
+when cool to a dark yellow.
+
+This acid fuses with an equal quantity of carbonate of soda upon
+charcoal, to a bead which spreads very quickly, and is then infusible.
+When fused with still more soda, it is absorbed.
+
+When moistened with nitrate of cobalt, and heated in the flame of
+oxidation, it yields an infusible mass which appears grey when hot,
+and dirty green when cold; but if the heat has been too strong, it is
+fused a little at the edges, which present a dark bluish-grey color.
+
+_Pelopium_ (Pe).--This metal occurs as an acid in the mineral
+columbite (tantalite), and is very similar to the two preceding
+metals.
+
+(_f._) _Pelopic Acid_ (PeO^{3}).--This acid is white, and appears
+yellow when heated, but resumes its white color when cold. Borax
+dissolves it in the oxidation flame to a clear colorless bead, which
+appears, when overcharged and heated intermittingly, enamel-white when
+cold. This is likewise the case in the flame of reduction, but when
+overcharged the color is light grey, when the bead is cooled.
+
+Microcosmic salt dissolves it in the flame of oxidation, to a clear
+yellow bead, which loses its color when cold. In the reduction flame,
+when the bead is highly saturated, a violet-brown color is produced.
+In presence of the oxides of iron, the reactions are like those of
+niobic acid. With carbonate of soda, the reactions are similar to
+those of niobic acid. By heating with nitrate of cobalt, it yields a
+light grey infusible mass.
+
+(_g._) _Titanium_ (Ti).--This metal occurs occasionally in the slags
+of iron works, in the metallic state, as small cubical crystals of a
+red color. It is a very hard metal, and very infusible. Titanic acid
+occurs in nature crystallized in _anatase_, _arkansite_, _brookite_,
+and _rutile_. Titanium is harder than agate, entirely infusible, and
+loses only a little of its lustre, which can be regained by fusion
+with borax. It does not melt with carbonate of soda, borax, or
+microcosmic salt, and is insoluble in every acid except the
+hydrofluoric. By ignition with saltpetre it is converted into titanic
+acid, which combines with the potassium, forming the titanate of
+potassium.
+
+_Titanic Acid_ (TiO^{2}) is white, insoluble, and, when heated, it
+appears yellow while hot, but resumes upon cooling its white color.
+
+Borax dissolves it in the oxidation flame to a clear yellow bead,
+which when cool is colorless. When overcharged, or heated with the
+intermitting flame, it is enamel-white after being cooled. In the
+reduction flame, the bead appears yellow, if the acid exists in small
+quantity, but if more be added, then it is of an orange, or dark
+yellow, or even brown. The saturated bead, when heated intermittingly,
+appears when cold of an enamelled blue. By addition of the acid, and
+by heating the bead on charcoal in the reduction flame, it becomes
+dark yellow while hot, but dark blue, or black and opaque when cold.
+This bead appears, when heated intermittingly, of a light blue, and
+when cold, enamelled.
+
+Microcosmic salt fuses with it in the oxidation flame to a clear
+colorless bead, which appears yellow only in the presence of a
+quantity of titanic acid, though by cooling it loses its color. In the
+reduction flame this bead exhibits a yellow color when hot, but is red
+while cooling, and when cold of a beautiful bluish-violet. If the bead
+is overcharged, the color becomes so dark that the bead appears
+opaque, though not presenting an enamel appearance. By heating the
+bead again in the oxidation flame the color disappears. The addition
+of some tin promotes the reduction. If the titanic acid contains oxide
+of iron, or if some is added, the bead appears, when cold,
+brownish-yellow, or brownish-red.
+
+By fusion with carbonate of soda, titanic acid is dissolved with
+effervescence to a clear dark yellow bead, which crystallizes by
+cooling, whereby so much heat is eliminated, that the bead, at the
+instant of its crystallization, glows with great brightness. A
+reduction to a metal cannot, however, be effected. By ignition with a
+solution of nitrate of cobalt in the oxidation flame, it yields an
+infusible yellowish-green mass.
+
+(_h._) _Uranium_ (U).--This rare metal occurs in the form of protoxide
+along with other oxides, in the mineral _pitch-blende_; as peroxide in
+_uranite_ and _uran-mica_, associated with phosphoric acid and lime.
+
+In the metallic state it presents the appearance of a dark grey mass,
+which is infusible, and remains unchanged when under water, or when
+exposed to dry air, but, when heated in the oxidation flame, it
+becomes oxidized, with lively sparkling, to a dark green mass,
+composed of the protoxide and peroxide.
+
+The _protoxide of uranium_ (UO) is black, uncrystalline, or forms a
+brown powder. When exposed to heat it is converted partially into
+peroxide, when it has a dark green color.
+
+The _peroxide of uranium_ (U^{2}O^{3}) is of an orange color, while
+its hydrate is of a fine yellow color, and in the form of a powder.
+The salts are yellow.
+
+By heating it in the oxidation flame, it acquires a dark green color,
+and is partly reduced to protoxide. In the reduction flame it presents
+a black appearance, and is there completely reduced to protoxide.
+
+Borax dissolves it in the oxidation flame to a clear dark yellow bead,
+which is colorless when cold, if the metal is not present in great
+quantity. If more of the metal, or peroxide, be added, the bead
+changes to orange when hot, and light yellow when cold. When heated
+with the intermittent flame, it requires a large quantity of the
+peroxide to produce an enamel appearance in the cooled bead.
+
+In the flame of reduction the bead becomes of a dirty green color,
+being partly reduced to protoxide, and appears, with a certain degree
+of saturation, black, when heated intermittingly, but never enamelled.
+The bead appears on charcoal, and with the addition of tin, of a dark
+green color.
+
+It fuses with microcosmic salt in the oxidation flame to a clear
+yellow bead, which is greenish-yellow when cold. In the reduction
+flame it produces a beautiful green bead, which increases when cold.
+
+When fused upon charcoal with the addition of tin, its color is
+darker. Carbonate of soda does not dissolve it, although with a very
+small portion of soda it gives indications of fusion, but with still
+more of the soda it forms a yellow, or light-brown mass, which is
+absorbed by the charcoal, but it is not reduced to the metallic state.
+
+(_i._) _Vanadium_ (V).--This very rare mineral is found in small
+quantity in iron-ores, in Sweden, and as vanadic acid in a few rare
+minerals. The metal presents the appearance of an iron-grey powder,
+and sometimes that of a silver-white mass. It is not oxidized either
+by air or water, and is infusible.
+
+_Vanadic Acid_ (VO^{3}) fuses upon platinum foil to a deep orange
+liquid, which becomes crystalline after cooling. When fused upon
+charcoal, one part of it is absorbed, while the rest remains upon the
+charcoal and is reduced to protoxide similar in appearance to
+graphite.
+
+A small portion of it fuses with borax in the oxidation flame to a
+clear colorless bead, which appears, with the addition of more vanadic
+acid, of a yellow color, but changes to green when cold.
+
+In the reduction flame the bead is brown while hot, but changes, upon
+cooling, to a beautiful sapphire-green. At the moment of
+crystallization, and at a degree of heat by which at daylight no
+glowing of the heated mass is visible it begins to glow again. The
+glow spreads from the periphery to the centre of the mass, and is
+caused by the heat liberated by the sudden crystallization of the
+mass. It now exhibits an orange color, and is composed of needle
+crystals in a compact mass.
+
+Microcosmic salt and vanadic acid fuse in the oxidation flame to a
+dark yellow bead which, upon cooling, loses much of its color.
+
+In the reduction flame the bead is brown while hot, but, upon cooling,
+acquires a beautiful green color.
+
+Vanadic acid fuses with carbonate of soda upon charcoal, and is
+absorbed.
+
+(_k._) _Chromium_ (Cr) occurs in the metallic state only in a very
+small quantity in meteoric iron, but is frequently found in union with
+oxygen, as oxide in chrome iron ore, and as chromic acid in some lead
+ores.
+
+In the metallic state it is of a light grey color, with but little
+metallic lustre, very hard, and not very fusible. Acids do not act
+upon it, except the hydrofluoric; fused with nitre, it forms chromate
+of potassa. It is unaltered in the blowpipe flame.
+
+_Sesquioxide of Chromium_ (Cr^{2}O^{3}).--This oxide forms black
+crystals of great hardness, and is sometimes seen as a green powder.
+Its hydrate (Cr^{2}O^{3} + 6HO) is of a bluish-grey color. It forms
+with acids two classes of isomeric salts, some of which are of a
+green color, and the others violet-red or amethyst. The neutral and
+soluble salts have an acid reaction upon blue litmus paper, and are
+decomposed by ignition.
+
+Sesquioxide of chromium in the oxidation and reduction flames is
+unchangable. When exposed to heat, the hydrate loses its water, and
+gives a peculiarly beautiful flame. In the oxidation flame borax
+dissolves the sesquioxide of chromium slowly to a yellow bead (chromic
+acid) which is yellowish green when cold. Upon the addition of more of
+the oxide, the bead is dark red while hot, but changes to green as it
+becomes cold.
+
+In the reduction flame the bead is of a beautiful green color, both
+while hot and when cold. It is here distinguished from vanadic acid,
+which gives a brownish or yellow bead while hot.
+
+With microcosmic salt it fuses in the oxidation flame to a clear
+yellow bead, which appears, as it cools, of a dirty-green, color, but
+upon being cool is of a fine green color. If there be a superabundance
+of the oxide, so that the microcosmic salt cannot dissolve it, the
+bead swells up, and is converted into a foamy mass, in consequence of
+the development of gases.
+
+In the reduction flame it fuses to a fine green bead. The addition of
+a little tin renders the green still deeper.
+
+Sesquioxide of chromium fuses with carbonate of soda upon platinum
+foil to a brown or yellow bead, which, upon cooling, appears of a
+lighter color and transparent (chromate of sodium).
+
+When fused with soda upon charcoal, the soda is absorbed, and the
+green oxide is left upon it, but is never reduced to the metallic
+state.
+
+_Chromic Acid_ (CrO^{3}) crystallizes in the form of deep ruby red
+needles. It is decomposed into sesquioxide and oxygen when heated.
+This decomposition is attended with a very lively emission of light,
+but this is not the case if the chromic acid has been attained by the
+cooeperation of an aqueous solution, unless the reduction is effected
+in the vapor of ammonia. Before the blowpipe chromic acid produces the
+same reactions as the sesquioxide.
+
+(_l._) _Manganese_ (Mn).--This metal occurs in considerable abundance,
+principally as oxides, less frequently as salts, and sometimes in
+combination with sulphur and arsenic. It is found in plants, and
+passes with them into the animal body. In the metallic state, it is
+found frequently in cast iron and steel. It is a hard, brittle metal,
+fusible with difficulty, and of a light grey color. It tarnishes upon
+exposure to the air and under water, and falls into a powder.
+
+_Protoxide of Manganese_ exists as a green powder; as hydrate
+separated by caustic alkalies, it is white, but oxidizes very speedily
+upon exposure to the air. The protoxide is the base of the salts of
+manganese. These salts, which are soluble in water, are decomposed
+when heated in the presence of the air--except the sulphate (MnO,
+SO^{3}), but if the latter is exposed to ignition for awhile, it then
+ceases to be soluble in water, or at least only sparingly so.
+
+_Sesquioxide of Manganese_ (Mn^{2}O^{3}) Occurs very sparingly in
+nature as small black crystals (_Braunite_) which give, when ground, a
+brown powder. When prepared by chemical process, it is in the form of
+a black powder. The hydrate occurs sometimes in nature as black
+crystals (_manganite_). By digestion with acids, it is dissolved into
+salts of the protoxide. With hydrochloric acid, it yields chlorine.
+
+The _prot-sesquioxide of manganese_ (MnO + Mn^{2}O^{3}) occurs
+sometimes in black _crystals_ (_hausmannite_). Prepared artificially,
+it is in the form of a brown powder.
+
+_Peroxide of Manganese_ (MnO^{2}) occurs in considerable abundance as
+a soft black amorphous mass, or crystallized as pyrolusite, also
+reniform and fibrous. It is deprived of a part of its oxygen when
+exposed to ignition. It eliminates a considerable quantity of chlorine
+from hydrochloric acid, and is thereby converted into chloride of
+manganese (ClMn).
+
+Most of the manganese compounds which occur in nature yield water when
+heated in a glass tube closed at one end. The sesquioxide and peroxide
+give out oxygen when strongly heated, which can be readily detected by
+the increased glow which it causes, if a piece of lighted wood or
+paper is brought to the mouth of the tube. The residue left in the
+tube is a brown mass (MnO + Mn^{2}O^{3}).
+
+When exposed to ignition with free access of air, all manganese oxides
+are converted into (MnO + Mn^{2}O^{3}), but without fusion. Such, at
+least, is the statement of some of the German chemists, although it
+will admit perhaps of further investigation.
+
+Manganese oxides fuse with borax in the oxidation flame to a clear and
+intensely colored bead, of a violet hue while hot, but changing to red
+as it cools. If a considerable quantity of the oxide is added, the
+bead acquires a color so dark as to become opaque. If such be the
+case, we have to press it flat, by which its proper color will become
+manifest.
+
+In the reduction flame the bead is colorless. A very dark colored bead
+must be fused upon charcoal with the addition of some tin. The bead
+must be cooled very suddenly, for if it cools too slowly, it then has
+time to oxidize again. This may be effected by pushing it off the
+platinum wire, or the charcoal, and pressing it flat with the forceps.
+
+The oxides of manganese fuse with microcosmic salt in the oxidation
+flame, to a clear brownish-violet bead, which appears reddish-violet
+while cooling. This bead does not become opaque when overcharged with
+manganese. As long as it is kept in fusion a continued boiling or
+effervescence takes place, produced by the expulsion of oxygen, in
+consequence of the fact that the microcosmic salt cannot dissolve much
+sesquioxide, while the rest is reduced to protoxide, is re-oxidated,
+and instantly again reduced. If the manganese is present in such a
+minute quantity as not to perceptibly tinge the bead, the color may be
+made to appear by the contact of a crystal of nitre while hot. The
+bead foams up upon the addition of the nitre, and the foam appears,
+after cooling, of a rose-red or violet color. In the reduction flame
+the bead sometimes becomes colorless.
+
+The oxides of manganese fuse with carbonate of soda upon platinum
+foil or wire, to a clear green bead, which appears bluish-green and
+partially opaque when cold (manganate of soda NaO + MnO^{3}). A very
+minute trace of manganese will produce this green color. The oxides of
+manganese cannot be reduced upon charcoal with carbonate of soda
+before the blowpipe. The soda is absorbed, and (MnO + Mn^{2}O^{3}) is
+left.
+
+
+GROUP FIFTH.--IRON, COBALT, NICKEL.
+
+The oxides of this group are reduced to the metallic state when fused
+with carbonate of soda upon charcoal in the reduction flame. Metals
+when thus reduced form powders, are not fusible or volatile in the
+blowpipe flame, but they are attracted by the magnet.
+
+Furthermore, these oxides are not dissolved by carbonate of soda in
+the oxidation flame, but they produce colored beads with borax and
+microcosmic salt.
+
+(_a._) _Iron._--It occurs in great abundance in nature. It is found in
+several places in America in the metallic state, and it likewise
+occurs in the same state in meteors. It occurs chiefly as the oxide
+(red hematite, brown hematite, magnetic oxide, etc.), and frequently
+in combination with sulphur. Iron also forms a constituent of the
+blood.
+
+Metallic iron is of a grey color, and presents the metallic lustre
+vividly when polished. It is very ductile, malleable, and tenacious.
+It is very hard at common temperatures, but soft and yielding at a red
+heat.
+
+In dry and cold air, iron does not oxidize, but when the air is dry
+and moist, it oxidizes rapidly. This likewise takes place with great
+rapidity when the metal is heated to redness. When submitted to a
+white heat iron burns with brilliant scintillations.
+
+_Protoxide of Iron_ (FeO).--This oxide does not occur pure in nature,
+but in union with the peroxide of iron and other substances. It
+presents the form of a black powder, and has some metallic lustre, is
+brittle, and fuses at a high temperature to a vitreous looking mass.
+It is attracted by the magnet, and of course is susceptible of
+becoming magnetic itself. It forms with water a hydrate, but this
+passes so rapidly into a state of higher oxidation, that it is
+difficult to keep it in the pure state.
+
+_Magnetic Oxide of Iron_ (FeO + Fe^{2}O^{3}).--This peculiar oxide is
+of a dark color, and is magnetic, so that tacks or small nails adhere
+to it when brought in contact with it. It is the variety of the oxide
+termed "loadstone." It is found frequently crystallized in octahedrons
+in Scandinavia and other places. Magnetic oxide of iron is produced
+when red-hot iron is hammered.
+
+_Sesquioxide of Iron_ (Fe^{2}O^{3}).--This oxide is found native in
+great abundance as red hematite and specular iron, crystallized in the
+rhombic form. In the crystalline state it is of a blackish-grey color,
+and possessed of the metallic lustre. When powdered, it forms a
+brownish-red mass. When artificially prepared, it presents the
+appearance of a blood-red powder. It is not magnetic, and has less
+affinity for acids than the protoxide. Its hydrate is found native as
+brown hematite.
+
+By exposing the peroxide of iron to the oxidation flame, it is not
+acted upon, but in the reduction flame it becomes reduced to the
+magnetic oxide.
+
+The oxides of iron are dissolved by borax in the oxidation flame to a
+clear dark-yellow or dark-red bead, which appears lighter while
+cooling, and yellowish when cold. In the presence of a very small
+quantity of iron, the bead appears colorless when cold. If the iron is
+increased, the bead is opaque while cooling, and of a dirty
+dark-yellow color when cold. In the reduction flame, and fused upon
+platinum wire, the bead appears dark green (FeO + Fe^{2}O^{3}). By the
+addition of some tin, and fused upon charcoal, the bead appears
+bluish-green, or not unlike that of sulphate of iron.
+
+Microcosmic salt dissolves the oxides of iron in the oxidation flame
+to a clear bead, which, by the addition of a considerable quantity of
+iron, becomes of an orange color while hot, but gets lighter while
+cooling, presenting finally a greenish hue, and gradually becoming
+lighter, till, when cold, it is colorless. If the iron is increased,
+the hot bead presents a dark red color, but while cooling a
+brownish-red, which changes to a dirty-green, and, when cold, to a
+brownish-red color. The decrease of the color during the transition
+from the hot to the cold state is still greater in the bead formed by
+the microcosmic salt.
+
+In the reduction flame no change is visible if the quantity of iron be
+small. By the addition of more iron, the hot bead appears red, and
+while cooling, changes to yellow, then green, and, when cold, is of a
+dull red. By fusing the bead on charcoal with a small addition of tin,
+it exhibits, while cooling, a bluish-green color, but, when cold, is
+colorless.
+
+The oxides of iron are not dissolved in the oxidation flame by fusion
+with carbonate of soda. By ignition with soda upon charcoal in the
+reduction flame, they are absorbed and reduced to the metallic state.
+Cut out this portion of the charcoal; grind it with the addition of
+some water in an agate mortar, for the purpose of washing off the
+carbon particles, when the iron will remain as a grey magnetic powder.
+
+(_b._) _Cobalt_ (Co) occurs in combination with arsenic and sulphur,
+and associated with nickel and iron. It is found occasionally in
+combination with selenium, and there are a traces of it in meteoric
+iron. In the metallic state it is of a light, reddish-grey color,
+rather brittle, and only fusible at a strong white heat; at common
+temperatures it is unalterable by air or water. At a red heat, it
+oxidizes slowly and decomposes water; at a white heat it burns with a
+red flame. Cobalt is soluble in dilute sulphuric or hydrochloric acid
+by the aid of heat, whereby hydrogen is eliminated. These solutions
+have a fine red color.
+
+_Protoxide of Cobalt_ (CoO).--It is an olive-green powder, but, by
+exposure to the air, it becomes gradually brown. Its hydrate is a rich
+red powder. The solution of its salts is red, but the aqueous solution
+is often blue.
+
+When heated in the oxidation flame, the protoxide is converted into
+the black proto-sesquioxide (CoO + Co^{2}O^{3}). In the reduction
+flame it shrinks and is reduced without fusion to the metallic state.
+It is now attracted by the magnet and acquires lustre by compression.
+
+Borax dissolves it in the oxidation flame, and produces a clear,
+intensely colored blue bead, which remains transparent and of the same
+beautiful blue when cold. This blue is likewise manifest even if the
+bead be heated intermittingly. If the cobalt exists in considerable
+quantity, the color of the bead is so intense as to appear almost
+black.
+
+This reaction of cobalt is so characteristic and sensitive that it can
+detect a minute trace.
+
+With microcosmic salt the same reaction is exhibited, but not so
+sensitive, nor is the bead so intensely colored when cold as that with
+borax.
+
+By fusion with carbonate of soda upon a platinum wire, with a very
+small portion of cobalt, a bright red colored mass is produced which
+appears grey, or slightly green when cold. By fusion upon platinum
+foil the fused portion floats down from the sides, and the foil is
+coated around the undissolved part, with a thin, dark-red sublimate.
+When fused upon charcoal, and in the reduction flame, it is reduced
+with soda to a grey powder, which is attracted by the magnet, and
+exhibits the metallic lustre by compression.
+
+_Sesquioxide of Cobalt_ (Co^{2}O^{3}).--It is a dark brown powder. Its
+hydrate (2HO + Co^{2}O^{3}) is a brown powder. It is soluble only in
+acetic acid as the acetate of the sesquioxide. All other acids
+dissolve its salts to protoxide, the hydrochloric acid producing
+chloric gas. By ignition in the oxidation flame, it is converted into
+the proto-sesquioxide (CoO + Co^{2}O^{3}) and produces with reagents
+before the blowpipe the same reactions as the protoxide.
+
+(_c._) _Nickel_ (Ni).--This metal occurs invariably associated with
+cobalt, and in analogous combinations, chiefly as the arsenical
+nickel. In the metallic state it is greyish, silver-white, has a high
+lustre, is hard, and malleable both cold and hot. At common
+temperatures, it is unalterable either in dry or moist air. When
+ignited, it tarnishes. It is easily dissolved by nitric acid, but very
+slowly by dilute sulphuric or hydrochloric acid, producing hydrogen.
+
+_Protoxide of Nickel _(NiO).--It is in the form of small greyish-black
+octahedrons, or a dark, greenish-grey powder. Its hydrate is a green
+powder. Both are unalterable in the air, and are soluble in nitric,
+sulphuric, and hydrochloric acids, to a green liquid. The protoxide is
+the base of the salts of nickel, which in the anhydrous state are
+yellow, and when hydrated are green. The soluble neutral salts change
+blue litmus paper to red. By ignition in the oxidation flame,
+protoxide of nickel is unaltered. In the reduction flame and upon
+charcoal, it becomes reduced, and forms a grey adherent powder, which
+is infusible, and presents the metallic lustre by compression, and is
+magnetic. Borax dissolves it in the oxidation flame very readily to a
+clear bead, of a reddish-violet or dark yellow color, but yellow or
+light red when cold. If there is but a small quantity of the oxide
+present, it is colorless. If more of the oxide be present, the bead is
+opaque and dark brown, and appears, while cooling, transparent and
+dark red. By the addition of a salt of potassa (the nitrate or
+carbonate) a blue or a dark purple colored bead is produced. The borax
+bead, in the reduction flame, is grey, turbid, or completely opaque
+from the reduced metallic particles. After a continued blast, the bead
+becomes colorless, although the particles are not fused. If the nickel
+contains cobalt, it will now be visible with its peculiar blue color.
+Upon charcoal, and by the addition of some tin, the reduction of the
+oxide of nickel is easily effected, while the reduced nickel fuses
+with the tin.
+
+The oxide of nickel is dissolved by microcosmic salt in the oxidation
+flame to a clear bead, which appears reddish while hot, but yellow and
+sometimes colorless when cooling. If a considerable quantity of nickel
+be present the heated bead is of a brown color, but orange when
+cooled. In the reduction flame, and upon platinum wire, the color of
+the bead is orange when cold; but upon charcoal, and with the addition
+of a little tin, the bead appears grey and opaque. After being
+submitted to the blowpipe flame all the nickel is reduced, and the
+bead becomes colorless.
+
+Carbonate of soda does not affect it in the oxidation flame, but in
+the reduction flame and upon charcoal, it is absorbed and reduced, and
+remains, after washing off the carbon, as a white metallic powder,
+which is infusible, and has a greater attraction for the magnet than
+iron.
+
+_Sesquioxide of Nickel_ (Ni^{2}O^{3}).--It is in the form of a black
+powder, and does not combine with other substances, unless it is
+reduced to the protoxide. It exhibits before the blowpipe the same
+behavior as the protoxide.
+
+
+GROUP SIXTH.--ZINC, CADMIUM, ANTIMONY, TELLURIUM.
+
+The substances of this group can be reduced upon charcoal by fusion
+with carbonate of soda, but the reduced metals are volatilized, and
+cover the charcoal with sublimates.
+
+(_a._) _Zinc_ (Zn).--This metal is found in considerable abundance,
+but never occurs in the pure metallic state, but in combination with
+other substances, chiefly as sulphide in zinc blende, as carbonate in
+calamine, and as the silicate in the kieselzinc ore; also, with
+sulphuric acid, the "vitriol of zinc."
+
+Zinc is of a bluish-white color and metallic lustre, is crystalline
+and brittle when heated 400 deg.F., but malleable and ductile between 200 deg.
+and 300 deg.. It will not oxidize in dry air, but tarnishes if exposed to
+air containing moisture, first becomes grey, and then passes into the
+white carbonate. It decomposes in water at a glowing heat. It is
+dissolved by diluted acids, while hydrogen is eliminated. It melts at
+about 775 deg., and distills when exposed to a white heat in a close
+vessel. When heated over 1000 deg. in the open air, it takes fire, and
+burns with a bluish-white light, and with a thick white smoke of oxide
+of zinc.
+
+_Oxide of Zinc_ (ZnO).--In the pure state, oxide of zinc is a white
+powder, infusible, and not volatile. It is readily soluble in acids
+after being heated strongly. Its soluble neutral salts, when dissolved
+in water, change blue litmus paper to red. Its salts, with organic
+acids, are decomposed by ignition, and the carbonate of zinc remains.
+
+The oxide of zinc turns yellow by being ignited in the oxidation
+flame, but it is only visible by daylight; this color changes to white
+when cold. It does not melt, but produces a strong light, and it is
+not volatile.
+
+It disappears gradually in the flame of reduction, while a white smoke
+sublimates upon the charcoal. This sublimate is yellow while hot, but
+changes to white when cold. The cause of this is, that the oxide is
+reduced, is volatilized, and re-oxidized, by going through the
+external flame in the form of a metallic vapor.
+
+Borax dissolves oxide of zinc in the flame of oxidation easily to a
+clear bead, which is yellow while hot, and colorless when cold. The
+bead becomes, by the addition of more oxide, enamelled, while cooling.
+If the bead is heated with the intermittent flame, it is milk-white
+when cold. When heated in the flame of reduction upon platinum wire,
+the bead at first appears opaque, and of a greyish color, but becomes
+clear again after a continued blast.
+
+When heated upon charcoal in the reduction flame, it is reduced to a
+metal; but, at the same moment, is volatilized, and sublimes as oxide
+of zinc upon the charcoal, about one line's distance from the assay.
+This is likewise the case with the microcosmic salt, except that it is
+more easily volatilized in the reduction flame.
+
+Carbonate of soda does not dissolve the oxide of zinc in the flame of
+oxidation. In the reduction flame and upon charcoal, the oxide of zinc
+is reduced to the metallic state, and is volatilized with a white
+vapor of the zinc oxide, which sublimes on the charcoal and exhibits a
+yellow color while hot, and which changes to white when cold. By a
+strong heat the reduced zinc burns with a white flame.
+
+Moistened with a solution of cobalt oxide, and heated strongly in the
+flame of oxidation, zinc oxide becomes of a yellowish-green color
+while hot, and changes to a beautiful green color when cold.
+
+(_b._) _Cadmium_ (Cd).--This is one of the rare metals. It occurs in
+combination with sulphur in _greenockite_, and in some ores of zinc.
+It was detected first in the year 1818, and presents itself as a
+tin-white metal of great lustre, and susceptible of a fine polish. It
+has a fibrous structure, crystallizes easily in regular octahedrons,
+presenting often the peculiar arborescent appearance of the fern. It
+is soft, but harder and more tenacious than tin; it can be bent,
+filed, and easily cut: it imparts to paper a color like that of lead.
+It is very malleable and ductile, and can be hammered into thin
+leaves. It is easily fused, and melts before it glows (450 deg.). At a
+temperature not much over the boiling point of mercury, it begins to
+boil, and distills, the vapor of the metal possessing no peculiar
+odor. It is unalterable in the air for a long time, but at length it
+tarnishes and presents a greyish-white, half metallic color. This
+metal easily takes fire when heated in the air, and burns with a
+brownish-yellow vapor, while it deposits a yellow sublimate upon
+surrounding bodies. It is easily soluble in acids with the escape of
+hydrogen, the solutions being colorless. Its salts, soluble in water,
+are decomposed by ignition in free air. Its soluble neutral salts
+change blue litmus paper to red. The salts, insoluble in water, are
+readily dissolved in acids.
+
+_Oxide of Cadmium_ (CdO).--This oxide is of a dark orange color. It
+does not melt, and is not volatile, not even at a very high
+temperature. Its hydrate is white, loses in the heat its hydratic
+water, and absorbs carbonic acid from the air when it is kept in open
+vessels.
+
+Cadmium oxide is unaltered when exposed upon platinum wire in the
+flame of oxidation. When heated upon charcoal in the flame of
+reduction it disappears in a very short time, while the charcoal is
+coated with a dark orange or yellow powder, the color of which is more
+visible after it is cooled. The portions of this sublimate furthest
+from the assay present a visible iridescent appearance. This reaction
+of cadmium is so characteristic and sensitive that minerals (for
+instance, calamine, carbonate of zinc) which contains from one to five
+per cent. of carbonate of cadmium, will give a dark yellowish ring of
+cadmium oxide, a little distance from the assay, after being exposed
+for a few moments to the flame of reduction. This sublimate is more
+visible when cold, and is produced some time previous to the reduction
+of the zinc oxide. If a vapor of the latter should appear, it
+indicates that it has been exposed too great a length of time to the
+flame.
+
+Borax dissolves a considerable quantity of cadmium oxide upon a
+platinum wire to a clear yellow bead, which, when cold, is almost
+colorless. If the bead is nearly saturated with the cadmium oxide, it
+appears milk-white when intermittingly heated. If the bead is
+completely saturated, it retains its opalescent appearance. Upon
+charcoal, and in the flame of reduction, the bead intumesces, the
+cadmium oxide becomes reduced to metal; this becomes volatilized and
+re-oxidized, and sublimes upon the charcoal as the yellow cadmium
+oxide.
+
+In the oxidation flame, microcosmic salt dissolves a large quantity of
+it to a clear bead, which, when highly saturated and while hot, is
+yellowish colored, but colorless when cold. By complete saturation,
+the bead is enamel-white when cold.
+
+Upon charcoal, in the flame of reduction, the bead is slowly and only
+partially reduced, a scanty sublimate being produced on the charcoal.
+The addition of tin promotes the reduction.
+
+Carbonate of soda does not dissolve cadmium oxide in the oxidation
+flame. In the reduction flame, upon charcoal, it is reduced to metal,
+and is volatilized to a red-brown or dark, red sublimate of cadmium
+oxide upon the charcoal, at a little distance from the assay the
+charcoal presenting the characteristic iridescent appearance. This
+reaction is still more sensitive if the cadmium oxide is heated _per
+se_ in the reduction flame.
+
+_Antimony_ (Sb).--This metal is found in almost every country. It
+principally occurs as the tersulphide (SbS^{3}), either pure or
+combined with other sulphides, particularly with basic sulphides.
+Sometimes it occurs as the pure metal, and rarer in a state of
+oxidation as an antimonious acid and as the oxysulphide.
+
+In the pure state, antimony has a silver-white color, with much
+lustre, and presents a crystalline structure. The commercial and
+impure metal is of a tin-white color, and may frequently be split in
+parallel strata. It is brittle and easily pulverized. It melts at a
+low red heat (810 deg.), is volatilized at a white heat, and can be
+distilled. At common temperatures it is not affected by the air. At a
+glowing heat it takes fire, and burns with a white flame, and with
+white fumes, forming volatile antimonious acid. Common acids oxidize
+antimony, but dissolve it slightly. It is soluble in aqua regia
+(nitro-hydrochloric acid).
+
+_Sesquioxide of Antimony_ (Sb^{2}O^{3}).--In the pure state this oxide
+is a white powder, is fusible at a dull red heat to a yellow liquid,
+which, after cooling, is greyish-white and crystalline. If it is
+heated excluded from the air, it can be volatilized completely; it
+sublimes in bright crystals having the form of needles. It occurs
+sometimes in nature as white and very bright crystals. It takes fire
+when heated in the open air, and burns with a white vapor to
+antimonious acid. It fuses with the ter-sulphide of antimony to a red
+bead. It is distinguished from the other oxides of antimony by the
+readiness with which it is reduced to the metallic state upon
+charcoal, and by its easy fusibility and volatility.
+
+The sesquioxide is the base of some salts--for instance, the tartar
+emetic. It is not soluble in nitric acid, but is soluble in
+hydrochloric acid. This solution becomes milky by the addition of
+water. A part of the salts of the sesquioxide of antimony are
+decomposed by ignition. The haloid salts are easily volatilized,
+without decomposition. Its soluble neutral salts change blue litmus
+paper to red, and are converted, by admixture of water, into
+insoluble basic and soluble acid salts.
+
+Antimonious acid (antimoniate of sesquioxide of antimony, Sb^{2}O^{3}
++ Sb^{2}O^{5}) is of a white color, but, when heated, of a light
+yellow color, but changes to white again when cold. It is infusible
+and unaltered by heat. It forms a white hydrate, and both are
+insoluble in water and nitric acid. It is partly soluble in
+hydrochloric acid, with the application of heat. The addition of water
+causes a precipitate in this solution.
+
+_Antimonic Acid _(Sb^{2}O^{5}).--In the pure state this acid is a
+light yellow-colored powder. Its hydrate is white, and is insoluble in
+water and nitric acid. It is sparingly soluble in hot concentrated
+hydrochloric acid. It forms salts with every base, some of which are
+insoluble, and others sparingly so. Notwithstanding that antimonic
+acid is insoluble in water, it expels the carbonic acid from the
+solutions of the carbonates of the alkalies. Antimonic acid and its
+hydrate changes moistened blue litmus paper to red.
+
+
+_Behavior of Antimony and its Oxides before the Blowpipe._
+
+_Metallic Antimony_ fuses easily upon charcoal. When heated to
+glowing, and then removed from the flame, it continues to glow for
+awhile, and produces a thick white smoke. The vapor crystallizes
+gradually, and coats the assay with small crystals which iridesce like
+mother of pearl (sesquioxide of antimony). It is not volatile at the
+temperature of melted glass. Ignited in an open glass tube, it burns
+slowly with a white vapor, which condenses upon the cool part of the
+tube, and exhibits some indications of crystallization. This vapor
+consists of the sesquioxide, and can be driven by heat from one place
+to another, without leaving a residue. If the metallic antimony
+contains sulphide of antimony, there is a corresponding portion of
+antimonious acid produced, which remains as a white sublimate after
+the sesquioxide is removed.
+
+_Sesquioxide of antimony_ melts easily, and sublimes as a white vapor.
+It may be prepared by precipitating and drying. When heated, it takes
+fire previous to melting, glows like tinder, and is converted into
+antimonious acid, which is now infusible. When heated upon charcoal in
+the flame of reduction, it is reduced to the metallic state, and
+partly volatilized. A white vapor sublimates upon the charcoal, while
+the external flame exhibits a greenish-blue color. Antimonious acid is
+infusible, produces a strong light, and is diminished in volume when
+heated in the external flame, during which time a dense white vapor
+sublimes upon the charcoal. It is not, however, in this manner reduced
+to the metallic state like the sesquioxide.
+
+_Antimonic acid_, when first heated, becomes white, and is converted
+into antimonious acid. Hydrated antimonic acid, which is originally
+white, appears at first yellow while giving off water, and then
+becomes white again, while oxygen is expelled, and it is converted
+into antimonious acid.
+
+The oxides of antimony produce, with blowpipe reagents, the following
+reactions: borax dissolves oxides of antimony in the oxidation flame
+in considerable quantity to a clear bead, which is yellow while hot,
+but colorless when cold. If the bead is saturated, a part of the oxide
+is volatilized as a white vapor. Upon charcoal, in the oxidation
+flame, it is completely volatilized, and the charcoal is covered with
+a white sublimate. Heated upon charcoal in the reducing flame, the
+bead is of a greyish color, and partially, if not wholly opaque, from
+the presence of reduced metallic particles. A continued heat will
+volatilize them, and the bead becomes clear. The addition of tin
+promotes the reduction.
+
+Microcosmic salt dissolves the compounds of antimony in the flame of
+oxidation with intumescence, to a clear light-yellow colored bead,
+which when cold is colorless. Heated upon charcoal in the reduction
+flame, the bead is first turbid, but soon becomes transparent. The
+addition of tin renders the bead greyish while cooling, but a
+continued blast renders it transparent. Soda dissolves the compounds
+of antimony upon platinum wire in the oxidation flame, to a clear
+colorless bead, which is white when cold.
+
+Upon charcoal, both in the oxidation and reduction flames, the
+antimony compounds are readily reduced to the metal, which is
+immediately volatilized, and produces a white incrustation of oxide of
+antimony upon the charcoal. If the antimony compounds are heated upon
+charcoal in the flame of reduction, with a mixture of carbonate of
+soda and cyanide of potassium (KCy), there are produced small globules
+of metallic antimony. At the same time, a part of the reduced metal is
+volatilized (this continues after the assay is removed from the flame)
+and re-oxidized. A white incrustation appears upon the charcoal, and
+the metallic globules are covered with small white crystals. If this
+white sublimate upon the charcoal is moistened with a solution of
+cobalt-oxide, and exposed to the reduction flame, a part of it is
+volatilized, while the other part passes into higher oxidation, and
+remains, after cooling, of a dirty dark-green color.
+
+(_d._) _Tellurium_ (Te).--This is one of the rare metals. It occurs
+very seldom in the metallic state, but often with bismuth, lead,
+silver, and gold. Tellurium, in the pure state, is silver-white, very
+bright, of a foliated or lamellar structure, brittle, and easily
+triturated. It is inclined to crystallize. It is soluble in
+concentrated sulphuric acid without oxidation. The solution is of a
+fine purple color, and gives a precipitate with the addition of water.
+
+_Tellurium in the Metallic form._--By the aid of heat it is oxidized
+in sulphuric acid, a portion of the oxygen of the acid oxidizing the
+metal, while sulphurous acid gas escapes. This solution is colorless,
+and is tellurous acid, dissolved in sulphuric acid. It melts at a low
+red heat, and volatilizes at a higher temperature. If tellurium is
+heated with free access of air, it takes fire, and burns with a blue
+color, the flame being greenish at the edges, while a thick white
+vapor escapes, which has a feeble acidulous odor.
+
+_Tellurous Acid_ (TeO^{2}) is of a fine, granulous, crystalline or
+white earthy mass, which is partly soluble in water. The solution has
+a strong metallic taste, and an acid reaction upon litmus paper.
+Heated in a tube closed at one end until it begins to glow, it fuses
+to a yellow liquid which is colorless, crystalline, and opaque when
+cold. Beads of it remain usually transparent like glass. Heated upon
+platinum wire in the flame of oxidation, it melts, and is volatilized
+as a white vapor. When heated upon charcoal in the oxidation flame, it
+melts, and is reduced to the metallic state, but volatilizes and a
+sublimate of white tellurous acid is formed upon the charcoal. The
+edge of this deposit is usually red or dark-yellow.
+
+Heated upon charcoal in the flame of reduction, it is rapidly reduced,
+the external flame exhibiting a bluish-green color.
+
+Borax dissolves it in the oxidation flame upon platinum wire to a
+clear colorless bead which turns grey when heated upon charcoal,
+through the presence of reduced metallic particles. Upon charcoal, in
+the reduction flame, the bead is grey, caused by the reduced metal.
+After a continued blast, tellurium is completely volatilized, and the
+bead appears clear again, while a white sublimate is deposited upon
+the charcoal.
+
+With microcosmic salt, the same reactions are produced.
+
+With carbonate of soda, tellurous acid fuses upon platinum wire to a
+clear colorless bead, which is white when cold. Upon charcoal it is
+reduced, and forms _tellur-sodium_, which is absorbed by the charcoal,
+and metallic tellurium, which is volatilized, and deposits upon the
+charcoal a white incrustation (tellurous acid).
+
+If tellurous acid, finely powdered charcoal, and carbonate of soda are
+mixed together, and the mixture be well ignited in a closed tube,
+until fusion is effected, and a few drops of boiled water are brought
+into the tube, they are colored purple, indicating the presence of
+_tellur-sodium._
+
+_Telluric Acid _(TeO^{3}) forms six-sided prismatic crystals. It has
+not an acid, but rather a metallic taste. It changes blue litmus paper
+to red; is slowly soluble in water, and rather sparingly. Exposed to
+a high temperature, but not until glowing, the crystalline acid loses
+its water, and acquires an orange color, but still it preserves its
+crystalline form, although no longer soluble in water, and is in fact
+so much changed in its properties as to present the instance of an
+isomeric modification.
+
+If telluric acid is heated gently in a closed tube, it loses water and
+turns yellow. Heated still more strongly, it becomes milk-white,
+oxygen is expelled, and it is converted into tellurous acid. The
+presence of oxygen can be recognized by the more lively combustion
+which an ignited splinter of wood undergoes when held in it. Telluric
+acid produces the same reactions with the blowpipe reagents as
+tellurous acid.
+
+
+SEVENTH GROUP.--LEAD, BISMUTH, TIN.
+
+The oxides of these metals are also reduced to the metallic state by
+fusion with soda upon charcoal in the flame of reduction, but they are
+volatilized only after a continued blast, and a sublimate is thrown
+upon the charcoal.
+
+(_a._) _Lead_ (Pb).--This metal occurs in considerable quantity in
+nature, chiefly as galena or lead-glance (sulphide of lead). Likewise,
+but more rarely, as a carbonate; also as a sulphate, and sometimes
+combined with other acids and metals.
+
+In the metallic state, lead is of a bluish-grey color, high lustre,
+and sp. gr. 11.4. It is soft, and communicates a stain to paper. It is
+malleable, ductile, but has very little tenacity. It melts at about
+612 deg.. Exposed to the air it soon tarnishes, being covered with a grey
+matter, which some regard as a suboxide (Pb^{2}O), and others as
+simply a mixture of lead and protoxide. At a glowing heat it is
+oxidized to a protoxide, and at a white heat it is volatilized. It is
+insoluble in most acids. It is, however, soluble in nitric acid, but
+without decomposing water.
+
+(_L._) _Protoxide of Lead_ (PbO).--It is an orange-colored powder,
+which melts at a glowing temperature, and forms a lamellar mass after
+cooling. Protoxide of lead absorbs oxygen from the atmosphere while
+melting, which is given off again by cooling. Being exposed for a
+longer while to the air, it absorbs carbonic acid and water, and
+becomes white on the surface. It is soluble in nitric acid and caustic
+alkalies. It forms with most acids insoluble salts. It is slightly
+soluble in pure water, but not in water which contains alkaline salts.
+This hydrate is white.
+
+([beta].) _Red Oxide of Lead_ (PbO^{2}, PbO).--It forms a puce-colored
+powder. It is insoluble in caustic alkalies. Hydrochloric acid
+dissolves it and forms a yellow liquid, which is soon decomposed into
+chloride of lead and chlorine. It is reduced by ignition to the
+protoxide.
+
+([gamma].) _Peroxide of Lead _(PbO^{2}).--It is a dark-brown powder.
+It yields with hydrochloric acid the chloride of lead and chlorine
+gas. When heated it liberates oxygen, and is reduced to the protoxide.
+
+Lead combinations give the following reactions before the blowpipe:
+Metallic lead tarnishes when heated in the oxidation flame, and is
+instantly covered with a grey matter, consisting of the protoxide and
+the metal. It fuses quickly, and is then covered with a
+yellowish-brown protoxide until all the lead is converted into the
+protoxide, which melts to a yellow liquid. In the reduction flame and
+upon charcoal, it is volatilized, while the charcoal becomes covered
+with a yellow sublimate of oxide. A little distance from the assay,
+this sublimate appears white (carbonate of lead). Protoxide of lead
+melts in the flame of oxidation to a beautiful dark yellow bead. In
+the flame of reduction, and upon charcoal, it is reduced with
+intumescence to metallic lead, which is volatilized by a continued
+blast, and sublimates on charcoal, as mentioned above.
+
+Red oxide of lead turns black when heated in the glass tube closed at
+one end, and liberates oxygen, which is easily detected by the
+introduction of an ignited splinter, when a more lively combustion of
+the wood proves the presence of uncombined oxygen. The red oxide in
+this case is reduced to the protoxide. Heated upon platinum foil, it
+first turns black, is reduced to the protoxide, and melts into a dark
+yellow liquid. In the reduction flame, upon charcoal, it is reduced to
+the metal with intumescence. After a continued blast, a yellow
+sublimate of protoxide is produced upon the charcoal, and at a little
+distance off, around this sublimate, a white one of carbonate of lead
+is produced. This sublimate disappears when touched by the flame of
+reduction, while it communicates an azure blue-tinge to the external
+flame. This is likewise the case with the peroxide of lead.
+
+The different oxides of lead produce with the blowpipe reagents the
+same reactions.
+
+_Borax_ dissolves lead compounds with the greatest readiness upon
+platinum wire in the oxidation flame to a transparent bead, which is
+yellow when hot, but colorless after being cooled. With the addition
+of more of the lead oxide, it becomes opalescent. When heated by the
+intermittent flame, and with still more of the oxide, it acquires a
+yellow enamel after cooling. Heated upon charcoal, in the flame of
+reduction, the bead spreads and becomes opaque. After a continued
+blast, all the oxide is reduced with effervescence to metallic lead,
+which melts and runs towards the edges of the bead, while the bead
+again becomes transparent.
+
+_Microcosmic Salt_ dissolves oxides of lead upon platinum wire in the
+flame of oxidation easily to a clear, colorless bead, which appears,
+when highly saturated, yellow while hot. A saturated bead becomes
+enamel-like after cooling. The bead appears in the flame of reduction,
+and upon charcoal, of a greyish color and dull. By the addition of
+more oxide, a yellow sublimate of protoxide is produced upon the
+charcoal. By the addition of tin, the bead appears of a darker grey,
+but it is never quite opaque.
+
+_Carbonate of Soda_ dissolves oxide of lead in the flame of oxidation
+upon platinum wire quite readily to a transparent bead, which becomes
+yellow when cooling, and is opaque. Upon charcoal in the flame of
+reduction, it is rapidly reduced to metallic lead, which yields,
+after a continued blast, a yellow sublimate of oxide upon the
+charcoal.
+
+(_b._) _Bismuth_ (Bi).--This metal occurs mostly in the metallic
+state, and less frequently as the sulphide. In the pure metallic
+state, it is of a reddish-white color and great lustre. It
+crystallizes in cubes. It is brittle, and may be readily pulverized.
+It melts at 476 deg., and is volatilized at a white heat. It is soluble in
+nitric acid, and forms the nitrate of bismuth.
+
+([alpha].) _Oxide of Bismuth _(Bi^{2}O^{3}).--This oxide is a light
+yellow powder, fusible at a red heat, insoluble in caustic potash and
+ammonia. It is the base of the salts of bismuth. Its hydrate is white,
+and easily soluble in acids. The addition of water causes these
+solutions to become milky, because they are decomposed into a soluble
+acidulous and an insoluble basic salt of bismuth.
+
+([beta].) _Peroxide of Bismuth_ (BiO^{2}) is a dark-colored powder,
+completely soluble in boiling nitric acid, and yielding oxygen;
+produces, with hydrochloric acid, chlorine gas. It can be heated up to
+the temperature of 620 deg. without being decomposed; but, exposed to a
+temperature of 630 deg. it yields oxygen. Mixed with combustible
+substances, it glows with brightness.
+
+([gamma].) _Bismuthic Acid _(Bi^{2}O^{5}) is a brown powder similar to
+the peroxide, but is converted by boiling nitric acid into a green,
+scarcely soluble substance (Bi^{2}O^{3}, Bi^{2}O^{5}). Its hydrate is
+of a red color.
+
+BLOWPIPE REACTIONS.--Metallic bismuth is converted, when exposed upon
+platinum wire to the flame of oxidation, into a dark brown oxide,
+which turns light yellow while cooling. It is slowly volatilized when
+heated, and a yellow sublimate of oxide is produced upon the charcoal.
+
+Oxide of bismuth melts upon platinum foil in the flame of oxidation
+very easily into a dark-brown liquid, which changes to a light yellow
+while cooling. By too strong a heat, it is reduced and penetrates the
+platinum foil.
+
+Upon charcoal, in the flame of oxidation and of reduction, it is
+reduced to metallic bismuth, which melts into one or more globules.
+By a continued blast they are slowly volatilized, and produce a yellow
+sublimate of oxide upon the charcoal, beyond which a white sublimate
+of carbonate of bismuth is visible. These sublimates disappear in the
+flame of reduction, but without communicating any color to it.
+
+_Borax_ dissolves oxide of bismuth upon platinum wire, in the flame of
+oxidation, easily to a clear yellow bead, which appears colorless
+after cooling. By the addition of more oxide, the hot bead becomes
+orange. It turns more yellow while cooling, and when cool is
+opalescent. Upon charcoal in the flame of reduction, the bead becomes
+turbid and greyish colored. The oxide is reduced with intumescence to
+the metallic state, and the bead becomes clear again. The addition of
+tin promotes the reduction.
+
+_Microcosmic Salt_ dissolves oxide of bismuth upon platinum wire, in
+the flame of oxidation, to a yellow bead, which becomes colorless
+after cooling. By the addition of more oxide, the bead is
+yellowish-brown while hot, and colorless after cooling, but not quite
+transparent. This bead becomes enamelled when heated by the
+intermittent flame; also, by the addition of still more of the oxide,
+after it is cooled.
+
+Upon charcoal, in the flame of reduction, and particularly with the
+addition of tin, the bead is colorless and transparent while hot, but
+while cooling becomes of a dark-gray color and opaque.
+
+Oxide of bismuth is reduced, by fusion with carbonate of soda, as well
+in the oxidating as in the reducing flame, instantly to metallic
+bismuth.
+
+As the above mentioned higher oxides of bismuth are converted by
+ignition into oxide of the metal and free oxygen, they have the same
+behavior before the blowpipe.
+
+As bismuth occurs mostly in the metallic form, it is necessary to know
+how to distinguish it from metals similar to it. Its brittleness
+distinguishes it from lead, zinc and tin, as they are readily
+flattened by a stroke of the hammer, while bismuth is broken to
+pieces. Bismuth, in this latter respect, might perhaps be mistaken
+for antimony or tellurium; but, by the following examination, it is
+easy to separate bismuth from antimony or tellurium.
+
+1. Neither bismuth nor antimony sublimates when heated in a glass tube
+closed at one end. At a temperature which is about to fuse the glass,
+tellurium yields a small quantity of a white vapor (some tellurium is
+oxidized to tellurous acid by the oxygen of the air in the tube).
+After that, a grey metallic sublimate settles on the sides of the
+tube.
+
+2. Heated in an open tube, antimony yields a white vapor, which coats
+the inside of the glass tube, and can be driven by heat from one part
+of the tube to another without leaving a residue. The metallic globule
+is covered with a considerable quantity of fused oxide. Tellurium
+produces, under the same circumstances, an intense vapor, and deposits
+on the glass a white powder, which melts by heat into globules that
+run over the glass. The metallic globules are covered by fused,
+transparent, and nearly colorless oxide, which becomes white while
+cooling. By a high temperature, and with little access of air,
+metallic tellurium sublimes with the deposition of a grey powder.
+Bismuth produces, under similar treatment, scarcely any vapor, unless
+it is combined with sulphur. The metal is enveloped by fused oxide of
+a dark yellow color, which appears light yellow after being cooled. It
+acts upon the glass, and dissolves it.
+
+3. Upon charcoal, exposed to the blowpipe flame, the three metals are
+volatilized, and yield a sublimate upon the charcoal. That of antimony
+is white, while those of bismuth and tellurium are dark yellow. By
+exposing them to the flame of reduction, the sublimate of tellurium
+disappears and communicates an intense green color to the flame. The
+antimony incrustation gives a feeble greenish-blue color, while the
+sublimate of bismuth gives no perceptible color in the light. It is,
+however, worthy of notice that if the operation takes place in the
+dark, a very pale blue flame will be seen with the bismuth.
+
+(_c._) _Tin_ (Sn).--This metal does not occur in nature in the
+metallic state, very seldom in the sulphide, but chiefly in the oxide
+(tinstone). In the metallic state it is silver-white, possesses a very
+high lustre, is soft (but harder than lead), ductile, but has not much
+tenacity, and it is very malleable. The metal when it is cast gives a
+peculiar creaking noise when twisted or bent, which proceeds from the
+crystalline structure of the metal. This crystallization is quite
+clearly manifested by attacking the surface of the metal, or that of
+tin plate, with acids.
+
+Tin is very slightly tarnished by exposure to the air. It fuses at
+442 deg., and becomes grey, being a mixture of the oxide and the metal. At
+a high temperature even, tin is but little subject to pass off as
+vapor. It is soluble in aqua regia, and with the liberation of
+hydrogen, in hot sulphuric and hydrochloric acids, and in cold dilute
+nitric acid, without decomposing water, or the production of a gas,
+while nitrate of tin and nitrate of ammonia are formed. Concentrated
+nitric acid converts tin into insoluble tin acids.
+
+([alpha].) _Protoxide of Tin_ (SnO) is a dark-grey powder. Its hydrate
+is white, and is soluble in caustic alkalies. When this solution is
+heated, anhydrous crystalline black protoxide is separated. The
+soluble neutral salts of tin-protoxide are decomposed by the addition
+of water, and converted into acid soluble, and basic insoluble salts.
+
+When protoxide of tin is ignited with free access of air, it takes
+fire and is converted with considerable intensity into the acids,
+producing white vapors. This is likewise the case if it is touched by
+a spark of fire from steel. The hydrate of the protoxide of tin can be
+ignited by the flame of a candle, and glows like tinder.
+
+([beta].) _Sesquioxide of Tin_ (Sn^{2}O^{3}) is a greyish-brown
+powder. Its hydrate is white, with a yellow tinge. It is soluble in
+aqua ammonia and in hydrochloric acid; this solution forms with
+solution of gold the "purple of Cassius."
+
+([gamma].) _Stannic Acid_ (peroxide, SnO^{2}).--This acid occurs in
+nature crystallized in quadro-octahedrons, of a brown or an intense
+black color, and of great hardness (tinstone). Artificially prepared,
+it is a white or yellowish-white powder. It exists in two distinct or
+isomeric modifications, one of which is insoluble in acids (natural
+tin-acid) while the other (tin-acid prepared in the wet way) is
+soluble in acids. By ignition the soluble acid is converted into the
+insoluble. Both modifications form hydrates.
+
+_Reactions before the Blowpipe._--Metallic tin melts easily. It is
+covered in the flame of oxidation into a yellowish-white oxide, which
+is carried off sometimes by the stream of air which propels the flame.
+In the reduction flame, and upon charcoal, melting tin retains its
+metallic lustre, while a thin sublimate is produced upon the charcoal.
+This sublimate is light-yellow while hot, and gives a strong light in
+the flame of oxidation, and turns white while cooling. This sublimate
+is found near to the metal, and cannot be volatilized in the oxidation
+flame. In the flame of reduction it is reduced to metallic tin.
+Sometimes this incrustation is so imperceptible that it can scarcely
+be distinguished from the ashes of the charcoal. If such be the case,
+moisten it with a solution of cobalt, and expose it to the flame of
+oxidation, when the sublimate will exhibit, after cooling, a
+bluish-green color.
+
+Protoxide of tin takes fire in the flame of oxidation, and burns with
+flame and some white vapor into tin acid, or stannic acid. In a strong
+and continued reduction flame, it may be reduced to metal, when the
+same sublimate above mentioned is visible. The sesquioxide of tin
+behaves as the above.
+
+Stannic acid, heated in the flame of oxidation, does not melt and is
+not volatilized, but produces a strong light, and appears yellowish
+while hot, but changing as it cools to a dirty-yellow white color. In
+a strong and continued flame of reduction, it may be reduced likewise
+to the metallic state, with the production of the same sublimate as
+the above.
+
+_Borax_ dissolves tin compounds in the flame of oxidation, and upon
+platinum wire, very tardily, and in small quantity, to a transparent
+colorless bead, which remains clear after cooling, and also when
+heated intermittingly. But if a saturated bead, after being completely
+cool, is exposed again to the flame of oxidation, at a low red heat,
+the bead while cooling is opaque, loses its globular form, and
+exhibits an indistinct crystallization. This is the case too in the
+flame of reduction, but if the bead is highly saturated, a part of the
+oxide is reduced.
+
+_Microcosmic Salt_ dissolves the oxides in the flame of reduction very
+tardily in a small quantity to a transparent colorless bead, which
+remains clear while cooling. If to this bead sesquioxide of iron is
+added in proper proportion, the sesquioxide loses its property of
+coloring the bead, but of course an excess of the iron salt will
+communicate to the bead its own characteristic color. In the flame of
+reduction no further alteration is visible.
+
+Tin-oxides combine with carbonate of soda, in the flame of oxidation
+upon platinum wire, with intumescence to a bulky and confused mass,
+which is insoluble in more soda. Upon charcoal, in the reduction
+flame, it is easily reduced to a metallic globule. Certain compounds
+of tin-oxides, particularly if they contain tantalum, are by fusion
+with carbonate of soda reduced with difficulty; but by the addition of
+some borax, the reduction to the metallic state is easily effected.
+
+Tin-oxides exposed to the oxidation flame, then moistened with a
+solution of cobalt, and exposed again to the flame of oxidation, will
+exhibit, after having completely cooled, a bluish-green color.
+
+
+EIGHTH GROUP.--MERCURY, ARSENIC.
+
+These two metals are volatilized at a temperature lower than that of a
+red heat, and produce, therefore, no reactions with borax and
+microcosmic salt. Their oxides are easily reduced to the metallic
+state.
+
+(_a._) _Mercury_ (Hg).--This metal occurs in nature chiefly combined
+with sulphur as a bisulphide.
+
+It occurs still more rarely in the metallic form, or combined with
+silver, selenium, or chlorine.
+
+Mercury, in the metallic state, has a strong lustre, and is liquid at
+ordinary temperatures, whereby it is distinguished from any other
+metal. It freezes at 40 deg. and boils at 620 deg., but it evaporates at
+common temperatures. Pure mercury is unalterable. Upon being exposed
+to the air, it tarnishes only by admixture with other metals, turns
+grey on the surface, and loses its lustre. It is soluble in cold
+nitric acid and in concentrated hot sulphuric acid, but not in
+hydrochloric acid.
+
+([chi].) _Protoxide of Mercury_ (Hg^{2}O).--It is a black powder,
+which is decomposed by ignition into metallic mercury and oxygen. By
+digestion with certain acids, and particularly with caustic alkalies,
+it is converted into metallic mercury and peroxide. Some neutral salts
+of the protoxide are only partly soluble in water, as they are
+converted into basic insoluble and acid soluble salts.
+
+Protoxide of mercury is completely insoluble in hydrochloric acid. Its
+neutral salts change blue litmus paper to red.
+
+([beta].) _Peroxide of Mercury_ (HgO).--This oxide exists in two
+allotropic modifications. One is of a brick-red color, and the other
+is orange. Being exposed to heat, they turn black, but regain their
+respective colors upon cooling. They are decomposed at a high
+temperature into metallic mercury and oxygen. They yield with acids
+their own peculiar salts.
+
+Mercury, in the metallic form, can never be mistaken for any other
+metal in consequence of its fluid condition at ordinary temperatures.
+
+Exposed to the blowpipe flame, it is instantly volatilized. This is
+also the case with it when combined with other metals. The oxides of
+mercury are, in the oxidation and reduction flames, instantly reduced
+and volatilized. They do not produce any alteration with fluxes, as
+they are volatilized before the bead melts. Heated with carbonate of
+soda in a glass tube closed at one end, they are reduced to metallic
+mercury, which is volatilized, and condenses upon a cool portion of
+the tube as a grey powder. By cautious knocking against the tube, or
+by rubbing with a glass rod, this sublimate can be brought together
+into one globule of metallic mercury. Compounds of mercury can be most
+completely reduced by a mixture of neutral oxalate of potassa and
+cyanide of potassium. If the substance under examination contains such
+a small quantity of mercury that it cannot be distinguished by
+volatilization, a strip of gold leaf may be attached to an iron wire,
+and introduced during the experiment in the glass tube. The smallest
+trace of mercury will whiten the gold leaf in spots.
+
+(_b._) _Arsenic_ (As).--This metal occurs in considerable quantity in
+nature, chiefly combined with sulphur or metals.
+
+Arsenic, in the metallic state, is of a whitish-grey color, high
+lustre, and is crystalline, of a foliated structure, and is so brittle
+that it can be pulverized. It does not melt, but is volatilized at
+356 deg.. Its vapor has a strong alliaceous odor. Arsenic sublimes in
+irregular crystals. By exposure to the air it soon tarnishes, and is
+coated black. Being mixed with nitrate of potassa and inflamed, it
+detonates with vehemence. Mixed with carbonate of potassa, it is
+inflamed by a stroke of the hammer, and detonates violently.
+
+Heated in oxygen gas, it is inflamed, and burns with a pale blue flame
+to arsenious acid.
+
+([beta].) _Arsenious Acid_ (AsO^{3}).--This acid crystallizes in
+octahedrons, or, when fused, forms a colorless glass, which finally
+becomes opaque and enamel-like, or forms a white powder. It sublimes
+without change or decomposition. When heated for a longer while below
+the temperature of sublimation, it melts into a transparent,
+colorless, tough glass. The opaque acid is sparingly soluble in cold
+water, and still more soluble in hot water. It is converted, by
+continued boiling, into the transparent acid, which is much more
+soluble in water. Arsenious acid is easily dissolved by caustic
+potassa. It is also soluble in hydrochloric acid. This acid occurs
+associated with antimonious acid, protoxide of tin, protoxide of lead,
+and oxide of copper. It occurs likewise in very small quantity in
+ferruginous mineral springs.
+
+([gamma].)_Arsenic Acid_ (AsO^{5}) is a white mass, which readily
+absorbs moisture and dissolves. It will not volatilize at a low red
+heat, nor will it decompose. Exposed to a strong heat, it is
+decomposed, yielding oxygen, and passing into arsenious acid.
+
+_Reactions before the Blowpipe._
+
+Metallic arsenic, heated in a glass tube closed at one end, yields a
+black sublimate of a metallic lustre, and at the same time gives out
+the characteristic alliaceous odor. This is the case too with alloys
+of arsenic, if there is a maximum quantity of arsenic present.
+
+When heated in a glass tube open at both ends, metallic arsenic is
+oxidized to arsenious acid, which appears as a white crystalline
+sublimate on the sides of the glass tube. This deposit will occur at
+some distance from the assay, in consequence of the great volatility
+of the arsenic. The sublimate can be driven from one place upon the
+tube to another, by a very low heat. Alloys of arsenic are converted
+into basic arseniates of metal oxides, while surplus arsenic is
+converted into arsenious acid, which sublimes on the tube. If too much
+arsenic is used for this experiment, a dark-brown incrustation will
+sublime upon the sides of the tube which will give an alliaceous
+smell. If this sublimate should be deposited near the assay, then it
+resembles the white sublimate of arsenious acid.
+
+Heated upon charcoal, metallic arsenic is volatilized before it melts,
+and incrusts the charcoal in the flame of oxidation as a white deposit
+of arsenious acid. This sublimate appears sometimes of a greyish
+color, and takes place at some distance from the assay. When heated
+slightly with the blowpipe flame, this sublimate is instantly driven
+away, and being heated rapidly in the reduction flame, it disappears
+with a light blue tinge, while the usual alliaceous or garlic smell
+may be discerned.
+
+Arsenious acid sublimes in both glass tubes very readily, as a white
+crystalline sublimate. These crystals appear to be regular octahedrons
+when observed under the microscope. Upon charcoal it instantly
+volatilizes, and when heated, the characteristic garlic smell may be
+observed.
+
+Arsenic acid yields, heated strongly in a glass tube closed at one
+end, oxygen and arsenious acid, the latter of which sublimes in the
+cool portions of the tube. Compounds of arsenic produce, in
+consequence of their volatility, no reactions with fluxes. Being
+heated upon charcoal with carbonate of soda, they are reduced to
+metallic arsenic which may be detected by the alliaceous odor peculiar
+to all the arsenic compounds when volatilized.
+
+
+NINTH GROUP.--COPPER, SILVER, GOLD.
+
+These metals are not volatile, neither are their oxides. They are
+reduced to the metallic state, by fusion with carbonate of soda, when
+they melt to a metallic grain. The oxides of silver and gold are
+reduced _per se_ to the metallic state by ignition. In the reduction
+of the oxides of this group, no sublimate is visible upon the
+charcoal.
+
+(_a._) _Copper_ (Cu).--This metal occurs in the metallic state, also
+as the protoxide, and as oxides combined with acids in different salts
+(carbonate of copper as malachite, etc.) The sulphide of copper is the
+principal ore of copper occurring in nature. In the metallic state,
+copper is of a red color, has great lustre and tenacity, is ductile
+and malleable, and crystallizes in octahedrons and cubes. It melts at
+a bright red heat, is more difficult than silver to fuse, but fuses
+more readily than gold. It absorbs oxygen while melting. There arises
+from its surface a fine dust of metallic globules, which are covered
+with the protoxide. The surface of the metal is likewise covered with
+the protoxide. Copper exposed to moist air tarnishes, and is
+converted into hydratic carbonate of copper. When ignited in the open
+air, it is soon covered with the brownish-red protoxide.
+
+([chi].) _Protoxide of Copper_ (Cu^{2}O).--This oxide occurs in
+nature, crystallized in octahedrons of a ruby-red color, of a lamellar
+structure, and transparent. Artificially prepared, it forms a powder
+of the same color. It is decomposed by dilute acids into salts of
+peroxide and metal. It is converted by ignition, with free access of
+air, into peroxide.
+
+([beta].) _Oxide of Copper_ (CuO).--This oxide is a dark-brown or
+black powder. It is dissolved by acids, with a blue or green-colored
+solution. It is soluble in aqua ammonia, and the solution is of a dark
+blue color.
+
+_Reactions before the Blowpipe._--Oxide of copper exposed upon
+platinum wire to the inmost flame (the blue flame), communicates to
+the external flame a green color. Heated upon charcoal in the
+oxidation flame, it melts to a black ball, soon spreads over the
+charcoal, and is partially reduced.
+
+Exposed to the reduction flame, at a temperature which will not melt
+copper, it is reduced with a bright metallic lustre, but as soon as
+the blast ceases, the surface of the metal becomes oxidized, and
+appears dark brown or black. If the temperature is continued still
+higher, it melts to a metallic grain.
+
+_Borax_ dissolves the oxide of copper in the flame of oxidation to a
+clear green-colored bead, even if the quantity of oxide be quite
+small, but by cooling, the bead becomes blue. In the flame of
+reduction upon platinum wire, the bead soon becomes colorless, but
+while cooling presents a red color (protoxide of copper). This bead is
+opaque, but, if too much of the oxide is added, a part of it is
+reduced to metal, which is visible by breaking the metallic grain.
+
+Upon charcoal, the oxide is reduced to the metal, and the bead appears
+colorless after cooling. With the addition of some tin, the bead
+becomes brownish-red and opaque after cooling.
+
+_Microcosmic Salt_ dissolves oxide of copper in the flame of oxidation
+to a green bead, not so intensely colored as the borax bead. In the
+reduction flame the bead, if pretty well saturated, becomes dark-green
+while hot, and brownish-red when cool, opaque and enamel-like. If the
+oxide is so little that no reaction is visible, by the addition of
+some tin, the bead appears colorless while hot, and dark brownish-red
+and opaque when cold.
+
+_Carbonate of Soda_ dissolves oxide of copper in the oxidation flame
+upon platinum wire, to a clear, green bead, which loses its color when
+cooling, and becomes opaque.
+
+Upon charcoal, it is reduced to the metal, the soda is absorbed by the
+charcoal, and the metallic particles melt with sufficient heat to a
+grain.
+
+(_b._) _Silver_ (Ag).--This metal occurs in nature in the metallic
+state, and in combination with other metals, particularly with lead.
+It also occurs as the sulphide in several mines. It crystallizes in
+cubes and octahedrons; is of a pure white color, great lustre, is very
+malleable and ductile, and is softer than copper, but harder than
+gold. It is not oxidizable, neither at common temperatures nor at
+those which are considerably higher. It is soluble in dilute nitric
+acid, and in boiling concentrated sulphuric acid.
+
+([chi].) _Protoxide of Silver_ (Ag^{2}O).--It is a black powder. It is
+converted by acids and ammonia into oxide and metal.
+
+([beta].) _Oxide of Silver_ (AgO).--It is a greyish-brown or black
+powder, and is the base of the silver salts. With aqua ammonia, it is
+converted into the black, fulminating silver.
+
+([gamma].) _Superoxide or Binoxide of Silver_ (AgO^{2}).--This oxide
+occurs in black needles or octahedral crystals of great metallic
+lustre. It is dissolved by the oxygen acids with the disengagement of
+oxygen gas.
+
+_Behavior before the Blowpipe._--When exposed to the flames of
+oxidation and reduction, the oxides of silver are instantly reduced to
+the metallic state.
+
+_Borax_ dissolves silver-oxides upon platinum wire in the oxidation
+flame but partially, while the other portion is reduced, the bead
+appearing opalescent after cooling, in correspondence to the degree of
+saturation. The bead becomes grey in the flame of reduction, the
+reduced silver melting to a grain, and the bead is rendered clear and
+colorless again.
+
+_Microcosmic Salt_ dissolves oxides of silver in the flame of
+oxidation upon platinum wire to a transparent yellowish bead, which
+presents, when much of the oxide is present, an opalescent appearance.
+
+In the flame of reduction, the reaction is analogous to that of borax.
+
+By fusion with carbonate of soda in the oxidation and reduction
+flames, the silver oxides are instantly reduced to metallic silver,
+which fuses into one or more grains.
+
+(_c._) _Gold_ (Au).--This metal occurs mostly in the metallic state,
+but frequently mixed with ores, and with other metals. Gold
+crystallizes in cubes and octahedrons, is of a beautiful yellow color,
+great lustre, and is the most malleable and ductile of all the metals.
+It melts at a higher temperature than copper, gives a green colored
+light when fused, and contracts greatly when cooling. It does not
+oxidize at ordinary temperatures, nor when heated much above them. It
+is soluble in nitro-hydrochloric acid (_aqua regia_).
+
+([chi].) _Protoxide of Gold_ (Au^{2}O).--This oxide is a dark violet
+colored powder which is converted by a temperature of 540 deg. into
+metallic gold and oxygen. It is only soluble in aqua regia. Treated
+with hydrochloric acid, it yields the chloride of gold and the metal.
+With aqua ammonia, it yields the fulminating gold, which is a blue
+mass and very explosive.
+
+([chi].) _Peroxide of Gold_ (Au^{2}O^{3}).--This oxide is an
+olive-green or dark brown powder, containing variable quantities of
+water. Decomposed at 530 deg., it yields metallic gold and oxygen.
+
+_Reactions before the Blowpipe._--Oxides of gold are reduced, in both
+the oxidation and reduction flames, to the metal, which fuses to
+grains.
+
+_Borax_ does not dissolve it, but it is reduced to the metallic state
+in this flux in either flame. The reduced metal fuses upon charcoal to
+a grain.
+
+_Microcosmic Salt_ presents the same reactions as borax.
+
+When fused with soda, upon charcoal, the soda is absorbed, and the
+gold remains as a metallic grain.
+
+
+TENTH GROUP.--MOLYBDENUM, OSMIUM.
+
+These metals are not volatile, and are infusible before the blowpipe;
+but some of their oxides are volatile, and can be reduced to an
+infusible metallic powder.
+
+(_a._) _Molybdenum_ (Mo) occurs in the metallic state; also combined
+with sulphur, or as molybdic acid combined with lead. It is a white,
+brittle metal, and is unaltered by exposure to the air. When heated
+until it begins to glow, it is converted into a brown oxide. Heated at
+a continued dull red heat, it turns blue. At a higher temperature, it
+is oxidized to molybdic acid, when it glimmers and smokes, and is
+converted into crystallized molybdic acid upon the surface.
+
+([chi].) _Protoxide of Molybdenum_ (MoO).--This oxide is a black
+powder.
+
+([chi].) _Deutoxide of Molybdenum_ (MoO^{2}).--This oxide is a dark
+copper-colored crystalline powder.
+
+_Reactions before the Blowpipe._--Metallic molybdenum, its protoxide
+and binoxide, are converted in the oxidation flame into molybdic acid.
+This acid fuses in the flame of oxidation to a brown liquid, which
+spreads, volatilizes, and sublimes upon the charcoal as a yellow
+powder, which appears crystalline in the vicinity of the assay. This
+sublimate becomes white after cooling. Beyond this sublimate there is
+visible a thin and not volatile ore of binoxide, after cooling; this
+is of a dark copper-red color, and presenting a metallic lustre.
+
+Heated in a glass tube, closed at one end, it melts to a brown mass,
+vaporizes and sublimates to a white powder upon a cool portion of the
+tube. Immediately above the assay, yellow crystals are visible; these
+crystals are colorless after cooling, and the fused mass becomes light
+yellow-colored and crystalline.
+
+Upon platinum foil, in the flame of oxidation, it melts and vaporizes,
+and becomes light yellow and crystalline after cooling. In the
+reduction flame it becomes blue, and brown-colored if the heat is
+increased.
+
+Upon charcoal, in the reduction flame, it is absorbed by the charcoal;
+and, with an increase of the temperature, it is reduced to the metal,
+which remains as a grey powder after washing off the particles of
+charcoal.
+
+_Borax_ dissolves it, in the oxidation flame, upon platinum wire
+easily, and in great quantity, to a clear yellow, which becomes
+colorless while cooling. By the addition of more of the molybdenic
+acid the bead is dark yellow, or red while hot, and opalescent when
+cold. In the reduction flame, the color of the bead is changed to
+brown and transparent. By the addition of more of the acid, it becomes
+opaque.
+
+_Microcosmic Salt_ dissolves it in the oxidation flame, upon platinum
+wire, to a clear, yellowish-green bead, which becomes colorless after
+cooling. In the reduction flame the bead is very dark and opaque, but
+becomes of a bright green after cooling. This is the case likewise
+upon charcoal.
+
+_Carbonate of Soda_ dissolves it upon platinum wire in the oxidation
+flame with intumescence, to a clear bead, which appears milk-white
+after cooling. Upon charcoal the soda and the molybdic acid are
+absorbed, the latter is reduced to the metallic state, the metal
+remaining as a grey powder after washing off the particles of
+charcoal. When molybdic acid, or any other oxide of this metal, is
+exposed upon platinum wire, or with platinum tongs, to the point of
+the blue flame, a yellowish-green color is communicated to the
+external flame. If also any of the compounds of molybdenum are mixed
+in the form of a powder with concentrated sulphuric acid and alcohol,
+and the latter inflamed, the flame of the alcohol appears colored
+green.
+
+(_c._) _Osmium_ (Os).--This metal occurs associated with platinum. It
+is of a bluish-grey color, and is very brittle. Ignited in the open
+air, it is oxidized to volatile osmic acid, which is possessed of a
+pungent smell, and affects the eyes. It communicates a bright white
+color to the flame of alcohol. Osmium oxide (OsO^{2}) is converted in
+the oxidation flame to osmic acid, which is volatilized with a
+peculiar smell, leaving a sublimate.
+
+In the reduction flame it is reduced to a dark-brown infusible
+metallic powder. It produces no reactions with fluxes. Carbonate of
+soda reduces it upon charcoal to an infusible metallic powder, which
+appears, after washing off the particles of charcoal, of a dark-brown
+color.
+
+
+ELEVENTH GROUP.--PLATINUM, PALLADIUM, IRIDIUM, RHODIUM, RUTHENIUM.
+
+These metals are infusible before the blowpipe. They are not volatile,
+nor are they oxidizable. Their oxides are, in both flames, reduced to
+a metallic and infusible powder. They give no reactions with fluxes,
+but are separated in the metallic form. These metals are generally
+found associated together in the native platinum, also with traces of
+copper, lead, and iron.
+
+The metal palladium is found native, associated with iridium and
+platinum. This metal generally occurs in greatest quantity in Brazil.
+
+The metal rhodium is found along with platinum, but in very small
+quantities.
+
+Iridium occurs in nature associated with osmium, gold, and platinum,
+in the mines of Russia. Its great hardness has rendered it desirable
+for the points of gold pens. In South America this metal is found
+native, associated with platinum and osmium. The latter metal,
+associated with platinum and iridium, has been found in South America.
+
+As these metals will not oxidize or dissolve, they cannot be separated
+from each other by the blowpipe with the reagents peculiar to that
+species of analysis. It is true that colors may be discerned in the
+beads, but these tints proceed from the presence of small traces of
+copper, iron, etc.
+
+The ore of osmium and iridium can be decomposed, and the former
+recognized by its fetid odor. This metal, strongly ignited in a glass
+tube with nitrate of potash, is converted to the oxide of osmium,
+which gives an odor not unlike the chloride of sulphur.
+
+As the metals of this group are very rare ones, especially the last
+four ones, we shall not devote an especial division to each of them.
+For a more detailed statement of their reactions, the student is
+referred to the large works upon blowpipe analysis.
+
+
+CLASS III.
+
+
+NON-METALLIC SUBSTANCES.
+
+1. _Water_--2. _Nitric Acid_--3. _Carbon_--4. _Phosphorus_
+--5. _Sulphur_--6. _Boron_--7. _Silicon_--8. _Chlorine_
+--9. _Bromine_--10. _Iodine_--11. _Fluorine_--12. _Cyanogen_
+--13. _Selenium_.
+
+
+(1.) _Water_ (HO).--Pure distilled water is composed of one volume of
+oxygen, and two volumes of hydrogen gases; or, by weight, of one part
+of hydrogen to eight parts of oxygen gases. Water is never found pure
+in nature, but possessing great solvent properties, it always is found
+with variable proportions of those substances it is most liable to
+meet with, dissolved in it. Thus it derives various designations
+depending upon the nature of the substance it may hold in solution, as
+lime-water, etc.
+
+In taking cognizance of water in relation to blowpipe analysis, we
+regard it only as existing in minerals. The examination for water is
+generally performed thus: the substance may be placed in a dry tube,
+and then submitted to heat over a spirit-lamp. If the water exists in
+the mineral mechanically it will soon be driven off, but if it exists
+chemically combined, the heat will fail to drive it off, or if it
+does, it will only partially effect it. The water will condense upon
+the cool portions of the tube, where it can be readily discerned. If
+the water exists chemically combined, a much stronger heat must be
+applied in order to separate it.
+
+Many substances may be perhaps mistaken for water by the beginner,
+such as the volatile acids, etc.
+
+
+(2.) _Nitric Acid_ (NO^{5}).--Nitric acid occurs in nature in potash
+and soda saltpetre. These salts are generally impure, containing lime,
+as the sulphate, carbonate and nitrate, and also iron in small
+quantity. The soda saltpetre generally contains a quantity of the
+chloride of sodium. The salts containing nitric acid deflagrate when
+heated on charcoal. Substances containing nitric acid may be heated in
+a glass tube closed at one end, by which the characteristic red fumes
+of nitrous acid are eliminated. If the acid be in too minute a
+quantity to be thus distinguished, a portion of the substance may be
+intimately mixed with some bisulphate of potash, and treated as above.
+The sulphuric acid of the bisulphate combines with the base, and
+liberates the nitric acid, while the tube contains the nitrous acid
+gas.
+
+The nitrate of potassa, when heated in a glass tube, fuses to a clear
+glass, but gives off no water. When fused on platinum wire, it
+communicates to the external flame the characteristic violet color.
+When fused and ignited on charcoal, its surface becomes frothy,
+indicating the nitric acid.
+
+
+(3.) _Carbon_ (C).--Carbon is found in nature in the pure crystallized
+state as the diamond. It occurs likewise in several allotropic states
+as graphite, plumbago, charcoal, anthracite, etc. It exists in large
+quantities combined with oxygen as carbonic acid.
+
+The diamond, although combustible, requires too high a heat for its
+combustion to enable us to burn it with the blowpipe. When excluded
+from the air, it may be heated to whiteness without undergoing fusion,
+but with the free access of air it burns at a temperature of 703 deg. C,
+and is converted into carbonic acid. If mixed with nitre, the potassa
+retains the carbonic acid, and the carbon may be thus easily
+estimated. If a mineral containing carbonic acid is heated, the gas
+escapes with effervescence, or a strong mineral acid as the
+hydrochloric will expel the acid with the characteristic
+effervescence.
+
+
+(4.) _Phosphorus, Phosphoric Acid _(PO^{6}).--This acid occurs in a
+variety of minerals, associated with yttria, copper, uranium, iron,
+lead, manganese, etc. Phosphoric acid may be detected in minerals by
+pursuing the following process: dip a small piece of the mineral in
+sulphuric acid, and place it in the platinum tongs: this is heated at
+the point of the blue flame, when the outer flame will become colored
+of a greenish-blue hue. This color will not be mistaken for those of
+boracic acid, copper, or baryta. Some of the phosphoric minerals, when
+heated in the inner flame, will color the outer flame green.
+
+If alumina be present with the phosphoric acid, the following wet
+method should be adopted for the detection of the latter: the
+substance should be powdered in the agate mortar with a mixture of six
+parts of soda, and one and a half parts of silica. The entire mass
+should now be placed on charcoal, and melted in the flame of
+oxidation. The residue should be treated with boiling water, which
+dissolves the phosphate and the excess of carbonate of soda, while the
+silicate of alumina, with some of the soda, is left. The clear liquor
+is now treated with acetic acid, and heated over the spirit-lamp, and
+a small portion of crystallized nitrate of silver added; a
+lemon-yellow precipitate of phosphate of silver is quickly developed.
+Previous to the addition of the nitrate, the liquor should be well
+heated; otherwise, a white precipitate of dipyrophosphate of silver
+will be produced.
+
+If the examination be of any of the metallic phosphides, the
+substances should be powdered in the agate mortar, and fused with
+nitrate of potassa on the platinum wire; the fused mass should be
+treated with soda in the same manner as any substance containing
+phosphoric acid. The metal and the phosphorus are oxidized, while the
+phosphate of potassa is fused, and the metallic oxide separates.
+
+
+(5.) _Sulphur_ (S).--Sulphur is found native in crystals It is
+frequently found associated with lime, iron, silica, carbon, etc., and
+combined extensively with metals.
+
+The principal acid of sulphur (the sulphuric, SO^{3}) occurs combined
+with the earths, the alkalies, and the metallic oxides. Native sulphur
+is recognized, when heated upon charcoal, by its odor (sulphurous
+acid) and the blue color of its flame. The compounds of sulphur may be
+detected by several methods. If the substance is heated in a glass
+tube, closed at one end, the yellow sublimate of sulphur will subside
+upon the cool portions of the tube; if the substance should also
+contain arsenic, the sublimate will present itself as a light brown
+incrustation, consisting of the sulphide of arsenic.
+
+If the assay is heated in the open glass tube, sulphurous acid will
+thus be generated; but, if the gas is too little to be detected by the
+smell, a strip of moistened litmus paper will indicate the presence of
+the acid.
+
+The assay will give off sulphurous fumes if heated in the flame of
+oxidation.
+
+If the powdered substance is fused with two parts of soda, and one
+part of borax, upon charcoal, the sulphide of sodium is formed. This
+salt, if moistened and applied to a polished silver surface, will
+blacken it. The borax serves no other purpose than to prevent the
+absorption of the formed sulphide of sodium by the charcoal. As
+selenium will blacken silver in the manner above indicated, the
+presence of this substance should be first ascertained, by heating the
+assay; when, if it be present, the characteristic horse-radish odor
+will reveal the fact.
+
+Sulphuric acid may be detected by fusing the substance with two parts
+of soda, and one part of borax, on charcoal, in the flame of
+reduction; the mass must now be wetted with water, and placed in
+contact with a surface of bright silver; when, if sulphuric acid be
+present, the silver will become blackened.
+
+Or the substance may be fused with silicate of soda in the flame of
+reduction. In this case, the soda combines with a portion of the
+sulphuric acid, which is then reduced to the sulphide, while the bead
+becomes of an orange or red color, depending upon the amount of the
+sulphuric acid present. If the assay should, however, be colored, then
+the previous treatment should be resorted to.
+
+
+(6.) _Boron, Boracic Acid_ (BO^{3}).--This acid occurs in nature in
+several minerals combined with various bases, such as magnesia, lime,
+soda, alumina, etc. Combined with water, this acid exists in nature as
+the native boracic acid; this acid gives with test paper prepared from
+Brazil wood, when moistened with water, a characteristic reaction, for
+the paper becomes completely bleached. An alcohol solution turns
+curcuma test paper brown. Heated on charcoal, it fuses to a clear
+bead; but, if the sulphate of lime be present, the bead becomes opaque
+upon cooling.
+
+The following reaction is a certain one: the substance is pulverized
+and mixed with a flux of four and a half parts of bisulphate of
+potassa, and one part of pulverized fluoride of calcium. The whole is
+made into a paste with water, and the assay is placed on the platinum
+wire, and submitted to the point of the blue flame. While the assay is
+melting, fluoboric gas is disengaged, which tinges the outer flame
+green. If but a small portion of boracic acid is present, the color
+will be quite evanescent.
+
+
+(7.) _Silica, Silicic Acid_ (SiO^{3}).--This acid exists in the
+greatest plenty, forming no inconsiderable portion of the solid part
+of this earth. It exists nearly pure in crystallized quartz,
+chalcedony, cornelian, flint, etc., the coloring ingredients of these
+minerals being generally iron or manganese.
+
+With _microcosmic salt_, silica forms a bead in the flame of oxidation
+which, while hot, is clear, while the separated silica floats in it. A
+platinum wire is generally used for the purpose, the end of it being
+first dipped in the salt which is fused into a bead, after which the
+silica must be added, and then the bead submitted to the flame of
+oxidation.
+
+The silicates dissolve in soda but partially, and then with
+effervescence. If the oxygen of the acid be twice that of the base, a
+clear bead will be obtained that will retain its transparency when
+cold. If the soda be added in small quantity, the bead will then be
+opaque. In the first instance, a part of the base which separates is
+re-dissolved, and, therefore, the transparency of the glass; but, if
+too large a quantity of the soda is added, the separation of the base
+is sufficient to render the assay infusible.
+
+
+(8.) _Chlorine_ (Cl).--Chlorine exists in nature always in
+combination, as the chlorides of sodium, potassium, calcium, ammonium,
+magnesia, silver, mercury, lead, copper, etc.
+
+The chlorine existing in metallic chlorides may be detected as
+follows: the wet way may be accomplished in the following manner. If
+the substance is insoluble, it must be melted with soda to render it
+soluble; if it be already soluble it must be dissolved in pure water,
+and nitrate of silver added, when the one ten-thousandth part of
+chlorine will manifest its presence by imparting a milky hue to the
+fluid.
+
+By the blowpipe, chlorine may be detected in the following manner:
+Oxide of copper is dissolved in microcosmic salt on the platinum wire
+in the flame of oxidation, and a clear bead is obtained. The substance
+containing the chlorine is now added, and heat is applied. The assay
+will soon be enveloped by a blue or purplish flame. As none of the
+acids that occur in the mineral kingdom give this reaction, chlorine
+cannot be confounded with them, for those which impart a color to the
+flame, when mixed with a copper salt, will not do so when tested in
+the microcosmic salt bead as above indicated.
+
+If the assay is soluble in water, the following method may be
+followed: a small quantity of sulphate of copper or iron is dissolved;
+a few drops of the solution is placed upon a bright surface of silver,
+and the metallic chloride added; when, if chlorine is present, the
+silver is blackened. If the chloride is insoluble in water, it must be
+rendered soluble by fusion upon a platinum wire with soda, and then
+treated as above.[2]
+
+    [2] Plattner.
+
+
+(9.) _Bromine_ (Br).--The bromide of magnesium and sodium exists in
+many salt springs, and it is from these that the bromine of commerce
+is obtained. The metallic bromides give the same reactions on silver
+with the microcosmic bead and copper salt as the metallic chlorides.
+The purplish color which, however, characterizes the chlorides, is
+more inclined to greenish with the bromides. If the substance be
+placed in a flask or glass tube, and fused with bisulphate of potassa,
+over the spirit-lamp, sulphurous gas and bromine will be eliminated.
+Bromine will be readily detected by its yellow color and its smell.
+Bromine may be readily detected by passing a current of chlorine
+through the fluid, after which ether is added and the whole is
+agitated. The ether rises to the top, carrying with it the bromine in
+solution; after being withdrawn, this ether is mixed with potassa, by
+which the bromide and bromate of potassa are formed. The solution is
+evaporated to dryness, the residue is fused in a platinum vessel, the
+bromate is decomposed, while the bromide remains; this must be
+distilled with sulphuric acid and the binoxide of manganese. A red or
+brown vapor will then appear, indicating the presence of bromine; this
+vapor will color starch paste--which may be put in the receiver on
+purpose--of a deep orange color.
+
+If, to a solution containing a bromide, concentrated sulphuric or
+nitric acid be added, the bromine is liberated and colors the solution
+yellow or red. The hypochlorites act in the same manner. The bromine
+salts are coming into use extensively in photography, in consequence
+of their greater sensitiveness to the action of light than the
+chlorides alone.
+
+
+(10.) _Iodine_ (I).--This element occurs in salt-springs, generally
+combined with sodium; it also exists in rock-salt; it has likewise
+been found in sea-water, also in a mineral from Mexico, in combination
+with silver, and in one from Silesia, in combination with zinc. As
+sea-water contains iodine, we would consequently expect to find it
+existing in the sea-weeds, and it is generally from the ashes of these
+that it is obtained in commerce.
+
+When the metallic iodides are fused with the microcosmic salt and
+copper, as previously indicated, they impart a green color to the
+flame. This color cannot be mistaken for the color imparted to the
+flame by copper alone. When the metallic iodides are fused in a glass
+tube, closed at one end, with the bisulphate of potassa, the vapor of
+iodine is liberated, and may be recognized by its characteristic
+color. Those mineral waters containing iodine can be treated the same
+as for bromine, as previously indicated, while the violet-colored
+vapor of the iodine can be easily discerned. The nitrate of silver is
+the best test for iodine, the yellow color of the iodide of silver
+being not easily mistaken, while its almost insolubility in ammonia
+will confirm its identity. The chloride of silver, on the contrary,
+dissolves in ammonia with the greatest facility.
+
+The reactions of iodine are similar to those of bromine with
+concentrated sulphuric acid and binoxide of manganese, and with nitric
+acid: The iodine is released and, if the quantity be not too great,
+colors the liquid brown. If there be a considerable quantity of iodine
+present, it is precipitated as a dark colored powder. Either of these,
+when heated, gives out the violet-color of the iodine.
+
+With starch paste free iodine combines, producing a deep blue
+compound. If, however, the iodine be in very minute quantity, the
+color, instead of being blue, will be light violet or rose color.
+
+If to a solution of the sulphate of copper, to which a small portion
+of sulphurous acid has been added, a liquid containing iodine and
+bromine is poured in, a dirty, white precipitate of the subiodide of
+copper is produced, and the bromine remains in the solution. The
+latter may then be tested for the bromine by strong sulphuric acid.
+
+
+(11.) _Fluorine_ (Fl).--This element exists combined with sodium,
+calcium, lithium, aluminium, magnesium, yttrium, and cerium. Fluorine
+also exists in the enamel of the teeth, and in the bones of some
+animals. This element has a strong affinity for hydrogen, and,
+therefore, we find it frequently in the form of hydrofluoric acid.
+Brazil-wood paper is the most delicate test for hydrofluoric acid,
+which it tinges of a light yellow color. Phosphoric acid likewise
+colors Brazil paper yellow, but as this acid is not volatile at a heat
+sufficient to examine hydrofluoric acid, there can be no mistake. If
+the substance is supposed to contain this acid, it should be placed on
+a slip of glass, and moistened with hydrochloric acid, when the test
+paper may be applied, and the characteristic yellow color will
+indicate the presence of the fluorine.
+
+As hydrofluoric acid acts upon glass, this property may be used for
+its detection. The substance may be put into a glass tube, and
+sulphuric acid poured upon it in sufficient quantity to moisten it; a
+slight heat applied to the tube will develop the acid, which will act
+upon the glass of the tube. If the acid is retained in the mineral by
+a feeble affinity, and water be present, a piece of it may be put in
+the tube and heated, when the acid gas will be eliminated. The test
+paper will indicate its presence, even before it has time to act upon
+the glass. If the temperature be too high, fluosilicic acid is
+generated, and will form a silicious incrustation upon the cool
+portion of the tube.
+
+If the fluorine is too minute to produce either of the above
+reactions, then the following process, recommended by Plattner, should
+be followed: the assay should be mixed with metaphosphate of soda,
+formed by heating the microcosmic salt to dull redness. The mass must
+then be placed in an open glass tube, in such a position that there
+will be an access of hot air from the flame. Thus aqueous hydrofluoric
+acid is formed, which can be recognized by its smell being more
+suffocating than chlorine, and also by the etching produced by the
+condensation of vapor in the tube. Moist Brazil paper, applied to the
+extremity of the tube, will be instantly colored yellow.
+
+Merlet's method for the detection of this acid is the following:[3]
+Pulverize the substance for examination, then triturate it to an
+impalpable powder, and mix it with an equal part of bisulphate of
+potassa. Heat the mass gradually in a moderately wide test-tube. The
+judicious application of heat must be strictly observed, for if the
+operator first heats the part of the tube where the assay rests, the
+whole may be lost on account of the glass being shattered. The
+spirit-flame must be first applied to the fore part of the tube, and
+then made to recede slowly until it fuses the assay. After the mixture
+has been for some time kept in a molten state, the lamp must be
+withdrawn, and the part containing the assay severed with a file. The
+fore part of the tube must then be well washed, and afterwards dried
+with bibulous paper. Should the fluorine contained in the substance be
+appreciable, the glass tube, when held up to the light, will be found
+to have lost its transparency, and to be very rough to the touch.
+
+    [3] Quoted by Plattner.
+
+Great care should be observed not to allow this very corrosive acid to
+come into contact with the skin, as an ulcer will be the consequence
+that will be extremely difficult to heal.
+
+When hydrofluoric acid comes in contact with any silicious substance,
+hydrofluosilicic acid gas is always formed.
+
+
+(12.) _Selenium_ (Se).--This element occurs in combination with lead
+as the selenide, and with copper as the selenide of copper. It exists
+also combined with cobalt and lead, as the selenide of these metals;
+also as the selenide of lead and mercury.
+
+The smallest trace of selenium may be detected by igniting a small
+piece of charcoal in the flame of oxidation, when the peculiar and
+unmistakable odor of decayed horse-radish will indicate the presence
+of that element. An orange vapor is eliminated if the selenium be
+present in any quantity, while there is an incrustation around the
+assay of a grey color, with a metallic lustre. This incrustation
+frequently presents a reddish-violet color at its exterior edges,
+often running into a deep blue. If a substance containing selenium be
+placed in a glass tube, closed at one end, and submitted to heat, the
+selenium is sublimed, with an orange-colored vapor, and with the
+characteristic odor of that substance. Upon the cool portions of the
+tube a steel-grey sublimate is deposited, and, beyond that, can be
+discerned small crystals of selenic acid. If the mineral be the
+seleniferous lead glance, sulphurous acid gas will be given off, and
+may be detected by the smell, or by a strip of moistened litmus paper.
+
+If arsenic is present, heating upon charcoal will quickly lead to the
+determination of the one from the other.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+TABULAR STATEMENT OF THE REACTIONS OF MINERALS BEFORE THE BLOWPIPE.
+
+
+In PART THIRD of this work, commencing at page 109, the student will
+find a sufficiently explicit description of the blowpipe reactions of
+those principal substances that would be likely to come beneath his
+attention. The following tabular statement of those reactions--which
+we take from Scheerer and Blanford's excellent little work upon the
+blowpipe--will be of great benefit, as a vehicle for consultation,
+when the want of time--or during the hurry of an examination--precludes
+the attentive perusal of the more lengthy descriptions in the text.
+
+In the examination of minerals, before the student avails himself of
+the aid of the blowpipe, he should not neglect to examine the specimen
+rigidly in relation to its physical characters, such as its hardness,
+lustre, color, and peculiar crystallization. It is where the
+difference of two minerals cannot be distinguished by their physical
+appearance, that the aid of the blowpipe comes in most significantly
+as an auxiliary. For instance, the two minerals molybdenite and
+graphite resemble each other very closely, when examined in regard to
+their physical appearance, but the blowpipe will quickly discriminate
+them, for if a small piece of the former mineral be placed in the
+flame of oxidation, a bright green color will be communicated to the
+flame beyond it, while in the latter there will be no color. Thus, in
+a very short time, these two minerals can be distinguished from each
+other by aid of the blowpipe, while no amount of physical examination
+could determine that point. The blowpipe is equally an indispensable
+instrument in the determination of certain minerals which may exist in
+others as essential or non-essential constituents of them. For
+instance, should a minute quantity of manganese be present in a
+mineral, it must be fused with twice its bulk of a mixture of two
+parts of carbonate of soda, and one part of the nitrate of potassa, in
+the flame of oxidation upon platinum foil. The manganate of soda thus
+formed will color the fused mass of a bluish-green tint.
+
+Or a slight quantity of arsenic may be discerned by the following
+process recommended by Plattner:[4] one grain of the finely pulverized
+metal is mixed with six grains of citrate of potassa, and slowly
+heated on the platinum spoon. By this means the metals are oxidized,
+while the arseniate of potassa is obtained. Then boil the fused mass
+in a small quantity of water in a porcelain vessel till all tho
+arseniate is dissolved. The metallic oxides are allowed to subside,
+and the above solution decanted off into another porcelain vessel. A
+few drops of sulphuric acid are added, and the solution boiled to
+expel the nitric acid, after which it is evaporated to dryness. In
+this operation, the sulphuric acid should be added only in sufficient
+quantity to drive off the nitric acid, or, at the utmost, to form a
+bisulphate with the excess of potassa. When dry, the salt thus
+obtained is pulverized in an agate mortar, and mixed with about three
+times its volume of oxalate of potassa, and a little charcoal powder.
+The mixture is introduced into a glass bulb having a narrow neck, and
+gently warmed over a spirit-lamp in order to drive off the moisture,
+which must be absorbed by a piece of blotting-paper in the neck of the
+bulb. After a short time, the temperature is increased to a low red
+heat, at which the arsenious acid is reduced and the metallic arsenic
+sublimed, and which re-condenses in the neck of the bulb. If there
+the arsenic be so small in quantity as to exhibit no metallic lustre,
+the neck of the bulb may be cut off with a file immediately above the
+sublimate, and the latter exposed to the flame of the blowpipe, when
+the arsenic is volatilized, and may be recognized by its garlic odor.
+
+    [4] Quoted by Scheerer.
+
+If the presence of cadmium is suspected in zinc-blende, it may be
+detected by fusing a small piece of the blende upon charcoal in
+carbonate of soda. The peculiar bright yellow sublimate of the oxide
+of cadmium, if it be present, will not fail to indicate it. This
+incrustation can be easily distinguished from that of zinc. Thus, with
+the three illustrations we have given, the student will readily
+comprehend the great utility of the blowpipe in the examination of
+minerals.
+
+Although the following tables were not arranged especially for the
+last part of this work, still this arrangement is so good that by
+their consultation the student will readily comprehend at a glance
+what requires some detail to explain, and we feel no hesitation in
+saying that, although they are not very copious, they will not fail to
+impart a vast amount of information, if consulted with any degree of
+carefulness.
+
+The minerals given are such as are best known to English and American
+mineralogists under the names specified. For more detailed reactions
+than could be crowded into a table, the student will have to consult
+the particular substance as treated in Part Third. If this part is
+perused carefully previous to consulting the tables, these will be
+found eminently serviceable as a refresher of the memory, and may thus
+save much time and trouble.
+
+And, finally, we would certainly recommend the student, after he shall
+have gone through our little volume (if he is ambitious of making
+himself a thorough blowpipe analyst), to then take up the larger works
+of Berzelius and Plattner, for our treatise pretends to nothing more
+than a humble introduction to these more copious and scientific works.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Diamond
+
+Formula.                 C
+
+Behavior
+
+  in glass-bulb.         --
+
+  on platinum foil.      In fine powder is slowly consumed without
+                         residue in a strong oxidizing Flame.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Graphite
+
+Formula.                 C with some iron silica, etc.
+
+Behavior
+
+  in glass-bulb.         Generally gives off water.
+
+  on platinum foil.      Is slowly consumed leaving more or less ash,
+                         principally Fe^{2}O^{3}.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Anthracite
+
+Formula.                 C + x[.H]
+
+Behavior
+
+  in glass-bulb.         Evolves water.
+
+  on platinum foil.      Is slowly consumed with the exception of a small
+                         quantity of ash.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Wallsend-coal
+
+Formula.                 C, H, O, S and ash.
+
+Behavior
+
+  in glass-bulb.         Intumesces and gives off water and tarry matters
+                         which partly condense in bulb, and leave a
+                         porous coke.
+
+  on platinum foil.      Takes fire under blowpipe flame, and burns with
+                         a smoky flame, depositing much soot and leaving
+                         a porous cinder which burns slowly and leaves a
+                         small ash.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Cannel-coal
+
+Formula.                 C, H, N, O, S and ash.
+
+Behavior
+
+  in glass-bulb.         As the preceding but gives off more tar.
+
+  on platinum foil.      Similar to the preceding. If held to the
+                         lamp-flame, takes fire and burns for some
+                         seconds.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+Mineral.                 Brown-coal
+
+Formula.                 C, H, N, O, S, and ash.
+
+Behavior
+
+  in glass-bulb.         Gives off much water and tar, and leaves a
+                         porous cinder retaining the form of the original
+                         fragment.
+
+  on platinum foil.      Burns slowly and without flame, leaving some
+                         ash.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Asphaltum
+
+Formula.                 C + H + O.
+
+Behavior
+
+  in glass-bulb.         Fuses with ease affording an empyreumatic oil
+                         having an alkaline reaction, and combustible
+                         gasses, and leaves a carbonaceous residue,
+                         which is entirely consumed under the blowpipe
+                         flame, except a little ash.
+
+  on platinum foil.      Takes fire and burns with a bright flame and a
+                         thick smoke.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Elaterite
+
+Formula.                 C + H.
+
+Behavior
+
+  in glass-bulb.         Fuses and gives off water having an acid
+                         reaction, naphtha and a tarry fluid, which
+                         chiefly condense in the neck of the bulb, and
+                         leave a light, pulverulent carbonaceous residue.
+
+  on platinum foil.      Fuses, takes fire, and burns with a smoky flame,
+                         leaving a carbonaceous residue, which under the
+                         blowpipe flame, is quickly consumed, with the
+                         exception of the ashes.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Hachettine
+
+Formula.                 C + H.
+
+Behavior
+
+  in glass-bulb.         Fuses to a clear colorless liquid, which
+                         solidifies on cooling and has a tallow-like
+                         smell.
+
+  on platinum foil.      Fuses, takes fire, and burns with a bright flame
+                         until entirely consumed.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Ozokerite
+
+Formula.                 C + H.
+
+Behavior
+
+  in glass-bulb.         Fuses readily to a clear brown oily fluid, which
+                         solidifies on cooling.
+
+  on platinum foil.      As the preceding.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Amber
+
+Formula.                 C + H + O.
+
+Behavior
+
+  in glass-bulb.         Fuses with difficulty, and affords water, an
+                         empyreumatic oil, and succinic acid which
+                         condense in the neck of the bulb leaving a
+                         shining black residue.
+
+  on platinum foil.      Takes fire and burns with a yellow flame and a
+                         peculiar aromatic odor.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Mellite
+
+Formula.                 [...Al][=M]^{3} + 15[.H]
+
+Behavior
+
+  in glass-bulb.         Gives off water. If heated to redness, is
+                         carbonized, and gives a slight empyreumatic odor.
+
+  on platinum foil.      On charcoal burns to a white ash, which moistened
+                         with nitrate of cobalt and heated shows the
+                         alumina reaction.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+                     POTASH.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Nitre
+
+Formula.                 [.K][.....N]
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Fuses readily to a clear liquid and with a
+                         strong heat boils with the evolution of oxygen.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Deflagrates leaving a saline mass, which is
+                         absorbed into charcoal and gives a sulphur
+                         reaction on silver.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        On platinum wire fuses and colors the flame
+                         violet more or less modified by lime and soda.
+
+  (5) in borax.          --
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      --
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   --
+
+  (8) Special reactions. With bisulphate of potassa in the glass-bulb
+                         evolves nitrous fumes.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Polyhalite
+
+Formula.                 [.K][...S]+[.Mg][...S]+2[.Ca][...S]+2[.H]
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Gives off water.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses to a reddish bead, which in the reducing
+                         flame solidifies and shrinks to a hollow crust.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        On platinum wire fuses and colors the flame
+                         yellow from a small quantity of soda.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Dissolves with ebullition to a clear glass,
+                         which is slightly colored by iron, and when
+                         saturated become opaque on cooling.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Fuses. The alkalies are absorbed by the charcoal
+                         leaving the lime and magnesia infusible on the
+                         surface.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. The alkaline mass when laid on silver gives a
+                         sulphur reaction.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+                     SODA.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+Mineral.                 Rock-salt
+
+Formula.                 NaCl.
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Fuses to a clear liquid
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses, is absorbed by the charcoal and partially
+                         volatilized incrusting the charcoal around.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        Fuses with great ease and colors the flame
+                         yellow.
+
+  (5) in borax.          --
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      --
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   --
+
+  (8) Special reactions. Gives the chlorine reactions.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Natron
+
+Formula.                 [.Na][..C] + 10[.H]
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Fuses, with the evolution of water.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses, and is absorbed into the pores of the
+                         charcoal.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        Fuses and behaves as the preceding.
+
+  (5) in borax.          --
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      --
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   --
+
+  (8) Special reactions. Dissolves in acid with violent effervescence.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Soda-nitre
+
+Formula.                 [.Na][.....N].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Fuses and if strongly heated evolves nitrous
+                         fumes.
+  (2) in open tube.
+                         --
+  (3) on charcoal.
+                         Deflagrates and is absorbed into the charcoal.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        Deflagrates on platinum wire, coloring the flame
+                         yellow.
+
+  (5) in borax.          --
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      --
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   --
+
+  (8) Special reactions. In a glass-bulb with bisulphate of potassa,
+                         gives the NO^{5}-reaction.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Glauber-salt
+
+Formula.                 [.Na][...S] + 10[.H].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Fuses and gives off water having a neutral
+                         reaction.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses, and is absorbed by the charcoal. The
+                         saturated charcoal laid upon silver gives the
+                         sulphur reaction
+
+  (4) in forceps.        Fuses and colors the flame yellow.
+
+  (5) in borax.          --
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      --
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   --
+
+  (8) Special reactions. Gives the SO^{3}-reaction.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Glauberite
+
+Formula.                 [.Na][...S] + [.Ca][...S].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Decrepitates with the evolution of more or less
+                         water, and when strongly heated fuses to a clear
+                         liquid.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses to a clear bead, then spreads out; the
+                         soda is absorbed and the lime left on the
+                         surface. Laid on silver, the fused mass gives a
+                         sulphur reaction.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        Fuses easily to a clear glass, coloring the
+                         flame yellow.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Fuses easily and gives the lime reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   As alone in charcoal.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. As in preceding.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Borax
+
+Formula.                 [.Na][...B]^{2}+10[.H].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Intumesces with the evolution of water, and
+                         under a strong heat fuses.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Intumesces and fuses to a clear bead more or
+                         less colored by impurities.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        As on charcoal.
+
+  (5) in borax.          --
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      --
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Fuses to a clear bead, which becomes crystalline
+                         on cooling.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. Gives the boracic-acid-reaction.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Cryolite
+
+Formula.                 3NaFl+Al^{2}Fl^{3}.
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Decrepitates slightly and gives a trace of
+                         water.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      If heated so that the flame be allowed to play
+                         up the tube upon the mineral, flourine is
+                         evolved, which corrodes the interior of the
+                         tube.
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses to a limpid bead, which on cooling becomes
+                         a white enamel. If heated for some time, it
+                         bubbles, gives off fluorine and becomes
+                         infusible.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        Fuses, coloring the flame yellow.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Dissolves to a clear bead, which is rendered
+                         opaque by a large addition.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Fuses to a clear bead, then spreads out on the
+                         charcoal, the soda is absorbed, and an infusible
+                         mass of alumina remains.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. If the alumina residue obtained be moistened
+                         with cobalt solution and heated strongly, it
+                         assumes a beautiful blue color.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+                BARYTA AND STRONTIA.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+Mineral.                 Heavy-spar
+
+Formula.                 [.Ba][...S].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Sometimes decrepitates and gives off more or
+                         less water
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses in the reducing flame.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        Fuses with difficulty on edges. Colors the outer
+                         flame green. In reducing flame forms BaS, which
+                         fuses readily.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Gives the baryta-reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Fuses to a clear bead; then spreads out and is
+                         absorbed into the charcoal. The fused mass laid
+                         on silver gives the S-reaction.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. If fused with potassa on platinum, gives the
+                         SO^{3}-reaction.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Celestine
+
+Formula.                 [.Sr][...S].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     --
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses to a milk-white bead.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        Colors the flame crimson.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Gives the strontia-reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Similar to the preceding.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. Similar to the preceding.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Witherite
+
+Formula.                 [.Ba][..C].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Decrepitates more or less and evolves Water.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses, effervesces, and is partially absorbed by
+                         the charcoal.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        Colors the outer flame intensely green.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Dissolves with effervescence and gives the
+                         baryta-reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Fuses to a clear bead; then spreads out and
+                         passes into the charcoal.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. In dilute HCl dissolves with much effervescence.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Strontianite
+
+Formula.                 [.Sr][..C].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Becomes opaque.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       As in the forceps.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        Exfoliates and becomes arborescent. The
+                         filaments glow brilliantly and fuse on the
+                         point. Colors the flame brilliantly crimson.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Resembles the preceding.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   As the preceding.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. As the preceding.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Barytocalcite.
+
+Formula.                 [.Ba][..C] + [.Ca][..C].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     As in the preceding.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       In powder frits together, but does not fuse.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        Colors the flame green in the centre and red
+                         towards the point.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Dissolves with effervescence. In large
+                         quantities gives a semi-crystalline bead.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax, but the saturated bead is
+                         milk-white.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Fuses, and is partially absorbed leaving the
+                         lime on the surface.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. As witherite.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+                     LIME.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+Mineral.                 Gypsum
+
+Formula.                 [.Ca][...S] + 2[.H].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Turns white, giving off water and being
+                         converted into plaster of Paris.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       In the reducing flame forms CaS, which has an
+                         alkaline reaction on test paper, and gives a
+                         sulphur-reaction when laid on silver and
+                         moistened.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        Fuses with difficulty to a bead, coloring the
+                         flame red.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Dissolves to a clear bead, which gives the lime-
+                         reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Behaves as lime. The alkaline mass laid on
+                         silver and moistened gives the sulphur-reaction.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. Gives the sulphuric-acid reaction.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Apatite
+                              { Cl
+Formula.                 [.Ca]{ -- +3[.Ca]^{3}[.....P]
+                              { Fl
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Occasionally decrepitates and gives off some
+                         water.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       --
+
+  (4) in forceps.        IV. Previously dipped in SO^{3} colors the flame
+                         green, afterwards red.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Dissolves easily and when in some quantity gives
+                         an opaline bead.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      Gives the lime-reaction.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Is infusible. The alkali is absorbed, leaving
+                         the lime on the on the surface of the charcoal.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. With microcosmic salt and oxide of copper, gives
+                         the chlorine-reaction. With microcosmic salt in
+                         the open tube evolves fluorine.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Pharmacolite
+
+Formula.                 [.Ca]^{2}[.....As] + 6[.H].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Gives off water, and emits an arsenical odor.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses to an opaque bead and emits a strong smell
+                         of arsenic.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        Fuses to a translucent violet colored bead, the
+                         color being due to cobalt. Colors the flame blue
+                         at first, then faintly red.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Dissolves readily to a bead strongly colored by
+                         cobalt, which obscures the lime-reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Fuses, and emits As. The alkali is then absorbed
+                         by the charcoal, as in the preceding.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+        *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Calespar
+
+Formula.                 [.Ca][..C].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Turns white and sometimes decrepitates. Strongly
+                         heated loses CO^{2} and becomes caustic.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Turns white, or brown if containing much iron or
+                         manganese and glows brilliantly.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        Glows brilliantly, coloring the flame red.
+                         Becomes caustic and shows a strong alkaline
+                         reaction.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Dissolves with evolution of CO^{2} and when pure
+                         gives the lime-reaction. The bead is generally
+                         more or less colored by iron and manganese.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Fuses, and behaves as other lime-salts.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. Dissolves with effervescence in cold HCl.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Fluorspar
+
+Formula.                 CaFl
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Phosphoresces with various colors, when heated
+                         in the dark.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses easily to a clear bead, which becomes opaque
+                         on cooling, then loses fluorine, glows brilliantly
+                         and becomes infusible.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        As on charcoal. Colors the flame red.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Gives the lime-reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Fuses to a clear bead, opaque on cooling. With
+                         an addition of the alkali behaves as lime.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. With microcosmic salt in open tube gives the
+                         fluorine-reaction.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+                   MAGNESIA.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Brucite
+
+Formula.                 [.Mg][.H].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Evolves water.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       --
+
+  (4) in forceps.        V.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Behaves as magnesia. Sometimes gives a faint
+                         iron-reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Behaves as magnesia.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. With nitrate of cobalt, gives the magnesia
+                         reaction
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Epsomite
+
+Formula.                 [.Mg][...S] + 7[.H].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Evolves water having an acid reaction on test
+                         paper.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Gives of HO and SO^{3}, shines brilliantly, and
+                         becomes alkaline and caustic.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        V. As on charcoal.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Behaves as magnesia.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   The alkali is absorbed leaving the magnesia
+                         on surface of the charcoal. Gives the
+                         sulphur-reaction on silver.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. The magnesian residue obtained on treating with
+                         carbonate of soda (7), assumes a flesh-tint,
+                         when treated with cobalt.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Boracite
+
+Formula.                 [.Mg][...B]^{2} + 2[.Mg][...B].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Occasionally gives off a trace of water.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses with intumescence to a white crystalline
+                         bead.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        I. As on charcoal. Colors the flame green.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Fuses easily to a clear bead, which is
+                         crystalline, when containing much of the
+                         mineral, and is usually slightly tinted by
+                         iron.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   With a small quantity of alkali fuses to a clear
+                         bead on cooling. With a larger quantity gives a
+                         clear, uncrystallizable bead.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Magnesite
+
+Formula.                 [.Mg][..C].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Sometimes gives off a small quantity of water.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Is infusible. With cobalt-solution, assumes a
+                         dusky flesh tint.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        --
+
+  (5) in borax.          Behaves as magnesia. Sometimes a slight
+                         iron-reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Fuses to a bead, the soda is then absorbed,
+                         leaving an infusable mass of magnesia.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. The magnesian residue obtained by fusing with
+                         carbonate of soda gives the magnesian-reaction
+                         with nitrate of cobalt. Dissolves with
+                         effervescence in warm HCl.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Mesitine spar
+
+Formula.                 ([.Mg][.Fe][.Mn])[..C].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     As magnesite.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Is infusible. Assumes a deep brown color.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        V.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Gives the iron and manganese-reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   As magnesite, but the residual mass has a dark
+                         color from iron and manganese.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. Dissolves with effervescense in warm HCl. With
+                         carbonate of soda and nitre gives a
+                         manganese-reaction.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+                     ALUMINA.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Sapphire
+                         Corundum
+                         Emery
+
+Formula.                 [...Al=].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     --
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       --
+
+
+  (4) in forceps.        V.
+
+  (5) in borax.          In fine powder dissolves slowly to a colorless
+                         glass.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   --
+
+  (8) Special reactions. In fine powder moistened with cobalt-solution
+                         and heated yields a blue color.
+
+        *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Websterite
+
+Formula.                 [...Al][...S] + 9[.H].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Gives off water, and, when heated to incipient
+                         redness, sulphurous acid.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Gives off water and SO^{3}, leaving an infusible
+                         mass.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        V.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Behaves as alumina.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Yields an infusible mass, which laid on silver
+                         and moistened, produces a black stain.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. Fused with potassa in platinum has no action on
+                         silver. Cobalt-solution produces the alumina
+                         reaction.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Native Alum
+
+Formula.                 [.R][...S] + [...Al][...S]^{3} + 24[.H].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Intumesces greatly and gives off much water.
+                         Strongly heated, evolves SO^{3}, which reddens
+                         litmus.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Intumesces and become infusible.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        V. Colors the flame violet if a potassa
+                         alum--yellow if soda--be present.
+
+
+  (5) in borax.          Dissolves and gives the iron and manganese
+                         reaction, if these oxides be present. Otherwise
+                         the bead is colorless.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   The alkali is absorbed into the charcoal,
+                         leaving an infusable mass which gives the sulfur
+                         reaction on silver.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. If not containing too much iron or manganese
+                         gives an alumina reaction with nitrate of of
+                         cobalt. In other respects as the preceding.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Turquoise
+
+Formula.                 [...Al=]^{2}[.....P] + 5[.H].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Evolves water, occasionally decrepitates and
+                         turns black.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Turns brown, but remains infusible.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        V. As on charcoal. Colors the outer flame green.
+
+  (5) in borax.          In the oxidizing flame, gives a green bead, due
+                         to copper and iron. In reducing flame, opaque red.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Intumesces, then fuses to a semi-clear glass
+                         colored by iron. With more alkali yields an
+                         infusible mass.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. Gives the phosphoric-acid reaction.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Wavellite
+
+Formula.                 [Al=]F^{3} + 3([...Al=]^{4}[.....P]^{3} + 18[.H].)
+
+Behavior
+
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Evolves water and some fluorine, which attacks
+                         the glass.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Exfoliates and turns white.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        V. As on charcoal. Colors the outer flame green,
+                         especially if moistened with SO^{3}.
+
+  (5) in borax.          As alumina. Generally gives also a slight iron
+                         reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Forms an infusible white mass.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. With cobalt-solution on charcoal gives the
+                         alumina reaction.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Spinel
+
+Formula.                 [.R][...Al=].
+
+Behavior
+
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     --
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       --
+
+  (4) in forceps.        V.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Gives a slight iron reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Fuses partially and forms a porous mass.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. With nitrate of cobalt gives the alumina
+                         reaction. With nitre and carbonate of soda a
+                         slight manganese reaction.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+SILICATES.
+
+
+The presence of silica in a mineral can easily be ascertained by
+treating a small fragment in a bead of microcosmic salt. The bases
+will dissolve out with more or less difficulty in the salt, and the
+silica being insoluble will remain suspended in the bead, retaining
+the original form of the fragment. In borax, the silicates of lime and
+magnesia generally dissolve with considerable ease, but those of
+alumina slowly and with difficulty. The silicates of lime are moreover
+frequently characterized by intumescence or ebullition, when heated in
+the forceps in the blowpipe flame. The minerals presenting this
+character are marked in the table. As the most convenient mode of
+classifying the silicates for blowpipe examination, the following
+arrangement will be adopted:
+
+
+TABLE  I.--ANHYDROUS SILICATES.
+
+TABLE II.--HYDROUS SILICATES.
+
+FUSIBILITY.
+
+  I.  Readily fusible to a bead.
+ II.  With difficulty fusible to a bead.
+III.  Readily fusible on the edges.
+ IV.  With difficulty fusible on the edges.
+  V.  Infusible.
+
+  a. Afford a fluid bead with carbonate of soda.
+  b. Afford a fluid bead with but little of that salt, but with a
+     larger quantity a slaggy mass.
+  c. Afford a slaggy mass only.
+
+
+This classification of minerals, according to their fusibility and
+their behavior with carbonate of soda, was originally proposed by
+_Berzelius_, and a table of the principal oxidized minerals arranged
+according to these characters is given in his handbook of the
+blowpipe, and thence adopted, with some alterations by _Plattner_, in
+the very excellent and detailed work already many times cited. In the
+following general table I., the more important silicates only are
+included, and in table II. are enumerated in alphabetical order those
+which afford characteristic reactions.
+
+
+TABLE I.
+
+
+Anhydrous Silicates.
+________________________________________________________________________
+Fus. alone and with NaC.
+
+      Mineral.                 Formula.
+________________________________________________________________________
+I.
+  a. Axinite      ([.Ca][.Mg])^{3}([...B][...Si])^{3} +
+                    ([...Al=][...Fe=][...Mn=])^{2}([...Si][...B])   Int.
+     Elaolite     ([.K][.Na])^{3}[...Si] + 3[...Al=][...Si]         Int.
+     Garnet       [.R]^{3}[...Si] + [.R=][...Si]
+     Oligoclase   [.Na][...Si] + [...Al=][...Si]^{2}
+     Scapolite    ([.Ca][.Na])^{3}[...Si]^{2} + 2[...Al=][...Si]    Int.
+     Spodumene    ([.Li][.Na])^{3}[...Si]^{2} + 4[...Al=][...Si]^{2}Int.
+  b. Asbestos     As Hornblende
+        to II.
+     Augite       ([.Ca][.Mg][.Fe][.Mn])^{3}[...Si]^{2}             Int.
+       some var.
+     Epidote      ([.Ca]Fe)^{3}[...Si] +                            Int.
+       to III.      2([...Al][...Fe][...Mn])[...Si]
+     Hornblende   ([.Ca][.Mg][.Fe])^{4} + ([...Si][...Al=])^{3}     Int.
+        some var.
+     Sodalite     [.Na]^{3}[...Si] + 3[...Al=][...Si] + NaCl        Int.
+       to III.
+     Vesuvian     3([.Ca][.Mg])^{3}[...Si] +
+                    2([...Al=][...Fe=])[...Si]                      Int.
+  c. Biaxial Mica [.K][...Si] + 4([...Al=][...Fe=])[...Si]
+       to III.
+     Hauyne       ([.K][.Na])^{3}[...Si] + 3[...Al=][...Si] +
+                    [.Na][...Si]
+     Tourmaline   ([.R][...R=][...B])^{4}[...Si]^{3}                Int.
+       to V.
+
+II.
+  a. Labradorite  ([.Ca][.Na][.K])[...Si] +
+                    ([...Al=][...Fe=])[...Si]
+     Lepidolite   (KNaL)F + ([...Al=][...Fe=])[...Si]^{2}?
+     Ryacolite    [.K][...Si] + [...Al=][...Si]^{2}
+     Albite       [.Na][...Si] + [...Al=][...Si]^{3}
+  b. Augite       [.R]^{3}[...Si]^{2}
+        some var.
+     Actinolite   ([.Ca][.Mg][.Fe])^{4}[...Si]^{3}                  Int.
+     Diopside     ([.Ca][.Mg])^{3}[...Si]^{2} |
+     Humboltilite 2([.Ca][.Mg][.Na][.K])[...Si] +
+                    ([...Al=][...Fe=])[...Si]
+     Sahlite      As Augite
+     Tremolite    ([.Ca][.Mg])^{4}[...Si]^{3}
+  c. Pyrope       ([.Ca][.Mg][.Fe])^{3}[...Si] + Al[...Si] +
+                    m[...Cr]?
+
+III.
+  a. Anorthite    ([.Ca][.Mg][.Na][.K])^{3}[...Si] +
+                    3([...Al=][...Fe=])[...Si]
+     Nepheline    ([.Na][.K][.Ca])^{2}[...Si] + 2[...Al=][...Si]
+     Obsidian     [...Si],[...Al=],[...Fe=],[.Fe],[.Ca][.Na][.K]    Int.
+     Orthoclase   ([.K][.Na])[...Si] + [...Al=][...Si]^{3}
+     Petalite     ([.Li][.Na])^{3}[...Si]^{4} + 4[...Al=][...Si]^{4}
+     Pumice       [...Si],[...Al=],[.Ca],[.K],[.Na],[.H]            Int.
+  b. Gadolinite   ([.Y][.Ce][.La][.Fe][.Ca])^{3}[...Si]
+        to V.
+     Nephrite     ([.Ca][.Mg][.Fe])^{4}[...Si]^{3}?                 Int.
+     Wollastonite [.Ca]^{3}[...Si]^{2} |
+  c. Iolite       ([.Mg][.Fe])^{3}[...Si]^{2} + 3[...Al=][...Si]
+
+IV.
+  a. Beryl        [...Be][...Si]^{2} + [...Al=][...Si]^{2}
+  b. Diallage     ([.Ca][.Mg][.Fe])^{3}([...Si][...Al=])^{2}
+     Hypersthene  ([.Mg][.Fe])^{3}[...Si]^{2} |
+  c. Fuchsite     ([.K]^{5}[...Si])^{2} +
+                    9([...Al=][...Cr=])^{6}[...Si]^{6}
+V.
+  a. Leucite      [.K]^{3}[...Si]^{2} + [...Al=][...Si]^{2}
+  b. Chondrodite  ([.Mg],[.Mg]F)^{4}([...Si]SiF^{3})
+     Olivine      ([.Mg][.Fe][.Ca])^{2}[...Si]
+  c. Andalusite   ([...Al=]Fe)^{3}[...Si]^{2}
+     Chrysoberyl  [...Be] + [...Al=]
+     Kaynite      [...Al=]^{3}[...Si]^{2}
+     Pycnite      6[...Al=]^{3}[...Si]^{2} + (3[...Al=]F^{3} +
+                    2[...Si]F^{3})
+     Topaz        6[...Al=]^{3}[...Si]^{2} + (3[...Al=]F^{3} +
+                    2[...Si]F^{3})
+     Zircon       [...Zr=][...Si]
+     Staurolite   ([...Al=]Fe)^{2}[...Si]
+________________________________________________________________________
+
+
+Hydrous Silicates.
+________________________________________________________________________
+Fus. alone and with NaC.
+
+      Mineral.                 Formula.
+________________________________________________________________________
+I.
+  a. Analcime     [.Na]^{3}[...Si]^{2} + 3[...Al=][...Si]^{2}
+                    + 6[.H]                                         Int.
+     Apophyllite  ([.K], KF)([...Si], SiF^{3}) + 6[.Ca][...Si] +
+                    15[.H]                                          Int.
+     Brewsterite  ([.Sr][.Ba])[...Si] + [...Al=][...Si]^{3} + 5[.H] Int.
+     Chabasite    ([.Ca],[.Na],[.K])^{3}[...Si] +
+                    3[...Al=][...Si]^{2} + 18[.H]                   Int.
+     Lapis Lazuli [...Si],[...S],[...Al=], Fe, [.Ca], [.Na], [.H]
+     Laumonite    [.Ca]^{3}[...Si]^{2} + 3[...Al=][...Si]^{2}
+                    + 12[.H]                                        Int.
+     Mesotype     ([.Na][.Ca])[...Si] + [...Al=][...Si] + 3[.H]     Int.
+     Natrolite    [.Na][...Si] + [...Al=][...Si] + 2[.H]            Int.
+     Prehnite     [.Ca]^{2}[...Si] + [...Al=][...Si] + [.H]         Int.
+     Scolezite    [.Ca][...Si] + [...Al=][...Si] + 3[.H]            Int.
+     Thomsonite   ([.Ca][.Na])^{3}[...Si] + 3[...Al=][...Si]
+                    + 7[.H]                                         Int.
+     Datholite    2[.Ca]^{3}[...Si] + [...B]^{3}[...Si]^{2} + 3[.H] Int.
+     Heulandite   [.Ca][...Si] + [...Al=][...Si]^{3} + 5[.H]        Int.
+     Stilbite     [.Ca][...Si] + [...Al=][...Si]^{3} + 6[.H]        Int.
+  b. Okenite      [.Ca]^{3}[...Si]^{4} + 6[.H]                      Int.
+     Pectolite    ([.Ca][.Na])^{4}[...Si]^{3} + [.H]                Int.
+  c. Saponite     2[.Mg]^{3}[...Si]^{2} + [...Al=][...Si]
+                    + 10 or 6[.H]
+II.
+  a. Antrimolite  3([.Ca][.K])[...Si] + 5[...Al=][...Si] +
+                    15[.H]
+     Harmatome    [...Ba][...Si] + [...Al=]S^{2} + 5[.H]
+  b. Brevicite    [.Na][...Si] + [...Al=][...Si] + 2[.H]
+     Orthite      [.R]^{3}[...Si] + [...R=][...Si] + ([.H]?)        Int.
+
+III.
+  c. Pitchstone   [...Si],[...Al=], Fe, [.Mg][.Na], [.K][.H]
+     Talc to V.   [.Mg]^{6}[...Si]^{5} + 2[.H]
+     Chlorite     3([.Mg]Fe)^{3}[...Si] + ([...Al=]Fe)^{2}[...Si]
+                    + 9[.H]
+     Pinite       [...Si],[...Al=],[.Fe],[.K],[.Mg],[.H]
+
+IV.
+  a. Steatite     [.Mg]^{6}[...Si]^{5} + 4[.H]
+  c. Gilbertite   [...Si],[...Al=],[.Fe],[.Mg],[.H]                 Int.
+     Meerschaum   [.Mg][...Si] + [.H] |
+     Serpentine   [.Mg]^{9}[...Si]^{4} + 6[.H] |
+V.
+  a. Gismondine   ([.Ca][.K])^{2}[...Si] + 2[...Al=][...Si] + 9[.H]
+________________________________________________________________________
+
+
+TABLE II.
+
+_______________________________________________________________________
+              |
+Analcime      | If transparent becomes white and opaque when heated,
+              | but on incipient fusion resumes its transparency and
+              | then fuses to a clear glass.
+              |
+Andalusite    | When powdered and treated with cobalt solution on
+              | charcoal, assumes a blue color.
+              |
+Apophyllite   | Fuses to a frothy white glass.
+              |
+Axinite       | Imparts a green color to the blowpipe flame, owing to
+              | the presence of boracic acid. This reaction is
+              | especially distinct, if the mineral be previously mixed
+              | with fluorspar and bisulphate of potassa.
+              |
+Beryl         | Sometimes gives a chromium reaction in borax and
+              | microcosmic salt.
+              |
+Chabasite     | Fuses to a white enamel.
+              |
+Chondrodite   | Evolves fluorine in the glass tube, both when heated
+              | alone and with microcosmic salt. It sometimes also
+              | gives off a trace of water.
+              |
+Chrysoberyl   | Is unattacked by carbonate of soda. With nitrate of
+              | cobalt on charcoal the finely powdered mineral
+              | assumes a blue color.
+              |
+Datholite     | Fuses to a clear glass and colors the flame green.
+              |
+Diallage      | Frequently gives off water in small quantity.
+              |
+Fuchsite      | Gives the chromium reaction with borax and microcosmic
+              | salt.
+              |
+Gadolinite    | That from Hitteroe, if heated in a partially covered
+              | platinum spoon to low redness, glows suddenly and
+              | brilliantly.
+              |
+Hauyne        | Affords the sulphur reaction both on charcoal and when
+              | fused with potassa. It contains both sulphur and
+              | sulphuric acid.
+              |
+Hypersthene   | As Diallage.
+              |
+Kyanite       | As Andalusite.
+              |
+Lapis Lazuli  | Fuses to a white glass, and when treated with carbonate
+              | of soda on charcoal, gives the sulphur reaction on
+              | silver.
+              |
+Laumonite     | When strongly heated, exfoliates and curls up.
+              |
+Lepidolite    | Colors the blowpipe flame crimson, from lithia; also
+              | gives the fluorine reaction with microcosmic salt.
+              |
+Leucite       | Some varieties, when treated with cobalt solution,
+              | assume a blue color.
+              |
+Meerschaum    | In the glass bulb frequently blackens and evolves an
+              | empyreumatic odor due to organic matter. When this is
+              | burnt off, it again becomes white, and if moistened
+              | with nitrate of cobalt solution and heated, assumes
+              | a pink color.
+              |
+Okenite       | Behaves as Apophyllite.
+              |
+Olivine       | Some varieties give off fluorine, when fused with
+              | microcosmic salt.
+              |
+Pectolite     | Similar to Apophyllite.
+              |
+Petalite      | Imparts a slight crimson color to the flame, like
+              | Lepidolite.
+              |
+Prehnite      | As Chabasite.
+              |
+Pycnite       | Assumes a blue color, when treated with nitrate of
+              | cobalt. Gives the fluorine reaction with microcosmic
+              | salt.
+              |
+Pyrope        | Gives the chromium reaction with borax and microcosmic
+              | salt.
+              |
+Scolecite     | Similar to Laumonite, but more marked.
+              |
+Scapolite     | Occasionally contains a small quantity of lithia, and
+              | colors the flame red when fused with fluorspar and
+              | bisulphate of potassa.
+              |
+Sodalite      | If mixed with one-fifth its volume of oxide of copper,
+              | moistened to make the mixture cohere, and a small
+              | portion placed upon charcoal and heated with the blue
+              | oxidizing flame, the outer flame will be colored
+              | intensely blue from chloride of copper.
+              |
+              |
+Spodumene     | When not too strongly heated, colors the blowpipe
+              | flame red, when more strongly, yellow.
+              |
+Stilbite      | As Chabasite.
+              |
+Topaz         | When heated, remains clear. Otherwise as Pycnite.
+              |
+Tourmaline    | Gives the boracic acid reaction with flourspar and
+              | bisulphate of potassa.
+              |
+Wollastonite  | Colors the blowpipe flame faintly red from lime.
+              |
+Zircon        | The colored varieties become white or colorless and
+              | transparent, when heated. Is only slightly attacked
+              | by carbonate of soda.
+______________|________________________________________________________
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+                     URANIUM.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Pitchblende
+
+Formula.                 [.U][...U=] essentially.
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Evolves some water and a small quantity of
+                         sulphur, sulphide of arsenic and metallic
+                         arsenic.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      Evolves SO^{2} and a white sublimate of
+                         arsenious acid.
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Gives off arsenical fumes.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        III. Colors the flame blue beyond the assay,
+                         owing to the presence of Pb. Sometimes also
+                         green towards the point, due to Cu.
+
+  (5) in borax.          The roasted mineral affords the uranium
+                         reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As borax. Also a small residue of silica.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Infusible. Affords the characteristic Pb
+                         incrustation, and sometimes yields minute
+                         particles of Cu.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Uranium ochre
+
+Formula.
+                         [...U=][.H]^{2}.
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Evolves water and assumes a red color.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       V. In reducing flame assumes a green color.
+
+
+  (4) in forceps.        --
+
+  (5) in borax.          Gives the uranium reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   --
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+
+        *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Uranite
+
+Formula.                 ([.Ca] +[...U=]^{2})[.....]P + 8[.H].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Evolves water and becomes yellow and opaque.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses with intumescence to a black bead having a
+                         semi-crystalline surface.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        --
+
+  (5) in borax.          Gives the uranium reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Forms an infusible yellow slag.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. Gives the PO^{5} reaction.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Chalcolite
+
+Formula.                 ([.Cu]+[...U=]^{2})[.....P] + 8[.H].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     As uranite.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       As uranite.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        As uranite.
+
+  (5) in borax.          In the oxidizing flame gives a green bead, which
+                         in the reducing flame becomes of an opaque red,
+                         from Cu.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   In reducing flame yields a metallic bead of Cu.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. As uranite.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+                      IRON.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Iron pyrites
+
+Formula.                 FeS^{2}.
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Gives a considerable yellow sublimate of
+                         sulphur, and sometimes sulphide of arsenic. Also
+                         HS.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      Sulphurous acid and sometimes arsenious acid are
+                         evolved.
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Gives off some sulphur, which burns with a blue
+                         flame. Residue fuses to a magnetic bead.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        --
+
+  (5) in borax.          The roasted mineral gives a strong iron
+                         reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Fuses to a black mass, which spreads out on
+                         charcoal and gives the sulphur reaction on
+                         silver.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Magnetic pyrites
+
+Formula.
+                         [,Fe]^{5}[,,,Fe=].
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     --
+
+  (2) in open tube.      Evolves sulphurous acid.
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses to a magnetic bead black on the surface,
+                         and with a yellow shining fracture.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        --
+
+  (5) in borax.          As iron pyrites.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   As iron pyrites.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Mispickel
+
+Formula.                 FeAs + FeS^{2}.
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     A red sublimate of AsS^{2} is first formed and
+                         then a black sublimate of metallic arsenic.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      Sulphurous and arsenious acids are evolved, the
+                         latter forming a white sublimate.
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Gives off much arsenic forming a white
+                         incrustation and fuses to a magnetic globule.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        --
+
+  (5) in borax.          As iron pyrites.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   As iron pyrites.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Magnetic iron ore
+
+Formula.                 Fe^{3}O^{4}
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     --
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       --
+
+  (4) in forceps.        In the blue flame, fuses on edges and remains
+                         magnetic.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Gives the iron reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   --
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Specular iron
+                         Red haematite
+
+Formula.                 Fe^{2}O^{3}
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     --
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       --
+
+  (4) in forceps.        V. In the blue flame is converted into
+                         Fe^{2}O^{4}, and then behaves as the preceding.
+
+  (5) in borax.          As magnetic iron ore.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   --
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Goethite
+
+Formula.                 [...Fe][.H].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Evolves water.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       --
+
+  (4) in forceps.        As specular iron.
+
+  (5) in borax.          As specular iron.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   --
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Franklinite
+
+Formula.                 ([.Fe][.Zn][.Mn]) ([...Fe=][...Mn=]).
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     --
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Forms a white incrustation on the charcoal,
+                         which moistened with cobalt solution assumes a
+                         green color.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        V. In the blue flame fuses on edges and and
+                         becomes magnetic.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Gives the iron and manganese reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Affords a considerable white incrustation of
+                         ZnO.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. Gives a strong manganese reaction with nitre and
+                         carbonate of soda.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Ilmenite
+
+Formula.                 [...Ti=] and [...Fe=].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     --
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       --
+
+  (4) in forceps.        V. In reducing flame fuses on edges and becomes
+                         magnetic.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Gives the iron reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      In oxidizing flame exhibits the iron reaction.
+                         In reducing flame assumes a deep brownish red
+                         color.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   --
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Chromic iron
+
+Formula.                 [.Fe][...Cr=].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     --
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       --
+
+  (4) in forceps.        As the preceding.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Dissolves slowly and gives the chromium
+                         reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   On platinum foil with nitre and carbonate of
+                         soda affords a yellow mass of chromate of
+                         potassa.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Lievrite
+
+Formula.                 3([.Fe][.Ca])^{3}[...Si] + 2[...Fe=][...Si].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Occasionally gives off some water and turns
+                         black.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses to a black globule, which in the reducing
+                         flame becomes magnetic.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        I. In reducing flame is magnetic.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Gives the iron reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      Gives the iron and silica reactions.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Fuses to a black opaque bead.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. Generally gives the manganese reaction with
+                         nitre and carbonate of soda.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Chloropal
+
+Formula.                 [...Fe=][...Si]^{2} + 3[.H].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Decrepitates more or less, gives off much water
+                         and turns black.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       --
+
+  (4) in forceps.        V. Loses color and turns black.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Gives the iron reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      Gives the iron and silica reaction.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Fuses to a transparent green glass.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Green earth
+
+Formula.                 [...Si],[.Fe],[...Al=],[.Na],[.K],[.H], etc.
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Gives off water and becomes darker in color.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       --
+
+  (4) in forceps.        V. In reducing flame fuses on edges and colors
+                         the outer flame yellow ([.Na]) or violet ([.K]).
+
+  (5) in borax.          As the preceding.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As the preceding.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Forms a slaggy mass.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Siderite
+
+Formula.                 [.Fe][..C].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Occasionally decrepitates. Gives off CO^{2} and
+                         turns black and magnetic.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       As in glass bulb.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        Behaves similarly to the magnetic oxide.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Gives the iron and manganese reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Behaves as an oxide. With nitre and carbonate of
+                         soda on platinum generally gives the manganese
+                         reaction.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. In acid dissolves with effervescense.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Copperas
+
+Formula.                 [.Fe][...S] + 7[.H].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Gives off water, and, when strongly heated,
+                         SO^{2} and SO^{3}, which reddens litmus paper.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      Evolves water and SO^{2}, which may be
+                         recognized by its odor.
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Loses water and SO^{2}, and is converted into
+                         [...Fe=].
+
+  (4) in forceps.        Gives off H and SO^{2}, and then behaves as the
+                         magnetic oxide.
+
+  (5) in borax.          The roasted mineral affords an iron reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Forms sulphide of sodium and oxide of iron. The
+                         former is absorbed into the charcoal, and if cut
+                         out and laid upon silver and moistened gives the
+                         S reaction.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. If dissolved in water, and a strip of
+                         silver-foil be introduced into the solution, the
+                         metal remains untarnished.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Vivianite
+
+Formula.                 [.Fe]^{3}[.....P] + 8[.H].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Gives off water.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Froths up and then fuses to a grey metallic
+                         bead.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        As on charcoal. Singes flame green ([.....P]).
+
+  (5) in borax.          Gives the iron reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   In reducing flame becomes magnetic and fuses to
+                         a black saggy mass.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Iriphyline
+
+Formula.                 ([.Fe][.Mn][.Li])^{3}[.....P].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Gives off water, having an alkaline reaction,
+                         and assumes a metallic lustre resembling
+                         graphite.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses readily to a black magnetic bead with a
+                         metallic lustre.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        I. On platinum wire colors the flame crimson
+                         ([.Li]) and green ([.....P]), towards the point
+                         fuses to a black magnetic bead.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Gives the iron and manganese reactions.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      Gives the iron reaction which overpowers that of
+                         the manganese.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Forms an infusible porous mass, which under
+                         the reducing flame becomes magnetic.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. Gives the manganese reaction with nitre and
+                         carbonate of soda on platinum foil.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Scorodite
+
+Formula.                 [...Fe=][.....As] + 4[.H].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Evolves water.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      Gives off water and AsO^{3}.
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Emits arsenical fume and in the reducing flame
+                         fuses to a magnetic mass having a metallic
+                         lustre.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        I. As on charcoal. Colors the outer flame
+                         blue.
+
+  (5) in borax.          The roasted mineral gives an iron reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   As alone on charcoal.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. Gives the arsenic reactions.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Cube ore
+
+Formula.                 [.Fe]^{3}[.....As] +
+                           [...Fe=]^{3}[.....As]^{2} + 18[.H].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Evolves much water.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      As the preceding.
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       As the preceding.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        As the preceding.
+
+  (5) in borax.          As the preceding.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   As the preceding.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. As the preceding.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+                   MANGANESE.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Manganblende
+
+Formula.                 MnS.
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     --
+
+  (2) in open tube.      Gives off SO^{2} and becomes greyish green on
+                         surface.
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Is slowly roasted and converted into oxide.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        V.
+
+  (5) in borax.          The roasted mineral gives a strong manganese
+                         reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      In the unroasted state, dissolves with much
+                         ebullition and detonation due to elimination of
+                         sulphide of phosphorus. The bead then exhibits
+                         the characteristic violet color of manganese.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Forms a slaggy mass, which laid on silver and
+                         moistened, gives the sulphur reaction.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Pyrolusite
+
+Formula.                 [..Mn].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Frequently gives off a small quantity of water
+                         and, when strongly heated, oxygen.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       --
+
+  (4) in forceps.        V.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Gives the manganese reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Forms a slaggy mass.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Manganite
+
+Formula.                 [...Mn=][.H].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Gives off much water.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       --
+
+  (4) in forceps.        V. Exfoliates slightly.
+
+  (5) in borax.          As the preceding.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   As the preceding.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Psilomelane
+
+Formula.                 ([.Ba],[.Ca],[.Mg],[.K]) [..Mn] + [.H].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Gives off water and, when
+                         strongly heated, oxygen.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       --
+
+  (4) in forceps.        V. Colors flame faintly green(Ba) and red
+                         towards the point (Ca).
+
+  (5) in borax.          As pyrolusite.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   As pyrolusite.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Wad
+
+Formula.                 [..Mn],[.Mn],[.H], also [...Fe=],[...Al=],
+                         [.Ba],[.Cu],[...Pb],[...Si], etc.
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Gives off water.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       --
+
+  (4) in forceps.        V. Colors flame variously according to its
+                         composition.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Gives the manganese reaction, more or less
+                         modified by the presence of other oxides.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   As pyrolusite.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. Various according to composition. When strongly
+                         heated and then moistened has an alkaline
+                         reaction on red litmus paper.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Rhodonite
+
+Formula.                 [.Mn]^{3}[...Si]^{2}.
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Gives off more or less water.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Under a strong flame fuses to a brown opaque
+                         bead.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        II. As on charcoal.
+
+  (5) in borax.          In the oxidizing flame gives the manganese
+                         reaction. In reducing flame the iron reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax, but leaves an insoluble siliceous
+                         skeleton.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   With a small quantity of the alkali fuses to a
+                         black bead. With a larger quantity forms a slag.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+         *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Diallogite
+
+Formula.                 [.Mn][..C].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Frequently decrepitates and gives off more or
+                         less water.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       If strongly heated and moistened has an alkaline
+                         reaction on litmus paper due to the presence of
+                         Ca.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        V. Frequently colors the flame slightly red.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Gives the manganese and iron reactions.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Forms an infusible slag.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. In warm acid dissolves with much effervescence.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Triplite
+
+Formula.                 ([..Mn][.Fe])^{4}[.....P].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Generally gives off more or less
+                         water.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       --
+
+  (4) in forceps.        I. Colors the outer blowpipe flame green
+                         ([.....P]).
+
+  (5) in borax.          Gives the manganese and iron reactions.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Forms an infusible mass.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+               NICKEL AND COBALT.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Millerite
+
+Formula.                 NiS.
+
+Behavior
+
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     --
+
+  (2) in open tube.      Evolves SO^{2}.
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses with much ebullition to a magnetic bead.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        --
+
+  (5) in borax.          The roasted mineral gives a nickel reaction,
+                         slightly modified by small quantities of iron
+                         and copper.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Fuses to a slaggy mass, which on silver gives
+                         the sulphur reaction.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Coppernickel
+
+Formula.                 Ni^{2}As.
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Gives off a little AsO^{3}.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      Gives off much AsO^{3} and some SO^{2} and falls
+                         to powder.
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses to a magnetic bead, with the evolution of
+                         arsenic, which colors the flame blue.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        --
+
+  (5) in borax.          The arsenical bead obtained by fusing the
+                         mineral on charcoal, if fused upon the same
+                         support with borax successively added and
+                         removed, gives firstly an iron reaction, then
+                         cobalt if present, and lastly nickel.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      If the residual bead which has been treated with
+                         borax be further treated with microcosmic salt,
+                         the nickel reaction will be obtained and
+                         sometimes a slight copper reaction.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   --
+
+  (8) Special reactions. Affords a sublimate of metallic arsenic when
+                         treated with cyanide of potassium.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Smaltine
+
+Formula.                 CoAs.
+
+Behavior
+
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     When strongly heated generally evolves metallic
+                         arsenic.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      Gives a crystalline sublimate of AsO^{3}. Also
+                         some SO^{2}.
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Gives off fumes of arsenic, and fuses to a dark
+                         grey magnetic bead, very brittle, colors flame
+                         blue.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        --
+
+  (5) in borax.          As the preceding, but the cobalt being in large
+                         excess requires some time for its perfect
+                         oxidation, before the nickel reaction is
+                         exhibited.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      Gives the cobalt reaction, and after the cobalt
+                         has been, removed that of nickel.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   --
+
+  (8) Special reactions. As the preceding.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Glance cobalt
+
+Formula.                 CoS^{2} + CoAs.
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     --
+
+  (2) in open tube.      As the preceding, but gives off more SO^{2}.
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Gives off S and As, and fuses to a magnetic
+                         bead. Colors flame blue.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        --
+
+  (5) in borax.          Gives a cobalt and slight iron reaction when
+                         treated as the preceding minerals.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Gives a sulphur reaction of silver.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. As the preceding.
+
+        *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Nickel glance
+
+Formula.                 NiS^{2} + NiAs.
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Decrepitates and gives an orange colored
+                         sublimate of AsS^{2}.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      As the preceding.
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       As the preceding.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        --
+
+  (5) in borax.          As copper nickel.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      Gives the nickel reaction occasionally somewhat
+                         obscured by cobalt.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   As the preceding.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. As copper nickel.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Ulmannite
+
+Formula.                 NiS^{2} + Ni(AsSb)^{2}.
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Gives a slight white sublimate of SbO^{3} and
+                         more or less AsS^{3}.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      Gives off thick fumes of SbO^{3} and SbO^{5}
+                         with AsO^{3} and SO^{2}.
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       As glance cobalt, but accompanied by dense fumes
+                         of SbO^{3}.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        --
+
+  (5) in borax.          As copper nickel.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As the preceding.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   As the preceding.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. As copper nickel generally, but arsenic is not
+                         always present.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Cobalt pyrites
+
+Formula.                 ([,Co][,Ni][,Fe]) ([,,,Co=][,,,Ni=][,,,Fe=]).
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     When strongly heated gives off sulphur and
+                         becomes brown.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      Gives off much SO^{2} and a small quantity of
+                         AsO^{3}.
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       In the reducing flame small fragments fuse with
+                         the evolution of sulphur to a magnetic bead
+                         having a bronze colored fracture.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        --
+
+  (5) in borax.          In the oxidizing flame on charcoal gives a
+                         violet colored glass. In the reducing flame the
+                         nickel is reduced and may collected in a gold
+                         bead. When the nickel is removed, the glass
+                         exhibits a slight iron reaction while warm.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax, but the reduction of the nickel is
+                         more difficult than in the latter flux.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   As glance cobalt.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. As copper nickel, but the amount of arsenic is
+                         usually very small.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Emerald nickel
+
+Formula.                 [.Ni]^{3}[..C] + 6[.H].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Gives off much water and turns black.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       --
+
+  (4) in forceps.        --
+
+  (5) in borax.          Dissolves with much effervescence and gives the
+                         nickel reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Forms a slaggy mass.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. In warm dilute HCl dissolves with much
+                         effervescence.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Cobalt Bloom
+
+Formula.                 [.Co]^{3}[.....As] + 8[.H].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Gives off water.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Evolves arsenical fumes and in the reducing
+                         flame fuses to a dark grey bead of arsenide of
+                         cobalt.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        In the point of the blue flame fuses and colors
+                         the outer flame blue (As).
+
+  (5) in borax.          Gives the cobalt reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   --
+
+  (8) Special reactions. Gives off arsenic with cyanide of potassium in
+                         glass tube.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Earthy cobalt
+
+Formula.                 [.Mn],[.Co],[.Cu],[.Fe],[.H], etc.
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Gives off water.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Emits a slight smell of arsenic, but does not
+                         fuse.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        Colors the flame blue.
+
+  (5) in borax.          In oxidizing flame gives the cobalt reaction
+                         which obscures those of [.Mn], [.Cu], etc. In
+                         reducing flame occasionally gives the [.Cu]
+                         reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax. If a saturated bead be treated on
+                         charcoal with tin in the reducing flame for a
+                         few seconds, the [.Cu] reaction is sometimes
+                         obtained.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Forms an infusible mass.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. With carbonate of soda and nitre on platinum
+                         foil, gives a strong manganese reaction.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+                      ZINC.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Zincblende
+
+Formula.                 ZnS.
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Decrepitates strongly.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      Evolves SO and becomes white or yellow if
+                         containing iron.
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       V. In the reducing flame incrusts the charcoal
+                         with ZnO; also with CdO, if that metal be
+                         present.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        --
+
+  (5) in borax.          The roasted mineral gives a zinc reaction, and
+                         sometimes a slight iron reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   As alone on charcoal. Moreover colors the flame
+                         blue. The fused alkali gives a S reaction on
+                         silver.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Red oxide of zinc
+
+Formula.                 [.Zn].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     --
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       In the reducing flame forms a thin incrustation
+                         of oxide of zinc on the charcoal.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        V.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Generally gives a manganese and slight iron
+                         reaction in addition to that of zinc.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   On charcoal, forms a thick incrustation of ZnO.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. With carbonate of soda and nitre on platinum
+                         foil gives manganese reaction.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Electric calamine
+
+Formula.                 2[.Zn]^{3}[...Si] + 3[.H]
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Gives off water and becomes white and opaque.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       --
+
+  (4) in forceps.        V.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Dissolves to a clear glass, which cannot be
+                         rendered opaque by the intermittent flame.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      Dissolves to a clear glass, which becomes opaque
+                         on cooling. Silica remains insoluble.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   With carbonate of soda alone is infusible. With
+                         2 parts of alkali and 1 of borax fuses to a
+                         glass and sets free [.Zn], which incrusts the
+                         charcoal.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Calamine
+
+Formula.                 [.Zn][..C].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Gives off CO^{2} and becomes opaque.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       As the red oxide. Sometimes also gives a lead
+                         incrustation.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        V.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Gives a zinc reaction and frequently an iron and
+                         manganese reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Forms a thick incrustation of zinc, sometimes
+                         also of [.Pb] and [.Co].
+
+  (8) Special reactions. Dissolves with much effervescence in cold acid.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+                    BISMUTH.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Native bismuth
+
+Formula.                 Bi.
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     --
+
+  (2) in open tube.      Fuses and is converted into a yellow oxide.
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses to a bead and incrusts the charcoal with
+                         oxide.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        --
+
+  (5) in borax.          The oxide formed upon charcoal gives the bismuth
+                         reactions.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   --
+
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Bismuthine
+
+Formula.                 BiS.
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     --
+
+  (2) in open tube.      Fuses with ebullition and gives of S and SO^{2}.
+
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses with much spirting and in the reducing
+                         flame yields a metallic bead and incrusts the
+                         charcoal with oxide.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        --
+
+  (5) in borax.          The oxide obtained upon charcoal gives the
+                         bismuth reactions.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   As alone on charcoal. The fused alkali gives the
+                         sulphur reaction on silver.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Bismuthblende
+
+Formula.                 [...Bi=]^{2}[...Si]^{3}.
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Turns yellow and, when strongly heated, fuses.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses with ebullition to a brown globule forming
+                         an incrustation of [...Bi=] on the charcoal.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        I. Fuses with ease to a yellow bead, coloring
+                         the outer flame bluish green, especially if
+                         moistened with HCl. This color is due to
+                         [.....P].
+
+  (5) in borax.          Gives the bismuth and also an iron reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax, but leaves a silicious skeleton.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Fuses to a yellow mass. The bismuth is then
+                         reduced to the metallic state and partially
+                         volatilized, incrusting the charcoal beyond.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Tetradymite
+
+Formula.                 Bi, Te, S.
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Occasionally decrepitates and then fuses,
+                         forming a greyish white sublimate immediately
+                         above the mineral fragment.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      Fuses and gives off white fumes, part of which
+                         pass up the tube and part deposit immediately
+                         above the mineral. This latter if heated fuses
+                         to clear drops (TeO^{3}). The mineral residue
+                         becomes surrounded by fused [...Bi=],
+                         characterized by its yellow color.
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses to a metallic bead, colors the outer flame
+                         bluish green (Te and Se) and incrusts the
+                         charcoal around with the orange [...Bi=], beyond
+                         which is a white incrustation partly consisting
+                         of [...Te].
+
+  (4) in forceps.        --
+
+  (5) in borax.          The yellow oxide obtained upon charcoal gives
+                         the bismuth reaction, and the white incrustation
+                         of bismuth and telluric acid.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   In the reducing flame yields a bead of metallic
+                         bismuth, part of which is part of the tellurium
+                         volatilized and incrusts the charcoal around.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. The fused alkaline mass gives the sulphur
+                         reaction on silver. Also gives the tellurium
+                         reaction with charcoal and carbonate of soda.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+                      LEAD.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Galena
+
+Formula.                 PbS.
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Generally decrepitates and gives off a small
+                         quantity of sulphur.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      Gives off SO^{2}, and when strongly heated, a
+                         white sublimate of [.Pb], [.S].
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses and is reduced affording a bead of
+                         metallic lead, and forming an incrustation of
+                         PbO on the charcoal. Colors the outer flame
+                         blue.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        --
+
+  (5) in borax.          The oxide formed upon charcoal gives the lead
+                         reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   As alone on charcoal. The fused alkali gives a
+                         sulphur reaction on silver.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Clausthalite
+
+Formula.                 PbSe.
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Decrepitates slightly.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      Forms a sublimate of selenium, which is grey
+                         when thickly deposited, and red when thin.
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Gives off fumes smelling strongly of selenium
+                         and coloring the flame blue. In the reducing
+                         flame fuses partially and incrusts the charcoal
+                         with Se and PbO. After some time a black
+                         infusible mass alone remains.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        --
+
+  (5) in borax.          The infusible residue obtained upon charcoal
+                         gives an iron and sometimes copper and cobalt
+                         reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   With carbonate of soda, oxalate of potash yields
+                         a metallic bead, the fused alkali laid upon
+                         silver and moistened produces a stain similar to
+                         that produced by sulfur.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Jamesonite
+
+Formula.                 [,Pb]^{3}[,,,Sb]^{2}.
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Fuses and gives off some sulphur, sulphide of
+                         antimony and antimony which condense in the neck
+                         of the bulb.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      Fuses and emits dense white fumes of SbO^{3},
+                         which pass off and redden blue litmus paper.
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses with great ease evolving much SbO^{3} and
+                         PbO, which incrusts the charcoal around the
+                         mineral. When the fumes have ceased, a small
+                         bead of metallic lead remains.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        --
+
+  (5) in borax.          The yellow incrustation formed upon charcoal
+                         gives the reaction of lead, and the white those
+                         of antimony.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   As alone on charcoal. The fused alkali gives the
+                         sulphur reaction on silver.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Minium
+
+Formula.                 Pb^{3}O^{4}.
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     --
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Is reduced first to litharge (PbO) and then to
+                         metallic lead which forms the usual
+                         incrustation.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        Colors the outer flame blue.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Gives the lead reactions.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   As alone on charcoal.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Mendipite
+
+Formula.                 PbCl + 2PbO.
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Decrepitates slightly and assumes a yellow
+                         color.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses readily and is reduced to metallic lead
+                         with the evolution of acid fumes. Forms a white
+                         incrustation of PbCl, and a yellow one of PbO.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        As the preceding.
+
+  (5) in borax.          As the preceding.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   As alone on charcoal.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. Gives the chlorine reaction with CuO and
+                         microcosmic salt.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Cerusite
+
+Formula.                 [.Pb][..C].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Decrepitates, gives off CO^{2}, turns yellow and
+                         fuses.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Is reduced to metallic lead, incrusting the
+                         charcoal around with PbO.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        As the preceding.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Gives the lead reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   As alone on charcoal.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. In nitric acid dissolves with much
+                         effervescence.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Anglesite
+
+Formula.                 [.Pb][...S].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Decrepitates and gives off a small quantity of
+                         water.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       In the oxidizing flame fuses to a clear bead,
+                         which becomes opaque on cooling. In reducing
+                         flame is reduced with much ebullition to a
+                         metallic bead and incrusts the charcoal around
+                         with PbO.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        As the preceding.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Gives the lead reaction and occasionally a
+                         slight iron and manganese reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Is reduced yielding a metallic lead bead. The
+                         fused alkaline mass gives a sulphur reaction on
+                         silver.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Pyromorphite
+
+Formula.                 PbCl + 3[.Pb]^{3}[.....P].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Decrepitates, and when strongly heated for some
+                         time, gives a slight white sublimate of PbCl.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       In oxidizing flame fuses to a bead having a
+                         crystalline surface on cooling, and forms a thin
+                         film of PbCl on the charcoal In reducing flame
+                         fuses without reduction and on cooling assumes a
+                         polyhedral form. Incrusts the charcoal slightly
+                         with PbO.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        Fuses and colors the flame blue.
+
+  (5) in borax.          --
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      --
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Is reduced yielding a metallic bead and
+                         incrusting the charcoal with PbO.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. Gives the chlorine reaction with microcosmic
+                         salt and CuO. Also the phosphoric acid
+                         reactions.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Mimetene
+
+Formula.                 PbCl+ 3[.Pb]^{3}[.....As]
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     As the preceding.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses, but less easily than the preceding, gives
+                         off AsO^{3} and incrusts the charcoal with
+                         PbCl. Finally is reduced to a metallic bead and
+                         forms an incrustation of PbO.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        As the preceding.
+
+  (5) in borax.          The oxide formed on charcoal gives the lead
+                         reactions.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   As the preceding.
+
+
+
+  (8) Special reactions. Gives the chlorine reaction.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Vanadinite
+
+Formula.                 PbCl + 3[.Pb]^{3}[...V]?
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     As pyromorphite.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       The powdered mineral fuses fuses to a black
+                         shining mass, which in the reducing flame
+                         affords a metallic bead. Incrusts the charcoal
+                         first with a white film of PbCl and afterwards
+                         with PbO.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        As pyromorphite.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Dissolves readily to a clear glass, which, in
+                         the oxidizing flame, is yellow, while hot, and
+                         colorless when cold. In reducing flame becomes
+                         opaque, and on cooling green.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      In oxidizing flame is yellow while hot, becoming
+                         paler on cooling. In reducing flame brown while
+                         warm, and emerald green when cold.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   On platinum wire fuses to a yellow bead, which
+                         is crystalline on cooling. On charcoal yields a
+                         button of metallic lead.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. With microcosmic salt and CuO, gives the chlorine
+                         reaction. If fused in a platinum spoon with from
+                         3 to 4 times its volume of [.K],[...S]^{2} it
+                         forms a fluid yellow mass having an orange color
+                         when cold.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Crocoisite
+
+Formula.                 [.Pb][...Cr].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Decrepitates violently and assumes a dark color.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses and detonates yielding Cr^{2}O^{3} and
+                         metallic lead, and forming an incrustation of
+                         PbO on the charcoal.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        As pyromorphite.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Dissolves readily and colors the glass yellow
+                         while warm, and green when cold. (See Chromium
+                         reaction.)
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   On platinum foil gives a dark yellow mass, which
+                         becomes paler on cooling. On charcoal yields a
+                         metallic button.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. Treated as above with [.K],[...S]^{2} forms a
+                         violet colored mass, which on solidifying
+                         becomes reddish and on cooling pale grey.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Molybdate of lead
+
+Formula.                 [.Pb][...M].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     As the preceding.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses and is partly absorbed into the charcoal
+                         leaving a globule of metallic lead, which is
+                         partially oxidized and incrusts the charcoal.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        As pyromorphite.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Dissolves readily and gives the molybdena
+                         reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Yields metallic lead.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. Fused as above with [.K],[...S]^{2} forms a yellow mass,
+                         which becomes white on cooling. If this be
+                         dissolved in water and a piece of zinc
+                         introduced into the solution, the latter becomes
+                         blue.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Scheeletine
+
+Formula.                 [.Pb][...W].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Decrepitates more or less.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses to a bead incrusting the charcoal with
+                         PbO. The bead on cooling is crystalline and has
+                         a dark metallic surface.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        As pyromorphite.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Dissolves to a clear colorless glass, which in
+                         the reducing flame becomes yellow, and on
+                         cooling grey and opaque.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      Dissolves to a clear colorless glass, which
+                         in the reducing flame assumes a dusky blue
+                         color. After a time becomes opaque.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   As the preceding.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. With carbonate of soda and nitre gives the
+                         manganese reaction.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+                     COPPER.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Native Copper
+
+Formula.                 Cu.
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     --
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses to a brilliant metallic bead, which on
+                         cooling becomes covered with a coating of black
+                         oxide.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        Fuses and colors the outer flame blue.
+
+  (5) in borax.          In the oxidizing flame dissolves and then gives
+                         the copper reactions.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   --
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Vitreous Copper
+
+Formula.                 Cu^{2}S.
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     --
+
+  (2) in open tube.      Evolves SO^{2} and, when pulverized and gently
+                         heated for some time is converted into CuO.
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses to a bead, which spirts considerably and
+                         gives off SO^{2}. When pulverized and gently
+                         roasted, is converted into CuO.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        --
+
+  (5) in borax.          The roasted mineral gives the copper reaction,
+                         and sometimes also a slight iron-reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   In the reducing flame is decomposed, forming NaS
+                         and metallic copper. If the former be cut out
+                         and laid upon silver, it gives the sulfur
+                         reaction.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Copper pyrites
+
+Formula.                 [,Cu=][,,,Fe=].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Decrepitates, sometimes gives a sublimate of
+                         sulphur and becomes bronze colored on the
+                         surface.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      Evolves SO^{2} and is finally converted into a
+                         dark red mixture of Fe^{2}O^{3} and CuO.
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses readily with much ebullition and is
+                         magnetic on cooling.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        --
+
+  (5) in borax.          As the preceding; but when the copper has been
+                         removed by reducing on charcoal, the bead shows
+                         a strong iron color.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As the preceding, but the color in the oxidizing
+                         flame is green, owing to the presence of iron.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Yields a bead of metallic copper and some
+                         magnetic oxide of iron which remains on the
+                         charcoal. The fused gives a sulphur reaction on
+                         silver.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Fahlerz
+
+Formula.                 ([,Cu=][,Ag][,Fe][,Zn])^{4} ([,,,Sb][,,,As]).
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Sometimes decrepitates, fuses, and when very
+                         strongly heated, gives a red sublimate of
+                         [,,,Sb] with [...Sb], also sometimes a black
+                         sublimate of [,Hg] and occasionally [,,,As].
+
+  (2) in open tube.      Fuses and gives off thick fumes of SbO^{3} and
+                         SO^{2}, also generally AsO^{3}, leaving a black
+                         infusible residue. If Hg be present, it is
+                         sublimed and condenses in the tube in small
+                         drops.
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses to a bead, which fumes strongly and
+                         incrusts the charcoal with SbO^{3}, and
+                         sometimes ZnO, which cannot be volatilized.
+                         Emits a strong smell of arsenic.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        --
+
+  (5) in borax.          The residue obtained on charcoal thoroughly
+                         roasted gives a copper reaction, and when the
+                         latter has been removed by reduction upon
+                         charcoal, an iron reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in the preceding.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   With this flux and a little borax yields a bead
+                         of metallic copper; on silver, the alkaline mass
+                         gives a sulphur reaction.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. If the copper bead obtained by fusing upon
+                         carbonate of soda be cupelled with assay lead, a
+                         silver bead will be obtained. Or if dissolved in
+                         nitric acid and a drop or two of HCl added, a
+                         white precipitate of AgCl will be formed, which
+                         may be collected and reduced with carbonate of
+                         soda upon charcoal.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Tennatite
+
+Formula.                 ([,Cu=][,Fe=])^{4}[,,,As].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Decrepitates occasionally and gives a red
+                         sublimate of [,,,As].
+
+  (2) in open tube.      Evolves [..S] and [...As], which condense and
+                         form a white sublimate.
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses to a magnetic bead giving of arsenical and
+                         sulphurous fumes.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        --
+
+  (5) in borax.          As the preceding.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As the preceding.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Yields a copper bead and metallic iron in the
+                         form of a dark grey powder. The fused alkali
+                         gives the sulphur reaction.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Bournonite
+
+Formula.                 ([,Pb]^{2}[,Cu=])[,,,Sb].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Decrepitates giving off sulfur and, when
+                         strongly heated, [,,,Sb] and [...Sb].
+
+  (2) in open tube.      Evolves thick white fumes of [...Sb],[.....Sb]
+                         and [.Pb][...Sb]. Also [.S].
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses readily and incrusts the charcoal with
+                         [...Sb] and [.Pb] leaving a dark colored bead.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        --
+
+  (5) in borax.          If the bead obtained on charcoal be fused on
+                         that support in the reducing flame with borax, a
+                         slight iron reaction is obtained, and after a
+                         time a copper reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As with borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Yields a bead of metallic copper and lead and
+                         incrusts the charcoal with [...Sb] and [.Pb].
+                         The alkaline mass laid on silver and moistened
+                         gives the sulphur reaction.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Red oxide of copper
+
+Formula.                 Cu^{2}O
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     --
+
+  (2) in open tube.      Is converted into the black oxide CuO.
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       In the reducing flame is reduced, forming a
+                         bead of metallic copper.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        Fuses and colors the the flame emerald
+                         green, or if previously moistened with HCl,
+                         blue.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Gives the copper reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As with borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Is reduced to a bead of metallic copper.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Atacamite
+
+Formula.                 CuCl + 3[.Cu] + 6[.H].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Gives off much water, having an acid
+                         reaction, on test paper, and forms a light
+                         grey sublimate of CuCl.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses, colors the flame blue, forms a brown
+                         and a pale grey incrustation on the
+                         charcoal, and is reduced to metallic copper,
+                         leaving a small quantity of slag.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        Fuses and colors the outer flame intensely
+                         blue and green towards the point.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Gives the copper reactions.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As with borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Is reduced, yielding a bead of metallic
+                         copper.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Dioptase
+
+Formula.                 [.Cu]^{3}[...Si]^{2} + 3[.H].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Gives off water and turns black.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       In the oxidizing flame becomes black. In the
+                         reducing flame red.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        V. Colors the outer flame intensely green.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Gives the copper reactions.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As with borax. The silica remains
+                         undissolved.
+
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   With a small quantity of carbonate of soda
+                         fuses to a bead, which on cooling is opaque
+                         and has a red fracture. With more alkali
+                         forms a slag, containing little beads of
+                         reduced copper.
+
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Malachite
+
+Formula.                 [.Cu]^{2}[..C] + [.H].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Gives off water and turns black.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses to a bead with a strong flame is
+                         reduced to metallic copper.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        Fuses and colors the outer flame brilliantly
+                         green.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Gives the copper reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As with borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Yields metallic copper.
+
+
+  (8) Special reactions. Dissolves in HCl with much effervescence.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Blue vitriol
+
+Formula.                 [.Cu][...S] + 5[.H].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Intumesces, gives off water and becomes
+                         white.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      Strongly heated is decomposed, given off
+                         SO^{2} and being converted into CuO.
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       As in the glass-bulb. Then fuses, coloring
+                         the outer flame green, and is reduced to
+                         metallic copper and [,Cu=].
+
+  (4) in forceps.        Fuses and colors the outer flame blue.
+
+  (5) in borax.          The roasted mineral gives copper reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Yields metallic copper. The alkaline mass
+                         laid on silver gives S reaction.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. Gives the sulphuric acid reaction.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Libethenite
+
+Formula.                 [.Cu]^{4}[.....P] + 2[.H].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Gives off water and turns black.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Gradually heated, turns black and fuses to a
+                         bead, having a core of metallic copper.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        Fuses but does not color the flame
+                         distinctly. On cooling is black and
+                         crystalline.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Gives the copper reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   With much of the alkali is decomposed,
+                         yielding metallic copper. With small
+                         portions successively added first fuses and
+                         then intumesces, fuses with a strong flame,
+                         and is then absorbed into the charcoal,
+                         leaving metallic copper.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. Gives the phosphoric acid reaction.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Olivenite
+
+Formula.                 [.Cu]^{4}([.....As][.....P]) + [.H].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Gives off water.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses with detonation and the evolution of
+                         arsenical fumes to a brittle regulus, brown
+                         externally and having a white fracture.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        Fuses and colors the outer flame green. On
+                         cooling has a crystalline surface.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Gives the copper reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Is reduced, yielding metallic copper.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. Gives the arsenic reactions.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+                    ANTIMONY.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Native antimony
+
+Formula.                 Sb.
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Fuses and, when strongly heated, volatilizes
+                         being redeposited in the tube as a dark grey
+                         sublimate.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      Fuses and gives off dense white fumes, which
+                         are partly redeposited on the tube.
+                         Sometimes also gives off arsenical fumes in
+                         small quantity.
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses and gives off dense white fumes, which
+                         thickly incrust the charcoal and color the
+                         flame blue immediately beyond the assay.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        --
+
+  (5) in borax.          The oxide formed upon charcoal gives the
+                         antimony reactions.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   --
+
+  (8) Special reactions. The incrustation on the charcoal, if treated
+                         with nitrate of cobalt assumes the
+                         characteristic green color.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Grey antimony
+
+Formula.                 SbS^{3}.
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Fuses readily and occasionally gives off a
+                         small quantity of sulphur. Strongly heated
+                         forms a brown sublimate of SbS^{3} and
+                         SbO^{3}.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      Fuses and gives off SO^{2}, which passes off
+                         up the tube, and dense white fumes of
+                         SbO^{3} and SbO^{5} which are partly
+                         deposited in the tube.
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses and is partly absorbed by the charcoal
+                         and partly volatilized, incrusting the
+                         charcoal with the characteristic white
+                         oxides. Colors the flame blue.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        --
+
+  (5) in borax.          As the preceding.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Fuses and is reduced, yielding metallic
+                         antimony, which behaves as the preceding
+                         mineral upon charcoal. The alkaline mass
+                         gives the sulphur reaction.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. As the preceding.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Antimony blende
+
+Formula.                 [,,,Sb]^{2} + [...Sb].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Fuses easily, gives off first SbO^{3} and
+                         afterwards an orange colored sublimate.
+                         Strongly heated, is decomposed and gives a
+                         black sublimate, which becomes brown on
+                         cooling.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      As the preceding.
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       As the preceding.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        --
+
+  (5) in borax.          As native antimony.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   As the preceding.
+
+
+  (8) Special reactions. As native antimony.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 White antimony
+
+Formula.                 SbO^{3}.
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Is sublimed and recondensed in the neck of
+                         the tube.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      As in the glass-bulb.
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses with the evolution of dense white
+                         fumes, which incrust the surface of the
+                         charcoal. In the reducing flame is partly
+                         reduced, yielding metallic antimony. Colors
+                         flame blue.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        Fuses and is volatilized, coloring the outer
+                         flame blue.
+
+  (5) in borax.          Gives the antimony reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   In the reducing flame is reduced, yielding
+                         metallic antimony.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. As native antimony.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+                    ARSENIC.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Native arsenic
+
+Formula.                 As.
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Sublimes without fusion and recondenses as a
+                         dark grey metallic sublimate, sometimes
+                         leaving a small residue.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      If gently heated in a good current of air
+                         passes off as AsO^{3}, which is partly
+                         condensed as a white sublimate in the upper
+                         part of the tube.
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Passes off as AsO^{3}, which thinly incrusts
+                         the charcoal beyond the assay.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        Colors the flame blue.
+
+  (5) in borax.          --
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      --
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   --
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Realgar
+
+Formula.                 AsS^{2}.
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Fuses, enters into ebullition and is
+                         sublimed as a transparent red sublimate.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      Gently heated passes off as SO^{2} and
+                         AsO^{3}, the latter of which is redeposited
+                         in the upper part of the tube.
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses and passes off as arsenious and
+                         sulphurous acids.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        Fuses and colors the flame blue.
+
+  (5) in borax.          --
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      --
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   As on charcoal, except that the S combines
+                         with the alkali forming NaS, which on silver
+                         gives the sulphur reaction.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Orpiment
+
+Formula.                 AsS^{3}.
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     As the preceding, except that the sublimate
+                         is of a dark yellow color when cold.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      As the preceding.
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       As the preceding.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        As the preceding.
+
+  (5) in borax.          --
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      --
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   As the preceding.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 White arsenic
+
+Formula.                 AsO^{3}.
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Sublimes without fusion and re-condenses in
+                         white crystals.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Sublimes and is partly recondensed on
+                         charcoal forming a white incrustation.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        Colors the flame blue.
+
+  (5) in borax.          --
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      --
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   --
+
+  (8) Special reactions. Heated with charcoal in a glass-tube sealed
+                         at one end, is reduced and metallic arsenic
+                         sublimes.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+                    MERCURY.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Native mercury
+
+Formula.                 Hg.
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Volatilizes with little or no residue and
+                         recondenses in neck of bulb.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Is volatilized.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        --
+
+  (5) in borax.          --
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      --
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   --
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Cinnabar
+
+Formula.                 HgS.
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Volatilizes sometimes leaving a slight
+                         earthy residue, and re-condenses as a black
+                         sulphide.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      If gently heated is decomposed into metallic
+                         mercury, which volatilizes and recondenses
+                         in the upper part of the tube, and SO^{2},
+                         which passes off as is easily recognized by
+                         its odor and bleaching properties.
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Is volatilized, generally leaving a small
+                         earthy residue.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        --
+
+  (5) in borax.          --
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      --
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   With carbonate of soda and cyanide of
+                         potassium is decomposed and metallic mercury
+                         volatilized.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. When in the preceding experiment the mercury
+                         has been entirely dissipated, the alkaline
+                         residue laid on silver gives a sulphur
+                         reaction.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Native amalgam
+
+Formula.                 AgHg^{2}.
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     As native mercury, but leaves a residue of
+                         pure silver.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       The mercury volatilizes leaving the silver,
+                         which fuses to a bead, and, in the oxidizing
+                         flame, incrusts the charcoal with its
+                         characteristic oxide.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        --
+
+  (5) in borax.          --
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      --
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   --
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+                    SILVER.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Native silver
+
+Formula.                 Ag.
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     --
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses and in a strong oxidizing flame forms
+                         an incrustation of dark brown oxide on the
+                         charcoal. If any antimony be present, it
+                         affords a crimson incrustation.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        --
+
+  (5) in borax.          Gives the silver reactions.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   --
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Antimonial silver
+
+Formula.                 Ag^{2}Sb.
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     --
+
+  (2) in open tube.      Gives off dense white fumes, which are
+                         partly deposited in the tube.
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses, fumes strongly, forming a white
+                         incrustation, and when the antimony is
+                         nearly expelled a crimson one, a nearly pure
+                         silver bead remains.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        --
+
+  (5) in borax.          The incrustation formed on charcoal gives an
+                         antimony reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   As alone on charcoal.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Silver glance
+
+Formula.                 AgS.
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     --
+
+  (2) in open tube.      Gives off sulphurous acid.
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Gives off SO^{2} and is reduced to metallic
+                         silver. If impure, a small quantity of slag
+                         also remains.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        --
+
+  (5) in borax.          The residual slag (if any) obtained upon
+                         charcoal gives an iron reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   As alone on charcoal. The alkaline mass gives
+                         a sulphur reaction on polished silver.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Stephanite
+
+Formula.                 [,Ag]^{6}[,,,Sb].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Decrepitates, fuses and gives a slight
+                         sublimate of sulphide of antimony.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      Fuses and gives off SO^{2} and dense white
+                         antimonial fumes.
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses and incrusts the charcoal with
+                         antimonious acid, leaving Ag with some
+                         antimony. If the flame be continued, a red
+                         incrustation is formed and finally a bead of
+                         pure silver remains surrounded by a small
+                         slag.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        --
+
+  (5) in borax.          The residual slag obtained on the charcoal
+                         gives an iron and copper reaction.
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      As in borax.
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   The silver is reduced and the antimony
+                         passes off in dense fumes. The fused alkali
+                         gives the sulphur reaction on silver.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Pyargyrite
+
+Formula.                 [,Ag]^{3}[,,,Sb].
+
+Behavior
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Sometimes decrepitates, fuses readily, and,
+                         when strongly heated, gives a red sublimate
+                         of SbS^{3}.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      As in the preceding.
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses with much spirting and covers the
+                         charcoal with antimonial fumes. When the
+                         residual AgS is heated for some time in the
+                         oxidizing flame, a bead of pure silver is
+                         obtained.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        --
+
+  (5) in borax.          --
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      --
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   As the preceding.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Proustite
+
+Formula.                 [,Ag]^{3}[,,,As].
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Fuses and at a low red heat affords a small
+                         sublimate of AsS^{3}.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      Gradually heated it gives off AsO^{3} and
+                         SO^{2}. Sometimes also antimony fumes.
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       As the preceding, except that a large
+                         quantity of AsO^{3} and but little SbO^{3}
+                         are given off.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        --
+
+  (5) in borax.          --
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      --
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   As stephanite, except that much arsenic is
+                         given off and but little antimony.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. --
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mineral.                 Horn silver
+
+Formula.                 AgCl.
+
+Behavior
+
+  (1) in glass-bulb.     Fuses, but undergoes no further change.
+
+  (2) in open tube.      --
+
+  (3) on charcoal.       Fuses readily in the oxidizing flame. In the
+                         reducing flame is slowly reduced yielding
+                         metallic silver.
+
+  (4) in forceps.        --
+
+  (5) in borax.          --
+
+  (6) in mic. salt.      --
+
+  (7) with carb. soda.   Is rapidly reduced to metallic silver.
+
+  (8) Special reactions. If cut up into small pieces mixed with oxide
+                         of copper and then heated before the
+                         oxidizing flame upon charcoal, it colors the
+                         flame blue.
+
+
+                    THE END.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Transcriber's Notes:
+
+   Text italicized in the original book is surrounded by '_'.
+
+   This book had many columnar tables, often split across pages. These
+   have been transformed in data sheets for readability.
+
+   The notation ^{#} is used for superscripted numbers, indicating
+   the composition of the various chemical compounds.
+
+   Some of the element symbols were differenced by markings that
+   were not defined in the book, but are supposed to be valence
+   markings. These have been transcribed as follows:
+
+      '.'  or ',' above element symbol   [?.Symbol] or [?,Symbol]
+      '-' above element symbol           [=Symbol]
+      '-' through element symbol         [Symbol=]
+                                           ...
+   So  [...Al]  where the original text had Al
+                                            _
+       [=M]     where the original text had M
+                                            ,,,
+       [,,,Sb]  where the original text had  Sb
+                                            ...
+       [...Fe=] where the original text had  Fe, line through the Fe.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A System of Instruction in the
+Practical Use of the Blowpipe, by Anonymous
+
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