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diff --git a/15491-h/15491-h.htm b/15491-h/15491-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..db6f052 --- /dev/null +++ b/15491-h/15491-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,16182 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=UTF-8" /> + <title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Micrographia, by Robert Hooke</title> + <link rel="coverpage" href="images/cover.jpg" /> + + + <style type="text/css"> + +<!-- + p { margin-top: .75em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .75em; + text-indent: 1em; + } + h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 { + text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ + } + hr {text-align: center; width: 50%;} + hr.full {width: 100%;} + body { margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; + } + + td.tc { padding-left: 1em; padding-right: 1em; text-align: center; vertical-align: top; } + + .contents + {margin-left:30%; margin-right:10%; margin-bottom: 1em; text-align: left;} + .contents .stanza {margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em;} + .contents p {margin: 0; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} + + a:link {color:blue; text-decoration:none} + a:visited {color:blue; text-decoration:none} + a:hover {color:red} + link {color:blue; text-decoration:none} + + .author {text-align: right; margin-top: -1em; margin-right: 5%;} + + .autotable {font-size: .9em; padding: 1.5em .5em 1em; page-break-inside: avoid; + clear: both; } + .center,.tdc {text-align: center; } + .tdr {text-align: right; } + .tdl {text-align: left; } + th {border-bottom:medium;} + .tc {vertical-align: top;} + .tc p {text-align: center;} + blockquote {margin-left: 2em; margin-right: 2em; } + .sidenote {position: absolute; left: 92%; font-size: smaller; text-align: left;} /* sidenotes */ + + .nobo {border: thin;} + .red {color: red;} + .figcenter {padding: 1em; margin: 0; text-align: center; font-size: 0.8em;} + .figcenter img {border: none;} + .figcenter p {margin: 0; text-indent: 1em;} + .figcenter {margin: auto;} + --> + + +.oneem {height:1em;} +.ph1, .ph2, .ph3, .ph5 { text-align: center; text-indent: 0em; font-weight: bold; } +.ph1 { font-size: xx-large; margin: .67em auto; } +.ph2 { font-size: x-large; margin: .75em auto; } +.ph3 { font-size: large; margin: .83em auto; } +.ph5 { font-size: medium; margin: 1.12em auto; } +div.chapter {page-break-before: always;} +h2 {page-break-before: avoid;} + </style> + </head> + <body> +<div style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold;'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Micrographia, by Robert Hooke</div> +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and +most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions +whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms +of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online +at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you +are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the +country where you are located before using this eBook. +</div> +<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: Micrographia<br /> + Some Physiological Descriptions of Minute Bodies Made by Magnifying Glasses with Observations and Inquiries Thereupon</div> +<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: Robert Hooke</div> +<div style='display:block;margin:1em 0'>Release Date: March 29, 2005 [eBook #15491]<br /> +[Most recently updated: May 23, 2021]</div> +<div style='display:block;margin:1em 0'>Language: English</div> +<div style='display:block;margin:1em 0'>Character set encoding: UTF-8</div> +<div style='display:block; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Produced by: Robert Shimmin, Keith Edkins, + and the Project Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team.<br /> +Revised by Richard Tonsing.</div> +<div style='margin-top:2em;margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MICROGRAPHIA ***</div> + + + + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:60%;"> + <a href="images/rule-01.png"><img width="100%" src="images/rule-01.png" alt="Decorative rule" /></a><br /> + </div> + + +<div class='ph2'>By the Council of the ROYAL SOCIETY of <i>London</i><br /> +for Improving of Natural Knowledge.</div> + + <p>Ordered, <i>That the Book written by </i>Robert Hooke<i>, M.A. Fellow + of this Society, Entituled, </i>Micrographia, or some Physiological + Descriptions of Minute Bodies, made by Magnifying Glasses, with + Observations and Inquiries thereupon<i>, Be printed by </i>John + Martyn<i>, and </i>James Allestry<i>, Printers to the said + Society</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Novem.</i> 23. 1664.</p> + + <p class="author">BROUNCKER. <i>P.R.S.</i></p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:60%;"> + <a href="images/rule-02.png"><img width="100%" src="images/rule-02.png" alt="Decorative rule" /></a><br /> + </div> + + +<h1><span class="red">MICROGRAPHIA:</span><br /> + +<span class='ph5'>OR SOME</span><br /> + +<span class='ph3'><i>Physiological Descriptions</i></span><br /> + +<span class='ph5'>OF</span><br /> + +<span class='ph2 red'>MINUTE BODIES</span><br /> + +<span class='ph5'>MADE BY</span><br /> + +<span class='ph3 red'>MAGNIFYING GLASSES</span><br /> + +<span class='ph5'>WITH</span><br /> + +<span class='ph3'><span class="red">OBSERVATIONS</span> and <span class="red">INQUIRIES</span> thereupon.</span></h1> + + +<hr /> + +<p class="center">By <i class="red">R. HOOKE</i>, Fellow of the <span class="red">ROYAL SOCIETY</span>.<br /></p> +<hr /> + + <div class="contents"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Non possis oculo quantum contendere Linceus</i>,</p> + <p><i>Non tamen idcirco contemnas Lippus inungi.</i> Horat. Ep. lib. 1.</p> + </div> + </div> + <div class="figcenter" style="width:40%;"> + <a href="images/crest.png"><img width="100%" src="images/crest.png" alt="Arms of the Royal Society" /></a> + <br /></div> +<hr class="full" /> + +<p class="center"><i>LONDON</i>, Printed by <i class="red">Jo. Martyn</i>, and <i class="red">Ja. Allestry</i>, Printers to the +<span class="red">ROYAL SOCIETY</span>, and are to be sold at their Shop at the <i>Bell</i> in +<i>S. Paul’s</i> Church-yard. <span class="red">M DC LX V</span>.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:60%;"> + <a href="images/rule-03.png"><img width="100%" src="images/rule-03.png" alt="Decorative rule" /></a> + <br /></div> + +<div class='ph2'>TO THE</div> + +<div class='ph1'>KING.</div> + + <p><b><i>SIR</i></b>,</p> + + <p><img style='margin-right:auto;' src="images/illumined-i.png" alt="I" /> Do here most humbly lay this <i>small</i> Present at <i>Your + Majesties</i> Royal feet. And though it comes accompany’d with two + <i>disadvantages</i>, the <i>meanness</i> of the <i>Author</i>, and of + the <i>Subject</i>; yet in both I am <i>incouraged</i> by the + <i>greatness</i> of your <i>Mercy</i> and your <i>Knowledge</i>. By the + <i>one</i> I am taught, that you can <i>forgive</i> the most + <i>presumptuous Offendors</i>: And by the <i>other</i>, that you will not + <i>esteem</i> the least work of <i>Nature</i>, or <i>Art</i>, unworthy + your <i>Observation</i>. Amidst the many <i>felicities</i> that have + accompani’d <i>your Majesties</i> happy <i>Restauration</i> and + <i>Government</i>, it is none of the least considerable that + <i>Philosophy</i> and <i>Experimental Learning</i> have <i>prosper’d</i> + under your <i>Royal Patronage</i>. And as the calm prosperity of your + Reign has given us the <i>leisure</i> to follow these <i>Studies</i> of + <i>quiet</i> and <i>retirement</i>, so it is just, that the <i>Fruits</i> + of them should, by way of <i>acknowledgement</i>, be return’d to <i>your + Majesty</i>. There are, Sir, several other of your Subjects, of your + <i>Royal Society</i>, now busie about <i>Nobler</i> matters: The + <i>Improvement</i> of <i>Manufactures</i> and <i>Agriculture</i>, the + <i>Increase</i> of <i>Commerce</i>, the <i>Advantage</i> of + <i>Navigation</i>: In all which they are <i>assisted</i> by <i>your + Majesties Incouragement</i> and <i>Example</i>. Amidst all those + <i>greater</i> Designs, I here presume to bring in that which is more + <i>proportionable</i> to the <i>smalness</i> of my Abilities, and to + offer some of the <i>least</i> of all <i>visible things</i>, to that + <i>Mighty King</i>, that has <i>establisht an Empire</i> over the best of + all <i>Invisible things</i> of this World, the <i>Minds</i> of Men.</p> + +<p class="center"><i>Your Majesties most humble<br /> +and most obedient<br /> +Subject and Servant</i>,</p> + +<div class='ph3'>ROBERT HOOKE.</div> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:60%;"> + <a href="images/rule-04.png"><img width="100%" src="images/rule-04.png" alt="Decorative rule" /></a> + <br /></div> + +<div class='ph3'>TO THE</div> + +<div class='ph2'>ROYAL SOCIETY.</div> + + <p> + <span title="Word with illuminated initial: After"> + <img style='margin-right:auto;' src="images/illumined-a.png" alt="A" />fter + </span> + my <i>Address</i> to our <i>Great Founder</i> and <i>Patron</i>, + I could not but think my self oblig’d, in consideration of those <i>many + Ingagements</i> you have laid upon me, to offer these my <i>poor + Labours</i> to this MOST ILLUSTRIOUS ASSEMBLY. YOU have been pleas’d + formerly to accept of these rude <i>Draughts</i>. I have since added to + them some <i>Descriptions</i>, and some <i>Conjectures</i> of my own. And + therefore, together with YOUR <i>Acceptance</i>, I must also beg YOUR + <i>pardon</i>. The Rules YOU have prescrib’d YOUR selves in YOUR + Philosophical Progress do seem the best that have ever yet been + practis’d. And particularly that of avoiding <i>Dogmatizing</i>, and the + <i>espousal</i> of any <i>Hypothesis</i> not sufficiently grounded and + confirm’d by <i>Experiments</i>. This way seems the most excellent, and + may preserve both <i>Philosophy</i> and <i>Natural History</i> from its + former <i>Corruptions</i>. In saying which, I may seem to condemn my own + Course in this Treatise; in which there may perhaps be some + <i>Expressions</i>, which may seem more <i>positive</i> then YOUR + Prescriptions will permit: And though I desire to have them understood + only as <i>Conjectures</i> and <i>Quæries</i> (which YOUR Method does not + altogether disallow) yet if even in those I have exceeded, ’tis fit that + I should declare, that it was not done by YOUR Directions. For it is most + unreasonable, that YOU should undergo the <i>imputation</i> of the + <i>faults</i> of my <i>Conjectures</i>, seeing YOU can receive so + <i>small advantage</i> of reputation by the <i>sleight Observations</i> + of</p> + +<p class="center"><i>YOUR most humble and<br /> +most faithful Servant</i></p> + +<div class='ph3'>ROBERT HOOKE.</div> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:60%;"> + <a href="images/rule-04.png"><img width="100%" src="images/rule-04.png" alt="Decorative rule" /></a> + <br /></div> + +<div class='chapter' /><h2><span class='ph3'>THE</span><br /> + +PREFACE.</h2> + + <p><i><span title="Word with illuminated initial: It"> + <img style='margin-right:auto;' src="images/illumined-i.png" alt="I" />t</span> + is the great prerogative of Mankind above other Creatures, that + we are not only able to </i>behold<i> the works of Nature, or barely to + </i>sustein<i> our lives by them, but we have also the power of + </i>considering<i>, </i>comparing<i>, </i>altering<i>, </i>assisting<i>, + and </i>improving<i> them to various uses. And as this is the peculiar + priviledge of humane Nature in general, so is it capable of being so far + advanced by the helps of Art, and Experience, as to make some Men excel + others in their Observations, and Deductions, almost as much as they do + Beasts. By the addition of such </i>artificial Instruments<i> and + </i>methods<i>, there may be, in some manner, a reparation made for the + mischiefs, and imperfection, mankind has drawn upon it self, by + negligence, and intemperance, and a wilful and superstitious deserting + the Prescripts and Rules of Nature, whereby every man, both from a + deriv’d corruption, innate and born with him, and from his breeding and + converse with men, is very subject to slip into all sorts of + errors.</i></p> + + <p><i>The only way which now remains for us to recover some degree of + those former perfections, seems to be, by rectifying the operations of + the </i>Sense<i>, the </i>Memory<i>, and </i>Reason<i>, since upon the + evidence, the </i>strength<i>, the </i>integrity<i>, and the </i>right + correspondence<i> of all these, all the light, by which our actions are + to be guided is to be renewed, and all our command over things is to be + establisht.</i></p> + + <p><i>It is therefore most worthy of our consideration, to recollect + their several defects, that so we may the better understand how to supply + them, and by what assistances we may </i>inlarge<i> their power, and + </i>secure<i> them in performing their particular duties.</i></p> + + <p><i>As for the actions of our </i>Senses<i>, we cannot but observe them + to be in many particulars much outdone by those of other Creatures, and + when at best, to be far short of the perfection they seem capable of: And + these infirmities of the Senses arise from a double cause, either from + the </i>disproportion of the Object to the Organ<i>, whereby an infinite + number of things can never enter into them, or else from </i>error in the + Perception<i>, that many things, which come within their reach, are not + received in a right manner.</i></p> + + <p><i>The like frailties are to be found in the </i>Memory;<i> we often + let many things </i>slip away<i> from us, which deserve to be retain’d, + and of those which we treasure up, a great part is either + </i>frivolous<i> or </i>false<i>; and if good, and substantial, either in + tract of time </i>obliterated<i>, or at best so </i>overwhelmed<i> and + buried under more frothy notions, that when there is need of them, they + are in vain sought for.</i></p> + + <p><i>The two main foundations being so deceivable, it is no wonder, that + all the succeeding works which we build upon them, of arguing, + concluding, defining, judging, and all the other degrees of Reason, are + lyable to the same imperfection, being, at best, either vain, or + uncertain: So that the errors of the </i>understanding<i> are answerable + to the two other, being defective both in the quantity and goodness of + its knowledge; for the limits, to which our thoughts are confin’d, are + small in respect of the vast extent of Nature it self; some parts of it + are </i>too large<i> to be comprehended, and some </i>too little<i> to be + perceived. And from thence it must follow, that not having a full + sensation of the Object, we must be very lame and imperfect in our + conceptions about it, and in all the proportions which we build upon it; + hence, we often take the </i>shadow<i> of things for the + </i>substance<i>, small </i>appearances<i> for good </i>similitudes<i>, + </i>similitudes<i> for </i>definitions;<i> and even many of those, which + we think, to be the most solid definitions, are rather expressions of our + own misguided apprehensions then of the true nature of the things + themselves.</i></p> + + <p><i>The effects of these imperfections are manifested in different + ways, according to the temper and disposition of the several minds of + men, some they incline to </i>gross ignorance<i> and stupidity, and + others to a </i>presumptuous imposing<i> on other mens Opinions, and a + </i>confident dogmatizing<i> on matters, whereof there is no assurance to + be given.</i></p> + + <p><i>Thus all the uncertainty, and mistakes of humane actions, proceed + either from the narrowness and wandring of our </i>Senses<i>, from the + slipperiness or delusion of our </i>Memory<i>, from the confinement or + rashness of our </i>Understanding<i>, so that ’tis no wonder, that our + power over natural causes and effects is so slowly improv’d, seeing we + are not only to contend with the obscurity and </i>difficulty of the + things<i> whereon we work and think, but even the </i>forces of our own + minds<i> conspire to betray us.</i></p> + + <p><i>These being the dangers in the process of humane Reason, the + remedies of them all can only proceed from the </i>real<i>, the + </i>mechanical<i>, the </i>experimental<i> Philosophy, which has this + advantage over the Philosophy of </i>discourse<i> and </i>disputation<i>, + that whereas that chiefly aims at the subtilty of its Deductions and + Conclusions, without much regard to the first ground-work, which ought to + be well laid on the Sense and Memory; so this intends the right ordering + of them all, and the making them serviceable to each other.</i></p> + + <p><i>The first thing to be undertaken in this weighty work, is a + </i>watchfulness over the failings<i> and an </i>inlargement of the + dominion<i>, of the Senses.</i></p> + + <p><i>To which end it is requisite, first, That there should be a + </i>scrupulous<i> choice, and a </i>strict examination<i>, of the + reality, constancy, and certainty of the Particulars that we admit: This + is the first rise whereon truth is to begin, and here the most severe, + and most impartial diligence, must be imployed; the storing up of all, + without any regard to evidence or use, will only tend to darkness and + confusion. We must not therefore esteem the riches of our Philosophical + treasure by the </i>number<i> only, but chiefly by the </i>weight<i>; the + most </i>vulgar<i> Instances are not to be neglected, but above all, the + most </i>instructive<i> are to be entertain’d; the footsteps of Nature + are to be trac’d, not only in her </i>ordinary course<i>, but when she + seems to be put to her shifts, to make many </i>doublings<i> and + </i>turnings<i>, and to use some kind of art in indeavouring to avoid our + discovery.</i></p> + + <p><i>The next care to be taken, in respect of the Senses, is a supplying + of their infirmities with </i>Instruments<i>, and, as it were, the adding + of </i>artificial Organs<i> to the </i>natural<i>; this in one of them + has been of late years accomplisht with prodigious benefit to all sorts + of useful knowledge, by the invention of Optical Glasses. By the means of + </i>Telescopes<i>, there is nothing so </i>far distant<i> but may be + represented to our view; and by the help of </i>Microscopes<i>, there is + nothing so </i>small<i>, as to escape our inquiry; hence there is a new + visible World discovered to the understanding. By this means the Heavens + are open’d, and a vast number of new Stars, and new Motions, and new + Productions appear in them, to which all the antient Astronomers were + utterly Strangers. By this the Earth it self, which lyes so neer us, + under our feet, shews quite a new thing to us, and in every </i>little + particle<i> of its matter; we now behold almost as great a variety of + Creatures, as we were able before to reckon up in the whole + </i>Universe<i> it self.</i></p> + + <p><i>It seems not improbable, but that by these helps the subtilty of + the composition of Bodies, the structure of their parts, the various + texture of their matter, the instruments and manner of their inward + motions, and all the other possible appearances of things, may come to be + more fully discovered; all which the antient </i>Peripateticks<i> were + content to comprehend in two general and (unless further explain’d) + useless words of </i>Matter<i> and </i>Form<i>. From whence there may + arise many admirable advantages, towards the increase of the + </i>Operative<i>, and the </i>Mechanick<i> Knowledge, to which this Age + seems so much inclined, because we may perhaps be inabled to discern all + the secret workings of Nature, almost in the same manner as we do those + that are the productions of Art, and are manag’d by Wheels, and Engines, + and Springs, that were devised by humane Wit.</i></p> + + <p><i>In this kind I here present to the World my imperfect Indeavours; + which though they shall prove no other way considerable, yet, I hope, + they may be in some measure useful to the main Design of a + </i>reformation<i> in Philosophy, if it be only by shewing, that there it + not so much requir’d towards it, any strength of </i>Imagination<i>, or + exactness of </i>Method<i>, or depth of </i>Contemplation<i> (though the + addition of these, where they can be had, must needs produce a much more + perfect composure) as a sincere </i>Hand<i>, and a </i>faithful<i> Eye, + to examine, and to record, the things themselves as they appear.</i></p> + + <p><i>And I beg my Reader, to let me take the boldness to assure him, + that in this present condition of knowledge, a man so qualified, as I + have indeavoured to be, only with resolution, and integrity, and plain + intentions of imploying his </i>Senses<i> aright, may venture to compare + the reality and the usefulness of his services, towards the true + Philosophy, with those of other men, that are of much stronger, and more + acute </i>speculations<i>, that shall not make use of the same method by + the Senses.</i></p> + + <p><i>The truth is, the Science of Nature has been already too long made + only a work of the </i>Brain<i> and the </i>Fancy<i>: It is now high time + that it should return to the plainness and soundness of + </i>Observations<i> on </i>material<i> and </i>obvious<i> things. It is + said of great Empires, That </i>the best way to preserve them from decay, + is to bring them back to the first Principles, and Arts, on which they + did begin<i>. The same is undoubtedly true in Philosophy, that by + wandring far away into </i>invisible Notions<i>, has almost quite + destroy’d it self, and it can never be recovered, or continued, but by + returning into the same </i>sensible paths<i>, in which it did at first + proceed.</i></p> + + <p><i>If therefore the Reader expects from me any infallible Deductions, + or certainty of </i>Axioms<i>, I am to say for my self, that those + stronger Works of Wit and Imagination are above my weak Abilities; or if + they had not been so, I would not have made use of them in this present + Subject before me: Whenever he finds that I have ventur’d at any small + Conjectures, at the causes of the things that I have observed, I beseech + him to look upon them only as </i>doubtful Problems<i>, and + </i>uncertain ghesses<i>, and not as unquestionable Conclusions, or + matters of unconfutable Science; I have produced nothing here, with + intent to bind his understanding to an </i>implicit<i> consent; I am so + far from that, that I desire him, not absolutely to rely upon these + Observations of my eyes, if he finds them contradicted by the future + Ocular Experiments of sober and impartial Discoverers.</i></p> + + <p><i>As for my part, I have obtained my end, if these my small Labours + shall be thought fit to take up some place in the large stock of + </i>natural Observations<i>, which so many hands are busie in providing. + If I have contributed the </i>meanest foundations<i> whereon others may + raise nobler </i>Superstructures<i>, I am abundantly satisfied; and all + my ambition is, that I may serve to the great Philosophers of this Age, + as the makers and the grinders of my Glasses did to me; that I may + prepare and furnish them with some </i>Materials<i>, which they may + afterwards </i>order<i> and </i>manage<i> with better skill, and to far + greater advantage.</i></p> + + <p><i>The next remedies in this universal cure of the Mind are to be + applied to the </i>Memory<i>, and they are to consist of such Directions + as may inform us, what things are best to be </i>stor’d up<i> for our + purpose, and which is the best way of so </i>disposing<i> them, that they + may not only be </i>kept in safety<i>, but ready and convenient, to be at + any time </i>produc’d<i> for use, as occasion shall require. But I will + not here prevent my self in what I may say in another Discourse, wherein + I shall make an attempt to propose some Considerations of the manner of + compiling a Natural and Artificial History, and of so ranging and + registring its Particulars into Philosophical Tables, as may make them + most useful for the raising of </i>Axioms<i> and </i>Theories<i>.</i></p> + + <p><i>The last indeed is the most </i>hazardous<i> Enterprize, and yet + the most </i>necessary<i>; and that is, to take such care that the + </i>Judgment<i> and the </i>Reason<i> of Man (which is the third Faculty + to be repair’d and improv’d) should receive such assistance, as to avoid + the dangers to which it is by nature most subject. The Imperfections, + which I have already mention’d, to which it is lyable, do either belong + to the </i>extent<i>, or the </i>goodness<i> of its knowledge; and here + the difficulty is the greater, least that which may be thought a + </i>remedy<i> for the one should prove </i>destructive<i> to the other, + least by seeking to inlarge our Knowledge, we should render it weak and + uncertain; and least by being too scrupulous and exact about every + Circumstance of it, we should confine and streighten it too much.</i></p> + + <p><i>In both these the middle wayes are to be taken, nothing is to + be</i> omitted<i>, and yet every thing to pass a </i>mature + deliberation<i>: No </i>Intelligence<i> from Men of all Professions, and + quarters of the World, to be </i>slighted<i>, and yet all to be so + </i>severely examin’d<i>, that there remain no room for doubt or + instability; much </i>rigour<i> in admitting, much </i>strictness<i> in + comparing, and above all, much </i>slowness<i> in debating, and + </i>shyness<i> in determining, is to be practised. The + </i>Understanding<i> is to </i>order<i> all the inferiour services of the + lower Faculties; but yet it is to do this only as a </i>lawful Master<i>, + and not as a </i>Tyrant.<i> It must not </i>incroach<i> upon their + Offices, nor take upon it self the employments which belong to either of + them. It must </i>watch<i> the irregularities of the Senses, but it must + not go before them, or </i>prevent<i> their information. It must + </i>examine<i>, </i>range<i>, and </i>dispose<i> of the bank which is + laid up in the Memory: but it must be sure to make </i>distinction<i> + between the </i>sober<i> and </i>well collected heap<i>, and the + </i>extravagant Ideas<i>, and </i>mistaken Images<i>, which there it may + sometimes light upon. So many are the </i>links<i>, upon which the true + Philosophy depends, of which, if any one be </i>loose<i>, or </i>weak<i>, + the whole </i>chain<i> is in danger of being dissolv’d; it is to + </i>begin<i> with the Hands and Eyes, and to </i>proceed<i> on through + the Memory, to be </i>continued<i> by the Reason; nor is it to stop + there, but to </i>come about<i> to the Hands and Eyes again, and so, by a + </i>continual passage round<i> from one Faculty to another, it is to be + maintained in life and strength, as much as the body of man is by the + </i>circulation<i> of the blood through the several parts of the body, + the Arms, the Feet, the Lungs, the Heart, and the Head.</i></p> + + <p><i>If once this method were followed with diligence and attention, + there is nothing that lyes within the power of human Wit (or which is far + more effectual) of human Industry, which we might not compass; we might + not only hope for Inventions to equalize those of </i>Copernicus<i>, + </i>Galileo<i>, </i>Gilbert<i>, </i>Harvy<i>, and of others, whose Names + are almost lost, that were the Inventors of </i>Gun-powder<i>, the + </i>Seamans Compass<i>, </i>Printing<i>, </i>Etching<i>, </i>Graving<i>, + </i>Microscopes<i>, </i>&c.<i> but multitudes that may far exceed + them: for even those discoveries seem to have been the products of some + such method, though but imperfect; What may not be therefore expected + from it if thoroughly prosecuted? </i>Talking<i> and </i>contention of + Arguments<i> would soon be turn’d into </i>labours<i>; all the fine + </i>dreams<i> of Opinions, and </i>universal metaphysical natures<i>, + which the luxury of subtil Brains has devis’d, would quickly vanish, and + give place to </i>solid Histories<i>, </i>Experiments<i> and + </i>Works.<i> And as at first, mankind </i>fell<i> by </i>tasting<i> of + the forbidden Tree of Knowledge, so we, their Posterity, may be in part + </i>restor’d<i> by the same way, not only by </i>beholding<i> and + </i>contemplating<i>, but by </i>tasting<i> too those fruits of Natural + knowledge, that were never yet forbidden.</i></p> + + <p><i>From hence the World may be assisted with </i>variety<i> of + Inventions, </i>new<i> matter for Sciences may be </i>collected<i>, the + </i>old improv’d<i>, and their </i>rust<i> rubb’d away; and as it is by + the benefit of Senses that we receive all our Skill in the works of + Nature, so they also may be wonderfully benefited by it, and may be + guided to an easier and more exact performance of their Offices; ’tis not + unlikely, but that we may find out wherein our Senses are deficient, and + as easily find wayes of repairing them.</i></p> + + <p><i>The Indeavours of Skilful men have been most conversant about the + assistance of the Eye, and many noble Productions have followed upon it; + and from hence we may conclude, that there is a way open’d for advancing + the operations, not only of all the other Senses, but even of the Eye it + self; that which has been already done ought not to content us, but + rather to incourage us to proceed further, and to attempt greater things + in the same and different wayes.</i></p> + + <p><i>’Tis not unlikely, but that there may be yet invented several other + helps for the eye, at much exceeding those already found, as those do the + bare eye, such as by which we may perhaps be able to discover </i>living + Creatures<i> in the Moon, or other Planets, the </i>figures<i> of the + compounding Particles of matter, and the particular </i>Schematisms<i> + and </i>Textures<i> of Bodies.</i></p> + + <p><i>And as </i>Glasses<i> have highly promoted our </i>seeing<i>, so + ’tis not improbable, but that there may be found many </i>Mechanical + Inventions<i> to improve our other Senses, of </i>hearing<i>, + </i>smelling<i>, </i>tasting<i>, </i>touching.<i> ’Tis not impossible to + hear a </i>whisper<i> a </i>furlongs<i> distance, it having been already + done; and perhaps the nature of the thing would not make it more + impossible, though that furlong should be ten times multiply’d. And + though some famous Authors have affirm’d it impossible to hear through + the </i>thinnest plate<i> of </i>Muscovy-glass<i>; yet I know a way, by + which ’tis easie enough to hear one speak through a </i>wall a yard + thick<i>. It has not been yet thoroughly examin’d, how far + </i>Otocousticons<i> may be improv’d, nor what other wayes there may be + of </i>quickning<i> our hearing, or </i>conveying<i> sound through + </i>other bodies<i> then the </i>Air<i>: for that that is not the only + </i>medium<i>, I can assure the Reader, that I have, by the help of a + </i>distended wire<i>, propagated the sound to a very considerable + distance in an </i>instant<i>, or with as seemingly quick a motion as + that of light, at least, incomparably swifter then that, which at the + same time was propagated through the Air; and this not only in a straight + line, or direct, but in one bended in many angles.</i></p> + + <p><i>Nor are the other three so perfect, but that </i>diligence<i>, + </i>attention<i>, and many </i>mechanical contrivances<i>, may also + highly improve them. For since the sense of </i>smelling<i> seems to be + made by the </i>swift passage<i> of the </i>Air<i> (</i>impregnated<i> + with the steams and </i>effluvia<i> of several odorous Bodies) through + the grisly </i>meanders<i> of the Nose whose surfaces are </i>cover’d<i> + with a very sensible </i>nerve<i>, and </i>moistned<i> by a + </i>transudation<i> from the </i>processus mamillares<i> of the Brain, + and some adjoyning </i>glandules<i>, and by the moist </i>steam<i> of the + </i>Lungs<i>, with a Liquor convenient for the reception of those + </i>effluvia<i> and by the adhesion and mixing of those steams with that + liquor, and thereby affecting the nerve, or perhaps by insinuating + themselves into the juices of the brain, after the same manner, as I have + in the following Observations intimated, the parts of Salt to pass + through the skins of Effs, and Frogs. Since, I say, smelling seems to be + made by some such way, ’tis not improbable, but that some contrivance, + for making a great quantity of Air pass quick through the Nose, might as + much promote the sense of smelling, as the any wayes hindring that + passage does dull and destroy it. Several tryals I have made, both of + hindring and promoting this sense, and have succeeded in some according + to expectation; and indeed to me it seems capable of being improv’d, for + the judging of the constitutions of many Bodies. Perhaps we may thereby + also judge (as other Creatures seem to do) what is wholsome, what poyson; + and in a word, what are the specifick properties of Bodies.</i></p> + + <p><i>There may be also some other mechanical wayes found out, of + sensibly perceiving the </i>effluvia<i> of Bodies; several Instances of + which, were it here proper, I could give of Mineral steams and + exhalations; and it seems not impossible, but that by some such wayes + improved, may be discovered, what Minerals lye buried under the Earth, + without the trouble to dig for them; some things to confirm this + Conjecture may be found in </i>Agricola<i>, and other Writers of + Minerals, speaking of the Vegetables that are apt to thrive, or pine, in + those steams.</i></p> + + <p><i>Whether also those steams, which seem to issue out of the Earth, + and mix with the Air (and so to precipitate some </i>aqueous<i> + Exhalations, wherewith ’tis impregnated) may not be by some way detected + before they produce the effect, seems hard to determine; yet something of + this kind I am able to discover, by an Instrument I contriv’d to shew all + the minute variations in the pressure of the Air; by which I constantly + find, that before, and during the time of rainy weather, the pressure of + the Air is less, and in </i>dry weather<i>, but especially when an + </i>Eastern Wind<i> (which having past over vast tracts of Land is heavy + with Earthy Particles) blows, it is much more, though these changes are + varied according to very odd Laws</i>.</p> + +<blockquote> + <p>The Instrument is this. I prepare a pretty capacious Bolt-head AB, + with a small stem about two foot and a half long DC; upon the end of this + D I put on a small bended Glass, or brazen <i>syphon</i> DEF (open at D, + E and F, but to be closed with cement at F and E, as occasion serves) + whose stem F should be about six or eight inches long, but the bore of it + not above half an inch diameter, and very even; these I fix very strongly + together by the help of very hard Cement, and then fit the whole Glass + ABCDEF into a long Board, or Frame, in such manner, that almost half the + head AB may lye buried in a concave Hemisphere cut into the Board RS; +<span class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-01.png" name="prefref"><i>Schem.</i> 1.</a><br /><i>Fig.</i> 1. +</span> + then I place it so on the Board RS, as is exprest in the first figure of + the first Scheme; and fix it very firm and steady in that posture, so as + that the weight of the <i>Mercury</i> that is afterwards to be put into + it, may not in the least shake or stir it; then drawing a line XY on the + Frame RT, so that it may divide the ball into two equal parts, or that it + may pass, as ’twere, through the center of the ball. I begin from that, + and divide all the rest of the Board towards UT into inches, and the + inches between the 25 and the end E (which need not be above two or three + and thirty inches distant from the line XY) I subdivide into Decimals; + then stopping the end F with soft Cement, or soft Wax, I invert the + Frame, placing the head downwards, and the Orifice E upwards; and by it, + with a small Funnel, I fill the whole Glass with Quicksilver; then by + stopping the small Orifice E with my finger, I oftentimes erect and + invert the whole Glass and Frame, and thereby free the Quicksilver and + Glass from all the bubbles or parcels of lurking Air; then inverting it + as before, I fill it top full with clear and well strain’d Quicksilver, + and having made ready a small ball of pretty hard Cement, by heat made + very soft, I press it into the hole E, and thereby stop it very fast; and + to secure this Cement from flying out afterward, I bind over it a piece + of Leather, that is spread over in the inside with Cement, and wound + about it while the Cement is hot: Having thus fastned it, I gently erect + again the Glass after this manner: I first let the Frame down edge-wayes, + till the edge RV touch the Floor, or ly horizontal; and then in that + edging posture raise the end RS; this I do, that if there chance to be + any Air hidden in the small Pipe E, it may ascend into the Pipe F, and + not into the Pipe DC: Having thus erected it, and hung it by the hole Q, + or fixt it perpendicularly by any other means, I open the end F, and by a + small <i>Syphon</i> I draw out the <i>Mercury</i> so long, till I find + the surface of it AB in the head to touch exactly the line XY; at which + time I immediately take away the <i>Syphon</i>, and if by chance it be + run somewhat below the line XY, by pouring in gently a little + <i>Mercury</i> at F, I raise it again to its desired height, by this + contrivance I make all the sensible rising and falling of the + <i>Mercury</i> to be visible in the surface of the <i>Mercury</i> in the + Pipe F, and scarce any in the head AB. But because there really is some + small change of the upper surface also, I find by several Observations + how much it rises in the Ball, and falls in the Pipe F, to make the + distance between the two surfaces an inch greater then it was before; and + the measure that it falls in the Pipe is the length of the inch by which + I am to mark the parts of the Tube F, or the Board on which it lyes, into + inches and Decimals: Having thus justned and divided it, I have a large + Wheel MNOP, whose outmost limb is divided into two hundred equal parts; + this by certain small Pillars is fixt on the Frame RT, in the manner + exprest in the Figure. In the middle of this, on the back side, in a + convenient frame, is placed a small Cylinder, whose circumference is + equal to twice the length of one of those divisions, which I find answer + to an inch of ascent, or descent, of <i>Mercury</i>: This Cylinder I, is + movable on a very small Needle, on the end of which is fixt a very light + Index KL, all which are so pois’d on the Axis, or Needle, that no part is + heavier then another: Then about this Cylinder is wound a small Clew of + Silk, with two small steel Bullets at each end of it GH; one of these, + which is somewhat the heavier, ought to be so big, as freely to move to + and fro in the Pipe F; by means of which contrivance, every the least + variation of the height of the <i>Mercury</i> will be made exceeding + visible by the motion to and fro of the small Index KL.</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p><i>But this is but one way of discovering the </i>effluvia<i> of the + Earth mixt with the Air; there may be perhaps many others, witness the + </i>Hygroscope<i>, an Instrument whereby the watery steams volatile in + the Air are discerned, which the Nose it self is not able to find. This I + have describ’d in the following Tract in the Description of the Beard of + a wild Oat. Others there are, may be discovered both by the Nose, and by + other wayes also. Thus the </i>smoak<i> of burning </i>Wood<i> is + </i>smelt<i>, </i>seen<i>, and sufficiently </i>felt<i> by the eyes: The + </i>fumes<i> of burning </i>Brimstone<i> are </i>smelt<i> and discovered + also by the destroying the Colours of Bodies, as by the </i>whitening of + a red Rose<i>: And who knows, but that the Industry of man, following + this method, may find out wayes of improving this sense to as great a + degree of perfection at it is in any Animal, and perhaps yet + higher.</i></p> + + <p><i>’Tis not improbable also, but that our </i>taste<i> may be very + much improv’d, either by </i>preparing<i> our taste for the Body, as, + after eating </i>bitter<i> things, </i>Wine<i>, or other </i>Vinous + liquors<i>, are more sensibly tasted; or else by </i>preparing<i> Bodies + for our tast; as the dissolving of Metals with acid Liquors, make them + tastable, which were before altogether insipid; thus </i>Lead<i> becomes + </i>sweeter<i> then Sugar, and </i>Silver<i> more </i>bitter<i> then + Gall, </i>Copper<i> and </i>Iron<i> of most </i>loathsome<i> tasts. And + indeed the business of this sense being to discover the presence of + dissolved Bodies in Liquors put on the Tongue, or in general to discover + that a fluid body has some solid body dissolv’d in it, and what they are; + whatever contrivance makes this discovery improves this sense. In this + kind the mixtures of Chymical Liquors afford many Instances; as the sweet + Vinegar that is impregnated with Lead may be discovered to be so by the + affusion of a little of an </i>Alcalizate solution<i>: The bitter liquor + of </i>Aqua fortis<i> and </i>Silver<i> may be discover’d to be charg’d + with that Metal, by laying in it some plates of Copper: ’Tis not + improbable also, but there may be multitudes of other wayes of + discovering the parts dissolv’d, or dissoluble in liquors; and what is + this discovery but a kind of </i>secundary tasting<i>.</i></p> + + <p><i>’Tis not improbable also, but that the sense of </i>feeling<i> may + be highly improv’d, for that being a sense that judges of the more + </i>gross<i> and </i>robust motions<i> of the </i>Particles<i> of + </i>Bodies<i>, seems capable of being improv’d and assisted very many + wayes. Thus for the distinguishing of </i>Heat<i> and </i>Cold<i>, the + </i>Weather-glass<i> and </i>Thermometer<i>, which I have describ’d in + this following Treatise, do exceedingly perfect it; by each of which the + least variations of heat or cold, which the most Acute sense is not able + to distinguish, are manifested. This is oftentimes further promoted also + by the help of </i>Burning-glasses<i>, and the like, which collect and + unite the radiating heat. Thus the </i>roughness<i> and </i>smoothness<i> + of a Body is made much more sensible by the help of a </i>Microscope<i>, + then by the most </i>tender<i> and </i>delicate Hand<i>. Perhaps, a + Physitian might, by several other </i>tangible<i> proprieties, discover + the constitution of a Body as well as by the </i>Pulse<i>. I do but + instance in these, to shew what possibility there may be of many others, + and what probability and hopes there were of finding them, if this method + were followed; for the Offices of the five Senses being to detect either + the </i>subtil<i> and </i>curious Motions<i> propagated through all + </i>pellucid<i> or perfectly </i>homogeneous<i> Bodies; Or the more + </i>gross<i> and </i>vibrative Pulse<i> communicated through the + </i>Air<i> and all other convenient </i>mediums<i>, whether fluid or + solid: Or the </i>effluvia<i> of Bodies </i>dissolv’d<i> in the + </i>Air<i>; Or the </i>particles<i> of bodies </i>dissolv’d<i> or + </i>dissoluble<i> in </i>Liquors<i>, or the more </i>quick<i> and + </i>violent shaking motion<i> of </i>heat<i> in all or any of these: + whatsoever does any wayes promote any of these kinds of </i>criteria<i>, + does afford a way of improving some one sense. And what a multitude of + these would a diligent Man meet with in his inquiries? And this for the + helping and promoting the </i>sensitive faculty<i> only.</i></p> + + <p><i>Next, as for the </i>Memory<i>, or </i>retentive faculty<i>, we may + be sufficiently instructed from the </i>written Histories<i> of </i>civil + actions<i>, what great assistance may be afforded the Memory, in the + committing to writing things observable in </i>natural operations<i>. If + a Physitian be therefore accounted the more able in his Faculty, because + he has had long experience and practice, the remembrance of which, though + perhaps very imperfect, does regulate all his after actions: What ought + to be thought of that man, that has not only a perfect </i>register<i> of + his own experience, but is grown </i>old<i> with the experience of many + hundreds of years, and many thousands of men.</i></p> + + <p><i>And though of late, men, beginning to be sensible of this + convenience, have here and there registred and printed some few + </i>Centuries<i>, yet for the most part they are set down very lamely and + imperfectly, and, I fear, many times not so truly, they seeming, several + of them, to be design’d more for </i>Ostentation<i> then </i>publique + use<i>: For, not to instance, that they do, for the most part, omit those + Experiences they have made, wherein their Patients have miscarried, it is + very easie to be perceiv’d, that they do all along </i>hyperbolically + extol<i> their own Prescriptions, and vilifie those of others. + Notwithstanding all which, these kinds of Histories are generally + esteem’d useful, even to the ablest Physitian.</i></p> + + <p><i>What may not be expected from the </i>rational<i> or </i>deductive + Faculty<i> that is furnisht with such </i>Materials<i>, and those so + readily </i>adapted<i>, and rang’d for use, that in a moment, as ’twere, + thousands of Instances, serving for the </i>illustration<i>, + </i>determination<i>, or </i>invention<i>, of almost any inquiry, may be + </i>represented<i> even to the sight? How neer the nature of + </i>Axioms<i> must all those </i>Propositions<i> be which are examin’d + before so many </i>Witnesses<i>? And how difficult will it be for any, + though never so subtil an error in Philosophy, to </i>scape<i> from being + discover’d, after it has indur’d the </i>touch<i>, and so many other + </i>tryals<i>?</i></p> + + <p><i>What kind of mechanical way, and physical invention also is there + requir’d that might not this way be found out? The </i>Invention<i> of a + way to find the </i>Longitude<i> of places is easily perform’d, and that + to as great </i>perfection<i> as is desir’d, or to at great an + </i>accurateness<i> as the </i>Latitude<i> of places can be found at Sea; + and perhaps yet also to a greater certainty then that has been hitherto + found, as I shall very speedily freely manifest to the world. The way of + </i>flying<i> in the Air seems principally unpracticable, by reason of + the </i>want of strength<i> in </i>humane muscles<i>; if therefore that + could be suppli’d, it were, I think, easie to make twenty contrivances to + perform the office of </i>Wings<i>: What Attempts also I have made for + the supplying that Defect, and my successes therein, which, I think, are + wholly new, and not inconsiderable, I shall in another place + relate.</i></p> + + <p><i>’Tis not unlikely also, but that </i>Chymists<i>, if they followed + this method, might find out their so much sought for </i>Alkahest<i>. + What an </i>universal Menstruum<i>, which dissolves all sorts of + </i>Sulphureous Bodies<i>, I have discover’d (which has not been before + taken notice of as such) I have shewn in the sixteenth + Observation.</i></p> + + <p><i>What a prodigious variety of Inventions in </i>Anatomy<i> has this + latter Age afforded, even in our own Bodies in the very </i>Heart<i>, by + which we live, and the Brain, which is the seat of our knowledge of other + things? witness all the excellent Works of </i>Pecquet<i>, + </i>Bartholinus<i>, </i>Billius<i>, and many others; and at home, of + Doctor </i>Harvy<i>, Doctor </i>Ent<i>, Doctor </i>Willis<i>, Doctor + </i>Glisson<i>. In </i>Celestial Observations<i> we have far exceeded all + the Antients, even the </i>Chaldeans<i> and </i>Egyptians<i> themselves, + whose </i>vast Plains<i>, </i>high Towers<i>, and </i>clear Air<i>, did + not give them so great advantages over us, as have over them by our + </i>Glasses<i>. By the help of which, they have been very much outdone by + the famous </i>Galileo<i>, </i>Hevelius<i>, </i>Zulichem<i>; and our own + Countrymen, Mr. </i>Rook<i>, Doctor </i>Wren<i>, and the great Ornament + of our Church and Nation, the </i>Lord Bishop of Exeter<i>. And to say no + more in </i>Aerial Discoveries<i>, there has been a wonderful progress + made by the </i>Noble Engine<i> of </i>the most Illustrious Mr. Boyle<i>, + whom it becomes me to mention with all honour, not only as my particular + Patron, but as the </i>Patron<i> of </i>Philosophy<i> it self; which he + every day </i>increases<i> by his </i>Labours<i>, and </i>adorns<i> by + his </i>Example<i>.</i></p> + + <p><i>The good success of all these </i>great Men<i>, and many others, + and the now seemingly great </i>obviousness<i> of most of their and + divers other Inventions, which from the beginning of the world have been, + as ’twere, trod on, and yet not minded till these last </i>inquisitive<i> + Ages (an Argument that there may be yet behind multitudes of the like) + puts me in mind to recommend such Studies, and the prosecution of them by + such methods, to the </i>Gentlemen<i> of our Nation, whose </i>leisure<i> + makes them fit to </i>undertake<i>, and the </i>plenty<i> of their + fortunes </i>to accomplish<i>, extraordinary things in this way. And I do + not only propose this kind of </i>Experimental Philosophy<i> as a matter of + high </i>rapture<i> and </i>delight<i> of the mind, but even as a + </i>material<i> and </i>sensible Pleasure<i>. So vast it the </i>variety + of Objects<i> which will come under their Inspections, so many + </i>different wayes<i> there are </i>of handling<i> them, so great is the + </i>satisfaction<i> of </i>finding<i> out </i>new things<i>, that I dare + compare the </i>contentment<i> which they will injoy, not only to that of + </i>contemplation<i>, but even to that which most men prefer of </i>the + very Senses themselves<i>.</i></p> + + <p><i>And if they will please to take any incouragement from so mean and + so imperfect endeavours as mine, upon my own experience, I can assure + them, without arrogance, That there has not been any inquiry or Problem + in </i>Mechanicks<i>, that I have hitherto propounded to my self, but by + a certain method (which I may on some other opportunity explain) I have + been able presently to examine the possibility of it; and if so, as + easily to excogitate divers wayes of performing it: And indeed it is + possible to do as much by </i>this method<i> in </i>Mechanicks<i>, as by + </i>Algebra<i> can be perform’d in </i>Geometry<i>. Nor can I at all + doubt, but that the same method is as applicable to </i>Physical + Enquiries<i>, and as likely to find and reap thence as plentiful a crop + of Inventions; and indeed there seems to be no subject so barren, but may + with this good husbandry be highly improv’d.</i></p> + + <p><i>Toward the prosecution of this method in </i>Physical Inquiries<i>, + I have here and there </i>gleaned<i> up an </i>handful<i> of + Observations, in the collection of most of which I made use of + </i>Microscopes<i>, and some other </i>Glasses<i> and </i>Instruments<i> + that improve the sense; which way I have herein taken, not that there are + not multitudes of useful and pleasant Observables, yet uncollected, + obvious enough without the helps of Art, but only to promote the use of + Mechanical helps for the Senses, both in the surveying the already + visible World, and for the discovery of many others hitherto unknown, and + to make us, with the great Conqueror, to be affected that we have not yet + overcome one World when there are so many others to be discovered, every + considerable improvement of </i>Telescopes<i> or </i>Microscopes<i> + producing new Worlds and </i>Terra-Incognita’s<i> to our view.</i></p> + + <p><i>The Glasses I used were of our English make, but though very good + of the kind, yet far short of what might be expected, could we once find + a way of making Glasses Elliptical, or of some more true shape; for + though both </i>Microscopes<i>, and </i>Telescopes<i>, as they now are, + will magnifie an Object about a thousand thousand times bigger then it + appears to the naked eye; yet the Apertures of the Object-glasses are so + very small, that very few Rays are admitted, and even of those few there + are so many false, that the Object appears </i>dark<i> and + </i>indistinct<i>: And indeed these inconveniences are such, as seem + inseparable from Spherical Glasses, even when most exactly made; but the + way we have hitherto made use of for that purpose is so imperfect, that + there may be perhaps ten wrought before one be made tolerably good, and + most of those ten perhaps every one differing in goodness one from + another, which is an Argument, that the way hitherto used is, at least, + very uncertain. So that these Glasses have a double defect; the one, that + very few of them are exactly true wrought; the other, that even of those + that are best among them, none will admit a sufficient number of Rayes to + magnifie the Object beyond a determinate bigness. Against which + Inconveniences the only Remedies I have hitherto met with are + these.</i></p> + +<blockquote> + <p>First, for <i>Microscopes</i> (where the Object we view is near and + within our power) the best way of making it appear bright in the Glass, + is to cast a great quantity of light on it by means of <i>convex + glasses</i>, for thereby, though the aperture be very small, yet there + will throng in through it such multitudes, that an Object will by this + means indure to be magnifi’d as much again as it would be without it. The + way for doing which is this. I make choice of some Room that has only one + window open to the South, and at about three or four foot distance from + this Window, on a Table, I place my <i>Microscope</i>, and then so place + either a round Globe of Water, or a very deep clear<i> plano convex</i> + Glass (whose convex side is turn’d towards the Window) that there is a + great quantity of Rayes collected and thrown upon the Object: Or if the + Sun shine, I place a small piece of oyly Paper very near the Object, + between that and the light; then with a good large Burning-Glass I so + collect and throw the Rayes on the Paper, that there may be a very great + quantity of light pass through it to the Object; yet I so proportion that + light, that it may not singe or burn the Paper. Instead of which Paper + there may be made use of a small piece of Looking-glass plate, one of + whose sides is made rough by being rubb’d on a flat Tool with very fine + sand, this will, if the heat be leisurely cast on it, indure a much + greater degree of heat, and consequently very much augment a convenient + light. By all which means the light of the Sun, or of a Window, may be so + cast on an Object, as to make it twice as light as it would otherwise be + without it, and that without any inconvenience of glaring, which the + immediate light of the Sun is very apt to create in most Objects; for by + this means the light is so equally diffused, that all parts are alike + inlightned; but when the immediate light of the Sun falls on it, the + reflexions from some few parts are so vivid, that they drown the + appearance of all the other, and are themselves also, by reason of the + inequality of light, indistinct, and appear only radiant spots.</p> + + <p>But because the light of the Sun, and also that of a Window, is in a + continual variation, and so many Objects cannot be view’d long enough by + them to be throughly examin’d; besides that, oftentimes the Weather is so + dark and cloudy, that for many dayes together nothing can be view’d: And + because also there are many Objects to be met with in the night, which + cannot so conveniently be kept perhaps till the day, therefore to procure + and cast a sufficient quantity of light on an Object in the night, I + thought of, and often used this, Expedient.</p> + +<div class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-01.png"><i>Schem.</i> 1.</a><br /><i>Fig.</i> 5. +</div> + <p>I procur’d me a small Pedestal, such as is describ’d in the fifth + Figure of the first <i>Scheme</i> on the small Pillar AB, of which were + two movable Armes CD, which by means of the Screws EF, I could fix in any + part of the Pillar; on the undermost of these I plac’d a pretty large + Globe of Glass G, fill’d with exceeding clear Brine, stopt, inverted, and + fixt in the manner visible in the Figure; out of the side of which Arm + proceeded another Arm H, with many joynts; to the end of which was + fastned a deep plain <i>Convex glass</i> I, which by means of this Arm + could be moved to and fro, and fixt in any posture. On the upper Arm was + placed a small Lamp K, which could be so mov’d upon the end of the Arm, + as to be set in a fit posture to give light through the Ball: By means of + this Instrument duly plac’d, as is exprest in the Figure, with the small + flame of a Lamp may be cast as great and convenient a light on the Object + as it will well indure; and being always constant, and to be had at any + time, I found most proper for drawing the representations of those small + Objects I had occasion to observe.</p> + + <p>None of all which ways (though much beyond any other hitherto made use + of by any I know) do afford a sufficient help, but after a certain degree + of magnifying, they leave us again in the lurch. Hence it were very + desirable, that some way were thought of for making the Object-glass of + such a Figure as would conveniently bear a large Aperture.</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p><i>As for </i>Telescopes<i>, the only improvement they seem capable + of, is the increasing of their length; for the Object being remote, there + is no thought of giving it a greater light then it has; and therefore to + augment the Aperture, the Glass must be ground of a very large sphere; + for, by that means, the longer the Glass be, the bigger aperture will it + bear, if the Glasses be of an equal goodness in their kind. Therefore a + six will indure a much larger Aperture then a three foot Glass, and a + sixty foot Glass will proportionably bear a greater Aperture then a + thirty, and will as much excel it also as a six foot does a three foot, + as I have experimentally observ’d in one of that length made by Mr. + </i>Richard Reives<i> here at </i>London<i>, which will bear an Aperture + above three inches over, and yet make the Object proportionably big and + distinct; whereas there are very few thirty foot Glasses that will indure + an Aperture of more then two inches over. So that for </i>Telescopes<i>, + supposing we had a very ready way of making their Object Glasses of + exactly spherical Surfaces, we might, by increasing the length of the + Glass, magnifie the Object to any assignable bigness. And for performing + both these, I cannot imagine any way more easie, and more exact, then by + this following Engine, by means of which, any Glasses, of what length + soever, may be speedily made. It seems the most easie, because with one + and the same Tool may be with care ground an Object Glass, of any length + or breadth requisite, and that with very little or no trouble in fitting + the Engine, and without much skill in the Grinder. It seems to be the + most exact, for to the very last stroke the Glass does regulate and + rectifie the Tool to its exact Figure; and the longer or more the Tool + and Glass are wrought together, the more exact will both of them be of + the desir’d Figure. Further, the motions of the Glass and Tool do so + cross each other, that there is not one point of eithers Surface, but has + thousands of cross motions thwarting it, so that there can be no kind of + Rings or Gutters made either in the Tool or Glass.</i></p> + +<blockquote> + <p>The contrivance of the Engine is, only to make the ends of two large + <i>Mandrils</i> so to move, that the Centers of them may be at any + convenient distance asunder, and that the <i>Axis</i> of the + <i>Mandrils</i> lying both in the same plain produc’d, may meet each + other in any assignable Angle; both which requisites may be very well +<span class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-01.png"><i>Schem.</i> 1.</a><br /><i>Fig.</i> 3. +</span> + perform’d by the Engine describ’d in the third Figure of the first + <i>Scheme</i>: where AB signifies the Beam of a Lath fixt perpendicularly + or Horizontally, CD the two Poppet heads, fixt at about two foot + distance, EF an Iron <i>Mandril</i>, whose tapering neck F runs in an + adapted tapering brass Collar; the other end E runs on the point of a + Screw G; in a convenient place of this is fastned H a pully Wheel, and + into the end of it, that comes through the Poppet head C, is screwed a + Ring of a hollow <i>Cylinder</i> K, or some other conveniently shap’d + Tool, of what wideness shall be thought most proper for the cize of + Glasses, about which it is to be imploy’d: As, for Object glasses, + between twelve foot and an hundred foot long, the Ring may be about six + inches over, or indeed somewhat more for those longer Glasses. It would + be convenient also, and not very chargeable, to have four or five several + Tools; as one for all Glasses between an inch and a foot, one for all + Glasses between a foot and ten foot long, another for all between ten and + an hundred, a fourth for all between a hundred and a thousand foot long; + and if Curiosity shall ever proceed so far, one for all lengths between a + thousand and ten thousand foot long; for indeed the principle is such, + that supposing the <i>Mandrils</i> well made, and of a good length, and + supposing great care be used in working and polishing them, I see no + reason, but that a Glass of a thousand, nay of ten thousand foot long, + may be as well made as one of ten; for the reason is the same, supposing + the <i>Mandrils</i> and Tools be made sufficiently strong, so that they + cannot bend; and supposing the Glass, out of which they are wrought, be + capable of so great a regularity in its parts as to refraction: this + hollow <i>Cylinder</i> K is to contain the Sand, and by being drove round + very quick to and fro by means of a small Wheel, which may be mov’d with + ones foot, serves to grind the Glass: The other <i>Mandril</i> is shap’d + like this, but it has an even neck instead of a taper one, and runs in a + Collar, that by the help of a Screw and a joynt made like M in the + Figure, it can be still adjustned to the wearing or wasting neck: into + the end of this <i>Mandril</i> is screwed a Chock N on which with Cement + or Glew is fastned the piece of Glass Q that is to be form’d; the middle + of which Glass is to be plac’d just on the edge of the Ring, and the Lath + OP is to be set and fixt (by means of certain pieces and screws, the + manner whereof will be sufficiently evidenc’d by the Figure) in such an + Angle as is requisite to the forming of such a Sphere as the Glass is + design’d to be of; the geometrical ground of which being sufficiently + plain, though not heeded before, I shall, for brevities sake, pass over. + This last <i>Mandril</i> to be made (by means of the former, or some + other Wheel) to run round very swift also, by which two cross motions the + Glass cannot chuse (if care be us’d) but be wrought into a most exactly + spherical Surface.</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p><i>But because we are certain, from the </i>Laws of refraction<i> + (which I I have experimentally found to be so, by an Instrument I shall + presently describe) that </i>the lines of the angles of Incidence are + proportionate to the lines of the angles of Refraction<i>, therefore if + Glasses could be made of those kind of Figures, or some other, such as + the most incomparable </i>Des Cartes<i> has invented, and demonstrated in + his Philosophical and Mathematical Works, we might hope for a much + greater perfection of Opticks then can be rationally expected from + spherical ones; for though, </i>cæteris paribus<i>, we find, that the + larger the </i>Telescope<i> Object Glasses are, and the shorter those of + the </i>Microscope<i>, the better they magnifie, yet both of them, beside + such determinate dimensions, are by certain inconveniences rendred + unuseful; for it will be exceeding </i>difficult<i> to make and + </i>manage<i> a Tube above an </i>hundred foot long<i>, and it will be as + difficult to </i>inlighten<i> an Object less then an hundred part of an + inch distant from the Object Glass.</i></p> + + <p><i>I have not as yet made any attempts of that kind, though I know two + or three wayes, which, as far as I have yet considered, seem very + probable, and may invite me to make a tryal as soon as I have an + opportunity, of which I may hereafter perhaps acquaint the world. In the + Interim, I shall describe the Instrument I even now mention’d, by which + the </i>refraction<i> of all kinds of Liquors may be most exactly + measur’d, thereby to give the curious an opportunity of making what + further tryals of that kind they shall think requisite to any of their + intended tryals; and to let them see that the laws of Refraction are not + only notional.</i></p> + +<blockquote> +<div class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-01.png"><i>Schem.</i> 1.</a><br /><i>Fig.</i> 2. +</div> + <p>The Instrument consisted of five Rulers, or long pieces placed + together, after the manner exprest in the second Figure of the first + <i>Scheme</i>, where AB denotes a straight piece of wood about six foot + and two inches long, about three inches over, and an inch and half thick, + on the back side of which was hung a small plummet by a line stretcht + from top to bottom, by which this piece was set exactly upright, and so + very firmly fixt; in the middle of this was made a hole or center, into + which one end of a hollow cylindrical brass Box CC, fashion’d as I shall + by and by describe, was plac’d, and could very easily and truly be mov’d + to and fro; the other end of this Box being put into, and moving in, a + hole made in a small arm DD; into this box was fastned the long Ruler EF, + about three foot and three or four inches long, and at three foot from + the above mention’d Centers PP was a hole E, cut through, and cross’d + with two small threads, and at the end of it was fixt a small sight G, + and on the back side of it was fixt a small Arm H, with a Screw to fix it + in any place on the Ruler LM; this Ruler LM was mov’d on the Center B + (which was exactly three foot distance from the middle Center P) and a + line drawn through the middle of it LM, was divided by a Line of cords + into some sixty degrees, and each degree was subdivided into minutes, so + that putting the cross of the threads in E upon any part of this divided + line, I presently knew what Angle the two Rules AB and EF made with each + other, and by turning the Screw in H, I could fix them in any position. + The other Ruler also RS was made much after the same manner, only it was + not fixt to the hollow cylindrical Box, but, by means of two small brass + Armes or Ears, it mov’d on the Centers of it; this also, by means of the + cross threads in the hole S, and by a Screw in K, could be fastned on any + division of another line of cords of the same radius drawn on NO. And so + by that means, the Angle made by the two Rulers, AB and RS, was also + known. The Brass box CC in the middle was shap’d very much like the + Figure X, that is, it was a cylindrical Box stopp’d close at either end, + off of which a part both of the sides and bottomes was cut out, so that + the Box, when the Pipe and that was joyned to it, would contain the Water + when fill’d half full, and would likewise, without running over, indure + to be inclin’d to an Angle, equal to that of the greatest refraction of + Water, and no more, without running over. The Ruler EF was fixt very fast + to the Pipe V, so that the Pipe V directed the length of the Ruler EF, + and the Box and Ruler were mov’d on the Pin TT, so as to make any + desirable Angle with the Ruler AB. The bottom of this Pipe V was stop’d + with a small piece of exactly plain Glass, which was plac’d exactly + perpendicular to the Line of direction, or <i>Axis</i> of the Ruler EF. + The Pins also TT were drill’d with small holes through the <i>Axis</i>, + and through those holes was stretcht and fastned a small Wire. There was + likewise a small Pipe of Tin loosly put on upon the end of V, and + reaching down to the sight G; the use of which was only to keep any false + Rayes of light from passing through the bottom of V, and only admitting + such to pass as pierced through the sight G: All things being placed + together in the manner describ’d in the Figure; that is, the Ruler AB + being fixt perpendicular, I fill’d the Box CC with Water, or any other + Liquor, whose refraction I intended to try, till the Wire passing through + the middle of it were just covered: then I moved and fixt the Ruler FE at + any assignable Angle, and placed the flame of a Candle just against the + sight G; and looking through the sight I, I moved the Ruler RS to and + fro, till I perceived the light passing through G to be covered, as + ’twere, or divided by the dark Wire passing through PP: then turning the + Screw in K, I fixt it in that posture: And through the hole S, I observed + what degree and part of it was cut by the cross threads in S. And this + gave me the Angle of Inclination, APS answering to the Angle of + Refraction BPE: for the surface of the Liquor in the Box will be alwayes + horizontal, and consequently AB will be a perpendicular to it; the Angle + therefore APS will measure, or be the Angle of Inclination in the Liquor; + next EPB must be the Angle of Refraction, for the Ray that passes through + the sight G, passes also perpendicularly through the Glass + <i>Diaphragme</i> at F, and consequently also perpendicularly through the + lower surface of the Liquor contiguous to the Glass, and therefore + suffers no refraction till it meet with the horizontal surface of the + Liquor in CC, which is determined by the two Angles.</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p><i>By means of this Instrument I can with </i>little trouble<i>, and a + very small quantity of any </i>Liquor<i>, examine, most accurately, the + </i>refraction<i> of it not only for one inclination, but for all; and + thereby am inabled to make very accurate Tables; several of which I have + also experimentally made, and find, that </i>Oyl of Turpentine<i> has a + much greater Refraction then </i>Spirit of Wine<i>, though it be + </i>lighter<i>; and that </i>Spirit of Wine<i> has a greater Refraction + then </i>Water<i>, though it be lighter also; but that </i>salt Water<i> + also has a greater Refraction then </i>fresh<i>, though it be + </i>heavier<i>: but </i>Alum water<i> has a less refraction then common + </i>Water<i>, though heavier also. So that it seems, as to the + </i>refraction<i> made in a Liquor, the </i>specifick gravity<i> is of no + efficacy. By this I have also found that look what </i>proportion <i>the + </i>Sine<i> of the Angle of </i>one Inclination<i> has to the </i>Sine<i> + of the Angle of </i>Refraction<i>, correspondent to it, the same + </i>proportion<i> have all the </i>Sines<i> of other Inclinations to the + </i>Sines<i> of their appropriate Refractions.</i></p> + +<blockquote> + <p>My way for measuring how much a Glass magnifies an Object, plac’d at a + convenient distance from my eye, is this. Having rectifi’d the + <i>Microscope</i>, to see the desir’d Object through it very distinctly, + at the same time that I look upon the Object through the Glass with one + eye, I look upon other Objects at the same distance with my other bare + eye; by which means I am able, by the help of a <i>Ruler</i> divided into + inches and small parts, and laid on the <i>Pedestal</i> of the + <i>Microscope</i>, to cast, as it were, the magnifi’d appearance of the + Object upon the Ruler, and thereby exactly to measure the Diameter it + appears of through the Glass, which being compar’d with the Diameter it + appears of to the naked eye, will easily afford the quantity of its + magnifying.</p> + +<div class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-01.png"><i>Schem.</i> 1.</a><br /><i>Fig.</i> 3. +</div> + <p>The <i>Microscope</i>, which for the most part I made use of, was + shap’d much like that in the sixth Figure of the first <i>Scheme</i>, the + Tube being for the most part not above six or seven inches long, though, + by reason it had four Drawers, it could very much be lengthened, as + occasion required; this was contriv’d with three Glasses; a small Object + Glass at A, a thinner Eye Glass about B, and a very deep one about C: + this I made use of only when I had occasion to see much of an Object at + once; the middle Glass conveying a very great company of radiating + Pencils, which would go another way, and throwing them upon the deep Eye + Glass. But when ever I had occasion to examine the small parts of a Body + more accurately, I took out the middle Glass, and only made use of one + Eye Glass with the Object Glass, for always the fewer the Refractions + are, the more bright and clear the Object appears. And therefore ’tis not + to be doubted, but could we make a<i> Microscope </i>to have one only + refraction, it would, <i>cæteris paribus</i>, far excel any other that + had a greater number. And hence it is, that if you take a very clear + piece of a broken <i>Venice</i> Glass, and in a Lamp draw it out into + very small hairs or threads, then holding the ends of these threads in + the flame, till they melt and run into a small round Globul, or drop, + which will hang at the end of the thread; and if further you stick + several of these upon the end of a stick with a little sealing Wax, so as + that the threads stand upwards, and then on a Whetstone first grind off a + good part of them, and afterward on a smooth Metal plate, with a little + Tripoly, rub them till they come to be very smooth; if one of these be + fixt with a little soft Wax against a small needle hole, prick’d through + a thin Plate of Brass, Lead, Pewter, or any other Metal, and an Object, + plac’d very near, be look’d at through it, it will both magnifie and make + some Objects more distinct then any of the great <i>Microscopes</i>. But + because these, though exceeding easily made, are yet very troublesome to + be us’d, because of their smalness, and the nearness of the Object; + therefore to prevent both these, and yet have only two Refractions, I +<span class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-01.png"><i>Schem.</i> 1.</a><br /><i>Fig.</i> 4. +</span> + provided me a Tube of Brass, shap’d much like that in the fourth Figure + of the first <i>Scheme</i>; into the smaller end of this I fixt with Wax + a good <i>plano convex</i> Object Glass, with the convex side towards the + Object, and into the bigger end I fixt also with wax a pretty large plano + <i>Convex</i> Glass, with the <i>convex</i> side towards my eye, then by + means of the small hole by the side, I fill’d the intermediate space + between these two Glasses with very clear Water, and with a Screw stopp’d + it in; then putting on a Cell for the Eye, I could perceive an Object + more bright then I could when the intermediate space was only fill’d with + Air, but this, for other inconveniences, I made but little use of.</p> + +<div class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-01.png"><i>Schem.</i> 1.</a><br /><i>Fig.</i> 3. +</div> + <p>My way for fixing both the Glass and Object to the Pedestal most + conveniently was thus: Upon one side of a round Pedestal AB, in the sixth + Figure of the first <i>Scheme</i>, was fixt a small Pillar CC, on this + was fitted a small Iron Arm D, which could be mov’d up and down, and fixt + in any part of the Pillar, by means of a small Screw E; on the end of + this Arm was a small Ball fitted into a kind of socket F, made in the + side of the Brass Ring G, through which the small end of the Tube was + screw’d; by means of which contrivance I could place and fix the Tube in + what posture I desir’d (which for many Observations was exceeding + necessary) and adjusten it most exactly to any Object.</p> + + <p>For placing the Object, I made this contrivance; upon the end of a + small brass Link or Staple HH, I so fastned a round Plate II, that it + might be turn’d round upon its Center K, and going pretty stiff, would + stand fixt in any posture it was set; on the side of this was fixt a + small Pillar P, about three quarters of an inch high, and through the top + of this was thrust a small Iron pin M, whose top just stood over the + Center of the Plate; on this top I fixt a small Object, and by means of + these contrivances I was able to turn it into all kind of positions, both + to my Eye and the Light; for by moving round the small Plate on its + center, could move it one way, and by turning the Pin M, I could move it + another way, and this without stirring the Glass at all, or at least but + very little; the Plate likewise I could move to and fro to any part of + the Pedestal (which in many cases was very convenient) and fix it also in + any Position, by means of a Nut N, which was screw’d on upon the lower + part of the Pillar CC. All the other Contrivances are obvious enough from + the draught, and will need no description.</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p><i>Now though this were the Instrument I made most use of, yet I have + made several other Tryals with other kinds of Microscopes, which both for + </i>matter<i> and </i>form<i> were very different from common spherical + Glasses. I have made a </i>Microscope<i> with one piece of Glass, both + whose surfaces were </i>plains<i>. I have made another only with a + </i>plano concave<i>, without any kind of reflection, divers also by + means of </i>reflection<i>. I have made others of </i>Waters<i>, + </i>Gums<i>, </i>Resins<i>, </i>Salts<i>, </i>Arsenick<i>, </i>Oyls<i>, + and with divers other </i>mixtures of watery<i> and </i>oyly Liquors<i>. + And indeed the subject is capable of a great variety; but I find + generally none more useful then that which is made with </i>two + Glasses<i>, such as I have already describ’d.</i></p> + + <p><i>What the things are I observ’d, the following descriptions will + manifest; in brief, they were either </i>exceeding small Bodies<i>, or + </i>exceeding small Pores<i>, or </i>exceeding small Motions<i>, some of + each of which the Reader will find in the following Notes, and such, as I + presume, (many of them at least) will be </i>new<i>, and perhaps not less + </i>strange<i>: Some </i>specimen<i> of each of which Heads the Reader + will find in the subsequent delineations, and indeed of some more then I + was willing there should be; which was occasioned by my first Intentions + to print a much greater number then I have since found time to compleat. + Of such therefore as I had, I selected only some few of every Head, which + for some particulars seem’d most observable, rejecting the rest as + superfluous to the present Design.</i></p> + + <p><i>What each of the delineated Subjects are, the following + descriptions annext to each will inform, of which I shall here, only once + for all, add, That in divers of them the Gravers have pretty well + follow’d my directions and draughts; and that in making of them, I + indeavoured (as far as I was able) first to discover the true appearance, + and next to make a plain representation of it. This I mention the rather, + because of these kind of Objects there is much more difficulty to + discover the true shape, then of those visible to the naked eye, the same + Object seeming quite differing, in one position to the Light, from what + it really is, and may be discover’d in another. And therefore I never + began to make any draught before by many examinations in several lights, + and in several positions to those lights, I had discover’d the true form. + For it is exceeding difficult in some Objects, to distinguish between a + </i>prominency<i> and a </i>depression<i>, between a </i>shadow<i> and a + </i>black stain<i>, or a </i>reflection<i> and a </i>whiteness in the + colour<i>. Besides, the transparency of most Objects renders them yet + much more difficult then if they were </i>opacous<i>. The Eyes of a Fly + in one kind of light appear almost like a Lattice, drill’d through with + abundance of small holes; which probably may be the Reason, why the + Ingenious </i>Dr. Power<i> seems to suppose them such. In the Sunshine + they look like a Surface cover’d with golden Nails; in another posture, + like a Surface cover’d with Pyramids; in another with Cones; and in other + postures of quite other shapes; but that which exhibits the best, is the + Light collected on the Object, by those means I have already + describ’d.</i></p> + + <p><i>And this was undertaken in prosecution of the Design which the + </i>ROYAL SOCIETY<i> has propos’d to it self. For the Members of the + Assembly having before their eys so many </i>fatal<i> Instances of the + errors and falshoods, in which the greatest part of mankind has so long + wandred, because they rely’d upon the strength of humane Reason alone, + have begun anew to correct all </i>Hypotheses<i> by sense, as Seamen do + their </i>dead Reckonings<i> by </i>Cœlestial Observations<i>; and + to this purpose it has been their principal indeavour to </i>enlarge + & strengthen<i> the </i>Senses<i> by </i>Medicine<i>, and by such + </i>outward Instruments<i> as are proper for their particular works. By + this means they find some reason to suspect, that those effects of + Bodies, which have been commonly attributed to </i>Qualities<i>, and + those confess’d to be </i>occult<i>, are perform’d by the small + </i>Machines<i> of Nature, which are not to be discern’d without these + helps, seeming the meer products of </i>Motion<i>, </i>Figure<i>, and + </i>Magnitude<i>; and that the </i>Natural Textures<i>, which some call + the </i>Plastick faculty<i>, may be made in </i>Looms<i>, which a greater + perfection of Opticks may make discernable by these Glasses; so as now + they are no more puzzled about them, then the vulgar are to conceive, how + </i>Tapestry<i> or </i>flowred Stuffs<i> are woven. And the ends of all + these Inquiries they intend to be the </i>Pleasure<i> of Contemplative + minds, but above all, the </i>ease and dispatch<i> of the labours of mens + hands. They do indeed neglect no opportunity to bring all the </i>rare<i> + things of Remote Countries within the compass of their knowledge and + practice. But they still acknowledg their </i>most useful<i> Informations + to arise from </i>common<i> things, and from </i>diversifying<i> their + most </i>ordinary<i> operations upon them. They do not wholly reject + Experiments of meer </i>light<i> and </i>theory<i>; but they principally + aim at such, whose Applications will </i>improve and facilitate<i> the + present way of </i>Manual Arts<i>. And though some men, who are perhaps + taken up about less honourable Employments, are pleas’d to censure their + proceedings, yet they can shew more </i>fruits<i> of their first three + years, wherein they have assembled, then any other </i>Society<i> in + </i>Europe<i> can for a much larger space of time. ’Tis true, such + undertakings as theirs do commonly meet with small incouragement, because + men are generally rather taken with the </i>plausible<i> and + </i>discursive<i>, then the </i>real<i> and the solid part of Philosophy; + yet by the good fortune of their institution, in an Age of all others the + most </i>inquisitive<i>, they have been assisted by the + </i>contribution<i> and </i>presence<i> of very many of the chief + </i>Nobility<i> and </i>Gentry<i>, and others who are some of the + </i>most considerable<i> in their several Professions. But that that yet + farther convinces me of the </i>Real esteem<i> that the more + </i>serious<i> part of men have of this </i>Society<i>, is, that several + </i>Merchants<i>, men who act in earnest (whose Object is </i>meum & + tuum<i>, that great </i>Rudder<i> of humane affairs) have adventur’d + considerable sums of </i>Money<i>, to put in practice what some of our + Members have contrived, and have continued </i>stedfast<i> in their good + opinions of such Indeavours, when not one of a hundred of the vulgar have + believed their undertakings feasable. And it is also fit to be added, + that they have one advantage peculiar to themselves, that very many of + their number are </i>men of Converse and Traffick<i>; which is a good + Omen, that their attempts will bring Philosophy from </i>words<i> to + </i>action<i>, seeing the men of Business have had so great a share in + their first foundation.</i></p> + + <p><i>And of this kind I ought not to conceal one particular + </i>Generosity<i>, which more nearly concerns my self. It is the + </i>munificence<i> of </i>Sir John Cutler<i>, in endowing a Lecture for + the promotion of </i>Mechanick Arts<i>, to be governed and directed by + This </i>Society.<i>This </i>Bounty<i> I mention for the + </i>Honourableness<i> of the thing it self, and for the expectation which + I have of the </i>efficacy<i> of the </i>Example<i>; for it cannot now be + objected to them, that their Designs will be esteemed </i>frivolous<i> + and </i>vain<i>, when they have such a </i>real Testimony<i> of the + </i>Approbation<i> of a </i>Man<i> that is such an </i>eminent + Ornament<i> of this renowned City, and one, who, by the </i>Variety<i>, + and the </i>happy Success<i>, of his negotiations, has given evident + proofs, that he is not easie to be deceiv’d. This Gentleman has well + observ’d, that the </i>Arts<i> of life have been too long + </i>imprison’d<i> in the dark shops of Mechanicks themselves, & there + </i>hindred from growth<i>, either by ignorance, or self-interest: and he + has bravely </i>freed<i> them from these </i>inconveniences<i>: He hath + not only obliged </i>Tradesmen<i>, but </i>Trade<i> it self: He has done + a work that is worthy of </i>London<i>, and has taught the chief City of + Commerce in the world the right way how Commerce is to be improv’d. We + have already seen many other great signs of Liberality and a large mind, + from the same hand: For by his </i>diligence<i> about the </i>Corporation + for the Poor<i>; by his honorable </i>Subscriptions<i> for the rebuilding + of St. Paul’s; by his chearful </i>Disbursment<i> for the replanting of + </i>Ireland<i>, and by many other such </i>publick works<i>, he has shewn + by what means he indeavours to </i>establish<i> his Memory; and now by + this last gift he has done that, which became one of the </i>wisest + Citizens<i> of our Nation to accomplish, seeing one of the </i>wisest of + our Statesmen, the Lord Verulam<i>, first propounded it.</i></p> + + <p><i>But to return to my Subject, from a digression, which, I hope, my + Reader will pardon me, seeing the Example is so rare that I can make no + more such digressions. If these my first Labours shall be any wayes + useful to inquiring men, I must attribute the incouragement and promotion + of them to a very </i>Reverend<i> and </i>Learned Person<i>, of whom this + ought in justice to be said, </i>That there is scarce any one Invention, + which this Nation has produc’d in our Age, but it has some way or other + been set forward by his assistance<i>. My Reader, I believe, will quickly + ghess, that it is </i>Dr. Wilkins<i> that I mean. He is indeed a man born + for the </i>good<i> of </i>mankind<i>, and for the </i>honour<i> of his + </i>Country<i>. In the </i>sweetness<i> of whose </i>behaviour<i>, in the + </i>calmness<i> of his </i>mind<i>, in the </i>unbounded goodness<i> of + his </i>heart<i>, we have an evident Instance, what the true and the + </i>primitive unpassionate Religion<i> was, before it was </i>sowred<i> + by particular </i>Factions.<i> In a word, his </i>Zeal<i> has been so + </i>constant<i> and </i>effectual<i> in advancing all good and profitable + </i>Arts, that<i> as one of the Antient </i>Romans<i> said of + </i>Scipio<i>, </i>That he thanked God that he was a <i>Roman</i>; + because whereever <i>Scipio</i> had been born, there had been the seat of + the Empire of the world<i>: So may I thank God, that </i>Dr. Wilkins<i> + was an </i>Englishman<i>, for whereever he had lived, there had been the + chief Seat of </i>generous Knowledge<i> and </i>true Philosophy<i>. To + the truth of this, there are so many worthy men living that will + subscribe, that I am confident, what I have here said, will not be looked + upon, by any ingenious Reader, as a </i>Panegyrick<i>, but only as a + </i>real testimony<i>.</i></p> + + <p><i>By the Advice of this </i>Excellent man<i> I first set upon this + Enterprise, yet still came to it with much </i>Reluctancy<i>, because I + was to follow the footsteps of so eminent a Person as </i>Dr. Wren<i>, + who was the first that attempted any thing of this nature; whose original + draughts do now make one of the Ornaments of that great Collection of + Rarities in the </i>Kings Closet<i>. This </i>Honor<i>, which his first + beginnings of this kind have receiv’d, to be admitted into the most + famous place of the world, did not so much </i>incourage<i>, as the + </i>hazard<i> of coming after </i>Dr. Wren<i> did </i>affright<i> me; for + of him I must affirm, that, since the time of </i>Archimedes<i>, there + scarce ever met in one man, in so great a perfection, such a + </i>Mechanical Hand<i>, and so </i>Philosophical<i> a + </i>Mind<i>.</i></p> + + <p><i>But at last, being assured both by </i>Dr. Wilkins<i>, and </i>Dr. + Wren<i> himself, that he had given over his intentions of prosecuting it, + and not finding that there was any else design’d the pursuing of it, I + set upon this undertaking, and was not a little incourag’d to proceed in + it, by the Honour the </i>Royal Society<i> was pleas’d to favour me with, + in approving of those draughts (which from time to time as I had an + opportunity of describing) I presented to them. And particularly by the + Incitements of divers of those Noble and excellent Persons of it, which + were my more especial Friends, who were not less urgent with me for the + publishing, then for the prosecution of them.</i></p> + + <p><i>After I had almost compleated these Pictures and Observations + (having had divers of them engraven, and was ready to send them to the + Press) I was inform’d, that the Ingenious Physitian </i>Dr. Henry + Power<i> had made several </i>Microscopical<i> Observations, which had I + not afterwards, upon our interchangably viewing each others Papers, found + that they were for the most part differing from mine, either in the + Subject it self, or in the particulars taken notice of; and that his + design was only to print Observations without Pictures, I had even then + </i>suppressed<i> what I had so far proceeded in. But being further + </i>excited<i> by several of my Friends, in compliance with their + opinions, that it would not be unacceptable to several inquisitive Men, + and hoping also, that I should thereby discover something New to the + World, I have at length cast in my Mite, into the vast Treasury of </i>A + Philosophical History<i>. And it is my </i>hope<i>, as well as + </i>belief<i>, that these my </i>Labours<i> will be no more comparable to + the </i>Productions<i> of many other </i>Natural Philosophers<i>, who are + now every where busie about </i>greater<i> things; then my </i>little + Objects<i> are to be compar’d to the greater and more beautiful </i>Works + of Nature<i>, A Flea, a Mite, a Gnat, to an Horse, an Elephant, or a + Lyon.</i></p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:60%;"> + <a href="images/rule-05.png"><img width="100%" src="images/rule-05.png" alt="Decorative rule" /></a> + <br /></div> + +<div class='ph2'>MICROGRAPHIA,</div> + +<div class='ph5'>OR SOME</div> + +<div class='ph3'>Physiological Descriptions</div> + +<div class='ph5'>OF</div> + +<div class='ph2'>MINUTE BODIES,</div> + +<div class='ph5'>MADE BY</div> + +<div class='ph3'>MAGNIFYING GLASSES;</div> + +<div class='ph5'>WITH</div> + +<div class='ph3'>OBSERVATIONS and INQUIRIES thereupon.<br /></div> + + +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class='chapter' /><h2>Observ. <a name="obsI" id="obsI">I</a>. <i>Of the Point of a sharp small Needle.</i></h2> + + <p> + <span title="Word with illuminated initial: As"> + <img style='margin-right:auto;' src="images/illumined-a2.png" alt="Illuminated A in As" />s + </span> + in <i>Geometry</i>, the most natural way of beginning is from a + Mathematical <i>point</i>; so is the same method in Observations and + <i>Natural history</i> the most genuine, simple, and instructive. We must + first endevour to make <i>letters</i>, and draw <i>single</i> strokes + true, before we venture to write whole <i>Sentences</i>, or to draw large + <i>Pictures</i>. And in <i>Physical</i> Enquiries, we must endevour to + follow Nature in the more <i>plain</i> and <i>easie</i> ways she treads + in the most <i>simple</i> and <i>uncompounded bodies</i>, to trace her + steps, and be acquainted with her manner of walking there, before we + venture our selves into the multitude of <i>meanders</i> she has in + <i>bodies of a more complicated</i> nature; lest, being unable to + distinguish and judge of our way, we quickly lose both <i>Nature</i> our + Guide, and <i>our selves</i> too, and are left to wander in the + <i>labyrinth</i> of groundless opinions; wanting both <i>judgment</i>, + that <i>light</i>, and <i>experience</i>, that <i>clew</i>, which should + direct our proceedings.</p> + + <p>We will begin these our Inquiries therefore with the Observations of + Bodies of the most <i>simple nature</i> first, and so gradually proceed + to those of a more <i>compounded</i> one. In prosecution of which method, + we shall begin with a <i>Physical point</i>; of which kind the <i>Point + of a Needle</i> is commonly reckon’d for one; and is indeed, for the most + part, made so sharp, that the naked eye cannot distinguish any parts of + it: It very easily pierces, and makes its way through all kind of bodies + softer then it self: But if view’d with a very good <i>Microscope</i>, we + may find that the <i>top</i> of a Needle (though as to the sense + very <i>sharp</i>) appears a <i>broad</i>, <i>blunt</i>, and very + <i>irregular</i> end; not resembling a Cone, as is imagin’d, but onely a + piece of a tapering body, with a great part of the top remov’d, or + deficient. The Points of Pins are yet more blunt, and the Points of the + most curious Mathematical Instruments do very seldome arrive at so great + a sharpness; how much therefore can be built upon demonstrations made + onely by the productions of the Ruler and Compasses, he will be better + able to consider that shall but view those <i>points</i> and <i>lines</i> + with a <i>Microscope</i>.</p> + + <p>Now though this point be commonly accounted the sharpest (whence when + we would express the sharpness of a point the most <i>superlatively</i>, + we say, As sharp as a Needle) yet the <i>Microscope</i> can afford us + hundreds of Instances of Points many thousand times sharper: such as + those of the <i>hairs</i>, and <i>bristles</i>, and <i>claws</i> of + multitudes of <i>Insects</i>; the <i>thorns</i>, or <i>crooks</i>, or + <i>hairs</i> of <i>leaves</i>, and other small vegetables; nay, the ends + of the <i>stiriæ</i> or small <i>parallelipipeds</i> of <i>Amianthus</i>, + and <i>alumen plumosum</i>; of many of which, though the Points are so + sharp as not to be visible, though view’d with a <i>Microscope</i> (which + magnifies the Object, in bulk, above a million of times) yet I doubt not, + but were we able <i>practically</i> to make <i>Microscopes</i> according + to the <i>theory</i> of them, we might find hills, and dales, and pores, + and a sufficient bredth, or expansion, to give all those parts + elbow-room, even in the blunt top of the very Point of any of these so + very sharp bodies. For certainly the <i>quantity</i> or extension of any + body may be <i>Divisible in infinitum</i>, though perhaps not the + <i>matter</i>.</p> + +<div class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-02.png"><i>Schem.</i> 2.</a><br /><i>Fig.</i> 1. +</div> + <p>But to proceed: The Image we have here exhibited in the first Figure, was the top of a + small and very sharp Needle, whose point <i>aa</i> nevertheless appear’d + through the <i>Microscope</i> above a quarter of an inch broad, not round + nor flat, but <i>irregular</i> and <i>uneven</i>; so that it seem’d to + have been big enough to have afforded a hundred armed Mites room enough + to be rang’d by each other without endangering the breaking one anothers + necks, by being thrust off on either side. The surface of which, though + appearing to the naked eye very smooth, could not nevertheless hide a + multitude of holes and scratches and ruggednesses from being discover’d + by the <i>Microscope</i> to invest it, several of which inequalities (as + A, B, C, seem’d <i>holes</i> made by some small specks of <i>Rust</i>; + and D some <i>adventitious body</i>, that stuck very close to it) were + <i>casual</i>. All the rest that roughen the surface, were onely so many + marks of the rudeness and bungling of <i>Art</i>. So unaccurate is it, in + all its productions, even in those which seem most neat, that if examin’d + with an organ more acute then that by which they were made, the more we + see of their <i>shape</i>, the less appearance will there be of their + <i>beauty</i>: whereas in the works of <i>Nature</i>, the deepest + Discoveries shew us the greatest Excellencies. An evident Argument, that + he that was the Author of all these things, was no other then + <i>Omnipotent</i>; being able to include as great a variety of parts and + contrivances in the yet smallest Discernable Point, as in those vaster + bodies (which comparatively are called also Points) such as the + <i>Earth</i>, <i>Sun</i>, or <i>Planets</i>. Nor need it seem strange + that the Earth it self may be by an <i>Analogie</i> call’d a Physical Point: + For as its body, though now so near us as to fill our eys and + fancies with a sense of the vastness of it, may by a little Distance, and + some convenient <i>Diminishing</i> Glasses, be made vanish into a scarce + visible Speck, or Point (as I have often try’d on the <i>Moon</i>, and + (when not too bright) on the <i>Sun</i> it self.) So, could a Mechanical + contrivance succesfully answer our <i>Theory</i>, we might see the least + spot as big as the Earth it self; and Discover, as <i>Des Cartes</i> + also conjectures (<i>Diop.</i> ch. 10. § 9.), + as great a variety of bodies in the <i>Moon</i>, or <i>Planets</i>, as in + the <i>Earth</i>.</p> + + <p>But leaving these Discoveries to future Industries, we shall proceed + to add one Observation more of a <i>point</i> commonly so call’d, that + is, the mark of a <i>full stop</i>, or <i>period</i>. And for this + purpose I observed many both <i>printed</i> ones and <i>written</i>; and + among multitudes I found <i>few</i> of them more <i>round</i> or +<span class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-02.png"><i>Schem.</i> 2.</a><br /><i>Fig.</i> 3. +</span> + <i>regular</i> then this which I have delineated in the third figure of + the second Scheme, but <i>very many</i> abundantly <i>more + disfigur’d</i>; and for the most part if they seem’d equally round to the + eye, I found those points that had been made by a <i>Copper-plate</i>, + and Roll-press, to be as misshapen as those which had been made with + <i>Types</i>, the most curious and smothly <i>engraven strokes</i> and + <i>points</i>, looking but as so many <i>furrows</i> and <i>holes</i>, + and their <i>printed impressions</i>, but like <i>smutty daubings</i> on + a matt or uneven floor with a blunt extinguisht brand or stick’s end. And + as for <i>points</i> made with a <i>pen</i> they were much <i>more + ragged</i> and <i>deformed</i>. Nay, having view’d certain pieces of + exceeding curious writing of the kind (one of which in the bredth of a + <i>two-pence</i> compris’d <i>the Lords prayer, the Apostles Creed, the + ten Commandments, and about half a dozen verses besides of the Bible</i>, + whose <i>lines</i> were <i>so small</i> and <i>near together</i>, that I + was unable to <i>number</i> them with my <i>naked eye</i>,) a very + ordinary <i>Microscope</i>, I had then about me, inabled me to see that + what the Writer of it had asserted was <i>true</i>, but withall + discover’d of what pitifull <i>bungling scribbles</i> and <i>scrawls</i> + it was compos’d, <i>Arabian</i> and <i>China characters</i> being almost + as well shap’d, yet thus much I must say for the Man, that it was for the + most part <i>legible</i> enough, though in some places there wanted a + good <i>fantsy</i> well <i>preposest</i> to help one through. If this + manner <i>of small writing</i> were made <i>easie</i> and + <i>practicable</i> (and I think I know such a one, but have never yet + made tryal of it, whereby one might be inabled to write <i>a great + deale</i> with <i>much ease</i>, and <i>accurately</i> enough in a very + <i>little roome</i>) it might be of very good use to convey <i>secret + Intelligence</i> without any danger of <i>Discovery</i> or + <i>mistrusting</i>. But to come again to the point. The + <i>Irregularities</i> of it are caused by three or four + <i>coadjutors</i>, one of which is, the <i>uneven surface</i> of the + <i>paper</i>, which at best appears no smother then a very course piece + of <i>shag’d cloth</i>, next the <i>irregularity of the Type</i> or + <i>Ingraving</i>, and a third is the <i>rough Daubing</i> of the + <i>Printing-Ink</i> that lies upon the instrument that makes the + impression, to all which, add the <i>variation</i> made by the Different + <i>lights</i> and <i>shadows</i>, and you may have sufficient reason to + ghess that a <i>point</i> may appear much more <i>ugly</i> then + <i>this</i>, which I have here presented, which though it appear’d + through the <i>Microscope</i> <i>gray</i>, like a great splatch of + <i>London</i> dirt, about three inches over; yet to the <i>naked eye</i> + it was <i>black</i> and no bigger then that in the midst of the Circle A. + And could I have found Room in this Plate to have inserted an O + you should have seen that the <i>letters</i> were not more distinct then + the <i>points</i> of Distinction, nor a <i>drawn circle</i> more exactly + <i>so</i>, then we have now shown a <i>point</i> to be a + <i>point</i>.<br /></p> +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class='chapter' /> +<h2>Observ. <a name="obsII" id="obsII">II</a>. <i>Of the Edge of a Razor.</i></h2> + + <p>The sharpest <i>Edge</i> hath the same kind of affinity to the + sharpest <i>Point</i> in Physicks, as a <i>line</i> hath to a + <i>point</i> in Mathematicks; and therefore the Treaty concerning this, + may very properly be annexed to the former. A Razor doth appear to be a + Body of a very neat and curious aspect, till more closely viewed by the + <i>Microscope</i>, and there we may observe its very Edge to be of all + kind of shapes, except what it should be. For examining that of a very + sharp one, I could not find that any part of it had any thing of + sharpness in it; but it appeared a rough surface of a very considerable + bredth from side to side, the narrowest part not seeming thinner then the + back of a pretty thick Knife. Nor is’t likely that it should appear any + otherwise, since as we just now shew’d that a <i>point</i> appear’d a + <i>circle</i>, ’tis rational a <i>line</i> should be a + <i>parallelogram</i>.</p> + +<div class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-02.png"><i>Schem.</i> 2.</a><br /><i>Fig.</i> 2. +</div> + <p>Now for the drawing this second Figure + (which represents a part of the Edge + about half a quarter of an inch long of a Razor well set) I so plac’d it + between the Object-glass & the light, that there appear’d a + reflection from the very Edge, represented by the white line + <i>abcdef</i>. In which you may perceive it to be somewhat sharper then + elsewhere about <i>d</i>, to be indented or pitted about <i>b</i>, to be + broader and thicker about <i>c</i>, and unequal and rugged about + <i>e</i>, and pretty even between <i>ab</i> and <i>ef</i>. Nor was that + part of the Edge <i>ghik</i> so smooth as one would imagine so smooth + bodies as a Hone and Oyl should leave it; for besides those multitudes of + scratches, which appear to have raz’d the surface <i>ghik</i>, and to + cross each other every way which are not half of them exprest in the + Figure, there were several great and deep scratches, or furrows, such as + <i>gh</i> and <i>ik</i>, which made the surface yet more rugged, caus’d + perhaps by some small Dust casually falling on the Hone, or some harder + or more flinty part of the Hone it self. The other part of the Razor + <i>ll</i>, which is polish’d on a grinding-stone, appear’d much rougher + then the other, looking almost like a plow’d field, with many parallels, + ridges, and furrows, and a cloddy, as ’twere, or an uneven surface: nor + shall we wonder at the roughnesses of those surfaces, since even in the + most curious wrought Glasses for <i>Microscopes</i>, and other Optical + uses, I have, when the Sun has shone well on them, discover’d their + surface to be variously raz’d or scratched, and to consist of an infinite + of small broken surfaces, which reflect the light of very various and + differing colours. And indeed it seems impossible by Art to cut the + surface of any hard and brittle body smooth, since <i>Putte</i>, or even + the most curious <i>Powder</i> that can be made use of, to polish such a + body, must consist of little hard rough particles, and each of them must + cut its way, and consequently leave some kind of gutter or furrow + behind it. And though Nature does seem to do it very readily in all kinds + of fluid bodies, yet perhaps future observators may discover even these + also rugged; it being very probable, as I elsewhere shew, that fluid + bodies are made up of small solid particles variously and strongly mov’d, + and may find reason to think there is scarce a surface <i>in rerum + naturâ</i> perfectly smooth. The black spot <i>mn</i>, I ghess to be some + small speck of rust, for that I have oft observ’d to be the manner of the + working of Corrosive Juyces. To conclude, this Edge and piece of a Razor, + if it had been really such as it appear’d through the <i>Microscope</i>, + would scarcely have serv’d to cleave wood, much less to have cut off the + hair of beards, unless it were after the manner that <i>Lucian</i> + merrily relates <i>Charon</i> to have made use of, when with a Carpenters + Axe he chop’d off the beard of a sage Philosopher, whose gravity he very + cautiously fear’d would indanger the oversetting of his Wherry.<br /></p> +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class='chapter' /> +<h2>Observ. <a name="obsIII" id="obsIII">III</a>. <i>Of fine Lawn, or Linnen Cloth.</i></h2> + + <p>This is another product of Art, A piece of the finest Lawn I was able + to get, so curious that the threads were scarce discernable by the naked + eye, and yet through an ordinary <i>Microscope</i> you may perceive what a goodly + piece of <i>coarse Matting</i> it is; what proportionable cords each of + its threads are, being not unlike, both in shape and size, the bigger and + coarser kind of <i>single Rope-yarn</i>, wherewith they usually make + <i>Cables</i>. That which makes the Lawn so transparent, is by the + <i>Microscope</i>, nay by the naked eye, if attentively viewed, plainly + enough evidenced to be the multitude of square holes which are left + between the threads, appearing to have much more hole in respect of the + intercurrent parts then is for the most part left in a + <i>lattice-window</i>, which it does a little resemble, onely the + crossing parts are round and not flat.</p> + + <p>These threads that compose this fine contexture, though they are as + small as those that constitute the finer sorts of Silks, have + notwithstanding nothing of their glossie, pleasant, and lively + reflection. Nay, I have been informed both by the Inventor himself, and + several other eye-witnesses, that though the flax, out of which it is + made, has been (by a singular art, of that excellent Person, and Noble + Virtuoso, M. <i>Charls Howard</i>, brother to the <i>Duke of Norfolk</i>) + so curiously dress’d and prepar’d, as to appear both to the eye and the + touch, full as <i>fine</i> and as <i>glossie</i>, and to receive all + kinds of colours, as well as Sleave-Silk; yet when this Silken Flax is + twisted into threads, it quite loseth its former luster, and becomes as + plain and base a thread to look on, as one of the same bigness, made of + common Flax.</p> + + <p>The reason of which odd <i>Phenomenon</i> seems no other then this; + that though the curiously drest Flax has its parts so exceedingly small, + as to equallize, if not to be much smaller then the clew of the + Silk-worm, especially in thinness, yet the differences between the + figures of the constituting filaments are so great, and their substances + so various, that whereas those of the <i>Silk</i> are + <i>small</i>, <i>round</i>, <i>hard</i>, <i>transparent</i>, and to their + bigness proportionably <i>stiff</i>, so as each filament preserves its + proper <i>Figure</i>, and consequently its vivid <i>reflection</i> + intire, though twisted into a thread, if not too hard; those of Flax are + <i>flat</i>, <i>limber</i>, <i>softer</i>, and <i>less transparent</i>, + and in twisting into a thread they joyn, and lie so close together, as to + lose their own, and destroy each others particular reflections. There + seems therefore three Particulars very requisite to make the so drest + Flax appear Silk also when spun into threads. First, that the substance + of it should be made more <i>clear</i> and <i>transparent</i>, Flax + retaining in it a kind of opacating brown, or yellow; and the parts of + the whitest kind I have yet observ’d with the <i>Microscope</i> appearing + white, like flaw’d Horn or Glass, rather then clear, like clear Horn or + Glass. Next that, the filaments should each of them be <i>rounded</i>, if + that could be done, which yet is not so very necessary, if the first be + perform’d, and this third, which is, that each of the small filaments be + <i>stifned</i>; for though they be square, or flat, provided they be + <i>transparent</i> and stiff, much the same appearances must necessarily + follow. Now, though I have not yet made trial, yet I doubt not, but that + both these proprieties may be also induc’d upon the Flax, and perhaps too + by one and the same Expedient, which some trials may quickly inform any + ingenious attempter of, who from the use and profit of such an Invention, + may find sufficient argument to be prompted to such Inquiries. As for the + <i>tenacity</i> of the substance of Flax, out of which the thread is + made, it seems much inferiour to that of Silk, the one being a + <i>vegetable</i>, the other an <i>animal</i> substance. And whether it + proceed from the better concoction, or the more homogeneous constitution + of <i>animal</i> substances above those of <i>vegetables</i>, I do not + here determine; yet since I generally find, that <i>vegetable</i> + substances do not equalize the <i>tenacity</i> of <i>animal</i>, nor + these the <i>tenacity</i> of some purified <i>mineral</i> substances; I + am very apt to think, that the <i>tenacity</i> of bodies does not proceed + from the <i>hamous</i>, or <i>hooked</i> particles, as the + <i>Epicureans</i> and some modern <i>Philosophers</i> have imagin’d; but + from the more exact <i>congruity</i> of the constituent parts, which are + contiguous to each other, and so bulky, as not to be easily separated, or + shatter’d, by any small pulls or concussion of heat.<br /></p> +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class='chapter' /> +<h2>Observ. <a name="obsIV" id="obsIV">IV</a>. <i>Of fine waled Silk, or Taffety.</i></h2> + +<div class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-03.png"><i>Schem.</i> 3.</a><br /><i>Fig.</i> 1. +</div> + + <p>This is the + appearance of a piece of very fine Taffety-riband in the bigger + magnifying Glass, which you see exhibits it like a very convenient + substance to make Bed-matts, or Door-matts of, or to serve for Beehives, + Corn-scuttles, Chairs, or Corn-tubs, it being not unlike that kind of + work, wherewith in many parts in <i>England</i>, they make such Utensils + of Straw, a little wreathed, and bound together with thongs of Brambles. + For in this Contexture, each little filament, fiber, or clew of the + Silk-worm, seem’d about the bigness of an ordinary Straw, as appears by + the little irregular pieces, <i>ab</i>, <i>cd</i>, and <i>ef</i>; + The <i>Warp</i>, or the thread that ran crossing the Riband, appear’d + like a single Rope of an Inch Diameter; but the <i>Woof</i>, or the + thread that ran the length of the Riband, appear’d not half so big. Each + Inch of six-peny-broad Riband appearing no less then a piece of Matting + Inch and half thick, and twelve foot square, a few yards of this, would + be enough to floor the long Gallery of the <i>Loure</i> at <i>Paris</i>. + But to return to our piece of Riband: It affords us a not unpleasant + object, appearing like a bundle, or wreath, of very clear and transparent + <i>Cylinders</i>, if the Silk be white, and curiously ting’d; if it be + colour’d, each of those small horney <i>Cylinders</i> affording in some + place or other of them, as vivid a reflection, as if it had been sent + from a <i>Cylinder</i> of Glass or Horn. Insomuch, that the reflections + of Red, appear’d as if coming from so many <i>Granates</i>, or + <i>Rubies</i>. The loveliness of the colours of Silks above those of + hairy Stuffs, or Linnen, consisting, as I else-where intimate, chiefly in + the transparency, and vivid reflections from the <i>Concave</i>, or inner + surface of the <i>transparent Cylinder</i>, as are also the colours of + Precious Stones; for most of the reflections from each of these + <i>Cylinders</i>, come from the <i>Concave</i> surface of the air, which + is as ’twere the foil that incompasses the <i>Cylinder</i>. The colours + with which each of these <i>Cylinders</i> are ting’d, seem partly to be + superficial, and sticking to the out-sides of them; and partly, to be + imbib’d, or sunck into the substance of them: for Silk, seeming to be + little else then a dried thread of Glew, may be suppos’d to be very + easily relaxt, and softened, by being steeped in warm, nay in cold, if + penetrant, juyces or liquors. And thereby those tinctures, though they + tinge perhaps but a small part of the substance, yet being so highly + impregnated with the colour, as to be almost black with it, may leave an + impression strong enough to exhibite the desir’d colour. A pretty kinde + of artificial Stuff I have seen, looking almost like transparent + Parchment, Horn, or Ising-glass, and perhaps some such thing it may be + made of, which being transparent, and of a glutinous nature, and easily + mollified by keeping in water, as I found upon trial, had imbib’d, and + did remain ting’d with a great variety of very vivid colours, and to the + naked eye, it look’d very like the substance of the Silk. And I have + often thought, that probably there might be a way found out, to make an + artificial glutinous composition, much resembling, if not full as good, + nay better, then that Excrement, or whatever other substance it be out of + which, the Silk-worm wire-draws his clew. If such a composition were + found, it were certainly an easie matter to find very quick ways of + drawing it out into small wires for use. I need not mention the use of + such an Invention, nor the benefit that is likely to accrue to the + finder, they being sufficiently obvious. This hint therefore, may, I + hope, give some Ingenious inquisitive Person an occasion of making some + trials, which if successfull, I have my aim, and I suppose he will have + no occasion to be displeas’d.<br /></p> +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class='chapter' /> +<h2>Observ. <a name="obsV" id="obsV">V</a>. <i>Of watered Silks, or Stuffs.</i></h2> + + <p>There are but few <i>Artificial</i> things that are worth observing + with a <i>Microscope</i>, and therefore I shall speak but briefly + concerning them. For the Productions of art are such rude mis-shapen + things, that when view’d with a <i>Microscope</i>, is little else + observable, but their deformity. The most curious Carvings appearing no + better then those rude <i>Russian</i> Images we find mention’d in + <i>Purchas</i>, where three notches at the end of a Stick, stood for a + face. And the most smooth and burnish’d surfaces appear most rough and + unpolisht: So that my first Reason why I shall add but a few observations + of them, is, their mis-shapen form; and the next, is their uselessness. + For why should we trouble our selves in the examination of that form or + shape (which is all we are able to reach with a <i>Microscope</i>) which + we know was design’d for no higher a use, then what we were able to view + with our naked eye? Why should we endeavour to discover mysteries in that + which has no such thing in it? And like <i>Rabbins</i> find out + <i>Caballisms</i>, and <i>ænigmâs</i> in the Figure, and placing of + Letters, where no such thing lies hid: whereas in <i>natural</i> forms + there are some so small, and so curious, and their design’d business so + far remov’d beyond the reach of our sight, that the more we magnify the + object, the more excellencies and mysteries do appear; And the more we + discover the imperfections of our senses; and the Omnipotency and + Infinite perfections of the great Creatour. I shall therefore onely add + one or two Observations more <i>artificial</i> things, and then come to + the Treaty concerning such matters as are the Productions of a more + curious Workman. One of these, shall be that of a piece of water’d Silk, +<span class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-03.png"><i>Schem.</i> 3.</a><br /><i>Fig.</i> 2. +</span> + represented in the second Figure of the third <i>Scheme</i>, + as it appear’d through the + least magnifying Glass. <i>AB</i> signifying the long way of the Stuff, + and <i>CD</i> the broad way. This Stuff, if the right side of it be + looked upon, appears to the naked eye, all over so waved, undulated, or + grain’d, with a curious, though irregular variety of brighter and darker + parts, that it adds no small gracefulness to the Gloss of it. It is so + known a propriety, that it needs but little explication, but it is + observable, which perhaps everyone has not considered, that those parts + which appear the darker part of the wave, in one position to the light, + in another appears the lighter, and the contrary; and by this means the + undulations become transient, and in a continual change, according as the + position of the parts in respect of the incident beams of light is + varied. The reason of which odd <i>phænomena</i>, to one that has but + diligently examin’d it even with his naked eye, will be obvious enough. + But he that observes it with a <i>Microscope</i>, may more easily + perceive what this <i>Proteus</i> is, and how it comes to change its + shape. He may very easily perceive, that it proceeds onely from the + variety of the <i>Reflections</i> of light, which is caus’d by the + various <i>shape of the Particles</i>, or little protuberant parts of the + thread that compose the surface; and that those parts of the waves that + appear the brighter, throw towards the eye a + multitude of small reflections of light, whereas the darker scarce afford + any. The reason of which reflection, the <i>Microscope</i> plainly + discovers, as appears by the Figure. In which you may perceive, that the + brighter parts of the surface consist of an abundance of large and strong + reflections, denoted by <i>a</i>, <i>a</i>, <i>a</i>, <i>a</i>, <i>a</i>, + &c. for the surfaces of those threads that run the <i>long way</i>, + are by the Mechanical process of watering, <i>creas’d</i> or + <i>angled</i> in another kind of posture then they were by the weaving: + for by the weaving they are onely <i>bent round</i> the warping threads; + but by the watering, they are <i>bent with an angle, or elbow</i>, that + is in stead of lying, or being bent <i>round</i> the threads, as in the + third Figure, <i>a</i>, <i>a</i>, <i>a</i>, <i>a</i>, <i>a</i>, are about + <i>b</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>b</i> (<i>b</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>b</i> representing + the ends, as ’twere, of the cross threads, they are bent about) they are + creas’d on the top of those threads, with an <i>angle</i>, as in the + fourth Figure, and that with all imaginable variety; so that, whereas + before they reflected the light onely from one point of the round + surface, as about <i>c</i>, <i>c</i>, <i>c</i>, they now when water’d, + reflect the beams from more then half the whole surface, as <i>de</i>, + <i>de</i>, <i>de</i>, and in other postures they return no reflections at + all from those surfaces. Hence in one posture they compose the brighter + parts of the waves, in another the darker. And these reflections are also + varied, according as the particular parts are variously bent. The reason + of which creasing we shall next examine; and here we must fetch our + information from the Mechanism or manner of proceeding in this operation; + which, as I have been inform’d, is no other then this.</p> + + <p>They double all the Stuff that is to be water’d, that is, they crease + it just through the middle of it, the whole length of the piece, leaving + the right side of the Stuff inward, and placing the two edges, or + silvages just upon one another, and, as near as they can, place the wale + so in the doubling of it, that the wale of the one side may lie very near + parallel, or even with the wale of the other; for the nearer that posture + they lie, the greater will the watering appear; and the more obliquely, + or across to each other they lie, the smaller are the waves. Their way + for folding it for a great wale is thus: they take a Pin, and begin at + one side of the piece in any wale, and so moving it towards the other + side, thereby direct their hands to the opposite ends of the wale, and + then, as near as they can, place the two opposite ends of the same wale + together, and so double, or fold the whole piece, repeating this enquiry + with a Pin at every yard or two’s distance through the whole length; then + they sprinkle it with water, and fold it the long-ways, placing between + every fold a piece of Pastboard, by which means all the wrong side of the + water’d Stuff becomes flat, and with little wales, and the wales on the + other side become the more protuberant; whence the creasings or angular + bendings of the wales become the more perspicuous. Having folded it in + this manner, they place it with an interjacent Pastboard into an hot + Press, where it is kept very violently prest, till it be dry and stiff; + by which means, the wales of either contiguous sides leave their own + impressions upon each other, as is very manifest by the second Figure, + where ’tis obvious enough, that the wale of the piece <i>ABCD</i> runs + parallel between the pricked lines <i>ef</i>, <i>ef</i>, <i>ef</i>, and + as manifest to discern the impressions upon + these wales, left by those that were prest upon them, which lying not + exactly parallel with them, but a little athwart them, as is denoted by + the lines of, <i>oooo</i>, <i>gh</i>, <i>gh</i>, <i>gh</i>, between which + the other wales did lie parallel; they are so variously, and irregularly + creas’d that being put into that shape when wet, and kept so till they be + drie, they so let each others threads, that the Moldings remain almost as + long as the Stuff lasts.</p> + + <p>Hence it may appear to any one that attentively considers the Figure, + why the parts of the wale <i>a</i>, <i>a</i>, <i>a</i>, <i>a</i>, + <i>a</i>, <i>a</i>, should appear bright; and why the parts <i>b</i>, + <i>b</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>b</i>, should appear + shadowed, or dark; why some, as <i>d</i>, <i>d</i>, <i>d</i>, <i>d</i>, + <i>d</i>, <i>d</i>, should appear partly light, and partly dark: the + varieties of which reflections and shadows are the only cause of the + appearance of watering in Silks, or any other kind of Stuffs.</p> + + <p>From the variety of reflection, may also be deduc’d the cause why a + small breez or gale of wind ruffling the surface of a smooth water, makes + it appear black; as also, on the other side, why the smoothing or + burnishing the surface of whitened Silver makes it look black; and + multitudes of other phænomena might hereby be solv’d, which are too many + to be here insisted on.<br /></p> +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class='chapter' /> +<h2>Observ. <a name="obsVI" id="obsVI">VI</a>. <i>Of Small Glass Canes.</i></h2> + + <p>That I might be satisfi’d, whether it were not possible to make an + <i>Artificial</i> pore as <i>small</i> as any <i>Natural</i> I had yet + found, I made several attempts with small <i>glass pipes</i>, melted in + the flame of a Lamp, and then very <i>suddenly</i> drawn out into a great + length. And, by <i>that means</i>, without much difficulty, I was able to + draw some almost as small as a <i>Cobweb</i>, which yet, with the +<span class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-04.png"><i>Schem.</i> 4.</a> +</span> + <i>Microscope</i>, I could plainly perceive + to be <i>perforated</i>, both by looking + on the <i>ends</i> of it, and by looking on it <i>against the light</i> + which was much the <i>easier way</i> to determine whether it were solid + or perforated; for, taking a small pipe of glass, and closing one end of + it, then filling it <i>half full</i> of water, and holding it <i>against + the light</i>, I could, by this means, very easily find what was the + <i>differing aspect</i> of a <i>solid</i> and a <i>perforated</i> piece + of glass; and so easily distinguish, without seeing either end, whether + any <i>Cylinder</i> of glass I look’d on, were a <i>solid stick</i>, or a + <i>hollow cane</i>. And by this means, I could also presently judge of + any small <i>filament</i> of glass, whether it were <i>hollow</i> or + <i>not</i>, which would have been exceeding tedious to examine by looking + on the end. And many such like ways I was fain to make use of, in the + examining of divers other particulars related in this Book, which would + have been no easie task to have determined meerly by the more common way + of looking on, or viewing the Object. For, if we consider first, the very + <i>faint light</i> wherewith the object is enlightened, whence many + particles appear <i>opacous</i>, which when more enlightned, appear very + <i>transparent</i>, so that I was fain to <i>determine</i> its + <i>transparency</i> by one glass, and its <i>texture</i> by another. + Next, the <i>unmanageableness</i> of most <i>Objects</i>, by reason + of their <i>smalness</i>, 3. The + <i>difficulty of finding</i> the desired point, and of <i>placing</i> it + so, as to reflect the <i>light conveniently</i> for the Inquiry. Lastly, + ones being able to view it but with <i>one eye</i> at once, they will + appear no small <i>obstructions</i>, nor are they easily <i>remov’d</i> + without many <i>contrivances</i>. But to proceed, I could not find that + water, or some <i>deeply ting’d</i> liquors would in small ones rise so + high as one would expect; and the <i>highest</i> I have found it yet rise + in any of the pipes I have try’d, was to 21 <i>inches</i> above the level + of the water in the vessel: for though I found that in the small pipes it + would <i>nimbly enter</i> at first, and run about 6 or 7 <i>inches</i> + upwards; yet I found it then to move upwards <i>so slow</i>, that I have + not yet had the <i>patience</i> to observe it above that height of 21 + <i>inches</i> (and that was in a pretty <i>large Pipe</i>, in comparison + of those I formerly mentioned; for I could observe the <i>progress</i> of + a <i>very deep ting’d liquor</i> in it with my <i>naked eye</i>, without + much trouble; whereas many of the <i>other pipes</i> were so <i>very + small</i>, that unless in a <i>convenient posture</i> to the light, I + could not perceive <i>them</i>:) But ’tis very probable, that a greater + <i>patience</i> and <i>assiduity</i> may discover the liquors to + <i>rise</i>, at least to remain <i>suspended</i>, at heights that I + should be loath now even to <i>ghess</i> at, if at least there be any + <i>proportion</i> kept between the height of the ascending liquor, and + the <i>bigness of the holes</i> of the pipes.</p> + +<p class="center"><b><i>An Attempt for the Explication of this Experiment.</i></b></p> + + <p>My Conjecture, <i>That the unequal height of the surfaces of the + water, proceeded from the greater pressure made upon the water by the Air +<span class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-04.png"><i>Schem.</i> 4.</a><br /><i>Fig.</i> 1. +</span> + without the Pipes</i> ABC, <i>then by that within them</i>; + I shall endeavour to + confirm from the truth of the two following <i>Propositions</i>:</p> + + <p>The first of which is, <i>That an unequal pressure of the incumbent + Air, will cause an unequal height in the water’s Surfaces</i>.</p> + + <p>And the second is, <i>That in this experiment there is such an unequal + pressure</i>.</p> + + <p>That the first is true, the following <i>Experiment</i> will evince. + For if you take any Vessel so contrived, as that you can at pleasure + either <i>increase</i> or <i>diminish</i> the <i>pressure</i> of the Air + upon this or that part of the <i>Superficies</i> of the <i>water</i>, the + <i>equality</i> of the height of those parts will presently be + <i>lost</i>; and that part of the <i>Superficies</i> that sustains the + <i>greater pressure</i>, will be <i>inferior</i> to that which undergoes + the <i>less</i>. A fit Vessel for this purpose, will be an inverted Glass + <i>Syphon</i>, such an one as is described in the <i>Sixth Figure</i>. + For if into it you put Water enough to fill it as high as <i>AB</i>, and + gently blow in at <i>D</i>, you shall <i>depress</i> the Superficies + <i>B</i>, and thereby <i>raise</i> the opposite Superficies <i>A</i> to a + <i>considerable height</i>, and by gently <i>sucking</i> you may produce + clean <i>contrary</i> effects.</p> + + <p>Next, That there is such an <i>unequal pressure</i>, I shall prove + from this, <i>That there is a much greater incongruity of Air to Glass, + and some other Bodies, then there is of Water to the same</i>.</p> + + <p>By <i>Congruity, I mean a property of a fluid Body, whereby any part + of it is readily united with any other part, either of itself, or of any + other Similar, fluid, or solid body: And by Incongruity a property of a + fluid, by which it is hindred from uniting with any dissimilar, fluid, or + solid Body.</i></p> + + <p>This last property, any one that hath been observingly conversant + about fluid Bodies, cannot be ignorant of. For (not now to mention + several <i>Chymical Spirits</i> and <i>Oyls</i>, which will <i>very + hardly</i>, if at <i>all</i>, be brought to <i>mix</i> with one another; + insomuch that there may be found some 8 or 9, or more, several distinct + Liquors, which <i>swimming</i> one upon another, will not presently + <i>mix</i>) we need seek no further for Examples of this kind in + <i>fluids</i>, then to observe the <i>drops of rain</i> falling through + the <i>air</i> and the <i>bubbles of air</i> which are by any means + conveyed under the surface of the <i>water</i>; or a drop of common + <i>Sallet Oyl</i> swimming upon water. In all which, and many more + examples of this kind that might be enumerated, the <i>incongruity</i> of + two <i>fluids</i> is easily discernable. And as for the <i>Congruity</i> + or <i>Incongruity</i> of Liquids, with several kinds of <i>firm</i> + Bodies, they have long since been taken notice of, and called by the + Names of <i>Driness</i> and <i>Moisture</i> (though these two names are + not comprehensive enough, being commonly used to signifie only the + adhering or not adhering of <i>water</i> to some other <i>solid + Bodies</i>) of this kind we may observe that <i>water</i> will more + readily <i>wet some woods</i> then <i>others</i>; and that <i>water</i>, + let fall upon a <i>Feather</i>, the whiter side of a <i>Colwort</i>, and + some other leaves, or upon almost any <i>dusty</i>, <i>unctuous</i>, or + <i>resinous</i> superficies, will not <i>at all adhere</i> to them, but + easily <i>tumble off</i> from them, like a solid <i>Bowl</i>; whereas, if + dropt upon <i>Linnen</i>, <i>Paper</i>, <i>Clay</i>, <i>green Wood</i>, + &c. it will not be taken off, without leaving some part of it behind + <i>adhering</i> to them. So <i>Quick-silver</i>, which will very + <i>hardly</i> be brought to <i>stick</i> to any <i>vegetable body</i>, + will <i>readily adhere</i> to, and <i>mingle</i> with, several clean + <i>metalline bodies</i>.</p> + + <p>And that we may the better finde what the <i>cause</i> of + <i>Congruity</i> and <i>Incongruity</i> in bodies is, it will be + requisite to consider, First, what is the <i>cause</i> of + <i>fluidness</i>; And this, <i>I conceive</i>, to be nothing else but a + certain <i>pulse</i> or <i>shake</i> of <i>heat</i>; for Heat being + nothing else but a very <i>brisk</i> and <i>vehement agitation</i> of the + parts of a body (as I have elswhere made <i>probable</i>) the parts of a + body are thereby made so <i>loose</i> from one another, that they easily + <i>move any way</i>, and become <i>fluid</i>. That I may explain this a + little by a gross Similitude, let us suppose a dish of sand set upon some + body that is very much <i>agitated</i>, and shaken with some <i>quick</i> + and <i>strong vibrating motion</i>, as on a <i>Milstone</i> turn’d round + upon the under stone very violently whilst it is empty; or on a very + stiff <i>Drum</i>-head, which is vehemently or very nimbly beaten with + the Drumsticks. By this means, the sand in the dish, which before lay + like a <i>dull</i> and unactive body, becomes a perfect <i>fluid</i>; and + ye can no sooner make a <i>hole</i> in it with your finger, but it is + immediately <i>filled up again</i>, and the upper surface of it + <i>levell’d</i>. Nor can you <i>bury</i> a <i>light body</i>, as a piece + of Cork under it, but it presently <i>emerges</i> or <i>swims</i> as + ’twere on the top; nor can you lay a <i>heavier</i> on the top of it, as + a piece of Lead, but it is immediately <i>buried</i> in + Sand, and (as ’twere) sinks to the bottom. Nor can you make a <i>hole</i> + in the side of the Dish, but the sand shall <i>run out</i> of it to a + <i>level</i>, not an <i>obvious property</i> of a fluid body, as such, + but this dos <i>imitate</i>; and all this meerly caused by the vehement + <i>agitation</i> of the conteining vessel; for by this means, <i>each</i> + sand becomes to have a <i>vibrative</i> or <i>dancing</i> motion, so as + no other heavier body can <i>rest</i> on it, unless <i>sustein’d</i> by + some other on either side: Nor will it suffer any Body to be + <i>beneath</i> it, unless it be a <i>heavier</i> then it self. Another + Instance of the strange <i>loosening</i> nature of a violent jarring + Motion, or a strong and nimble vibrative one, we may have from a piece of + <i>iron</i> grated on very strongly with a <i>file</i>: for if into that + a pin <i>screw’d</i> so firm and hard, that though it has a convenient + head to it, yet it can by no means be <i>unscrew’d</i> by the fingers; + if, I say, you attempt to unscrew this whilst <i>grated on by the + file</i>, it will be found to undoe and turn very <i>easily</i>. The + first of these Examples manifests, how a body actually <i>divided</i> + into small parts, becomes a <i>fluid</i>. And the latter manifests by + what means the agitation of heat so easily <i>loosens</i> and + <i>unties</i> the parts of <i>solid</i> and <i>firm</i> bodies. Nor need + we suppose heat to be any thing else, besides such a motion; for + supposing we could <i>Mechanically</i> produce such a one <i>quick</i> + and <i>strong</i> enough, we need not spend <i>fuel</i> to <i>melt</i> a + body. Now, that I do not speak this altogether groundless, I must refer + the Reader to the Observations I have made upon the shining sparks of + Steel, for there he shall find that <i>the same</i> effects are produced + upon small chips or parcels of Steel by the <i>flame</i>, and by <i>a + quick and violent motion</i>; and if the body of <i>steel</i> may be thus + melted (as I there shew it may) I think we have little reason to doubt + that almost <i>any other</i> may not also. Every Smith can inform one how + quickly both his <i>File</i> and the <i>Iron</i> grows <i>hot</i> with + <i>filing</i>, and if you <i>rub</i> almost any two <i>hard</i> bodies + together, they will do the same: And we know, that a sufficient degree of + heat causes <i>fluidity</i>, in some bodies much sooner, and in others + later; that is, the parts of the body of some are so <i>loose</i> from + one another, and so <i>unapt to cohere</i>, and so <i>minute</i> and + <i>little</i>, that a very <i>small</i> degree of agitation keeps them + always in the <i>state of fluidity</i>. Of this kind, I suppose, the + <i>Æther</i>, that is the <i>medium</i> or <i>fluid</i> body, in which + all other bodies do as it were swim and move; and particularly, the + <i>Air</i>, which seems nothing else but a kind of <i>tincture</i> or + <i>solution</i> of terrestrial and aqueous particles <i>dissolv’d</i> + into it, and agitated by it, just as the <i>tincture</i> of + <i>Cocheneel</i> is nothing but some finer <i>dissoluble</i> parts of + that Concrete lick’d up or <i>dissolv’d</i> by the <i>fluid</i> water. + And from this Notion of it, we may easily give a more Intelligible reason + how the Air becomes so capable of <i>Rarefaction</i> and + <i>Condensation</i>. For, as in <i>tinctures</i>, one grain of some + <i>strongly tinging</i> substance may <i>sensibly</i> colour some + <i>hundred thousand</i> grains of <i>appropriated</i> Liquors, so as + every <i>drop</i> of it has its proportionate share, and be sensibly + ting’d, as I have try’d both with <i>Logwood</i> and <i>Cocheneel</i>: + And as some few grains of <i>Salt</i> is able to infect as great a + quantity, as may be found by <i>præcipitations</i>, though not so easily + by the <i>sight</i> or <i>taste</i>; so the <i>Air</i>, which seems to be + but as ’twere a <i>tincture</i> or <i>saline substance, dissolv’d and + agitated by the fluid and agil Æther</i>, may disperse and + <i>expand</i> it self into a <i>vast space</i>, if it have room enough, + and infect, as it were, every part of that space. But, as on the other + side, if there be but some <i>few grains</i> of the liquor, it may + <i>extract all</i> the colour of the tinging substance, and may + <i>dissolve</i> all the Salt, and thereby become <i>much more + impregnated</i> with those substances, so may <i>all</i> the air that + sufficed in a <i>rarify’d state</i> to fill some <i>hundred thousand</i> + spaces of Æther, be compris’d in only <i>one</i>, but in a position + proportionable <i>dense</i>. And though we have not yet found out such + <i>strainers</i> for Tinctures and Salts as we have for the Air, being + yet unable to <i>separate</i> them from their dissolving liquors by any + kind of <i>filtre</i>, without <i>præcipitation</i>, as we are able to + <i>separate</i> the Air from the Æther by <i>Glass</i>, and several other + bodies. And though we are yet unable and ignorant of the ways of + <i>præcipitating</i> Air out of the Æther as we can Tinctures, and Salts + out of several <i>dissolvents</i>; yet neither of these seeming + <i>impossible</i> from the nature of the things, nor so <i>improbable</i> + but that some happy future industry may find out ways to effect them; + nay, further, since we find that Nature <i>does really perform</i> + (though by what means we are not certain) both these actions, namely, by + <i>præcipitating</i> the Air in Rain and Dews, and by supplying the + Streams and Rivers of the World with fresh water, <i>strain’d</i> through + secret subterraneous Caverns: And since, that in very many other + <i>proprieties</i> they do so exactly <i>seem</i> of the <i>same + nature</i>; till further observations or tryals do inform us of the + <i>contrary</i>, we may <i>safely enough conclude</i> them of the <i>same + kind</i>. For it seldom happens that any two natures have so many + properties <i>coincident</i> or the <i>same</i>, as I have observ’d + Solutions and Air to have, and to be <i>different</i> in the rest. And + therefore I think it neither <i>impossible</i>, <i>irrational</i>, nay + nor <i>difficult</i> to be able to <i>predict</i> what is <i>likely</i> + to happen in other particulars also, besides those which + <i>Observation</i> or <i>Experiment</i> have declared thus or thus; + especially, if the <i>circumstances</i> that do often very much conduce + to the variation of the effects be duly <i>weigh’d</i> and + <i>consider’d</i>. And indeed, were there not a <i>probability</i> of + this, our <i>inquiries</i> would be <i>endless</i>, our <i>tryals + vain</i>, and our greatest <i>inventions</i> would be nothing but the + meer <i>products</i> of <i>chance</i>, and not of <i>Reason</i>; and, + like <i>Mariners</i> in an Ocean, destitute both of a <i>Compass</i> and + the sight of the <i>Celestial guides</i>, we might indeed, <i>by + chance</i>, Steer <i>directly</i> towards our desired Port, but ’tis <i>a + thousand to one</i> but we <i>miss</i> our aim. But to proceed, we may + hence also give a plain reason, how the Air comes to be <i>darkned</i> by + <i>clouds</i>, &c. which are nothing but a kind of + <i>precipitation</i>, and how those <i>precipitations</i> fall down in + <i>Showrs</i>. Hence also could I very easily, and I think truly, deduce + the cause of the curious <i>sixangular figures</i> of Snow, and the + appearances of <i>Haloes, &c.</i> and the sudden <i>thickning</i> of + the Sky with Clouds, and the <i>vanishing</i> and <i>disappearing</i> of + those Clouds again; for all these things may be very easily + <i>imitated</i> in a <i>glass of liquor</i>, with some slight <i>Chymical + preparations</i> as I have often try’d, and may somewhere else more + largely relate, but have not now time to set them down. But to proceed, + there are other bodies that consist of particles more <i>Gross</i>, and + of a more <i>apt</i> figure for <i>cohesion</i>, and this requires + <i>somewhat greater</i> agitation; such, I suppose <img src="images/mercury.png" class='oneem' alt="☿" />, + <i>fermented vinous</i> <i>Spirits</i>, several + <i>Chymical Oils</i>, which are much of kin to those Spirits, &c. + Others yet require a <i>greater</i>, as <i>water</i>, and so others + <i>much greater</i>, for almost infinite degrees: For, I suppose there + are very <i>few</i> bodies in the world that may not be made + <i>aliquatenus</i> fluid, by <i>some</i> or <i>other</i> degree of + agitation or heat.</p> + + <p>Having therefore in short set down my Notion of a Fluid body, I come + in the next place to consider what <i>Congruity</i> is; and this, as I + said before, being a <i>Relative property</i> of a fluid, whereby it may + be said to be <i>like</i> or <i>unlike</i> to this or that other body, + whereby it <i>does</i> or <i>does not mix</i> with this or that body. We + will again have recourse to our former Experiment, though but a rude one; + and here if we mix in the dish <i>several kinds</i> of sands, some of + <i>bigger</i>, others of <i>less</i> and finer bulks, we shall find that + by the agitation <i>the fine sand</i> will <i>eject</i> and <i>throw + out</i> of it self all those <i>bigger</i> bulks of small <i>stones</i> + and the like, and those will <i>be gathered</i> together all into + <i>one</i> place; and if there be <i>other</i> bodies in it of other + natures, those also will be <i>separated</i> into a place by themselves, + and <i>united</i> or <i>tumbled</i> up together. And though this do not + come up to the <i>highest property</i> of <i>Congruity</i>, which is a + <i>Cohæsion</i> of the parts of the fluid together, or a kind of + <i>attraction</i> and <i>tenacity</i>, yet this does as ’twere + <i>shadow</i> it out, and somewhat resemble it; for just after the same + manner, I suppose the <i>pulse</i> of heat to <i>agitate</i> the small + parcels of matter, and those that are of a <i>like bigness</i>, and + <i>figure</i>, and <i>matter</i>, will <i>hold</i>, or <i>dance</i> + together, and those which are of a <i>differing</i> kind will be + <i>thrust</i> or <i>shov’d</i> out from between them; for particles that + are <i>similar</i>, will, like so many <i>equal musical strings equally + stretcht</i>, vibrate together in a kind of <i>Harmony</i> or + <i>unison</i>; whereas others that are <i>dissimilar</i>, upon what + account soever, unless the disproportion be otherwise counter-ballanc’d, + will, like so many <i>strings out of tune</i> to those unisons, though + they have the same agitating <i>pulse</i>, yet make quite + <i>differing</i> kinds of <i>vibrations</i> and <i>repercussions</i>, so + that though they may be both mov’d, yet are their <i>vibrations</i> so + <i>different</i>, and so <i>untun’d</i>, as ’twere to each other, that + they <i>cross</i> and <i>jar</i> against each other, and consequently, + <i>cannot agree</i> together, but <i>fly back</i> from each other to + their similar particles. Now, to give you an instance how the + <i>disproportion</i> of some bodies in one respect, may be + <i>counter-ballanc’d</i> by a <i>contrary disproportion</i> of the same + body in another respect, whence we find that the subtil <i>vinous + spirit</i> is <i>congruous</i>, or does readily <i>mix</i> with + <i>water</i>, which in many properties is of a very <i>differing + nature</i>, we may consider that a <i>unison</i> may be made either by + two <i>strings</i> of the same <i>bigness</i>, <i>length</i>, and + <i>tension</i>, or by two strings of the same <i>bigness</i>, but of + <i>differing length</i>, and a <i>contrary differing tension</i>, or + <i>3ly.</i> by two strings of <i>unequal length</i> and <i>bigness</i>, + and of a <i>differing tension</i>, or of <i>equal length</i>, and + <i>differing bigness</i> and <i>tension</i>, and several other such + varieties. To which <i>three properties</i> in <i>strings</i>, will + correspond <i>three proprieties</i> also in <i>sand</i>, or the + <i>particles</i> of bodies, their <i>Matter</i> or <i>Substance</i>, + their <i>Figure</i> or <i>Shape</i>, and their <i>Body</i> or + <i>Bulk</i>. And from the <i>varieties</i> of these <i>three</i>, may + arise <i>infinite varieties</i> in fluid bodies, though all agitated by + the <i>same pulse</i> or <i>vibrative</i> motion. And there may be as + many ways of making Harmonies and Discords with these, as + there may be with <i>musical strings</i>. Having therefore seen what is + the cause of Congruity or Incongruity, those relative properties of + fluids, we may, from what has been said, very easily collect, what is the + <i>reason</i> of those Relative proprieties also between <i>fluid + bodies</i> and <i>solid</i>; for since all bodies consist of + <i>particles</i> of such a <i>Substance</i>, <i>Figure</i>, and + <i>Bulk</i>; but in some they are <i>united</i> together more + <i>firmly</i> then to be <i>loosened</i> from each other by every + <i>vibrative</i> motion (though I imagine that there is no body in the + world, but that some degree of agitation may, as I hinted before, agitate + and loosen the particles so as to make them fluid) those <i>cohering</i> + particles may <i>vibrate</i> in the same manner almost as those that are + <i>loose</i> and become <i>unisons</i> or <i>discords</i>, as I may so + speak, to them. Now that the <i>parts</i> of all <i>bodies</i>, though + never so <i>solid</i>, do yet <i>vibrate</i>, I think we need go no + further for proof, then that <i>all</i> bodies have some <i>degrees</i> + of <i>heat</i> in them, and that there has not been yet found any thing + <i>perfectly cold</i>: Nor can I believe indeed that there is any such + thing in Nature, as a body whose particles are at <i>rest</i>, or + <i>lazy</i> and <i>unactive</i> in the great <i>Theatre</i> of the + <i>World</i>, it being quite <i>contrary</i> to the grand <i>Oeconomy</i> + of the Universe. We see therefore what is the reason of the + <i>sympathy</i> or uniting of some bodies together, and of the + <i>antipathy</i> or flight of others from each other: For + <i>Congruity</i> seems nothing else but a <i>Sympathy</i>, and + <i>Incongruity</i> an <i>Antipathy</i> of bodies, hence <i>similar</i> + bodies once <i>united</i> will not <i>easily part</i>, and + <i>dissimilar</i> bodies once <i>disjoyn’d</i> will not <i>easily + unite</i> again; from hence may be very easily deduc’d the reason of the + <i>suspension</i> of <i>water</i> and <i>Quick-silver</i> above their + usual <i>station</i>, as I shall more at large anon shew.</p> + + <p>These properties therefore (alwayes the concomitants of fluid bodies) + produce these following visible <i>Effects</i>:</p> + + <p>First, They <i>unite</i> the parts of a fluid to its <i>similar</i> + Solid, or keep them <i>separate</i> from its <i>dissimilar</i>. Hence + <i>Quick-silver</i> will (as we noted before) <i>stick</i> to + <i>Gold</i>, <i>Silver</i>, <i>Tin</i>, <i>Lead</i>, &c. and + <i>unite</i> with them: but <i>roul</i> off from <i>Wood</i>, + <i>Stone</i>, <i>Glass</i>, &c. if never so little scituated out of + its <i>horizontal level</i>; and <i>water</i> that will <i>wet salt</i> + and <i>dissolve</i> it, will <i>slip</i> off from <i>Tallow</i>, or the + like, without at all <i>adhering</i>; as it may likewise be observed to + do upon a <i>dusty</i> superficies. And next they cause the parts of + <i>homogeneal fluid</i> bodies readily to <i>adhere</i> together and + <i>mix</i>, and of <i>heterogeneal</i>, to be exceeding <i>averse</i> + thereunto. Hence we find, that <i>two</i> small <i>drops</i> of + <i>water</i>, on any superficies they can roul on, will, if they chance + to touch each other, <i>readily unite</i> and <i>mix</i> into one + 3<sup>d</sup> <i>drop</i>: The like may be observed with two small + <i>Bowls</i> of <i>Quick-silver</i> upon a Table or Glass, provided their + surfaces be not <i>dusty</i>; and with two drops of <i>Oyl</i> upon fair + water, <i>&c.</i> And further, <i>water</i> put unto <i>wine</i>, + <i>salt water</i>, <i>vinegar</i>, <i>spirit</i> of <i>wine</i>, or the + like, does immediately (especially if they be shaken together) + <i>disperse</i> it self all over them. Hence, on the contrary, we also + find, that <i>Oyl of Tartar</i> poured upon <i>Quick-silver</i>, and + <i>Spirit of Wine</i> on that <i>Oyl</i>, and <i>Oyl of Turpentine</i> on + that <i>Spirit</i>, and <i>Air</i> upon that <i>Oyl</i>, though they be + stopt closely up into a Bottle, and <i>shaken</i> never so much, they + will by no means long suffer any of their bigger parts to be + <i>united</i> or included within any of the other Liquors + (by which recited Liquors, may be plainly enough represented the four + <i>Peripatetical Elements</i>, and the more subtil <i>Æther</i> above + all.) From this property ’tis, that a drop of <i>water</i> does not + mingle with, or vanish into <i>Air</i>, but is <i>driven</i> (by that + Fluid equally protruding it on every side) and forc’t into as little a + space as it can possibly be contained in, namely, into a <i>Round + Globule</i>. So likewise a little <i>Air</i> blown under the + <i>water</i>, is <i>united</i> or thrust into a <i>Bubble</i> by the + ambient water. And a parcel of <i>Quick-silver</i> enclosed with + <i>Air</i>, <i>Water</i>, or almost any other <i>Liquor</i>, is + <i>formed</i> into a <i>round Ball</i>.</p> + + <p>Now the cause why all these included Fluids, newly mentioned, or as + many others as are wholly included within a heterogeneous fluid, are not + <i>exactly</i> of a <i>Spherical Figure</i> (seeing that if caused by + these Principles only, it could be of no other) must proceed from some + other kind of <i>pressure</i> against the two opposite flatted sides. + This <i>adventitious</i> or <i>accidental pressure</i> may proceed from + <i>divers causes</i>, and accordingly must <i>diversifie</i> the Figure + of the included heterogeneous fluid: For seeing that a body may be + included either with a fluid only, or only with a solid, or partly with a + fluid, and partly with a solid, or partly with one fluid, and partly with + another; there will be found a very great variety of the terminating + <i>surfaces</i>, much differing from a <i>Spherical</i>, according to the + various resistance or pressure that belongs to each of these encompassing + bodies.</p> + + <p>Which Properties may in general be deduced from two heads, <i>viz.</i> + <i>Motion</i>, and <i>Rest</i>. For, either this Globular Figure is + altered by a <i>natural Motion</i>, such as is <i>Gravity</i>, or a + <i>violent</i>, such as is any <i>accidental motion</i> of the fluids, as + we see in the <i>wind</i> ruffling up the water, and the <i>purlings</i> + of <i>Streams</i>, and <i>foaming</i> of <i>Catarracts</i>, and the like. + Or thirdly, By the <i>Rest</i>, <i>Firmness</i> and <i>Stability</i> of + the ambient <i>Solid</i>. For if the including <i>Solid</i> be of an + <i>angular</i> or any other <i>irregular</i> Form, the included + <i>fluid</i> will be near of the <i>like</i>, as a Pint-<i>Pot</i> full + of <i>water</i>, or a <i>Bladder</i> full of <i>Air</i>. And next, if the + including or included fluid have a greater <i>gravity</i> one than + another, then will the <i>globular</i> Form be deprest into an + <i>Elliptico-spherical</i>: As if, for example, we suppose the Circle + <i>ABCD</i>, in the <i>fourth Figure</i>, to represent a <i>drop of + water</i>, <i>Quick-silver</i>, or the like, included with the <i>Air</i> + or the like, which supposing there were no <i>gravity</i> at all in + either of the <i>fluids</i>, or that the <i>contained</i> and + <i>containing</i> were of the <i>same weight</i>, would be <i>equally + comprest</i> into an exactly <i>spherical</i> body (the ambient fluid + <i>forcing equally</i> against every side of it.) But supposing either a + greater <i>gravity</i> in the included, by reason whereof the parts of it + being <i>prest</i> from <i>A</i> towards <i>B</i>, and thereby the whole + put into <i>motion</i>, and that <i>motion</i> being <i>hindred</i> by + the <i>resistance</i> of the <i>subjacent</i> parts of the ambient, the + <i>globular</i> Figure <i>ADBC</i> will be <i>deprest</i> into the + <i>Elliptico-spherical</i>, <i>EGFH</i>. For the side <i>A</i> is + <i>detruded</i> to <i>E</i> by the <i>Gravity</i>, and <i>B</i> to + <i>F</i> by the <i>resistance</i> of the subjacent medium: and therefore + <i>C</i> must necessarily be thrust to <i>G</i>; and <i>D</i> to + <i>H</i>. Or else, supposing a greater <i>gravity</i> in the + <i>ambient</i>, by whose more then ordinary <i>pressure</i> against the + under side of the included globule; <i>B</i> will be forced to <i>F</i>, + and by its <i>resistance</i> of the motion <i>upwards</i>, the + side <i>A</i> will be <i>deprest</i> to <i>E</i>, and therefore <i>C</i> + being thrust to <i>G</i> and <i>D</i> to <i>H</i>; the <i>globular</i> + Figure by this means also will be made an <i>Elliptico-spherical</i>. + Next if a fluid be included <i>partly</i> with one, and <i>partly</i> + with another fluid, it will be found to be shaped <i>diversly</i>, + according to the proportion of the <i>gravity</i> and <i>incongruity</i> + of the 3 <i>fluids</i> one to another: As in the <i>second Figure</i>, + let the upper <i>MMM</i> be <i>Air</i>, the middle <i>LMNO</i> be common + <i>Oyl</i>, the lower <i>OOO</i> be <i>Water</i>, the <i>Oyl</i> will be + form’d, not into a <i>spherical</i> Figure, such as is represented by the + <i>pricked Line</i>, but into such a Figure as LMNO, whose side LMN will + be of a flatter <i>Elliptical</i> Figure, by reason of the great + disproportion between the <i>Gravity</i> of <i>Oyl</i> and <i>Air</i>, + and the side LOM of a rounder, because of the smaller difference between + the weight of <i>Oyl</i> and <i>Water</i>. Lastly, The <i>globular</i> + Figure will be changed, if the <i>ambient</i> be partly <i>fluid</i> and + partly <i>solid</i>. And here the termination of the incompassed + <i>fluid</i> towards the incompassing is shap’d according to the + proportion of the congruity or incongruity of the <i>fluids</i> to the + <i>solids</i>, and of the gravity and incongruity of the <i>fluids</i> + one to another. As suppose the subjacent <i>medium</i> that hinders an + included fluids descent, be a <i>solid</i>, as let KI, in the <i>fourth + Figure</i>, represent the smooth superficies of a <i>Table</i>; EGFH, a + parcel of <i>running Mercury</i>; the side GFH will be more flatted, + according to the proportion of the incongruity of the <i>Mercury</i> and + <i>Air</i> to the <i>Wood</i>, and of the <i>gravity</i> of + <i>Mercury</i> and <i>Air</i> one to another; The side GEH will likewise + be a little more deprest by reason the subjacent parts are now at rest, + which were before in motion.</p> + + <p>Or further in the <i>third figure</i>, let AILD represent an including + <i>solid</i> medium of a cylindrical shape (as suppose a small <i>Glass + Jar</i>) Let FGEMM represent a contain’d <i>fluid</i>, as water; this + towards the bottom and sides, is figured according to the concavity of + the <i>Glass</i>: But its upper <i>Surface</i>, (which by reason of its + gravity, (not considering at all the Air above it, and so neither the + congruity or incongruity of either of them to the Glass) should be + terminated by part of a <i>Sphere</i> whose diameter should be the same + with that of the earth, which to our sense would appear a straight + <i>Line</i>, as FGE, Or which by reason of its having a greater congruity + to Glass than Air has, (not considering its Gravity) would be thrust into + a <i>concave Sphere</i>, as CHB, whose diameter would be the same with + that of the concavity of the Vessel:) Its upper Surface, I say, by reason + of its having a greater gravity then the Air, and having likewise a + greater congruity to Glass then the Air has, is terminated, by a + <i>concave Elliptico-spherical Figure</i>, as CKB. For by its congruity + it easily conforms it self, and adheres to the Glass, and constitutes as + it were one containing body with it, and therefore should thrust the + contained Air on that side it touches it, into a <i>spherical</i> Figure, + as BHC, but the motion of Gravity depressing a little the Corners B and + C, reduces it into the aforesaid Figure CKB. Now that it is the greater + congruity of one of the two <i>contiguous fluids</i>, then of the other, + to the containing <i>solid</i>, that causes the separating surfaces to be + thus or thus figured: And that it is not because this or that figurated + surface is more proper, natural, or peculiar to one of these + fluid bodies, then to the other, will appear from this; that the same + <i>fluids</i> will by being put into differing <i>solids</i>, change + their <i>surfaces</i>. For the same water, which in a Glass or wooden + Vessel will have a concave surface upwards, and will rise higher in a + smaller then a greater Pipe, the same water, I say, in the same Pipes + greased over or oyled, will produce quite contrary effects; for it will + have a <i>protuberant</i> and <i>convex</i> surface upwards, and will not + rise so high in small, as in bigger Pipes: Nay, in the very same solid + Vessel, you may make the very same two contiguous <i>Liquids</i> to alter + their Surfaces; for taking a small Wine-glass, or such like Vessel, and + pouring water gently into it, you shall perceive the <i>surface</i> of + the water all the way <i>concave</i>, till it rise even with the top, + when you shall find it (if you gently and carefully pour in more) to grow + very <i>protuberant</i> and <i>convex</i>; the reason of which is plain, + for that the <i>solid</i> sides of the containing body are no longer + extended, to which the water does more readily adhere then the air; but + it is henceforth to be included with air, which would reduce it into a + <i>hemisphere</i>, but by reason of its <i>gravity</i>, it is flatted + into an <i>Oval</i>. <i>Quicksilver</i> also which to <i>Glass</i> is + more incongruous then <i>Air</i> (and thereby being put into a + <i>Glass-pipe</i>, will not adhere to it, but by the more <i>congruous + air</i> will be forced to have a very <i>protuberant</i> surface, and to + rise higher in a greater then a lesser Pipe) this <i>Quicksilver</i> to + clean <i>Metal</i>, especially to <i>Gold</i>, <i>Silver</i>, <i>Tin</i>, + <i>Lead</i>, &c. <i>Iron</i> excepted, is more <i>congruous</i> then + <i>Air</i>, and will not only stick to it, but have a <i>concave</i> + Surface like <i>water</i>, and rise higher in a less, then in a greater + Pipe.</p> + + <p>In all these Examples it is evident, that there is an + <i>extraordinary</i> and <i>adventitious force</i>, by which the + <i>globular</i> Figure of the contained <i>heterogeneous</i> fluid is + altered; neither can it be imagined, how it should otherwise be of any + other Figure then <i>Globular</i>: For being by the <i>heterogeneous</i> + fluid equally <i>protruded</i> every way, whatsoever part is + <i>protuberant</i>, will be thereby <i>deprest</i>. From this cause it + is, that in its effects it does very much resemble a <i>round Spring</i> + (such as a <i>Hoop</i>.) For as in a <i>round Spring</i> there is + required an additional <i>pressure</i> against two opposite sides, to + reduce it into an <i>Oval</i> Form, or to force it in between the sides + of a <i>Hole</i>, whose <i>Diameter</i> is less then that of the + <i>Spring</i>, there must be a considerable force or <i>protrusion</i> + against <i>the concave</i> or inner side of the <i>Spring</i>; So to + alter this <i>spherical</i> constitution of an included fluid body, there + is required more pressure against opposite sides to reduce it into an + <i>Oval</i>; and, to press it into an <i>Hole</i> less in <i>Diameter</i> + then it self, it requires a greater <i>protrusion</i> against all the + other sides, What degrees of force are requisite to reduce them into + longer and longer <i>Ovals</i>, or to press them into less and less + <i>holes</i>, I have not yet experimentally calculated; but thus much by + experiment I find in general, that there is alwayes required a greater + pressure to close them into longer <i>Ovals</i>, or protrude them into + smaller <i>holes</i>. The necessity and reason of this, were it + requisite, I could easily explain: but being not so necessary, and + requiring more room and time then I have for it at present, I shall here + omit it; and proceed to shew, that this may be presently found true, if + Experiment be made with a <i>round Spring</i> (the way of + making which trials is <i>obvious</i> enough.) And with the fluid bodies + of <i>Mercury</i>, <i>Air</i>, <i>&c.</i> the way of trying which, + will be somewhat more difficult; and therefore I shall in brief describe + it. He therefore that would try with <i>Air</i>, must first be provided + of a <i>Glass-pipe</i>, made of the shape of that in the <i>fifth + Figure</i>, whereof the side AB, represents a straight <i>Tube</i> of + about three foot long, C, represents another part of it, which consists + of a <i>round Bubble</i>; so ordered, that there is left a <i>passage</i> + or <i>hole</i> at the top, into which may be fastened with <i>cement</i> + several <i>small Pipes</i> of determinate <i>cylindrical</i> cavities: as + let the <i>hollow</i> of</p> + + +<table class="autotable" summary=""> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"> F.</td> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdl">¼</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"> G.</td> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdl"> ⅙</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdc"> H.</td> +<td class="tdc"></td> +<td class="tdc"> ⅛</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdc"> I.</td> +<td class="tdc"> be</td> +<td class="tdc"> ¹⁄₁₂</td> +<td class="tdc"> of an inch.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdc"> K.</td> +<td class="tdc"></td> +<td class="tdc"> ¹⁄₁₆</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdc"> L.</td> +<td class="tdc"></td> +<td class="tdc"> ¹⁄₂₄</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdc"> M.</td> +<td class="tdc"></td> +<td class="tdc"> ¹⁄₃₂</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdc">&c.——</td> +</tr> +</table> + + <p>There may be added as many more, as the Experimenter shall think fit, + with holes continually decreasing by known quantities, so far as his + senses are able to help him; I say, so far, because there may be made + <i>Pipes</i> so small that it will be impossible to perceive the + <i>perforation</i> with ones naked eye, though by the help of a + <i>Microscope</i>, it may easily enough be perceived: Nay, I have made a + <i>Pipe</i> perforated from end to end, so small, that with my naked eye + I could very hardly see the body of it, insomuch that I have been able to + knit it up into a knot without breaking: And more accurately examining + one with my <i>Microscope</i>, I found it not so big as a sixteenth part + of one of the smaller hairs of my head which was of the smaller and finer + sort of hair, so that sixteen of these <i>Pipes</i> bound faggot-wise + together, would but have equalized one single hair; how small therefore + must its <i>perforation</i> be? It appearing to me through the + <i>Microscope</i> to be a proportionably <i>thick-sided Pipe</i>.</p> + + <p>To proceed then, for the trial of the Experiment, the Experimenter + must place the <i>Tube</i> AB, perpendicular, and fill the <i>Pipe</i> F + (cemented into the hole E) with water, but leave the <i>bubble</i> C full + of <i>Air</i>, and then gently pouring in water into the Pipe AB, he must + observe diligently how high the water will rise in it before it protrude + the <i>bubble</i> of Air C, through the narrow passage of F, and denote + exactly the height of the <i>Cylinder</i> of water, then cementing in a + second Pipe as G, and filling it with water; he may proceed as with the + former, denoting likewise the height of the <i>Cylinder</i> of water, + able to protrude the <i>bubble</i> C through the passage of G, the like + may he do with the next <i>Pipe</i>, and the next, <i>&c.</i> as far + as he is able: then comparing the several heights of the + <i>Cylinders</i>, with the several <i>holes</i> through which each + <i>Cylinder</i> did force the <i>air</i> (having due regard to the + <i>Cylinders</i> of water in the small <i>Tubes</i>) it will be very + easie to determine, what force is requisite to press the <i>Air</i> into + such and such <i>a hole</i>, or (to apply it to our present experiment) + how much of the pressure of the <i>Air</i> is + taken off by its ingress into smaller and smaller <i>holes</i>. From the + application of which to the entring of the <i>Air</i> into the bigger + <i>hole</i> of the <i>Vessel</i>, and into the smaller <i>hole</i> of the + <i>Pipe</i>, we shall clearly find, that there is a greater pressure of + the air upon the water in the <i>Vessel</i> or greater <i>pipe</i>, then + there is upon that in the lesser <i>pipe</i>: For since the pressure of + the <i>air</i> every way is found to be equal, that is, as much as is + able to press up and sustain a <i>Cylinder</i> of <i>Quicksilver</i> of + two foot and a half high, or thereabouts; And since of this pressure so + many more degrees are required to force the <i>Air</i> into a smaller + then into a greater <i>hole</i> that is full of a more congruous fluid. + And lastly, since those degrees that are requisite to press it in, are + thereby taken off from the <i>Air</i> within, and the <i>Air</i> within + left with so many degrees of pressure less then the <i>Air</i> without; + it will follow, that the <i>Air</i> in the less <i>Tube</i> or + <i>pipe</i>, will have less pressure against the superficies of the + <i>water</i> therein, then the <i>Air</i> in the bigger: which was the + minor Proposition to be proved.</p> + + <p>The Conclusion therefore will necessarily follow, <i>viz.</i> That + <i>this unequal pressure of the Air caused by its ingress into unequal + holes, is a cause sufficient to produce this effect, without the help of + any other concurrent</i>; and therefore is probably the principal (if not the + only) cause of these <i>Phænomena</i>.</p> + + <p>This therefore being thus explained, there will be divers + <i>Phænomena</i> explicable thereby, as, the rising of <i>Liquors</i> in + a <i>Filtre</i>, the rising of <i>Spirit of Wine</i>, <i>Oyl</i>, + <i>melted Tallow</i>, <i>&c.</i> in the <i>Week</i> of a <i>Lamp</i>, + (though made of small <i>Wire</i>, <i>Threeds</i> of <i>Asbestus</i>, + <i>Strings</i> of <i>Glass</i>, or the like) the rising of <i>Liquors</i> + in a <i>Spunge</i>, piece of <i>Bread</i>, <i>Sand</i>, <i>&c.</i> + perhaps also the ascending of the <i>Sap</i> in <i>Trees</i> and + <i>Plants</i>, through their small, and some of them <i>imperceptible + pores</i>, (of which I have said more, on another occasion) at least the + passing of it out of the earth into their roots. And indeed upon the + consideration of this Principle, multitudes of other uses of it occurr’d + to me, which I have not yet so well examined and digested as to propound + for <i>Axioms</i>, but only as <i>Queries</i> and <i>Conjectures</i> + which may serve as <i>hints</i> toward some further + <i>discoveries</i>.</p> + + <p>As first, Upon the consideration of the <i>congruity</i> and + <i>incongruity</i> of Bodies, as to <i>touch</i>, I found also the like + <i>congruity</i> and <i>incongruity</i> (if I may so speak) as to the + <i>Transmitting</i> of the <i>Rates</i> of Light: For as in this regard, + <i>water</i> (not now to mention other Liquors) seems nearer of affinity + to <i>Glass</i> then <i>Air</i>, and <i>Air</i> then <i>Quicksilver</i>: + whence an <i>oblique Ray</i> out of <i>Glass</i>, will pass into + <i>water</i> with very little <i>refraction</i> from the + <i>perpendicular</i>, but none out of <i>Glass</i> into <i>Air</i>, + excepting a <i>direct</i>, will pass without a very great refraction from + the perpendicular, nay any oblique Ray under thirty degrees, will not be + admitted into the Air at all. And <i>Quicksilver</i> will neither admit + oblique or direct, but reflects all; seeming, as to the transmitting of + the Raies of Light, to be of a quite differing constitution, from that of + <i>Air</i>, <i>Water</i>, <i>Glass</i>, <i>&c.</i> and to resemble + most those opacous and strong reflecting bodies of Metals: So also as to + the property of cohesion or congruity, Water seems to keep the same + order, being more congruous to Glass then Air, and Air + then Quicksilver.</p> + + <p>A Second thing (which was hinted to me, by the consideration of the + included fluids globular form, caused by the protrusion of the ambient + heterogeneous fluid) was, whether the <i>Phænomena</i> of gravity might + not by this means be explained, by supposing the <i>Globe</i> of Earth, + Water, and Air to be included with a <i>fluid</i>, heterogeneous to all + and each of them, so subtil, as not only to be every where + <i>interspersed</i> through the <i>Air</i>, (or rather the <i>air</i> + through it) but to <i>pervade</i> the bodies of <i>Glass</i>, and even + the <i>closest Metals</i>, by which means it may endeavour to + <i>detrude</i> all earthly bodies as far from it as it can; and partly + thereby, and partly by other of its properties may move them towards the + Center of the Earth. Now that there is some such fluid, I could produce + many Experiments and Reasons, that do seem to prove it: But because it + would ask some time and room to set them down and explain them, and to + consider and answer all the Objections (many whereof I foresee) that may + be alledged against it; I shall at present proceed to other + <i>Queries</i>, contenting my self to have here only given a hint of what + I may say more elswhere.</p> + + <p>A Third <i>Query</i> then was, Whether the <i>heterogeneity</i> of the + <i>ambient fluid</i> may not be accounted a <i>secondary cause</i> of the + <i>roundness</i> or <i>globular form</i> of the <i>greater bodies</i> of + the world, such as are those of the <i>Sun</i>, <i>Stars</i>, and + <i>Planets</i>, the <i>substance</i> of each of which seems altogether + <i>heterogeneous</i> to the <i>circumambient fluid æther</i>? And of + this I shall say more in the Observation of the Moon.</p> + + <p>A Fourth was, Whether the <i>globular form</i> of the <i>smaller + parcels</i> of matter here upon the <i>Earth</i>, as that of + <i>Fruits</i>, <i>Pebbles</i>, or <i>Flints</i>, <i>&c.</i> (which + seem to have been a <i>Liquor</i> at first) may not be caused by the + <i>heterogeneous ambient fluid</i>. For thus we see that melted + <i>Glass</i> will be naturally formed into a <i>round Figure</i>; so + likewise any small Parcel of any <i>fusible body</i>, if it be perfectly + enclosed by the <i>Air</i>, will be driven into a <i>globular</i> Form; + and, when cold, will be found a <i>solid Ball</i>. This is plainly enough + manifested to us by their way of making <i>shot</i> with the <i>drops of + Lead</i>; which being a very pretty curiosity, and known but to a very + few, and having the liberty of publishing it granted me, by that + <i>Eminent Virtuoso</i> Sir <i>Robert Moray</i>, who brought in this + Account of it to the <i>Royal Society</i>, I have here transcribed and + inserted.</p> + +<h3>To make small shot of different sizes; Communicated by his +Highness <i>P.R.</i></h3> + + <p><i>Take Lead out of the Pig what quantity you please, melt it down, + stir and clear it with an iron Ladle, gathering together the blackish + parts that swim at top like scum, and when you see the colour of the + clear Lead to be greenish, but no sooner, strew upon it + </i>Auripigmentum<i> powdered according to the + quantity of Lead, about as much as will lye upon a half Crown piece will + serve for eighteen or twenty pound weight of some sorts of Lead; others + will require more, or less. After the </i>Auripigmentum<i> is put in, + stir the Lead well, and the </i>Auripigmentum<i> will flame: when the + flame is over, take out some of the Lead in a Ladle having a lip or notch + in the brim for convenient pouring out of the Lead, and being well warmed + amongst the melted Lead, and with a stick make some single drops of Lead + trickle out of the Ladle into water in a Glass, which if they fall to be + round and without tails, there is </i>Auripigmentum<i> enough put in, and + the temper of the heat is right, otherwise put in more. Then lay two bars + of Iron (or some more proper Iron-tool made on purpose) upon a Pail of + water, and place upon them a round Plate of Copper, of the size and + figure of an ordinary large Pewter or Silver Trencher, the hollow whereof + is to be about three inches over, the bottom lower then the brims about + half an inch, pierced with thirty, forty, or more small holes; the + smaller the holes are, the smaller the shot will be; and the brim is to + be thicker then the bottom, to conserve the heat the better.</i></p> + + <p><i>The bottom of the Trencher being some four inches distant from the + water in the Pail, lay upon it some burning Coles, to keep the Lead + melted upon it. Then with the hot Ladle take Lead off the Pot where it + stands melted, and pour it softly upon the burning Coles over the bottom + of the Trencher, and it will immediately run through the holes into the + water in small round drops. Thus pour on new Lead still as fast as it + runs through the Trencher till all be done; blowing now and then the + Coles with hand-Bellows, when the Lead in the Trencher cools so as to + stop from running.</i></p> + + <p><i>Whilst one pours on the Lead, another must, with another Ladle, + thrusted four or five inches under water in the Pail, catch from time to + time some of the shot, as it drops down, to see the size of it, and + whether there be any faults in it. The greatest care is to keep the Lead + upon the Trencher in the right degree of heat; if it be too cool, it will + not run through the Trencher, though it stand melted upon it; and this is + to be helped by blowing the Coals a little, or + pouring on new Lead that is hotter: but the cooler the Lead, the larger + the Shot; and the hotter, the smaller; when it is too hot, the drops will + crack and fly; then you must stop pouring on new Lead, and let it cool; + and so long as you observe the right temper of the heat, the Lead will + constantly drop into very round Shot, without so much as one with a tail + in many pounds.</i></p> + + <p><i>When all is done, take your Shot out of the Pail of water, and put + it in a Frying-pan over the fire to dry them, which must be done warily, + still shaking them that they melt not; and when they are dry you may + separate the small from the great, in Pearl Sives made of Copper or + Lattin let into one another, into as many sizes at you please. But if you + would have your Shot larger then the Trencher makes them, you may do it + with a Stick, making them trickle out of the Ladle, as hath been + said.</i></p> + + <p><i>If the Trencher be but toucht a very little when the Lead stops + from going through it, and be not too cool, it will drop again, but it is + better not to touch it at all. At the melting of the Lead take care that + there be no kind of Oyl, Grease, or the like, upon the Pots, or Ladles, + or Trencher.</i></p> + + <p><i>The Chief cause of this Globular Figure of the Shot, seems to be + the </i>Auripigmentum<i>; for, as soon as it is put in among the melted + Lead, it loses its shining brightness, contracting instantly a grayish + film or skin upon it, when you scum it to make it clean with the Ladle. + So that when the Air comes at the falling drop of the melted Lead, that + skin constricts them every where equally: but upon what account, and + whether this be the true cause, is left to further disquisition.</i></p> + + <p>Much after this same manner, when the Air is exceeding cold through + which it passes; do we find the drops of Rain, falling from the Clouds, + congealed into round Hail-stones by the freezing Ambient.</p> + + <p>To which may be added this other known Experiment, That if you gently + let fall a drop of <i>water</i> upon small <i>sand</i> or <i>dust</i>, + you shall find, as it were, an artificial <i>round stone</i> quickly + generated. I cannot upon this occasion omit the mentioning of the strange + kind of <i>Grain</i>, which I have observed in a <i>stone</i> brought + from <i>Kettering</i> in <i>Northamptonshire</i>, and therefore called by + Masons <i>Kettering-Stone</i>, of which see the Description. + Which brings into my mind what I long since observed in the fiery Sparks + that are struck out of a Steel. For having a great desire to see what was + left behind, after the Spark was gone out, I purposely struck fire over a + very white piece of Paper, and observing diligently where some + conspicuous sparks went out, I found a very little black spot no bigger + then the point of a Pin, which through a <i>Microscope</i> appeared to be + a perfectly round Ball, looking much like a polisht ball of Steel, + insomuch that I was able to see the Image of the window reflected from + it. I cannot here stay (having done it more fully in another place) to + examine the particular Reasons of it, but shall only hint, that I imagine + it to be some small parcel of the Steel, which by the violence of the + motion of the stroke (most of which seems to be imprest upon those small + parcels) is made so glowing hot, that it is melted into a <i>Vitrum</i>, + which by the ambient Air is thrust into the form of a Ball.</p> + + <p>A Fifth thing which I thought worth Examination was, Whether the + motion of all kind of Springs, might not be reduced to the Principle + whereby the included <i>heterogeneous fluid</i> seems to be moved; or to + that whereby two Solids, as Marbles, or the like, are thrust and kept + together by the <i>ambient fluid</i>.</p> + + <p>A Sixth thing was, Whether the Rising and Ebullition of the Water out + of Springs and Fountains (which lie much higher from the Center of the + Earth then the Superficies of the Sea, from whence it seems to be + derived) may not be explicated by the rising of Water in a smaller Pipe: + For the Sea-water being strained through the Pores or Crannies of the + Earth, is, as it were, included in little Pipes, where the pressure of + the Air has not so great a power to resist its rising: But examining this + way, and finding in it several difficulties almost irremovable, I thought + upon a way that would much more naturally and conceivably explain it, + which was by this following Experiment: I took a Glass-Tube, of the form + of that described in the sixth Figure, and chusing two <i>heterogeneous + fluids</i>, such as Water and Oyl, I poured in as much Water as filled up + the Pipes as high as AB, then putting in some Oyl into the Tube AC, I + deprest the superficies A of the Water to F, and B I raised to G, which + was not so high perpendicularly as the superficies of the Oyl F, by the + space FI, wherefore the proportion of the gravity of these two Liquors + was as GH to FE.</p> + + <p>This Experiment I tried with several other Liquors, and particularly + with fresh Water and Salt (which I made by dissolving Salt in warm Water) + which two though they are nothing heterogeneous, yet before they would + perfectly mix one with another, I made trial of the Experiment: Nay, + letting the Tube wherein I tried the Experiment remain for many dayes, I + observed them not to mix; but the superficies of the fresh was rather + more then less elevated above that of the Salt. Now the proportion of the + gravity of Sea-water, to that of River-water, according to + <i>Stevinus</i> and <i>Varenius</i>, and as I have since found pretty + true by making trial my self, is as 46. to 45. that is, 46. Ounces of the + salt Water will take up no more room then 45. of the + fresh. Or reciprocally 45 pints of salt-water weigh as much as 46 of + fresh.</p> + + <p>But I found the proportion of Brine to fresh Water to be near 13 to + 12: Supposing therefore GHM to represent the Sea, and FI the height of + the Mountain above the Superficies of the Sea, FM a Cavern in the Earth, + beginning at the bottom of the Sea, and terminated at the top of the + Mountain, LM the Sand at the bottom, through which the Water is as it + were strained, so as that the fresher parts are only permitted to + transude, and the saline kept back; if therefore the proportion of G M to + FM be as 45 to 46, then may the Cylinder of Salt-water GM make the + Cylinder of Fresh-water to rise as high as E, and to run over at N. I + cannot here stand to examine or confute their Opinion, who make the depth + of the Sea, below its Superficies, to be no more perpendicularly measured + then the height of the Mountains above it: ’Tis enough for me to say, + there is no one of those that have asserted it, have experimentally known + the perpendicular of either; nor shall I here determine, whether there + may not be many other causes of the separation of the fresh water from + the salt, as perhaps some parts of the Earth through which it is to pass, + may contain a Salt, that mixing and uniting with the Sea-salt, may + precipitate it; much after the same manner as the <i>Alcalizate</i> and + <i>Acid Salts</i> mix and precipitate each other in the preparation of + <i>Tartarum Vitriolatum.</i> I know not also whether the exceeding cold + (that must necessarily be) at the bottom of the Water, may not help + towards this separation, for we find, that warm Water is able to dissolve + and contain more Salt, then the same cold; insomuch that Brines strongly + impregnated by heat, if let cool, do suffer much of their Salt to subside + and crystallize about the bottom and sides. I know not also whether the + exceeding pressure of the parts of the Water one against another, may not + keep the Salt from descending to the very bottom, as finding little or no + room to insert it self between those parts, protruded so violently + together, or else squeeze it upwards into the superiour parts of the Sea, + where it may more easily obtain room for it self, amongst the parts of + the Water, by reason that there is more heat and less pressure. To this + Opinion I was somewhat the more induced by the relations I have met with + in <i>Geographical Writers</i>, of drawing fresh Water from the bottom of + the Sea, which is salt above. I cannot now stand to examine, whether this + natural perpetual motion may not artificially be imitated: Nor can I + stand to answer the Objections which may be made against this my + Supposition: As, First, How it comes to pass, that there are sometimes + salt Springs much higher then the Superficies of the Water? And, + Secondly, Why Springs do not run faster and slower, according to the + varying height made of the Cylinder of Sea-water, by the ebbing and + flowing of the Sea?</p> + + <p>As to the First, In short, I say, the fresh Water may receive again a + saline Tincture near the Superficies of the Earth, by passing through + some salt <i>Mines</i>, or else many of the saline parts of the Sea may + be kept back, though not all.</p> + + <p>And as to the Second, The same <i>Spring</i> may be fed and supplyed + by divers <i>Caverns</i>, coming from very far distant parts of the + <i>Sea</i>, so as that it may in one place be <i>high</i>, in another + <i>low water</i>; and so by that means the <i>Spring</i> may be equally + supply’d at all times. Or else the <i>Cavern</i> may be so straight and + narrow, that the water not having so ready and free passage through it, + cannot upon so short and quick mutations of pressure, be able to produce + any sensible effect at such a distance. Besides that, to confirm this + <i>hypothesis</i>, there are many <i>Examples</i> found in <i>Natural + Historians</i>, of <i>Springs</i> that do ebb and flow like the Sea: As + particularly, those recorded by the Learned <i>Camden</i>, and after him + by <i>Speed</i>, to be found in this <i>Island</i>: One of which, they + relate to be on the Top of a Mountain, by the small Village <i>Kilken</i> + in <i>Flintshire</i>, <i>Maris æmulus qui statis temporibus suas evomit + & resorbet Aquas</i>; Which at certain times riseth and falleth after + the manner of the Sea. A Second in <i>Caermardenshire</i>, near + <i>Caermarden</i>, at a place called <i>Cantred Bichan</i>; <i>Qui (ut + scribit Giraldus) naturali die bis undis deficiens, & toties + exuberans, marinas imitatur instabilitates</i>; That twice in four and + twenty hours ebbing and flowing; resembleth the unstable motions of the + Sea. The <i>Phænomena</i> of which two may be easily made out, by + supposing the <i>Cavern</i>, by which they are fed, to arise from the + bottom of the next Sea. A Third, is a Well upon the River <i>Ogmore</i> + in <i>Glamorganshire</i>, and near unto <i>Newton</i>, of which + <i>Camden</i> relates himself to be certified, by a Letter from a Learned + Friend of his that observed it, <i>Fons abest hinc, &c.</i> The + Letter is a little too long to be inserted, but the substance is this; + That this Well ebbs and flows quite contrary to the flowing and ebbing of + the Sea in those parts: for ’tis almost empty at Full Sea, but full at + Low water. This may happen from the Channel by which it is supplied, + which may come from the bottom of a Sea very remote from those parts, and + where the Tides are much differing from those of the approximate shores. + A Fourth, lies in <i>Westmorland</i>, near the River <i>Leder</i>; <i>Qui + instar Euripi sæpius in die reciprocantibus undis fluit & + refluit</i>, which ebbs and flows many times a day. This may proceed from + its being supplyed from many Channels, coming from several parts of the + Sea, lying sufficiently distant asunder to have the times of High water + differing enough one from the other; so as that whensoever it shall be + High water over any of those places, where these Channels begin, it shall + likewise be so in the Well; but this is but a supposition.</p> + + <p>A Seventh <i>Query</i> was, Whether the <i>dissolution</i> or mixing + of several bodies, whether fluid or solid, with saline or other Liquors, + might not partly be attributed to this Principle of the congruity of + those bodies and their dissolvents? As of Salt in Water, Metals in + several <i>Menstruums</i>, Unctuous Gums in Oyls, the mixing of Wine and + Water, <i>&c.</i> And whether <i>precipitation</i> be not partly made + from the same Principle of Incongruity? I say <i>partly</i>, because + there are in some Dissolutions, some other Causes concurrent.</p> + + <p>I shall lastly make a much more seemingly strange and unlikely + <i>Query</i>; and that is, Whether this Principle, well examined and + explained, may not be found a <i>coefficient</i> in the + most considerable Operations of Nature? As in those of <i>Heat</i>, and + <i>Light</i>, and consequently of <i>Rarefaction</i> and <i>Condensation</i>, + <i>Hardness</i>, and <i>Fluidness</i>, <i>Perspicuity</i> and + <i>Opacousness</i>, <i>Refractions</i> and <i>Colours. &c.</i> Nay, I + know not whether there may be many things done in Nature, in which this + may not (be said to) have a Finger? This I have in some other passages of + this Treatise further enquired into and shewn, that as well <i>Light</i> + as <i>Heat</i> may be caused by <i>corrosion</i>, which is applicable to + <i>congruity</i>, and consequently all the rest will be but + <i>subsequents</i>: In the mean time I would not willingly be guilty of + that <i>Error</i>, which the thrice Noble and Learned <i>Verulam</i> + justly takes notice of, as such, and calls <i>Philosophiæ Genus + Empiricum, quod in paucorum Experimentorum Angustiis & Obscuritate + fundatum est</i>. For I neither conclude from one single Experiment, nor + are the Experiments I make use of all made upon one Subject: Nor wrest I + any Experiment to make it <i>quadrare</i> with any preconceiv’d Notion. + But on the contrary, I endeavour to be conversant in divers kinds of + Experiments, and all and every one of those Trials, I make the Standards + or Touchstones, by which I try all my former Notions, whether they hold + out in weight, and measure, and touch, <i>&c.</i> For as that Body is + no other then a Counterfeit Gold, which wants any one of the Proprieties + of Gold, (such as are the Malleableness, Weight, Colour, Fixtness in the + Fire, Indissolubleness in <i>Aqua fortis</i>, and the like) though it has + all the other; so will all those Notions be found to be false and + deceitful, that will not undergo all the Trials and Tests made of them by + Experiments. And therefore such as will not come up to the desired + <i>Apex</i> of Perfection, I rather wholly reject and take new, then by + piecing and patching, endeavour to retain the old, as knowing such things + at best to be but lame and imperfect. And this course I learned from + Nature; whom we find neglectful of the old Body, and suffering its + Decaies and Infirmities to remain without repair, and altogether + sollicitous and careful of perpetuating the <i>Species</i> by new + <i>Individuals</i>. And it is certainly the most likely way to erect a + glorious Structure and Temple to <i>Nature</i>, such as she will be found + (by any <i>zealous Votary</i>) to reside in; to begin to build a new upon + a sure Foundation of Experiments.</p> + + <p>But to digress no further from the consideration of the + <i>Phænomena</i>, more immediately explicable by this Experiment, we + shall proceed to shew, That, as to the rising of Water in a + <i>Filtre</i>, the reason of it will be manifest to him, that does take + notice, that a <i>Filtre</i> is constituted of a great number of small + long solid bodies, which lie so close together, that the Air in its + getting in between them, doth lose of its pressure that it has against + the <i>Fluid</i> without them, by which means the Water or Liquor not + finding so strong a resistance between them as is able to + counter-ballance the pressure on its superficies without, is raised + upward, till it meet with a pressure of the Air which is able to hinder + it. And as to the Rising of Oyl, melted Tallow, Spirit of Wine, + <i>&c.</i> in the Week of a Candle or Lamp, it is evident, that it + differs in nothing from the former, save only in this, that in a + <i>Filtre</i> the Liquor descends and runs away by another part; and in + the Week the Liquor is dispersed and carried away by the + Flame; something there is ascribable to the Heat, for that it may rarifie + the more volatil and spirituous parts of those combustible Liquors, and + so being made lighter then the Air, it may be protruded upwards by that + more ponderous fluid body in the Form of Vapours; but this can be + ascribed to the ascension of but a very little, and most likely of that + only which ascends without the Week. As for the Rising of it in a Spunge, + Bread, Cotton, <i>&c.</i> above the superficies of the subjacent + Liquor, what has been said about the <i>Filtre</i> (if considered) will + easily suggest a reason, considering that all these bodies abound with + small holes or pores.</p> + + <p>From this same Principle also (<i>viz. the unequal pressure of the Air + against the unequal superficies of the water</i>) proceeds the cause of + the accession or incursion of any floating body against the sides of the + containing Vessel; or the <i>appropinquation</i> of two floating bodies, + as <i>Bubbles</i>, <i>Corks</i>, <i>Sticks</i>, <i>Straws</i>, + <i>&c.</i> one towards another. As for instance, Take a Glass jar, + such as AB in the seventh <i>Figure</i>, and filling it pretty near the + top with water, throw into it a small round piece of Cork, as C, and + plunge it all over in water, that it be wet, so as that the water may + rise up by the sides of it, then placing it any where upon the + superficies, about an inch, or one inch and a quarter from any side, and + you shall perceive it by degrees to make <i>perpendicularly</i> toward + the nearest part of the side, and the nearer it approaches, the faster to + be moved, the reason of which <i>Phænomenon</i> will be found no other + then this, that the Air has a greater pressure against the middle of the + <i>superficies</i>, then it has against those parts that approach nearer, + and are <i>contiguous</i> to the sides. Now that the pressure is greater, + may (as I shewed before in the explication of the third <i>Figure</i>) be + evinced from the flatting of the water in the middle, which arises from + the gravity of the under <i>fluid</i>: for since, as I shewed before, if + there were no gravity in the under <i>fluid</i>, or that it were equal to + that of the upper, the terminating Surface would be <i>Spherical</i>, and + since it is the additional pressure of the gravity of water that makes it + so flat, it follows, that the pressure upon the middle must be greater + then towards the sides. Hence the Ball having a stronger pressure against + that side of it which respects the middle of the <i>superficies</i>, then + against that which respects the <i>approximate</i> side, must necessarily + move towards that part, from whence it finds least resistance, and so be + <i>accelerated</i>, as the resistance decrease. Hence the more the water + is raised under that part of its way it is passing above the middle, the + faster it is moved: And therefore you will find it to move faster in E + then in D, and in D then in C. Neither could I find the floating + substance to be moved at all, until it were placed upon some part of the + <i>Superficies</i> that was sensibly elevated above the height of the + middle part. Now that this may be the true cause, you may try with a + blown Bladder, and an exactly round Ball upon a very smooth side of some + pliable body, as <i>Horn</i> or <i>Quicksilver.</i> For if the Ball be + placed under a part of the Bladder which is upon one side of the middle + of its pressure, and you press strongly against the Bladder, you shall + find the Ball moved from the middle towards the sides.</p> + + <p>Having therefore shewn the reason of the motion of any float towards + the sides, the reason of the incursion of any two floating bodies will + easily appear: For the rising of the water against the sides of either of + them, is an Argument sufficient, to shew the pressure of the Air to be + there less, then it is further from it, where it is not so much elevated; + and therefore the reason of the motion of the other toward it, will be + the same as towards the side of the Glass, only here from the same + reason, they are mutually moved toward each other, whereas the side of + the Glass in the former remains fixt. If also you gently fill the Jar so + full with water, that the water is <i>protuberant</i> above the sides, + the same piece of Cork that before did hasten towards the sides, does now + fly from it as fast towards the middle of the Superficies; the reason of + which will be found no other then this, that the pressure of the Air is + stronger against the sides of the Superficies G and H, then against the + middle I; for since, as I shewed before, the Principle of congruity would + make the terminating Surface Spherical, and that the flatting of the + Surface in the middle is from the abatement of the waters pressure + outwards, by the contrary indeavour of its gravity; it follows that the + pressure in the middle must be less then on the sides; and therefore the + consecution will be the same as in the former. It is very odd to one that + considers not the reason of it, to see two floating bodies of wood to + approach each other, as though they were indued with some magnetical + vigour; which brings into my mind what I formerly tried with a piece of + Cork or such like body, which I so ordered, that by putting a little + stick into the same water, one part of the said Cork would approach and + make toward the stick, whereas another would discede and fly away, nay it + would have a kind of verticity, so as that if the <i>Æquator</i> (as I + may so speak) of the Cork were placed towards the stick, if let alone, it + would instantly turn its appropriate Pole toward it, and then run a-tilt + at it: and this was done only by taking a dry Cork, and wetting one side + of it with one small stroak; for by this means gently putting it upon the + water, it would depress the superficies on every side of it that was dry, + and therefore the greatest pressure of the Air, being near those sides, + caused it either to chase away, or else to fly off from any other + floating body, whereas that side only, against which the water ascended, + was thereby able to attract.</p> + + <p>It remains only, that I should determine how high the Water or other + Liquor may by this means be raised in a smaller Pipe above the + Superficies of that without it, and at what height it may be sustained: + But to determine this, will be exceeding difficult, unless I could + certainly know how much of the Airs pressure is taken off by the smalness + of such and such a Pipe, and whether it may be wholly taken off, that is, + whether there can be a hole or pore so small, into which Air could not at + all enter, though water might with its whole force, for were there such, + ’tis manifest, that the water might rise in it to some five or six and + thirty English Foot high. I know not whether the capillary Pipes in the + bodies of small Trees, which we call their <i>Microscopical pores</i>, + may not be such; and whether the congruity of the sides of the Pore may + not yet draw the juyce even higher then the Air was + able by its bare pressure to raise it: For, Congruity is a principle that + not only unites and holds a body joyned to it, but, which is more, + attracts and draws a body that is very near it, and holds it above its + usual height.</p> + + <p>And this is obvious even in a drop of water suspended under any + Similar or Congruous body: For, besides the ambient pressure that helps + to keep it sustein’d, there is the Congruity of the bodies that are + contiguous. This is yet more evident in Tenacious and Glutinous bodies; + such as Gummous Liquors, Syrups, Pitch, and Rosin melted, <i>&c.</i> + Tar, Turpentine, Balsom, Birdlime, <i>&c.</i> for there it is + evident, that the Parts of the tenacious body, as I may so call it, do + stick and adhere so closely together, that though drawn out into long and + very slender Cylinders, yet they will not easily relinquish one another; + and this, though the bodies be <i>aliquatenus</i> fluid, and in motion by + one another, which, to such as consider a fluid body only as its parts + are in a confused irregular motion, without taking in also the congruity + of the parts one among another, and incongruity to some other bodies, + does appear not a little strange. So that besides the incongruity of the + ambient fluid to it, we are to consider also the congruity of the parts + of the contein’d fluid one with another.</p> + + <p>And this Congruity (that I may here a little further explain it) is + both a Tenacious and an Attractive power; for the Congruity, in the + Vibrative motions, may be the cause of all kind of attraction, not only + Electrical, but Magnetical also, and therefore it may be also of Tenacity + and Glutinousness. For, from a perfect congruity of the motions of two + distant bodies, the intermediate fluid particles are separated and droven + away from between them, and thereby those congruous bodies are, by the + incompassing mediums, compell’d and forced neerer together; wherefore + that attractiveness must needs be stronger, when, by an immediate + contact, they are forc’d to be exactly the same: As I shew more at large + in my <i>Theory</i> of the <i>Magnet</i>. And this hints to me the reason + of the suspension of the <i>Mercury</i> many inches, nay many feet, above + the usual station of 30 inches. For the parts of <i>Quick-Silver</i>, + being so very similar and congruous to each other, if once united, will + not easily suffer a divulsion: And the parts of water, that were any + wayes <i>heterogeneous</i>, being by <i>exantlation</i> or rarefaction + exhausted, the remaining parts being also very similar, will not easily + part neither. And the parts of the Glass being solid, are more + difficultly disjoyn’d; and the water, being somewhat similar to both, is, + as it were, a medium to unite both the <i>Glass</i> and the + <i>Mercury</i> together. So that all three being united, and not very + dissimilar, by means of this contact, if care be taken that the Tube in + erecting be not shogged, the <i>Quicksilver</i> will remain suspended, + notwithstanding its contrary indeavour of Gravity, a great height above + its ordinary Station; but if this immediate Contact be removed, either by + a meer separation of them one from another by the force of a shog, + whereby the other becomes imbodied between them, and licks up from the + surface some agil parts, and so hurling them makes them air, or else + by some small heterogeneous agil part of the + Water, or Air, or Quicksilver, which appears like a bubble, and by its + jumbling to and fro there is made way for the <i>heterogeneous Æther</i> + to obtrude it self between the Glass and either of the other Fluids, the + Gravity of <i>Mercury precipitates</i> it downward with very great + violence; and if the Vessel that holds the restagnating <i>Mercury</i> be + convenient, the <i>Mercury</i> will for a time <i>vibrate</i> to and fro + with very large <i>reciprocations</i>, and at last will remain kept up by + the pressure of the external Air at the height of neer thirty inches. And + whereas it may be objected, that it cannot be, that the meer imbodying of + the <i>Æther</i> between these bodies can be the cause, since the + <i>Æther</i> having a free passage alwayes, both through the Pores of the + Glass, and through those of the Fluids, there is no reason why it should + not make a separation at all times whilst it remains suspended, as when + it is violently disjoyned by a shog. To this I answer, That though the + <i>Æther</i> passes between the Particles, that is, through the Pores of + bodies, so as that any chasm or separation being made, it has infinite + passages to admit its entry into it, yet such is the tenacity or + attractive virtue of Congruity, that till it be overcome by the meer + strength of Gravity, or by a shog assisting that Conatus of Gravity, or + by an agil Particle, that is like a leaver agitated by the <i>Æther</i>; + and thereby the parts of the congruous substances are separated so far + asunder, that the strength of congruity is so far weakened, as not to be + able to reunite them, the parts to be taken hold of being removed out of + the attractive Sphere, as I may so speak, of the congruity; such, I say, + is the tenacity of congruity, that it retains and holds the almost + contiguous Particles of the Fluid, and suffers them not to be separated, + till by meer force that attractive or retentive faculty be overcome: But + the separation being once made beyond the Sphere of the attractive + activity of congruity, that virtue becomes of no effect at all, but the + <i>Mercury</i> freely falls downwards till it meet with a resistance from + the pressure of the <i>ambient</i> Air, able to resist its gravity, and + keep it forced up in the Pipe to the height of about thirty inches.</p> + + <p>Thus have I gently raised a Steel <i>pendulum</i> by a Loadstone to a + great Angle, till by the shaking of my hand I have chanced to make a + separation between them, which is no sooner made, but as if the Loadstone + had retained no attractive virtue, the <i>Pendulum</i> moves freely from + it towards the other side. So vast a difference is there between the + attractive virtue of the <i>Magnet</i> when it acts upon a contiguous and + upon a disjoyned body: and much more must there be between the attractive + virtues of congruity upon a contiguous and disjoyned body; and in truth + the attractive virtue is so little upon a body disjoyned, that though I + have with a <i>Microscope</i> observed very diligently, whether there + were any extraordinary <i>protuberance</i> on the side of a drop of water + that was exceeding neer to the end of a green stick, but did not touch + it, I could not perceive the least; though I found, that as soon as ever + it toucht it the whole drop would presently unite it self with it; so + that it seems an absolute contact is requisite to the exercising of the + tenacious faculty of congruity.<br /></p> +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class='chapter' /> +<h2>Observ. <a name="obsVII" id="obsVII">VII</a>. <i>Of some </i>Phænomena<i> of Glass drops.</i></h2> + + <p>These <i>Glass Drops</i> are small parcels of coarse green Glass taken + out of the Pots that contain the <i>Metal</i> (as they call it) in + fusion, upon the end of an Iron Pipe; and being exceeding hot, and + thereby of a kind of sluggish fluid Consistence, are suffered to drop from + thence into a Bucket of cold Water, and in it to lye till they be grown + sensibly cold.</p> + + <p>Some of these I broke in the open air, by snapping off a little of the + small stem with my fingers, others by crushing it with a small pair of + Plyers; which I had no sooner done, then the whole bulk of the drop flew + violently, with a very brisk noise, into multitudes of small pieces, some + of which were as small as dust, though in some there were remaining + pieces pretty large, without any flaw at all, and others very much + flaw’d, which by rubbing between ones fingers was easily reduced to dust; + these dispersed every way so violently, that some of them pierced my + skin. I could not find, either with my naked Eye, or a <i>Microscope</i>, + that any of the broken pieces were of a regular figure, nor any one like + another, but for the most part those that flaw’d off in large pieces were + prettily branched.</p> + + <p>The ends of others of these drops I nipt off whilst all the bodies and + ends of them lay buried under the water, which, like the former, flew all + to pieces with as brisk a noise, and as strong a motion.</p> + + <p>Others of these I tried to break, by grinding away the blunt end, and + though I took a seemingly good one, and had ground away neer two thirds + of the Ball, yet would it not fly to pieces, but now and then some small + rings of it would snap and fly off, not without a brisk noise and quick + motion, leaving the Surface of the drop whence it flew very prettily + branched or creased, which was easily discoverable by the + <i>Microscope</i>. This drop, after I had thus ground it, without at all + impairing the remnant that was not ground away, I caused to fly + immediately all into sand upon the nipping off the very tip of its + slender end.</p> + + <p>Another of these drops I began to grind away at the smaller end, but + had not worn away on the stone above a quarter of an inch before the + whole drop flew with a brisk crack into sand or small dust; nor would it + have held so long, had there not been a little flaw in the piece that I + ground away, as I afterwards found.</p> + + <p>Several others of these drops I covered over with a thin but very tuff + skin of <i>Icthyocolla</i>, which being very tough and very transparent, + was the most convenient substance for these tryals that I could imagine, + having dipt, I say, several of these drops in this transparent Glue + whilst hot, and suffering them to hang by a string tied about the end of + them till they were cold, and the skin pretty tough; then wrapping all + the body of the drop (leaving out only the very tip) in fine + supple Kids-leather very closely, I nipped off the small top, and found, + as I expected, that notwithstanding this skin of Glue, and the close + wrapping up in Leather, upon the breaking of the top, the drop gave a + crack like the rest, and gave my hand a pretty brisk impulse: but yet the + skin and leather was so strong as to keep the parts from flying out of + their former posture; and, the skin being transparent, I found that the + drop retained exactly its former figure and polish, but was grown + perfectly opacous and all over flaw’d, all those flaws lying in the + manner of rings, from the bottom or blunt end, to the very top or small + point. And by several examinations with a <i>Microscope</i>, of several + thus broken, I found the flaws, both within the body of the drop, and on + the outward surface, to lye much in this order.</p> + +<div class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-04.png"><i>Schem.</i> 4.</a><br /><i>Fig.</i> X. +</div> + + <p>Let AB in the Figure X of the fourth Scheme represent the drop cased + over with <i>Icthyocolla</i> or <i>Isinglass</i>, (by being ordered as is + before prescribed) crazed or flawed into pieces, but by the skin or case + kept in its former figure, and each of its flawed parts preserved exactly + in its due posture; the outward appearance of it somewhat plainly to the + naked eye, but much more conspicuous if viewed with a small lens appeared + much after this shape. That is, the blunt end B for a pretty breadth, + namely, as far as the Ring CCC seemed irregularly flawed with divers + clefts, which all seemed to tend towards the Center of it, being, as I + afterwards found, and shall anon shew in the description of the figure Y, + the Basis, as it were, of a Cone, which was terminated a little above the + middle of the drop, all the rest of the Surface from CCC to A was flawed + with an infinite number of small and parallel Rings, which as they were + for the most part very round, so were they very thick and close together, + but were not so exactly flaw’d as to make a perfect Ring, but each + circular part was by irregular cracks flawed likewise into multitudes of + irregular flakes or tiles; and this order was observed likewise the whole + length of the neck.</p> + + <p>Now though I could not so exactly cut this <i>conical Body</i> through + the <i>Axis</i>, as is represented by the figure Y; yet by + <i>anatomizing</i>, as it were, of several, and taking notice of divers + particular circumstances, I was informed, that could I have artificially + divided a flaw’d drop through the <i>Axis</i> or <i>Center</i>, I should + with a <i>Microscope</i> have found it to appear much of this form, where + A signifies the <i>Apex</i>, and B the blunt end, CC the Cone of the + Basis, which is terminated at T the top or end of it, which seems to be + the very middle of the blunt end in which, not only the conical body of + the Basis CC is terminated, but as many of the parts of the drop as reach + as high as DD.</p> + + <p>And it seemed to be the head or beginning of a Pith, as it were, or a + part of the body which seemed more spungy then the rest, and much more + irregularly flawed, which from T ascended by EE, though less visible, + into the small neck towards A. The Grain, as it were, of all the flaws, + that proceeds from all the outward Surface ADCCDA, was much the same, as + is represented by the black strokes that meet in the middle DT, DT, DE, + DE, <i>&c.</i></p> + + <p>Nor is this kind of Grain, as I may call it, peculiar to Glass drops + thus quenched; for (not to mention <i>Coperas-stones</i>, and divers + other <i>Marchasites</i> and <i>Minerals</i>, which I have often taken + notice of to be in the very same manner flaked or grained, with a kind of + Pith in the middle) I have observed the same in all manner of cast Iron, + especially the coarser sort, such as Stoves, and Furnaces, and Backs, and + Pots are made of: For upon the breaking of any of those Substances it is + obvious to observe, how from the out-sides towards the middle, there is a + kind of Radiation or Grain much resembling this of the Glass-drop; but + this Grain is most conspicuous in Iron-bullets, if they be broken: the + same <i>Phænomena</i> may be produced by casting <i>regulus</i> of + <i>Antimony</i> into a Bullet-mold, as also with <i>Glass of + Antimony</i>, or with almost any such kind of <i>Vitrified substance</i>, + either cast into a cold Mold or poured into Water.</p> + + <p>Others of these Drops I heat red hot in the fire, and then suffered + them to cool by degrees. And these I found to have quite lost all their + <i>fulminating</i> or flying quality, as also their hard, brittle and + springy texture; and to emerge of a much softer temper, and much easier + to be broken or snapt with ones finger; but its strong and brittle + quality was quite destroyed, and it seemed much of the same consistence + with other green Glass well nealed in the Oven.</p> + + <p>The Figure and bigness of these for the most part was the same with + that of the Figure Z; that is, all the surface of them was very smooth + and polisht, and for the most part round, but very rugged or knobbed + about D, and all the length of the stem was here and there pitted or + flatted. About D, which is at the upper part of the drop under that side + of the stem which is concave, there usually was made some one or more + little Hillocks or Prominences. The drop it self, before it be broken, + appears very transparent, and towards the middle of it, to be very full + of small Bubbles, of some kind of aerial substance, which by the + refraction of the outward surface appear much bigger then really they + are; and this may be in good part removed, by putting the drop under the + surface of clear Water, for by that means most part of the refraction of + the convex Surface of the drop is destroyed, and the bubbles will appear + much smaller. And this, by the by, minds me of the appearing magnitude of + the <i>aperture</i> of the <i>iris</i>, or <i>pupil</i> of the eye, which + though it appear, and be therefore judged very large, is yet not above a + quarter of the bigness it appears of, by the <i>lenticular</i> refraction + of the <i>Cornea</i>.</p> + + <p>The cause of all which <i>Phænomena</i> I imagine to be no other then + this, That the Parts of the Glass being by the excessive heat of the fire + kept off and separated one from another, and thereby put into a kind of + sluggish fluid Consistence, are suffered to drop off with that heat or + agitation remaining in them, into cold Water; by which means the outsides + of the drop are presently cool’d and <i>crusted</i>, and are thereby made + of a loose texture, because the parts of it have not time to settle + themselves leisurely together, and so to lie very close together: And the + innermost parts of the drop, retaining still much of their former heat + and agitations, remain of a loose texture also, and, + according as the cold strikes inwards from the bottom and sides, are + quenched, as it were, and made rigid in that very posture wherein the + cold finds them. For the parts of the <i>crust</i> being already + hardened, will not suffer the parts to shrink any more from the outward + Surface inward; and though it shrink a little by reason of the small + parcels of some Aerial substances dispersed through the matter of the + Glass, yet that is not neer so much as it appears (as I just now hinted;) + nor if it were, would it be sufficient for to consolidate and condense + the body of Glass into a <i>tuff</i> and close <i>texture</i>, after it + had been so excessively rarified by the heat of the glass-Furnace.</p> + + <p>But that there may be such an expansion of the aerial substance + contained in those little <i>blebbs</i> or bubbles in the body of the + drop, this following Experiment will make more evident.<br /></p> +<hr /> + + <p>Take a small Glass-Cane about a foot long, seal up one end of it + <i>hermetically</i>, then put in a very small bubble of Glass, almost of + the shape of an Essence-viol with the open mouth towards the sealed end, + then draw out the other end of the Pipe very small, and fill the whole + Cylinder with water, then set this Tube by the Fire till the Water begin + to boyl, and the Air in the bubble be in good part rarified and driven + out, then by sucking at the smalling Pipe, more of the Air or vapours in + the bubble may be suck’d out, so that it may sink to the bottom; when it + is sunk to the bottom, in the flame of a Candle, or Lamp, nip up the + slender Pipe and let it cool: whereupon it is obvious to observe, first, + that the Water by degrees will subside and shrink into much less room: + Next, that the Air or vapours in the Glass will expand themselves so, as + to buoy up the little Glass: Thirdly, that all about the inside of the + Glass-pipe there will appear an infinite number of small bubbles, which + as the Water grows colder and colder will swell bigger and bigger, and + many of them buoy themselves up and break at the top.</p> + + <p>From this <i>Disceding</i> of the heat in Glass drops, that is, by the + quenching or cooling Irradiations propagated from the Surface upwards and + inwards, by the lines CT, CT, DT, DE, <i>&c.</i> the bubbles in the + drop have room to expand themselves a little, and the parts of the Glass + contract themselves; but this operation being too quick for the sluggish + parts of the Glass, the contraction is performed very unequally and + irregularly, and thereby the Particles of the Glass are bent, some one + way, and some another, yet so as that most of them draw towards the Pith + or middle TEEE, or rather from that outward: so that they cannot + <i>extricate</i> or unbend themselves, till some part of TEEE be broken + and loosened, for all the parts about that are placed in the manner of an + Arch, and so till their hold at TEEE be loosened they cannot fly asunder, + but uphold, and shelter, and fix each other much like the stones in a + Vault, where each stone does concurre to the stability of the whole + Fabrick, and no one stone can be taken away but the whole Arch falls. And + wheresoever any of those radiating wedges DTD, &c. are removed, which + are the component parts of this Arch, the whole Fabrick presently falls + to pieces; for all the Springs of the several + parts are set at liberty, which immediately extricate themselves and fly + asunder every way; each part by its spring contributing to the darting of + it self and some other contiguous part. But if this drop be heat so hot + as that the parts by degrees can unbend themselves, and be settled and + annealed in that posture, and be then suffered gently to subside and + cool; The parts by this nealing losing their springiness, constitute a + drop of a more soft but less brittle texture, and the parts being not at + all under a flexure, though any part of the middle or Pith TEEE be + broken, yet will not the drop at all fly to pieces as before.</p> + + <p>This Conjecture of mine I shall indeavour to make out by explaining + each particular Assertion with <i>analogous</i> Experiments: The + Assertions are these.</p> + +<blockquote> + <p>First, That the parts of the Glass, whilst in a fluid Consistence and + hot, are more rarified, or take up more room, then when hard and + cold.</p> + + <p>Secondly, That the parts of the drop do suffer a two-fold + contraction.</p> + + <p>Thirdly, That the dropping or quenching the glowing metal in the Water + makes it of a hard, springing, and rarified texture.</p> + + <p>Fourthly, That there is a flexion or force remaining upon the parts of + the Glass thus quenched, from which they indeavour to extricate + themselves.</p> + + <p>Fifthly, That the Fabrick of the drop, that is able to hinder the + parts from extricating themselves, is <i>analogus</i> to that of an + Arch.</p> + + <p>Sixthly, That the sudden flying asunder of the parts proceeds from + their springiness.</p> + + <p>Seventhly, That a gradual heating and cooling does anneal or reduce + the parts of Glass to a texture that is more loose, and easilier to be + broken, but not so brittle.</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>That the first of these is true may be gathered from this, That + <i>Heat is a property of a body arising from the motion or agitation of + its parts</i>; and therefore whatever body is thereby toucht must + necessarily receive some part of that motion, whereby its parts will be + shaken and agitated, and so by degrees free and extricate themselves from + one another, and each part so moved does by that motion <i>exert</i> a + <i>conatus</i> of <i>protruding</i> and displacing all the adjacent + Particles. Thus Air included in a vessel, by being heated will burst it + to pieces. Thus have I broke a Bladder held over the fire in my hand, + with such a violence and noise, that it almost made me deaf for the + present, and much surpassed the noise of a Musket: The like have I done + by throwing into the fire small glass Bubbles hermetically sealed, with a + little drop of Water included in them. Thus Water also, or any other + Liquor, included in a convenient vessel, by being warmed, manifestly + expands it self with a very great violence, so as to break the strongest + vessel, if when heated it be narrowly imprisoned in it. + This is very manifest by the <i>Sealed Thermometers</i>, which I have, by + several tryals, at last brought to a great certainty and tenderness: for + I have made some with stems above four foot long, in which the expanding + Liquor would so far vary, as to be very neer the very top in the heat of + Summer, and prety neer the bottom at the coldest time of the Winter. The + Stems I use for them are very thick, straight, and even Pipes of Glass, + with a very small <i>perforation</i>, and both the head and body I have + made on purpose at the Glass-house, of the same metal whereof the Pipes + are drawn: these I can easily in the flame of a Lamp, urged with the + blast of a pair of Bellows, seal and close together, so as to remain very + firm, close and even; by this means I joyn on the body first, and then + fill both it and a part of the stem, proportionate to the length of the + stem and the warmth of the season I fill it in with the best rectified + <i>Spirit of Wine</i> highly <i>ting’d</i> with the lovely colour of + <i>Cocheneel</i>, which I deepen the more by pouring some drops of common + <i>Spirit of Urine</i>, which must not be too well rectified, because it + will be apt to make the Liquor to curdle and stick in the small + perforation of the stem. This Liquor I have upon tryal found the most + tender of any spirituous Liquor, and those are much more sensibly + affected with the variations of heat and cold then other more flegmatick + and ponderous Liquors, and as capable of receiving a deep tincture, and + keeping it, as any Liquor whatsoever; and (which makes it yet more + acceptable) is not subject to be frozen by any cold yet known. When I + have thus filled it, I can very easily in the forementioned flame of a + Lamp seal and joyn on the head of it.</p> + + <p>Then, for graduating the stem, I fix that for the beginning of my + division where the surface of the liquor in the stem remains when the + ball is placed in common distilled water, that is so cold that it just + begins to freeze and shoot into flakes; and that mark I fix at a + convenient place of the stem, to make it capable of exhibiting very many + degrees of cold, below that which is requisite to freeze water: the rest + of my divisions, both above and below this (which I mark with a [0] or + nought) I place according to the Degrees of <i>Expansion</i>, or + <i>Contraction</i> of the Liquor in proportion to the bulk it had when it + indur’d the newly mention’d freezing cold. And this may be very easily + and accurately enough done by this following way; Prepare a Cylindrical + vessel of very thin plate Brass or Silver, ABCD of the figure Z; the + Diameter AB of whose cavity let be about two inches, and the depth BC the + same; let each end be cover’d with a flat and smooth plate of the same + substance, closely soder’d on, and in the midst of the upper cover make a + pretty large hole EF, about the bigness of a fifth part of the Diameter + of the other; into this fasten very well with cement a straight and even + Cylindrical pipe of Glass, EFGH, the Diameter of whose cavity let be + exactly one tenth of the Diameter of the greater Cylinder. Let this pipe + be mark’d at GH with a Diamant, so that G from E may be distant just two + inches, or the same height with that of the cavity of the greater + Cylinder, then divide the length EG exactly into 10 parts, so the + capacity of the hollow of each of these divisions will be ¹⁄₁₀₀₀ part of + the capacity of the greater Cylinder. This vessel + being thus prepared, the way of marking and graduating the + <i>Thermometers</i> may be very easily thus performed:</p> + + <p>Fill this Cylindrical vessel with the same liquor wherewith the + <i>Thermometers</i> are fill’d, then place both it and the + <i>Thermometer</i> you are to <i>graduate</i>, in water that is ready to + be frozen, and bring the surface of the liquor in the <i>Thermometer</i> + to the first marke or [0]; then so proportion the liquor in the + Cylindrical vessel, that the surface of it may just be at the lower end + of the small glass-Cylinder; then very gently and gradually warm the + water in which both the <i>Thermometer</i> and this Cylindrical vessel + stand, and as you perceive the ting’d liquor to rise in both stems, with + the point of a Diamond give several marks on the stem of the + <i>Thermometer</i> at those places, which by comparing the expansion in + both Stems, are found to correspond to the divisions of the cylindrical + vessel, and having by this means marked some few of these divisions on + the Stem, it will be very easie by these to mark all the rest of the + Stem, and accordingly to assign to every division a proper character.</p> + + <p>A <i>Thermometer</i>, thus marked and prepared, will be the fittest + Instrument to make a Standard of heat and cold that can be imagined. For + being sealed up, it is not at all subject to variation or wasting, nor is + it liable to be changed by the varying pressure of the Air, which all + other kind of <i>Thermometers</i> that are open to the Air are liable to. + But to proceed.</p> + + <p>This property of Expansion with Heat, and Contraction with Cold, is + not peculiar to Liquors only, but to all kind of solid Bodies also, + especially Metals, which will more manifestly appear by this + Experiment.</p> + + <p>Take the Barrel of a Stopcock of Brass, and let the Key, which is well + fitted to it, be riveted into it, so that it may slip, and be easily + turned round, then heat this Cock in the fire, and you will find the Key + so swollen, that you will not be able to turn it round in the Barrel; but + if it be suffered to cool again, as soon as it is cold it will be as + movable, and as easie to be turned as before.</p> + + <p>This Quality is also very observable in <i>Lead</i>, <i>Tin</i>, + <i>Silver</i>, <i>Antimony</i>, <i>Pitch</i>, <i>Rosin</i>, + <i>Bees-wax</i>, <i>Butter</i>, and the like; all which, if after they be + melted you suffer gently to cool, you shall find the parts of the upper + Surface to subside and fall inwards, losing that plumpness and smoothness + it had whilst in fusion. The like I have also observed in the cooling of + <i>Glass of Antimony</i>, which does very neer approach the nature of + Glass,</p> + + <p>But because these are all Examples taken from other materials then + Glass, and argue only, that possibly there may be the like property also + in Glass, not that really there is; we shall by three or four Experiments + indeavour to manifest that also.</p> + + <p>And the First is an Observation that is very obvious even in these + very drops, to wit, that they are all of them terminated with an unequal + or irregular Surface, especially about the smaller part of the drop, and + the whole length of the stem; as about D, and from thence to A, the whole + Surface, which would have been round if the drop had cool’d leisurely, + is, by being quenched hastily, very irregularly flatted and pitted; which + I suppose proceeds partly from the Waters + unequally cooling and pressing the parts of the drop, and partly from the + self-contracting or subsiding quality of the substance of the Glass: For + the vehemency of the heat of the drop causes such hidden motions and + bubbles in the cold Water, that some parts of the Water bear more + forcibly against one part then against another, and consequently do more + suddenly cool those parts to which they are contiguous.</p> + + <p>A Second Argument may be drawn from the Experiment of cutting Glasses + with a hot Iron. For in that Experiment the top of the Iron heats, and + thereby rarifies the parts of the Glass that lie just before the crack, + whence each of those agitated parts indeavouring to expand its self and + get elbow-room, thrusts off all the rest of the contiguous parts, and + consequently promotes the crack that was before begun.</p> + + <p>A Third Argument may be drawn from the way of producing a crack in a + sound piece or plate of Glass, which is done two wayes, either First, by + suddenly heating a piece of Glass in one place more then in another. And + by this means <i>chymists</i> usually cut off the necks of Glass-bodies, + by two kinds of Instruments, either by a glowing hot round Iron-Ring, + which just incompasses the place that is to be cut, or else by a + <i>Sulphur’d</i> Threed, which is often wound about the place where the + separation is to be made, and then fired. Or Secondly, A Glass may be + cracked by cooling it suddenly in any place with Water, or the like, + after it has been all leisurely and gradually heated very hot. Both which + <i>Phænomena</i> seem manifestly to proceed from the <i>expansion</i> and + contraction of the parts of the Glass, which is also made more probable + by this circumstance which I have observed, that a piece of common + window-glass being heated in the middle very suddenly with a live Coal or + hot Iron, does usually at the first crack fall into pieces, whereas if + the Plate has been gradually heated very hot, and a drop of cold Water + and the like be put on the middle of it, it only flaws it, but does not + break it asunder immediately.</p> + + <p>A Fourth Argument may be drawn from this Experiment; Take a + Glass-pipe, and fit into a solid stick of Glass, so as it will but just + be moved in it. Then by degrees heat them whilst they are one within + another, and they will grow stiffer, but when they are again cold, they + will be as easie to be turned as before. This Expansion of Glass is more + manifest in this Experiment.</p> + + <p>Take a stick of Glass of a considerable length, and fit it so between + the two ends or screws of a Lath, that it may but just easily turn, and + that the very ends of it may be just toucht and susteined thereby; then + applying the flame of the Candle to the middle of it, and heating it hot, + you will presently find the Glass to stick very fast on those points, and + not without much difficulty to be convertible on them, before that by + removing the flame for a while from it, it be suffered to cool, and when + you will find it as easie to be turned round as at the first.</p> + + <p>From all which Experiments it is very evident, that all those Bodies, + and particularly Glass, suffers an Expansion by Heat, and that a very + considerable one, whilst they are in a state of Fusion. + For <i>Fluidity</i>, as I elsewhere mention, <i>being nothing but an + effect of very strong and quick shaking motion, whereby the parts are, as + it were, loosened from each other, and consequently leave an interjacent + space or vacuity</i>; it follows, that all those shaken Particles must + necessarily take up much more room then when they were at rest, and lay + quietly upon each other. And this is further confirmed by a Pot of + <i>boyling Alabaster</i>, which will manifestly rise a sixth or eighth + part higher in the Pot, whilst it is boyling, then it will remain at, + both before and after it be boyled. The reason of which odd + <i>Phænomenon</i> (to hint it here only by the way) is this, that there + is in the curious powder of Alabaster, and other calcining Stones, a + certain watery substance, which is so fixt and included with the solid + Particles, that till the heat be very considerable they will not fly + away; but after the heat is increased to such a degree, they break out + every way in vapours, and thereby so shake and loosen the small corpuscles + of the Powder from each other, that they become perfectly of the nature + of a fluid body, and one may move a stick to and fro through it, and stir + it as easily as water, and the vapours burst and break out in bubbles + just as in boyling water, and the like; whereas, both before those watery + parts are flying away, and after they are quite gone; that is, before and + after it have done boyling, all those effects cease, and a stick is as + difficultly moved to and fro in it as in sand, or the like. Which + Explication I could easily prove, had I time; but this is not a fit place + for it.</p> + + <p>To proceed therefore, I say, that the dropping of this expanded Body + into cold Water, does make the parts of the Glass suffer a double + contraction: The first is, of those parts which are neer the Surface of + the Drop. For Cold, as I said before, contracting Bodies, that is, <i>by + the abatement of the agitating faculty the parts falling neerer + together</i>; the parts next adjoyning to the Water must needs lose much + of their motion, and impart it to the Ambient water (which the Ebullition + and commotion of it manifests) and thereby become a solid and hard crust, + whilst the innermost parts remain yet fluid and expanded; whence, as they + grow cold also by degrees, their parts must necessarily be left at + liberty to be condensed, but because of the hardness of the outward + crust, the contraction cannot be admitted that way; but there being many + very small, and before inconspicuous, bubbles in the substance of the + Glass, upon the subsiding of the parts of the Glass, the agil substance + contained in them has liberty of expanding it self a little, and thereby + those bubbles grow much bigger, which is the second Contraction. And both + these are confirmed from the appearance of the Drop it self: for as for + the outward parts, we see, first, that it is irregular and shrunk, as it + were, which is caused by the yielding a little of the hardened Skin to a + Contraction, after the very outmost Surface is settled; and as for the + internal parts, one may with ones naked Eye perceive abundance of very + conspicuous bubbles, and with the <i>Microscope</i> many more.</p> + + <p>The Consideration of which Particulars will easily make the Third + Position probable, that is, that the parts of the drop will be of a very + hard, though of a rarified Texture; for if the outward parts of the Drop, + by reason of its hard crust, will indure very little Contraction, and the + agil Particles, included in those bubbles, by the losing + of their agitation, by the decrease of the Heat, lose also most part of + their Spring and Expansive power; it follows (the withdrawing of the heat + being very sudden) that the parts must be left in a very loose Texture, + and by reason of the implication of the parts one about another, which + from their sluggishnes and glutinousness I suppose to be much after the + manner of the sticks in a Thorn-bush, or a Lock of Wool; it will follow, + I say, that the parts will hold each other very strongly together, and + indeavour to draw each other neerer together, and consequently their + Texture must be very hard and stiff, but very much rarified.</p> + + <p>And this will make probable my next Position, That <i>the parts of the + Glass are under a kind of tension or flexure, out of which they indeavour + to extricate and free themselves</i>, and thereby all the parts draw + towards the Center or middle, and would, if the outward parts would give + way, as they do when the outward parts cool leisurely (as in baking of + Glasses) contract the bulk of the drop into a much less compass. For + since, as I proved before, the Internal parts of the drop, when fluid, + were of a very rarified Texture, and, as it were, tos’d open like a Lock + of Wool, and if they were suffered leisurely to cool, would be again + prest, as it were, close together: And since that the heat, which kept + them bended and open, is removed, and yet the parts not suffered to get + as neer together as they naturally would; It follows, that the Particles + remain under a kind of <i>tension</i> and <i>flexure</i>, and + consequently have an indeavour to free themselves from that + <i>bending</i> and <i>distension</i>, which they do, as soon as either + the tip be broken, or as soon as by a leisurely heating and cooling, the + parts are nealed into another posture.</p> + + <p>And this will make my next Position probable, that <i>the parts of the + Glass drops are contignated together in the form of an Arch</i>, cannot + any where yield or be drawn inwards, till by the removing of some one + part of it (as it happens in the removing one of the stones of an Arch) + the whole Fabrick is shatter’d, and falls to pieces, and each of the + Springs is left at liberty, suddenly to extricate it self: for since I + have made it probable, that the internal parts of the Glass have a + contractive power inwards, and the external parts are incapable of such a + Contraction, and the figure of it being spherical; it follows, that the + superficial parts must bear against each other, and keep one another from + being condens’d into a less room, in the same manner as the stones of an + Arch conduce to the upholding each other in that Figure. And this is made + more probable by another Experiment which was communicated to me by an + excellent Person, whose extraordinary Abilities in all kind of Knowledg, + especially in that of Natural things, and his generous Disposition in + communicating, incouraged me to have recourse to him on many occasions. + The Experiment was this: Small Glass-balls (about the bigness of that + represented in the <i>Figure &.</i>) would, upon rubbing or + scratching the inward Surface, fly all insunder, with a pretty brisk + noise; whereas neither before nor after the inner Surface had been thus + scratcht, did there appear any flaw or crack. And putting the pieces of + one of those broken ones together again, the flaws appeared much after + the manner of the black lines on the Figure, <i>&.</i> These Balls + were small, but exceeding thick bubbles of Glass, which being crack’d off + from the <i>Puntilion</i> whilst very hot, and so suffered to cool + without nealing them in the Oven over the Furnace, do + thereby (being made of white Glass, which cools much quicker then green + Glass, and is thereby made much brittler) acquire a very <i>porous</i> + and very brittle <i>texture</i>: so that if with the point of a Needle or + Bodkin, the inside of any of them be rubbed prety hard, and then laid on + a Table, it will, within a very little while, break into many pieces with + a brisk noise, and throw the parts above a span asunder on the Table: Now + though the pieces are not so small as those of a <i>fulminating</i> drop, + yet they as plainly shew, that the outward parts of the Glass have a + great <i>Conatus</i> to fly asunder, were they not held together by the + <i>tenacity</i> of the parts of the inward Surface: for we see as soon as + those parts are crazed by hard rubbing, and thereby their tenacity + spoiled, the springiness of the more outward parts quickly makes a + divulsion, and the broken pieces will, if the concave Surface of them be + further scratcht with a Diamond, fly again into smaller pieces.</p> + + <p>From which preceding considerations it will follow Sixthly, That the + sudden flying asunder of the parts as soon as this Arch is any where + disordered or broken, proceeds from the springing of the parts; which, + indeavouring to <i>extricate</i> themselves as soon as they get the + liberty, they perform it with such a quickness, that they throw one + another away with very great violence: for the Particles that compose the + Crust have a <i>Conatus</i> to lye further from one another, and + therefore as soon as the external parts are loosened they dart themselves + outward with great violence, just as so many Springs would do, if they + were detained and fastened to the body, as soon as they should be + suddenly loosened; and the internal parts drawing inward, they contract + so violently; that they rebound back again and fly into multitude of + small shivers or sands. Now though they appear not, either to the naked + Eye, or the <i>Microscope</i>, yet I am very apt to think there may be + abundance of small flaws or cracks, which, by reason the strong + reflecting Air is not got between the <i>contiguous</i> parts, appear + not. And that this may be so, I argue from this, that I have very often + been able to make a crack or flaw, in some convenient pieces of Glass, to + appear and disappear at pleasure, according as by pressing together, or + pulling asunder the contiguous parts, I excluded or admitted the strong + reflecting Air between the parts: And it is very probable, that there may + be some Body, that is either very rarified Air, or something + <i>analogous</i> to it, which fills the bubbles of these drops; which I + argue, first, from the roundness of them, and next, from the vivid + reflection of Light which they exhibite: Now though I doubt not, but that + the Air in them is very much rarified, yet that there is some in them, to + such as well consider this Experiment of the disappearing of a crack upon + the <i>extruding</i> of the Air, I suppose it will seem more then + probable.</p> + + <p>The Seventh and last therefore that I shall prove, is, <i>That the + gradual heating and cooling of these so extended bodies does reduce the + parts of the Glass to a looser and softer temper</i>. And this I found by + heating them, and keeping them for a prety while very red hot in a fire; + for thereby I found them to grow a little lighter, and the small Stems to + be very easily broken and snapt any where, without at all making the drop + fly; whereas before they were so exceeding hard, that they + could not be broken without much difficulty; and upon their breaking the + whole drop would fly in pieces with very great violence. The Reason of + which last seems to be, that the leisurely heating and cooling of the + parts does not only wast some part of the Glass it self, but ranges all + the parts into a better order, and gives each Particle an opportunity of + <i>relaxing</i> its self, and consequently neither will the parts hold so + strongly together as before, nor be so difficult to be broken: The parts + now more easily yielding, nor will the other parts fly in pieces, because + the parts have no bended Springs. The <i>relaxation</i> also in the + temper of hardned Steel, and hammered Metals, by nealing them in the + fire, seems to proceed from much the same cause. For both by quenching + suddenly such Metals as have <i>vitrified</i> parts interspers’d, as Steel + has, and by hammering of other kinds that do not so much abound with + them, as Silver, Brass, <i>&c.</i> the parts are put into and detained + in a bended posture, which by the agitation of Heat are shaken, and + loosened, and suffered to unbend themselves.<br /></p> +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class='chapter' /> +<h2>Observ. <a name="obsVIII" id="obsVIII">VIII</a>. <i>Of the fiery Sparks struck from a Flint or Steel.</i></h2> + + <p>It is a very common Experiment, by striking with a Flint against a + Steel, to make certain fiery and shining Sparks to fly out from between + those two compressing Bodies. About eight years since, upon casually + reading the Explication of this odd <i>Phænomenon</i>, by the most + Ingenious <i>Des Cartes</i>, I had a great desire to be satisfied, what + that Substance was that gave such a shining and bright Light: And to that + end I spread a sheet of white Paper, and on it, observing the place where + several of these Sparks seemed to vanish, I found certain very small, + black, but glistering Spots of a movable Substance, each of which +<span class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-05.png"><i>Schem.</i> 5.</a><br /><i>Fig.</i> 1. +</span> + examining with my <i>Microscope</i>, I found to be a small round + <i>Globule</i>; some of which, as they looked prety small, so did they + from their Surface yield a very bright and strong reflection on that side + which was next the Light; and each look’d almost like a prety bright + Iron-Ball, whose Surface was prety regular, such as is represented by the + Figure A. In this I could perceive the Image of the Window prety well, or + of a Stick, which I moved up and down between the Light and it. Others I + found, which were, as to the bulk of the Ball, prety regularly round, but + the Surface of them, as it was not very smooth, but rough, and more + irregular, so was the reflection from it more faint and confused. Such + were the Surfaces of B. C. D. and E. Some of these I found cleft or + cracked, as C, others quite broken in two and hollow, as D. which seemed + to be half the hollow shell of a Granado, broken irregularly in pieces. + Several others I found of other shapes; but that which is represented by + E, I observed to be a very big Spark of fire, which went out upon one + side of the Flint that I struck fire withall, to which it + stuck by the root F, at the end of which small Stem was fastened-on a + <i>Hemisphere</i>, or half a hollow Ball, with the mouth of it open from + the stemwards, so that it looked much like a Funnel, or an old fashioned + Bowl without a foot. This night, making many tryals and observations of + this Experiment, I met, among a multitude of the Globular ones which I + had observed, a couple of Instances, which are very remarkable to the + confirmation of my <i>Hypothesis</i>.</p> + + <p>And the First was of a pretty big Ball fastened on to the end of a + small sliver of Iron, which <i>Compositum</i> seemed to be nothing else + but a long thin chip of Iron, one of whose ends was melted into a small + round Globul; the other end remaining unmelted and irregular, and + perfectly Iron.</p> + + <p>The Second Instance was not less remarkable then the First; for I + found, when a Spark went out, nothing but a very small thin long sliver + of Iron or Steel, unmelted at either end. So that it seems, that some of + these Sparks are the slivers or chips of the Iron <i>vitrified</i>, + Others are only the slivers melted into Balls without vitrification, And + the third kind are only small slivers of the Iron, made red-hot with the + violence of the stroke given on the Steel by the Flint.</p> + + <p>He that shall diligently examine the <i>Phænomena</i> of this + Experiment, will, I doubt not, find cause to believe, that the reason I + have heretofore given of it, is the true and genuine cause of it, namely, + That <i>the Spark, appearing so bright in the falling, is nothing else + but a small piece of the Steel or Flint, but most commonly of the Steel, + which by the violence of the stroke is at the same time sever’d and heat + red-hot, and that sometimes to such a degree, as to make it melt together + into a small Globule of Steel; and sometimes also is that heat so very + intense, as further to melt it and vitrifie it; but many times the heat + is so gentle, as to be able to make the sliver only red hot, which + notwithstanding falling upon the tinder</i> (that is only a very curious + small Coal made of the small threads of Linnen burnt to coals and char’d) + <i>it easily sets it on fire</i>. Nor will any part of this + <i>Hypothesis</i> seem strange to him that considers, First, that either + hammering, or filing or otherwise violently rubbing of Steel, will + presently make it so hot as to be able to burn ones fingers. Next, that + the whole force of the stroke is exerted upon that small part where the + Flint and Steel first touch: For the Bodies being each of them so very + hard, the puls cannot be far communicated, that is, the parts of each can + yield but very little, and therefore the violence of the concussion will + be <i>exerted</i> on that piece of Steel which is cut off by the Flint. + Thirdly, that the filings or small parts of Steel are very apt, as it + were, to take fire, and are presently red hot, that is, there seems to be + a very <i>combustible sulphureous</i> Body in Iron or Steel, which the + Air very readily preys upon, as soon as the body is a little violently + heated.</p> + + <p>And this is obvious in the filings of Steel or Iron cast through the + flame of a Candle; for even by that sudden <i>transitus</i> of the small + chips of Iron, they are heat red hot, and that <i>combustible + sulphureous</i> Body is presently prey’d upon and devoured by the + <i>aereal</i> incompassing <i>Menstruum</i>, whose office in this + Particular I have shewn in the Explication of Charcole.</p> + + <p>And in prosecution of this Experiment, having taken the filings of + Iron and Steel, and with the point of a Knife cast them through the flame + of a Candle, I observed where some conspicuous shining Particles fell, + and looking on them with my <i>Microscope</i>, I found them to be nothing + else but such round Globules, as I formerly found the Sparks struck from + the Steel by a stroke to be, only a little bigger; and shaking together + all the filings that had fallen upon the sheet of Paper underneath and + observing them with the <i>Microscope</i>, I found a great number of + small Globules, such as the former, though there were also many of the + parts that had remained untoucht and rough filings or chips of Iron. So + that, it seems, Iron does contain a very <i>combustible sulphureous</i> + Body, which is, in all likelihood, one of the causes of this + <i>Phænomenon</i>, and which may be perhaps very much concerned in the + business of its hardening and tempering: of which somewhat is said in the + Description of <i>Muscovy-glass</i>.</p> + + <p>So that, these things considered, we need not trouble our selves to + find out what kind of Pores they are, both in the Flint and Steel, that + contain the <i>Atoms of fire</i>, nor how those <i>Atoms</i> come to be + hindred from running all out, when a dore or passage in their Pores is + made by the concussion: nor need we trouble our selves to examine by what + <i>Prometheus</i> the Element of Fire comes to be fetcht down from above + the Regions of the Air, in what Cells or Boxes it is kept, and what + <i>Epimetheus</i> lets it go: Nor to consider what it is that causes so + great a conflux of the atomical Particles of Fire, which are said to fly + to a flaming Body, like Vultures or Eagles to a putrifying Carcass, and + there to make a very great pudder. Since we have nothing more difficult + in this <i>Hypothesis</i> to conceive, first, as to the kindling of + Tinder, then how a large Iron-bullet, let fall red or glowing hot upon a + heap of Small-coal, should set fire to those that are next to it first: + Nor secondly, is this last more difficult to be explicated, then that a + Body, as Silver for Instance, put into a weak <i>Menstruum</i>, as + unrectified <i>Aqua fortis</i> should, when it is put in a great heat, be + there dissolved by it, and not before; which <i>Hypothesis</i> is more + largely explicated in the Description of Charcoal. To conclude, we see by + this Instance, how much Experiments may conduce to the regulating of + <i>Philosophical notions</i>. For if the most Acute <i>Des Cartes</i> had + applied himself experimentally to have examined what substance it was + that caused that shining of the falling Sparks struck from a Flint and a + Steel, he would certainly have a little altered his <i>Hypothesis</i>, + and we should have found, that his Ingenious Principles would have + admitted a very plausible Explication of this <i>Phænomenon</i>; whereas + by not examining so far as he might, he has set down an Explication which + Experiment do’s contradict.</p> + + <p>But before I leave this Description, I must not forget to take notice + of the Globular form into which each of these is most curiously formed. + And this <i>Phænomenon</i>, as I have elsewhere more largely shewn, + proceeds from a propriety which belongs to all kinds of fluid Bodies more + or less, and is caused by the Incongruity of the Ambient and included + Fluid, which so acts and modulates each other, that they acquire, as neer + as is possible, a <i>spherical</i> or + <i>globular</i> form, which propriety and several of the <i>Phænomena</i> + that proceed from it, I have more fully explicated in the sixth + Observation.</p> + + <p>One Experiment, which does very much illustrate my present + Explication, and is in it self exceeding pretty, I must not pass by: And + that is a way of making small <i>Globules</i> or <i>Balls</i> of Lead, or + Tin, as small almost as these of Iron or Steel, and that exceeding easily + and quickly, by turning the filings or chips of those Metals also into + perfectly round <i>Globules</i>. The way, in short, as I received it from + the <i>Learned Physitian Doctor</i> I.G. is this;</p> + + <p>Reduce the Metal you would thus shape, into exceeding fine filings, + the finer the filings are, the finer will the Balls be: <i>Stratifie</i> + these filings with the fine and well dryed powder of quick Lime in a + <i>Crucible</i> proportioned to the quantity you intend to make: When you + have thus filled your <i>Crucible</i>, by continual + <i>stratifications</i> of the filings and powder, so that, as neer as may + be, no one of the filings may touch another, place the <i>Crucible</i> in + a <i>gradual fire</i>, and by degrees let it be brought to a heat big + enough to make all the filings, that are mixt with the quick Lime, to + melt, and no more; for if the fire be too hot, many of these filings will + joyn and run together; whereas if the heat be proportioned, upon washing + the Lime-dust in fair Water, all those small filings of the Metal will + subside to the bottom in a most curious powder, consisting all of exactly + round <i>Globules</i>, which, if it be very fine, is very excellent to + make Hour-glasses of.</p> + + <p>Now though quick Lime be the powder that this direction makes choice + of, yet I doubt not, but that there may be much more convenient ones + found out, one of which I have made tryal of, and found very effectual; + and were it not for discovering, by the mentioning of it, another Secret, + which I am not free to impart, I should have here inserted it.<br /></p> +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class='chapter' /> +<h2>Observ. <a name="obsIX" id="obsIX">IX</a>. <i>Of the Colours observable in Muscovy-Glass, and +other thin Bodies</i>.</h2> + + <p>Moscovy-glass, or <i>Lapis specularis</i>, is a Body that seems to + have as many Curiosities in its Fabrick as any common Mineral I have met + with: for first, It is transparent to a great thickness: Next, it is + compounded of an infinite number of thin flakes joyned or generated one + upon another so close & smooth, as with many hundreds of them to make + one smooth and thin Plate of a transparent flexible substance, which with + care and diligence may be slit into pieces so exceedingly thin as to be + hardly perceivable by the eye, and yet even those, which I have thought + the thinnest, I have with a good <i>Microscope</i> found to be made up of + many other Plates, yet thinner; and it is probable, that, were our + <i>Microscopes</i> much better, we might much further discover + its divisibility. Nor are these flakes only regular as to the smoothness + of their Surfaces, but thirdly, In many Plates they may be perceived to + be terminated naturally with edges of the figure of a <i>Rhomboeid</i>. + This Figure is much more conspicuous in our English talk, much whereof is + found in the Lead Mines, and is commonly called <i>Spar</i>, and + <i>Kauck</i>, which is of the same kind of substance with the + <i>Selenitis</i>, but is seldom found in so large flakes as that is, nor + is it altogether so tuff, but is much more clear and transparent, and + much more curiously shaped, and yet may be cleft and flak’d like the + other <i>Selenitis</i>. But fourthly, this stone has a property, which in + respect of the <i>Microscope</i>, is more notable, and that is, that it + exhibits several appearances of Colours, both to the naked Eye, but much + more conspicuously to the <i>Microscope</i>; for the exhibiting of which, + I took a piece of <i>Muscovy-glass</i>, and splitting or cleaving it into + thin Plates, I found that up and down in several parts of them I could + plainly perceive several white specks or flaws, and others diversly + coloured with all the Colours of the <i>Rainbow</i>; and with the + <i>Microscope</i> I could perceive, that these Colours were ranged in + rings that incompassed the white speck or flaw, and were round or + irregular, according to the shape of the spot which they terminated; and + the position of Colours, in respect of one another, was the very same as + in the <i>Rainbow</i>. The consecution of those Colours from the middle + of the spot outward being Blew, Purple, Scarlet, Yellow, Green; Blew, + Purple, Scarlet, and so onwards, sometimes half a score times repeated, + that is, there appeared six, seven, eight, nine or ten several coloured + rings or lines, each incircling the other, in the same manner as I have + often seen a very <i>vivid Rainbow</i> to have four or five several Rings + of Colours, that is, accounting all the Gradations between Red and Blew + for one: But the order of the Colours in these Rings was quite contrary + to the primary or innermost <i>Rainbow</i>, and the same with those of + the secondary or outermost Rainbow; these coloured Lines or + <i>Irises</i>, as I may so call them, were some of them much brighter + then others, and some of them also very much broader, they being some of + them ten, twenty, nay, I believe, neer a hundred times broader then + others; and those usually were broadest which were neerest the center or + middle of the flaw. And oftentimes I found, that these Colours reacht to + the very middle of the flaw, and then there appeared in the middle a very + large spot, for the most part, all of one colour, which was very vivid, + and all the other Colours incompassing it, gradually ascending, and + growing narrower towards the edges, keeping the same order, as in the + <i>secundary Rainbow</i>, that is, if the middle were Blew, the next + incompassing it would be a Purple, the third a Red, the fourth a Yellow, + <i>&c.</i> as above; if the middle were a Red, the next without it + would be a Yellow, the third a Green, the fourth a Blew, and so onward. + And this order it alwayes kept whatsoever were the middle Colour.</p> + + <p>There was further observable in several other parts of this Body, many + Lines or Threads, each of them of some one peculiar Colour, and those so + exceedingly bright and vivid, that it afforded a very pleasant object + through the <i>Microscope</i>. Some of these + <i>threads</i> I have observed also to be pieced or made up of several + short lengths of differently coloured <i>ends</i> (as I may so call them) + as a line appearing about two inches long through the <i>Microscope</i>, + has been compounded of about half an inch of a Peach colour, ⅛ of a + lovely Grass-green, ¾ of an inch more of a bright Scarlet, and the rest + of the line of a Watchet blew. Others of them were much otherwise + coloured; the variety being almost infinite. Another thing which is very + observable, is, that if you find any place where the colours are very + broad and conspicuous to the naked eye, you may, by pressing that place + with your finger, make the colours change places, and go from one part to + another.</p> + + <p>There is one <i>Phænomenon</i> more, which may, if care be used, + exhibit to the beholder, as it has divers times to me, an exceeding + pleasant, and not less instructive Spectacle; And that is, if curiosity + and diligence be used, you may so split this admirable Substance, that + you may have pretty large Plates (in companion of those smaller ones + which you may observe in the Rings) that are perhaps an ⅛ or a ⅙ part + of an inch over, each of them appearing through the <i>Microscope</i> + most curiously, intirely, and uniformly adorned with some one vivid + colour: this, if examined with the <i>Microscope</i>, may be plainly + perceived to be in all parts of it equally thick. Two, three, or more of + these lying one upon another, exhibit oftentimes curious compounded + colours, which produce such a <i>Compositum</i>, as one would scarce + imagine should be the result of such <i>ingredients</i>: As perhaps a + <i>faint yellow</i> and a <i>blew</i> may produce a very <i>deep + purple</i>. But when anon we come to the more strict examination of these + <i>Phænomena</i>, and to inquire into the causes and reasons of these + productions, we shall, I hope, make it more conceivable how they are + produced, and shew them to be no other then the natural and necessary + effects arising from the peculiar union of concurrent causes.</p> + + <p>These <i>Phænomena</i>, being so various, and so truly admirable, it + will certainly be very well worth our inquiry, to examine the causes and + reasons of them, and to consider, whether from these causes + demonstratively evidenced, may not be deduced the true causes of the + production of all kind of Colours. And I the rather now do it, instead of + an Appendix or Digression to this History, then upon the occasion of + examining the Colours in Peacocks, or other Feathers, because this + Subject, as it does afford more variety of particular Colours, so does it + afford much better wayes of examining each circumstance. And this will be + made manifest to him that considers, first, that this laminated body is + more simple and regular then the parts of Peacocks feathers, this + consisting only of an indefinite number of plain and smooth Plates, + heaped up, or <i>incumbent</i> on each other. Next, that the parts of + this body are much more manageable, to be divided or joyned, then the + parts of a Peacocks feather, or any other substance that I know. And + thirdly, because that in this we are able from a colourless body to + produce several coloured bodies, affording all the variety of Colours + imaginable: And several others, which the subsequent Inquiry will make + manifest.</p> + + <p>To begin therefore, it is manifest from several circumstances, that + the material cause of the <i>apparition</i> of these several Colours, is + some <i>Lamina</i> or Plate of a transparent or pellucid body of a + thickness very determinate and proportioned according to the greater or + less refractive power of the <i>pellucid</i> body. And that this is so, + abundance of Instances and particular Circumstances will make + manifest.</p> + + <p>As <i>first</i>, if you take any small piece of the + <i>Muscovy-glass</i>, and with a Needle, or some other convenient + Instrument, cleave it oftentimes into thinner and thinner <i>Laminæ</i>, + you shall find, that till you come to a determinate thinness of them, + they shall all appear transparent and colourless, but if you continue to + split and divide them further, you shall find at last, that each Plate, + after it comes to such a determinate thickness, shall appear most lovely + ting’d or imbued with a determinate colour. If <i>further</i>, by any + means you so flaw a pretty thick piece, that one part does begin to + cleave a little from the other, and between those two there be by any + means gotten some pellucid <i>medium</i>, those <i>laminated</i> pellucid + bodies that fill that space, shall exhibit several Rainbows or coloured + Lines, the colours of which will be disposed and ranged according to the + various thicknesses of the several parts of that Plate. That this is so, + is yet <i>further</i> confirmed by this Experiment.</p> + + <p>Take two small pieces of ground and polisht Looking-glass-plate, each + about the bigness of a shilling, take these two dry, and with your + fore-fingers and thumbs press them very hard and close together, and you + shall find, that when they approach each other very near, there will + appear several <i>Irises</i> or coloured Lines, in the same manner almost + as in the <i>Muscovy-glass</i>; and you may very easily change any of the + Colours of any part of the interposed body, by pressing the Plates closer + and harder together, or leaving them more lax; that is, a part which + appeared coloured with a red, may be presently ting’d with a yellow, + blew, green, purple, or the like, by altering the appropinquation of the + terminating Plates. Now that air is not necessary to be the interposed + body, but that any other transparent fluid will do much the same, may be + tryed by wetting those approximated Surfaces with Water, or any other + transparent Liquor, and proceeding with it in the same manner as you did + with the Air; and you will find much the like effect, only with this + difference, that those comprest bodies, which differ most, in their + refractive quality, from the compressing bodies, exhibit the most strong + and vivid tinctures. Nor is it necessary, that this <i>laminated</i> and + <i>ting’d</i> body should be of a fluid substance, any other substance, + provided it be thin enough and transparent, doing the same thing: this + the <i>Laminæ</i> of our <i>Muscovy-glass</i> hint; but it may be + confirm’d by multitudes of other Instances.</p> + + <p>And first, we shall find, that even Glass it self may, by the help of + a Lamp, be blown thin enough to produce these <i>Phænomena</i> of + Colours: which <i>Phænomena</i> accidentally happening, as I have been + attempting to frame small Glasses with a Lamp, did not a little surprize + me at first, having never heard or seen any thing of it before; though + afterwards comparing it with the <i>Phænomena</i>, I had often + observed in those Bubbles which Children use to make with Soap-water, I + did the less wonder; especially when upon Experiment I found, I was able + to produce the same <i>Phænomena</i> in thin Bubbles made with any other + transparent Substance. Thus have I produced them with Bubbles of + <i>Pitch</i>, <i>Rosin</i>, <i>Colophony</i>, <i>Turpentine</i>, + <i>Solutions</i> of several <i>Gums</i>, as <i>Gum-Arabick</i> in water; + any <i>glutinous</i> Liquor, as <i>Wort</i>, <i>Wine</i>, <i>Spirit of + Wine</i>, <i>Oyl of Turpentine</i>, <i>Glare of Snails</i>, &c.</p> + + <p>It would be needless to enumerate the several Instances, these being + enough to shew the generality or universality of this propriety. Only I + must not omit, that we have instances also of this kind even in metalline + Bodies and animal; for those several Colours which are observed to follow + each other upon the polisht surface of hardned Steel, when it is by a + sufficient degree of heat gradually tempered or softened, are produced, + from nothing else but a certain thin <i>Lamina</i> of a <i>vitrum</i> or + <i>vitrified</i> part of the Metal, which by that degree of heat, and the + concurring action of the ambient Air, is driven out and fixed on the + surface of the Steel.</p> + + <p>And this hints to me a very probable (at least, if not the true) cause + of the hardning and tempering of Steel, which has not, I think, been yet + given, nor, that I know of been so much as thought of by any. And that is + this, that the hardness of it arises from a greater proportion of a + vitrified Substance interspersed through the pores of the Steel. And that + the tempering or softning of it arises from the proportionate or smaller + parcels of it left within those pores. This will seem the more probable, + if we consider these Particulars.</p> + + <p>First, That the pure parts of Metals are of themselves very + <i>flexible</i> and <i>tuff</i>; that is, will indure bending and + hammering, and yet retain their continuity.</p> + + <p>Next, That the Parts of all vitrified Substances, as all kinds of + Glass, the <i>Scoria</i> of Metals, <i>&c.</i> are very hard, and + also very brittle, being neither <i>flexible</i> nor <i>malleable</i>, + but may by hammering or beating be broken into small parts or + powders.</p> + + <p>Thirdly, That all Metals (excepting Gold and Silver, which do not so + much with the bare fire, unless assisted by other saline Bodies) do more + or less <i>vitrifie</i> by the strength of fire, that is, are corroded by + a Saline Substance, which I elsewhere shew to be the true cause of fire; + and are thereby, as by several other <i>Menstruums</i> converted into + <i>Scoria</i>; And this is called, <i>calcining</i> of them, by Chimists. + Thus Iron and Copper by heating and quenching do turn all of them by + degrees into <i>Scoria</i>, which are evidently <i>vitrified</i> + Substances, and unite with Glass, and are easily <i>fusible</i>; and when + cold, very hard, and very brittle.</p> + + <p>Fourthly, That most kind of <i>Vitrifications</i> or + <i>Calcinations</i> are made by Salts, uniting and incorporating with the + metalline Particles. Nor do I know any one <i>calcination</i> wherein a + <i>Saline</i> body may not, with very great probability, be said to be an + agent or coadjutor.</p> + + <p>Fifthly, That Iron is converted into Steel by means of the + incorporation of certain salts, with which it is kept a certain time in + the fire.</p> + + <p>Sixthly, That any Iron may, in a very little time, be <i>case + hardned</i>, as the Tradesmen call it, by casing the iron to be hardned + with clay, and putting between the clay and iron a good quantity of a + mixture of <i>Urine</i>, <i>Soot</i>, <i>Sea-salt</i>, and <i>Horses + hoofs</i> (all which contein great quantities of Saline bodies) and then + putting the case into a good strong fire, and keeping it in a + considerable degree of heat for a good while, and afterwards heating, and + quenching or cooling it suddenly in cold water.</p> + + <p>Seventhly, That all kind of vitrify’d substances, by being suddenly + cool’d, become very hard and brittle. And thence arises the pretty + <i>Phænomena</i> of the Glass Drops, which I have already further + explained in its own place.</p> + + <p>Eighthly, That those metals which are not so apt to vitrifie, do not + acquire any hardness by quenching in water, as Silver, Gold, &c.</p> + + <p>These considerations premis’d, will, I suppose, make way for the more + easie reception of this following Explication of the <i>Phænomena</i> of + hardned and temper’d Steel. That Steel is a substance made out of Iron, + by means of a certain proportionate <i>Vitrification</i> of several + parts, which are so curiously and proportionately mixt with the more + tough and unalter’d parts of the Iron, that when by the great heat of the + fire this vitrify’d substance is melted, and consequently rarify’d, and + thereby the pores of the Iron are more open, if then by means of dipping + it in cold water it be suddenly cold, and the parts hardned, that is, + stay’d in that same degree of <i>Expansion</i> they were in when hot, the + parts become very hard and brittle, and that upon the same account almost + as small parcels of glass quenched in water grow brittle, which we have + already explicated. If after this the piece of Steel be held in some + convenient heat, till by degrees certain colours appear upon the surface + of the brightned metal, the very hard and brittle tone of the metal, by + degrees relaxes and becomes much more tough and soft; namely, the action + of the heat does by degrees loosen the parts of the Steel that were + before streached or set <i>atilt</i> as it were, and stayed open by each + other, whereby they become relaxed and set at liberty, whence some of the + more brittle interjacent parts are thrust out and melted into a thin skin + on the surface of the Steel, which from no colour increases to a deep + Purple, and so onward by these <i>gradations</i> or consecutions, + <i>White, Yellow, Orange, Minium, Scarlet, Purple, Blew, Watchet</i>, + &c. and the parts within are more conveniently, and proportionately + mixt; and so they gradually subside into a texture which is much better + proportion’d and closer joyn’d, whence that rigidness of parts ceases, + and the parts begin to acquire their former <i>ductilness</i>.</p> + + <p>Now, that ’tis nothing but the vitrify’d metal that sticks upon the + surface of the colour’d body, is evident from this, that if by any means + it be scraped and rubb’d off, the metal underneath it is white and clear; + and if it be kept longer in the fire, so as to increase to a considerable + thickness, it may, by blows, be beaten off in flakes. This is further + confirm’d by this observable, that that Iron or Steel will keep longer + from rusting which is covered with this vitrify’d case: Thus also Lead + will, by degrees, be all turn’d into a litharge; for + that colour which covers the top being scum’d or shov’d aside, appears to + be nothing else but a litharge or vitrify’d Lead.</p> + + <p>This is observable also in some sort, on Brass, Copper, Silver, Gold, + Tin, but is most conspicuous in Lead: all those Colours that cover the + surface of the Metal being nothing else, but a very thin vitrifi’d part + of the heated Metal.</p> + + <p>The other Instance we have, is in Animal bodies, as in Pearls, Mother + of Pearl-shels, Oyster-shels, and almost all other kinds of stony shels + whatsoever. This have I also sometimes with pleasure observ’d even in + Muscles and Tendons. Further, if you take any glutinous substance and run + it exceedingly thin upon the surface of a smooth glass or a polisht + metaline body, you shall find the like effects produced: and in general, + wheresoever you meet with a transparent body thin enough, that is + terminated by reflecting bodies of differing refractions from it, there + will be a production of these pleasing and lovely colours.</p> + + <p>Nor is it necessary, that the two <i>terminating</i> Bodies should be + both of the same kind, as may appear by the <i>vitrified Laminæ</i> on + <i>Steel</i>, <i>Lead</i>, and other Metals, one surface of which + <i>Laminæ</i> is contiguous to the surface of the Metal, the other to + that of the Air.</p> + + <p>Nor is it necessary, that these colour’d <i>Laminæ</i> should be of an + even thickness, that is, should have their edges and middles of equal + thickness, as in a Looking-glass-plate, which circumstance is only + requisite to make the Plate appear all of the same colour; but they may + resemble a <i>Lens</i>, that is, have their middles thicker then their + edges; or else a <i>double concave</i>, that is, be thinner in the middle + then at the edges; in both which cases there will be various coloured + rings or lines, with differing consecutions or orders of Colours; the + order of the first from the middle outwards being Red, Yellow, Green, + Blew, <i>&c.</i> And the latter quite contrary.</p> + + <p>But further, it is altogether necessary, that the Plate, in the places + where the Colours appear, should be of a determinate thickness: First, It + must not be more then such a thickness, for when the Plate is increased + to such a thickness, the Colours cease; and besides, I have seen in a + thin piece of <i>Muscovy-glass</i>, where the two ends of two Plates, + which appearing both single, exhibited two distinct and differing + Colours; but in that place where they were united, and constituted one + double Plate (as I may call it) they appeared transparent and colourless. + Nor, Secondly, may the Plates be <i>thinner</i> then such a determinate + <i>cize</i>; for we alwayes find, that the very outmost Rim of these + flaws is terminated in a white and colourless Ring.</p> + + <p>Further, in this Production of Colours there is no need of a + determinate Light of such a bigness and no more, nor of a determinate + position of that Light, that it should be on this side, and not on that + side; nor of a terminating shadow, as in the Prisme, and Rainbow, or + Water-ball: for we find, that the Light in the open Air, either in or out + of the Sun-beams, and within a Room, either from one or many Windows, + produces much the same effect: only where the Light is + brightest, there the Colours are most <i>vivid</i>. So does the light of + a Candle, collected by a Glass-ball. And further, it is all one whatever + side of the coloured Rings be towards the light; for the whole Ring keeps + its proper Colours from the middle outwards in the same order as I before + related, without varying at all, upon changing the position of the + light.</p> + + <p>But above all it is most observable, that here are all kind of Colours + generated in a <i>pellucid</i> body, where there is properly no such + refraction as <i>Des Cartes</i> supposes his <i>Globules</i> to acquire a + <i>verticity</i> by: For in the plain and even Plates it is manifest, that + the second refraction (according to <i>Des Cartes</i> his Principles in + the <i>fifth Section of the eighth Chapter of his Meteors</i>) does + regulate and restore the supposed <i>turbinated Globules</i> unto their + former uniform motion. This Experiment therefore will prove such a one as + our <i>thrice excellent Verulam</i> calls <i>Experimentum Crucis</i>, + serving as a Guide or Land-mark, by which to direct our course in the + search after the true cause of Colours. Affording us this particular + negative Information, that for the production of Colours there is not + necessary either a great refraction, as in the Prisme; nor Secondly, a + determination of Light and shadow, such as is both in the Prisme and + Glass-ball. Now that we may see likewise what affirmative and positive + Instruction it yields, it will be necessary, to examine it a little more + particularly and strictly; which that we may the better do, it will be + requisite to premise somewhat in general concerning the nature of Light + and Refraction.</p> + + <p>And first for Light it seems very manifest, that there is no luminous + Body but has the parts of it in motion more or less.</p> + + <p>First, That all kind of <i>fiery burning Bodies</i> have their parts + in motion, I think, will be very easily granted me. That the <i>spark</i> + struck from a Flint and Steel is in a rapid agitation, I have elsewhere + made probable. And that the Parts of <i>rotten Wood</i>, <i>rotten + Fish</i> and the like, are also in motion, I think, will as easily be + conceded by those, who consider, that those parts never begin to shine + till the Bodies be in a state of putrefaction; and that is now generally + granted by all, to be caused by the motion of the parts of putrifying + bodies. That the <i>Bononian stone</i> shines no longer then it is either + warmed by the Sun-beams, or by the flame of a Fire or of a Candle, is the + general report of those that write of it, and of others that have seen + it. And that heat argues a motion of the internal parts is (as I said + before) generally granted.</p> + + <p>But there is one Instance more, which was first shewn to the <i>Royal + Society</i> by Mr. <i>Clayton</i> a worthy Member thereof, which does + make this Assertion more evident then all the rest: And that is, That a + <i>Diamond</i> being <i>rub’d</i>, <i>struck</i> or <i>heated</i> in the + dark, shines for a pretty while after, so long as that motion, which is + imparted by any of those Agents, remains (in the same manner as a Glass, + rubb’d, struck, or (by a means which I shall elsewhere mention) heated, + yields a sound which lasts as long as the vibrating motion of that + <i>sonorous</i> body) several Experiments made on which Stone, are since + published in a Discourse of Colours, by the truly honourable + Mr. <i>Boyle</i>. What may be said of those <i>Ignes fatui</i> that + appear in the night, I cannot so well affirm, having never had the + opportunity to examine them my self, nor to be inform’d by any others + that had observ’d them: And the relations of them in Authors are so + imperfect, that nothing can be built on them. But I hope I shall be able + in another place to make it at least very probable, that there is even in + those also a Motion which causes this effect. That the shining of + <i>Sea-water</i> proceeds from the same cause, may be argued from this, + That it shines not till either it be beaten against a Rock, or be some + other wayes broken or agitated by Storms, or Oars, or other + <i>percussing</i> bodies. And that the Animal <i>Energies</i> or + Spirituous <i>agil</i> parts are very active in <i>Cats eyes</i> when + they shine, seems evident enough, because their eyes never shine but when + they look very intensly either to find their prey, or being hunted in a + dark room, when they seek after their adversary, or to find a way to + escape. And the like may be said of the shining <i>Bellies of + Gloworms</i>; since ’tis evident they can at pleasure either increase or + extinguish that Radiation.</p> + + <p>It would be somewhat too long a work for this place <i>Zetetically</i> + to examine, and positively to prove, what particular kind of motion it is + that must be the efficient of Light; for though it be a motion, yet ’tis + not every motion that produces it, since we find there are many bodies + very violently mov’d, which yet afford not such an effect; and there are + other bodies, which to our other senses, seem not mov’d so much, which + yet shine. Thus Water and quick-silver, and most other liquors heated, + shine not; and several hard bodies, as Iron, Silver, Brass, Copper, Wood, + &c. though very often struck with a hammer, shine not presently, + though they will all of them grow exceeding hot; whereas rotten Wood, + rotten Fish, Sea-water, Gloworms, <i>&c.</i> have nothing of tangible + heat in them, and yet (where there is no stronger light to affect the + Sensory) they shine some of them so Vividly, that one may make a shift to + read by them.</p> + + <p>It would be too long, I say, here to insert the discursive progress by + which I inquir’d after the proprieties of the motion of Light, and + therefore I shall only add the result.</p> + + <p>And, First, I found it ought to be exceeding <i>quick</i>, such as + those motions of <i>fermentation</i> and <i>putrefaction</i>, whereby, + certainly, the parts are exceeding nimbly and violently mov’d; and that, + because we find those motions are able more minutely to shatter and + divide the body, then the most violent heats or <i>menstruums</i> we yet + know. And that fire is nothing else but such a <i>dissolution</i> of the + Burning body, made by the most <i>universal menstruum</i> of all + <i>sulphureous bodies</i>, namely, the Air, we shall in an other place of + this Tractate endeavour to make probable. And that, in all extreamly hot + shining bodies, there is a very quick motion that causes Light, as well + as a more robust that causes Heat, may be argued from the celerity + wherewith the bodyes are dissolv’d.</p> + + <p>Next, it must be a <i>Vibrative motion</i>. And for this the newly + mention’d <i>Diamond</i> affords us a good argument; since if the motion + of the parts did not return, the Diamond must after many + rubbings decay and be wasted: but we have no reason to suspect the + latter, especially if we consider the exceeding difficulty that is found + in cutting or wearing away a Diamond. And a Circular motion of the parts + is much more improbable, since, if that were granted, and they be + suppos’d irregular and Angular parts, I see not how the parts of the + Diamond should hold so firmly together, or remain in the same sensible + dimensions, which yet they do. Next, if they be <i>Globular</i>, and + mov’d only with a <i>turbinated</i> motion, I know not any cause that can + impress that motion upon the <i>pellucid medium</i>, which yet is done. + Thirdly, any other <i>irregular</i> motion of the parts one amongst + another, must necessarily make the body of a fluid consistence, from + which it is far enough. It must therefore be a <i>Vibrating</i> + motion.</p> + + <p>And Thirdly, That it is a very <i>short-vibrating motion</i>, I think + the instances drawn from the shining of Diamonds will also make probable. + For a Diamond being the hardest body we yet know in the World, and + consequently the least apt to yield or bend, must consequently also have + its <i>vibrations</i> exceeding short.</p> + + <p>And these, I think, are the three principal proprieties of a motion, + requisite to produce the effect call’d Light in the Object.</p> + + <p>The next thing we are to consider, is the way or manner of the + <i>trajection</i> of this motion through the interpos’d pellucid body to + the eye: And here it will be easily granted,</p> + + <p>First, That it must be a body <i>susceptible</i> and <i>impartible</i> + of this motion that will deserve the name of a Transparent. And next, + that the parts of such a body must be <i>Homogeneous</i>, or of the same + kind. Thirdly, that the constitution and motion of the parts must be + such, that the appulse of the luminous body may be communicated or + propagated through it to the greatest imaginable distance in the least + imaginable time, though I see no reason to affirm, that it must be in an + instant: For I know not any one Experiment or observation that does prove + it. And, whereas it may be objected, That we see the Sun risen at the + very instant when it is above the sensible Horizon, and that we see a + Star hidden by the body of the Moon at the same instant, when the Star, + the Moon, and our Eye are all in the same line; and the like + Observations, or rather suppositions, may be urg’d. I have this to + answer, That I can as easily deny as they affirm; for I would fain know + by what means any one can be assured any more of the Affirmative, then I + of the Negative. If indeed the propagation were very slow, ’tis possible + something might be discovered by Eclypses of the Moon; but though we + should grant the progress of the light from the Earth to the Moon, and + from the Moon back to the Earth again to be full two Minutes in + performing, I know not any possible means to discover it; nay, there may + be some instances perhaps of Horizontal Eclypses that may seem very much + to favour this supposition of the slower progression of Light then most + imagine. And the like may be said of the Eclypses of the Sun, &c. But + of this only by the by. Fourthly, That the motion is propagated every way + through an <i>Homogeneous medium</i> by <i>direct</i> or + <i>straight</i> lines extended every way like Rays from the center of a + Sphere. Fifthly, in an <i>Homogeneous medium</i> this motion is + propagated every way with <i>equal velocity</i>, whence necessarily every + <i>pulse</i> or <i>vibration</i> of the luminous body will generate a + Sphere, which will continually increase, and grow bigger, just after the + same manner (though indefinitely swifter) as the waves or rings on the + surface of the water do swell into bigger and bigger circles about a + point of it, where, by the sinking of a Stone the motion was begun, + whence it necessarily follows, that all the parts of these Spheres + undulated through an <i>Homogeneous medium</i> cut the Rays at right + angles.</p> + + <p>But because all transparent <i>mediums</i> are not <i>Homogeneous</i> + to one another, therefore we will next examine how this pulse or motion + will be propagated through differingly transparent <i>mediums</i>. And + here, according to the most acute and excellent Philosopher <i>Des + Cartes</i>, I suppose the sign of the angle of inclination in the first + <i>medium</i> to be to the sign of refraction in the second, As the + density of the first, to the density of the second. By density, I mean + not the density in respect of gravity (with which the refractions or + transparency of <i>mediums</i> hold no proportion) but in respect onely + to the <i>trajection</i> of the Rays of light, in which respect they only + differ in this; that the one propagates the pulse more easily and weakly, + the other more slowly, but more strongly. But as for the pulses + themselves, they will by the refraction acquire another propriety, which + we shall now endeavour to explicate.</p> + +<div class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-06.png"><i>Schem.</i> 6.</a><br /><i>Fig.</i> 1. +</div> + + <p>We will suppose therefore in the first Figure ACFD to be a physical + Ray, or ABC and DEF to be two Mathematical Rays, <i>trajected</i> from a + very remote point of a luminous body through an <i>Homogeneous</i> + transparent <i>medium</i> LLL, and DA, EB, FC, to be small portions of + the orbicular impulses which must therefore cut the Rays at right angles; + these Rays meeting with the plain surface NO of a <i>medium</i> that + yields an easier <i>transitus</i> to the propagation of light, and + falling <i>obliquely</i> on it, they will in the <i>medium</i> MMM be + refracted towards the perpendicular of the surface. And because this + <i>medium</i> is more easily <i>trajected</i> then the former by a third, + therefore the point C of the orbicular pulse FC will be mov’d to H four + spaces in the same time that F the other end of it is mov’d to G three + spaces, therefore the whole refracted pulse GH shall be <i>oblique</i> to + the refracted Rays CHK and GI; and the angle GHC shall be an acute, and + so much the more acute by how much the greater the refraction be, then + which nothing is more evident, for the sign of the inclination is to the + sign of refraction as GF to TC the distance between the point C and the + perpendicular from G on CK, which being as four to three, HC being longer + then GF is longer also then TC, therefore the angle GHC is less than GTC. + So that henceforth the parts of the pulses GH and IK are mov’d ascew, or + cut the Rays at <i>oblique</i> angles.</p> + + <p>It is not my business in this place to set down the reasons why this + or that body should impede the Rays more, others less: as why Water + should transmit the Rays more easily, though more weakly than air. Onely + thus much in general I shall hint, that I suppose + the <i>medium</i> MMM to have less of the transparent undulating subtile + matter, and that matter to be less implicated by it, whereas LLL I + suppose to contain a greater quantity of the fluid undulating substance, + and this to be more implicated with the particles of that + <i>medium</i>.</p> + + <p>But to proceed, the same kind of <i>obliquity</i> of the Pulses and + Rays will happen also when the refraction is made out of a more easie + into a more difficult <i>mediu</i>; as by the calculations of GQ + & CSR which are refracted from the perpendicular. In both which + calculations ’tis <i>obvious</i> to observe, that always that part of the + Ray towards which the refraction is made has the end of the <i>orbicular + pulse</i> precedent to that of the other side. And always, the oftner the + refraction is made the same way, Or the greater the single refraction is, + the more is this unequal progress. So that having found this odd + propriety to be an inseparable concomitant of a refracted Ray, not + streightned by a contrary refraction, we will next examine the + refractions of the Sun-beams, as they are suffer’d onely to pass through + a small passage, <i>obliquely</i> out of a more difficult, into a more + easie <i>medium</i>.</p> + +<div class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-06.png"><i>Schem.</i> 6.</a><br /><i>Fig.</i> 2. +</div> + + <p>Let us suppose therefore ABC in the second Figure to represent a large + <i>Chemical Glass-body</i> about two foot long, filled with very fair + Water as high as AB, and inclin’d in a convenient posture with B towards + the Sun: Let us further suppose the top of it to be cover’d with an + <i>opacous</i> body, all but the hole <i>ab</i>, through which the + Sun-beams are suffer’d to pass into the Water, and are thereby refracted + to <i>cdef</i>, against which part, if a Paper be expanded on the + outside, there will appear all the colours of the Rainbow, that is, + there will be generated the two principal colours, <i>Scarlet</i> and + <i>Blue</i>, and all the <i>intermediate</i> ones which arise from the + composition and dilutings of these two, that is, <i>cd</i> shall exhibit + a <i>Scarlet</i>, which toward <i>d</i> is diluted into a <i>Yellow</i>; + this is the refraction of the Ray, <i>ik</i>, which comes from the + underside of the Sun; and the Ray <i>ef</i> shall appear of a deep + <i>Blue</i>, which is gradually towards <i>e</i> diluted into a pale + <i>Watchet-blue</i>. Between <i>d</i> and <i>e</i> the two <i>diluted</i> + colours. <i>Blue</i> and <i>Yellow</i> are mixt and compounded into a + <i>Green</i>; and this I imagine to be the reason why <i>Green</i> is so + acceptable a colour to the eye, and that either of the two extremes are, + if intense, rather a little offensive, namely, the being plac’d in the + middle between the two extremes, and compounded out of both those, + <i>diluted</i> also, or somewhat qualifi’d, for the <i>composition</i>, + arising from the mixture of the two extremes <i>undiluted</i>, makes a + <i>Purple</i>, which though it be a lovely colour, and pretty acceptable + to the eye, yet is it nothing comparable to the ravishing pleasure with + which a curious and well tempered <i>Green</i> affects the eye. If + removing the Paper, the eye be plac’d against <i>cd</i>, it will perceive + the lower side of the Sun (or a Candle at night which is much better, + because it offends not the eye, and is more easily manageable) to be of a + deep <i>Red</i>, and if against <i>ef</i> it will perceive the upper part + of the luminous body to be of a deep <i>Blue</i>; and these colours will + appear deeper and deeper, according as the Rays from the luminous body + fall more <i>obliquely</i> on the surface of the Water, and thereby + suffer a greater refraction, and the more + distinct, the further <i>cdef</i> is removed from the trajecting + hole.</p> + + <p>So that upon the whole, we shall find that the reason of the + <i>Phænomena</i> seems to depend upon the <i>obliquity</i> of the + <i>orbicular pulse</i>, to the Lines of Radiation, and in particular, + that the Ray <i>cd</i> which constitutes the <i>Scarlet</i> has its inner + parts, namely those which are next to the middle of the luminous body, + precedent to the outermost which are contiguous to the dark and + <i>unradiating</i> skie. And that the Ray <i>ef</i> which gives a + <i>Blue</i>, has its outward part, namely, that which is contiguous to + the dark skie precedent to the pulse from the innermost, which borders on + the bright <i>area</i> of the luminous body.</p> + + <p>We may observe further, that the cause of the <i>diluting</i> of the + colours towards the middle, proceeds partly from the wideness of the hole + through which the Rays pass, whereby the Rays from several parts of the + luminous body, fall upon many of the same parts between <i>c</i> and + <i>f</i> as is more manifest by the Figure: And partly also from the + nature of the refraction it self, for the vividness or strength of the + two terminating colours, arising chiefly as we have seen, from the very + great difference that is betwixt the outsides of those <i>oblique + undulations</i> & the dark Rays circumambient, and that disparity + betwixt the <i>approximate</i> Rays, decaying gradually: the further + inward toward the middle of the luminous body they are remov’d, the more + must the colour approach to a white or an undisturbed light.</p> + + <p>Upon the calculation of the refraction and reflection from a Ball of + Water or Glass, we have much the same <i>Phænomena</i>, namely, an + <i>obliquity</i> of the undulation in the same manner as we have found it + here. Which, because it is very much to our present purpose, and affords + such an <i>Instancia crucis</i>, as no one that I know has hitherto taken + notice of, I shall further examine. For it does very plainly and + positively distinguish, and shew, which of the two <i>Hypotheses</i>, + either the <i>Cartesian</i> or this is to be followed, by affording a + generation of all the colors in the Rainbow, where according to the + <i>Cartesian Principles</i> there should be none at all generated. And + secondly, by affording an instance that does more closely confine the + cause of these <i>Phænomena</i> of colours to this present + <i>Hypothesis</i>.</p> + + <p>And first, for the <i>Cartesian</i>, we have this to object against + it, That whereas he says (<i>Meteorum Cap. 8. Sect. 5.</i>) <i>Sed + judicabam unicam (refractione scilicet) ad minimum requiri, & + quidem talem ut ejus effectus aliâ contrariâ (refractione) non + destruatur: Nam experientia docet si superficies </i>NM<i> & + </i>NP<i> (nempe refringentes) Parallelæ forent, radios tantundem per + alteram iterum erectos quantum per unam frangerentur, nullos colores + depicturos</i>; This Principle of his holds true indeed in a prisme where + the refracting surfaces are plain, but is contradicted by the Ball or + Cylinder, whether of Water or Glass, where the refracting surfaces are + Orbicular or Cylindrical. For if we examine the passage of any + <i>Globule</i> or Ray of the primary <i>Iris</i>, we shall find it to + pass out of the Ball or Cylinder again, with the same inclination and + refraction that it enter’d in withall, and that that last refraction by + means of the <i>intermediate</i> reflection shall be the same as if + without any reflection at all the Ray had been twice refracted by two + Parallel surfaces.</p> + + <p>And that this is true, not onely in one, but in every Ray that goes to + the constitution of the Primary Iris; nay, in every Ray, that suffers + only two refractions, and one reflection, by the surface of the round + body, we shall presently see most evident, if we repeat the <i>Cartesian + Scheme</i>, mentioned in the tenth <i>Section</i> of the eighth +<span class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-06.png"><i>Schem.</i> 6.</a><br /><i>Fig.</i> 3. +</span> + <i>Chapter</i> of his <i>Meteors</i>, where EFKNP in the third Figure + is one of the + Rays of the Primary Iris, twice refracted at F and N, and once reflected + at K by the surface of the Water-ball. For, first it is evident, that KF + and KN are equal, because KN being the reflected part of KF they have + both the same inclination on the surface K that is the angles FKT, and + NKV made by the two Rays and the Tangent of K are equal, which is evident + by the Laws of reflection; whence it will follow also, that KN has the + same inclination on the surface N, or the Tangent of it XN that the Ray + KF has to the surface F, or the Tangent of it FY, whence it must + necessarily follow, that the refractions at F and N are equal, that is, + KFE and KNP are equal. Now, that the surface N is by the reflection at K + made parallel to the surface at F, is evident from the principles of + reflection; for reflection being nothing but an inverting of the Rays, if + we re-invert the Ray KNP, and make the same inclinations below the line + TKV that it has above, it will be most evident, that KH the inverse of KN + will be the continuation of the line FK, and that LHI the inverse of OX + is parallel to FY. And HM the inverse of NP is Parallel to EF for the + angle KHI is equal to KNO which is equal to KFY, and the angle KHM is + equal to KNP which is equal to KFE which was to be prov’d.</p> + + <p>So that according to the above mentioned <i>Cartesian</i> principles + there should be generated no colour at all in a Ball of Water or Glass by + two refractions and one reflection, which does hold most true indeed, if + the surfaces be plain, as may be experimented with any kind of prisme + where the two refracting surfaces are equally inclin’d to the reflecting; + but in this the <i>Phænomena</i> are quite otherwise.</p> + + <p>The cause therefore of the generation of colour must not be what + <i>Des Cartes</i> assigns, namely, a certain <i>rotation</i> of the + <i>Globuli ætherei</i>, which are the particles which he supposes to + constitute the <i>Pellucid medium</i>, But somewhat else, perhaps what we + have lately supposed, and shall by and by further prosecute and + explain.</p> + + <p>But, First I shall crave leave to propound some other difficulties of + his, notwithstanding exceedingly ingenious <i>Hypothesis</i>, which I + plainly confess to me seem such; and those are,</p> + + <p>First, if that light be (as is affirmed, <i>Diopt.</i> cap. 1. §. 8.) + not so properly a motion, as an action or propension to motion, I cannot + conceive how the eye can come to be sensible of the <i>verticity</i> of a + <i>Globule</i>, which is generated in a drop of Rain, perhaps a mile off + from it. For that <i>Globule</i> is not carry’d to the eye according to + his formerly recited Principle; and if not so, I cannot conceive how it + can communicate its <i>rotation</i>, or circular motion to the line of + the <i>Globules</i> between the drop and the eye. It cannot be by means + of every ones turning the next before him; for if so, then onely all the + <i>Globules</i> that are in the odd places must be turned the same + way with the first, namely, the 3. 5. 7. 9. + 11, <i>&c.</i> but all the <i>Globules</i> interposited between them + in the even places; namely, the 2. 4. 6. 8. 10. <i>&c.</i> must be + the quite contrary, whence, according to the <i>Cartesian Hypothesis</i>, + there must be no distinct colour generated, but a confusion. Next, since + the <i>Cartesian Globuli</i> are suppos’d (<i>Principiorum Philosoph.</i> + Part. 3. §. 86.) to be each of them continually in motion about their + centers, I cannot conceive how the eye is able to distinguish this new + generated motion from their former inherent one, if I may so call that + other wherewith they are mov’d or <i>turbinated</i>, from some other + cause than refraction. And thirdly, I cannot conceive how these motions + should not happen sometimes to oppose each other, and then, in stead of a + <i>rotation</i>, there would be nothing but a direct motion generated, + and consequently no colour. And fourthly, I cannot conceive, how by the + <i>Cartesian Hypothesis</i> it is possible to give any plausible reason + of the nature of the Colours generated in the thin <i>laminæ</i> of these + our <i>Microscopical Observations</i>; for in many of these, the + refracting and reflecting surfaces are parallel to each other, and + consequently no <i>rotation</i> can be generated, nor is there any + necessity of a shadow or termination of the bright Rays, such as is + suppos’d (<i>Chap.</i> 8. §. 5. <i>Et præterea observavi umbram quoque, + aut limitationem luminis requiri:</i> and <i>Chap.</i> 8. §. 9.) to be + necessary to the generation of any distinct colours; Besides that, here + is oftentimes one colour generated without any of the other appendant + ones, which cannot be by the <i>Cartesian Hypothesis</i>.</p> + + <p>There must be therefore some other propriety of refraction that causes + colour. And upon the examination of the thing, I cannot conceive any one + more general, inseparable, and sufficient, than that which I have before + assign’d. That we may therefore see how exactly our <i>Hypothesis</i> + agrees also with the <i>Phænomena</i> of the refracting round body, + whether <i>Globe</i> or <i>Cylinder</i>, we shall next subjoyn our + <i>Calculation</i> or <i>Examen</i> of it.</p> + +<div class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-06.png"><i>Schem.</i> 6.</a><br /><i>Fig.</i> 3. +</div> + + <p>And to this end, we will calculate any two Rays: as for instance; + let EF be a + Ray cutting the <i>Radius</i> CD (divided into 20. parts) in G 16. parts + distant from C, and <i>ef</i> another Ray, which cuts the same + <i>Radius</i> in <i>g</i> 17. parts distant, these will be refracted to K + and <i>k</i>, and from thence reflected to N and <i>n</i>, and from + thence refracted toward P and <i>p</i>; therefore the Arch F<i>f</i> will + be 5.<sup>d</sup> 5′. The Arch FK 106.<sup>d</sup> 30′. the Arch + <i>fk</i> 101.<sup>d</sup> 2′. The line FG 6000. and <i>fg</i> 5267. + therefore <i>hf</i>. 733. therefore F<i>c</i> 980, almost. The line FK + 16024. and <i>fk</i> 15436. therefore N<i>d</i> 196. and <i>no</i> 147 + almost, the line Nn 1019 the Arch N<i>n</i> 5.<sup>d</sup> 51′. therefore + the Angle N<i>no</i> is 34.<sup>d</sup> 43′. therefore the Angle + N<i>on</i> is 139.<sup>d</sup> 56′. which is almost 50.<sup>d</sup> more + than a right Angle.</p> + + <p>It is evident therefore by this <i>Hypothesis</i>, that at the same + time that <i>ef</i> touches <i>f</i>. EF is arrived at <i>c</i>. And by + that time <i>efkn</i> is got to <i>n</i>, EFKN is got to <i>d</i> and + when it touches N, the pulse of the other Ray is got to <i>o</i>. and no + farther, which is very short of the place it should have arriv’d to, to + make the Ray <i>np</i> to cut the <i>orbicular pulse</i> N<i>o</i> at + right Angles: therefore the Angle N<i>op</i> is an acute Angle, but the + quite contrary of this will happen, if 17. and 18. be + calculated in stead of 16. and 17. both which does most exactly agree + with the <i>Phænomena</i>: For if the Sun, or a Candle (which is better) + be placed about E<i>e</i>, and the eye about P<i>p</i>, the Rays + EF<i>ef</i> at 16. and 17. will paint the side of the luminous object + toward <i>np</i> <i>Blue</i>, and towards NP <i>Red</i>. But the quite + contrary will happen when EF is 17. and <i>ef</i> 18. for then towards NP + shall be a <i>Blue</i>, and towards <i>np</i> a <i>Red</i>, exactly + according to the calculation. And there appears the <i>Blue</i> of the + Rainbow, where the two <i>Blue</i> sides of the two Images unite, and + there the <i>Red</i> where the two <i>Red</i> sides unite, that is, where + the two Images are just disappearing; which is, when the Rays EF and NP + produc’d till they meet, make an Angle of about 41. and an half; the like + union is there of the two Images in the Production of the <i>Secundary + Iris</i>, and the same causes, as upon calculation may appear; onely with + this difference, that it is somewhat more faint, by reason of the + duplicate reflection, which does always weaken the impulse the oftner it + is repeated.</p> + + <p>Now, though the second refraction made at N<i>n</i> be convenient, + that is, do make the Rays glance the more, yet is it not altogether + requisite; for it is plain from the calculation, that the pulse <i>dn</i> + is sufficiently <i>oblique</i> to the Rays KN and <i>kn</i>, as wel as + the pulse <i>fc</i> is <i>oblique</i> to the Rays FK & <i>fk</i>. And + therefore if a piece of very fine Paper be held close against N<i>n</i> + and the eye look on it either through the Ball as from D, or from the + other side, as from B. there shall appear a Rainbow, or colour’d line + painted on it with the part toward X appearing <i>Red</i>, towards O, + <i>Blue</i>; the same also shall happen, if the Paper be placed about + K<i>k</i>, for towards T shall appear a <i>Red</i>, and towards V a + <i>Blue</i>, which does exactly agree with this my <i>Hypothesis</i>, as + upon the calculation of the progress of the pulse will most easily + appear.</p> + + <p>Nor do these two observations of the colours appearing to the eye + about <i>p</i> differing from what they appear on the Paper at N + contradict each other; but rather confirm and exactly agree with one + another, as will be evident to him that examines the reasons set down by + the ingenious. <i>Des Cartes</i> in the 12. <i>Sect.</i> of the 8. + <i>Chapter of his Meteors</i>, where he gives the true reason why the + colours appear of a quite contrary order to the eye, to what they + appear’d on the Paper if the eye be plac’d in steed of the Paper: And as + in the Prisme, so also in the Water-drop, or Globe the <i>Phænomena</i>, + and reason are much the same.</p> + + <p>Having therefore shewn that there is such a propriety in the + <i>prisme</i> and water <i>Globule</i> whereby the pulse is made + <i>oblique</i> to the progressive, and that so much the more, by how much + greater the refraction is, I shall in the next place consider, how this + conduces to the production of colours, and what kind of impression it + makes upon the bottom of the eye; and to this end it will be requisite to + examine this <i>Hypothesis</i> a little more particularly.</p> + + <p>First therefore, if we consider the manner of the progress of the + pulse, it will seem rational to conclude, that that part or end of the + pulse which precedes the other, must necessarily be somwhat more + <i>obtunded</i>, or <i>impeded</i> by the + resistance of the transparent <i>medium</i>, than the other part or end + of it which is subsequent, whose way is, as it were, prepared by the + other; especially if the adjacent <i>medium</i> be not in the same manner +<span class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-06.png"><i>Schem.</i> 6.</a><br /><i>Fig.</i> 4. +</span> + enlightned or agitated. And therefore (in the fourth <i>Figure</i> of the + sixth <i>Iconism</i>) the Ray AAAHB will have its side HH more deadened by + the resistance of the dark or quiet <i>medium</i> PPP, Whence there will + be a kind of deadness superinduc’d on the side HHH, which will + continually increase from B, and strike deeper and deeper into the Ray by + the line BR; Whence all the parts of the triangle, RBHO will be of a dead + <i>Blue</i> colour, and so much the deeper, by how much the nearer they + lie to the line BHH, which is most deaded or impeded, and so much the + more <i>dilute</i>, by how much the nearer it approaches the line BR. + Next on the other side of the Ray AAN, the end A of the pulse AH will be + promoted, or made stronger, having its passage already prepar’d as ’twere + by the other parts preceding, and so its impression wil be stronger; And + because of its <i>obliquity</i> to the Ray, there will be propagated a + kind of faint motion into QQ the adjacent dark or quiet <i>medium</i>, + which faint motion will spread further and further into QQ as the Ray is + propagated further and further from A, namely, as far as the line MA, + whence all the triangle MAN will be ting’d with a <i>Red</i>, and that + <i>Red</i> will be the deeper the nearer it approaches the line MA, and + the <i>paler</i> or <i>yellower</i> the nearer it is the line NA. And if + the Ray be continued, so that the lines AN and BR (which are the bounds + of the <i>Red</i> and <i>Blue diluted</i>) do meet and cross each other, + there will be beyond that intersection generated all kinds of + <i>Greens</i>.</p> + + <p>Now, these being the proprieties of every single refracted Ray of + light, it will be easie enough to consider what must be the result of + very many such Rays collateral: As if we suppose infinite such Rays + <i>interjacent</i> between AKSB and ANOB, which are the terminating: For + in this case the Ray AKSB will have its <i>Red</i> triangle intire, as + lying next to the dark or quiet <i>medium</i>, but the other side of it + BS will have no <i>Blue</i>, because the <i>medium adjacent</i> to it + SBO, is mov’d or enlightned, and consequently that light does destroy the + colour. So likewise will the Ray ANOB lose its <i>Red</i>, because the + <i>adjacent medium</i> is mov’d or enlightned, but the other side of the + Ray that is <i>adjacent</i> to the dark, namely, AHO will preserve its + <i>Blue</i> entire, and these Rays must be so far produc’d as till AN and + BR cut each other, before there will be any <i>Green</i> produc’d. From + these Proprieties well consider’d, may be deduc’d the reasons of all the + <i>Phænomena</i> of the <i>prisme</i>, and of the <i>Globules</i> or + drops of Water which conduce to the production of the Rainbow.</p> + +<div class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-06.png"><i>Schem.</i> 6.</a><br /><i>Fig.</i> 5. +</div> + + <p>Next for the impression they make on the <i>Retina</i>, we will + further examine this <i>Hypothesis</i>: Suppose therefore ABCDEF, in the + fifth <i>Figure</i>, to represent the Ball of the eye: on the + <i>Cornea</i> of which ABC two Rays GACH and KCAI (which are the + terminating Rays of a luminous body) falling, are by the refraction + thereof collected or <i>converg’d</i> into two points at the bottom of + the eye. Now, because these terminating Rays, and all the + <i>intermediate</i> ones which come from any part of the luminous body, + are suppos’d by some sufficient refraction before they + enter the eye, to have their pulses made <i>oblique</i> to their + progression, and consequently each Ray to have potentially + <i>superinduc’d</i> two proprieties, or colours, viz. a <i>Red</i> on + the one side, and a <i>Blue</i> on the other, which notwithstanding are + never actually manifest, but when this or that Ray has the one or the + other side of it bordering on a dark or unmov’d <i>medium</i>, therefore + as soon as these Rays are entred into the eye and so have one side of + each of them bordering on a dark part of the humours of the eye, they + will each of them actually exhibit some colour; therefore ADC the + production of GACH will exhibit a <i>Blue</i>, because the side CD is + <i>adjacent</i> to the dark <i>medium</i> CQDC, but nothing of a + <i>Red</i>, because its side AD is <i>adjacent</i> to the enlightned + <i>medium</i> ADFA: And all the Rays that from the points of the luminous + body are collected on the parts of the <i>Retina</i> between D and F + shall have their <i>Blue</i> so much the more <i>diluted</i> by how much + the farther these points of collection are distant from D towards F; and + the Ray AFC the production of KCAI, will exhibit a <i>Red</i>, because + the side AF is adjacent to the dark or quiet <i>medium</i> of the eye + APFA, but nothing of a <i>Blue</i>, because its side CF is + <i>adjacent</i> to the enlightned <i>medium</i> CFDC, and all the Rays + from the intermediate parts of the luminous body that are collected + between F and D shall have their <i>Red</i> so much the more diluted, by + how much the farther they are distant from F towards D.</p> + + <p>Now, because by the refraction in the <i>Cornea</i>, and some other + parts of the eye, the sides of each Ray, which before were almost + parallel, are made to <i>converge</i> and meet in a point at the bottom + of the eye, therefore that side of the <i>pulse</i> which preceded before + these refractions, shall first touch the <i>Retina</i>, and the other + side last. And therefore according as this or that side, or end of the + pulse shall be impeded, accordingly will the <i>impressions</i> on the + <i>Retina</i> be varied; therefore by the Ray GACH refracted by the + <i>Cornea</i> to D there shall be on that point a stroke or impression + confus’d, whose weakest end, namely, that by the line CD shall precede, + and the stronger, namely, that by the line AD shall follow. And by the + Ray KCAI refracted to F, there shall be on that part a confus’d stroke or + impression, whose strongest part, namely, that by the line CF shal + precede, and whose weakest or impeded, namely, that by the line AF shall + follow, and all the intermediate points between F and D will receive + impressions from the <i>converg’d</i> Rays so much the more like the + impressions on F and D by how much the nearer they approach that or + this.</p> + + <p>From the consideration of the proprieties of which impressions, we may + collect these short definitions of Colours: That <i>Blue is an impression + on the Retina of an oblique and confus’d pulse of light, whose weakest + part precedes, and whose strongest follows.</i> And, that <i>Red is an + impression on the Retina of an oblique and confus’d pulse of light, whose + strongest part precedes, and whose weakest follows.</i></p> + + <p>Which proprieties, as they have been already manifested, in the Prisme + and falling drops of Rain, to be the causes of the colours there + generated, may be easily found to be the efficients also of the colours + appearing in thin <i>laminated</i> transparent bodies; for the + explication of which, all this has been premised.</p> + + <p>And that this is so, a little closer examination of the + <i>Phænomena</i> and the <i>Figure</i> of the body, by this + <i>Hypothesis</i> will make evident.</p> + + <p>For first (as we have already observed) the <i>laminated</i> body must + be of a determinate thickness, that is, it must not be thinner then such + a determinate quantity; for I have always observ’d, that neer the edges + of those which are exceeding thin, the colours disappear, and the part + grows white; nor must it be thicker then another determinate quantity; + for I have likewise observ’d, that beyond such a thickness, no colours + appear’d, but the Plate looked white, between which two determinate + thicknesses were all the colour’d Rings; of which in some substances I + have found ten or twelve, in others not half so many, which I suppose + depends much upon the transparency of the <i>laminated</i> body. Thus + though the consecutions are the same in the scum or the skin on the top + of metals; yet in those consecutions in the same colour is not so often + repeated as in the consecutions in thin Glass, or in Sope-water, or any + other more transparent and glutinous liquor; for in these I have + observ’d, <i>Red, Yellow, Green, Blue, Purple; Red, Yellow, Green, Blue, + Purple; Red, Yellow, Green, Blue, Purple; Red, Yellow, &c.</i> to + succeed each other, ten or twelve times, but in the other more + <i>opacous</i> bodies the consecutions will not be half so many.</p> + + <p>And therefore secondly, the <i>laminated</i> body must be transparent, + and this I argue from this, that I have not been able to produce any + colour at all with an <i>opacous</i> body, though never so thin. And this + I have often try’d, by pressing small <i>Globule</i> of <i>Mercury</i> + between two smooth Plates of Glass, whereby I have reduc’d that body to a + much greater thinness then was requisite to exhibit the colours with a + transparent body.</p> + + <p>Thirdly, there must be a considerable reflecting body adjacent to the + under or further side of the <i>lamina</i> or <i>plate</i>: for this I + always found, that the greater that reflection was, the more vivid were + the appearing colours.</p> + + <p>From which Observations, is most evident, that the reflection from the + under or further side of the body is the principal cause of the + production of these colours; which, that it is so, and how it conduces to + that effect, I shall further explain in the following Figure, which is + here described of a very great thickness, as if it had been view’d + through the <i>Microscope</i>; and ’tis indeed much thicker than any + <i>Microscope</i> (I have yet us’d) has been able to shew me those + colour’d plates of Glass, or <i>Muscovie-glass</i>, which I have not + without much trouble view’d with it, for though I have endeavoured to + magnifie them as much as the Glasses were capable of, yet are they so + exceeding thin, that I have not hitherto been able positively to + determine their thickness. This Figure therefore I here represent, is + wholy <i>Hypothetical</i>.</p> + +<div class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-06.png"><i>Schem.</i> 6.</a><br /><i>Fig.</i> 6. +</div> + + <p>Let ABCDHFE in the sixth Figure be a <i>frustum</i> of + <i>Muscovy-glass</i>, thinner toward the end AE, and thicker towards DF. + Let us first suppose the Ray <i>aghb</i> coming from the Sun, of some + remote luminous object to fall <i>obliquely</i> on the thinner plate BAE, + part therefore is reflected back by <i>cghd</i>, the first + <i>Superficies</i>; whereby the perpendicular pulse + <i>ab</i> is after reflexion propagated by <i>cd</i>, <i>cd</i>, equally + remote from each other with <i>ab</i>, <i>ab</i>, so that <i>ag</i> + + <i>gc</i>, or <i>bh</i> + <i>hd</i> are either of them equal to + <i>aa</i>, as is also <i>cc</i>, but the body BAE being transparent, a + part of the light of this Ray is refracted in the surface AB, and + propagated by <i>gikh</i> to the surface EF, whence it is reflected and + refracted again by the surface AB. So that after two refractions and one + reflection, there is propagated a kind of fainter Ray <i>emnf</i>, whose + pulse is not only weaker by reason of the two refractions in the surface + AB, but by reason of the time spent in passing and repassing between the + two surfaces AB and EF, <i>ef</i> which is this fainter or weaker pulse + comes behind the pulse <i>cd</i>; so that hereby (the surfaces AB, and EF + being so neer together, that the eye cannot <i>discriminate</i> them from + one) this confus’d or <i>duplicated</i> pulse, whose strongest part + precedes, and whose weakest follows, does produce on the <i>Retina</i>, + (or the <i>optick nerve</i> that covers the bottom of the eye) the + sensation of a <i>Yellow</i>.</p> + + <p>And secondly, this <i>Yellow</i> will appear so much the deeper, by + how much the further back towards the middle between <i>cd</i> and + <i>cd</i> the spurious pulse <i>ef</i> is remov’d, as in 2 where the + surface BC being further remov’d from EF, the weaker pulse <i>ef</i> will + be nearer to the middle, and will make an impression on the eye of a + <i>Red</i>.</p> + + <p>But thirdly, if the two reflecting surfaces be yet further remov’d + asunder (as in 3 CD and EF are) then will the weaker pulse be so farr + behind, that it will be more then half the distance between <i>cd</i> and + <i>cd</i>. And in this case it will rather seem to precede the following + stronger pulse, then to follow the preceding one, and consequently a + <i>Blue</i> will be generated. And when the weaker pulse is just in the + middle between two strong ones, then is a deep and lovely <i>Purple</i> + generated; but when the weaker pulse <i>ef</i> is very neer to <i>cd</i>, + then is there generated a <i>Green</i>, which will be <i>bluer</i>, or + <i>yellower</i>, according as the <i>approximate</i> weak pulse does + precede or follow the stronger.</p> + + <p>Now fourthly, if the thicker Plate chance to be cleft into two thinner + Plates, as CDFE is divided into two Plates by the surface GH then from + the composition arising from the three reflections in the surfaces CD, + GH, and EF, there will be generated several compounded or mixt colours, + which will be very differing, according as the proportion between the + thicknesses of those two divided Plates CDHG, and GHFE are varied.</p> + + <p>And <i>fifthly</i>, if these surfaces CD and FE are further remov’d + asunder, the weaker pulse will yet lagg behind much further, and not + onely be <i>coincident</i> with the second, <i>cd</i>, but lagg behind + that also, and that so much the more, by how much the thicker the Plate + be; so that by degrees it will be <i>coincident</i> with the third + <i>cd</i> backward also, and by degrees, as the Plate grows thicker with + a fourth, and so onward to a fifth, sixth, seventh, or eighth; so that if + there be a thin transparent body, that from the greatest thinness + requisite to produce colours, does, in the manner of a Wedge, by degrees + grow to the greatest thickness that a Plate can be of, to exhibit a + colour by the reflection of Light from such a body, there + shall be generated several consecutions of colours, whose order from the + thin end towards the thick, shall be <i>Yellow, Red, Purple, Blue, Green; + Yellow, Red, Purple, Blue, Green; Yellow, Red, Purple, Blue, Green; + Yellow</i>, &c. and these so often repeated, as the weaker pulse does + lose paces with its <i>Primary</i>, or first pulse, and is + <i>coincident</i> with a second, third, fourth, fifth, sixth, + <i>&c.</i> pulse behind the first. And this, as it is + <i>coincident</i>, or follows from the first <i>Hypothesis</i> I took of + colours, so upon experiment have I found it in multitudes of instances + that seem to prove it. One thing which seems of the greatest concern in + this <i>Hypothesis</i>, is to determine the greatest or least thickness + requisite for these effects, which, though I have not been wanting in + attempting, yet so exceeding thin are these coloured Plates, and so + imperfect our <i>Microscope</i>, that I have not been hitherto + successfull, though if my endeavours shall answer my expectations, I + shall hope to gratifie the curious Reader with some things more remov’d + beyond our reach hitherto.</p> + + <p>Thus have I, with as much brevity as I was able, endeavoured to + explicate (<i>Hypothetically</i> at least) the causes of the + <i>Phænomena</i> I formerly recited, on the consideration of which I have + been the more particular.</p> + + <p>First, because I think these I have newly given are capable of + explicating all the <i>Phænomena</i> of colours, not onely of those + appearing in the <i>Prisme</i>, Water-drop, or Rainbow, and in + <i>laminated</i> or plated bodies, but of all that are in the world, + whether they be fluid or solid bodies, whether in thick or thin, whether + transparent, or seemingly opacous, as I shall in the next Observation + further endeavour to shew. And secondly, because this being one of the + two ornaments of all bodies discoverable by the sight, whether looked on + with, or without a <i>Microscope</i>, it seem’d to deserve (somewhere in + this Tract, which contains a description of the Figure and Colour of some + minute bodies) to be somewhat the more intimately enquir’d into.<br /></p> +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class='chapter' /> +<h2>Observ. <a name="obsX" id="obsX">X</a>. <i>Of </i>Metalline<i>, and other real Colours.</i></h2> + + <p>Having in the former Discourse, from the Fundamental cause of Colour, + made it probable, that there are but two Colours, and shewn, that the + <i>Phantasm</i> of Colour is caus’d by the sensation of the + <i>oblique</i> or uneven pulse of Light which is capable of no more + varieties than two that arise from the two sides of the <i>oblique</i> + pulse, though each of those be capable of infinite gradations or degrees + (each of them beginning from <i>White</i>, and ending the one in the + deepest <i>Scarlet</i> or <i>Yellow</i>, the other in the deepest + <i>Blue</i>) I shall in this <i>Section</i> set down some Observations + which I have made of other colours, such as <i>Metalline</i> powders + tinging or colour’d bodies and several kinds of tinctures or ting’d + liquors, all which, together with those I treated of in the former + Observation will, I suppose, comprise the several subjects in which + colour is observ’d to be inherent, and the several manners by which it + <i>inheres</i>, or is apparent in them. And here I shall + endeavour to shew by what composition all kind of compound colours are + made, and how there is no colour in the world but may be made from the + various degrees of these two colours, together with the intermixtures of + <i>Black</i> and <i>White</i>.</p> + + <p>And this being so, as I shall anon shew, it seems an evident argument + to me, that all colours whatsoever, whether in fluid or solid, whether in + very transparent or seemingly <i>opacous</i>, have the same efficient + cause, to wit, some kind of <i>refraction</i> whereby the Rays that + proceed from such bodies, have their pulse <i>obliquated</i> or confus’d + in the manner I explicated in the former <i>Section</i>; that is, a + <i>Red</i> is caus’d by a duplicated or confus’d pulse, whose strongest + pulse precedes, and a weaker follows: and a <i>Blue</i> is caus’d by a + confus’d pulse, where the weaker pulse precedes, and the stronger + follows. And according as these are, more or less, or variously mixt and + compounded, so are the <i>sensations</i>, and consequently the + <i>phantasms</i> of colours <i>diversified</i>.</p> + + <p>To proceed therefore; I suppose, that all transparent colour’d bodies, + whether fluid or solid, do consist at least of two parts, or two kinds of + substances, the one of a substance of a somewhat differing + <i>refraction</i> from the other. That one of these substances which may + be call’d the <i>tinging</i> substance, does consist of distinct parts, + or particles of a determinate bigness which are <i>disseminated</i>, or + dispers’d all over the other: That these particles, if the body be + equally and uniformly colour’d, are evenly rang’d and dispers’d over the + other contiguous body; That where the body is deepest ting’d, there these + particles are rang’d thickest, and where ’tis but faintly ting’d, they + are rang’d much thinner, but uniformly. That by the mixture of another + body that unites with either of these, which has a differing refraction + from either of the other, quite differing effects will be produc’d, that + is, the <i>consecutions</i> of the confus’d pulses will be much of + another kind, and consequently produce other <i>sensations</i> and + <i>phantasms</i> of colours, and from a <i>Red</i> may turn to a + <i>Blue</i>, or from a <i>Blue</i> to a <i>Red</i>, &c.</p> + + <p>Now, that this may be the better understood, I shall endeavour to +<span class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-06.png"><i>Schem.</i> 6.</a><br /><i>Fig.</i> 7. +</span> + explain my meaning a little more sensible by a <i>Scheme</i>: Suppose we + therefore in the seventh <i>Figure</i> of the sixth <i>Scheme</i>, that + ABCD represents a Vessel holding a ting’d liquor, let IIIII, &c. be + the clear liquor, and let the tinging body that is mixt with it be EE, + <i>&c.</i> FF, <i>&c.</i> GG, <i>&c.</i> HH, <i>&c.</i> + whose particles (whether round, or some other determinate Figure is + little to our purpose) are first of a determinate and equal bulk. Next, + they are rang’d into the form of <i>Quincunx</i>, or + <i>Equilaterotriangular</i> order, which that probably they are so, and + why they are so, I shall elsewhere endeavour to shew. Thirdly, they are + of such a nature, as does either more easily or more difficultly transmit + the Rays of light then the liquor; if more easily, a <i>Blue</i> is + generated, and if more difficultly, a <i>Red</i> or <i>Scarlet</i>.</p> + + <p>And first, let us suppose the tinging particles to be of a substance + that does more <i>impede</i> the Rays of light, we shall find that the + pulse or wave of light mov’d from AD to BC, will proceed on, through the + containing <i>medium</i> by the pulses or waves KK, LL, MM, NN, OO; but + because several of these Rays that go to the + constitution of these pulses will be slugged or stopped by the tinging + particles E, F, G, H; therefore there shall be <i>secundary</i> and weak + pulse that shall follow the Ray, namely PP which will be the weaker: + first, because it has suffer’d many refractions in the impeding body; + next, for that the Rays will be a little dispers’d or confus’d by reason + of the refraction in each of the particles, whether <i>round</i> or + <i>angular</i>; and this will be more evident, if we a little more + closely examine any one particular tinging <i>Globule</i>.</p> + +<div class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-06.png"><i>Schem.</i> 6.</a><br /><i>Fig.</i> 8. +</div> + + <p>Suppose we therefore AB in the eighth <i>Figure</i> of the sixth + <i>Scheme</i>, to represent a tinging <i>Globule</i> or particle which + has a greater refraction than the liquor in which it is contain’d: Let CD + be a part of the pulse of light which is <i>propagated</i> through the + containing <i>medium</i>; this pulse will be a little stopt or impeded by + the <i>Globule</i>, and so by that time the pulse is past to EF that part + of it which has been impeded by passing through the <i>Globule</i>, will + get but to LM, and so that pulse which has been <i>propagated</i> through + the <i>Globule</i>, to wit, LM, NO, PQ, will always come behind the + pulses EF, GH, IK, <i>&c.</i></p> + + <p>Next, by reason of the greater impediment in AB, and its + <i>Globular</i> Figure, the Rays that pass through it will be dispers’d, + and very much scatter’d. Whence CA and DB which before went <i>direct</i> + and <i>parallel</i>, will after the refraction in AB, <i>diverge</i> and + spread by AP, and BQ; so that as the Rays do meet with more and more of + these tinging particles in their way, by so much the more will the pulse + of light further lagg behind the clearer pulse, or that which has fewer + refractions, and thence the deeper will the colour be, and the fainter + the light that is trajected through it; for not onely many Rays are + reflected from the surfaces of AB, but those Rays that get through it are + very much disordered.</p> + + <p>By this <i>Hypothesis</i> there is no one experiment of colour that I + have yet met with, but may be, I conceive, very rationably solv’d, and + perhaps, had I time to examine several particulars requisite to the + demonstration of it, I might prove it more than probable, for all the + experiments about the changes and mixings of colours related in the + Treatise of Colours, published by the <i>Incomparable</i> Mr. + <i>Boyle</i>, and multitudes of others which I have observ’d, do so + easily and naturally flow from those principles, that I am very apt to + think it probable, that they own their production to no other + <i>secundary</i> cause: As to instance in two or three experiments. In + the twentieth Experiment, this <i>Noble Authour</i> has shewn that the + deep <i>bluish purple-colour</i> of <i>Violets</i>, may be turn’d into a + <i>Green</i>, by <i>Alcalizate Salts</i>, and to a <i>Red</i> by acid; + that is, a <i>Purple</i> consists of two colours, a deep <i>Red</i>, and + a deep <i>Blue</i>; when the <i>Blue</i> is diluted, or altered, or + destroy’d by <i>acid Salts</i>, the <i>Red</i> becomes predominant, but + when the <i>Red</i> is diluted by <i>Alcalizate</i>, and the <i>Blue</i> + heightned, there is generated a <i>Green</i>; for of a <i>Red</i> + diluted, is made a <i>Yellow</i>, and <i>Yellow</i> and <i>Blue</i> make + a <i>Green</i>.</p> + + <p>Now, because the <i>spurious</i> pulses which cause a <i>Red</i> and a + <i>Blue</i>, do the one follow the clear pulse, and the other precede it, + it usually follows, that those <i>Saline</i> refracting bodies which do + <i>dilute</i> the colour of the one, do deepen that of the other. And + this will be made manifest by almost all kinds of + <i>Purples</i>, and many sorts of <i>Greens</i>, both these colours + consisting of mixt colours; for if we suppose A and A in the ninth + Figure, to represent two pulses of clear light, which follow each other + at a convenient distance, AA, each of which has a <i>spurious</i> pulse + preceding it, as BB, which makes a <i>Blue</i>, and another following it, + as CC, which makes a <i>Red</i>, the one caus’d by tinging particles that + have a greater refraction, the other by others that have a less + refracting quality then the liquor or <i>Menstruum</i> in which these are + dissolv’d, whatsoever liquor does so alter the refraction of the one, + without altering that of the other part of the ting’d liquor, must needs + very much alter the colour of the liquor; for if the refraction of the + <i>dissolvent</i> be increas’d, and the refraction of the tinging + particles not altered, then will the preceding <i>spurious</i> pulse be + shortned or stopt, and not out-run the clear pulse so much; so that BB + will become EE, and the <i>Blue</i> be <i>diluted</i>, whereas the other + <i>spurious</i> pulse which follows will be made to lagg much more, and + be further behind AA than before, and CC will become <i>ff</i>, and so + the <i>Yellow</i> or <i>Red</i> will be heightned.</p> + + <p>A <i>Saline</i> liquor therefore, mixt with another ting’d liquor, may + alter the colour of it several ways, either by altering the refraction of + the liquor in which the colour swims: or secondly by varying the + refraction of the coloured particles, by uniting more intimately either + with some particular <i>corpuscles</i> of the tinging body, or with all + of them, according as it has a <i>congruity</i> to some more especially, + or to all alike: or thirdly, by uniting and interweaving it self with + some other body that is already joyn’d with the tinging particles, with + which substance it may have a <i>congruity</i>, though it have very + little with the particles themselves: or fourthly, it may alter the + colour of a ting’d liquor by dis-joyning certain particles which were + before united with the tinging particles, which though they were somewhat + <i>congruous</i> to these particles, have yet a greater <i>congruity</i> + with the newly <i>infus’d Saline menstruum</i>. It may likewise alter the + colour by further dissolving the tinging substance into smaller and + smaller <i>particles</i>, and so <i>diluting</i> the colour; or by + uniting several <i>particles</i> together as in precipitations, and so + deepning it, and some such other ways, which many experiments and + comparisons of differing trials together, might easily inform one of.</p> + + <p>From these Principles applied, may be made out all the varieties of + colours observable, either in liquors, or any other ting’d bodies, with + great ease, and I hope intelligible enough, there being nothing in the + <i>notion</i> of colour, or in the suppos’d production, but is very + conceivable, and may be possible.</p> + + <p>The greatest difficulty that I find against this <i>Hypothesis</i>, + is, that there seem to be more distinct colours then two, that is, then + Yellow and Blue. This Objection is grounded on this reason, that there + are several Reds, which <i>diluted</i>, make not a Saffron or pale + Yellow, and therefore Red, or Scarlet seems to be a third colour distinct + from a deep degree of Yellow.</p> + + <p>To which I answer, that Saffron affords us a deep Scarlet tincture, + which may be <i>diluted</i> into as pale a Yellow as any, either by + making a weak solution of the Saffron, by infusing a + small parcel of it into a great quantity of liquor, as in spirit of Wine, + or else by looking through a very thin quantity of the tincture, and + which may be heightn’d into the loveliest Scarlet, by looking through a + very thick body of this tincture, or through a thinner parcel of it, + which is highly <i>impregnated</i> with the tinging body, by having had a + greater quantity of the Saffron dissolv’d in a smaller parcel of the + liquor.</p> + + <p>Now, though there may be some particles of other tinging bodies that + give a lovely Scarlet also, which though <i>diluted</i> never so much + with liquor, or looked on through never so thin a parcel of ting’d + liquor, will not yet afford a pale Yellow, but onely a kind of faint Red; + yet this is no argument but that those ting’d particles may have in them + the faintest degree of Yellow, though we may be unable to make them + exhibit it; For that power of being <i>diluted</i> depending upon the + divisibility of the ting’d body, if I am unable to make the tinging + particles so thin as to exhibit that colour, it does not therefore + follow, that the thing is impossible to be done; now, the tinging + particles of some bodies are of such a nature, that unless there be found + some way of comminuting them into less bulks then the liquor does + dissolve them into, all the Rays that pass through them must necessarily + receive a tincture so deep, as their appropriate refractions and bulks + compar’d with the proprieties of the dissolving liquor must necessarily + dispose them to empress, which may perhaps be a pretty deep Yellow, or + pale Red.</p> + + <p>And that this is not <i>gratis dictum</i>, I shall add one instance of + this kind, wherein the thing is most manifest.</p> + + <p>If you take Blue <i>Smalt</i>, you shall find, that to afford the + deepest Blue, which <i>cæteris paribus</i> has the greatest particles or + sands; and if you further divide, or grind those particles on a + Grindstone, or <i>porphyry</i> stone, you may by <i>comminuting</i> the + sands of it, <i>dilute</i> the Blue into as pale a one as you please, + which you cannot do by laying the colour thin; for wheresoever any single + particle is, it exhibits as deep a Blue as the whole mass. Now, there are + other Blues, which though never so much ground, will not be + <i>diluted</i> by grinding, because consisting of very small particles, + very deeply ting’d, they cannot by grinding be actually separated into + smaller particles then the operation of the fire, or some other + dissolving <i>menstruum</i>, reduc’d them to already.</p> + + <p>Thus all kind of <i>Metalline</i> colours, whether + <i>precipitated</i>, <i>sublim’d</i>, <i>calcin’d</i>, or otherwise + prepar’d, are hardly chang’d by grinding, as <i>ultra marine</i> is not + more <i>diluted</i>; nor is <i>Vermilion</i> or <i>Red-lead</i> made of a + more faint colour by grinding; for the smallest particles of these which + I have view’d with my greatest Magnifying-Glass, if they be well + enlightned, appear very deeply ting’d with their peculiar colours; nor, + though I have magnified and enlightned the particles exceedingly, could I + in many of them, perceive them to be transparent, or to be whole + particles, but the smallest specks that I could find among well ground + <i>Vermilion</i> and <i>Red-lead</i>, seem’d to be a Red mass, compounded + of a multitude of less and less motes, which sticking together, compos’d + a bulk, not one thousand thousandth part of the smallest visible sand or + mote.</p> + + <p>And this I find generally in most <i>Metalline</i> colours, that + though they consist of parts so exceedingly small, yet are they very + deeply ting’d, they being so ponderous, and having such a multitude of + terrestrial particles throng’d into a little room; so that ’tis difficult + to find any particle transparent or resembling a pretious stone, though + not impossible; for I have observ’d divers such shining and resplendent + colours intermixt with the particles of <i>Cinnaber</i>, both natural and + artificial, before it hath been ground and broken or flaw’d into + <i>Vermilion</i>: As I have also in <i>Orpiment</i>, <i>Red-lead</i>, and + <i>Bise</i>, which makes me suppose, that those <i>metalline</i> colours + are by grinding, not onely broken and separated actually into smaller + pieces, but that they are also flaw’d and brused, whence they, for the + most part, become <i>opacous</i>, like flaw’d Crystal or Glass, + <i>&c.</i> But for <i>Smalts</i> and <i>verditures</i>, I have been + able with a <i>Microscope</i> to perceive their particles very many of + them transparent.</p> + + <p>Now, that the others also may be transparent, though they do not + appear so to the <i>Microscope</i>, may be made probable by this + Experiment: that if you take <i>ammel</i> that is almost <i>opacous</i>, + and grind it very well on a <i>Porphyry</i>, or <i>Serpentine</i>, the + small particles will by reason of their flaws, appear perfectly + <i>opacous</i>; and that ’tis the flaws that produce this + <i>opacousness</i>, may be argued from this, that particles of the same + <i>Ammel</i> much thicker if unflaw’d will appear somewhat transparent + even to the eye; and from this also, that the most transparent and clear + Crystal, if heated in the fire, and then suddenly quenched, so that it be + all over flaw’d, will appear <i>opacous</i> and white.</p> + + <p>And that the particles of <i>Metalline</i> colours are transparent, + may be argued yet further from this, that the Crystals, or + <i>Vitriols</i> of all Metals, are transparent, which since they consist + of <i>metalline</i> as well as <i>saline</i> particles, those + <i>metalline</i> ones must be transparent, which is yet further confirm’d + from this, that they have for the most part, <i>appropriate</i> colours; + so the <i>vitriol</i> of Gold is Yellow; of Copper, Blue, and sometimes + Green; of Iron, green; of Tinn and Lead, a pale White; of Silver, a pale + Blue, <i>&.</i></p> + + <p>And next, the <i>Solution</i> of all Metals into <i>menstruums</i> are + much the same with the <i>Vitriols</i>, or Crystals. It seems therefore + very probable, that those colours which are made by the + <i>precipitation</i> of those particles out of the <i>menstruums</i> by + transparent <i>precipitating</i> liquors should be transparent also. Thus + Gold <i>precipitates</i> with <i>oyl of Tartar</i>, or <i>spirit of + Urine</i> into a brown Yellow, Copper with spirit of <i>Urine</i> into a + Mucous blue, which retains its transparency. A solution of sublimate (as + the same Illustrious Authour I lately mention’d shews in his 40. + Experiment) <i>precipitates</i> with oyl of <i>Tartar</i> <i>per + deliquium</i>, into an Orange colour’d <i>precipitate</i>; nor is it less + probable, that the <i>calcination</i> of those <i>Vitriols</i> by the + fire, should have their particles transparent: Thus <i>Saccarum + Saturni</i>, or the <i>Vitriol of Lead</i> by <i>calcination</i> becomes + a deep Orange-colour’d <i>minium</i>, which is a kind of + <i>precipitation</i> by some Salt which proceeds from the fire; common + <i>Vitriol</i> <i>calcin’d</i>, yields a deep Brown Red, &c.</p> + + <p>A third Argument, that the particles of Metals are transparent, is, + that being <i>calcin’d</i>, and melted with Glass, they tinge the Glass + with transparent colours. Thus the <i>Calx</i> of Silver + tinges the Glass on which it is anneal’d with a lovely Yellow, or Gold + colour, <i>&c.</i></p> + + <p>And that the parts of Metals are transparent, may be farther argued + from the transparency of Leaf-gold, which held against the light, both to + the naked eye, and the <i>Microscope</i>, exhibits a deep Green. And + though I have never seen the other Metals <i>laminated</i> so thin, that + I was able to perceive them transparent, yet, for Copper and Brass, if we + had the same conveniency for <i>laminating</i> them, as we have for Gold, + we might, perhaps, through such plates or leaves, find very differing + degrees of Blue, or Green; for it seems very probable, that those Rays + that rebound from them ting’d, with a deep Yellow, or pale Red, as from + Copper, or with a pale Yellow, as from Brass, have past through them; for + I cannot conceive how by reflection alone those Rays can receive a + tincture, taking any <i>Hypothesis</i> extant.</p> + + <p>So that we see there may a sufficient reason be drawn from these + instances, why those colours which we are unable to <i>dilute</i> to the + palest Yellow, or Blue, or Green, are not therefore to be concluded not + to be a deeper degree of them; for supposing we had a great company of + small <i>Globular</i> essence Bottles, or round Glass bubbles, about the + bigness of a Walnut, fill’d each of them with a very deep mixture of + Saffron, and that every one of them did appear of a deep Scarlet colour, + and all of them together did <i>exhibit</i> at a distance, a deep dy’d + Scarlet body. It does not follow, because after we have come nearer to + this <i>congeries</i>, or mass, and divided it into its parts, and + examining each of its parts severally or apart, we find them to have much + the same colour with the whole mats; it does not, I say, therefore + follow, that if we could break those <i>Globules</i> smaller, or any + other ways come to see a smaller or thinner parcel of the ting’d liquor + that fill’d those bubbles, that that ting’d liquor must always appear + Red, or of a Scarlet hue, since if Experiment be made, the quite contrary + will ensue; for it is capable of being <i>diluted</i> into the palest + Yellow.</p> + + <p>Now, that I might avoid all the Objections of this kind, by exhibiting + an Experiment that might by ocular proof convince those whom other + reasons would not prevail with, I provided me a <i>Prismatical Glass</i>, +<span class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-06.png"><i>Schem.</i> 6.</a><br /><i>Fig.</i> 10. +</span> + made hollow, just in the form of a Wedge, such as is represented in the + tenth <i>Figure</i> of the sixth <i>Scheme</i>. The two + <i>parallelogram</i> sides ABCD, ABEF, which met at a point, were made of + the clearest Looking-glass plates well ground and polish’d that I could + get; these were joyn’d with hard cement to the <i>triangular</i> sides, + BCE, ADF, which were of Wood; the <i>Parallelogram</i> base BCEF, + likewise was of Wood joyn’d on to the rest with hard cement, and the + whole <i>Prismatical</i> Box was exactly stopt every where, but onely a + little hole near the base was left, whereby the Vessel could be fill’d + with any liquor, or emptied again at pleasure.</p> + + <p>One of these Boxes (for I had two of them) I fill’d with a pretty deep + tincture of <i>Aloes</i>, drawn onely with fair Water, and then stopt the + hole with a piece of Wax, then, by holding this Wedge against the Light, + and looking through it, it was obvious enough to see the tincture of the + liquor near the edge of the Wedge where it was but very thin, to be a + pale but well colour’d Yellow, and further and further + from the edge, as the liquor grew thicker and thicker, this tincture + appear’d deeper and deeper, so that near the blunt end, which was seven + Inches from the edge and three Inches and an half thick; it was of a deep + and well colour’d Red. Now, the clearer and purer this tincture be, the + more lovely will the deep Scarlet be, and the fouler the tincture be, the + more dirty will the Red appear; so that some dirty tinctures have + afforded their deepest Red much of the colour of burnt Oker or + <i>Spanish</i> brown; others as lovely a colour as <i>Vermilion</i>, and + some much brighter; but several others, according as the tinctures were + worse or more foul, exhibited various kinds of Reds, of very differing + degrees.</p> + + <p>The other of these Wedges, I fill’d with a most lovely tincture of + Copper, drawn from the filings of it, with spirit of <i>Urine</i>, and + this Wedge held as the former against the Light, afforded all manner of + Blues, from the faintest to the deepest, so that I was in good hope by + these two, to have produc’d all the varieties of colours imaginable; for + I thought by this means to have been able by placing the two + <i>Parallelogram</i> sides together, and the edges contrary ways, to have + so mov’d them to and fro one by another, as by looking through them in + several places, and through several thicknesses, I should have + compounded, and consequently have seen all those colours, which by other + like compositions of colours would have ensued.</p> + + <p>But insteed of meeting with what I look’d for, I met with somewhat + more admirable; and that was, that I found my self utterly unable to see + through them when placed both together, though they were transparent + enough when asunder; and though I could see through twice the thickness, + when both of them were fill’d with the same colour’d liquors, whether + both with the Yellow, or both with the Blue, yet when one was fill’d with + the Yellow, the other with the Blue, and both looked through, they both + appear’d dark, onely when the parts near the tops were look’d through, + they exhibited Greens, and those of very great variety, as I expected, + but the Purples and other colours, I could not by any means make, whether + I endeavour’d to look through them both against the Sun, or whether I + plac’d them against the hole of a darkned room.</p> + + <p>But notwithstanding this mis-ghessing, I proceeded on with my trial in + a dark room, and having two holes near one another, I was able, by + placing my Wedges against them, to mix the ting’d Rays that past through + them, and fell on a sheet of white Paper held at a convenient distance + from them as I pleas’d; so that I could make the Paper appear of what + colour I would, by varying the thicknesses of the Wedges, and + consequently the tincture of the Rays that past through the two holes, + and sometimes also by varying the Paper, that is, insteed of a white + Paper, holding a gray, or a black piece of Paper.</p> + + <p>Whence I experimentally found what I had before imagin’d, that all the + varieties of colours imaginable are produc’d from several degrees of + these two colours, namely, Yellow and Blue, or the mixture of them with + light and darkness, that is, white and black. And all those almost + infinite varieties which Limners and Painters are able to make by + compounding those several colours they lay on their Shels + or <i>Palads</i>, are nothing else, but some <i>compositum</i>, made up + of some one or more, or all of these four.</p> + + <p>Now, whereas it may here again be objected, that neither can the Reds + be made out of the Yellows, added together, or laid on in greater or less + quantity, nor can the Yellows be made out of the Reds though laid never + so thin; and as for the addition of White or Black, they do nothing but + either whiten or darken the colours to which they are added, and not at + all make them of any other kind of colour: as for instance, + <i>Vermilion</i>, by being temper’d with White Lead, does not at all grow + more Yellow, but onely there is made a whiter kind of Red. Nor does + Yellow <i>Oker</i>, though laid never so thick, produce the colour of + <i>Vermilion</i>, nor though it be temper’d with Black, does it at all + make a Red; nay, though it be temper’d with White, it will not afford a + fainter kind of Yellow, such as <i>masticut</i>, but onely a whiten’d + Yellow; nor will the Blues be <i>diluted</i> or deepned after the manner + I speak of, as <i>Indico</i> will never afford so fine a Blue as + <i>Ultramarine</i> or <i>Bise</i>; nor will it, temper’d with + <i>Vermilion</i>, ever afford a Green, though each of them be never so + much temper’d with white.</p> + + <p>To which I answer, that there is a great difference between + <i>diluting</i> a colour and whitening of it; for <i>diluting</i> a + colour, is to make the colour’d parts more thin, so that the ting’d + light, which is made by trajecting those ting’d bodies, does not receive + so deep a tincture; but whitening a colour is onely an intermixing of + many clear reflections of light among the same ting’d parts; deepning + also, and darkning or blacking a colour, are very different; for deepning + a colour, is to make the light pass through a greater quantity of the + same tinging body; and darkning or blacking a colour, is onely + interposing a multitude of dark or black spots among the same ting’d + parts, or placing the colour in a more faint light.</p> + + <p>First therefore, as to the former of these operations, that is, + diluting and deepning, most of the colours us’d by the Limners and + Painters are incapable of, to wit, <i>Vermilion</i> and <i>Red-lead</i>, + and <i>Oker</i>, because the ting’d parts are so exceeding small, that + the most curious Grindstones we have, are not able to separate them into + parts actually divided so small as the ting’d particles are; for looking + on the most curiously ground <i>Vermilion</i>, and <i>Oker</i>, and + <i>Red-lead</i>, I could perceive that even those small <i>corpuscles</i> + of the bodies they left were compounded of many pieces, that is, they + seem’d to be small pieces compounded of a multitude of lesser ting’d + parts: each piece seeming almost like a piece of Red Glass, or ting’d + Crystal all flaw’d; so that unless the Grindstone could actually divide + them into smaller pieces then those flaw’d particles were, which + compounded that ting’d mote I could see with my <i>Microscope</i>, it + would be impossible to <i>dilute</i> the colour by grinding, which, + because the finest we have will not reach to do in <i>Vermilion</i> or + <i>Oker</i>, therefore they cannot at all, or very hardly be + <i>diluted</i>.</p> + + <p>Other colours indeed, whose ting’d particles are such as may be made + smaller, by grinding their colour, may be <i>diluted</i>. Thus several of + the Blues may be <i>diluted</i>, as <i>Smalt</i> + and <i>Bise</i>; and <i>Masticut</i>, which is Yellow, may be made more + faint: And even <i>Vermilion</i> it self may, by too much grinding, be + brought to the colour of <i>Red-lead</i>, which is but an Orange colour, + which is confest by all to be very much upon the Yellow. Now, though + perhaps somewhat of this <i>diluting</i> of <i>Vermilion</i> by overmuch + grinding may be attributed to the Grindstone, or muller, for that some of + their parts may be worn off and mixt with the colour, yet there seems not + very much, for I have done it on a Serpentine-stone with a muller made of + a Pebble, and yet observ’d the same effect follow.</p> + + <p>And secondly, as to the other of these operations on colours, that is, + the deepning of them, Limners and Painters colours are for the most part + also uncapable. For they being for the most part <i>opacous</i>; and that + <i>opacousness</i>, as I said before, proceeding from the particles, + being very much flaw’d, unless we were able to joyn and reunite those + flaw’d particles again into one piece, we shall not be able to deepen the + colour, which since we are unable to do with most of the colours which + are by Painters accounted <i>opacous</i>, we are therefore unable to + deepen them by adding more of the same kind.</p> + + <p>But because all those <i>opacous</i> colours have two kinds of beams + or Rays reflected from them, that is, Rays unting’d, which are onely + reflected from the outward surface, without at all penetrating of the + body, and ting’d Rays which are reflected from the inward surfaces or + flaws after they have suffer’d a two-fold refraction; and because that + transparent liquors mixt with such <i>corpuscles</i>, do, for the most + part, take off the former kind of reflection; therefore these colours + mixt with Water or Oyl, appear much deeper than when dry, for most part + of that white reflection from the outward surface is remov’d. Nay, some + of these colours are very much deepned by the mixture with some + transparent liquor, and that because they may perhaps get between those + two flaws, and so consequently joyn two or more of those flaw’d pieces + together; but this happens but in a very few.</p> + + <p>Now, to shew that all this is not <i>gratis dictum</i>, I shall set + down some Experiments which do manifest these things to be probable and + likely, which I have here deliver’d.</p> + + <p>For, first, if you take any ting’d liquor whatsoever, especially if it + be pretty deeply ting’d, and by any means work it into a froth, the + <i>congeries</i> of that froth shall seem an <i>opacous</i> body, and + appear of the same colour, but much whiter than that of the liquor out of + which it is made. For the abundance of reflections of the Rays against + those surfaces of the bubbles of which the froth consists, does so often + rebound the Rays backwards, that little or no light can pass through, and + consequently the froth appears <i>opacous</i>.</p> + + <p>Again, if to any of these ting’d liquors that will endure the boiling + there be added a small quantity of fine flower (the parts of which + through the <i>Microscope</i> are plainly enough to be perceiv’d to + consist of transparent <i>corpuscles</i>) and suffer’d to boyl till it + thicken the liquor, the mass of the liquor will appear <i>opacous</i>, + and ting’d with the same colour, but very much whiten’d.</p> + + <p>Thus, if you take a piece of transparent Glass that is well colour’d, + and by heating it, and then quenching it in Water, you flaw it all over, + it will become <i>opacous</i>, and will exhibit the same colour with + which the piece is ting’d, but fainter and whiter.</p> + + <p>Or, if you take a Pipe of this transparent Glass, and in the flame of + a Lamp melt it, and then blow it into very thin bubbles, then break those + bubbles, and collect a good parcel of those <i>laminæ</i> together in a + Paper, you shall find that a small thickness of those Plates will + constitute an <i>opacous</i> body, and that you may see through the mass + of Glass before it be thus <i>laminated</i>, above four times the + thickness: And besides, they will now afford a colour by reflection as + other <i>opacous</i> (as they are call’d) colours will, but much fainter + and whiter than that of the Lump or Pipe out of which they were made.</p> + + <p>Thus also, if you take <i>Putty</i>, and melt it with any transparent + colour’d Glass, it will make it become an <i>opacous</i> colour’d lump, + and to yield a paler and whiter colour than the lump by reflection.</p> + + <p>The same thing may be done by a preparation of <i>Antimony</i>, as has + been shewn by the Learned <i>Physician</i>, D<sup>r.</sup> <i>C.M.</i> in + his Excellent Observations and Notes on <i>Nery’s Art of Glass</i>; and + by this means all transparent colours become <i>opacous</i>, or + <i>ammels</i>. And though by being ground they lose very much of their + colour, growing much whiter by reason of the multitude of single + reflections from their outward surface, as I shew’d afore, yet the fire + that in the nealing or melting re-unites them, and so renews those + <i>spurious</i> reflections, removes also those whitenings of the colour + that proceed from them.</p> + + <p>As for the other colours which Painters use, which are transparent, + and us’d to varnish over all other paintings, ’tis well enough known that + the laying on of them thinner or thicker, does very much <i>dilute</i> or + deepen their colour.</p> + + <p>Painters Colours therefore consisting most of them of solid particles, + so small that they cannot be either re-united into thicker particles by + any Art yet known, and consequently cannot be deepned; or divided into + particles so small as the flaw’d particles that exhibit that colour, much + less into smaller, and consequently cannot be <i>diluted</i>; It is + necessary that they which are to imitate all kinds of colours, should + have as many degrees of each colour as can be procur’d.</p> + + <p>And to this purpose, both Limners and Painters have a very great + variety both of Yellows and Blues, besides several other colour’d bodies + that exhibit very compounded colours, such as Greens and Purples; and + others that are compounded of several degrees of Yellow, or several + degrees of Blue, sometimes unmixt, and sometimes compounded with several + other colour’d bodies.</p> + + <p>The Yellows, from the palest to the deepest Red or Scarlet, which has + no intermixture of Blue, are <i>pale and deep Masticut, Orpament, English + Oker, brown Oker, Red-Lead, and Vermilion, burnt English Oker, and burnt + brown Oker</i>, which last have a mixture of dark or dirty parts with + them, <i>&c.</i></p> + + <p>Their Blues are several kinds of <i>Smalts</i>, and <i>Verditures</i>, + and <i>Bise</i>, and <i>Ultramarine</i>, and <i>Indico</i>, which last + has many dirty or dark parts intermixt with it.</p> + + <p>Their compounded colour’d bodies, as <i>Pink</i>, and + <i>Verdigrese</i>, which are Greens, the one a <i>Popingay</i>, the other + a <i>Sea-green</i>; then <i>Lac</i>, which is a very lovely + <i>Purple</i>.</p> + + <p>To which may be added their Black and White, which they also usually + call Colours, of each of which they have several kinds, such as <i>Bone + Black</i>, made of <i>Ivory</i> burnt in a close Vessel, and <i>Blue + Black</i>, made of the small coal of <i>Willow</i>, or some other Wood; + and <i>Cullens earth</i>, which is a kind of brown Black, &c. Their + usual Whites are either artificial or natural <i>White Lead</i>, the last + of which is the best they yet have, and with the mixing and tempering + these colours together, are they able to make an imitation of any colour + whatsoever: Their Reds or deep Yellows, they can <i>dilute</i> by mixing + pale Yellows with them, and deepen their pale by mixing deeper with them; + for it is not with <i>Opacous</i> colours as it is with transparent, + where by adding more Yellow to yellow, it is deepned, but in + <i>opacous</i> <i>diluted</i>. They can whiten any colour by mixing White + with it, and darken any colour by mixing Black, or some dark and dirty + colour. And in a word, most of the colours, or colour’d bodies they use + in Limning and Painting, are such, as though mixt with any other of their + colours, they preserve their own hue, and by being in such very smal + parts dispers’d through the other colour’d bodies, they both, or + altogether represent to the eye a <i>compositum</i> of all; the eye being + unable, by reason of their smalness, to distinguish the peculiarly + colour’d particles, but receives them as one intire <i>compositum</i>: + whereas in many of these, the <i>Microscope</i> very easily distinguishes + each of the compounding colours distinct, and exhibiting its own + colour.</p> + + <p>Thus have I by gently mixing <i>Vermilion</i> and <i>Bise</i> dry, + produc’d a very fine Purple, or mixt colour, but looking on it with the + <i>Microscope</i>, I could easily distinguish both the Red and the Blue + particles, which did not at all produce the <i>Phantasm</i> of + Purple.</p> + + <p>To summ up all therefore in a word, I have not yet found any solid + colour’d body, that I have yet examin’d, perfectly <i>opacous</i>; but + those that are least transparent are <i>Metalline</i> and <i>Mineral</i> + bodies, whose particles generally, seeming either to be very small, or + very much flaw’d, appear for the most part <i>opacous</i>, though there + are very few of them that I have look’d on with a <i>Microscope</i>, that + have not very plainly or circumstantially manifested themselves + transparent.</p> + + <p>And indeed, there seem to be so few bodies in the world that are <i>in + minimis</i> opacous, that I think one may make it a rational + <i>Query</i>, Whether there be any body absolutely thus <i>opacous</i>? + For I doubt not at all (and I have taken notice of very many + circumstances that make me of this mind) that could we very much improve + the <i>Microscope</i>, we might be able to see all those bodies very + plainly transparent, which we now are fain onely to ghess at by + circumstances. Nay, the Object Glasses we yet make use of are such, that + they make many transparent bodies to the eye, seem + <i>opacous</i> through them, which if we widen the Aperture a little, and + cast more light on the objects, and not charge the Glasses so deep, will + again disclose their transparency.</p> + + <p>Now, as for all kinds of colours that are dissolvable in Water, or + other liquors, there is nothing so manifest, as that all those ting’d + liquors are transparent; and many of them are capable of being + <i>diluted</i> and compounded or mixt with other colours, and divers of + them are capable of being very much chang’d and heightned, and fixt with + several kinds of <i>Saline menstruums</i>. Others of them upon + compounding, destroy or vitiate each others colours, and + <i>precipitate</i>, or otherwise very much alter each others tincture. In + the true ordering and <i>diluting</i>, and deepning, and mixing, and + fixing of each of which, consists one of the greatest mysteries of the + Dyers; of which particulars, because our <i>Microscope</i> affords us + very little information, I shall add nothing more at present; but onely + that with a very few tinctures order’d and mixt after certain ways, too + long to be here set down, I have been able to make an appearance of all + the various colours imaginable, without at all using the help of + <i>Salts</i>, or <i>Saline menstruums</i> to vary them.</p> + + <p>As for the mutation of Colours by <i>Saline menstruums</i>, they have + already been so fully and excellently handled by the lately mention’d + Incomparable <i>Authour</i>, that I can add nothing, but that of a + multitude of trials that I made, I have found them exactly to agree with + his Rules and Theories; and though there may be infinite instances, yet + may they be reduc’d under a few Heads, and compris’d within a very few + Rules. And generally I find, that <i>Saline menstruums</i> are most + operative upon those colours that are Purple, or have some degree of + Purple in them, and upon the other colours much less. The <i>spurious</i> + pulses that compose which, being (as I formerly noted) so very neer the + middle between the true ones, that a small variation throws them both to + one side, or both to the other, and so consequently must make a vast + mutation in the formerly appearing Colour.<br /></p> +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class='chapter' /> +<h2>Observ. <a name="obsXI" id="obsXI">XI</a>. <i>Of </i>Figures<i> observ’d in small Sand.</i></h2> + + <p>Sand generally seems to be nothing else but exceeding small Pebbles, + or at least some very small parcels of a bigger stone; the whiter kind + seems through the <i>Microscope</i> to consist of small transparent + pieces of some <i>pellucid</i> body, each of them looking much like a + piece of <i>Alum</i>, or <i>Salt Gem</i>; and this kind of Sand is angled + for the most part irregularly, without any certain shape, and the + <i>granules</i> of it are for the most part flaw’d, through amongst many + of them it is not difficult to find some that are perfectly + <i>pellucid</i>, like a piece of clear Crystal, and divers likewise most + curiously shap’d, much after the manner of the bigger <i>Stiriæ</i> of + Crystal, or like the small Diamants I observ’d in certain Flints, of + which I shall by and by relate; which last particular seems to argue, + that this kind of Sand is not made by the comminution of + greater transparent Crystaline bodies, but by the <i>concretion</i> or + <i>coagulation</i> of Water, or some other fluid body.</p> + + <p>There are other kinds of courser Sands, which are browner, and have + their particles much bigger; these, view’d with a <i>Microscope</i>, seem + much courser and more <i>opacous</i> substances, and most of them are of + some irregularly rounded Figures; and though they seem not so + <i>opacous</i> as to the naked eye, yet they seem very foul and cloudy, + but neither do these want curiously transparent, no more than they do + regularly figur’d and well colour’d particles, as I have often found.</p> + + <p>There are multitudes of other kinds of Sands, which in many + particulars, plainly enough discoverable by the <i>Microscope</i>, differ + both from these last mention’d kinds of Sands, and from one another: + there seeming to be as great variety of Sands, as there is of Stones. And + as amongst Stones some are call’d precious from their excellency, so also + are there Sands which deserve the same Epithite for their beauty; for + viewing a small parcel of <i>East-India</i> Sand (which was given me by + my highly honoured friend, Mr. <i>Daniel Colwall</i>) and, since that, + another parcel, much of the same kind, I found several of them, both very + transparent like precious Stones, and regularly figur’d like Crystal, + <i>Cornish</i> Diamants, some Rubies, <i>&c.</i> and also ting’d with + very lively and deep colours, like <i>Rubys</i>, <i>Saphyrs</i>, + <i>Emeralds</i>, <i>&c.</i> These kinds of granules I have often found + also in <i>English</i> Sand. And ’tis easie to make such a counterfeit + Sand with deeply ting’d Glass, Enamels and Painters colours.</p> + + <p>It were endless to describe the multitudes of Figures I have met with + in these kind of minute bodies, such as <i>Spherical</i>, <i>Oval</i>, + <i>Pyramidal</i>, <i>Conical</i>, <i>Prismatical</i>, of each of which + kinds I have taken notice.</p> + + <p>But amongst many others, I met with none more observable than this +<span class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-05.png"><i>Schem.</i> 5.</a><br /><i>Fig.</i> X. +</span> + pretty Shell (described in the <i>Figure</i> X. of the fifth + <i>Scheme</i>) which, though as it was light on by chance, deserv’d to + have been omitted (I being unable to direct any one to find the like) yet + for its rarity was it not inconsiderable, especially upon the account of + the information it may afford us. For by it we have a very good instance + of the curiosity of Nature in another kind of Animals which are remov’d, + by reason of their minuteness, beyond the reach of our eyes, so that as + there are several sorts of Insects, as Mites, and others, so small as not + yet to have had any names; (some of which I shall afterwards describe) + and small Fishes, as Leeches in Vinegar; and smal vegetables, as Moss, + and Rose-Leave-plants; and small Mushroms, as mould: so are there, it + seems, small Shel-fish likewise, Nature shewing her curiosity in every + Tribe of <i>Animals</i>, <i>Vegetables</i>, and <i>Minerals</i>.</p> + + <p>I was trying several small and single Magnifying Glasses, and casually + viewing a parcel of white Sand, when I perceiv’d one of the grains + exactly shap’d and wreath’d like a Shell, but endeavouring to distinguish + it with my naked eye, it was so very small, that I was fain again to make + use of the Glass to find it; then, whilest I thus look’d on it, with a + Pin I separated all the rest of the granules of Sand, and found it + afterwards to appear to the naked eye an exceeding small white spot, no + bigger than the point of a Pin. Afterwards I view’d it + every way with a better <i>Microscope</i> and found it on both sides, and + edge-ways, to resemble the Shell of a small Water-Snail with a flat + spiral Shell: it had twelve wreathings, <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>c</i>, + <i>d</i>, <i>e</i>, &c. all very proportionably growing one less than + another toward the middle or center of the Shell, where there was a very + small round white spot. I could not certainly discover whether the Shell + were hollow or not, but it seem’d fill’d with somewhat, and ’tis probable + that it might be <i>petrify’d</i> as other larger Shels often are, such + as are mention’d in the seventeenth <i>Observation</i>.<br /></p> +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class='chapter' /> +<h2>Observ. <a name="obsXII" id="obsXII">XII</a>. <i>Of </i>Gravel<i> in Urine.</i></h2> + + <p>I Have often observ’d the Sand or Gravel of Urine, which seems to be a + <i>tartareous</i> substance, generated out of a <i>saline</i> and a + <i>terrestrial</i> substance <i>crystalliz’d</i> together, in the form of + <i>Tartar</i>, sometimes sticking to the sides of the <i>Urinal</i>, but + for the most part sinking to the bottom, and there lying in the form of + coorse common Sand; these, through the <i>Microscope</i>, appear to be a + company of small bodies, partly transparent and partly <i>opacous</i>, + some White, some Yellow, some Red, others of more brown and duskie + colours.</p> + + <p>The Figure of them is for the most part flat, in the manner of Slats + or such like plated Stones, that is, each of them seem to be made up of + several other thinner Plates, much like <i>Muscovie Glass</i>, or + <i>English Sparr</i> to the last of which, the white plated Gravel seems + most likely; for they seem not onely plated like that, but their sides + shap’d also into <i>Rhombs</i>, <i>Rhomboeids</i>, and sometimes into + <i>Rectangles</i> and <i>Squares</i>. Their bigness and Figure may be +<span class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-07.png"><i>Schem.</i> 7.</a><br /><i>Fig.</i> 2. +</span> + seen in the second <i>Figure</i> of the seventh <i>Plate</i>, which + represents about a dozen of them lying upon a plate ABCD, some of which, + as <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>c</i>, <i>d</i> seem’d more regular than the + rest, and <i>e</i>, which was a small one, sticking on the top of + another, was a perfect <i>Rhomboeid</i> on the top, and had four + <i>Rectangular</i> sides.</p> + + <p>The line E which was the measure of the <i>Microscope</i>, is ¹⁄₃₂ + part of an <i>English</i> Inch, so that the greatest bredth of any of + them, exceeded not ¹⁄₁₂₈ part of an Inch.</p> + + <p>Putting these into several liquors, I found <i>oyl of Vitriol</i>, + <i>Spirit of Urine</i>, and several other <i>Saline menstruums</i> to + dissolve them; and the first of these in less than a minute without + <i>Ebullition</i>, Water, and several other liquors, had no sudden + operation upon them. This I mention, because those liquors that dissolve + them, first make them very white, not <i>vitiating</i>, but rather + rectifying their Figure, and thereby make them afford a very pretty + object for the <i>Microscope</i>.</p> + + <p>How great an advantage it would be to such as are troubled with the + Stone, to find some <i>menstruum</i> might dissolve them without hurting + the Bladder, is easily imagin’d, since some <i>injections</i> made of + such bodies might likewise dissolve the stone, which seems much of the + same nature.</p> + + <p>It may therefore, perhaps, be worthy some Physicians enquiry, whether + there may not be something mixt with the Urine in which the Gravel or + Stone lies, which may again make it dissolve it, the first of which seems + by it’s regular Figures to have been sometimes <i>Crystalliz’d</i> out of + it. For whether this <i>Crystallization</i> be made in the manner as + <i>Alum</i>, <i>Peter</i>, &c. are <i>crystallized</i> out of a + cooling liquor, in which, by boyling they have been dissolv’d; or whether + it be made in the manner of <i>Tartarum Vitriolatum</i>, that is, by the + <i>Coalition</i> of an <i>acid</i> and a <i>Sulphureous</i> substance, it + seems not impossible, but that the liquor it lies in, may be again made a + <i>dissolvent</i> of it. But leaving these inquiries to Physicians or + Chymists, to whom it does more properly belong, I shall proceed.<br /></p> +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class='chapter' /> +<h2>Observ. <a name="obsXIII" id="obsXIII">XIII</a>. <i>Of the small </i>Diamants<i>, or </i>Sparks<i> in </i>Flints<i>.</i></h2> + + <p>Chancing to break a Flint stone in pieces, I found within it a certain + cavity all crusted over with a very pretty candied substance, some of the + parts of which, upon changing the posture of the Stone, in respect of the + <i>Incident</i> light, exhibited a number of small, but very vivid + reflections; and having made use of my <i>Microscope</i>, I could + perceive the whole surface of that cavity to be all beset with a + multitude of little <i>Crystaline</i> or <i>Adamantine</i> bodies, so + curiously shap’d, that it afforded a not unpleasing object.</p> + + <p>Having considered those vivid <i>repercussions</i> of light, I found + them to be made partly from the plain external surface of these regularly + figured bodies (which afforded the vivid reflections) and partly to be + made from within the somewhat <i>pellucid</i> body, that is, from some + surface of the body, opposite to that superficies of it which was next + the eye.</p> + + <p>And because these bodies were so small, that I could not well come to + make Experiments and Examinations of them, I provided me several small + <i>stiriæ</i> of Crystals or Diamants, found in great quantities in + <i>Cornwall</i> and are therefore commonly called <i>Cornish + Diamants</i>: these being very <i>pellucid</i>, and growing in a hollow + cavity of a Rock (as I have been several times informed by those that + have observ’d them) much after the same manner as these do in the Flint, + and having besides their outward surface very regularly shap’d, retaining + very near the same Figures with some of those I observ’d in the other, + became a convenient help to me for the Examination of the proprieties of + those kinds of bodies.</p> + + <p>And first for the Reflections, in these I found it very observable, + That the brightest reflections of light proceeded from within the + <i>pellucid</i> body; that is, that the Rays admitted through the + <i>pellucid</i> substance in their getting out on the opposite side, were + by the contiguous and strong reflecting surface of the Air very vividly + reflected, so that more Rays were reflected to the eye by this surface, + though the Ray in entring and getting out of the Crystal had suffer’d a + double refraction, than there were from the outward surface of the Glass + where the Ray had suffer’d no refraction at all.</p> + + <p>And that this was the surface of the Air that gave so vivid a + <i>re-percussion</i> I try’d by this means I sunk half of a <i>stiria</i> + in Water, so that only Water was contiguous to the under surface, and + then the internal reflection was so exceedingly faint, that it was scarce + discernable. Again, I try’d to alter this vivid reflection by keeping off + the Air, with a body not fluid, and that was by rubbing and holding my + finger very hard against the under surface, so as in many places the pulp + of my finger did touch the Glass, without any <i>interjacent</i> air + between, then observing the reflection, I found, that wheresoever my + finger or skin toucht the surface, from that part there was no + reflection, but in the little furrows or creases of my skin, where there + remain’d little small lines of air, from them was return’d a very vivid + reflection as before. I try’d further, by making the surface of very pure + Quicksilver to be contiguous to the under surface of this <i>pellucid</i> + body, and then the reflection from that was so exceedingly more vivid + than from the air, as the reflection from air was than the reflection + from the Water; from all which trials I plainly saw, that the strong + reflecting air was the cause of this <i>Phænomenon</i>.</p> + + <p>And this agrees very well with the <i>Hypothesis</i> of light and + <i>Pellucid</i> bodies which I have mention’d in the description of + <i>Muscovy-glass</i>; for we there suppose Glass to be a <i>medium</i>, + which does less resist the pulse of light, and consequently, that most of + the Rays incident on it enter into it, and are refracted towards the + <i>perpendicular</i>; whereas the air I suppose to be a body that does + more resist it, and consequently more are <i>re-percuss’d</i> then do + enter it: the same kind of trials have I made, with <i>Crystalline + Glass</i>, with drops of fluid bodies, and several other ways, which do + all seem to agree very exactly with this <i>Theory</i>. So that from this + Principle well establish’d, we may deduce severall Corollaries not + unworthy observation.</p> + + <p>And the first is; that it plainly appears by this, that the production + of the Rainbow is as much to be ascribed to the reflection of the concave + surface of the air, as to the refraction of the <i>Globular</i> drops: + this will be evidently manifest by these Experiments, if you + <i>foliate</i> that part of a Glass-ball that is to reflect an + <i>Iris</i>, as in the <i>Cartesian</i> Experiment, above mention’d, the + reflections will be abundantly more strong, and the colours more vivid: + and if that part of the surface be touch’d with Water, scarce affords any + sensible colour at all.</p> + + <p>Next we learn, that the great reason why <i>pellucid</i> bodies beaten + small are white, is from the multitude of reflections, not from the + particles of the body, but from the <i>contiguous</i> surface of the air. + And this is evidently manifested, by filling the <i>Interstitia</i> of + those powder’d bodies with Water, whereby their whiteness presently + disappears. From the same reason proceeds the whiteness of many kinds of + Sands, which in the <i>Microscope</i> appear to be made up of a multitude + of little <i>pellucid</i> bodies, whose brightest reflections may by the + <i>Microscope</i> be plainly perceiv’d to come from their internal + surfaces; and much of the whiteness of it may be destroy’d by the + affusion of fair Water to be contiguous to those surfaces.</p> + + <p>The whiteness also of froth, is for the most part to be ascribed to + the reflection of the light from the surface of + the air within the Bubbles, and very little to the reflection from the + surface of the Water it self: for this last reflection does not return a + quarter so many Rays, as that which is made from the surface of the air, + as I have certainly found by a multitude of Observations and + Experiments.</p> + + <p>The whiteness of <i>Linnen</i>, <i>Paper</i>, <i>Silk</i>, &c. + proceeds much from the same reason, as the <i>Microscope</i> will easily + discover; for the Paper is made up of an abundance of <i>pellucid</i> + bodies, which afford a very plentifull reflection from within, that is, + from the concave surface of the air contiguous to its component + particles; wherefore by the affusion of Water, Oyl, Tallow, Turpentine, + <i>&c.</i> all those reflections are made more faint, and the beams + of light are suffer’d to traject & run through the Paper more + freely.</p> + + <p>Hence further we may learn the reason of the whiteness of many bodies, + and by what means they may be in part made <i>pellucid</i>: As white + Marble for instance, for this body is composed of a <i>pellucid</i> body + exceedingly flaw’d, that is, there are abundance of thin, and very fine + cracks or chinks amongst the multitude of particles of the body, that + contain in them small parcels of air, which do so <i>re-percuss</i> and + drive back the penetrating beams, that they cannot enter very deep within + that body; which the <i>Microscope</i> does plainly inform us to be made + up of a <i>Congeries</i> of <i>pellucid</i> particles. And I further + found it somewhat more evidently by some attempts I made towards the + making transparent Marble, for by heating the Stone a little, and soaking + it in Oyl, Turpentine, Oyl of Turpentine, <i>&c.</i>, I found that I + was able to see much deeper into the body of Marble than before; and one + trial, which was not with an unctuous substance, succeeded better than + the rest, of which, when I have a better opportunity, I shall make + further trial.</p> + + <p>This also gives us a probable reason of the so much admired + <i>Phænomena</i>, of the <i>Oculus Mundi</i>, an <i>Oval</i> stone, which + commonly looks like white Alabaster, but being laid a certain time in + Water, it grows <i>pellucid</i>, and transparent, and being suffer’d to + lie again dry, it by degrees loses that transparency, and becomes white + as before. For the Stone being of a hollow spongie nature, has in the + first and last of these appearances, all those pores fill’d with the + obtunding and reflecting air; whereas in the second, all those pores are + fill’d with a <i>medium</i> that has much the same refraction with the + particles of the Stone, and therefore those two being <i>contiguous</i>, + make, as ’twere, one <i>continued medium</i>, of which more is said in + the 15. <i>Observation</i>.</p> + + <p>There are a multitude of other <i>Phænomena</i>, that are produc’d + from this same Principle, which as it has not been taken notice of by any + yet that I know, so I think, upon more diligent observation, will it not + be found the least considerable. But I have here onely time to hint + <i>Hypotheses</i>, and not to prosecute them so fully as I could wish; + many of them having a vast extent in the production of a multitude of + <i>Phænomena</i>, which have been by others, either not attempted to be + explain’d, or else attributed to some other cause than what I have + assign’d, and perhaps than the right; and therefore I shall leave this to + the prosecution of such as have more leisure: onely before + I leave it, I must not pretermit to hint, that by this Principle, + multitudes of the <i>Phænomena</i> of the air, as about <i>Mists</i>, + <i>Clouds</i>, <i>Meteors</i>, <i>Haloes</i>, &c. are most plainly + and (perhaps) truly explicable; multitudes also of the <i>Phænomena</i> + in colour’d bodies, as liquors, <i>&c.</i> are deducible from it.</p> + + <p>And from this I shall proceed to a second considerable + <i>Phænomenon</i> which these Diamants exhibit, and that is the + regularity of their <i>Figure</i>, which is a propriety not less general + than the former, It comprising within its extent, all kinds of + <i>Metals</i>, all kinds of <i>Minerals</i>, most <i>Precious stones</i>, + all kinds of <i>Salts</i>, multitudes of <i>Earths</i>, and almost all + kinds of <i>fluid bodies</i>. And this is another propiety, which, though + a little superficially taken notice of by some, has not, that I know, + been so much as attempted to be explicated by any.</p> + + <p>This propriety of bodies, as I think it the most worthy, and next in + order to be consider’d after the contemplation of the <i>Globular + Figure</i>, so have I long had a desire as wel as a determination to have + prosecuted it if I had had an opportunity, having long since propos’d to + my self the method of my enquiry therein, it containing all the + allurements that I think any enquiry is capable of: For, first I take it + to proceed from the most simple principle that any kind of form can come + from, next the <i>Globular</i>, which was therefore the first I set upon, + and what I have therein perform’d, I leave the Judicious Reader to + determine. For as that form proceeded from a propiety of fluid bodies, + which I have call’d <i>Congruity</i>, or <i>Incongruity</i>; so I think, + had I time and opportunity, I could make probable, that all these regular + Figures that are so conspicuously <i>various</i> and <i>curious</i>, and + do so adorn and beautifie such multitudes of bodies, as I have above + hinted, arise onely from three or four several positions or postures of + <i>Globular</i> particles, and those the most plain, obvious, and + necessary conjunctions of such figur’d particles that are possible, so + that supposing such and such plain and obvious causes concurring the + <i>coagulating particles</i> must necessarily compose a body of such a + determinate regular Figure, and no other, and this with as much necessity + and obviousness as a fluid body encompast with a <i>Heterogeneous</i> + fluid must be protruded into a <i>Spherule</i> or <i>Globe</i>. And this + I have <i>ad oculum</i> demonstrated with a company of bullets, and some + few other very simple bodies; so that there was not any regular Figure, + which I have hitherto met withall, of any of those bodies that I have + above named, that I could not with the composition of bullets or + globules, and one or two other bodies, imitate, even almost by shaking + them together. And thus for instance may we find that the <i>Globular</i> + bullets will of themselves, if put on an inclining plain, so that they + may run together, naturally run into a <i>triangular</i> order, composing + all the variety of figures that can be imagin’d to be made out of + <i>æquilateral triangles</i>; and such will you find, upon trial, all the + Surfaces of <i>Alum</i> to be compos’d of: For three bullets lying on a + plain, as close to one another as they can compose an +<span class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-07.png"><i>Schem.</i> 7.</a><br /><i>Fig.</i> A. <i>&c.</i> +</span> + <i>æquilatero-triangular</i> form, as in A in the 7. <i>Scheme</i>. If a + fourth be joyn’d to them on either side as closely as it can, they four + compose the most regular Rhombus consisting of two <i>æquilateral + triangles</i>, as B. If a fifth be joyn’d to them on either + side in as close a position as it can, which is the propriety of the + <i>Texture</i>, it makes a <i>Trapezium</i>, or four-sided Figure, two of + whose angles are 120. and two 60. degrees, as C. If a sixth be added, as + before, either it makes an <i>æquilateral triangle</i>, as D, or a + Rhomboeid, as E, or an <i>Hexangular Figure</i>, as F, which is compos’d + of two <i>primary Rhombs</i>. If a seventh be added, it makes either an + <i>æquilatero-hexagonal</i> Figure, as G, or some kind of six-sided + <i>Figure</i>, as H, or I. And though there be never so many placed + together, they may be rang’d into some of these lately mentioned Figures, + all the angles of which will be either <i>60</i>. degrees, or 120. as the + figure K. which is an <i>æquiangular hexagonal</i> Figure is compounded + of 12. <i>Globules</i>, or may be of 25, or 27, or 36, or 42, + <i>&c.</i> and by these kinds of texture, or position of globular + bodies, may you find out all the variety of regular shapes, into which + the smooth surfaces of <i>Alum</i> are form’d, as upon examination any + one may easily find; nor does it hold only in superficies, but in + solidity also, for it’s obvious that a fourth <i>Globule</i> laid upon + the third in this texture, composes a regular <i>Tetrahedron</i>, which + is a very usual Figure of the <i>Crystals</i> of <i>Alum</i>. And (to + hasten) there is no one Figure into which <i>Alum</i> is observ’d to be + crystallized, but may by this texture of <i>Globules</i> be imitated, and + by no other.</p> + + <p>I could instance also in the Figure of <i>Sea-salt</i>, and + <i>Sal-gem</i>, that it is compos’d of a texture of <i>Globules</i>, + placed in a <i>cubical</i> form, as L, and that all the Figures of those + Salts may be imitated by this texture of <i>Globules</i> and by no other + whatsoever. And that the forms of <i>Vitriol</i> and of + <i>Salt-Peter</i>, as also of <i>Crystal</i>, <i>Hore-frost</i>, &c. + are compounded of these two textures, but modulated by certain + proprieties: But I have not here time to insist upon, as I have not + neither to shew by what means <i>Globules</i> come to be thus context, + and what those <i>Globules</i> are, and many other particulars requisite + to a full and intelligible explication of this propriety of bodies. Nor + have I hitherto found indeed an opportunity of prosecuting the inquiry so + farr as I design’d; nor do I know when I may, it requiring abundance of + time, and a great deal of assistance to go through with what I design’d; + the model of which was this:</p> + + <p>First, to get as exact and full a collection as I could, of all the + differing kinds of Geometrical figur’d bodies, some three or four several + bodies of each kind.</p> + + <p>Secondly, with them to get as exact a History as possibly I could + learn of their places of Generation or finding, and to enquire after as + many circumstances that tended to the Illustrating of this Enquiry, as + possibly I could observe.</p> + + <p>Thirdly, to make as many trials as upon experience I could find + requisite, in Dissolutions and Coagulations of several crystallizing + Salts; for the needfull instruction and information in this Enquiry.</p> + + <p>Fourthly, to make several trials on divers other bodies, as Metals, + Minerals, and Stones, by dissolving them in several <i>Menstruums</i>, + and crystalizing them, to see what Figures would arise from those several + <i>Compositums</i>.</p> + + <p>Fifthly, to make Compositions and Coagulations of several Salts + together into the same mass, to observe of what Figure the product of + them would be; and in all, to note as many circumstances as I should + judge conducive to my Enquiry.</p> + + <p>Sixthly, to enquire the closeness or rarity of the texture of these + bodies, by examining their gravity, and their refraction, + <i>&c.</i></p> + + <p>Seventhly, to enquire particularly what operations the fire has upon + several kinds of Salts, what changes it causes in their Figures, + Textures, or Energies.</p> + + <p>Eighthly, to examine their manner of dissolution, or acting upon those + bodies dissoluble in them; The texture of those bodies before and after + the process. And this for the History.</p> + + <p>Next for the Solution, To have examin’d by what, and how many means, + such and such Figures, actions and effects could be produc’d + possibly.</p> + + <p>And lastly, from all circumstances well weigh’d, I should have + endeavoured to have shewn which of them was most likely, and (if the + informations by these Enquiries would have born it) to have demonstrated + which of them it must be, and was.</p> + + <p>But to proceed, As I believe it next to the Globular the most simple; + so do I, in the second place, judge it not less pleasant; for that which + makes an Enquiry pleasant, are, first a noble <i>Inventum</i> that + promises to crown the successfull endeavour; and such must certainly the + knowledge of the efficient and concurrent causes of all these curious + Geometrical Figures be, which has made the Philosophers hitherto to + conclude nature in these things to play the Geometrician, according to + that saying of <i>Plato</i>, <span lang="el" title="Ho Theos geometrei">Ὁ Θεὸς γεομετρεῖ</span>. + Or next, a great variety of matter in the Enquiry; and here we meet with + nothing less than the <i>Mathematicks</i> of nature, having every day a + new Figure to contemplate, or a variation of the same in another + body,</p> + + <p>Which do afford us a third thing, which will yet more sweeten the + Enquiry, and that is, a multitude of information; we are not so much to + grope in the dark, as in most other Enquiries, where the <i>Inventum</i> + is great; for having such a multitude of instances to compare, and such + easie ways of generating, or compounding and of destroying the form, as + in the <i>Solution</i> and <i>Crystallization</i> of Salts, we cannot but + learn plentifull information to proceed by. And this will further appear + from the universality of the Principle which Nature has made use of + almost in all inanimate bodies. And therefore, as the contemplation of + them all conduces to the knowledg of any one; so from a Scientifical + knowledge of any one does follow the fame of all, and every one.</p> + + <p>And fourthly, for the usefulness of this knowledge, when acquir’d; + certainly none can doubt, that considers that it caries us a step forward + into the Labyrinth of Nature, in the right way towards the end we propose + our selves in all Philosophical Enquiries. So that knowing what is the + form of Inanimate or Mineral bodies, we shall be the better able to + proceed in our next Enquiry after the forms of Vegetative bodies; and last of all, of Animate ones, that seeming to be the highest + step of natural knowledge that the mind of man is capable of.<br /></p> +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class='chapter' /> +<h2>Observ. <a name="obsXIV" id="obsXIV">XIV</a>. <i>Of several kindes of frozen </i>Figures<i>.</i></h2> + + <p>I have very often in a Morning, when there has been a great + <i>hoar-frost</i>, with an indifferently magnifying <i>Microscope</i>, + observ’d the small <i>Stiriæ</i>, or Crystalline beard, which then + usually covers the face of most bodies that lie open to the cold air, and + found them to be generally <i>Hexangular prismatical</i> bodies, much + like the long Crystals of <i>Salt-peter</i>, save onely that the ends of + them were differing: for whereas those of <i>Nitre</i> are for the most + part <i>pyramidal</i>, being terminated either in a point or edge; these + of Frost were hollow, and the cavity in some seem’d pretty deep, and this + cavity was the more plainly to be seen, because usually one or other of + the six <i>parallelogram</i> sides was wanting, or at least much shorter + then the rest.</p> + + <p>But this was onely the Figure of the <i>Bearded hoar-frost</i>; and as + for the particles of other kinds of <i>hoar-frosts</i>, they seem’d for + the most part irregular, or of no certain Figure. Nay, the parts of those + curious branchings, or <i>vortices</i>, that usually in cold weather + tarnish the surface of Glass, appear through the <i>Microscope</i> very + rude and unshapen, as do most other kinds of frozen <i>Figures</i>, which + to the naked eye seem exceeding neat and curious, such as the Figures of + <i>Snow</i>, frozen <i>Urine</i>, <i>Hail</i>, several <i>Figures</i> + frozen in common Water, <i>&c.</i> Some Observations of each of which + I shall hereunto annex, because if well consider’d and examin’d, they + may, perhaps, prove very instructive for the finding out of what I have + endeavoured in the preceding Observation to shew, to be (next the + <i>Globular Figure</i> which is caus’d by <i>congruity</i>, as I hope I + have made probable in the sixth <i>Observation</i>) the most simple and + plain operation of Nature, of which, notwithstanding we are yet + ignorant.</p> + +<h3>I.</h3> + +<h3><i>Several Observables in the </i>six-branched<i> Figures form’d on the +surface of Urine by freezing.</i></h3> + +<div class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-08.png"><i>Schem.</i> 8.</a><br /><i>Fig.</i> 1. +</div> + + <p>1 The + Figures were all frozen almost even with the surface of the <i>Urine</i> + in the Vessel; but the bigger stems were a little <i>prominent</i> above + that surface, and the parts of those stems which were nearest the center + (<i>a</i>) were biggest above the surface.</p> + + <p>2 I have observ’d several kinds of these Figures, some smaller, no + bigger then a Two-pence, others so bigg, that I have by measure found one + of its stems or branches above four foot long; and of these, some were + pretty round, having all their branches pretty neer alike; other of them + were more extended towards one side, as usually those very large ones + were, which I have observ’d in Ditches which + have been full of foul water.</p> + + <p>3 None of all these Figures I have yet taken notice of, had any + regular position in respect of one another, or of the sides of the + Vessel; nor did I find any of them equally to exactness extended every + way from the center <i>a</i>.</p> + + <p>4 Where ever there was a center, the branchings from it, <i>ab</i>, + <i>ac</i>, <i>ad</i>, <i>ae</i>, <i>af</i>, <i>ag</i>, were never fewer, + or more then six, which usually concurr’d, or met one another very neer + in the same point or center, <i>a</i>; though oftentimes not exactly; and + were enclin’d to each other by an angle, of very near sixty degrees, I + say, very neer, because, though having endeavoured to measure them the + most accurately I was able, with the largest Compasses I had, I could not + find any sensible variation from that measure, yet the whole six-branched + Figure seeming to compose a solid angle, they must necessarily be + somewhat less.</p> + + <p>5 The middle lines or stems of these branches, <i>ab</i>, <i>ac</i>, + <i>ad</i>, <i>ae</i>, <i>af</i>, <i>ag</i>, seem’d somewhat whiter, and a + little higher then any of the <i>intermediate</i> branchings of these + Figures; and the center <i>a</i>, was the most <i>prominent</i> part of + the whole Figure, seeming the <i>apex</i> of a solid angle or + <i>pyramid</i>, each of the six plains being a little enclin’d below the + surface of the <i>Urin</i>.</p> + + <p>6 The lateral branchings issuing out of the great ones, such as + <i>op</i>, <i>mq</i>, &c. were each of them inclin’d to the great + ones, by the same angle of about sixty degrees, as the great ones were + one to another, and always the bigger branchings were <i>prominent</i> + above the less, and the less above the least, by proportionate + <i>gradations</i>.</p> + + <p>7 The <i>lateral</i> branches shooting out of the great ones, went all + of them from the center, and each of them was parallel to that great + branch, next to which it lay; so that as all the branches on one side + were parallel to one another, so were they all of them to the + <i>approximate</i> great branch, as <i>po</i>, <i>qr</i>, as they were + parallel to each other, and shot from the center, so were they parallel + also to the great branch <i>ab</i>.</p> + + <p>8 Some of the stems of the six branches proceeded straight, and of a + thickness that gradually grew sharper towards the end, as <i>ag</i>.</p> + + <p>9 Others of the stems of those branches grew bigger and knotty towards + the middle, and the branches also as well as stems, from Cylinders grew + into Plates, in a most admirable and curious order, so exceeding regular + and delicate, as nothing could be more, as is visible in <i>ab</i>, + <i>ac</i>, <i>ad</i>, <i>ae</i>, <i>af</i>, but towards the end of some + of these stems, they began again to grow smaller and to recover their + former branchings, as about <i>k</i> and <i>n</i>.</p> + + <p>10 Many of the <i>lateral</i> branches had <i>collateral</i> branches + (if I may so call them) as <i>qm</i> had many such as <i>st</i>, and most + of those again <i>subcollateral</i>, as <i>vw</i>, and these again had + others less, which one may call <i>laterosubcollateral</i>, and these + again others, and they others, <i>&c.</i> in greater Figures.</p> + + <p>11 The branchings of the main Stems joyn’d not together by any regular + line, nor did one side of the one lie over the other side of the other, + but the small <i>collateral</i> and <i>subcollateral</i> branches did lie + at top of one another according to a certain order or + method, which I always observ’d to be this.</p> + + <p>12 That side of a <i>collateral</i> or <i>subcollateral</i>, &c. + branch, lay over the side of the <i>approximate</i> (as the feathers in + the wing of a Bird) whose branchings proceeded parallel to the last + biggest stem from which it sprung, and not to the biggest stem of all, + unless that were a second stem backwards.</p> + + <p>13 This rule that held in the branchings of the <i>Sexangular + Figure</i> held also in the branchings of any other great or small stem, + though it did not proceed from a center.</p> + + <p>14 The exactness and curiosity of the figuration of these branches, + was in every particular so transcendent, that I judge it almost + impossible for humane art to imitate.</p> + + <p>15 Tasting several cleer pieces of this <i>Ice</i>, I could not find + any <i>Urinous</i> taste in them, but those few I tasted, seem’d as + <i>insipid</i> as water.</p> + + <p>16 A figuration somewhat like this, though indeed in some particulars + much more curious, I have several times observ’d in <i>regulus martis + stellatus</i>, but with this difference, that all the stems and + branchings are bended in a most excellent and regular order, whereas in + <i>Ice</i> the stems and branchings are streight, but in all other + particulars it agrees with this, and seems indeed nothing but one of + these stars, or branched Figures frozen on <i>Urine</i>, distorted, or + wreathed a little, with a certain proportion: <i>Lead</i> also that has + <i>Arsenick</i> and some other things mixt with it, I have found to have + its surface, when suffer’d to cool, figured somewhat like the branchings + of <i>Urine</i>, but much smaller.</p> + + <p>17 But there is a <i>Vegetable</i> which does exceedingly imitate + these branches, and that is, <i>Fearn</i>, where the main stem may be + observ’d to shoot out branches, and the stems of each of these + <i>lateral</i> branches, to send forth <i>collateral</i>, and those + <i>subcollateral</i> and those <i>laterosubcollateral</i>, &c. and + all those much after the same order with the branchings, divisions, and + subdivisions in the branchings of these Figures in frozen <i>Urine</i>; + so that if the Figures of both be well consider’d, one would ghess that + there were not much greater need of a <i>seminal principle</i> for the + production of <i>Fearn</i>, then for the production of the branches of + <i>Urine</i>, or the <i>Stella martis</i>, there seeming to be as much + form and beauty in the one as in the other.</p> + + <p>And indeed, this Plant of <i>Fearn</i>, if all particulars be well + consider’d, will seem of as simple, and uncompounded a form as any + <i>Vegetable</i>, next to <i>Mould</i> or <i>Mushromes</i>, and would + next after the invention of the forms of those, deserve to be enquir’d + into; for notwithstanding several have affirm’d it to have seed, and to + be propagated thereby; yet, though I have made very diligent enquiry + after that particular, I cannot find that there is any part of it that + can be imagin’d to be more seminal then another: But this onely here by + the by:</p> + + <p>For the freezing Figures in <i>Urine</i>, I found it requisite,</p> + + <p>First, that the Superficies be not disturbed with any wind, or other + commotion of the air, or the like.</p> + + <p>Secondly, that it be not too long exposed, so as that the whole bulk + be frozen, for oftentimes, in such cases, by reason of the swelling the + of <i>Ice</i>, or from some other cause, the curious branched Figures + disappear.</p> + + <p>Thirdly, an artificial freezing with <i>Snow</i> and <i>Salt</i>, + apply’d to the outside of the containing Vessel, succeeds not well, + unless there be a very little quantity in the Vessel.</p> + + <p>Fourthly, If you take any cleer and smooth Glass, and wetting all the + inside of it with <i>Urine</i>, you expose it to a very sharp freezing, + you will find it cover’d with a very regular and curious Figure.</p> + +<h3>II.</h3> + +<h3><i>Observables in figur’d </i>Snow<i>.</i></h3> + + <p>Exposing a piece of black Cloth, or a black Hatt to the falling + <i>Snow</i>, I have often with great pleasure, observ’d such an infinite + variety of curiously figur’d <i>Snow</i>, that it would be as impossible + to draw the Figure and shape of every one of them, as to imitate exactly + the curious and Geometrical <i>Mechanisme</i> of Nature in any one. Some + coorse draughts, such as the coldness of the weather, and the ill + provisions, I had by me for such a purpose, would permit me to make, I +<span class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-08.png"><i>Schem.</i> 8.</a><br /><i>Fig.</i> 2. +</span> + have here added in the Second <i>Figure</i> of the Eighth + <i>Scheme</i>.</p> + + <p>In all which I observ’d, that if they were of any regular Figures, + they were always branched out with six principal branches, all of equal + length, shape and make, from the center, being each of them inclin’d to + either of the next branches on either side of it, by an angle of sixty + degrees.</p> + + <p>Now, as all these stems were for the most part in one flake exactly of + the same make, so were they in differing Figures of very differing ones; + so that in a very little time I have observ’d above an hundred several + cizes and shapes of these starry flakes.</p> + + <p>The branches also out of each stem of any one of these flakes, were + exactly alike in the same flake; so that of whatever Figure one of the + branches were, the other five were sure to be of the same, very exactly, + that is, if the branchings of the one were small <i>Perallelipipeds</i> + or Plates, the branchings of the other five were of the same; and + generally, the branchings were very conformable to the rules and method + observ’d before, in the Figures on <i>Urine</i>, that is, the branchings + from each side of the stems were parallel to the next stem on that side, + and if the stems were plated, the branches also were the same; if the + stems were very long, the branches also were so, <i>&c.</i></p> + + <p>Observing some of these figur’d flakes with a <i>Microscope</i>, I + found them not to appear so curious and exactly figur’d as one would have + imagin’d, but like Artificial Figures, the bigger they were magnify’d, + the more irregularities appear’d in them; but this irregularity seem’d + ascribable to the thawing and breaking of the flake by the fall, and not + at all to the defect of the <i>plastick</i> virtue of Nature, whose + curiosity in the formation of most of these kind of regular Figures, such + as those of <i>Salt</i>, <i>Minerals</i>, &c. appears by + the help of the <i>Microscope</i>, to be very many degrees smaller then + the most acute eye is able to perceive without it. And though one of + these six-branched Stars appear’d here below much of the shape described +<span class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-08.png"><i>Schem.</i> 8.</a><br /><i>Fig.</i> 3. +</span> + in the Third <i>Figure</i> of the Eighth <i>Scheme</i>; yet I am very apt + to think, that could we have a sight of one of them through a + <i>Microscope</i> as they are generated in the Clouds before their + Figures are vitiated by external accidents, they would exhibit abundance + of curiosity and neatness there also, though never so much magnify’d: For + since I have observ’d the Figures of <i>Salts</i> and <i>Minerals</i> to + be some of them so exceeding small, that I have scarcely been able to + perceive them with the <i>Microscope</i>, and yet have they been regular, + and since (as far as I have yet examin’d it) there seems to be but one + and the same cause that produces both these effects, I think it not + irrational to suppose that these pretty figur’d Stars of <i>Snow</i>, + when at first generated might be also very regular and exact.</p> + +<h3>III.</h3> + +<h3><i>Several kinds of Figures in </i>Water<i> frozen.</i></h3> + + <p>Putting fair Water into a large capacious Vessel of <i>Glass</i>, and + exposing it to the cold, I observ’d after a little time, several broad, + flat, and thin <i>laminæ</i>, or plates of <i>Ice</i>, crossing the bulk + of the water and one another very irregularly, onely most of them seem’d + to turn one of their edges towards that side of the Glass which was next + it, and seem’d to grow, as ’twere from the inside of the Vessel inwards + towards the middle, almost like so many blades of <i>Fern</i>. Having + taken several of these plates out of water on the blade of a Knife, I + observ’d them figur’d much after the manner of <i>Herring bones</i>, or + <i>Fern blades</i>, that is, there was one bigger stem in the middle like + the back-bone, and out of it, on either side, were a multitude of small + <i>stiriæ</i>, or <i>icicles</i>, like the smaller bones, or the smaller + branches in <i>Fern</i>, each of these branches on the one side, were + parallel to all the rest on the same side, and all of them seem’d to make + an angle with the stem, towards the top, of sixty degrees, and towards + the bottom or root of this stem, of 120. See the fourth <i>Figure</i> of + the 8. <i>Plate</i>.</p> + + <p>I observ’d likewise several very pretty Varieties of Figures in Water, + frozen on the top of a broad flat Marble-stone, expos’d to the cold with + a little Water on it, some like feathers, some of other shapes, many of +<span class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-08.png"><i>Schem.</i> 8.</a><br /><i>Fig.</i> 5. +</span> + them were very much of the shape exprest in the fifth Figure of the 8. + <i>Scheme</i>, which is extremely differing from any of the other + Figures.</p> + + <p>I observ’d likewise, that the shootings of <i>Ice</i> on the top of + Water, beginning to freeze, were in streight <i>prismatical</i> bodies + much like those of <i>roch-peter</i>, that they crost each other usually + without any kind of order or rule, that they were always a little higher + then the surface of the Water that lay between them; that by degrees + those <i>interjacent</i> spaces would be fill’d with <i>Ice</i> also, + which usually would be as high as the surface of the rest.</p> + + <p>In flakes of <i>Ice</i> that had been frozen on the top of Water to + any considerable thickness, I observ’d that both the upper and + the under sides of it were curiously quill’d, furrow’d, or grain’d, as it + were, which when the Sun shone on the Plate, was exceeding easily to be +<span class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-08.png"><i>Schem.</i> 8.</a><br /><i>Fig.</i> 6. +</span> + perceiv’d to be much after the shape of the lines in the 6. <i>Figure</i> + of the 8. <i>Scheme</i>, that is, they consisted of several streight ends + of parallel Plates, which were of divers lengths and angles to one + another without any certain order.</p> + + <p>The cause of all which regular Figures (and of hundreds of others, + namely of <i>Salts</i>, <i>Minerals</i>, <i>Metals</i>, &c. which I + could have here inserted, would it not have been too long) seems to be + deducible from the same Principles, which I have (in the 13. + <i>Observation</i>) hinted only, having not yet had time to compleat a + <i>Theory</i> of them. But indeed (which I there also hinted) I judge it + the second step by which the <i>Pyramid</i> of natural knowledge (which + is the knowledge of the form of bodies) is to be ascended: And whosoever + will climb it, must be well furnish’d with that which the Noble + <i>Verulam</i> calls <i>Scalam Intellectus</i>; he must have scaling + Ladders, otherwise the steps are so large and high, there will be no + getting up them, and consequently little hopes of attaining any higher + station, such as to the knowledge of the most simple principle of + Vegetation manifested in Mould and Mushromes, which, as I elsewhere + endeavoured to shew, seems to be the third step; for it seems to me, that + the Intellect of man is like his body, destitute of wings, and cannot + move from a lower to a higher and more sublime station of knowledg, + otherwise then step by step, nay even there where the way is prepar’d and + already made passible; as in the <i>Elements of Geometry</i>, or the + like, where it is fain to climb a whole <i>series</i> of Propositions by + degrees, before it attains the knowledge of one <i>Probleme</i>. But if + the ascent be high, difficult and above its reach, it must have recourse + to a <i>novum organum</i>, some new engine and contrivance, some new kind + of <i>Algebra</i>, or <i>Analytick Art</i> before it can surmount it.<br /></p> +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class='chapter' /> +<h2>Observ. <a name="obsXV" id="obsXV">XV</a>. <i>Of </i>Kettering-stone<i>, and of the pores of </i>Inanimate<i> +bodies.</i></h2> + +<div class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-09.png"><i>Schem.</i> 9.</a><br /><i>Fig.</i> 1. +</div> + + <p>This Stone which is brought from <i>Kettering</i> in <i>Northampton-Shire</i>, + and digg’d out of a Quarry, as I am inform’d, has a grain altogether + admirable, nor have I ever seen or heard of any other stone that has the + like. It is made up of an innumerable company of small bodies, not all of + the same cize or shape, but for the most part, not much differing from a + Globular form, nor exceed they one another in Diameter above three or + four times; they appear to the eye, like the Cobb or Ovary of a + <i>Herring</i>, or some smaller fishes, but for the most part, the + particles seem somewhat less, and not so uniform; but their variation + from a perfect globular ball, seems to be only by the pressure of the + <i>contiguous</i> bals which have a little deprest and protruded those + toucht sides inward, and forc’d the other sides as much + outwards beyond the limits of a Globe; just as it would happen, if a heap + of exactly round Balls of soft Clay were heaped upon one another; or, as + I have often seen a heap of small Globules of <i>Quicksilver</i>, reduc’d + to that form by rubbing it much in a glaz’d Vessel, with some slimy or + sluggish liquor, such as Spittle, when though the top of the upper + Globules be very neer spherical, yet those that are prest upon by others, + exactly imitate the forms of these lately mention’d grains.</p> + + <p>Where these grains touch each other, they are so firmly united or + settled together, that they seldom part without breaking a hole in one or + th’other of them, such as <i>a</i>, <i>a</i>, <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, + <i>c</i>, <i>c</i>, &c. Some of which fractions, as <i>a</i>, + <i>a</i>, <i>a</i>, <i>a</i>, where the touch has been but light, break + no more then the outward crust, or first shell of the stone, which is of + a white colour, a little dash’d with a brownish Yellow, and is very thin, + like the shell of an Egg: and I have seen some of those grains perfectly + resemble some kind of Eggs, both in colour and shape: But where the union + of the <i>contiguous granules</i> has been more firm, there the divulsion + has made a greater Chasm, as at <i>b</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>b</i>, in so much + that I have observ’d some of them quite broken in two, as at <i>c</i>, + <i>c</i>, <i>c</i>, which has discovered to me a further resemblance they + have to Eggs, they having an appearance of a white and yelk, by two + differing substances that envelope and encompass each other.</p> + + <p>That which we may call the white was pretty whitish neer the yelk, but + more duskie towards the shell; some of them I could plainly perceive to + be shot or radiated like a <i>Pyrites</i> or <i>fire-stone</i>; the yelk + in some I saw hollow, in others fill’d with a duskie brown and porous + substance like a kind of pith.</p> + + <p>The small pores, or <i>interstitia</i> <i>eeee</i> betwixt the + Globules, I plainly saw, and found by other trials to be every way + pervious to air and water, for I could blow through a piece of this stone + of a considerable thickness, as easily as I have blown through a Cane, + which minded me of the pores which <i>Des Cartes</i> allow his <i>materia + subtilis</i> between the <i>æthereal</i> globules.</p> + + <p>The object, through the <i>Microscope</i>, appears like a + <i>Congeries</i> or heap of Pibbles, such as I have often seen cast up on + the shore, by the working of the Sea after a great storm, or like (in + shape, though not colour) a company of small Globules of Quicksilver, + look’d on with a <i>Microscope</i>, when reduc’d into that form by the + way lately mentioned. And perhaps, this last may give some hint at the + manner of the formation of the former: For supposing some + <i>Lapidescent</i> substance to be generated, or some way brought (either + by some commixture of bodies in the Sea it self, or protruded in, + perhaps, out of some <i>subterraneous</i> caverns) to the bottom of the + Sea, and there remaining in the form of a liquor like Quicksilver, + <i>heterogeneous</i> to the ambient <i>Saline</i> fluid, it may by the + working and tumblings of the Sea to and fro be jumbled and comminuted + into such Globules as may afterwards be hardned into Flints, the lying of + which one upon another, when in the Sea, being not very hard, by reason + of the weight of the incompassing fluid, may cause the undermost to be a + little, though not much, varied from a globular Figure. But this only by + the by.</p> + + <p>After what manner this <i>Kettering-stone</i> should be generated I + cannot learn, having never been there to view the place, and observe the + circumstances; but it seems to me from the structure of it to be + generated from some substance once more fluid, and afterwards by degrees + growing harder, almost after the same manner as I supposed the generation + of Flints to be made.</p> + + <p>But whatever were the cause of its curious texture, we may learn this + information from it; that even in those things which we account vile, + rude, and coorse, Nature has not been wanting to shew abundance of + curiosity and excellent Mechanisme.</p> + + <p>We may here find a Stone by help of a <i>Microscope</i>, to be made up + of abundance of small Balls, which do but just touch each other, and yet + there being so many contacts, they make a firm hard mass, or a Stone much + harder then Free-stone.</p> + + <p>Next, though we can by a <i>Microscope</i> discern so curious a shape + in the particles, yet to the naked eye there scarce appears any such + thing; which may afford us a good argument to think, that even in those + bodies also, whose <i>texture</i> we are not able to discern, though + help’d with <i>Microscopes</i>, there may be yet <i>latent</i> so curious + a <i>Schematisme</i>, that it may abundantly satisfie the curious + searcher, who shall be so happy as to find some way to discover it.</p> + + <p>Next, we here find a Stone, though to the naked eye a very close one, + yet every way perforated with innumerable pores, which are nothing else + but the <i>interstitia</i>, between those multitudes of minute globular + particles, that compose the bulk it self, and these pores are not only + discover’d by the <i>Microscope</i>, but by this contrivance.</p> + + <p>I took a pretty large piece of this stone, and covering it all over + with cement, save only at two opposite parts, I found my self able, by + blowing in at one end that was left open, to blow my spittle, with which + I had wet the other end, into abundance of bubbles, which argued these + pores to be open and pervious through the whole stone, which affords us a + very pretty instance of the porousness of some seemingly close bodies, of + which kind I shall anon have occasion to subjoyn many more, tending to + prove the same thing.</p> + + <p>I must not here omit to take notice, that in this body there is not a + <i>vegetative</i> faculty that should so contrive this structure for any + peculiar use of <i>Vegetation</i> or growth, whereas in the other + instances of vegetable porous bodies, there is an <i>anima</i> or + <i>forma informans</i>, that does contrive all the Structures and + <i>Mechanisms</i> of the constituting body, to make them subservient and + usefull to the great Work or Function they are to perform. And so I ghess + the pores in Wood, and other vegetables, in bones, and other Animal + substances, to be as so many channels, provided by the Great and Alwise + Creator, for the conveyance of appropriated juyces to particular parts. + And therefore, that this may tend, or be pervious all towards one part, + and may have impediments, as valves or the like, to any other; but in + this body we have very little reason so suspect there should be any such + design, for it is equally pervious every way, not onely forward, + but backwards, and side-ways, and seems + indeed much rather to be <i>Homogeneous</i> or similar to those pores, + which we may with great probability believe to be the channels of + <i>pellucid</i> bodies, not directed, or more open any one way, then any + other, being equally pervious every way. And, according as these pores + are more or greater in respect of the <i>interstitial</i> bodies, the + more transparent are the so constituted concretes; and the smaller those + pores are, the weaker is the <i>Impulse</i> of light communicated through + them, though the more quick be the progress.</p> + + <p>Upon this Occasion, I hope it will not be altogether unseasonable, if + I propound my conjectures and <i>Hypothesis</i> about the <i>medium</i> + and conveyance of light.</p> + + <p>I suppose then, that the greatest part of the <i>Interstitia</i> of + the world, that lies between the bodies of the Sun and Starrs, and the + Planets, and the Earth, to be an exceeding fluid body, very apt and ready + to be mov’d, and to communicate the motion of any one part to any other + part, though never so far distant: Nor do I much concern my self, to + determine what the Figure of the particles of this exceedingly subtile + fluid <i>medium</i> must be, nor whether it have any interstitiated pores + or vacuities, it being sufficient to solve all the <i>Phænomena</i> to + suppose it an exceedingly fluid, or the most fluid body in the world, and + as yet impossible to determine the other difficulties.</p> + + <p>That being so exceeding fluid a body, it easily gives passage to all + other bodies to move to and fro in it.</p> + + <p>That it neither receives from any of its parts, or from other bodies; + nor communicates to any of its parts, or to any other body, any impulse, + or motion in a direct line, that is not of a determinate quickness. And + that when the motion is of such determinate swiftness, it both receives, + and communicates, or propagates an impulse or motion to any imaginable + distance in streight lines, with an unimaginable celerity and vigour.</p> + + <p>That all kind of solid bodies consist of pretty massie particles in + respect of the particles of this fluid <i>medium</i>, which in many + places do so touch each other, that none of this fluid <i>medium</i> + interposes much after the same manner (to use a gross similitude) as a + heap of great stones compose one great <i>congeries</i> or mass in the + midst of the water.</p> + + <p>That all fluid bodies which we may call <i>tangible</i>, are nothing + but some more subtile parts of those particles, that serve to constitute + all <i>tangible</i> bodies.</p> + + <p>That the water, and such other fluid bodies, are nothing but a + <i>congeries</i> of particles agitated or made fluid by it in the same + manner as the particles of <i>Salt</i> are agitated or made fluid by a + parcel of water, in which they are dissolv’d, and subsiding to the bottom + of it, constitute a fluid body, much more massie and dense, and less + fluid then the pure water it self.</p> + + <p>That the air on the other side is a certain company of particles of + quite another kind, that is, such as are very much smaller, and more + easily moveable by the motion of this fluid <i>medium</i>; much like + those very subtile parts of <i>Cochenel</i>, other very deep tinging + bodies, where by a very small parcel of matter is able + to tinge and diffuse it self over a very great quantity of the fluid + dissolvent; or somewhat after that manner, as smoak, and such like minute + bodies, or steams, are observ’d to tinge a very great quantity of air; + onely this last similitude is deficient in one propriety, and that is a + perpetuity or continuance in that state of commixture with the air, but + the former does more nearly approach to the nature and manner of the + air’s being dissolv’d by this fluid or <i>Æther</i>. And this Similitude + will further hold in these proprieties; that as those tinctures may be + increased by certain bodies, so may they be precipitated by others, as I + shall afterwards shew it to be very probable, that the like accidents + happen even to the Air it self.</p> + + <p>Further, as these solutions and tinctures do alter the nature of these + fluid bodies, as to their aptness to propagate a motion or impulse + through them, even so does the particles of the Air, Water, and other + fluid bodies, and of Glass, Crystal, <i>&c.</i> which are commixt + with this bulk of the <i>Æther</i> alter the motion of the propagated + pulse of light; that is, where these more bulkie particles are more + plentifull, and consequently a lesser quantity of the <i>Æther</i> + between them to be mov’d, there the motion must necessarily be the + swifter, though not so robust, which will produce those effects, which I + have (I hope) with some probability, ascribed to it in the digression + about Colours, at the end of the <i>Observations</i> on + <i>Muscovy-glass.</i></p> + + <p>Now, that other Stones, and those which have the closest and hardest + textures, and seem (as far as we are able to discover with our eyes, + though help’d with the best <i>Microscopes</i>) freest from pores, are + yet notwithstanding replenish’d with them, an Instance or two will, I + suppose, make more probable.</p> + + <p>A very solid and unflaw’d piece of cleer white <i>Marble</i>, if it be + well polish’d and glaz’d, has so curiously smooth a surface, that the + best and most polish’d surface of any wrought-glass, seems not to the + naked eye, nor through a <i>Microscope</i>, to be more smooth, and less + porous. And yet, that this hard close body is replenish’d with abundance + of pores, I think these following Experiments will sufficiently + prove.</p> + + <p>The first is, That if you take such a piece, and for a pretty while + boyl it in Turpentine and Oyl of Turpentine, you shall find that the + stone will be all imbu’d with it; and whereas before it look’d more + white, but more opacous, now it will look more greasie, but be much more + transparent, and if you let it lie but a little while, and then break off + a part of it, you shall find the unctuous body to have penetrated it to + such a determinate depth every way within the surface. This may be yet + easier try’d with a piece of the same <i>Marble</i>, a little warm’d in + the fire, and then a little Pitch or Tarr melted on the top of it; for + these black bodies, by their insinuating themselves into the invisible + pores of the stone, ting it with so black a hue, that there can be no + further doubt of the truth of this assertion, that it abounds with small + imperceptible pores.</p> + + <p>Now, that other bodies will also sink into the pores of <i>Marble</i>, + besides unctuous, I have try’d, and found, that a very Blue tincture made + in <i>spirit of Urine</i> would very readily and + easily sink into it, as would also several tinctures drawn with <i>spirit + of Wine</i>.</p> + + <p>Nor is <i>Marble</i> the only seemingly close stone, which by other + kinds of Experiments may be found porous; for I have by this kind of + Experiment on divers other stones found much the same effect, and in + some, indeed much more notable. Other stones I have found so porous, that + with the <i>Microscope</i> I could perceive several small winding holes, + much like Worm-holes, as I have noted in some kind of + <i>Purbeck-stone</i>, by looking on the surface of a piece newly flaw’d + off, for if otherwise, the surface has been long expos’d to the Air, or + has been scraped with any tool, those small caverns are fill’d with dust, + and disappear.</p> + + <p>And to confirm this <i>Conjecture</i>, yet further, I shall here + insert an excellent account, given into the <i>Royal Society</i> by that + Eminently Learned Physician, Doctor <i>Goddard</i>, of an Experiment, not + less instructive then curious and accurate, made by himself on a very + hard and seemingly close stone call’d <i>Oculus Mundi</i>, as I find it + preserv’d in the Records of that Honourable Society.</p> + +<blockquote> + <p>A small stone of the kind, call’d by some Authours, <i>Oculus + Mundi</i>, being dry and cloudy, weigh’d 5²⁰⁹⁄₂₅₆ <i>Grains</i>.</p> + + <p>The same put under water for a night, and somewhat more, became + transparent, and the superficies being wiped dry, weighed 6³⁄₂₅₆ + <i>Grains</i>.</p> + + <p>The difference between these two weights, 0⁵⁰⁄₂₅₆ of a + <i>Grain</i>.</p> + + <p>The same Stone kept out of water one Day and becoming cloudy again + weighed, 5²²⁵⁄₂₅₆ <i>Graines</i>.</p> + + <p>Which was more then the first weight, 0¹⁶⁄₂₅₆ of a <i>Grain</i>.</p> + + <p>The same being kept two Days longer weighed, 5²⁰²⁄₂₅₆ + <i>Graines</i>.</p> + + <p>Which was less then at first, 0⁷⁄₂₅₆ a <i>Grain</i>.</p> + + <p>Being kept dry something longer it did not grow sensibly lighter.</p> + + <p>Being put under water for a night and becoming again transparent and + wiped dry, the weight was, <i>6³⁄₂₅₆ Grains</i>, the same with the first + after putting in water, and more then the last weight after keeping of it + dry, 0⁵⁷⁄₂₅₆ of a <i>Grain</i>.</p> + + <p>Another Stone of the same kind being variegated with milky + <i>white</i> and <i>gray</i> like some sorts of <i>Agates</i>, while it + lay under water, was alwaies invironed with little Bubbles, such as + appear in water a little before boyling, next the sides + of the Vessel.</p> + + <p>There were also some the like Bubbles on the Surface of the water just + over it, as if either some exhalations came out of it, or that it did + excite some fermentation in the parts of the water contiguous to it.</p> + + <p>There was little sensible difference in the transparency of this + Stone, before the putting under water, and after: To be sure the + milky-<i>white</i> parts continued as before, but more difference in + weight then in the former. For whereas before the putting into the water + the weight was 18⁹⁷⁄₁₂₈ <i>Graines</i>. After it had lyen in about four + and twenty hours the weight was 20²⁷⁄₁₂₈ <i>Graines</i>, so the + difference was, 1⁵⁸⁄₁₂₈ <i>Graines</i>.</p> + + <p>The same Stone was infused in the water scalding hot, and so continued + for a while after it was cold, but got no more weight then upon infusing + in the cold, neither was there any sensible Difference in the weight both + times.</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>In which Experiment, there are three Observables that seem very + manifestly to prove the porousness of these seemingly close bodies: the + first is their acquiring a transparency, and losing their whiteness after + steeping in water, which will seem the more strongly to argue it, if what + I have already said about the making transparent, or clarifying of some + bodies, as the white powder of beaten Glass, and the froth of some + glutinous transparent liquor be well consider’d; for thereby it will seem + rational to think that this transparency arises from the insinuation of + the water (which has much the same refraction with such stony particles, + as may be discover’d by Sand view’d with a <i>Microscope</i>) into those + pores which were formerly repleat with air (that has a very differing + refraction, and consequently is very reflective) which seems to be + confirm’d by the second Observable, namely, the increase of weight after + keeping, and decrease upon drying. And thirdly, seem’d yet more sensibly + confirm’d by the multitude of bubbles in the last Experiment.</p> + + <p>We find also most Acid Salts very readily to dissolve and separate the + parts of this body one from another; which is yet a further Argument to + confirm the porousness of bodies, and will serve as such, to shew that + even Glass also has an abundance of pores in it, since there are several + liquors, that with long staying in a Glass, will so <i>Corrode</i> and + eat into it, as at last, to make it pervious to the liquor it contain’d, + of which I have seen very many Instances.</p> + + <p>Since therefore we find by other proofs, that many of those bodies + which we think the most solid ones, and + appear so to our sight, have notwithstanding abundance of those grosser + kind of pores, which will admit several kinds of liquors into them, why + should we not believe that Glass, and all other transparent bodies abound + with them, since we have many other arguments, besides the propagation of + light, which seem to argue for it?</p> + + <p>And whereas it may be objected, that the propagation of light is no + argument that there are those atomical pores in glass, since there are + <i>Hypotheses</i> plausible enough to solve those <i>Phænomena</i>, by + supposing the pulse onely to be communicated through the transparent + body.</p> + + <p>To this I answer, that that <i>Hypothesis</i> which the industrious + <i>Mersennus</i> has publish’d about the slower motion of the end of a + Ray in a denser <i>medium</i>, then in a more rare and thin, seems + altogether unsufficient to solve abundance of <i>Phænomena</i>, of which + this is not the least considerable, that it is impossible from that + supposition, that any colours should be generated from the refraction of + the Rays; for since by that <i>Hypothesis</i> the <i>undulating pulse</i> + is always carried perpendicular, or at right angles with the Ray or Line + of direction, it follows, that the stroke of the pulse of light, after it + has been once or twice refracted (through a Prisme, for example) must + affect the eye with the same kind of stroke as if it had not been + refracted at all. Nor will it be enough for a Defendant of that + <i>Hypothesis</i>, to say, that perhaps it is because the refractions + have made the Rays more weak, for if so, then two refractions in the two + parallel sides of a <i>Quadrangular Prisme</i> would produce colours, but + we have no such <i>Phænomena</i> produc’d.</p> + + <p>There are several Arguments that I could bring to evince that there + are in all transparent bodies such atomical pores. And that there is such + a fluid body as I am arguing for, which is the <i>medium</i>, or + Instrument, by which the pulse of Light is convey’d from the <i>lucid + body</i> to the enlightn’d. But that it being a digression from the + Observations I was recording, about the Pores of <i>Kettering Stone</i>, + it would be too much such, if I should protract it too long; and + therefore I shall proceed to the next <i>Observation</i>.<br /></p> +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class='chapter' /> +<h2>Observ. <a name="obsXVI" id="obsXVI">XVI</a>. <i>Of </i>Charcoal<i>, or burnt </i>Vegetables<i>.</i></h2> + + <p>Charcoal, or a Vegetable burnt black, affords an object no less + pleasant than instructive, for if you take a small round Charcoal, and + break it short with your fingers, you may perceive it to break with a + very smooth and sleek surface, almost like the surface of black sealing + Wax; this surface, if it be look’d on with an ordinary <i>Microscope</i>, + does manifest abundance of those pores which are also visible to the eye + in many kinds of <i>Wood</i>, rang’d round the pith, both a in kind of + circular order, and a radiant one. Of these there are a multitude in the + substance of the Coal, every where almost perforating and drilling it + from end to end; by means of which, be the Coal + never so long, you may easily blow through it; and this you may presently + find, by wetting one end of it with Spittle, and blowing at the + other.</p> + + <p>But this is not all, for besides those many great and conspicuous + irregular spots or pores, if a better <i>Microscope</i> be made use of, + there will appear an infinite company of exceedingly small, and very + regular pores, so thick and so orderly set, and so close to one another, + that they leave very little room or space between them to be fill’d with + a solid body, for the apparent <i>interstitia</i> or separating sides of + these pores seem so thin in some places, that the texture of a Honey-comb + cannot be more porous. Though this be not every where so, the + intercurrent partitions in some places being very much thicker in + proportion to the holes.</p> + + <p>Most of these small pores seem’d to be pretty round, and were rang’d + in rows that radiated from the pith to the bark; they all of them seem’d + to be continued open pores, running the whole length of the Stick; and + that they were all perforated, I try’d by breaking off a very thin sliver + of the Coal cross-ways, and then with my <i>Microscope</i>, diligently + surveying them against the light, for by that means I was able to see + quite through them.</p> + + <p>These pores were so exceeding small and thick, that in a line of them, + ¹⁄₁₈ part of an Inch long, I found by numbering them no less then 150. + small pores; and therefore in a line of them an Inch long, must be no + less then 2700. pores, and in a circular <i>area</i> of an Inch diameter, + must be about 5725350. of the like pores; so that a Stick of an Inch + Diameter, may contain no less then seven hundred and twenty five + thousand, besides 5 Millions of pores, which would, I doubt not, seem + even incredible, were not every one left to believe his own eyes. Nay, + having since examin’d <i>Cocus, black and green Ebony, Lignum Vitæ</i>, + &c. I found, that all these Woods have their pores, abundantly + smaller then those of soft light Wood; in so much, that those of + <i>Guajacum</i> seem’d not above an eighth part of the bigness of the + pores of Beech, but then the <i>Interstitia</i> were thicker; so + prodigiously curious are the contrivances, pipes, or sluces by which the + <i>Succus nutritius</i>, or Juyce of a Vegetable is convey’d from place + to place.</p> + + <p>This <i>Observation</i> seems to afford us the true reason of several + <i>Phænomena</i> of Coals; as</p> + + <p>First, why they look black; and for this we need go no further then + the <i>Scheme</i>, for certainly, a body that has so many pores in it as + this is discover’d to have, from each of which no light is reflected, + must necessarily look black, especially, when the pores are somewhat + bigger in proportion to the intervals then they are cut in the + <i>Scheme</i>, black being nothing else but a privation of Light, or a + want of reflection; and wheresoever this reflecting quality is deficient, + there does that part look black, whether it be from a porousness of the + body, as in this Instance, or in a deadning and dulling quality, such as + I have observ’d in the <i>Scoria</i> of Lead, Tin, Silver, Copper, + <i>&c.</i></p> + + <p>Next, we may also as plainly see the reason of its shining quality, + and that is from the even breaking off of the + stick, the solid <i>interstitia</i> having a regular termination or + surface, and having a pretty strong reflecting quality, the many small + reflections become united to the naked eye, and make a very pretty + shining surface.</p> + + <p>Thirdly, the reason of its hardness and brittleness seems evident, for + since all the watery or liquid substance that moistn’d and toughn’d those + <i>Interstitia</i> of the more solid parts, are evaporated and remov’d, + that which is left behind becomes of the nature almost of a stone, which + will not at all, or very little, bend without a <i>divulsion</i> or + <i>solution</i> of its <i>continuity</i>.</p> + + <p>It is not my design at present, to examine the use and + <i>Mechanisme</i> of these parts of Wood, that being more proper to + another Enquiry; but rather to hint, that from this Experiment we may + learn,</p> + + <p>First, what is the cause of the blackness of many burnt bodies, which + we may find to be nothing else but this; that the heat of the fire + agitating and rarifying the waterish, transparent, and volatile water + that is contain’d in them, by the continuation of that action, does so + totally expel and drive away all that which before fill’d the pores, and + was dispers’d also through the solid mass of it, and thereby caus’d an + universal kind of transparency, that it not onely leaves all the pores + empty, but all the <i>Interstitia</i> also so dry and <i>opacous</i>, and + perhaps also yet further perforated, that that light onely is reflected + back which falls upon the very outward edges of the pores, all they that + enter into the pores of the body, never returning, but being lost in + it.</p> + + <p>Now, that the Charring or coaling of a body is nothing else, may be + easily believ’d by one that shall consider the means of its production, + which may be done after this, or any such manner. The body to be charr’d + or coal’d, may be put into a <i>Crucible</i>, Pot, or any other Vessel + that will endure to be made red-hot in the fire without breaking, and + then cover’d over with Sand, so as no part of it be suffer’d to be open + to the Air, then set into a good fire, and there kept till the Sand has + continu’d red hot for a quarter, half, an hour or two, or more, according + to the nature and bigness of the body to be coal’d or charr’d, then + taking it out of the fire, and letting it stand till it be quite cold, + the body may be taken out of the Sand well charr’d and cleans’d of its + waterish parts; but in the taking of it out, care must be had that the + Sand be very neer cold, for else, when it comes into the free air, it + will take fire, and readily burn away.</p> + + <p>This maybe done also in any close Vessel of Glass, as a <i>Retort</i>, + or the like, and the several fluid substances that come over may be + receiv’d in a fit <i>Recipient</i>, which will yet further countenance + this <i>Hypothesis</i>: And their manner of charring Wood in great + quantity comes much to the same thing, namely, an application of a great + heat to the body, and preserving it from the free access of the devouring + air; this may be easily learn’d from the History of Charring of Coal, + most excellently describ’d and publish’d by that most accomplish’d + Gentleman, Mr. <i>John Evelin</i>, in the 100, 101, 103, pages of his + <i>Sylva</i>, to which I shall therefore refer the curious Reader that + desires a full information of it.</p> + + <p>Next, we may learn what part of the Wood it is that is the + <i>combustible</i> matter, for since we shall find that none, or very + little of those fluid substances that are driven over into the Receiver + are <i>combustible</i>, and that most of that which is left behind is so, + it follows, that the solid <i>interstitia</i> of the Wood are the + <i>combustible</i> matter. Further, the reason why uncharr’d Wood burns + with a greater flame then that which is charr’d, is as evident, because + those waterish or volatil parts issuing out of the fired Wood, every way, + not onely shatter and open the body, the better for the fire to enter, + but issuing out in vapours or wind, they become like so many little + <i>æolipiles</i>, or Bellows, whereby they blow and agitate the fir’d + part, and conduce to the more speedy and violent consumption or + dissolution of the body.</p> + + <p>Thirdly, from the Experiment of charring of Coals (whereby we see that + notwithstanding the great heat, and the duration of it, the solid parts + of the Wood remain, whilest they are preserv’d from the free access of + the air undissipated) we may learn, that which has not, that I know of, + been publish’d or hinted, nay, not so much as thought of, by any; and + that in short is this.</p> + + <p>First, <i>that the Air</i> in which we live, move, and breath, and + which encompasses very many, and cherishes most bodies it encompasses, + that this Air is the <i>menstruum</i>, or universal dissolvent of all + <i>Sulphureous</i> bodies.</p> + + <p>Secondly, <i>that this action</i> it performs not, till the body be + first sufficiently heated, as we find requisite also to the dissolution + of many other bodies by several other <i>menstruums</i>.</p> + + <p>Thirdly, <i>that this action</i> of dissolution, produces or generates + a very great heat, and that which we call Fire; and this is common also + to many dissolutions of other bodies, made by <i>menstruums</i>, of which + I could give multitudes of Instances.</p> + + <p>Fourthly, <i>that this action</i> is perform’d with so great a + violence, and does so minutely act, and rapidly agitate the smallest + parts of the <i>combustible</i> matter, that it produces in the + <i>diaphanous medium</i> of the Air, the action or pulse of light, which + what it is, I have else-where already shewn.</p> + + <p>Fifthly, <i>that the dissolution</i> of sulphureous bodies is made by + a substance inherent, and mixt with the Air, that is like, if not the + very same, with that which is fixt in <i>Salt-peter</i>, which by + multitudes of Experiments that may be made with <i>Salt-peter</i>, will, I + think, most evidently be demonstrated.</p> + + <p>Sixthly, <i>that in this dissolution</i> of bodies by the Air, a + certain part is united and mixt, or dissolv’d and turn’d into the Air, + and made to fly up and down with it in the same manner as a + <i>metalline</i> or other body dissolved into any <i>menstruums</i>, does + follow the motions and progresses of that <i>menstruum</i> till it be + precipitated.</p> + + <p>Seventhly, That as there is one part that is dissoluble by the Air, so + are there other parts with which the parts of the Air mixing and uniting, + do make a <i>Coagulum</i>, or <i>precipitation</i>, as one may call it, + which causes it to be separated from the Air, but this <i>precipitate</i> + is so light, and in so small and rarify’d or porous clusters, that it is + very volatil, and is easily carry’d up by the motion of the Air, though + afterwards, when the heat and agitation that kept it + rarify’d ceases, it easily condenses, and commixt with other indissoluble + parts, it sticks and adheres to the next bodies it meets withall; and + this is a certain <i>Salt</i> that may be extracted out of + <i>Soot</i>.</p> + + <p>Eighthly, that many indissoluble parts being very apt and prompt to be + rarify’d, and so, whilest they continue in that heat and agitation, are + lighter then the Ambient Air, are thereby thrust and carry’d upwards with + great violence, and by that means carry along with them, not onely that + <i>Saline concrete</i> I mention’d before, but many terrestrial, or + indissoluble and irrarefiable parts, nay, many parts also which are + dissoluble, but are not suffer’d to stay long enough in a sufficient heat + to make them prompt and apt for that action. And therefore we find in + <i>Soot</i>, not onely a part, that being continued longer in a competent + heat, will be dissolv’d by the Air, or take fire and burn; but a part + also which is fixt, terrestrial, and irrarefiable.</p> + + <p>Ninthly, that as there are these several parts that will rarifie and + fly, or be driven up by the heat, so are there many others, that as they + are indissoluble by the <i>aerial menstruum</i>, so are they of such + sluggish and gross parts, that they are not easily rarify’d by heat, and + therefore cannot be rais’d by it; the volatility or fixtness of a body + seeming to consist only in this, that the one is of a texture, or has + component parts that will be easily rarify’d into the form of Air, and + the other, that it has such as will not, without much ado, be brought to + such a constitution; and this is that part which remains behind in a + white body call’d Ashes, which contains a substance, or <i>Salt</i>, + which Chymists call <i>Alkali</i>: what the particular natures of each of + these bodies are, I shall not here examine, intending it in another + place, but shall rather add that this <i>Hypothesis</i> does so exactly + agree with all <i>Phænomena</i>, of Fire, and so genuinely explicate each + particular circumstance that I have hitherto observ’d, that it is more + then probable, that this cause which I have assign’d is the true + adequate, real, and onely cause of those <i>Phænomena</i>; And therefore + I shall proceed a little further, to shew the nature and use of the + Air.</p> + + <p>Tenthly, therefore the dissolving parts of the Air are but few, that + is, it seems of the nature of those <i>Saline menstruums</i>, or spirits, + that have very much flegme mixt with the spirits, and therefore a small + parcel of it is quickly glutted, and will dissolve no more; and therefore + unless some fresh part of this <i>menstruum</i> be apply’d to the body to + be dissolv’d, the action ceases, and the body leaves to be dissolv’d and + to shine, which is the Indication of it, though plac’d or kept in the + greatest heat; whereas <i>Salt-peter</i> is a <i>menstruum</i>, when + melted and red-hot, that abounds more with those Dissolvent particles, + and therefore as a small quantity of it will dissolve a great sulphureous + body, so will the dissolution be very quick and violent.</p> + + <p>Therefore in the <i>Eleventh</i> place, it is observable, that, as in + other solutions, if a copious and quick supply of fresh <i>menstruum</i>, + though but weak, be poured on, or applied to the dissoluble body, it + quickly consumes it: So this <i>menstruum</i> of the Air, if by Bellows, + or any other such contrivance, it be copiously apply’d to the shining + body, is found to dissolve it as soon, and as + violently as the more strong <i>menstruum</i> of melted <i>Nitre</i>.</p> + + <p>Therefore twelfthly, it seems reasonable to think that there is no + such thing as an Element of Fire that should attract or draw up the + flame, or towards which the flame should endeavour to ascend out of a + desire or appetite of uniting with that as its <i>Homogeneal</i> + primitive and generating Element; but that that shining transient body + which we call <i>Flame</i>, is nothing else but a mixture of Air, and + volatil sulphureous parts of dissoluble or combustible bodies, which are + acting upon each other whilst they ascend, that is, flame seems to be a + mixture of Air, and the combustible volatil parts of any body, which + parts the encompassing Air does dissolve or work upon, which action, as + it does intend the heat of the <i>aerial</i> parts of the dissolvent, so + does it thereby further rarifie those parts that are acting, or that are + very neer them, whereby they growing much lighter then the heavie parts + of that <i>Menstruum</i> that are more remote, are thereby protruded and + driven upward; and this may be easily observ’d also in dissolutions made + by any other <i>menstruum</i>, especially such as either create heat or + bubbles. Now, this action of the <i>Menstruum</i>, or <i>Air</i>, on the + dissoluble parts, is made with such violence, or is such, that it imparts + such a motion or pulse to the <i>diaphanous</i> parts of the Air, as I + have elsewhere shewn is requisite to produce light.</p> + + <p>This <i>Hypothesis</i> I have endeavoured to raise from an Infinite of + Observations and Experiments, the process of which would be much too long + to be here inserted, and will perhaps another time afford matter copious + enough for a much larger Discourse, the Air being a Subject which (though + all the world has hitherto liv’d and breath’d in, and been unconversant + about) has yet been so little truly examin’d or explain’d, that a + diligent enquirer will be able to find but very little information from + what has been (till of late) written of it: But being once well + understood, it will, I doubt not, inable a man to render an intelligible, + nay probable, if not the true reason of all the <i>Phænomena</i> of Fire, + which, as it has been found by Writers and Philosophers of all Ages a + matter of no small difficulty, as may be sufficiently understood by their + strange <i>Hypotheses</i>, and unintelligible Solutions of some few + <i>Phænomena</i> of it; so will it prove a matter of no small concern and + use in humane affairs, as I shall elsewhere endeavour to manifest when I + come to shew the use of the Air in respiration, and for the preservation + of the life, nay, for the conservation and restauration of the health and + natural constitution of mankind as well as all other aereal + <i>animals</i>, as also the uses of this principle or propriety of the + Air in chymical, mechanical, and other operations. In this place I have + onely time to hint an <i>Hypothesis</i>, which, if God permit me life and + opportunity, I may elsewhere prosecute, improve and publish. In the mean + time, before I finish this Discourse, I must not forget to acquaint the + Reader, that having had the liberty granted me of making some trials on a + piece of <i>Lignum fossile</i> shewn to the Royal Society, by the + eminently Ingenious and Learned Physician, Doctor <i>Ent</i>, who + receiv’d it for a Present from the famous <i>Ingenioso Cavalliero de + Pozzi</i>, it being one of the fairest and best + pieces of <i>Lignum fossile</i> he had seen; Having (I say) taken a small + piece of this Wood, and examin’d it, I found it to burn in the open Air + almost like other Wood, and insteed of a resinous smoak or fume, it + yielded a very bituminous one, smelling much of that kind of sent: But + that which I chiefly took notice of, was, that cutting off a small piece + of it, about the bigness of my Thumb, and charring it in a + <i>Crucible</i> with Sand, after the manner I above prescrib’d, I found + it infinitely to abound with the smaller sort of pores, so extreamly + thick, and so regularly perforating the substance of it long-ways, that + breaking it off across, I found it to look very like an Honey-comb; but + as for any of the second, or bigger kind of pores, I could not find that + it had any; so that it seems, whatever were the cause of its production, + it was not without those small kind of pores which we have onely hitherto + found in Vegetable bodies: and comparing them with the pores which I have + found in the Charcoals that I by this means made of several other kinds + of Wood, I find it resemble none so much as those of Firr, to which it is + not much unlike in grain also, and several other proprieties.</p> + + <p>And therefore, what ever is by some, who have written of it, and + particularly by <i>Francisco Stelluto</i>, wrote a Treatise in + <i>Italian</i> of that Subject, which was Printed at <i>Rome</i>, 1637, + affirm’d that it is a certain kind of Clay or Earth, which in tract of + time is turn’d into Wood; I rather suspect the quite contrary, that it + was at first certain great Trees of Fir or Pine, which by some + Earthquake, or other casualty, came to be buried under the Earth, and was + there, after a long time’s residence (according to the several natures of + the encompassing adjacent parts) either rotted and turn’d into a kind of + Clay, or <i>petrify’d</i> and turn’d into a kind of Stone, or else had + its pores fill’d with certain Mineral juices, which being stay’d in them, + and in tract of time coagulated, appear’d, upon cleaving out, like small + Metalline Wires, or else from some flames or scorching forms that are the + occasion oftentimes, and usually accompany Earthquakes, might be blasted + and turn’d into Coal, or else from certain <i>subterraneous</i> fires + which are affirm’d by that Authour to abound much about those parts + (namely, in a Province of <i>Italy</i>, call’d <i>Umbria</i>, now the + <i>Dutchie</i> of <i>Spoletto</i>, in the Territory of <i>Todi</i>, + anciently call’d <i>Tudor</i>; and between the two Villages of + <i>Collesecco</i> and <i>Rosaro</i> not far distant from the high-way + leading to <i>Rome</i>, where it is found in greater quantity then + elsewhere) are by reason of their being encompassed with Earth, and so + kept close from the dissolving Air, charr’d and converted into Coal. It + would be too long a work to describe the several kinds of pores which I + met withall, and by this means discovered in several other Vegetable + bodies; nor is it my present design to expatiate upon Instances of the + same kind, but rather to give a Specimen of as many kinds as I have had + opportunity as yet of observing, reserving the prosecution and enlarging + on particulars till a more fit opportunity; and in prosecution of this + design, I shall here add:<br /></p> +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class='chapter' /> +<h2>Observ. <a name="obsXVII" id="obsXVII">XVII</a>. <i>Of </i>Petrify’d wood<i>, and other </i>Petrify’d bodies<i>.</i></h2> + + <p>Of this sort of substance, I observ’d several pieces of very differing + kinds, both for their outward shape, colour, grain, <i>texture</i>, + hardness, <i>&c.</i> some being brown and reddish; others gray, like a + Hone; others black, and Flint-like: some soft, like a Slate or Whetstone, + others as hard as a Flint, and as brittle. That which I more particular + examin’d, was a piece about the bigness of a mans hand, which seem’d to + have been a part of some large tree, that by rottenness had been broken + off from it before it began to be <i>petrify’d</i>.</p> + + <p>And indeed, all that I have yet seen, seem to have been rotten Wood + before the petrifaction was begun; and not long since, examining and + viewing a huge great <i>Oak</i>, that seem’d with meer age to be rotten + as it stood, I was very much confirm’d in this opinion; for I found, that + the grain, colour, and shape of the Wood, was exactly like this + <i>petrify’d</i> substance; and with a <i>Microscope</i>, I found, that + all those <i>Microscopical</i> pores, which in sappy or firm and sound + Wood are fill’d with the natural or innate juices of those Vegetables, in + this they were all empty, like those of <i>Vegetables charr’d</i>; but + with this difference, that they seem’d much larger then I have seen any + in <i>Charcoals</i>; nay, even then those of Coals made of great blocks + of Timber, which are commonly call’d <i>Old-coals</i>.</p> + + <p>The reason of which difference may probably be, that the charring of + Vegetables, being an operation quickly perform’d, and whilest the Wood is + sappy, the more solid parts may more easily shrink together, and contract + the pores or <i>interstitia</i> between them, then in the rotten Wood, + where that natural juice seems onely to be wash’d away by + <i>adventitious</i> or unnatural moisture; and so though the natural + juice be wasted from between the firm parts, yet those parts are kept + asunder by the <i>adventitious</i> moystures, and so by degrees settled + in those postures.</p> + + <p>And this I likewise found in the <i>petrify’d</i> Wood, that the pores + were somewhat bigger then those of <i>Charcoal</i>, each pore being neer + upon half as bigg again, but they did not bear that disproportion which +<span class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-10.png"><i>Schem.</i> 10.</a><br /><i>Fig.</i> 1, 2. +</span> + is exprest in the tenth <i>Scheme</i>, between the small specks or pores + in the first Figure (which representeth the pores of Coal or Wood + charr’d) and the black spots of the second Figure (which represent the + like <i>Microscopical pores</i> in the <i>petrify’d</i> Wood) for these + last were drawn by a <i>Microscope</i> that magnify’d the object above + six times more in Diameter then the <i>Microscope</i> by which those + pores of Coal were observ’d.</p> + + <p>Now, though they were a little bigger, yet did they keep the exact + figure and order of the pores of Coals and of rotten Wood, which last + also were much of the same cize.</p> + + <p>The other Observations on this <i>petrify’d</i> substance, that a + while since, by the appointment of the <i>Royal Society</i>, I made, and + presented to them an account of, were these that follow, which had the + honour done them by the most accomplish’d Mr. <i>Evelin</i>, + my highly honoured friend, to be inserted and published among those + excellent Observations wherewith his <i>Sylva</i> is replenish’d, and + would therefore have been here omitted, had not the Figure of them, as + they appear’d through the <i>Microscope</i> been before that + engraven.</p> + + <p>This <i>Petrify’d</i> substance resembled Wood, in that</p> + + <p>First, all the parts of it seem’d not at all <i>dislocated</i>, or + alter’d from their natural Position, whil’st they were Wood, but the + whole piece retain’d the exact shape of Wood, having many of the + conspicuous pores of wood still remaining pores, and shewing a manifest + difference visible enough between the grain of the Wood and that of the + bark, especially when any side of it was cut smooth and polite; for then + it appear’d to have a very lovely grain, like that of some curious close + Wood.</p> + + <p>Next (it resembled Wood) in that all the smaller and (if I may so call + those which are onely visible with a good magnifying Glass) + <i>Microscopical</i> pores of it appear (both when the substance is cut + and polish’d <i>transversly</i> and <i>parallel</i> to the pores of it) + perfectly like the <i>Microscopical</i> pores of several kinds of Wood, + especially like and equal to those of several sorts of rotten Wood which + I have since observ’d, retaining both the shape, position and magnitude + of such pores. It was differing from Wood:</p> + + <p>First; in <i>weight</i>, being to common water as 3¼ to 1. whereas + there are few of our <i>English</i> Woods, that when very dry are found + to be full as heavie as water.</p> + + <p>Secondly, in <i>hardness</i>, being very neer as hard as a Flint; and + in some places of it also resembling the grain of a Flint: and, like it, + it would very readily cut Glass, and would not without difficulty, + especially in some parts of it, be scratch’d by a black hard Flint: It + would also as readily strike fire against a Steel, or against a Flint, as + any common Flint.</p> + + <p>Thirdly, in the <i>closeness</i> of it, for though all the + <i>Microscopical</i> pores of this <i>petrify’d</i> substance were very + conspicuous in one position, yet by altering that position of the + polish’d surface to the light, it was also manifest, that those pores + appear’d darker then the rest of the body, onely because they were fill’d + up with a more duskie substance, and not because they were hollow.</p> + + <p>Fourthly, in its <i>incombustibleness</i>, in that it would not burn + in the fire; nay, though I kept it a good while red-hot in the flame of a + Lamp, made very <i>intense</i> by the blast of a small Pipe, and a large + Charcoal, yet it seem’d not at all to have diminish’d its extension; but + only I found it to have chang’d its colour, and to appear of a more dark + and duskie brown colour; nor could I perceive that those parts which + seem’d to have been Wood at first, were any thing wasted, but the parts + appear’d as solid and close as before. It was further observable also, + that as it did not consume like Wood, so neither did it crack and flie + like a Flint, or such like hard Stone, nor was it long before it appear’d + red-hot.</p> + + <p>Fifthly, in its <i>dissolubleness</i>; for putting some drops of + distill’d <i>Vinegar</i> upon the Stone, I found it presently to yield + very many Bubbles, just like those which may be observ’d in spirit of + <i>Vinegar</i> when it corrodes <i>corals</i>, though + perhaps many of those small Bubbles might proceed from some small parcels + of Air which were driven out of the pores of this <i>petrify’d</i> + substance by the insinuating liquid <i>menstruum</i>.</p> + + <p>Sixthly, in its <i>rigidness</i>, and <i>friability</i>, being not at + all flexible but brittle like a Flint, insomuch that I could with one + knock of a Hammer break off a piece of it, and with a few more, reduce + that into a pretty fine powder.</p> + + <p>Seventhly, it seem’d also very differing from Wood to the + <i>touch</i>, <i>feeling</i> more cold then Wood usually does, and much + like other close stones and Minerals.</p> + + <p>The Reasons of all which <i>Phænomena</i> seem to be,</p> + + <p>That <i>petrify’d</i> Wood having lain in some place where it was well + soak’d with <i>petrifying</i> water (that is, such a water as is well + <i>impregnated</i> with stony and earthy particles) did by degrees + separate, either by straining and <i>filtration</i>, or perhaps, by + <i>precipitation</i>, <i>cohesion</i> or <i>coagulation</i>, abundance of + stony particles from the permeating water, which stony particles, being + by means of the fluid <i>vehicle</i> convey’d, not onely into the + <i>Microscopical</i> pores, and so perfectly stopping them up, but also + into the pores or <i>interstitia</i>, which may, perhaps, be even in the + texture or <i>Schematisme</i> of that part of the Wood, which, through + the <i>Microscope</i>, appears most solid, do thereby so augment the + weight of the Wood, as to make it above three times heavier then water, + and perhaps, six times as heavie as it was when Wood.</p> + + <p>Next, they thereby so lock up and fetter the parts of the Wood, that + the fire cannot easily make them flie away, but the action of the fire + upon them is onely able to <i>Char</i> those parts, as it were, like a + piece of Wood, if it be clos’d very fast up in Clay, and kept a good + while red-hot in the fire, will by the heat of the fire be charr’d and + not consum’d, which may, perhaps, also be somewhat of the cause, why the + <i>petrify’d</i> substance appear’d of a dark brown colour after it had + been burnt.</p> + + <p>By this <i>intrusion</i> of the <i>petrifying</i> particles, this + substance also becomes hard and <i>friable</i>; for the smaller pores of + the Wood being perfectly wedg’d, and stuft up with those stony particles, + the small parts of the Wood have no places or pores into which they may + slide upon bending, and consequently little or no flexion or yielding at + all can be caus’d in such a substance.</p> + + <p>The remaining particles likewise of the Wood among the stony + particles, may keep them from cracking and flying when put into the fire, + as they are very apt to do in a Flint.</p> + + <p>Nor is Wood the onely substance that may by this kind of + <i>transmutation</i> be chang’d into stone; for I my self have seen and + examin’d very many kinds of substances, and among very credible Authours, + we may meet with Histories of such <i>Metamorphoses</i> wrought almost on + all kind of substances, both <i>Vegetable</i> and <i>Animal</i>, which + Histories, it is not my business at present, either to relate, or + <i>epitomise</i>, but only to set down some Observation I lately made on + several kind of <i>petrify’d</i> Shels, found about <i>Keinsham</i>, + which lies within four or five miles of <i>Bristol</i>, which are + commonly call’d <i>Serpentine-stones.</i></p> + + <p>Examining several of these very curiously figur’d bodies (which are + commonly thought to be Stones form’d by some extraordinary <i>Plastick + virtue</i> <i>latent</i> in the Earth it self) I took notice of these + particulars:</p> + + <p>First, that these figured bodies, or stones, were of very differing + substances, as to hardness: some of Clay, some Marle, some soft Stone, + almost of the hardness of those soft stones which Masons call Fire-stone, + others as hard as Portland stone, others as hard as Marble, and some as + hard as a Flint or Crystal.</p> + + <p>Next, they were of very differing substances as to transparency and + colour; some white, some almost black, some brown, some Metalline, or + like Marchasites; some transparent like white Marble, others like flaw’d + Crystal, some gray, some of divers colours; some radiated like those long + <i>petrify’d drops</i>, which are commonly found at the <i>Peak</i>, and + in other <i>subterraneous caverns</i>, which have a kind of pith in the + middle.</p> + + <p>Thirdly, that they were very different as to the manner of their + outward figuration; for some of them seem’d to have been the substance + that had fill’d the Shell of some kind of Shel-fish; others, to have been + the substance that had contain’d or enwrapp’d one of those Shels, on both + which, the perfect impression either of the inside or outside of such + Shells seem’d to be left, but for the most part, those impressions seem’d + to be made by an imperfect or broken Shell, the great end or mouth of the + Shell being always wanting, and oftentimes the little end, and sometimes + half, and in some there were impressions, just as if there had been holes + broken in the figurating, imprinting or moulding Shell; some of them + seem’d to be made by such a Shell very much brused or flaw’d, insomuch + that one would verily have thought that very figur’d stone had been + broken or brused whilst a gelly, as ’twere, and so hardned, but within in + the grain of the stone, there appear’d not the least sign of any such + bruse or breaking, but onely on the very uttermost superficies.</p> + + <p>Fourthly, they were very different, as to their outward covering, some + having the perfect Shell, both in figure, colour, and substance, sticking + on upon its surface, and adhering to it, but might very easily be + separated from it, and like other common <i>Cockle</i> or + <i>Scolop-shels</i>, which some of them most accurately resembled, were + very dissoluble in common <i>Vinegar</i>, others of them, especially + those <i>Serpentine</i>, or <i>Helical stones</i> were cover’d or + retained the shining or Pearl-colour’d substance of the inside of a Shel, + which substance, on some parts of them, was exceeding thin, and might + very easily be rubbed off; on other parts it was pretty thick, and + retained a white coat, or flaky substance on the top, just like the + outsides of such Shells; some of them had very large pieces of the Shell + very plainly sticking on to them, which were easily to be broken or + flaked off by degrees: they likewise, some of them retain’d all along the + surface of them very pretty kind of <i>sutures</i>, such as are observ’d + in the skulls of several kinds of living creatures, which <i>sutures</i> + were most curiously shap’d in the manner of leaves, and every one of them + in the same Shell, exactly one like another, which I was able to discover + plainly enough with my naked eye, but more perfectly and distinctly with + my <i>Microscope</i>; all these sutures, by breaking + some of these stones, I found to be the <i>termini</i>, or boundings of + certain <i>diaphragms</i>, or partitions, which seem’d to divide the + cavity of the Shell into a multitude of very proportionate and regular + <i>cells</i> or <i>caverns</i>, these <i>Diaphragms</i>, in many of them, + I found very perfect and compleat, of a very distinct substance from that + which fill’d the cavities, and exactly of the same kind with that which + covered the outside, being for the most part whitish, or + <i>mother of pearl</i> colour’d.</p> + + <p>As for the cavities between those <i>Diaphragms</i>, I found some of + them fill’d with Marle, and others with several kinds of stones, others, + for the most part hollow, onely the whole cavity was usually covered over + with a kind of <i>tartareous petrify’d</i> substance, which stuck about + the sides, and was there shot into very curious regular Figures, just as + <i>Tartar</i>, or other dissolv’d Salts are observ’d to stick and + <i>crystallize</i> about the sides of the containing Vessels; or like + those little <i>Diamants</i> which I before observed to have covered the + vaulted cavity of a Flint; others had these cavities all lin’d with a + kind of <i>metalline</i> or <i>marchasite-like</i> substance, which with + a <i>Microscope</i> I could as plainly see most curiously and regularly + figured, as I had done those in a Flint.</p> + + <p>From all which, and several other particulars which I observ’d, I + cannot but think, that all these, and most other kinds of stony bodies + which are found thus strangely figured, do owe their formation and + figuration, not to any kind of <i>Plastick virtue</i> inherent in the + earth, but to the Shells of certain Shel-fishes, which, either by some + Deluge, Inundation, Earthquake, or some such other means, came to be + thrown to that place, and there to be fill’d with some kind of Mudd or + Clay, or <i>petrifying</i> Water, or some other substance, which in tract + of time has been settled together and hardned in those shelly moulds into + those shaped substances we now find them; that the great and thin end of + these Shells by that Earthquake, or what ever other extraordinary cause + it was that brought them thither, was broken off; and that many others + were otherwise broken, bruised and disfigured; that these Shells which + are thus <i>spirallied</i> and separated with <i>Diaphragmes</i>, were + some kind of <i>Nautili</i> or <i>Porcelane shells</i>; and that others + were shells of <i>Cockles</i>, <i>Muscles</i>, <i>Periwincles</i>, + <i>Scolops</i>, &c. of various sorts; that these Shells in many, from + the particular nature of the containing or enclos’d Earth, or some other + cause, have in tract of time rotted and mouldred away, and onely left + their impressions, both on the containing and contained substances; and + so left them pretty loose one within another, so that they may be easily + separated by a knock or two of a Hammer. That others of these Shells, + according to the nature of the substances adjacent to them, have, by a + long continuance in that posture, been <i>petrify’d</i> and turn’d into + the nature of stone, just as I even now observ’d several sorts of Wood to + be. That oftentimes the Shell may be found with one kind of substance + within, and quite another without; having, perhaps, been fill’d in one + place, and afterwards translated to another, which I have very frequently + observ’d in <i>Cockle</i>, <i>Muscle</i>, <i>Periwincle</i>, and other + shells, which I have found by the Sea side. Nay, further, that some parts + of the same Shell may be fill’d in one place, and some + other caverns in another, and others in a third, or a fourth, or a fifth + place, for so many differing substances have I found in one of these + <i>petrify’d</i> Shells, and perhaps all these differing from the + encompassing earth or stone; the means how all which varieties may be + caus’d, I think, will not be difficult to conceive, to any one that has + taken notice of those Shells, which are commonly found on the Sea shore: + And he that shall throughly examine several kinds of such curiously + form’d stones, will (I am very apt to think) find reason to suppose their + generation or formation to be ascribable to some such accidents as I have + mention’d, and not to any <i>Plastick virtue</i>: For it seems to me + quite contrary to the infinite prudence of Nature, which is observable in + all its works and productions, to design every thing to a determinate + end, and for the attaining of that end, makes use of such ways as are (as + farr as the knowledge of man has yet been able to reach) altogether + consonant, and most agreeable to man’s reason, and of no way or means + that does contradict, or is contrary to humane Ratiocination; whence it + has a long time been a general observation and <i>maxime</i>, that + <i>Nature does nothing in vain</i>; It seems, I say, contrary to that + great Wisdom of Nature, that these prettily shap’d bodies should have all + those curious Figures and contrivances (which many of them are adorn’d + and contriv’d with) generated or wrought by a <i>Plastick virtue</i>, for + no higher end, then onely to exhibite such a form; which he that shall + throughly consider all the circumstances of such kind of Figur’d bodies, + will, I think, have great reason to believe, though, I confess, one + cannot presently be able to find out what Nature’s designs are. It were + therefore very desirable, that a good collection of such kind of figur’d + stones were collected; and as many particulars, circumstances, and + informations collected with them as could be obtained, that from such a + History of Observations well rang’d, examin’d and digested, the true + original or production of all those kinds of stones might be perfectly + and surely known; such as are <i>Thunder-stones</i>, <i>Lapides + Stellares</i>, <i>Lapides Judaici</i>, and multitudes of other, whereof + mention is made in <i>Aldonandus</i>, <i>Wormius</i>, and other Writers + of Minerals.<br /></p> +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class='chapter' /> +<h2>Observ. <a name="obsXVIII" id="obsXVIII">XVIII</a>. <i>Of the </i>Schematisme<i> or </i>Texture<i> of </i>Cork<i>, and +of the Cells and Pores of some other such frothy Bodies.</i></h2> + + <p>I took a good clear piece of Cork, and with a Pen-knife sharpen’d as + keen as a Razor, I cut a piece of it off, and thereby left the surface of + it exceeding smooth, then examining it very diligently with a + <i>Microscope</i>, me thought I could perceive it to appear a little + porous; but I could not so plainly distinguish them, as to be sure that + they were pores, much less what Figure they were of: But judging from the + lightness and yielding quality of the Cork, that certainly the texture + could not be so curious, but that possibly, if I could use + some further diligence, I might find it to be discernable with a + <i>Microscope</i>, I with the same sharp Penknife, cut off from the + former smooth surface an exceeding thin piece of it, and placing it on a + black object Plate, because it was it self a white body, and casting the + light on it with a deep <i>plano convex Glass</i>, I could exceeding + plainly perceive it to be all perforated and porous, much like a + Honey-comb, but that the pores of it were not regular; yet it was not + unlike a Honey-comb in these particulars.</p> + + <p>First, in that it had a very little solid substance, in comparison of + the empty cavity that was contain’d between, as does more manifestly +<span class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-11.png"><i>Schem.</i> 11.</a><br /><i>Fig.</i> 1. +</span> + appear by the Figure A and B of the XI. <i>Scheme</i>, for the + <i>Interstitia</i>, or walls (as I may so call them) or partitions of + those pores were neer as thin in proportion to their pores, as those thin + films of Wax in a Honey-comb (which enclose and constitute the + <i>sexangular celts</i>) are to theirs.</p> + + <p>Next, in that these pores, or cells, were not very deep, but consisted + of a great many little Boxes, separated out of one continued long pore, + by certain <i>Diaphragms</i>, as is visible by the Figure B, which + represents a sight of those pores split the long-ways.</p> + + <p>I no sooner discern’d these (which were indeed the first + <i>microscopical</i> pores I ever saw, and perhaps, that were ever seen, + for I had not met with any Writer or Person, that had made any mention of + them before this) but me thought I had with the discovery of them, + presently hinted to me the true and intelligible reason of all the + <i>Phænomena</i> of Cork; As,</p> + + <p>First, if I enquir’d why it was so exceeding light a body? my + <i>Microscope</i> could presently inform me that here was the same reason + evident that there is found for the lightness of froth, an empty + Honey-comb, Wool, a Spunge, a Pumice-stone, or the like; namely, a very + small quantity of a solid body, extended into exceeding large + dimensions.</p> + + <p>Next, it seem’d nothing more difficult to give an intelligible reason, + why Cork is a body so very unapt to suck and drink in Water, and + consequently preserves it self, floating on the top of Water, though left + on it never so long: and why it is able to stop and hold air in a Bottle, + though it be there very much condens’d and consequently presses very + strongly to get a passage out, without suffering the least bubble to pass + through its substance. For, as to the first, since our <i>Microscope</i> + informs us that the substance of Cork is altogether fill’d with Air, and + that that Air is perfectly enclosed in little Boxes or Cells distinct + from one another. It seems very plain, why neither the Water, nor any + other Air can easily insinuate it self into them, since there is already + within them an <i>intus existens</i>, and consequently, why the pieces of + Cork become so good floats for Nets, and stopples for Viols, or other + close Vessels.</p> + + <p>And thirdly, if we enquire why Cork has such a springiness and + swelling nature when compress’d? and how it comes to suffer so great a + compression, or seeming penetration of dimensions, so as to be made a + substance as heavie again and more, bulk for bulk, as it was before + compression, and yet suffer’d to return, is found to extend it self again + into the same space? Our <i>Microscope</i> will easily inform us, that + the whole mass consists of an infinite company of small + Boxes or Bladders of Air, which is a substance of a springy nature, and + that will suffer a considerable condensation (as I have several times + found by divers trials, by which I have most evidently condens’d it into + less then a twentieth part of its usual dimensions neer the Earth, and + that with no other strength then that of my hands without any kind of + forcing Engine, such as Racks, Leavers, Wheels, Pullies, or the like, but + this onely by and by) and besides, it seems very probable that those very + films or sides of the pores, have in them a springing quality, as almost + all other kind of Vegetable substances have, so as to help to restore + themselves to their former position.</p> + + <p>And could we so easily and certainly discover the <i>Schematisme</i> + and <i>Texture</i> even of these films, and of several other bodies, as + we can these of Cork; there seems no probable reason to the contrary, but + that we might as readily render the true reason of all their + <i>Phænomena</i>; as namely, what were the cause of the springiness, and + toughness of some, both as to their flexibility and restitution. What, of + the friability or brittleness of some others, and the like; but till such + time as our <i>Microscope</i>, or some other means, enable us to discover + the true <i>Schematism</i> and <i>Texture</i> of all kinds of bodies, we + must grope, as it were, in the dark, and onely ghess at the true reasons + of things by similitudes and comparisons.</p> + + <p>But, to return to our Observation. I told several lines of these + pores, and found that there were usually about threescore of these small + Cells placed end-ways in the eighteenth part of an Inch in length, whence + I concluded there must be neer eleven hundred of them, or somewhat more + then a thousand in the length of an Inch, and therefore in a square Inch + above a Million, or 1166400. and in a Cubick Inch, above twelve hundred + Millions, or 1259712000. a thing almost incredible, did not our + <i>Microscope</i> assure us of it by ocular demonstration; nay, did it + not discover to us the pores of a body, which were they + <i>diaphragm’d</i>, like those of Cork, would afford us in one Cubick + Inch, more then ten times as many little Cells, as is evident in several + charr’d Vegetables; so prodigiously curious are the works of Nature, that + even these conspicuous pores of bodies, which seem to be the channels or + pipes through which the <i>Succus nutritius</i>, or natural juices of + Vegetables are convey’d, and seem to correspond to the veins, arteries + and other Vessels in sensible creatures, that these pores I say, which + seem to be the Vessels of nutrition to the vastest body in the World, are + yet so exceeding small, that the <i>Atoms</i> which <i>Epicurus</i> + fancy’d would go neer to prove too bigg to enter them, much more to + constitute a fluid body in them. And how infinitely smaller then must be + the Vessels of a Mite, or the pores of one of those little Vegetables I + have discovered to grow on the back side of a Rose-leaf, and shall anon + more fully describe, whose bulk is many millions of times less then the + bulk of the small shrub it grows on; and even that shrub, many millions + of times less in bulk then several trees (that have heretofore grown in + <i>England</i>, and are this day flourishing in other hotter Climates, as + we are very credibly inform’d) if at least the pores of this small + Vegetable should keep any such proportion to the body of it, as we have + found these pores of other Vegetables to do to + their bulk. But of these pores I have said more elsewhere.</p> + + <p>To proceed then, Cork seems to be by the transverse constitution of + the pores, a kind of <i>Fungus</i> or Mushrome, for the pores lie like so + many Rays tending from the center, or pith of the tree, outwards; so that + if you cut off a piece from a board of Cork transversly, to the flat of + it, you will, as it were, split the pores, and they will appear just as + they are express’d in the Figure B of the XI. <i>Scheme</i>. But if you + shave off a very thin piece from this board, parallel to the plain of it, + you will cut all the pores transversly, and they will appear almost as + they are express’d in the Figure A, save onely the solid + <i>Interstitia</i> will not appear so thick as they are there + represented.</p> + + <p>So that Cork seems to suck its nourishment from the subjacent bark of + the Tree immediately, and to be a kind of excrescence, or a substance + distinct from the substances of the entire Tree, something + <i>analogus</i> to the Mushrome, or Moss on other Trees, or to the hairs + on Animals. And having enquir’d into the History of Cork, I find it + reckoned as an excrescency of the bark of a certain Tree, which is + distinct from the two barks that lie within it, which are common also to + other trees; That ’tis some time before the Cork that covers the young + and tender sprouts comes to be discernable; That it cracks, flaws, and + cleaves into many great chaps, the bark underneath remaining entire; That + it may be separated and remov’d from the Tree, and yet the two + under-barks (such as are also common to that with other Trees) not at all + injur’d, but rather helped and freed from an external injury. Thus + <i>Jonstonus</i> in <i>Dendrologia</i>, speaking <i>de Subere</i>, says, + <i>Arbor est procera, Lignum est robustum, dempto cortice in aquis non + fluitat, Cortice in orbem detracto juvatur, crascescens enim præstringit + & strangulat, intra triennium iterum repletur: Caudex ubi adolescit + crassus, cortex superior densus carnosus, duos digitos crassus, scaber, + rimosus, & qui nisi detrahatur dehiscit, alioque subnascente + expellitur, interior qui subest novellus ita rubet ut arbor minio picta + videatur</i>. Which Histories, if well consider’d, and the tree, + substance, and manner of growing, if well examin’d, would, I am very apt + to believe, much confirm this my conjecture about the origination of + Cork.</p> + + <p>Nor is this kind of Texture peculiar to Cork onely; for upon + examination with my <i>Microscope</i>, I have found that the pith of an + Elder, or almost any other Tree, the inner pulp or pith of the Cany + hollow stalks of several other Vegetables: as of Fennel, Carrets, Daucus, + Bur-docks, Teasels, Fearn, some kinds of Reeds, <i>&c.</i> have much + such a kind of <i>Schematisme</i>, as I have lately shewn that of Cork, + save onely that here the pores are rang’d the long-ways, or the same ways + with the length of the Cane, whereas in Cork they are transverse.</p> + + <p>The pith also that fills that part of the stalk of a Feather that is + above the Quil, has much such a kind of texture, save onely that which + way soever I set this light substance, the pores seem’d to be cut + transversly; so that I ghess this pith which fills the Feather, not to + consist of abundance of long pores separated with Diaphragms, as Cork + does, but to be a kind of solid or hardned froth, + or a <i>congeries</i> of very small bubbles consolidated in that form, + into a pretty stiff as well as tough concrete, and that each Cavern, + Bubble, or Cell, is distinctly separate from any of the rest, without any + kind of hole in the encompassing films, so that I could no more blow + through a piece of this kinde of substance, then I could through a piece + of Cork, or the sound pith of an Elder.</p> + + <p>But though I could not with my <i>Microscope</i>, nor with my breath, + nor any other way I have yet try’d, discover a passage out of one of + those cavities into another, yet I cannot thence conclude, that therefore + there are none such, by which the <i>Succus nutritius</i>, or appropriate + juices of Vegetables, may pass through them; for, in several of those + Vegetables, whil’st green, I have with my <i>Microscope</i>, plainly + enough discover’d these Cells or Poles fill’d with juices, and by degrees + sweating them out; as I have also observed in green Wood all those long + <i>Microscopical</i> pores which appear in Charcoal perfectly empty of + any thing but Air.</p> + + <p>Now, though I have with great diligence endeavoured to find whether + there be any such thing in those <i>Microscopical</i> pores of Wood or + Piths, as the <i>Valves</i> in the heart, veins, and other passages of + Animals, that open and give passage to the contain’d fluid juices one + way, and shut themselves, and impede the passage of such liquors back + again, yet have I not hitherto been able to say any thing positive in it; + though, me thinks, it seems very probable, that Nature has in these + passages, as well as in those of Animal bodies, very many appropriated + Instruments and contrivances, whereby to bring her designs and end to + pass, which ’tis not improbable, but that some diligent Observer, if + help’d with better <i>Microscopes</i>, may in time detect.</p> + + <p>And that this may be so, seems with great probability to be argued + from the strange <i>Phænomena</i> of sensitive Plants, wherein Nature + seems to perform several Animal actions with the same <i>Schematism</i> + or <i>Orginization</i> that is common to all Vegetables, as may appear by + some no less instructive then curious Observations that were made by + divers Eminent Members of the <i>Royal Society</i> on some of these kind + of Plants, whereof an account was delivered in to them by the most + Ingenious and Excellent <i>Physician</i>, Doctor <i>Clark</i>, which, + having that liberty granted me by that most Illustrious Society, I have + hereunto adjoyn’d.</p> + +<h3><i>Observations on the </i>Humble<i> and </i>Sensible Plants<i> in </i>M Chiffin’s<i> +Garden in Saint </i>James<i>’s Park, made </i>August<i> the </i>9<sup>th,</sup> 1661<i>.</i> +<i>Present, the</i> Lord <i>Brouncker</i>, Sr. <i>Robert Moray</i>, Dr. <i>Wilkins</i>, +Mr. <i>Evelin</i>, Dr. <i>Henshaw</i>, <i>and</i> Dr. <i>Clark</i>.</h3> + +<blockquote> + <p>There are four Plants, two of which are little shrub Plants, with a + little short stock, about an Inch above the ground, from whence are + spread several sticky branches, round, streight, and smooth in the distances between the Sprouts, but just under the Sprouts + there are two sharp thorny prickles, broad in the letting on, as in the + Bramble, one just under the Sprout, the other on the opposite side of the + branch.</p> + +<div class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-11.png"><i>Schem.</i> 11.</a><br /><i>Fig.</i> 2. +</div> + + <p>The distances betwixt the Sprouts are usually something more then an Inch, + and many upon a Branch, according to its length, and they grew so, that + if the lower Sprout be on the left side of the Branch, the next above is + on the right, and so to the end, not sprouting by pairs.</p> + + <p>At the end of each Sprout are generally four sprigs, two at the + Extremity, and one on each side, just under it. At the first sprouting of + these from the Branch to the Sprig where the leaves grow, they are full + of little short white hairs, which wear off as the leaves grow, and then + they are smooth as the Branch.</p> + + <p>Upon each of these sprigs, are, for the most part, eleven pair of + leaves, neatly set into the uppermost part of the little sprig, exactly + one against another, as it were in little <i>articulations</i>, such as + Anatomists call <i>Enarthrosis</i>, where the round head of a Bone is + received into another fitted for its motion; and standing very fitly to + shut themselves and touch, the pairs just above them closing somewhat + upon them, as in the shut sprig; so is the little round <i>Pedunculus</i> + of this leaf fitted into a little cavity of the sprig, visible to the eye + in a sprig new pluck’d, or in a sprig withered on the Branch, from which + the leaves easily fall by touching.</p> + + <p>The leaf being almost an oblong square, and set into the + <i>Pedunculus</i>, at one of the lower corners, receiveth from that not + onely a <i>Spine</i>, as I may call it, which, passing through the leaf, + divides it so length-ways that the outer-side is broader then the inner + next the sprig, but little <i>fibres</i> passing obliquely towards the + opposite broader side, seem to make it here a little muscular, and fitted + to move the whole leaf, which, together with the whole sprig, are set + full with little short whitish hairs.</p> + + <p>One of these Plants, whose branch seem’d to be older and more grown + then the other, onely the tender Sprouts of it, after the leaves are + shut, fall and hang down; of the other, the whole branches fall to the + ground, if the Sun shine very warm, upon the first taking off the Glass, + which I therefore call the <i>humble Plant</i>.</p> + + <p>The other two, which do never fall, nor do any of their branches flag + and hang down, shut not their leaves, but upon somewhat a hard stroke; + the stalks seem to grow up from a root, and appear more + <i>herbaceous</i>, they are round and smooth, without any prickle, the + Sprouts from them have several pairs of sprigs, with much less leaves + then the other on them, and have on each sprig generally seventeen + pair.</p> + + <p>Upon touching any of the sprigs with leaves on, all the leaves on that + sprig contracting themselves by pairs, joyned their upper superficies + close together.</p> + + <p>Upon the dropping a drop of <i>Aqua fortis</i> on the sprig betwixt + the leaves, <i>ff</i> all the leaves above shut presently, those below by + pairs successively after, and by the lower leaves of the other branches, + <i>ll</i>, <i>kk</i>, &c. and so every pair successively, with some + little distance of time betwixt, to the top of each sprig, and so they + continu’d shut all the time we were there. But I returning the next day, + and several days since, found all the leaves dilated again on two of the + sprigs; but from <i>ff</i>, where the <i>Aqua fortis</i> had dropped + upwards, dead and withered; but those below on the same sprig, green, and + closing upon the touch, and are so to this day, <i>August</i> 14.</p> + + <p>With a pair of Scissers, as suddenly as it could be done, one of the + leaves <i>bb</i> was clipped off in the middle, upon which that pair, and + the pair above, closed presently, after a little interval, <i>dd</i>, + then <i>ee</i>, and so the rest of the pairs, to the bottom of the sprig, + and then the motion began in the lower pairs, <i>ll</i>, on the other + sprigs, and so shut them by pairs upwards, though not with such distinct + distances.</p> + + <p>Under a pretty large branch with its sprigs on, there lying a large + Shell betwixt two and three Inches below it, there was rubbed on a strong + scented oyl, after a little time all the leaves on that sprig were shut, + and so they continued all the time of our stay there, but at my returne + the next day, I found the position of the Shell alter’d, and the leaves + expanded as before, and closing upon the touch.</p> + + <p>Upon the application of the Sun-beams by a Burning-glass, the more + <i>humble Plant</i> fell, the other shut their leaves.</p> + + <p>We could not so apply the smoak of <i>Sulpher</i>, as to have any + visible effect from that, at two or three times trial; but on another + trial, the smoak touching the leaves, it succeeded.</p> + + <p>The <i>humble Plant</i> fell upon taking off the Glass wherewith it + was covered.</p> + + <p>Cutting off one of the little Sprouts, two or three drops of liquor + were thrust out of the part from whence that was cut, very cleer, and + pellucid, of a bright greenish colour, tasting at first a little + bitterish, but after leaving a licorish-like taste in my mouth.</p> + + <p>Since, going two or three times when it was cold, I took the Glasses + from the more <i>humble Plant</i>, and it did not fall as formerly, but + shut its leaves onely. But coming afterwards, when the Sun shone very + warm, as soon as it was taken off, it fell as before.</p> + + <p>Since I pluck’d off another sprig, whose leaves were all shut, and had + been so some time, thinking to observe the liquor should come from that I + had broken off, but finding none, though with pressing, to come, I, as + dexterously as I could, pull’d off one whose leaves were expanded, and + then had upon the shutting of the leaves, a little of the mention’d + liquor, from the end of the sprig I had broken from the Plant. And this + twice successively, as often almost as I durst rob the Plant.</p> + + <p>But my curiosity carrying me yet further, I cut off one of the harder + branches of the stronger Plant, and there came of the + liquor, both from that I had cut, and that I had cut it from, without + pressure.</p> + + <p>Which made me think, that the motion of this Plant upon touching, + might be from this, that there being a constant <i>intercourse</i> + betwixt every part of this Plant and its root, either by a + <i>circulation</i> of this liquor, or a constant pressing of the subtiler + parts of it to every extremity of the Plant. Upon every pressure, from + whatsoever it proceeds, greater then that which keeps it up, the subtile + parts of this liquor are thrust downwards, towards its + <i>articulations</i> of the leaves, where, not having room presently to + get into the sprig, the little round <i>pedunculus</i>, from whence the + <i>Spine</i> and those oblique <i>Fibres</i> I mentioned rise, being + dilated, the <i>Spine</i> and <i>Fibres</i> (being continued from it) + must be contracted and shortned, and so draw the leaf upwards to joyn + with its fellow in the same condition with it self, where, being closed, + they are held together by the implications of the little whitish hair, as + well as by the still retreating liquor, which distending the + <i>Fibres</i> that are continued lower to the branch and root, shorten + them above; and when the liquor is so much forced from the Sprout, whose + <i>Fibres</i> are yet tender, and not able to support themselves, but by + that tensness which the liquor filling their <i>interstices</i> gives + them, the Sprout hangs and flags.</p> + + <p>But, perhaps, he that had the ability and leisure to give you the + exact <i>Anatomy</i> of this pretty Plant, to shew you its <i>Fibres</i>, + and visible <i>Canales</i>, through which this fine liquor circulateth, + or is moved, and had the faculty of better and more copiously expressing + his Observations and conceptions, such a one would easily from the motion + of this liquor, solve all the <i>Phænomena</i>, and would not fear to + affirm, that it is no obscure sensation this Plant hath. But I have said + too much, I humbly submit, and am ready to stand corrected.</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>I have not yet made so full and satisfactory Observations as I desire + on this Plant, which seems to be a Subject that will afford abundance of + information. But as farr as I have had + opportunity to examine it, I have discovered with my <i>Microscope</i> + very curious structures and contrivances; but designing much more + accurate examinations and trials, both with my <i>Microscope</i>, and + otherwise, as soon as the season will permit, I shall not till then add + any thing of what I have already taken notice of; but as farr as I have + yet observ’d, I judge the motion of it to proceed from causes very + differing from those by which Gut-strings, or Lute-strings, the beard of + a wilde <i>Oat</i>, or the beard of the Seeds of <i>Geranium</i>, + <i>Moscatum</i>, or <i>Musk-grass</i> and other kinds of + <i>Cranes-bill</i>, move themselves. Of which I shall add more in the + subsequent Observations on those bodies.<br /></p> +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class='chapter' /> +<h2>Observ. <a name="obsXIX" id="obsXIX">XIX</a>. <i>Of a </i>Plant<i> growing in the blighted or yellow specks +of </i>Damask-rose-leaves<i>, </i>Bramble-leaves<i>, and some other kind +of leaves.</i></h2> + + <p>I have for several years together, in the Moneths of <i>June</i>, + <i>July</i>, <i>August</i>, and <i>September</i> (when any of the green + leaves of <i>Roses</i> begin to dry and grow yellow) observ’d many of + them, especially the leaves of the old shrubs of <i>Damask Roses</i>, all + bespecked with yellow stains; and the undersides just against them, to + have little yellow hillocks of a gummous substance, and several of them + to have small black spots in the midst of those yellow ones, which, to + the naked eye, appear’d no bigger then the point of a Pin, or the + smallest black spot or tittle of Ink one is able to make with a very + sharp pointed Pen.</p> + +<div class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-12.png"><i>Schem.</i> 12.</a><br /><i>Fig.</i> 2. +</div> + + <p>Examining these with a <i>Microscope</i>, I was able plainly to + distinguish, up and down the surface, several small yellow knobs, of a + kind of yellowish red gummy substance, out of which I perceiv’d there + sprung multitudes of little cases or black bodies like Seed-cods, and + those of them that were quite without the hillock of Gumm, disclos’d + themselves to grow out of it with a small Straw-colour’d and transparent + stem, the which seed and stem appear’d very like those of common Moss + (which I elsewhere describe) but that they were abundantly less, many + hundreds of them being not able to equalize one single seed Cod of + Moss.</p> + + <p>I have often doubted whether they were the seed Cods of some little + Plant, or some kind of small Buds, or the Eggs of some very small Insect, + they appear’d of a dark brownish red, some almost quite black, and of a + Figure much resembling the seed-cod of Moss, but their stalks on which + they grew were of a very fine transparent substance, almost like the + stalk of mould, but that they seem’d somewhat more yellow.</p> + + <p>That which makes me to suppose them to be Vegetables, is for that I + perceiv’d many of those hillocks bare or destitute, as if those bodies + lay yet conceal’d, as G. In others of them, they were just springing out + of their gummy hillocks, which all seem’d to shoot directly outwards, as + at A. In others, as at B, I found them just gotten out, with very little + or no stalk, and the Cods of an indifferent cize; but in + others, as C, I found them begin to have little short stalks, or stems; + in others, as D, those stems were grown bigger, and larger; and in + others, as at E, F, H, I, K, L, <i>&c.</i> those stems and Cods were + grown a great deal bigger, and the stalks were more bulky about the root, + and very much taper’d towards the top, as at F and L is most visible.</p> + + <p>I did not find that any of them had any seed in them, or that any of + them were hollow, but as they grew bigger and bigger, I found those heads + or Cods begin to turn their tops towards their roots, in the same manner + as I had observ’d that of Moss to do; so that in all likelihood, Nature + did intend in that posture, what she does in the like seed-cods of + greater bulk, that is, that the seed, when ripe, should be shaken out and + dispersed at the end of it, as we find in Columbine Cods, and the + like.</p> + + <p>The whole Oval OOOO in the second <i>Figure</i> of the 12. + <i>Scheme</i> represents a small part of a Rose-leaf, about the bigness + of the little Oval in the hillock, C, marked with the Figure X. in which + I have not particularly observ’d all the other forms of the surface of + the Rose-leaf, as being little to my present purpose.</p> + + <p>Now, if these Cods have a seed in them so proportion’d to the Cod, as + thole of <i>Pinks</i>, and <i>Carnations</i>, and <i>Columbines</i>, and + the like, how unimaginably small must each of those seeds necessarily be, + for the whole length of one of the largest of those Cods was not ¹⁄₅₀₀ + part of an Inch; some not above ¹⁄₁₀₀₀, and therefore certainly, very + many thousand of them would be unable to make a bulk that should be + visible to the naked eye; and if each of these contain the Rudiments of a + young Plant of the same kind, what must we say of the pores and + constituent parts of that?</p> + + <p>The generation of this Plant seems in part, ascribable to a kind of + <i>Mildew</i> or <i>Blight</i>, whereby the parts of the leaves grow + scabby, or putrify’d, as it were, so as that the moisture breaks out in + little scabs or spots, which, as I said before, look like little knobs of + a red gummous substance.</p> + + <p>From this putrify’d scab breaks out this little Vegetable; which may + be somewhat like a <i>Mould</i> or <i>Moss</i>; and may have its + <i>equivocal</i> generation much after the same manner as I have supposed + <i>Moss</i> or <i>Mould</i> to have, and to be a more simple and + uncompounded kind of vegetation, which is set a moving by the + <i>putrefactive</i> and <i>fermentative</i> heat, joyn’d with that of the + ambient aerial, when (by the putrifaction and decay of some other parts + of the vegetable, that for a while staid its progress) it is unfetter’d + and left at liberty to move in its former course, but by reason of its + <i>regulators</i>, moves and acts after quite another manner then it did + when a <i>coagent</i> in the more compounded <i>machine</i> of the more + perfect Vegetable.</p> + + <p>And from this very same Principle, I imagine the <i>Misleto</i> of + Oaks, Thorns, Appletrees, and other Trees, to have its original: It + seldom or never growing on any of those Trees, till they begin to wax + decrepid, and decay with age, and are pester’d with many other + infirmities.</p> + + <p>Hither also may be referr’d those multitudes and varieties of + <i>Mushroms</i>, such as that, call’d <i>Jews-ears</i>, all sorts of + <i>gray</i> and <i>green</i> Mosses, &c. which infest + all kind of Trees, shrubs, and the like, especially when they come to any + bigness. And this we see to be very much the method of Nature throughout + its operations, <i>putrifactive Vegetables</i> very often producing a + Vegetable of a much less compounded nature, and of a much inferiour + tribe; and <i>putrefactive</i> animal substances degenerating into some + kind of animal production of a much inferiour rank, and of a more simple + nature.</p> + + <p>Thus we find the humours and substances of the body, upon + <i>putrifaction</i>, to produce strange kinds of moving Vermine: <i>the + putrifaction</i> of the slimes and juices of the Stomack and Guts, + produce Worms almost like Earth-worms, the Wheals in childrens hands + produce a little Worm, call’d a <i>Wheal-worm</i>: The bloud and milk, + and other humours, produce other kinds of Worms, at least, if we may + believe what is deliver’d to us by very famous Authors; though, I + confess, I have not yet been able to discover such my self.</p> + + <p>And whereas it may seem strange that <i>Vinegar</i>, <i>Meal</i>, + musty <i>Casks</i>, &c. are observ’d to breed their differing kinds + of Insects, or living creatures, whereas they being Vegetable substances, + seem to be of an inferiour kind, and so unable to produce a creature more + noble, or of a more compounded nature then they themselves are of, and so + without some concurrent seminal principle, may be thought utterly unfit + for such an operation; I must add, that we cannot presently positively + say, there are no animal substances, either mediately, as by the soil or + fatning of the Plant from whence they sprung, or more immediately, by the + real mixture or composition of such substances, join’d with them; or + perchance some kind of Insect, in such places where such kind of + <i>putrifying</i> or <i>fermenting</i> bodies are, may, by a certain + instinct of nature, eject some sort of seminal principle, which + cooperating with various kinds of <i>putrifying</i> substances, may + produce various kinds of Insects, or Animate bodies: For we find in most + sorts of those lower degrees of Animate bodies, that the + <i>putrifying</i> substances on which these Eggs, Seeds, or seminal + principles are cast by the Insect, become, as it were, the + <i>Matrices</i> or Wombs that conduce very much to their generation, and + may perchance also to their variation and alteration, much after the same + manner, as, by strange and unnatural copulations, several new kinds of + Animals are produc’d, as <i>Mules</i>, and the like, which are usually + call’d Monstrous, because a little unusual, though many of them have all + their principal parts as perfectly shap’d and adapted for their peculiar + uses, as any of the most perfect Animals. If therefore the + <i>putrifying</i> body, on which any kind of seminal or vital principle + chances to be cast, become somewhat more then meerly a nursing and + fostering helper in the generation and production of any kind of Animate + body, the more neer it approaches the true nature of a Womb, the more + power will it have on the by-blow it incloses. But of this somewhat more + in the description of the <i>Water-gnat</i>. Perhaps some more accurate + Enquiries and Observations about these matters might bring the Question + to some certainty, which would be of no small concern in Natural + Philosophy.</p> + + <p>But that <i>putrifying</i> animal substances may produce animals of an + inferior kind, I see not any so very great a + difficulty, but that one may, without much absurdity, admit: For as there + may be multitudes of contrivances that go to the making up of one + compleat Animate body; so, That some of those <i>coadjutors</i>, in the + perfect existence and life of it, may be vitiated, and the life of the + whole destroyed, and yet several of the constituting contrivances remain + intire, I cannot think it beyond imagination or possibility; no more then + that a like accidental process, as I have elswhere hinted, may also be + supposed to explicate the method of Nature in the <i>Metamorphosis</i> of + Plants. And though the difference between a Plant and an Animal be very + great, yet I have not hitherto met with any so <i>cogent</i> an Argument, + as to make me positive in affirming these two to be altogether + <i>Heterogeneous</i> and of quite differing kinds of Nature: And besides, + as there are many <i>Zoophyts</i>, and sensitive Plants (divers of which + I have seen, which are of a middle nature, and seem to be Natures + transition from one degree to another, which may be observ’d in all her + other passages, wherein she is very seldom observ’d to leap from one step + to another) so have we, in some Authors, Instances of Plants turning into + Animals, and Animals into Plants, and the like; and some other very + strange (because unheeded) proceedings of Nature; something of which kind + may be met with, in the description of the <i>Water-Gnat</i>, though it + be not altogether so direct to the present purpose.</p> + + <p>But to refer this Discourse of Animals to their proper places, I shall + add, that though one should suppose, or it should be prov’d by + Observations; that several of these kinds of Plants are accidentally + produc’d by a casual <i>putrifaction</i>, I see not any great reason to + question, but that, notwithstanding its own production was as ’twere + casual, yet it may germinate and produce seed, and by it propagate its + own, that is, a new Species. For we do not know, but that the Omnipotent + and All-wise Creator might as directly design the structure of such a + Vegetable, or such an Animal to be produc’d out of such or such a + <i>putrifaction</i> or change of this or that body, towards the + constitution or structure of which, he knew it necessary, or thought it + fit to make it an ingredient; as that the digestion or moderate heating + of an Egg, either by the Female, or the Sun, or the heat of the Fire, or + the like, should produce this or that Bird; or that <i>Putrifactive</i> + and warm steams should, out of the blowings, as they call them, that is, + the Eggs of a Flie, produce a living Magot, and that, by degrees, be + turn’d into an <i>Aurelia</i>, and that, by a longer and a proportion’d + heat, be <i>transmuted</i> into a Fly. Nor need we therefore to suppose + it the more imperfect in its kind, then the more compounded Vegetable or + Animal of which it is a part; for he might as compleatly furnish it with + all kinds of contrivances necessary for its own existence, and the + propagation of its own Species, and yet make it a part of a more + compounded body: as a Clock-maker might make a Set of Chimes to be a part + of a Clock, and yet, when the watch part or striking part are taken away, + and the hindrances of its motion remov’d, this chiming part may go as + accurately, and strike its tune as exactly, as if it were still a part of + the compounded <i>Automaton</i>. So, though the original cause, or + seminal principle from which this minute + Plant on Rose leaves did spring; were, before the corruption caus’d by + the Mill-dew, a component part of the leaf on which it grew, and did + serve as a <i>coagent</i> in the production and constitution of it, yet + might it be so consummate, as to produce a seed which might have a power + of propagating the same species: the works of the Creator seeming of such + an excellency, that though they are unable to help to the perfecting of + the more compounded existence of the greater Plant or Animal, they may + have notwithstanding an ability of acting singly upon their own internal + principle, so as to produce a Vegetable body, though of a less compounded + nature, and to proceed so farr in the method of other Vegetables, as to + bear flowers and seeds, which may be capable of propagating the like. So + that the little cases which appear to grow on the top of the slender + stalks, may, for ought I know, though I should suppose them to spring + from the perverting of the usual course of the parent Vegetable, contain + a seed, which, being scatter’d on other leaves of the same Plant, may + produce a Plant of much the same kind.</p> + + <p>Nor are Damask-Rose leaves the onely leaves that produce these kinds + of Vegetable sproutings; for I have observ’d them also in several other + kinds of Rose leaves, and on the leaves of several sorts of Briers, and + on Bramble leaves they are oftentimes to be found in very great clusters; + so that I have found in one cluster, three, four, or five hundred of + them, making a very conspicuous black spot or scab on the back side of + the leaf.<br /></p> +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class='chapter' /> +<h2>Observ. <a name="obsXX" id="obsXX">XX</a>. <i>Of </i>blue Mould<i>, and of the first Principles of Vegetation +arising from </i>Putrefaction<i>.</i></h2> + + <p>The Blue and White and several kinds of hairy mouldy spots, which are + observable upon divers kinds of <i>putrify’d</i> bodies, whether Animal + substances, or Vegetable, such as the skin, raw or dress’d, flesh, bloud, + humours, milk, green Cheese, <i>&c.</i> or rotten sappy Wood, or + Herbs, Leaves, Barks, Roots, <i>&c.</i> of Plants, are all of them + nothing else but several kinds of small and variously figur’d Mushroms, + which, from convenient materials in those <i>putrifying</i> bodies, are, + by the concurrent heat of the Air, excited to a certain kind of + vegetation, which will not be unworthy our more serious speculation and + examination, as I shall by and by shew. But, first, I must premise a + short description of this <i>Specimen</i>, which I have added of this +<span class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-12.png"><i>Schem.</i> 12.</a><br /><i>Fig.</i> 1. +</span> + Tribe, in the first Figure of the XII. <i>Scheme</i>, which is nothing + else but the appearance of a small white spot of hairy mould, multitudes + of which I found to bespeck & whiten over the red covers of a small + book, which, it seems, were of Sheeps skin, that being more apt to gather + mould, even in a dry and clean room, then other leathers. These spots + appear’d, through a good <i>Microscope</i>, to be a very pretty shap’d + Vegetative body, which, from almost the same part of the Leather, shot + out multitudes of small long cylindrical + and transparent stalks, not exactly streight, but a little bended with + the weight of a round and white knob that grew on the top of each of + them; many of these knobs I observ’d to be very round, and of a smooth + surface, such as A, A, <i>&c.</i> others smooth likewise, but a little + oblong, as B; several of them a little broken, or cloven with chops at + the top, as C; others flitter’d as ’twere, or flown all to pieces, as D, D. + The whole substance of these pretty bodies was of a very tender + constitution, much like the substance of the softer kind of common white + Mushroms, for by touching them with a Pin, I found them to be brused and + torn; they seem’d each of them to have a distinct root of their own; for + though they grew neer together in a cluster, yet I could perceive each + stem to rise out of a distinct part or pore of the Leather; some of these + were small and short, as seeming to have been but newly sprung up, of + these the balls were for the most part round, others were bigger, and + taller, as being perhaps of a longer growth, and of these, for the most + part, the heads were broken, and some much wasted, as E; what these heads + contain’d I could not perceive; whether they were knobs and flowers, or + seed cases, I am not able to say, but they seem’d most likely to be of + the same nature with those that grow on Mushroms, which they did, some of + them, not a little resemble.</p> + + <p>Both their smell and taste, which are active enough to make a sensible + impression upon those organs, are unpleasant and noisome.</p> + + <p>I could not find that they would so quickly be destroy’d by the actual + flame of a Candle, as at first sight of them I conceived they would be, + but they remain’d intire after I had past that part of the Leather on + which they stuck three or four times through the flame of a Candle; so + that, it seems they are not very apt to take fire, no more then the + common white Mushroms are when they are sappy.</p> + + <p>There are a multitude of other shapes, of which these + <i>Microscopical</i> Mushroms are figur’d, which would have been a long + Work to have described, and would not have suited so well with my design + in this Treatise, onely, amongst the rest, I must not forget to take + notice of one that was a little like to, or resembled, a Spunge, + consisting of a multitude of little Ramifications almost as that body + does, which indeed seems to be a kind of Water-Mushrom, of a very pretty + texture, as I else-where manifest. And a second, which I must not omit, + because often mingled, and neer adjoining to these I have describ’d, and + this appear’d much like a Thicket of bushes, or brambles, very much + branch’d, and extended, some of them, to a great length, in proportion to + their Diameter, like creeping brambles.</p> + + <p>The manner of the growth and formation of this kind of Vegetable, is + the third head of Enquiry, which, had I time, I should follow: the figure + and method of Generation in this concrete seeming to me, next after the + Enquiry into the formation, figuration; or chrystalization of Salts, to + be the most simple, plain, and easie; and it seems to be a <i>medium</i> + through which he must necessarily pass, that would with any likelihood + investigate the <i>forma informans</i> of Vegetables: for as I think that + he shall find it a very difficult task, who undertakes to discover the + form of Saline crystallizations, without the consideration + and prescience of the nature and reason of a Globular form, and as + difficult to explicate this configuration of Mushroms, without the + previous consideration of the form of Salts; so will the enquiry into the + forms of Vegetables be no less, if not much more difficult, without the + fore-knowledge of the forms of Mushroms, these several Enquiries having + no less dependance one upon another then any select number of + Propositions in Mathematical Elements may be made to have.</p> + + <p>Nor do I imagine that the skips from the one to another will be found + very great, if beginning from fluidity, or body without any form, we + descend gradually, till we arrive at the highest form of a bruite + Animal’s Soul, making the steps or foundations of our Enquiry, + <i>Fluidity</i>, <i>Orbiculation</i>, <i>Fixation</i>, + <i>Angulization</i>, or <i>Crystallization Germination</i> or + <i>Ebullition</i>, <i>Vegetation</i>, <i>Plantanimation</i>, + <i>Animation</i>, <i>Sensation</i>, <i>Imagination</i>.</p> + + <p>Now, that we may the better proceed in our Enquiry, It will be + requisite to consider:</p> + + <p>First, that Mould and Mushroms require no seminal property, but the + former may be produc’d at any time from any kind of <i>putrifying</i> + Animal, or Vegetable Substance, as Flesh, <i>&c.</i> kept moist and + warm, and the latter, if what <i>Mathiolus</i> relates be true, of making + them by Art, are as much within our command, of which Matter take the + <i>Epitomie</i> which Mr. <i>Parkinson</i> has deliver’d in his + <i>Herbal</i>, in his Chapter of <i>Mushroms</i>, because I have not + <i>Mathiolus</i> now by me: <i>Unto these Mushroms</i> (saith he) <i>may + also be adjoyn’d those which are made of Art (whereof </i>Mathiolus<i> + makes mention) that grow naturally among certain stones in </i>Naples<i>, + and that the stones being digg’d up, and carried to </i>Rome<i>, and + other places, where they set them in their Wine Cellars, covering them + with a little Earth, and sprinkling a little warm water thereon, would + within four days produce Mushroms fit to be eaten, at what time one will: + As also that Mushroms may be made to grow at the foot of a wilde + </i>Poplar Tree<i>, within four days after, warm water wherein some + leaves have been dissolv’d shall be pour’d into the Root (which must be + slit) and the stock above ground.</i></p> + + <p>Next, that as Mushroms may be generated without seed, so does it not + appear that they have any such thing as seed in any part of them; for + having considered several kinds of them, I could never find any thing in + them that I could with any probability ghess to be the seed of it, so + that it does not as yet appear (that I know of) that Mushroms may be + generated from a seed, but they rather seem to depend merely upon a + convenient constitution of the matter out of which they are made, and a + concurrence of either natural or artificial heat.</p> + + <p>Thirdly, that by several bodies (as Salts and Metals both in Water and + in the air, and by several kinds of sublimations in the Air) actuated and + guided with a congruous heat, there may be produc’d several kinds of + bodies as curiously, if not of a more compos’d Figure; several kinds of + rising or Ebulliating Figures seem to manifest; as witness the shooting + in the Rectification of spirits of <i>Urine</i>, <i>Hart-horn</i>, + <i>Bloud</i>, &c. witness also the curious branches of evaporated + dissolutions, some of them against the sides + of the containing Jar: others standing up, or growing an end, out of the + bottom, of which I have taken notice of a very great variety. But above + all the rest, it is a very pretty kind of Germination which is afforded + us in the Silver Tree, the manner of making which with Mercury and + Silver, is well known to the Chymists, in which there is an Ebullition or + Germination, very much like this of Mushroms, if I have been rightly + inform’d of it.</p> + + <p>Fourthly, I have very often taken notice of, and also observ’d with a + <i>Microscope</i>, certain excrescencies or Ebullitions in the snuff of a + Candle, which, partly from the sticking of the smoaky particles as they + are carryed upwards by the current of the rarify’d Air and flame, and + partly also from a kind of Germination or Ebullition of some actuated + unctuous parts which creep along and filter through some small string of + the Week, are formed into pretty round and uniform heads, very much + resembling the form of hooded Mushroms, which, being by any means expos’d + to the fresh Air, or that air which encompasses the flame, they are + presently lick’d up and devour’d by it, and vanish.</p> + + <p>The reason of which <i>Phænomenon</i> seems to me, to be no other then + this:</p> + + <p>That when a convenient thread of the Week is so bent out by the sides + of the snuff that are about half an Inch or more, remov’d above the + bottom, or lowest part of the flame, and that this part be wholly + included in the flame; the Oyl (for the reason of filtration, which I + have elsewhere rendred) being continualy driven up the snuff is driven + likewise into this ragged bended-end, and this being remov’d a good + distance, as half an Inch or more, above the bottom of the flame, the + parts of the air that passes by it, are already, almost satiated with the + dissolution of the boiling unctuous steams that issued out below, and + therefore are not onely glutted, that is, can dissolve no more then what + they are already acting upon, but they carry up with them abundance of + unctuous and sooty particles, which meeting with that rag of the Week, + that is plentifully fill’d with Oyl, and onely spends it as fast as it + evaporates, and not at all by dissolution or burning, by means of these + steamy parts of the filtrated Oyl issuing out at the sides of this ragg, + and being inclos’d with an air that is already satiated and cannot prey + upon them nor burn them, the ascending sooty particles are stay’d about + it and fix’d, so as that about the end of that ragg or filament of the + snuff, whence the greatest part of the steams issue, there is conglobated + or fix’d a round and pretty uniform cap, much resembling the head of a + Mushrom, which, if it be of any great bigness, you may observe that its + underside will be bigger then that which is above the ragg or stem of it; + for the Oyl that is brought into it by filtration, being by the bulk of + the cap a little shelter’d from the heat of the flame, does by that means + issue as much out beneath from the stalk or downwards, as it does + upwards, and by reason of the great access of the adventitious smoak from + beneath, it increases most that way. That this may be the true reason of + this <i>Phænomenon</i>, I could produce many Arguments and Experiments to + make it probable: As,</p> + + <p>First, that the <i>Filtration</i> carries the Oyl to the top of the + Week, at least as high as these raggs, is visible to one + that will observe the snuff of a burning Candle with a <i>Microscope</i>, + where he may see an Ebullition or bubbling of the Oyl, as high as the + snuff looks black.</p> + + <p>Next, that it does steam away more then burn; I could tell you of the + dim burning of a Candle, the longer the snuff be which arises from the + abundance of vapours out of the higher parts of it.</p> + + <p>And, thirdly, that in the middle of the flame of the Candle, neer the + top of the snuff, the fire or dissolving principle is nothing neer so + strong, as neer the bottom and out edges of the flame, which may be + observ’d by the burning asunder of a thread, that will first break in + those parts that the edges of the flame touch, and not in the middle.</p> + + <p>And I could add several Observables that I have taken notice of in the + flame of a Lamp actuated with Bellows, and very many others that confirm + me in my opinion, but that it is not so much to my present purpose, which + is onely to consider this concreet in the snuff of a Candle, so farr as + it has any resemblance of a Mushrom, to the consideration of which, that + I may return, I say, we may also observe:</p> + + <p>In the fifth place, that the droppings or trillings of Lapidescent + waters in Vaults under ground, seem to constitute a kind of + <i>petrify’d</i> body, form’d almost like some kind of Mushroms inverted, + in so much that I have seen some knobb’d a little at the lower end, + though for the most part, indeed they are otherwise shap’d, and taper’d + towards the end; the generation of which seems to be from no other reason + but this, that the water by soaking through the earth and Lime (for I + ghess that substance to add much to it <i>petrifying</i> quality) does so + impregnate it self with stony particles, that hanging in drops in the + roof of the Vault, by reason that the soaking of the water is but slow, + it becomes expos’d to the Air, and thereby the outward part of the drop + by degrees grows hard, by reason that the water gradually evaporating the + stony particles neer the outsides of the drop begin to touch, and by + degrees, to dry and grow closer together, and at length constitute a + crust or shell about the drop; and this soaking by degrees, being more + and more supply’d, the drop grows longer and longer, and the sides harden + thicker and thicker into a Quill or Cane, and at length, that hollow or + pith becomes almost stop’d up, and solid: afterwards the soaking of the + <i>petrifying</i> water, finding no longer a passage through the middle, + bursts out, and trickles down the outside, and as the water evaporates, + leaves new superinduc’d shells, which more and more swell the bulk of + those Iceicles, and because of the great supply from the Vault, of + <i>petrifying</i> wafer, those bodies grow bigger and bigger next to the + Vault, and taper or sharpen towards the point; for the access from the + arch of the Vault being but very slow, and consequently the water being + spread very thinly over the surface of the Iceicle, the water begins to + settle before it can reach to the bottom, or corner end of it; whence, if + you break one of these, you would almost imagine it a stick of Wood + <i>petrify’d</i>, it having so pretty a resemblance of pith and grain, + and if you look on the outside of a piece, or of one whole, you would + think no less, both from its vegetable roundness and + tapering form; but whereas all Vegetables are observ’d to shoot and grow + perpendicularly upwards, this does shoot or propend directly + downwards.</p> + + <p>By which last Observables, we see that there may be a very pretty body + shap’d and concreeted by Mechanical principles, without the least shew or + probability of any other seminal <i>formatrix</i>.</p> + + <p>And since we find that the great reason of the <i>Phænomena</i> of + this pretty <i>petrifaction</i>, are to be reduc’d from the gravity of a + fluid and pretty volatil body impregnated with stony particles, why may + not the <i>Phænomena</i> of Ebullition or Germination be in part possibly + enough deduc’d from the levity of an impregnated liquor, which therefore + perpendicularly ascending by degrees, evaporates and leaves the more + solid and fix’d parts behind in the form of a Mushrom, which is yet + further diversify’d and specificated by the forms of the parts that + impregnated the liquor, and compose or help to constitute the + Mushrom.</p> + + <p>That the foremention’d Figures of growing Salts, and the Silver Tree, + are from this principle, I could very easily manifest, but that I have + not now a convenient opportunity of following it, nor have I made a + sufficient number of Experiments and Observations to propound, explicate, + and prove so usefull a <i>Theory</i> as this of Mushroms: for, though the + contrary principle to that of <i>petrify’d</i> Iceicles may be in part a + cause, yet I cannot but think, that there is somewhat a more complicated + cause, though yet Mechanical, and possible to be explain’d.</p> + + <p>We therefore have further to enquire of it, what makes it to be such a + liquor, and to ascend, whether the heat of the Sun and Air, or whether + that <i>firmentiation</i> and <i>putrifaction</i>, or both together; as + also whether there be not a third or fourth; whether a Saline principle + be not a considerable agent in this business also as well as heat; + whether also a fixation, precipitation or settling of certain parts out + of the aerial menstruum may not be also a considerable coadjutor in the + business. Since we find that many pretty beards or <i>stiriæ</i> of the + particles of Silver may be precipitated upon a piece of Brass put into a + <i>solution</i> of Silver very much diluted with fair water, which look + not unlike a kind of mould or hoar upon that piece of metal; and the hoar + frost looks like a kind of mould; and whether there may not be several + others that do concurr to the production of a Mushrom, having not yet had + sufficient time to prosecute according to my desires, I must refer this + to a better opportunity of my own, or leave and recommend it to the more + diligent enquiry and examination of such as can be masters both of + leisure and conveniencies for such an Enquiry.</p> + + <p>And in the mean time, I must conclude, that as far as I have been able + to look into the nature of this Primary kind of life and vegetation, I + cannot find the least probable argument to perswade me there is any other + concurrent cause then such as is purely Mechanical, and that the effects + or productions are as necessary upon the concurrence of those causes as + that a Ship, when the Sails are hoist up, and the Rudder is set to such a + position, should, when the Wind blows, be mov’d in such a way or course + to that or t’other place; Or, as that the + brused Watch, which I mention in the description of Moss, should, when + those parts which hindred its motion were fallen away, begin to move, but + after quite another manner then it did before.<br /></p> +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class='chapter' /> +<h2>Observ. <a name="obsXXI" id="obsXXI">XXI</a>. <i>Of </i>Moss<i>, and several other small vegetative Substances.</i></h2> + + <p>Moss is a Plant, that the wisest of Kings thought neither unworthy his + speculation, nor his Pen, and though amongst Plants it be in bulk one of + the smallest, yet it is not the least considerable: For, as to its shape, + it may compare for the beauty of it with any Plant that grows, and bears + a much bigger breadth; it has a root almost like a seedy Parsnep, + furnish’d with small strings and suckers, which are all of them finely + branch’d, like those of the roots of much bigger Vegetables; out of this + springs the stem or body of the Plant, which is somewhat + <i>Quadrangular</i>, rather then <i>Cylindrical</i>, most curiously + <i>fluted</i> or strung with small creases, which run, for the most part, + <i>parallel</i> the whole stem; on the sides of this are close and thick + set, a multitude of fair, large, well-shap’d leaves, some of them of a + rounder, others of a longer shape, according as they are younger or older + when pluck’d; as I ghess by this, that those Plants that had the stalks + growing from the top of them, had their leaves of a much longer shape, + all the surface of each side of which, is curiously cover’d with a + multitude of little oblong transparent bodies, in the manner as you see +<span class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-13.png"><i>Schem.</i> 13.</a><br /><i>Fig.</i> B. +</span> + it express’d in the leaf B, in the XIII. <i>Scheme</i>.</p> + + <p>This Plant, when young and springing up, does much resemble a + Housleek, having thick leaves, almost like that, and seems to be somwhat + of kin to it in other particulars; also from the top of the leaves, there + shoots out a small white and transparent hair, or thorn: This stem, in + time, come to shoot out into a long, round and even stalk, which by + cutting transversly, when dry, I manifestly found to be a stiff, hard, + and hollow Cane, or Reed, without any kind of knot, or stop, from its + bottom, where the leaves encompass’d it, to the top, on which there grows + a large seed case, A, cover’d with a thin, and more whitish skin, B, + terminated in a long thorny top, which at first covers all the Case, and + by degrees, as that swells, the skin cleaves, and at length falls off, + with its thorny top and all (which is a part of it) and leaves the seed + Case to ripen, and by degrees, to shatter out its seed at a place + underneath this cap, B, which before the seed is ripe, appears like a + flat barr’d button, without any hole in the middle; but as it ripens, the + button grows bigger, and a hole appears in the middle of it, E, out of + which, in all probability, the seed falls: For as it ripens by a + provision of Nature, that end of this Case turns downward after the same + manner as the ears of Wheat and Barley usually do; and opening several of + these dry red Cases, F, I found them to be quite + hollow, without anything at all in them; whereas when I cut them asunder + with a sharp Pen-knife when green, I found in the middle of this great + Case, another smaller round Case, between which two, the + <i>interstices</i> were fill’d with multitudes of stringie <i>fibres</i>, + which seem’d to suspend the lesser Case in the middle of the other, which + (as farr as I was able to discern) seem’d full of exceeding small white + seeds, much like the seed-bagg in the knop of a Carnation, after the + flowers have been two or three days, or a week, fallen off; but this I + could not so perfectly discern, and therefore cannot positively affirm + it.</p> + + <p>After the seed was fallen away, I found both the Case, Stalk, and + Plant, all grow red and wither, and from other parts of the root + continually to spring new branches or slips, which by degrees increased, + and grew as bigg as the former, seeded, ripen’d, shatter’d, and + wither’d.</p> + + <p>I could not find that it observ’d any particular seasons for these + several kinds of growth, but rather found it to be springing, mature, + ripe, seedy, and wither’d at all times of the year; But I found it most + to flourish and increase in warm and moist weather.</p> + + <p>It gathers its nourishments, for the most part, out of some + <i>Lapidescent</i>, or other substance corrupted or chang’d from its + former texture, or substantial form; for I have found it to grow on the + rotten parts of Stone, of Bricks, of Wood, of Bones, of Leather, + <i>&c.</i></p> + + <p>It oft grows on the barks of several Trees, spreading it self, + sometimes from the ground upwards, and sometimes from some chink or cleft + of the bark of the Tree, which has some <i>putrify’d</i> substance in it, + but this seems of a distinct kind from that which I observ’d to grow on + <i>putrify’d</i> inanimate bodies, and rotten earth.</p> + + <p>There are also great varieties of other kinds of Mosses, which grow on + Trees, and several other Plants, of which I shall here make no mention, + nor of the Moss growing on the skull of a dead man, which much resembles + that of Trees.</p> + + <p>Whether this Plant does sometimes originally spring or rise out of + corruption, without any disseminated seed, I have not yet made trials + enough to be very much, either positive or negative; for as it seems very + hard to conceive how the seed should be generally dispers’d into all + parts where there is a corruption begun, unless we may rationally + suppose, that this seed being so exceeding small, and consequently + exceeding light, is thereby taken up, and carried to and fro in the Air + into every place, and by the falling drops of rain is wash’d down out of + it, and so dispers’d into all places, and there onely takes root and + propagates, where it finds a convenient soil or matrix for it to thrive + in; so if we will have it to proceed from corruption, it is not less + difficult to conceive,</p> + + <p>First, how the corruption of any Vegetable, much less of any Stone or + Brick, should be the Parent of so curiously figur’d, and so perfect a + Plant as this is. But here indeed, I cannot but add, that it seems rather + to be a product of the Rain in those bodies where it is stay’d, then of + the very bodies themselves, since I have found it growing on Marble, and + Flint, but always the <i>Microscope</i>, if not the naked eye, would + discover some little hole of Dirt in which it was rooted.</p> + + <p>Next, how the corruption of each of those exceedingly differing bodies + should all conspire to the production of the same Plant, that is, that + Stones, Bricks, Wood, or vegetable substances, and Bones, Leather, Horns, + or animate substances, unless we may with some plausibleness say, that + Air and Water are the coadjutors, or <i>menstruums</i>, all kinds of + <i>putrifactions</i>, and that thereby the bodies (though whil’st they + retain’d their substantial forms, were of exceeding differing natures, + yet) since they are dissolv’d and mixt into another, they may be very + <i>Homogeneous</i>, they being almost resolv’d again into Air, Water, and + Earth; retaining, perhaps, one part of their vegetative faculty yet + entire, which meeting with congruous assistants, such as the heat of the + Air, and the fluidity of the Water, and such like coadjutors and + conveniences, acquires a certain vegetation for a time, wholly differing + perhaps from that kind of vegetation it had before.</p> + + <p>To explain my meaning a little better by a gross Similitude:</p> + + <p>Suppose a curious piece of Clock-work, that had had several motions + and contrivances in it, which, when in order, would all have mov’d in + their design’d methods and Periods. We will further suppose, by some + means, that this Clock comes to be broken, brused, or otherwise + disordered, so that several parts of it being dislocated, are impeded, + and so stand still, and not onely hinder its own progressive motion, and + produce not the effect which they were design’d for, but because the + other parts also have a dependence upon them, put a stop to their motion + likewise; and so the whole Instrument becomes unserviceable, and not fit + for any use. This Instrument afterwards, by some shaking and tumbling, + and throwing up and down, comes to have several of its parts shaken out, + and several of its curious motions, and contrivances, and particles all + fallen asunder; here a Pin falls out, and there a Pillar, and here a + Wheel, and there a Hammer, and a Spring, and the like, and among the + rest, away falls those parts also which were brused and disorder’d, and + had all this while impeded the motion of all the rest; hereupon several + of those other motions that yet remain, whole springs were not quite run + down, being now at liberty, begin each of them to move, thus or thus, but + quite after another method then before, there being many regulating parts + and the like, fallen away and lost. Upon this, the Owner, who chances to + hear and observe some of these effects, being ignorant of the + Watch-makers Art, wonders what is betid his Clock, and presently imagines + that some Artist has been at work, and has set his Clock in order, and + made a new kind of Instrument of it, but upon examining circumstances, he + finds there was no such matter, but that the casual slipping out of a Pin + had made several parts of his Clock fall to pieces, and that thereby the + obstacle that all this while hindred his Clock, together with other + usefull parts were fallen out, and so his Clock was set at liberty. And + upon winding up those springs again when run down, he finds his Clock to + go, but quite after another manner then it was wont heretofore.</p> + + <p>And thus may it be perhaps in the business of Moss, and Mould, and + Mushroms, and several other spontaneous kinds of vegetations, which + may be caus’d by a vegetative principle, + which was a coadjutor to the life and growth of the greater Vegetable, + and was by the destroying of the life of it stopt and impeded in + performing its office; but afterwards, upon a further corruption of + several parts that had all the while impeded it, the heat of the Sun + winding up, as it were, the spring, sets it again into a vegetative + motion, and this being single, and not at all regulated as it was before + (when a part of that greater <i>machine</i> the pristine vegetable) is + mov’d after quite a differing manner, and produces effects very differing + from those it did before.</p> + + <p>But this I propound onely as a conjecture, not that I am more enclin’d + to this <i>Hypothesis</i> then the seminal, which upon good reason I + ghess to be Mechanical also, as I may elsewhere more fully shew: But + because I may, by this, hint a possible way how this appearance may be + solv’d; supposing we should be driven to confess from certain Experiments + and Observations made, that such or such Vegetables were produc’d out of + the corruption of another, without any concurrent seminal principle (as I + have given some reason to suppose, in the description of a + <i>Microscopical</i> Mushrome) without derogating at all from the + infinite wisdom of the Creator. For this accidental production, as I may + call it, does manifest as much, if not very much more, of the excellency + of his contrivance as any thing in the more perfect vegetative bodies of + the world, even as the accidental motion of the <i>Automaton</i> does + make the owner see, that there was much more contrivance in it then at + first he imagin’d. But of this I have added more in the description of + Mould, and the Vegetables on Rose leaves, <i>&c.</i> those being much + more likely to have their original from such a cause then this which I +<span class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-13.png"><i>Schem.</i> 13.</a>. +</span> + have here described, in the 13. <i>Scheme</i>, which indeed I cannot + conceive otherwise of, then as of a most perfect Vegetable, wanting + nothing of the perfections of the most conspicuous and vastest Vegetables + of the world, and to be of a rank so high, as that it may very properly + be reckon’d with the tall Cedar of <i>Lebanon</i>, as that Kingly + Botanist has done.</p> + + <p>We know there may be as much curiosity of contrivance, and excellency + of form in a very small Pocket-clock, that takes not up an Inch square of + room, as there may be in a Church-clock that fills a whole room; And I + know not whether all the contrivances and <i>Mechanisms</i> requisite to + a perfect Vegetable, may not be crowded into an exceedingly less room + then this of Moss, as I have heard of a striking Watch so small, that it + serv’d for a Pendant in a Ladies ear; and I have already given you the + description of a Plant growing on Rose leaves, that is abundantly smaller + then Moss; insomuch, that neer 1000. of them would hardly make the + bigness of one single Plant of Moss. And by comparing the bulk of Moss, + with the bulk of the biggest kind of Vegetable we meet with in Story (of + which kind we find in some hotter climates, as <i>Guine</i>, and + <i>Brasile</i>, the stock or body of some Trees to be twenty foot in + Diameter, whereas the body or stem of Moss, for the most part, is not + above one sixtieth part of an Inch) we shall find that the bulk of the + one will exceed the bulk of the other, no less then 2985984 Millions, + or 2985984000000, and supposing the + production on a Rose leaf to be a Plant, we shall have of those + <i>Indian</i> Plants to exceed a production of the same Vegetable kingdom + no less then 1000 times the former number; so prodigiously various are + the works of the Creator, and so All-sufficient is he to perform what to + man would seem unpossible, they being both alike easie to him, even as + one day, and a thousand years are to him as one and the same time.</p> + + <p>I have taken notice of such an infinite variety of those smaller kinds + of vegetations, that should I have described every one of them, they + would almost have fill’d a Volume, and prov’d bigg enough to have made a + new Herbal, such multitudes are there to be found in moist hot weather, + especially in the Summer time, on all kind of putrifying substances, + which, whether they do more properly belong to the <i>Classis</i> of + <i>Mushrooms</i>, or <i>Moulds</i>, or <i>Mosses</i>, I shall not now + dispute, there being some that seem more properly of one kind, others of + another, their colours and magnitudes being as much differing as their + Figures and substances.</p> + + <p>Nay, I have observ’d, that putting fair Water (whether Rain-water or + Pump-water, or <i>May-dew</i> or Snow-water, it was almost all one) I + have often observ’d, I say, that this Water would, with a little + standing, tarnish and cover all about the sides of the Glass that lay + under water, with a lovely green; but though I have often endeavour’d to + discover with my <i>Microscope</i> whether this green were like Moss, or + long striped Sea-weed, or any other peculiar form, yet so ill and + imperfect are our <i>Microscopes</i>, that I could not certainly + discriminate any.</p> + + <p>Growing Trees also, and any kinds of Woods, Stones, Bones, + <i>&c.</i> that have been long expos’d to the Air and Rain, will be + all over cover’d with a greenish scurff, which will very much foul and + green any kind of cloaths that are rubb’d against it; viewing this, I + could not certainly perceive in many parts of it any determinate form, + though in many I could perceive a Bed as ’twere of young Moss, but in + other parts it look’d almost like green bushes, and very confus’d, but + always of what ever irregular Figures the parts appear’d of, they were + always green, and seem’d to be either some Vegetable, or to have some + vegetating principle.<br /></p> +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class='chapter' /> +<h2>Observ. <a name="obsXXII" id="obsXXII">XXII</a>. <i>Of common </i>Sponges<i>, and several other </i>Spongie<i> +fibrous bodies.</i></h2> + + <p>A Sponge is commonly reckon’d among the <i>Zoophyts</i>, or Plant + Animals; and the <i>texture</i> of it, which the <i>Microscope</i> + discovers, seems to confirm it; for it is of a form whereof I never + observ’d any other Vegetable, and indeed, it seems impossible that any + should be of it, for it consists of an infinite number of small short + <i>fibres</i>, or nervous parts, much of the same bigness, curiously + jointed or contex’d together in the form of a Net, as is more plainly + manifest by the little Draught which I have added, in + the third <i>Figure</i> of the IX. <i>Scheme</i>, of a piece of it, which +<span class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-09.png"><i>Schem.</i> 9.</a><br /><i>Fig.</i> 3. +</span> + you may perceive represents a confus’d heap of the fibrous parts + curiously jointed and implicated. The joints are, for the most part, + where three <i>fibres</i> onely meet, for I have very seldom met with any + that had four.</p> + + <p>At these joints there is no one of the three that seems to be the + stock whereon the other grow, but each of the <i>fibres</i> are, for the + most part, of an equal bigness, and seem each of them to have an equal + share in the joint; the <i>fibres</i> are all of them much about the same + bigness, not smaller towards the top of the Sponge, and bigger neerer the + bottom or root, as is usuall in Plants, the length of each between the + joints, is very irregular and different; the distance between some two + joints, being ten or twelve times more then between some others.</p> + + <p>Nor are the joints regular, and of an <i>equitriagonal Figure</i>, + but, for the most part, the three <i>fibres</i> so meet, that they + compose three angles very differing all of them from one another.</p> + + <p>The meshes likewise, and holes of this reticulated body, are not less + various and irregular: some <i>bilateral</i>, others <i>trilateral</i>, + and <i>quadrilateral</i> Figures; nay, I have observ’d some meshes to + have 5, 6, 7, 8, or 9. sides, and some to have onely one, so exceeding + various is the <i>Lusus Naturæ</i> in this body.</p> + + <p>As to the outward appearance of this Vegetative body, they are so + usuall everywhere, that I need not describe them, consisting of a soft + and porous substance, representing a Lock, sometimes a fleece of Wool; + but it has besides these small <i>microscopical</i> pores which lie + between the <i>fibres</i>, a multitude of round pores or holes, which, + from the top of it, pierce into the body, and sometimes go quite through + to the bottom.</p> + + <p>I have observ’d many of these Sponges, to have included likewise in + the midst of their fibrous contextures, pretty large friable stones, + which must either have been inclos’d whil’st this Vegetable was in + formation, or generated in those places after it was perfectly shap’d. + The later of which seems the more improbable, because I did not find that + any of these stony substances were perforated with the <i>fibres</i> of + the Sponge.</p> + + <p>I have never seen nor been enform’d of the true manner of the growing + of Sponges on the Rock; whether they are found to increase from little to + great, like Vegetables, that is, part after part, or like Animals, all + parts equally growing together; or whether they be <i>matrices</i> or + feed-baggs of any kind of Fishes, or some kind of watry Insect; or + whether they are at any times more soft and tender, or of another nature + and texture, which things, if I knew how, I should much desire to be + informed of: but from a cursory view that I at first made with my + <i>Microscope</i>, and some other trials, I supposed it to be some Animal + substance cast out, and fastned upon the Rocks in the form of a froth, or + <i>congeries</i> of bubbles, like that which I have often observ’d on + Rosemary, and other Plants (wherein is included a little Insect) that all + the little films which divide these bubbles one from another, did + presently, almost after the substance began to grow a little harder, + break, and leave onely the thread behind, which might be, as ’twere, the + angle or thread between the bubbles, that the great + holes or pores observable in these Sponges were made by the eruption of + the included <i>Heterogeneous</i> substance (whether air, or some other + body, for many other fluid bodies will do the same thing) which breaking + out of the lesser, were collected into very large bubbles, and so might + make their way out of the Sponge, and in their passage might leave a + round cavity; and if it were large, might carry up with it the adjacent + bubbles, which may be perceiv’d at the outside of the Sponge, if it be + first throughly wetted, and sufferr’d to plump itself into its natural + form, or be then wrung dry, and suffer’d to expand it self again, which + it will freely do whil’st moist: for when it has thus plump’d it self + into its natural shape and dimensions, ’tis obvious enough that the + mouths of the larger holes have a kind of lip or rising round about them, + but the other smaller pores have little or none. It may further be found, + that each of these great pores has many other small pores below, that are + united unto it, and help to constitute it, almost like so many rivulets + or small streams that contribute to the maintenance of a large River. Nor + from this <i>Hypothesis</i> would it have been difficult to explicate, + how those little branches of <i>Coral</i>, smal <i>Stones</i>, + <i>shells</i>, and the like, come to be included by these frothy bodies: + But this indeed was but a conjecture; and upon a more accurate enquiry + into the form of it with the <i>Microscope</i>, it seems not to be the + true origine of them; for whereas Sponges have onely three arms which + join together at each knot, if they had been generated from bubbles they + must have had four.</p> + + <p>But that they are Animal Substances, the <i>Chymical</i> examination + of them seems to manifest, they affording a volatil Salt and spirit, like + <i>Harts-Horn</i>, as does also their great strength and toughness, and + their smell when burn’d in the Fire or a Candle, which has a kind of + fleshy sent, not much unlike to hair. And having since examin’d several + Authors concerning them, among others; I find this account given by + <i>Bellonius</i>, in the XI. <i>Chap.</i> of his 2<sup>d</sup> Book, + <i>De Aquatilibus</i>. <i>Spongiæ recentes</i>, says he, <i>à siccis + longe diversæ, scopulis aquæ marinæ ad duos vel tres cubitos, nonnunquam + quatuor tantum digitos immersis, ut fungi arboribus adhærent, sordido + quodam succo aut mucosa potius sanie ræfertæ, usque adeò fœtida, ut + vel eminus nauseam excitet, continetur autem iis cavernis, quas inanes in + siccis & lotis Spongiis cernimus: Putris pulmonis modo nigræ + conspiciuntur, verùm quæ in sublimi aquæ nascuntur multo magis opaca + nigredine suffusæ sunt. Vivere quidem Spongias adhærendo + </i>Aristoteles<i> censet: absolute vero minime: sensumque aliquem + habere, vel eo argumento (inquit) credantur, quod difficillime + abstrahantur, nisi clanculum agatur: Atq; ad avulsoris accessum ita + contrahantur, ut eas evellere difficile sit, quod idem etiam faciunt + quoties flatus tempestatésque urgent. Puto autem illis succum sordidum + quem supra diximus carnis loco à natura attributum fuisse: atque meatibus + latioribus tanquam intestinis aut interaneis uti. Cæterum pars ea quæ + Spongiæ cautibus adhærent est tanquam folii petiolus, à quo veluti collum + quoddam gracile incipit: quod deinde in latitudinem diffusum capitis + globum facit. Recentibus nihil est fistulosum, hæsitantque tanquam + radicibus. Superne omnes propemodum meatus concreti latent: inferne verò + quaterni aut quini patent, per quos eas + sugere existimamus</i>. From which Description, they seem to be a kind of + Plant-Animal that adheres to a Rock, and these small <i>fibres</i> or + threads which we have described, seem to have been the Vessels which + (’tis very probable) were very much bigger whil’st the <i>Interstitia</i> + were fill’d (as he affirms) with a mucous, pulpy or fleshy substance; but + upon the drying were shrunk into the bigness they now appear.</p> + + <p>The texture of it is such, that I have not yet met with any other body + in the world that has the like, but onely one of a larger sort of Sponge + (which is preserv’d in the <i>Museum Harveanum</i> belonging to the most + Illustrious and most learned Society of the <i>Physicians</i> of + <i>London</i>) which is of a horney, or rather of a <i>petrify’d</i> + substance. And of this indeed, the texture and make is exactly the same + with common Sponges, but onely that both the holes and the <i>fibres</i>, + or texture of it is exceedingly much bigger, for some of the holes were + above an Inch and half over, and the <i>fibres</i> and <i>texture</i> of + it was bigg enough to be distinguished easily with ones eye, but + conspicuously with an ordinary single <i>Microscope</i>. And these + indeed, seem’d to have been the habitation of some Animal; and examining + <i>Aristotle</i>, I find a very consonant account hereunto, namely, that + he had known a certain little Animal, call’d <i>Pinnothera</i>, like a + Spider, to be bred in those caverns of a Sponge, from within which, by + opening and closing those holes, he insnares and catches the little + Fishes; and in another place he says, That ’tis very confidently + reported, that there are certain Moths or Worms that reside in the + cavities of a Sponge, and are there nourished: Notwithstanding all which + Histories, I think it well worth the enquiring into the History and + nature of a Sponge, it seeming to promise some information of the Vessels + in Animal substances, which (by reason of the solidity of the interserted + flesh that is not easily remov’d, without destroying also those + interspers’d Vessels) are hitherto undiscover’d; whereas here in a + Sponge, the <i>Parenchyma</i>, it seems, is but a kind of mucous gelly, + which is very easily and clearly wash’d away.</p> + + <p>The reason that makes me imagine, that there may probably be some such + texture in Animal substances, is, that examining the texture of the + filaments of tann’d Leather, I find it to be much of the same nature and + strength of a Sponge; and with my <i>Microscope</i>, I have observ’d many + such joints and knobs, as I have described in Sponges, the <i>fibres</i> + also in the hollow of several sorts of Bones, after the Marrow has been + remov’d, I have found somewhat to resemble this texture, though, I + confess, I never yet found any texture exactly the same, nor any for + curiosity comparable to it.</p> + + <p>The filaments of it are much smaller then those of Silk, and through + the <i>Microscope</i> appear very neer as transparent, nay, some parts of + them I have observ’d much more.</p> + + <p>Having examin’d also several kinds of Mushroms, I finde their texture + to be somewhat of this kind, that is, to consist of an infinite company + of small filaments, every way contex’d and woven together, so as to make + a kind of cloth, and more particularly, examining a piece of Touch-wood + (which is a kind <i>Jews-ear</i>, or Mushrom, growing here in + <i>England</i> also, on several sorts of Trees, + such as Elders, Maples, Willows, <i>&c.</i> and is commonly call’d by + the name of <i>Spunk</i>; but that we meet with to be sold in Shops, is + brought from beyond Seas) I found it to be made of an exceeding delicate + texture: For the substance of it feels, and looks to the naked eye, and + may be stretch’d any way, exactly like a very fine piece of + <i>Chamois</i> Leather, or wash’d Leather, but it is of somewhat a + browner hew, and nothing neer so strong; but examining it with my + <i>Microscope</i>, I found it of somewhat another make then any kind of + Leather; for whereas both <i>Chamois</i>, and all other kinds of Leather + I have yet view’d, consist of an infinite company of filaments, somewhat + like bushes interwoven one within another, that is, of bigger parts or + stems, as it were, and smaller branchings that grow out of them; or like + a heap of Ropes ends, where each of the larger Ropes by degrees seem to + split or untwist, into many smaller Cords, and each of those Cords into + smaller Lines, and those Lines into Threads, <i>&c.</i> and these + strangely intangled, or interwoven one within another: The texture of + this Touch-wood seems more like that of a Lock or a Fleece of Wool, for + it consists of an infinite number of small filaments, all of them, as + farr as I could perceive, of the same bigness like those of a Sponge, but + that the <i>filaments</i> of this were not a twentieth part of the + bigness of those of a Sponge; and I could not so plainly perceive their + joints, or their manner of interweaving, though, as farr as I was able to + discern with that <i>Microscope</i> I had, I suppose it to have some kind + of resemblance, but the joints are nothing neer so thick, nor without + much trouble visible.</p> + + <p>The filaments I could plainly enough perceive to be even, round, + cylindrical, transparent bodies, and to cross each other every way, that + is, there were not more seem’d to lie <i>horizontally</i> then + <i>perpendicularly</i> and thwartway, so that it is somewhat difficult + to conceive how they should grow in that manner. By tearing off a small + piece of it, and looking on the ragged edge, I could among several of + those <i>fibres</i> perceive small joints, that is, one of those hairs + split into two, each of the same bigness with the other out of which they + seem’d to grow, but having not lately had an opportunity of examining + their manner of growth, I cannot positively affirm any thing of them.</p> + + <p>But to proceed, The swelling of Sponges upon wetting, and the rising + of the Water in it above the surface of the Water that it touches, are + both from the same cause, of which an account is already given in the + sixth Observation.</p> + + <p>The substance of them indeed, has so many excellent properties, scarce + to be met with in any other body in the world, that I have often wondered + that so little use is made of it, and those onely vile and sordid; + certainly, if it were well consider’d, it would afford much greater + conveniencies.</p> + + <p>That use which the Divers are said to make of it, seems, if true, very + strange, but having made trial of it my self, by dipping a small piece of + it in very good Sallet-oyl, and putting it in my mouth, and then keeping + my mouth and nose under water, I could not find any such thing; for I + was as soon out of breath as if I had had + no Sponge, nor could I fetch my breath without taking in water at my + mouth; but I am very apt to think, that were there a contrivance whereby + the expir’d air might be forc’d to pass through a wet or oyly Sponge + before it were again inspir’d, it might much cleanse, and strain away + from the Air divers fuliginous and other noisome steams, and the dipping + of it in certain liquors might, perhaps, so renew that property in the + Air which it loses in the Lungs, by being breath’d, that one square foot + of Air might last a man for respiration much longer, perhaps, then ten + will now serve him of common Air.<br /></p> +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class='chapter' /> +<h2>Observ. <a name="obsXXIII" id="obsXXIII">XXIII</a>. <i>Of the curious texture of </i>Sea-weeds<i>.</i></h2> + + <p>For curiosity and beauty, I have not among all the Plants or + Vegetables I have yet observ’d, seen any one comparable to this Sea-weed + I have here describ’d, of which I am able to say very little more then +<span class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-09.png"><i>Schem.</i> 9.</a><br /><i>Fig.</i> 2. +</span> + what is represented by the second <i>Figure</i> of the ninth + <i>Scheme</i>: Namely, that it is a Plant which grows upon the Rocks + under the water, and increases and spreads it self into a great tuft, + which is not onely handsomely branch’d into several leaves, but the whole + surface of the Plant is cover’d over with a most curious kind of carv’d + work, which consists of a texture much resembling a Honey-comb; for the + whole surface on both sides is cover’d over with a multitude of very + small holes, being no bigger then so many holes made with the point of a + small Pinn, and rang’d in the neatest and most delicate order imaginable, + they being plac’d in the manner of a <i>Quincunx</i>, or very much like + the rows of the eyes of a Fly, the rows or orders being very regular, + which way soever they are observ’d: what the texture was, as it appear’d + through a pretty bigg Magnifying <i>Microscope</i>, I have here adjoin’d +<span class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-14.png"><i>Schem.</i> 14.</a><br /><i>Fig.</i> 1. +</span> + in the first <i>Figure</i> of the 14. <i>Scheme.</i> which round Area + ABCD represents a part of the surface about one eighth part of an Inch in + Diameter: Those little holes, which to the eye look’d round, like so many + little spots, here appear’d very regularly shap’d holes, representing + almost the shape of the sole of a round toed shoe, the hinder part of + which, is, as it were, trod on or cover’d by the toe of that next below + it; these holes seem’d wall’d about with a very thin and transparent + substance, looking of a pale straw-colour; from the edge of which, + against the middle of each hole, were sprouted out four small transparent + straw-colour’d Thorns, which seem’d to protect and cover those cavities, + from either side two; neer the root of this Plant, were sprouted out + several small branches of a kind of bastard <i>Coralline</i>, curiously + branch’d, though small.</p> + + <p>And to confirm this, having lately the opportunity of viewing the + large Plant (if I may so call it) of a Sponge <i>petrify’d</i>, of which + I made mention in the last Observation, I found, that each of the + Branches or Figures of it, did, by the range of its pores, exhibit just + such a texture, the rows of pores crossing one another, + much after the manner as the rows of eyes do which are describ’d in the + 26. <i>Scheme</i>: <i>Coralline</i> also, and several sorts of white + <i>Coral</i>, I have with a <i>Microscope</i> observ’d very curiously + shap’d. And I doubt not, but that he that shall observe these several + kinds of Plants that grow upon Rocks, which the Sea sometimes overflows, + and those heaps of others which are vomited out of it upon the shore, may + find multitudes of little Plants, and other bodies, which like this will + afford very beautifull objects for the <i>Microscope</i>; and this + <i>Specimen</i> here is adjoin’d onely to excite their curiosities who + have opportunity of observing to examine and collect what they find + worthy their notice; for the Sea, among terrestrial bodies, is also a + <i>prolifick</i> mother, and affords as many Instances of + <i>spontaneous</i> generations as either the Air or Earth.<br /></p> +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class='chapter' /> +<h2>Observ. <a name="obsXXIV" id="obsXXIV">XXIV</a>. <i>Of the surfaces of </i>Rosemary<i>, and other leaves.</i></h2> + +<div class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-14.png"><i>Schem.</i> 14.</a><br /><i>Fig.</i> 2. +</div> + + <p>This which is delineated within the circle of the second <i>Figure</i> + of the 14. <i>Scheme</i>, is a small part of the back or under side of a + leaf of Rosemary, which I did not therefore make choice of because it had + any thing peculiar which was not observable with a <i>Microscope</i> in + several other Plants, but because it exhibits at one view,</p> + + <p>First, a smooth and shining surface, namely, AB, which is a part of + the upper side of the leaf, that by a kind of hem or doubling of the leaf + appears on this side. There are multitudes of leaves, whose surfaces are + like this smooth, and as it were quilted, which look like a curious + quilted bagg of green Silk, or like a Bladder, or some such pliable + transparent substance, full stuffed out with a green juice or liquor; the + surface of Rue, or Herbgrass, is polish’d, and all over indented, or + pitted, like the Silk-worm’s Egg, which I shall anon describe; the smooth + surfaces of other Plants are otherwise quilted, Nature in this, as it + were, expressing her Needle-work, or imbroidery.</p> + + <p>Next a downy or bushy surface, such as is all the under side almost, + appearing through the <i>Microscope</i> much like a thicket of bushes, + and with this kind of Down or Hair the leaves and stalks of multitudes of + Vegetables are covered; and there seems to be as great a variety in the + shape, bulk, and manner of the growing of these secundary Plants, as I + may call them (they being, as it were, a Plant growing out of a Plant, or + somewhat like the hairs of Animals) as there is to be found amongst small + shrubs that compose bushes; but for the most part, they consist of small + transparent parts, some of which grow in the shape of small Needles or + Bodkins, as on the Thistle, Cowag-ecod and Nettle; others in the form of + Cat’s claws, as in Cliders, the beards of Barley, the edges of several + sorts of Grass and Reeds, <i>&c.</i> in other, as Coltsfoot, + Rose-campion, Aps, Poplar, Willow, and almost all other downy Plants, + they grow in the form of bushes very much diversify’d in each particular + Plant, That which I have before in the 19. + Observation noted on Rose leaves, is of a quite differing kind, and seems + indeed a real Vegetable, distinct from the leaf.</p> + + <p>Thirdly, among these small bushes are observable an infinite company + of small round Balls, exactly Globular, and very much resembling Pearls, + namely, CCCC, of these there maybe multitudes observ’d in Sage, and + several other Plants, which I suppose was the reason why <i>Athanasius + Kircher</i> supposed them to be all cover’d with Spiders Eggs, or young + Spiders, which indeed is nothing else but some kind of gummous + exsudation, which is always much of the same bigness. At first sight of + these, I confess, I imagin’d that they might have been some kind of + <i>matrices</i>, or nourishing receptacles for some small Insect, just as + I have found Oak-apples, and multitudes of such other large excrescencies + on the leaves and other parts of Trees and shrubs to be for Flyes, and + divers other Insects, but observing them to be there all the year, and + scarce at all to change their magnitude, that conjecture seem’d not so + probable. But what ever be the use of it, it affords a very pleasant + object through the <i>Microscope</i>, and may, perhaps, upon further + examination, prove very luciferous.<br /></p> +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class='chapter' /> +<h2>Observ. <a name="obsXXV" id="obsXXV">XXV</a>. <i>Of the stinging points and juice of </i>Nettles<i>, and +some other venomous Plants.</i></h2> + + <p>A Nettle is a Plant so well known to every one, as to what the + appearance of it is to the naked eye, that it needs no description; and + there are very few that have not felt as well as seen it; and therefore + it will be no news to tell that a gentle and slight touch of the skin by + a Nettle, does oftentime, not onely create very sensible and acute pain, + much like that of a burn or scald, but often also very angry and hard + swellings and inflamations of the parts, such as will presently rise, and + continue swoln divers hours. These observations, I say, are common + enough; but how the pain is so suddenly created, and by what means + continued, augmented for a time, and afterwards diminish’d, and at length + quite exstinguish’d, has not, that I know, been explain’d by any.</p> + + <p>And here we must have recourse to our <i>Microscope</i>, and that + will, if almost any part of the Plant be looked on, shew us the whole + surface of it very thick set with turn-Pikes, or sharp Needles, of the +<span class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-15.png"><i>Schem.</i> 15.</a><br /><i>Fig.</i> 1. +</span> + shape of those represented in the 15. <i>Scheme</i> and first + <i>Figure</i> by AB, which are visible also to the naked eye; each of + which consists of two parts very distinct for shape, and differing also + in quality from one another. For the part A, is shaped very much like a + round Bodkin, from B tapering till it end in a very sharp point; it is of + substance very hard and stiff, exceedingly transparent and cleer, and, as + I by many trials certainly found, is hollow from top to bottom.</p> + + <p>This I found by this Experiment, I had a very convenient + <i>Microscope</i> with a single Glass which + drew about half an Inch, this I had fastned into a little frame, almost + like a pair of Spectacles, which I placed before mine eyes, and so + holding the leaf of a Nettle at a convenient distance from my eye, I did + first, with the thrusting of several of these bristles into my skin, + perceive that presently after I had thrust them in I felt the burning + pain begin; next I observ’d in divers of them, that upon thrusting my + finger against their tops, the Bodkin (if I may so call it) did not in + the least bend, but I could perceive moving up and down within it a + certain liquor, which upon thrusting the Bodkin against its basis, or + bagg B, I could perceive to rise towards the top, and upon taking away my + hand, I could see it again subside, and shrink into the bagg; this I did + very often, and saw this <i>Phænomenon</i> as plain as I could ever see a + parcel of water ascend and descend in a pipe of Glass. But the basis + underneath these Bodkins on which they were fast, were made of a more + pliable substance, and looked almost like a little bagg of green Leather, + or rather resembled the shape and surface of a wilde Cucumber, or + <i>cucumeris asinini</i>, and I could plainly perceive them to be certain + little baggs, bladders, or receptacles full of water, or as I ghess, the + liquor of the Plant, which was poisonous, and those small Bodkins were + but the Syringe-pipes, or Glyster-pipes, which first made way into the + skin, and then served to convey that poisonous juice, upon the pressing + of those little baggs, into the interior and sensible parts of the skin, + which being so discharg’d, does corrode, or, as it were, burn that part + of the skin it touches; and this pain will sometimes last very long, + according as the impression is made deeper or stronger.</p> + + <p>The other parts of the leaf or surface of the Nettle, have very little + considerable, but what is common to most of these kinds of Plants, as the + ruggedness or indenting, and hairiness, and other roughnesses of the + surface or outside of the Plant, of which I may say more in another + place. As I shall likewise of certain little pretty cleer Balls or Apples + which I have observed to stick to the sides of these leaves, both on the + upper and under side, very much like the small Apples which I have often + observ’d to grow on the leaves of an Oak call’d <i>Oak-apples</i> which + are nothing but the <i>Matrices</i> of an Infect, as I elsewhere + shew.</p> + + <p>The chief thing therefore is, how this Plant comes, by so slight a + touch, to create so great a pain; and the reason of this seems to be + nothing else, but the corrosive penetrant liquor contain’d in the small + baggs or bladders, upon which grow out those sharp Syringe-pipes, as I + before noted; and very consonant to this, is the reason of the pain + created by the sting of a Bee, Wasp, <i>&c.</i> as I elsewhere shew: + For by the Dart, which is likewise a pipe, is made a deep passage into + the skin, and then by the anger of the Fly, is his gally poisonous liquor + injected; which being admitted among the sensible parts, and so mix’d + with the humours or <i>stagnating</i> juices of that part, does create an + Ebullition perhaps, or <i>effervescens</i>, as is usually observ’d in the + mingling of two differing <i>Chymical saline</i> liquors, by which means + the parts become swell’d, hard, and very painfull; for thereby the + nervous and sensible parts are not onely stretch’d and strain’d + beyond their natural <i>tone</i>, but are + also prick’d, perhaps, or corroded by the pungent and incongruous parts + of the intruded liquor.</p> + + <p>And this seems to be the reason, why <i>Aqua fortis</i>, and other + <i>saline</i> liquors, if they come to touch the sensitive parts, as in a + cut of the skin, or the like, do so violently and intollerably + <i>excruciate</i> and torment the Patient. And ’tis not unlikely, but the + Inventors of that Diabolical practice of poisoning the points of Arrows + and Ponyards, might receive their first hint from some such Instance in + natural contrivances, as this of the Nettle: for the ground why such + poison’d weapons kill so infallibly as they do, seems no other then this + of our Nettle’s stinging; for the Ponyard or Dart makes a passage or + entrance into the sensitive or vital parts of the body, whereby the + contagious substance comes to be dissolv’d by, and mix’d with the fluid + parts or humours of the body, and by that means spreads it self by + degrees into the whole liquid part of the body, in the same manner, as a + few grains of Salt, put into a great quantity of Water, will by degrees + diffuse it self over the whole.</p> + + <p>And this I take to be the reason of killing of Toads, Frogs, Effs, and + several Fishes, by strewing Salt on their backs (which Experiment was + shewn to the <i>Royal Society</i> by a very ingenious Gentleman, and a + worthy Member of it) for those creatures having always a continual + exsudation, as it were, of slimy and watry parts, sweating out of the + pores of their skin, the <i>saline</i> particles, by that means obtain a + <i>vehicle</i>, which conveys them into the internal and vital parts of + the body.</p> + + <p>This seems also to be the reason why bathing in Mineral waters are + such soveraign remedies for multitudes of distempers, especially + chronical; for the liquid & warm <i>vehicles</i> of the Mineral + particles, which are known to be in very considerable quantities in those + healing baths, by the body’s long stay in them, do by degrees steep and + insinuate themselves into the pores and parts of the skin, and thereby + those Mineral particles have their ways and passages open’d to penetrate + into the inner parts, and mingle themselves with the <i>stagnant</i> + juices of the several parts; besides, many of those offensive parts which + were united with those <i>stagnant</i> juices, and which were contrary to + the natural constitution of the parts, and so become irksome and painfull + to the body, but could not be discharged, because Nature had made no + provision for such accidental mischiefs, are, by means of this soaking, + and filling the pores of the skin with a liquor, afforded a passage + through that liquor that fills the pores into the ambient fluid, and + thereby the body comes to be discharged.</p> + + <p>So that ’tis very evident, there may be a good as well as an evil + application of this Principle. And the ingenious Invention of that + Excellent person, Doctor <i>Wren</i> of injecting liquors into the veins + of an Animal, seems to be reducible to this head: I cannot stay, nor is + this a fit place, to mention the several Experiments made of this kind by + the most incomparable Mr. <i>Boyle</i>, the multitudes made by the lately + mention’d <i>Physician</i> Doctor <i>Clark</i>, the History whereof, as + he has been pleas’d to communicate to the <i>Royal Society</i>, so he may + perhaps be prevail’d with to make publique himself: But I shall rather + hint, that certainly, if this Principle were well + consider’d, there might, besides the further improving of Bathing and + Syringing into the veins, be thought on several ways, whereby several + obstinate distempers of a humane body, such as the Gout, Dropsie, Stone, + <i>&c.</i> might be master’d, and expell’d; and good men might make + as good a use of it, as evil men have made a perverse and Diabolical.</p> + + <p>And that the filling of the pores of the skin with some fluid + <i>vehicle</i>, is of no small efficacy towards the preparing a passage + for several kinds of penetrant juices, and other dissoluble bodies, to + insinuate themselves within the skin, and into the sensitive parts of the + body, may be, I think, prov’d by an Instance given us by + <i>Bellonius</i>, in the 26. <i>Chapter</i> of the second Book of his + <i>Observations</i>, which containing a very remarkable Story I have here + transcrib’d: <i>Cum Chamæleonis nigri radices</i> (says he) <i>apud Pagum + quendam Livadochorio nuncupatum erui curaremus, plurimi Græci & Turcæ + spectatum venerunt quid erueremus, eas vero frustulatim secabamus, & + filo trajiciebamus ut facilius exsiccari possent. Turcæ in eo negotio + occupatos nos videntes, similiter eas radices tractare & secare + voluerunt: at cum summus esset æstus, & omnes sudore maderent, + quicunque eam radicem manibus tractaverant sudoremque absterserant, aut + faciem digitis scalpserant, tantam pruriginem iis locis quos attigerant + postea senserunt, ut aduri viderentur. Chamæleonis enim nigri radix ea + virtute pollet, ut cuti applicata ipsam adeo inflammet, ut nec squillæ, + nec urticæ ullæ centesima parte ita adurent: At prurigo non adeo + celeriter sese prodit. Post unam aut alteram porro horam, singuli variis + faciei locis cutem adeo inflammatam habere cæpimus ut tota sanguinea + videretur, atque quo magis eam confricabamus, tanto magis excitabatur + prurigo. Fonti assidebamus sub platano, atque initio pro ludicro + habebamus & ridebamus: at tandem illi plurimum indignati sunt, & + nisi asseverassemus nunquam expertos tali virtute eam plantam pollere, + haud dubie male nos multassent, Attamen nostra excusatio fuit ab illis + facilitus accepta, cum eodem incommodo nos affectos conspicerent. Mirum + sane quod in tantillo radice tam ingentem efficaciam nostro malo experti + sumus.</i></p> + + <p>By which observation of his, it seems manifest, that their being all + cover’d with sweat who gather’d and cut this root of the black + <i>Chameleon</i> Thistle, was the great reason why they suffer’d that + inconvenience, for it seems the like circumstance had not been before + that noted, nor do I find any mention of such a property belonging to + this Vegetable in any of the Herbals I have at present by me.</p> + + <p>I could give very many Observations which I have made of this kind, + whereby I have found that the best way to get a body to be insinuated + into the substance or insensible pores of another, is first, to find a + fluid <i>vehicle</i> that has some congruity, both to the body to be + insinuated, and to the body into whose pores you would have the other + convey’d. And in this Principle lies the great mystery of staining + several sorts of bodies, as Marble, Woods, Bones, <i>&c.</i> and of + Dying Silks, Cloaths, Wools, Feathers, <i>&c.</i> But these being + digressions, I shall proceed to:<br /></p> +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class='chapter' /> +<h2>Observ. <a name="obsXXVI" id="obsXXVI">XXVI</a>. <i>Of </i>Cowage<i>, and the itching operation of some bodies.</i></h2> + + <p>There is a certain Down of a Plant, brought from the + <i>East-Indies</i>, call’d commonly, though very improperly, + <i>Cow-itch</i>, the reason of which mistake + is manifest enough from the description of it, which Mr. <i>Parkinson</i> + sets down in his <i>Herbal</i>, Tribe XI. Chap. 2. <i>Phasiolus siliqua + hirsuta; The hairy Kidney-bean, called in </i>Zurratte<i> where it grows, + Couhage: We have had</i> (says he) <i>another of this kind brought us out + of the </i>East-Indies<i>, which being planted was in shew like the + former, but came not to perfection, the unkindly season not suffering it + to shew the flower; but of the Cods that were brought, some were smaller, + shorter, and rounder then the Garden kind; others much longer, and many + growing together, as it were in clusters, and cover’d all over with a + brown short hairiness, so fine, that if any of it be rubb’d, or fall on + the back of ones hand, or other tender parts of the skin, it will cause a + kind of itching, but not strong, nor long induring, but passing quickly + away, without either danger or harm; the Beans were smaller then + ordinary, and of a black shining colour.</i></p> + + <p>Having one of these Cods given me by a Sea-Captain, who had frequented + those parts, I found it to be a small Cod, about three Inches long, much + like a short Cod of <i>French Beans</i>, which had six Beans in it, the + whole surface of it was cover’d over with a very thick and shining brown + Down or Hair, which was very fine, and for its bigness stiff; taking some + of this Down, and rubbing it on the back of my hand, I found very little + or no trouble, only I was sensible that several of these little downy + parts with rubbing did penetrate, and were sunk, or stuck pretty deep + into my skin. After I had thus rubb’d it for a pretty while, I felt very + little or no pain, in so much that I doubted, whether it were the true + Couhage; but whil’st I was considering; I found the Down begin to make my + hand itch, and in some places to smart again, much like the stinging of a + Flea or Gnat, and this continued a pretty while, so that by degrees I + found my skin to be swell’d with little red pustules, and to look as if + it had been itchie. But suffering it without rubbing or scratching, the + itching tickling pain quickly grew languid, and within an hour I felt + nothing at all, and the little <i>protuberancies</i> were vanish’d.</p> + + <p>The cause of which odd <i>Phænomenon</i>, I suppose to be much the + same with that of the stinging of a Nettle, for by the <i>Microscope</i>, + I discover’d this Down to consist of a multitude of small and slender + conical bodies, much resembling Needles or Bodkins, such as are +<span class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-16.png"><i>Schem.</i> 16.</a><br /><i>Fig.</i> 1. +</span> + represented by AB. CD. EF. of the first Figure of the XVI. <i>Scheme</i>; + that their ends AAA, were very sharp, and the substance of them stiff and + hard, much like the substance of several kinds of Thorns and crooks + growing on Trees. And though they appear’d very cleer and transparent, + yet I could not perceive whether they were hollow or not, but to me they + appear’d like solid transparent bodies, without any cavity in them; + whether, though they might not be a kind of Cane, fill’d with some + transparent liquor which was hardned (because the Cod which I had was + very dry) I was not able to examine.</p> + + <p>Now, being such stiff, sharp bodies, it is easie to conceive, how with + rubbing they might easily be thrust into the tender parts of the skin, + and there, by reason of their exceeding fineness and driness, not create + any considerable trouble or pain, till by remaining in those places + moistned with the humours of the body, some caustick part sticking on + them, or residing within them might be dissolv’d and + mix’d with the ambient juices of that place, and thereby those + <i>fibres</i> and tender parts adjoyning become affected, and as it were + corroded by it; whence, while that action lasts, the pains created are + pretty sharp and pungent, though small, which is the essential property + of an itching one.</p> + + <p>That the pain also caused by the stinging of a Flea, a Gnat, a Flie, a + Wasp, and the like, proceeds much from the very same cause, I elsewhere + in their proper places endeavour to manifest. The stinging also of shred + Hors-hair, which in meriment is often strew’d between the sheets of a + Bed, seems to proceed from the same cause.<br /></p> +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class='chapter' /> +<h2>Observ. <a name="obsXXVII" id="obsXXVII">XXVII</a>. <i>Of the </i>Beard<i> of a wilde </i>Oat<i>, and the use that +may be made of it for exhibiting always to the Eye the temperature +of the Air, as to driness and moisture.</i></h2> + + <p>This Beard of a wild <i>Oat</i>, is a body of a very curious + structure, though to the naked Eye it appears very slight, and + inconsiderable, it being only a small black or brown Beard or Bristle, + which grows out of the side of the inner Husk that covers the Grain of a + wild <i>Oat</i>; the whole length of it, when put in Water, so that it + may extend it self to its full length, is not above an Inch and a half, + and for the most part somewhat shorter, but when the Grain is ripe, and + very dry, which is usually in the Moneths of <i>July</i>, and + <i>August</i>, this Beard is bent somewhat below the middle, namely, + about ⅖ from the bottom of it, almost to a right Angle, and the under + part of it is wreath’d lik a With; the substance of it is very brittle + when dry, and it will very easily be broken from the husk on which it + grows.</p> + + <p>If you take one of these Grains, and wet the Beard in Water, you will + presently see the small bended top to turn and move round, as if it were + sensible; and by degrees, if it be continued wet enough, the joint or + knee will streighten it self; and if it be suffer’d to dry again, it will + by degrees move round another way, and at length bend again into its + former posture.</p> + + <p>If it be view’d with an ordinary single <i>Microscope</i>, it will + appear like a small wreath’d Sprig, with two clefts; and if wet as + before, and then look’d on with this <i>Microscope</i>, it will appear to + unwreath it self, and by degrees, to streighten its knee, and the two + clefts will become streight, and almost on opposite sides of the small + cylindrical body.</p> + + <p>If it be continued to be look’d on a little longer with a + <i>Microscope</i>, it will within a little while begin to wreath it self + again, and soon after return to its former posture, bending it self again + neer the middle, into a kind of knee or angle.</p> + +<div class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-15.png"><i>Schem.</i> 15.</a><br /><i>Fig.</i> 2. +</div> + + <p>Several of those bodies I examin’d with larger <i>Microscopes</i>, and + there found them much of the make of those two long wreath’d cylinders + delineated in the second Figure of the 15. <i>Scheme</i>, which two + cylinders represent the wreathed part broken + into two pieces, whereof the end AB is to be suppos’d to have join’d to + the end CD, so that EACF does represent the whole wreath’d part of the + Beard, and EG a small piece of the upper part of the Beard which is + beyond the knee, which as I had not room to insert, so was it not very + considerable, either for its form, or any known property; but the under + or wreathed part is notable for both: As to its form, it appear’d, if it + were look’d on side-ways, almost like a Willow, or a small tapering rod + of <i>Hazel</i>, the lower or bigger half of which onely, is twisted + round several times, in some three, in others more, in others less, + according to the bigness and maturity of the Grain on which it grew, and + according to the driness and moisture of the ambient Air, as I shall shew + more at large by and by.</p> + + <p>The whole outward Superficies of this Cylindrical body is curiously + adorned or fluted with little channels, and interjacent ridges, or little + <i>protuberances</i> between them, which run the whole length of the + Beard, and are streight where the Beard is not twisted, and wreath’d + where it is, just after the same manner: each of those sides is beset + pretty thick with small Bristes or Thorns, somewhat in form resembling + that of <i>Porcupines</i> Quills, such as <i>aaaaa</i> in the Figure; all + whose points are directed like so many Turn-pikes towards the small end + or top of the Beard, which is the reason, why, if you endeavour to draw + the Beard between your fingers the contrary way, you will find it to + stick, and grate, as it were, against the skin.</p> + + <p>The proportion of these small conical bodies <i>aaaaa</i> to that + whereon they grow, the Figure will sufficiently shew, as also their + manner of growing, their thickness, and nearness to each other, as, that + towards the root or bottom of the Beard, they are more thin, and much + shorter, insomuch that there is usually left between the top of the one, + and the bottom of that next above it, more then the length of one of + them, and that towards the top of the Beard they grow more thick and + close (though there be fewer ridges) so that the root, and almost half + the upper are hid by the tops of those next below them.</p> + + <p>I could not perceive any <i>transverse</i> pores, unless the whole + wreath’d part were separated and cleft, in those little channels, by the + wreathing into so many little strings as there were ridges, which was + very difficult to determine; but there were in the wreathed part two very + conspicuous channels or clefts, which were continued from the bottom F to + the elbow EH or all along the part which was wreath’d, which seem’d + to divide the wreath’d Cylinder into two parts, a bigger and a less; the + bigger was that which was at the <i>convex</i> side of the knee, namely, + on the side A, and was wreath’d by OOOOO; this, as it seem’d the broader, + so did it also the longer, the other PPPPP, which was usually purs’d or + wrinckled in the bending of the knee, as about E, seem’d both the shorter + and narrower, so that at first I thought the wreathing and unwreathing of + the Beard might have been caus’d by the shrinking or swelling of that + part; but upon further examination, I found that the clefts, KK, LL, were + stuft up with a kind of Spongie substance, which, for the most part, was + very conspicuous neer the knee, as in the + cleft KK, when the Beard was dry; upon the discovery of which, I began to + think, that it was upon the swelling of this porous pith upon the access + of moisture or water that the Beard, being made longer in the midst, was + streightned, and by the shrinking or subsiding of the parts of that + Spongie substance together, when the water or moisture was exhal’d or + dried, the pith or middle parts growing shorter, the whole became + twisted.</p> + + <p>But this I cannot be positive in, for upon cutting the wreath’d part + in many places transversly, I was not so well satisfy’d with the shape + and manner of the pores of the pith; for looking on these transverse + Sections with a very good <i>Microscope</i>, I found that the ends of +<span class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-15.png"><i>Schem.</i> 15.</a><br /><i>Fig.</i> 3. +</span> + those transverse Sections appear’d much of the manner of the third Figure + of the 15. <i>scheme</i> ABCFE, and the middle of pith CC, seem’d very + full of pores indeed, but all of them seem’d to run the long-ways.</p> + + <p>This Figure plainly enough shews in what manner those clefts, K and L + divided the wreath’d Cylinder into two unequal parts, and also of what + kind of substance the whole body consists; for by cutting the same Beard + in many places, with transverse Sections, I found much the same + appearance with this express’d; so that those pores seem to run, as in + most other such Cany bodies, the whole length of it.</p> + + <p>The clefts of this body KK, and LL, seem’d (as is also express’d in + the Figure) to wind very oddly in the inner part of the wreath, and in + some parts of them, they seem’d stuffed, as it were, with that Spongie + substance, which I just now described.</p> + + <p>This so oddly constituted Vegetable substance, is first (that I have + met with) taken notice of by <i>Baptista Porta</i>, in his <i>Natural + Magick</i>, as a thing known to children and Juglers, and it has been + call’d by some of those last named persons, the better to cover their + cheat, the Legg of an <i>Arabian Spider</i>, or the Legg of an inchanted + <i>Egyptian fly</i>, and has been used by them to make a small Index, + Cross, or the like, to move round upon the wetting of it with a drop of + Water, and muttering certain words.</p> + + <p>But the use that has been made of it, for the discovery of the various + constitutions of the Air, as to driness and moistness, is incomparably + beyond any other, for this it does to admiration: The manner of + contriving it so, as to perform this great effect, is onely thus:</p> + + <p>Provide a good large Box of Ivory, about four Inches over, and of what + depth you shall judge convenient (according to your intention of making + use of one, two, three, or more of these small Beards, ordered in the + manner which I shall by and by describe) let all the sides of this Box be + turned of Basket-work (which here in <i>London</i> is easily enough + procur’d) full of holes, in the manner almost of a Lettice, the bigger, + or more the holes are, the better, that so the Air may have the more free + passage to the inclosed Beard, and may the more easily pass through the + Instrument; it will be better yet, though not altogether so handsom, if + insteed of the Basket-work on the sides of the Box, the bottom and top of + the Box be join’d together onely with three or four small Pillars, after +<span class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-15.png"><i>Schem.</i> 15.</a><br /><i>Fig.</i> 4. +</span> + the manner represented in the 4. Figure of the 15. + <i>Scheme</i>. Or, if you intend to make use of many of these small + Beards join’d together, you may have a small long Case of Ivory, whose + sides are turn’d of Basket-work, full of holes, which may be screw’d on + to the underside of a broad Plate of Ivory, on the other side of which is + to be made the divided Ring or Circle, to which divisions the pointing of + the Hand or Index, which is moved by the conjoin’d Beard, may shew all + the <i>Minute</i> variations of the Air.</p> + + <p>There may be multitudes of other ways for contriving this small + Instrument, so as to produce this effect, which any one may, according to + his peculiar use, and the exigency of his present occasion, easily enough + contrive and take, on which I shall not therefore insist. The whole + manner of making any one of them is thus: Having your Box or frame AABB, + fitly adapted for the free passage of the Air through it, in the midst of + the bottom BBB, you must have a very small hole C, into which the lower + end of the Beard is to be fix’d, the upper end of which Beard <i>ab</i>, + is to pass through a small hole of a Plate, or top AA, if you make use + onely of a single one, and on the top of it <i>e</i>, is to be fix’d a + small and very light <i>Index</i> <i>fg</i>, made of a very thin sliver + of a Reed or Cane; but if you make use of two or more Beards, they must + be fix’d and bound together, either with a very fine piece of Silk, or + with a very small touch of hard Wax, or Glew, which is better, and the + <i>Index</i> <i>fg</i>, is to be fix’d on the top of the second, third, + or fourth in the same manner as on the single one.</p> + + <p>Now, because that in every of these contrivances, the <i>Index</i> + <i>fg</i>, will with some temperatures of Air, move two, three, or more + times round, which without some other contrivance then this, will be + difficult to distinguish, therefore I thought of this Expedient: The + <i>Index</i> or <i>Hand</i> <i>fg</i>, being rais’d a pretty way above + the surface of the Plate AA, fix in at a little distance from the middle + of it a small Pin <i>h</i>, so as almost to touch the surface of the + Plate AA, and then in any convenient place of the surface of the Plate, + fix a small Pin, on which put on a small piece of Paper, or thin + Pastboard, Vellom, or Parchment, made of a convenient cize, and shap’d + in the manner of that in the Figure express’d by <i>ik</i>, so that + having a convenient number of teeth every turn or return of the Pin + <i>h</i>, may move this small indented Circle, a tooth forward or + backwards, by which means the teeth of the Circle, being mark’d, it will + be thereby very easie to know certainly, how much variation any change of + weather will make upon the small wreath’d body. In the making of this + Secundary Circle of Vellom, or the like, great care is to be had, that it + be made exceeding light, and to move very easily, for otherwise a small + variation will spoil the whole operation. The Box may be made of Brass, + Silver, Iron, or any other substance, if care be taken to make it open + enough, to let the Air have a sufficiently free access to the Beard. The + <i>Index</i> also may be various ways contrived, so as to shew both the + number of the revolutions it makes, and the <i>Minute</i> divisions of + each revolution.</p> + + <p>I have made several trials and Instruments for discovering the driness + and moisture of the Air with this little wreath’d body, and find it to + vary exceeding sensibly with the least change in the constitution of the + Air, as to driness and moisture, so that with one + breathing upon it, I have made it untwist a whole bout, and the + <i>Index</i> or <i>Hand</i> has shew’d or pointed to various divisions on + the upper Face or Ring of the Instrument, according as it was carried + neerer and neerer to the fire, or as the heat of the Sun increased upon + it.</p> + + <p>Other trials I have made with Gut-strings, but find them nothing neer + so sensible, though they also may be so contriv’d as to exhibit the + changes of the Air, as to driness and moisture, both by their stretching + and shrinking in length, and also by their wreathing and unwreathing + themselves; but these are nothing neer so exact or so tender, for their + varying property will in a little time change very much. But there are + several other Vegetable substances that are much more sensible then even + this Beard of a wilde <i>Oat</i>; such I have found the Beard of the seed + of Musk-grass, or <i>Geranium moschatum</i>, and those of other kinds of + <i>Cranes-bil</i> seeds, and the like. But always the smaller the + wreathing substance be, the more sensible is it of the mutations of the + Air, a conjecture at the reason of which I shall by and by add.</p> + + <p>The lower end of this wreath’d Cylinder being stuck upright in a + little soft Wax, so that the bended part or <i>Index</i> of it lay + <i>horizontal</i>, I have observ’d it always with moisture to unwreath it + self from the East (For instance) by the South to the West, and so by the + North to the East again, moving with the Sun (as we commonly say) and + with heat and drouth to re-twist; and wreath it self the contrary way, + namely, from the East, (for instance) by the North to the West, and so + onwards.</p> + + <p>The cause of all which <i>Phænomena</i>, seems to be the differing + texture of the parts of these bodies, each of them (especially the Beard + of a wilde <i>Oat</i>, and of <i>Mosk-grass</i> seed) seeming to have two + kind of substances, one that is very porous, loose, and spongie, into + which the watry steams of the Air may be very easily forced, which will + be thereby swell’d and extended in its dimensions, just as we may observe + all kind of Vegetable substance upon steeping in water to swell and grow + bigger and longer. And a second that is more hard and close, into which + the water can very little, or not at all penetrate, this therefore + retaining always very neer the same dimensions, and the other stretching + and shrinking, according as there is more or less moisture or water in + its pores, by reason of the make and shape of the parts, the whole body + must necessarily unwreath and wreath it self.</p> + + <p>And upon this Principle, it is very easie to make several sorts of + contrivances that should thus wreath and unwreath themselves, either by + heat and cold, or by driness and moisture, or by any greater or less + force, from whatever cause it proceed, whether from gravity or weight, or + from wind which is motion of the Air, or from some springing body, or the + like.</p> + + <p>This, had I time, I should enlarge much more upon; for it seems to me + to be the very first footstep of <i>Sensation</i>, and Animate motion, + the most plain, simple, and obvious contrivance that Nature has made use + of to produce a motion; next to that of Rarefaction and Condensation by + heat and cold. And were this Principle very well + examin’d, I am very apt to think, it would afford us a very great help to + find out the <i>Mechanism</i> of the Muscles, which indeed, as farr as I + have hitherto been able to examine, seems to me not so very perplex as + one might imagine, especially upon the examination which I made of the + Muscles of <i>Crabs</i>, <i>Lobsters</i>, and several sorts of large + Shell-fish, and comparing my Observations on them, with the circumstances + I observ’d in the muscles of terrestrial Animals.</p> + + <p>Now, as in this Instance of the Beard of a wilde <i>Oat</i>, we see + there is nothing else requisite to make it wreath and unwreath it self, + and to streighten and bend its knee, then onely a little breath of moist + or dry Air, or a small <i>atome</i> almost of water or liquor, and a + little heat to make it again evaporate, for, by holding this Beard, + plac’d and fix’d as I before directed, neer a Fire, and dipping the tip + of a small shred of Paper in well rectify’d spirit of Wine, and then + touching the wreath’d <i>Cylindrical</i> part, you may perceive it to + untwist it self; and presently again, upon the <i>avolation</i> of the + spirit, by the great heat, it will re-twist it self, and thus will it + move forward and backwards as oft as you repeat the touching it with the + spirit of Wine; so may, perhaps, the shrinking and relaxing of the + muscles be by the influx and evaporation of some kind of liquor or juice. + But of this Enquiry I shall add more elsewhere.<br /></p> +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class='chapter' /> +<h2>Observ. <a name="obsXXVIII" id="obsXXVIII">XXVIII</a>. <i>Of the Seeds of </i>Venus<i> looking-glass, or </i>Corn<i> +Violet.</i></h2> + + <p>From the Leaves, and Downs, and Beards of Plants, we come at last to + the Seeds; and here indeed seems to be the Cabinet of Nature, wherein are + laid up its Jewels. The providence of Nature about Vegetables, is in no + part manifested more, then in the various contrivances about the seed, + nor indeed is there in any part of the Vegetable so curious carvings, and + beautifull adornments, as about the seed; this in the larger sorts of + seeds is most evident to the eye; nor is it lest manifest through the + <i>Microscope</i>, in those seeds whose shape and structure, by reason of + their smalness, the eye is hardly able to distinguish.</p> + + <p>Of these there are multitudes, many of which I have observ’d through a + <i>Microscope</i>, and find, that they do, for the most part, every one + afford exceeding pleasant and beautifull objects. For besides those that + have various kinds of carv’d surfaces, there are other that have smooth + and perfectly polish’d surfaces, others a downy hairy surface; some are + cover’d onely with a skin, others with a kind of shell, others with both, + as is observable also in greater seeds.</p> + + <p>Of these seeds I have onely described four sorts which may serve as a + <i>specimen</i> of what the inquisitive observers are likely to find +<span class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-17.png"><i>Schem.</i> 17.</a> +</span> + among the rest. The first of these seeds which are described in the 17. + <i>Scheme</i>, are those of Corn-Violets, the seed is very small, black, + and shining, and, to the naked eye, looks almost like a very small Flea; + But through the <i>Microscope</i>, it appears a large body, + cover’d with a tough thick and bright reflecting skin very irregularly + shrunk and pitted, insomuch that it is almost an impossibility to find + two of them wrinkled alike, so great a variety may there be even in this + little seed.</p> + + <p>This, though it appear’d one of the most promising seeds for beauty to + the naked eye, yet through the <i>Microscope</i> it appear’d but a rude + misshapen seed, which I therefore drew, that I might thereby manifest how + unable we are by the naked eye to judge of beauteous or less curious + <i>microscopical</i> Objects; cutting some of them in sunder, I observ’d + them to be fill’d with a greenish yellow pulp, and to have a very thick + husk, in proportion to the pulp.<br /></p> +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class='chapter' /> +<h2>Observ. <a name="obsXXIX" id="obsXXIX">XXIX</a>. <i>Of the Seeds of </i>Tyme<i>.</i></h2> + +<div class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-18.png"><i>Schem.</i> 18.</a> +</div> + + <p>These pretty fruits here represented, in the 18. <i>Scheme</i>, are + nothing else, but nine several seeds of Tyme; they are all of them in + differing posture, both as to the eye and the light; nor are they all of + them exactly of the same shape, there being a great variety both in the + bulk and figure of each seed; but they all agreed in this, that being + look’d on with a <i>Microscope</i>, they each of them exactly resembled a + Lemmon or Orange dry’d; and this both in shape and colour. Some of them + are a little rounder, of the shape of an Orange, as A and B, they have + each of them a very conspicuous part by which they were join’d to their + little stalk, and one of them had a little piece of stalk remaining on; + the opposite side of the seed, you may perceive very plainly by the + Figure, is very copped and prominent, as is very usual in Lemmons; which + prominencies are express’d in D, E and F.</p> + + <p>They seem’d each of them a little creas’d or wrinckled, but E was very + conspicuously furrow’d, as if the inward make of this seed had been + somewhat like that of a Lemmon also, but upon dividing several seeds with + a very sharp Pen-knife, and examining them afterward, I found their make + to be in nothing but bulk differing from that of Peas, that is, to have a + pretty thick coat, and all the rest an indifferent white pulp, which + seem’d very close; so that it seems Nature does not very much alter her + method in the manner of inclosing and preserving the vital Principle in + the seed, in these very small grains, from that of Beans, Peas, + <i>&c.</i></p> + + <p>The Grain affords a very pretty Object for the <i>Microscope</i>, + namely, a Dish of Lemmons plac’d in a very little room; should a Lemmon + or Nut be proportionably magnify’d to what this seed of Tyme is, it would + make it appear as bigg as a large Hay-reek and it would be no great + wonder to see <i>Homers Iliads</i>, and <i>Homer</i> and all, cramm’d + into such a Nutshell. We may perceive even in these small Grains, as well + as in greater, how curious and carefull Nature is in preserving the + seminal principle of Vegetable bodies, in what delicate, strong and most + convenient Cabinets she lays them and closes them in + a pulp for their safer protection from outward dangers, and for the + supply of convenient alimental juice, when the heat of the Sun begins to + animate and move these little <i>automatons</i> or Engines; as if she + would, from the ornaments wherewith she has deckt these Cabinets, hint to + us, that in them she has laid up her Jewels and Master-pieces. And this, + if we are but diligent in observing, we shall find her method throughout. + There is no curiosity in the Elemental kingdom, if I may so call the + bodies of Air, Water, Earth, that are comparable in form to those of + Minerals, Air and Water having no form at all, unless a potentiality to + be form’d into Globules; and the clods and parcels of Earth are all + irregular, whereas in Minerals she does begin to <i>Geometrize</i>, and + practise, as ’twere, the first principles of <i>Mechanicks</i>, shaping + them of plain regular figures, as triangles, squares, <i>&c.</i> and + <i>tetraedrons</i>, cubes, <i>&c.</i> But none of their forms are + comparable to the more compounded ones of Vegetables; For here she goes a + step further, forming them both of more complicated shapes, and adding + also multitudes of curious Mechanick contrivances in their structure; for + whereas in Vegetables there was no determinate number of the leaves or + branches, nor no exactly certain figure of leaves, or flowers, or seeds, + in Animals all those things are exactly defin’d and determin’d; and + whereever there is either an excess or defect of those determinate parts + or limbs, there has been some impediment that has spoil’d the principle + which was most regular: Here we shall find, not onely most curiously + compounded shapes, but most stupendious Mechanisms and contrivances, here + the ornaments are in the highest perfection, nothing in all the Vegetable + kingdom that is comparable to the deckings of a Peacock; nay, to the + curiosity of any feather, as I elsewhere shew; nor to that of the + smallest and most despicable Fly. But I must not stay on these + speculations, though perhaps it were very well worth while for one that + had leisure, to see what Information may be learn’d of the nature, or + use, or virtues of bodies, by their several forms and various + excellencies and properties. Who knows but <i>Adam</i> might from some + such contemplation, give names to all creatures? If at least his names + had any significancy in them of the creatures nature on which he impos’d + it; as many (upon what grounds I know not) have suppos’d: And who knows, + but the Creator may, in those characters, have written and engraven many + of his most mysterious designs and counsels, and given man a capacity, + which, assisted with diligence and industry, may be able to read and + understand them. But not to multiply my digression more then I can the + time, I will proceed to the next, which is,<br /></p> +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class='chapter' /> +<h2>Observ. <a name="obsXXX" id="obsXXX">XXX</a>. <i>Of the Seeds of </i>Poppy<i>.</i></h2> + +<div class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-19.png"><i>Schem.</i> 19.</a> +</div> + + <p>The small seeds of Poppy, which are described in the 19. + <i>Scheme</i>, both for their smalness, multiplicity and prettiness, as + also for their admirable soporifick quality, deserve to be taken notice + of among the other <i>microscopical</i> seeds of + Vegetables: For first, though they grow in a Case or Hive oftentimes + bigger then one of these Pictures of the <i>microscopical</i> appearance, + yet are they for the most part so very little, that they exceed not the + bulk of a small Nitt, being not above ¹⁄₃₂ part of an Inch in Diameter, + whereas the Diameter of the Hive of them oftentimes exceeds two Inches, + so that it is capable of containing near two hundred thousand, and so in + all likelihood does contain a vast quantity, though perhaps not that + number. Next, for their prettiness, they may be compar’d to any + <i>microscopical</i> seed I have yet seen; for they are of a dark + brownish red colour, curiously Honey-comb’d all over with a very pretty + variety of Net-work, or a small kind of imbosment of very orderly rais’d + ridges, the surface of them looking not unlike the inside of a Beev’s + stomack. But that which makes it most considerable of all, is, the + medicinal virtues of it, which are such as are not afforded us by any + Mineral preparation; and that is for the procuring of sleep, a thing as + necessary to the well-being of a creature as his meat, and that which + refreshes both the voluntary and rational faculties, which, whil’st this + affection has seis’d the body, are for the most part unmov’d, and at + rest. And, methinks, Nature does seem to hint some very notable virtue or + excellency in this Plant from the curiosity it has bestow’d upon it. + First, in its flower, it is of the highest scarlet-Dye, which is indeed + the prime and chiefest colour, and has been in all Ages of the world most + highly esteem’d: Next, it has as much curiosity shew’d also in the husk + or case of the seed, as any one Plant I have yet met withall; and + thirdly, the very seeds themselves, the <i>Microscope</i> discovers to be + very curiously shap’d bodies; and lastly, Nature has taken such abundant + care for the propagation of it, that one single seed grown into a Plant, + is capable of bringing some hundred thousands of seeds.</p> + + <p>It were very worthy some able man’s enquiry whether the intention of + Nature, as to the secundary end of Animal and Vegetable substances might + not be found out by some such characters and notable impressions as + these, or from divers other circumstances, as the figure, colour, place, + time of flourishing, springing and fading, duration, taste, smell, + <i>&c.</i> For if such there are (as an able <i>Physician</i> upon + good grounds has given me cause to believe) we might then, insteed of + studying Herbals (where so little is deliver’d of the virtues of a Plant, + and less of truth) have recourse to the Book of Nature it self, and there + find the most natural, usefull, and most effectual and specifick + Medicines, of which we have amongst Vegetables, two very noble Instances + to incourage such a hope, the one of the <i>Jesuite powder</i> for the + cure of <i>intermitting Feavers</i>, and the other of the juice of + <i>Poppy</i> for the curing the defect of sleeping.<br /></p> +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class='chapter' /> +<h2>Observ. <a name="obsXXXI" id="obsXXXI">XXXI</a>. <i>Of </i>Purslane-seed<i>.</i></h2> + + <p>The Seeds of <i>Purslane</i> seem of very notable shapes, appearing + through the <i>Microscope</i> shap’d somewhat like a <i>nautilus</i> or +<span class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-20.png"><i>Schem.</i> 20.</a> +</span> + <i>Porcelane</i> shell, as may be seen in the XX. <i>Scheme</i>, it being + a small body, coyl’d round in the manner of a Spiral, at the greater end + whereof, which represents the mouth or orifice of the Shell, there is + left a little white transparent substance, like a skin, represented by + BBBB, which seems to have been the place whereunto the stem was join’d. + The whole surface of this <i>Coclea</i> or Shell, is cover’d over with + abundance of little <i>prominencies</i> or buttons very orderly rang’d + into Spiral rows, the shape of each of which seem’d much to resemble a + Wart upon a mans hand. The order, variety, and curiosity in the shape of + this little seed, makes it a very pleasant object for the + <i>Microscope</i>, one of them being cut asunder with a very sharp + Penknife, discover’d this carved Casket to be of a brownish red, and + somewhat transparent substance, and manifested the inside to be fill’d + with a whitish green substance or pulp, the Bed wherein the seminal + principle lies <i>invelop’d</i>.</p> + + <p>There are multitudes of other seeds which in shape represent or + imitate the forms of divers other sorts of Shells: as the seed of + <i>Scurvy-grass</i> very much resembles the make of a <i>Concha + Venerea</i>, a kind of Purcelane Shell; others represent several sorts of + larger fruits, sweat Marjerome and Pot-marjerome represent Olives. Carret + seeds are like a cleft of a Coco-Nut Husk, others are like Artificial + things, as Succory seeds are like a Quiver full of Arrows, the seeds of + <i>Amaranthus</i> are of an exceeding lovely shape, somewhat like an Eye: + The skin of the black and shrivled seeds of Onyons and Leeks, are all + over knobbed like a Seals skin. Sorrel has a pretty black shining + three-square seed, which is picked at both ends with three ridges, that + are bent the whole length of it. It were almost endless to reckon up the + several shapes, they are so many and so various; Leaving them therefore + to the curious observer, I shall proceed to the Observations on the parts + of Animals.<br /></p> +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class='chapter' /> +<h2>Observ. <a name="obsXXXII" id="obsXXXII">XXXII</a>. <i>Of the Figure of several sorts of </i>Hair<i>, and of +the texture of the </i>skin<i>.</i></h2> + + <p>Viewing some of the Hairs of my Head with a very good + <i>Microscope</i>, I took notice of these particulars:</p> + + <p>1. That they were, for the most part, <i>Cylindrical</i>, some of them + were somewhat <i>Prismatical</i>, but generally they were very neer +<span class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-05.png"><i>Schem.</i> 5.</a><br /><i>Fig.</i> 2. +</span> + round, such as are represented in the second Figure of the 5. + <i>Scheme</i>, by the <i>Cylinders</i> EEE. nor could I find any that had + sharp angles.</p> + + <p>2. That that part which was next the top, was bigger then that which + was neerer the root.</p> + + <p>3. That they were all along from end to end transparent, though not + very cleer, the end next the root appearing like a black transparent + piece of Horn, the end next the top more brown, somewhat like transparent + Horn.</p> + + <p>4. That the root of the Hairs were pretty smooth, tapering inwards, + almost like a Parsneb; nor could I find that it had any filaments, or any + other vessels, such as the <i>fibres</i> of Plants.</p> + + <p>5. That the top when split (which is common in long Hair) appear’d + like the end of a stick, beaten till it be all flitter’d, there being not + onely two splinters, but sometimes half a score and more.</p> + + <p>6. That they were all, as farr as I was able to find, solid + <i>Cylindrical</i> bodies, not pervious, like a Cane or Bulrush; nor + could I find that they had any Pith, or distinction of Rind, or the like, + such as I had observ’d in Horse-hairs, the Bristles of a Cat, the + <i>Indian</i> Deer’s Hair, <i>&c.</i></p> + +<h3><i>Observations on several other sorts of </i>Hair<i>.</i></h3> + + <p>For the Brisles of a Hogg, I found them to be first a hard transparent + horny substance, without the least appearance of pores or holes in it; + and this I try’d with the greatest care I was able, cutting many of them + with a very sharp Razor, so that they appear’d, even in the Glass, to + have a pretty smooth surface, but somewhat waved by the sawing to and fro + of the Razor, as is visible in the end of the <i>Prismatical</i> body A + of the same Figure; and then making trials with causing the light to be + cast on them all the various ways I could think of, that was likely to + make the pores appear, if there had been any, I was not able to discover + any.</p> + + <p>Next, the Figure of the Brisles was very various, neither perfectly + round, nor sharp edg’d, but <i>Prismatical</i>, with divers sides, and + round angles, as appears in the Figure A. The bending of them in any part + where they before appear’d cleer, would all flaw them, and make them look + white.</p> + + <p>The Mustacheos of a Cat (part of one of which is represented by the + short <i>Cylinder</i> B of the same Figure) seem’d to have, all of them + that I observ’d, a large pith in the middle, like the pith of an Elder, + whose texture was so close, that I was not able to discover the least + sign of pores; and those parts which seem to be pores, as they appear’d + in one position to the light, in another I could find a manifest + reflection to be cast from them.</p> + + <p>This I instance in, to hint that it is not safe to conclude any thing + to be positively this or that, though it appear never so plain and likely + when look’d on with a <i>Microscope</i> in one posture, before the same + be examin’d by placing it in several other positions.</p> + + <p>And this I take to be the reason why many have believed and asserted + the Hairs of a man’s head to be hollow, and like so many small pipes + perforated from end to end.</p> + + <p>Now, though I grant that by an <i>Analogie</i> one may suppose them + so, and from the <i>Polonian</i> disease one + may believe them such, yet I think we have not the least encouragement to + either from the <i>Microscope</i>, much less positively to assert them + such. And perhaps the very essence of the <i>Plica Polonica</i> may be + the hairs growing hollow, and of an unnatural constitution.</p> + + <p>And as for the <i>Analogie</i>, though I am apt enough to think that + the hairs of several Animals may be perforated somewhat like a Cane, or + at least have a kind of pith in them, first, because they seem as ’twere + a kind of Vegetable growing on an Animal, which growing, they say, + remains a long while after the Animal is dead, and therefore should like + other Vegetables have a pith; and secondly, because Horns and Feathers, + and Porcupine’s Quils, and Cats Brisles, and the long hairs of Horses, + which come very neer the nature of a mans hair, seem all of them to have + a kind of pith, and some of them to be porous, yet I think it not (in + these cases, where we have such helps for the sense as the + <i>Microscope</i> affords) safe concluding or building on more then we + sensibly know, since we may, with examining, find that Nature does in the + make of the same kind of substance, often vary her method in framing of + it: Instances enough to confirm this we may find in the Horns of several + creatures: as what a vast difference is there between the Horns of an + Oxe, and those of some sorts of Staggs as to their shape? and even in the + hairs of several creatures, we find a vast difference, as the hair of a + man’s head seems, as I said before, long, <i>Cylindrical</i> and sometime + a little <i>Prismatical</i>, solid or impervious, and very small; the + hair of an <i>Indian</i> Deer (a part of the middle of which is described +<span class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-05.png"><i>Schem.</i> 5.</a><br /><i>Fig.</i> 3. +</span> + in the third Figure of the fifth <i>Scheme</i>, marked with F) is bigger + in compass through all the middle of it, then the Bristle of an Hogg, but + the end of it is smaller then the hair of any kind of Animal (as may be + seen by the Figure G) the whole belly of it, which is about two or three + Inches long, looks to the eye like a thread of course Canvass, that has + been newly unwreath’d, it being all wav’d or bended to and fro, much + after that manner, but through the <i>Microscope</i>, it appears all + perforated from side to side, and Spongie, like a small kind of spongy + Coral, which is often found upon the <i>English</i> shores; but though I + cut it transversly, I could not perceive that it had any pores that ran + the long way of the hair: the long hairs of Horses CC and D, seem + <i>Cylindrical</i> and somewhat pithy; the Bristles of a Cat B, are + conical and pithy: the Quils of Porcupines and Hedghoggs, being cut + transversly, have a whitish pith, in the manner of a Starr, or + Spur-rowel: Piggs-hair (A) is somewhat <i>triagonal</i>, and seems to + have neither pith nor pore: And other kinds of hair have quite a + differing structure and form. And therefore I think it no way agreeable + to a true natural Historian, to pretend to be so sharp-sighted, as to see + what a preconceiv’d <i>Hypothesis</i> tells them should be there, where + another man, though perhaps as seeing, but not forestall’d, can discover + no such matter.</p> + + <p>But to proceed; I observ’d several kind of hairs that had been Dyed, + and found them to be a kind of horny <i>Cylinder</i>, being of much about + the transparency of a pretty cleer piece of Oxe horn; these appear’d + quite throughout ting’d with the colours they + exhibited. And ’tis likely, that those hairs being boyl’d or steep’d in + those very hot ting’d liquors in the Dye-fat, And the substance of the + hair being much like that of an Oxes Horn, the penetrant liquor does so + far mollifie and soften the substance, that it sinks into the very center + of it, and so the ting’d parts come to be mix’d and united with the very + body of the hair, and do not (as some have thought) only stick on upon + the outward surface. And this, the boiling of Horn will make more + probable; for we shall find by that action, that the water will insinuate + it self to a pretty depth within the surface of it, especially if this + penetrancy of the water be much helped by the Salts that are usually + mix’d with the Dying liquors. Now, whereas Silk may be dyed or ting’d + into all kind of colours without boiling or dipping into hot liquors, I + ghess the reason to be two-fold: First, because the filaments, or small + cylinders of Silk, are abundantly smaller and finer, and so have a much + less depth to be penetrated then most kind of hairs; and next, because + the substance or matter of Silk, is much more like a Glew then the + substance of Hair is. And that I have reason to suppose: First, because + when it is spun or drawn out of the Worm, it is a perfect glutinous + substance, and very easily sticks and cleaves to any adjacent body, as I + have several times observed, both in Silk-worms and Spiders. Next, + because that I find that water does easily dissolve and mollifie the + substance again, which is evident from their manner of ordering those + bottoms or pods of the Silk-worm before they are able to unwind them. It + is no great wonder therefore, if those Dyes or ting’d liquors do very + quickly mollifie and tinge the surfaces of so small and so glutinous a + body. And we need not wonder that the colours appear so lovely in the + one, and so dull in the other, if we view but the ting’d cylinders of + both kinds with a good <i>Microscope</i>; for whereas the substance of + Hair, at best, is but a dirty duskish white somewhat transparent, the + filaments of Silk have a most lovely transparency and cleerness, the + difference between those two being not much less then that between a + piece of Horn, and a piece of Crystal; the one yielding a bright and + vivid reflection from the concave side of the cylinder, that is, from the + concave surface of the Air that incompasses the back-part of the + cylinder; the other yielding a dull and perturb’d reflection from the + several <i>Heterogeneous</i> parts that compose it. And this difference + will be manifest enough to the eye, if you get a couple of small + Cylinders, the smaller of Crystal Glass, the other of Horn, and then + varnishing them over very thinly with some transparent colour, which will + represent to the naked eye much the same kind of object which is + represented to it from the filaments of Silk and Hair by the help of the + <i>Microscope</i>. Now, since the threads of Silk and Serge are made up + of a great number of these filaments, we may henceforth cease to wonder + at the difference. From much the same reason proceeds the vivid and + lovely colours of Feathers, wherein they very farr exceed the natural as + well as Artificial colours of hair, of which I shall say more in its + proper place.</p> + + <p>The Teguments indeed of creatures are all of them adapted to the + peculiar use and convenience of that Animal which they inwrap; and very + much also for the ornament and beauty of + it, as will be most evident to any one that shall attentively consider + the various kinds of cloathings wherewith most creatures are by Nature + invested and cover’d. Thus I have observed, that the hair or furr of + those Northern white Bears that inhabite the colder Regions, is exceeding + thick and warm: the like have I observ’d of the hair of a + <i>Greenland</i> Deer, which being brought alive to <i>London</i>, I had + the opportunity of viewing; its hair was so exceeding thick, long and + soft, that I could hardly with my hand, grasp or take hold of his skin, + and it seem’d so exceeding warm, as I had never met with any before. And + as for the ornamentative use of them, it is most evident in a multitude + of creatures, not onely for colour, as the Leopards, Cats, Rhein Deer, + <i>&c.</i> but for the shape, as in Horses manes, Cats beards, and + several other of the greater sort of terrestrial Animals, but is much + more conspicuous, in the Vestments of Fishes, Birds, Insects, of which I + shall by and by give some Instances.</p> + + <p>As for the skin, the <i>Microscope</i> discovers as great a difference + between the texture of those several kinds of Animals, as it does between + their hairs; but all that I have yet taken notice of, when tann’d or + dress’d, are of a Spongie nature, and seem to be constituted of an + infinite company of small long <i>fibres</i> or hairs, which look not + unlike a heap of Tow or Okum; every of which <i>fibres</i> seem to have + been some part of a Muscle, and probably, whil’st the Animal was alive, + might have its distinct function, and serve for the contraction and + relaxation of the skin, and for the stretching and shrinking of it this + or that way.</p> + + <p>And indeed, without such a kind of texture as this, which is very like + that of <i>Spunk</i> it would seem very strange, how any body so strong + as the skin of an Animal usually is, and so close as it seems, whil’st + the Animal is living, should be able to suffer so great an extension any + ways, without at all hurting or dilacerating any part of it. But, since + we are inform’d by the <i>Microscope</i>, that it consists of a great + many small filaments, which are implicated, or intangled one within + another, almost no otherwise then the hairs in a lock of Wool, or the + flakes in a heap of Tow, though not altogether so loose, but the + filaments are here and there twisted, as ’twere, or interwoven, and here + and there they join and unite with one another, so as indeed the whole + skin seems to be but one piece, we need not much wonder: And though these + <i>fibres</i> appear not through a <i>Microscope</i> exactly jointed and + contex’d, as in Sponge; yet, as I formerly hinted, I am apt to think, + that could we find some way of discovering the texture of it, whil’st it + invests the living Animal, or had some very easie way of separating the + pulp or intercurrent juices, such as in all probability fill those + <i>Interstitia</i>, without dilacerating, brusing, or otherwise spoiling + the texture of it (as it seems to be very much by the ways of tanning and + dressing now us’d) we might discover a much more curious texture then I + have hitherto been able to find; perhaps somewhat like that of + Sponges.</p> + + <p>That of <i>Chamoise</i> Leather is indeed very much like that of + <i>Spunk</i>, save onely that the <i>filaments</i> seem nothing neer so + even and round, nor altogether so small, nor has it so curious joints as + <i>Spunk</i> has, some of which I have + lately discover’d like those of a Sponge, and perhaps all these three + bodies may be of the same kind of substance, though two of them indeed + are commonly accounted Vegetable (which, whether they be so or no, I + shall not now dispute) But this seems common to all three, that they + undergo a tanning or dressing, whereby the interspers’d juices are wasted + and wash’d away before the texture of them can be discover’d.</p> + + <p>What their way is of dressing, or curing Sponges, I confess, I cannot + learn; but the way of dressing <i>Spunk</i>, is, by boiling it a good + while in a strong <i>Lixivium</i>, and then beating it very well; and the + manner of dressing Leather is sufficiently known.</p> + + <p>It were indeed extremely desirable, if such a way could be found + whereby the <i>Parenchyma</i> or flesh of the Muscles, and several other + parts of the body, might be wash’d, or wafted clean away, without + vitiating the form of the <i>fibrous</i> parts or vessells of it, for + hereby the texture of those parts, by the help of a good + <i>Microscope</i>, might be most accurately found.</p> + + <p>But to digress no further, we may, from this discovery of the + <i>Microscope</i>, plainly enough understand how the skin, though it + looks so close as it does, comes to give a passage to so vast a quantity + of <i>excrementitious</i> substances, as the diligent <i>Sanctorius</i> + has excellently observed it to do, in his <i>medicina statica</i>; for it + seems very probable, from the texture after dressing, that there are an + infinite of pores that every way pierce it, and that those pores are onely + fill’d with some kind of juice, or some very pulpy soft substance, and + thereby the steams may almost as easily find a passage through such a + fluid <i>vehicle</i> as the vaporous bubbles which are generated at the + bottom of a Kettle of hot water do find a passage through that fluid + <i>medium</i> into the ambient Air.</p> + + <p>Nor is the skin of animals only thus pervious, but even those of + vegetables also seem to be the same; for otherwise I cannot conceive why, + if two sprigs of Rosemary (for Instance) be taken as exactly alike in all + particulars as can be, and the one be set with the bottom in a Glass of + water, and the other be set just without the Glass, but in the Air onely, + though you stop the lower end of that in the Air very carefully with Wax, + yet shall it presently almost wither, whereas the other that seems to + have a supply from the subjacent water by its small pipes, or + <i>microscopical</i> pores, preserves its greenness for many days, and + sometimes weeks.</p> + + <p>Now, this to me, seems not likely to proceed from any other cause then + the <i>avolation</i> of the juice through the skin; for by the Wax, all + those other pores of the stem are very firmly and closely stop’d up. And + from the more or less porousness of the skins or rinds of Vegetables may, + perhaps, be somewhat of the reason given, why they keep longer green, or + sooner wither; for we may observe by the bladdering and craking of the + leaves of Bays, Holly, Laurel, <i>&c.</i> that their skins are very + close, and do not suffer so free a passage through them of the included + juices.</p> + + <p>But of this, and of the Experiment of the Rosemary, I shall elsewhere + more fully consider, seeming to me an extreme luciferous Experiment, such + as seems indeed very plainly to prove the <i>Schematism</i> or structure + of Vegetables altogether <i>mechanical</i>, + and as necessary, that (water and warmth being apply’d to the bottom of + the sprig of a Plant) some of it should be carried upwards into the stem, + and thence distributed into the leaves, as that the water of the + <i>Thames</i> covering the bottom of the Mills at the Bridge foot of + <i>London</i>, and by the ebbing and flowing of it, passing strongly by + them, should have some part of it convey’d to the Cesterns above, and + thence into several houses and Cesterns up and down the City.<br /></p> +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class='chapter' /> +<h2>Observ. <a name="obsXXXIII" id="obsXXXIII">XXXIII</a>. <i>Of the </i>Scales<i> of a </i>Soal<i>, and other Fishes.</i></h2> + + <p>Having hinted somewhat of the skin and covering of terrestrial + Animals, I shall next add an Observation I made on the skin and Scales of + a <i>Soal</i>, a small Fish, commonly enough known; and here in Fishes, + as well as other Animals, Nature follows its usual method, framing all + parts so, as that they are both usefull and ornamental in all its + composures, mingling <i>utile</i> and <i>dulce</i> together; and both + these designs it seems to follow, though our unassisted senses are not + able to perceive them: This is not onely manifest in the covering of this + Fish, but in multitudes of others, which it would be too long to + enumerate, witness particularly that small Sand Shell, which I mention’d + in the XI. Observation, and infinite other small Shells and Scales, + divers of which I have view’d. This skin I view’d, was flead from a + pretty large <i>Soal</i>, and then expanded and dry’d, the inside of it, + when dry, to the naked eye, look’d very like a piece of Canvass, but the + <i>Microscope</i> discover’d that texture to be nothing else, but the +<span class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-21.png"><i>Schem.</i> 21.</a><br /><i>Fig.</i> 2. +</span> + inner ends of those curious Scolop’d Scales I, I, I, in the second + <i>Figure</i> of the XXI. <i>Scheme</i>, namely, the part of GGGG (of the + larger representation of a single Scale, in the first <i>Figure</i> of + the same <i>Scheme</i>) which on the back side, through an ordinary + single Magnifying Glass, look’d not unlike the Tyles on an house.</p> + + <p>The outside of it, to the naked eye, exhibited nothing more of + ornament, save the usual order of ranging the Scales into a + <i>triagonal</i> form, onely the edges seem’d a little to shine, the + finger being rubb’d from the tail-wards towards the head, the Scales + seem’d to stay and raze it; But through an ordinary Magnifying glass, it + exhibited a most curiously carved and adorned surface, such as is visible + in the second <i>Figure</i>, each of those (formerly almost + imperceptible) Scales appearing much of the shape I, I, I, that is, they + were round, and protuberant, and somewhat shap’d like a Scolop, the whole + Scale being creas’d with curiously wav’d and indented ridges, with + proportionable furrows between; each of which was terminated with a very + sharp transparent bony substance, which, like so many small Turnpikes, + seem’d to arm the edges.</p> + + <p>The back part KKK was the skin into which each of these Scales were + very deeply fix’d, in the curious regular order, visible in the second + <i>Figure</i>. The length and shape of the + part of the Scale which was buried by the skin, is evidenced by the first + <i>Figure</i>; which is the representation of one of them pluck’d out and + view’d through a good <i>Microscope</i>, namely, the part LFGGFL, wherein + is also more plainly to be seen, the manner of carving of the scolopt + part of every particular Scale, how each ridge or barr EEE is alternately + hollowed or engraven, and how every gutter between them is terminated + with very transparent and hard pointed spikes, and how every other of + these, as AAAA, are much longer then the interjacent ones, DDD.</p> + + <p>The texture or form also of the hidden part appears, namely, the + middle part, GGG, seems to consist of a great number of small quills or + pipes, by which, perhaps, the whole may be nourished; and the side parts + FF consist of a more fibrous texture, though indeed the whole Scale + seem’d to be of a very tough gristly substance like the larger Scales of + other Fishes.</p> + + <p>The Scales of the skin of a Dog-fish (which is us’d by such as work in + Wood, for the smoothing of their work, and consists plainly enough to the + naked eye, of a great number off small horny points) through the + <i>Microscope</i> appear’d each of them curiously ridg’d, and very neatly + carved; and indeed, you can hardly look on the scales of any Fish, but + you may discover abundance of curiosity and beautifying; and not only in + these Fishes, but in the shells and crusts or armour of most sorts of + <i>Marine</i> Animals so invested.<br /></p> +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class='chapter' /> +<h2>Observ. <a name="obsXXXIV" id="obsXXXIV">XXXIV</a>. <i>Of the Sting of a Bee.</i></h2> + +<div class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-16.png"><i>Schem.</i> 16.</a><br /><i>Fig.</i> 2. +</div> + + <p>The Sting of a <i>Bee</i>, delineated in the second Figure of the XVI. + <i>Scheme</i>, seems to be a weapon of offence, and is as great an + Instance, that Nature did really intend revenge as any, and that first, + because there seems to be no other use of it. Secondly, by reason of its + admirable shape, seeming to be purposely shap’d for that very end. + Thirdly, from the virulency of the liquor it ejects, and the sad effects + and symptoms that follow it.</p> + + <p>But whatever be the use of it, certain it is, that the structure of it + is very admirable; what it appears to the naked eye, I need not describe, + the thing being known almost to every one, but it appears through the + <i>Microscope</i>, to consist of two parts, the one a sheath, without a + chape or top, shap’d almost like the Holster of a Pistol, beginning at + <i>d</i>, and ending at <i>b</i>, this sheath I could most plainly + perceive to be hollow, and to contain in it, both a Sword or Dart, and + the poisonous liquor that causes the pain. The sheath or case seem’d to + have several joints or settings together, marked by <i>fghiklmno</i>, it + was arm’d moreover neer the top, with several crooks or forks + (<i>pqrst</i>) on one side, and (<i>pqrstu</i>) on the other, each of + which seem’d like so many Thorns growing on a briar, or rather like so + many Cat’s Claws; for the crooks themselves seem’d to be little sharp + transparent points or claws, growing out of little <i>protuberancies</i> + on the side of the sheath, which, by observing + the Figure diligently, is easie enough to be perceiv’d; and from several + particulars, I suppose the Animal has a power of displaying them, and + shutting them in again as it pleases, as a Cat does its claws, or as an + Adder or Viper can its teeth or fangs.</p> + + <p>The other part of the Sting was the Sword, as I may so call it, which + is sheath’d, as it were, in it, the top of which <i>ab</i> appears quite + through at the smaller end, just as if the chape of the sheath of a Sword + were lost, and the end of it appear’d beyond the Scabbard; the end of + this Dart(<i>a</i>) was very sharp, and it was arm’d likewise with the + like Tenter-hooks or claws with those of the sheath, such as (<i>vxy</i>, + <i>xyzz</i>) these crooks, I am very apt to think, can be clos’d up also, + or laid flat to the sides of the Sword when it is drawn into the + Scabbard, as I have several times observ’d it to be, and can be spred + again or extended when ever the Animal pleases.</p> + + <p>The consideration of which very pretty structure, has hinted to me, + that certainly the use of these claws seems to be very considerable, as + to the main end of this Instrument, for the drawing in, and holding the + sting in the flesh; for the point being very sharp, the top of the Sting + or Dagger (<i>ab</i>) is very easily thrust into an Animal’s body, which + being once entred, the Bee, by endeavouring to pull it into the sheath, + draws (by reason of the crooks (<i>vxy</i>) and (<i>xyzz</i>) which lay + hold of the skin on either side) the top of the sheath (<i>tsrv</i>) into + the skin after it, and the crooks <i>t</i>, <i>s</i>, and <i>r</i>, + <i>v</i>, being entred, when the Bee endeavours to thrust out the top of + the sting out of the sheath again, they lay hold of the skin on either + side, and do not onely keep the sheath from sliding back, but helps the + top inwards, and thus, by an alternate and successive retracting and + emitting of the Sting in and out of the sheath, the little enraged + creature by degrees makes his revengfull weapon pierce the toughest and + thickest Hides of his enemies, in so much that some few of these stout + and resolute soldiers with these little engines, do often put to flight a + huge masty Bear, one of their deadly enemies, and thereby shew the world + how much more considerable in Warr a few skilfull Engineers and resolute + soldiers politickly order’d, that know how to manage such engines, are, + then a vast unweildy rude force, that confides in, and acts onely by, its + strength. But (to proceed) that he thus gets in his Sting into the skin, + I conjecture, because, when I have observ’d this creature living, I have + found it to move the Sting thus, to and fro, and thereby also, perhaps, + does, as ’twere, pump or force out the poisonous liquor, and make it hang + at the end of the sheath about <i>b</i> in a drop. The crooks, I suppose + also to be the cause why these angry creatures, hastily removing + themselves from their revenge, do often leave these weapons behind them, + sheath’d, as ’twere, in the flesh, and, by that means, cause the painfull + symptoms to be greater, and more lasting, which are very probably caus’d, + partly by the piercing and tearing of the skin by the Sting, but chiefly + by the corrosive and poisonous liquor that is by this Syringe-pipe + convey’d among the sensitive parts thereof and thereby more easily gnaws + and corrodes those tender <i>fibres</i>: As + I have shewed in the description of a Nettle and of Cowhage.<br /></p> +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class='chapter' /> +<h2>Observ. <a name="obsXXXV" id="obsXXXV">XXXV</a>. <i>Of the contexture and shape of the particles of +</i>Feathers<i>.</i></h2> + + <p>Examining several sorts of <i>Feathers</i>, I took notice of these + particulars in all sorts of wing-Feathers, especially in those which + serv’d for the beating of the air in the action of flying.</p> + + <p>That the outward surface of the Quill and Stem was of a very hard, + stiff, and horny substance, which is obvious enough, and that the part + above the Quill was fill’d with a very white and light pith, and, with + the <i>Microscope</i>, I found this pith to be nothing else, but a kind + of natural <i>congeries</i> of small bubbles, the films of which seem to + be of the same substance with that of the Quill, that is, of a stiff + transparent horny substance.</p> + + <p>Which particular seems to me, very worthy a more serious + consideration; For here we may observe Nature, as ’twere, put to its + shifts, to make a substance, which shall be both light enough, and very + stiff and strong, without varying from its own establish’d principles, + which we may observe to be such, that very strong bodies are for the most + part very heavie also, a strength of the parts usually requiring a + density, and a density a gravity; and therefore should Nature have made a + body so broad and so strong as a Feather, almost, any other way then what + it has taken, the gravity of it must necessarily have many times exceeded + this; for this pith seems to be like so many stops or cross pieces in a + long optical tube, which do very much contribute to the strength of the + whole, the pores of which were such, as that they seem’d not to have any + communication with one another, as I have elsewhere hinted.</p> + + <p>But the Mechanism of Nature is usually so excellent, that one and the + same substance is adapted to serve for many ends. For the chief use of + this, indeed, seems to be for the supply of nourishment to the downy or + feathery part of the stem; for ’tis obvious enough in all sorts of + Feathers, that ’tis plac’d just under the roots of the branches that grow + out of either side of the quill or stalk, and is exactly shap’d according + to the ranking of those branches, coming no lower into the quill, then + just the beginning of the downy branches, and growing onely on the under + side of the quill where those branches do so. Now, in a ripe Feather + (as one may call it) it seems difficult to conceive how the <i>Succus + nutritius</i> should be convey’d to this pith; for it cannot, I think, be + well imagin’d to pass through the substance of the quill, since, having + examin’d it with the greatest diligence I was able, I could not find the + least appearance of pores; but he that shall well examine an unripe or + pinn’d Feather, will plainly enough perceive the Vessel for the + conveyance of it to be the thin filmy pith (as ’tis call’d) which passes + through the middle of the quill.</p> + + <p>As for the make and contexture of the Down it self, it is indeed very + rare and admirable, and such as I can + hardly believe, that the like is to be discover’d in any other body in + the world; for there is hardly a large Feather in the wing of a Bird, but + contains neer a million of distinct parts, and every one of them shap’d + in a most regular & admirable form, adapted to a particular Design: + For examining a middle ciz’d Goose-quill, I easily enough found with my + naked eye, that the main stem of it contain’d about 300. longer and more + Downy branchings upon one side, and as many on the other of more stiff + but somewhat shorter branchings. Many of these long and downy branchings, + examining with an ordinary <i>Microscope</i>, I found divers of them to + contain neer 1200. small leaves (as I may call them, such as EF of the +<span class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-22.png"><i>Schem.</i> 22.</a><br /><i>Fig.</i> 1. +</span> + first Figure of the 22. <i>Scheme</i>) and as many stalks on the other + side, such as IK of the same Figure, each of the leaves or branchings, + EF, seem’d to be divided into about sixteen or eighteen small joints, as + may be seen plainly enough in the Figure, out of most of which there seem + to grow small long <i>fibres</i>, such as are express’d in the Figure, + each of them very proportionably shap’d according to its position, or + place on the stalk EF; those on the under side of it, namely, 1, 2, 3, 4, + 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, <i>&c.</i> being much longer then those directly + opposite to them on the upper; and divers of them, such as 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, + 7, 8, 9, <i>&c.</i> were terminated with small crooks, much + resembling those small crooks, which are visible enough to the naked eye, + in the seed-buttons of Bur-docks. The stalks likewise, IK on the other + side, seem’d divided into neer as many small knotted joints, but without + any appearance of strings or crooks, each of them about the middle K, + seem’d divided into two parts by a kind of fork, one side of which, + namely, KL, was extended neer the length of KI, the other, M, was very + short.</p> + + <p>The transverse Sections of the stems of these branchings, manifested + the shape or figure of it to be much like INOE, which consisted of a + horny skin or covering, and a white seemingly frothy pith, much like the + make of the main stem of a Feather.</p> + + <p>The use of this strange kind of form, is indeed more admirable then + all the rest, and such as deserves to be much more seriously examin’d and + consider’d, then I have hitherto found time or ability to do; for + certainly, it may very much instruct us in the nature of the Air, + especially as to some properties of it.</p> + + <p>The stems of the Downy branches INOE, being rang’d in the order + visible enough to the naked eye, at the distance of IF, or somewhat more, + the <i>collateral</i> stalks and leaves (if I may so call those bodies I + newly described) are so rang’d, that the leaves or hairy stalks of the + one side lie at top, or are incumbent on the stalks of the other, and +<span class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-22.png"><i>Schem.</i> 22.</a><br /><i>Fig.</i> 2. +</span> + cross each other, much after the manner express’d in the second Figure of + the 22. <i>Scheme</i>, by which means every of those little hooked + <i>fibres</i> of the leaved stalk get between the naked stalks, and the + stalks being full of knots, and a prety way dis-join’d, so as that the + <i>fibres</i> can easily get between them, the two parts are so closely + and admirably woven together, that it is able to impede, for the greatest + part, the transcursion of the Air; and though they are so exceeding + small, as that the thickness of one of these + stalks amounts not to a 500. part of an Inch, yet do they compose so + strong a texture, as, notwithstanding the exceeding quick and violent + beating of them against the Air, by the strength of the Birds wing, they + firmly hold together. And it argues an admirable providence of Nature in + the contrivance and fabrick of them; for their texture is such, that + though by any external injury the parts of them are violently disjoyn’d, + so as that the leaves and stalks touch not one another, and consequently + several of these rents would impede the Bird’s flying; yet, for the most + part, of themselves they readily re-join and re-contex themselves, and + are easily by the Birds stroking the Feather, or drawing it through its + Bill, all of them settled and woven into their former and natural + posture; for there are such an infinite company of those small + <i>fibres</i> in the under side of the leaves, and most of them have such + little crooks at their ends, that they readily catch and hold the stalks + they touch.</p> + + <p>From which strange contexture, it seems rational to suppose that there + is a certain kind of mesh or hole so small, that the Air will not very + easily pass through it, as I hinted also in the sixth Observation about + small Glass Canes, for otherwise it seems probable, that Nature would + have drawn over some kind of thin film which should have covered all + those almost square meshes or holes, there seeming through the + <i>Microscope</i> to be more then half of the surface of the Feather + which is open and visibly pervious; which conjecture will yet seem more + probable from the texture of the brushie wings of the <i>Tinea + argentea</i>, or white Feather wing’d moth, which I shall anone describe. + But Nature, that knows best its own laws, and the several properties of + bodies, knows also best how to adapt and fit them to her designed ends, + and whoso would know those properties, must endeavour to trace Nature in + its working, and to see what course she observes. And this I suppose will + be no inconsiderable advantage which the <i>Schematisms</i> and + Structures of Animate bodies will afford the diligent enquirer, namely, + most sure and excellent instructions, both as to the practical part of + <i>Mechanicks</i> and to the <i>Theory</i> and knowledge of the nature of + the bodies and motions.<br /></p> +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class='chapter' /> +<h2>Observ. <a name="obsXXXVI" id="obsXXXVI">XXXVI</a>. <i>Of </i>Peacocks<i>, </i>Ducks<i>, and other </i>Feathers<i> of + changeable colours.</i></h2> + + <p>The parts of the Feathers of this glorious Bird appear, through the + <i>Microscope</i>, no less gaudy then do the whole Feathers; for, as to + the naked eye ’tis evident that the stem or quill of each Feather in the + tail sends out multitudes of <i>Lateral</i> branches, such as AB in the +<span class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-22.png"><i>Schem.</i> 22.</a><br /><i>Fig.</i> 3. +</span> + third Figure of the 22. <i>Scheme</i> represents a small part of about + ¹⁄₃₂ part of an Inch long, and each of the <i>lateral</i> branches emit + multitudes of little sprigs, threads or hairs on either side of them, + such as CD, CD, CD, so each of those threads in the <i>Microscope</i> + appears a large long body, consisting of a multitude + of bright reflecting parts, whose Figure ’tis no easie matter to + determine, as he that examines it shall find; for every new position of + it to the light makes it perfectly seem of another form and shape, and + nothing what it appear’d a little before; nay, it appear’d very differing + ofttimes from so seemingly inconsiderable a circumstance, that the + interposing of ones hand between the light and it, makes a very great + change, and the opening or shutting a Casement and the like, very much + diversifies the appearance. And though, by examining the form of it very + many ways, which would be tedious here to enumerate, I suppose I have + discover’d the true Figure of it, yet oftentimes, upon looking on it in + another posture, I have almost thought my former observations deficient, + though indeed, upon further examination, I have found even those also to + confirm them.</p> + + <p>These threads therefore I find to be a <i>congeries</i> of small + <i>Laminæ</i> or plates, as <i>eeeee</i>, &c. each of them shap’d + much like this of <i>abcd</i>, in the fourth <i>Figure</i>, the part + <i>ac</i> being a ridge, prominency, or stem, and <i>b</i> and <i>d</i> + the corners of two small thin Plates that grow unto the small stalk in + the middle, so that they make a kind of little feather; each of these + Plates lie one close to another, almost like a company of sloping ridge + or gutter Tyles; they grow on each side of the stalk opposite to one + another, by two and two, from top to bottom, in the manner express’d in + the fifth Figure, the tops of the lower covering the roots of the next + above them; the under side of each of these laminated bodies, is of a + very dark and opacous substance, and suffers very few Rays to be + trajected, but reflects them all toward that side from whence they come, + much like the foil of a Looking-glass; but their upper sides seem to me + to consist of a multitude of thin plated bodies, which are exceeding + thin, and lie very close together, and thereby, like mother of Pearl + shells, do not onely reflect a very brisk light, but tinge that light in + a most curious manner; and by means of various positions, in respect of + the light, they reflect back now one colour, and then another, and those + most vividly.</p> + + <p>Now, that these colours are onely <i>fantastical</i> ones, that is, + such as arise immediately from the refractions of the light, I found by + this, that water wetting these colour’d parts, destroy’d their colours, + which seem’d to proceed from the alteration of the reflection and + refraction. Now, though I was not able to see those hairs at all + transparent by a common light, yet by looking on them against the Sun, I + found them to be ting’d with a darkish red colour, nothing a-kin to the + curious and lovely greens and blues they exhibited.</p> + + <p>What the reason of colour seems to be in such thin plated bodies, I + have elsewhere shewn. But how water cast upon those threads destroys + their colours, I suppose to be perform’d thus; The water falling upon + these plated bodies from its having a greater congruity to Feathers then + the Air, insinuates it self between those Plates, and so extrudes the + strong reflecting Air, whence both these parts grow more transparent, as + the <i>Microscope</i> informs, and colourless also, at best retaining a + very faint and dull colour. But this wet being wasted away + by the continual evaporations and steams that pass through them from the + Peacock, whil’st that Bird is yet alive, the colours again appear in + their former luster, the <i>interstitia</i> of these Plates being fill’d + with the strongly reflecting Air.</p> + + <p>The beauteous and vivid colours of the Feathers of this Bird, being + found to proceed from the curious and exceeding smalness and fineness of + the reflecting parts, we have here the reason given us of all those + gauderies in the apparel of other Birds also, and how they come to exceed + the colours of all other kinds of Animals, besides Insects; for since (as + we here, and elsewhere also shew) the vividness of a colour, depends upon + the fineness and transparency of the reflecting and refracting parts; and + since our <i>Microscope</i> discovers to us, that the component parts of + feathers are such, and that the hairs of Animals are otherwise; and since + we find also by the Experiment of that Noble and most Excellent Person I + formerly named; that the difference between Silk and Flax, as to its + colour, is nothing else (for Flax reduc’d to a very great fineness of + parts, both white and colour’d, appears as white and as vivid as any + Silk, but loses that brightness and its Silken aspect as soon as it is + twisted into thread, by reason that the component parts, though very + small and fine, are yet pliable flakes, and not cylinders, and thence, by + twisting, become united into one opacous body, whereas the threads of + Silk and Feathers retain their lustre, by preserving their cylindrical + form intire without mixing; so that each reflected and refracted beam + that composes the gloss of Silk, preserves its own property of modulating + the light intire); And since we find the same confirm’d by many other + Experiments elsewhere mentioned, I think we may safely conclude this for + an Axiome, that wheresoever we meet with transparent bodies, spun out + into very fine parts, either cleer, or any ways ting’d, the colours + resulting from such a <i>composition</i> must necessarily be very + glorious, vivid, and cleer, like those of Silk and Feathers. This may + perhaps hint some usefull way of making other bodies, besides Silk, be + susceptible of bright tinctures, but of this onely by the by.</p> + + <p>The changeable colour’d Feathers also of Ducks, and several other + Birds, I have found by examination with my <i>Microscope</i>, to proceed + from much the same causes and textures.<br /></p> +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class='chapter' /> +<h2>Observ. <a name="obsXXXVII" id="obsXXXVII">XXXVII</a>. <i>Of the Feet of </i>Flies<i>, and several other </i>Insects<i>.</i></h2> + +<div class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-23.png"><i>Schem.</i> 23.</a><br /><i>Fig.</i> 1, 2. +</div> + + <p>The foot of a Fly (delineated in the first <i>Figure</i> of the 23. + <i>Scheme</i>, which represents three joints, the two Tallons, and the + two Pattens in a flat posture; and in the second <i>Figure</i> of the + same <i>Scheme</i>, which represents onely one joint, the Tallons and + Pattens in another posture) is of a most admirable and curious + contrivance, for by this the Flies are inabled to walk against the sides + of Glass, perpendicularly upwards, and to contain + themselves in that posture as long as they please; nay, to walk and + suspend themselves against the under surface of many bodies, as the + ceiling of a room, or the like, and this with as great a seeming facility + and firmness, as if they were a kind of <i>Antipodes</i>, and had a + <i>tendency</i> upwards, as we are sure they have the contrary, which + they also evidently discover, in that they cannot make themselves so + light, as to stick or suspend themselves on the under surface of a Glass + well polish’d and cleans’d; their suspension therefore is wholly to be + ascrib’d to some Mechanical contrivance in their feet; which, what it is, + we shall in brief explain, by shewing, that its Mechanism consists + principally in two parts, that is, first its two Claws, or Tallons, and + secondly, two Palms, Pattens, or Soles.</p> + + <p>The two Tallons are very large, in proportion to the foot, and + handsomely shap’d in the manner describ’d in the <i>Figures</i>, by AB, + and AC, the bigger part of them from A to <i>dd</i>, is all hairy, or + brisled, but toward the top, at C and B smooth, the tops or points, which + seem very sharp turning downwards and inwards, are each of them mov’d on + a joint at A, by which the Fly is able to open or shut them at pleasure, + so that the points B and C being entered in any pores, and the Fly + endeavouring to shut them, the Claws not onely draw one against another, + and so fasten each other, but they draw the whole foot, GGADD forward, so + that on a soft footing, the tenters or points GGGG, (whereof a Fly has + about ten in each foot, to wit, two in every joint) run into the pores, + if they find any, or at least make their way; and this is sensible to the + naked eye, in the feet of a <i>Chafer</i>, which, if he be suffer’d to + creep over the hand, or any other part of the skin of ones body, does + make his steps as sensible to the touch as the sight.</p> + + <p>But this contrivance, as it often fails the <i>Chafer</i>, when he + walks on hard and close bodies, so would it also our Fly, though he be a + much lesser, and nimbler creature, and therefore Nature has furnish’d his + foot with another <i>additament</i> much more curious and admirable, and + that is, with a couple of Palms, Pattens or Soles DD, the structure of + which is this:</p> + + <p>From the bottom or under part of the last joint of his foot, K, arise + two small thin plated horny substances, each consisting of two flat + pieces, DD, which seem to be flexible, like the covers of a Book, about + FF, by which means, the plains of the two sides EE, do not always lie in + the same plain, but may be sometimes shut closer, and so each of them may + take a little hold themselves on a body; but that is not all, for the + under sides of these Soles are all beset with small brisles, or tenters, + like the Wire teeth of a Card used for working Wool, the points of all + which tend forwards, hence the two Tallons drawing the feet forwards, as + I before hinted, and these being applied to the surface of the body with + all the points looking the contrary way, that is, forwards and outwards, + if there be any irregularity or yielding in the surface of the body, the + Fly suspends it self very firmly and easily, without the access or need + of any such Sponges fill’d with an imaginary <i>gluten</i>, as many have, + for want of good Glasses, perhaps, or a troublesome and diligent + examination, suppos’d.</p> + + <p>Now, that the Fly is able to walk on Glass, proceeds partly from some + ruggedness of the surface: and chiefly from + a kind of tarnish, or dirty smoaky substance, which adheres to the + surface of that very hard body; and though the pointed parts cannot + penetrate the substance of Glass, yet may they find pores enough in the + tarnish, or at least make them.</p> + + <p>This Structure I somewhat the more diligently survey’d, because I + could not well comprehend, how, if there were such a glutinous matter in + those supposed Sponges, as most (that have observ’d that Object in a + <i>Microscope</i>) have hitherto believ’d, how, I say, the Fly could so + readily unglew and loosen its feet: and, because I have not found any + other creature to have a contrivance any ways like it, and chiefly, that + we might not be cast upon unintelligible explications of the + <i>Phænomena</i> of Nature, at least others then the true ones, where our + senses were able to furnish us with an intelligible, rationall and true + one.</p> + + <p>Somewhat a like contrivance to this of Flies shall we find in most + other Animals, such as all kinds of Flies and case-wing’d creatures; nay, + in a Flea, an Animal abundantly smaller then this Fly. Other creatures, + as Mites, the Land-Crab, <i>&c.</i> have onely one small very sharp + Tallon at the end of each of their legs, which all drawing towards the + center or middle of their body, inable these exceeding light bodies to + suspend and fasten themselves to almost any surface.</p> + + <p>Which how they are able to do, will not seem strange, if we consider, + first, how little body there is in one of these creatures compar’d to + their superficies, or outside, their thickness, perhaps, oftentimes, not + amounting to the hundredth part of an Inch: Next, the strength and + agility of these creatures compar’d to their bulk, being, proportionable + to their bulk, perhaps, an hundred times stronger then an Horse or Man. + And thirdly, if we consider that Nature does always appropriate the + instruments, so as they are the most fit and convenient to perform their + offices, and the most simple and plain that possibly can be; this we may + see further verify’d also in the foot of a Louse which is very much + differing from those I have been describing, but more convenient and + necessary for the place of its habitation, each of his leggs being footed + with a couple of small claws which he can open or shut at pleasure, + shap’d almost like the claws of a Lobster or Crab, but with appropriated + contrivances for his peculiar use, which being to move its body to and + fro upon the hairs of the creature it inhabits, Nature has furnish’d one + of its claws with joints, almost like the joints of a man’s fingers, so + as thereby it is able to encompass or grasp a hair as firmly as a man can + a stick or rope.</p> + + <p>Nor, is there a less admirable and wonderfull <i>Mechanism</i> in the + foot of a Spider, whereby he is able to spin, weave, and climb, or run on + his curious transparent clew, of which I shall say more in the + description of that Animal.</p> + + <p>And to conclude, we shall in all things find, that Nature does not + onely work Mechanically, but by such excellent and most compendious, as + well as stupendious contrivances, that it were impossible for all the + reason in the world to find out any contrivance to do the same thing that + should have more convenient properties. And can any be so sottish, + as to think all those things the + productions of chance? Certainly, either their Ratiocination must be + extremely depraved, or they did never attentively consider and + contemplate the Works of the Al-mighty.<br /></p> +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class='chapter' /> +<h2>Observ. <a name="obsXXXVIII" id="obsXXXVIII">XXXVIII</a>. <i>Of the Structure and motion of the Wings +of </i>Flies<i>.</i></h2> + + <p>The Wings of all kinds of Insects, are, for the most part, very + beautifull Objects, and afford no less pleasing an Object to the mind to + speculate upon, then to the eye to behold. This of the blue Fly, among + the rest, wants not its peculiar ornaments and contrivances; it grows out + of the <i>Thorax</i>, or middle part of the body of a Fly, and is seated + a little beyond the center of gravity in the body towards the head, but + that <i>Excentricly</i> is curiously balanc’d; first, by the expanded + <i>Area</i> of the wings which lies all more backwards then the root, by + the motion of them, whereby the center of their vibration is much more + backwards towards the tail of the Fly then the root of the wing is. What + the vibrative motion of the wings is, and after what manner they are + moved, I have endeavoured by many trials to find out: And first for the + manner of their motion, I endeavoured to observe several of those kind of + small spinning Flies, which will naturally suspend themselves, as it + were, pois’d and steady in one place of the air, without rising or + falling, or moving forwards or backwards; for by looking down on those, I + could by a kind of faint shadow, perceive the utmost extremes of the + vibrative motion of their wings, which shadow, whil’st they so + endeavoured to suspend themselves, was not very long, but when they + endeavour’d to flie forwards, it was somewhat longer; next, I tried it, + by fixing the leggs of a Fly upon the top of the stalk of a feather, with + Glew, Wax, <i>&c.</i> and then making it endeavour to flie away; for + being thereby able to view it in any posture, I collected that the motion + of the wing was after this manner. The extreme limits of the vibrations + were usually somewhat about the length of the body distant from one + another, oftentimes shorter, and sometimes also longer; that the formost + limit was usually a little above the back, and the hinder somwhat beneath + the belly; between which two limits, if one may ghess by the sound, the + wing seem’d to be mov’d forwards and backwards with an equal velocity: + And if one may (from the shadow or faint representation the wings + afforded, and from the consideration of the nature of the thing) ghess at + the posture or manner of the wings moving between them, it seem’d to be + this: The wing being suppos’d placed in the upmost limit, seems to be put + so that the plain of it lies almost <i>horizontal</i>, but onely the + forepart does dip a little, or is somewhat more deprest; in this position + is the wing vibrated or mov’d to the lower limit, being almost arrived at + the lower limit, the hinder part of the wing moving somewhat faster then + the former, the <i>Area</i> of the wing begins + to dip behind, and in that posture seems it to be mov’d to the upper + limit back again, and thence back again in the first posture, the former + part of the <i>Area</i> dipping again, as it is moved downwards by means + of the quicker motion of the main stem which terminates or edges the + forepart of the wing. And these vibrations or motions to and fro between + the two limits seem so swift, that ’tis very probable (from the sound it + affords, if it be compar’d with the vibration of a musical string, tun’d + unison to it) it makes many hundreds, if not some thousands of vibrations + in a second minute of time. And, if we may be allow’d to ghess by the + sound, the wing of a Bee is yet more swift, for the tone is much more + acute, and that, in all likelihood, proceeds from the exceeding swift + beating of the air by the small wing. And it seems the more likely too, + because the wing of a Bee is less in proportion to its body, then the + other wing to the body of a Fly; so that for ought I know, it may be one + of the quickest vibrating <i>spontaneous</i> motions of any in the world; + and though perhaps there may be many Flies in other places that afford a + yet more shrill note with their wings, yet ’tis most probable that the + quickest vibrating <i>spontaneous</i> motion is to be found in the wing + of some creature. Now, if we consider the exceeding quickness of these + Animal spirits that must cause these motions, we cannot chuse but admire + the exceeding vividness of the governing faculty or <i>Anima</i> of the + Insect, which is able to dispose and regulate so the motive + faculties, as to cause every peculiar organ, not onely to move or act so + quick, but to do it also so regularly.</p> + + <p>Whil’st I was examining and considering the curious <i>Mechanism</i> + of the wings, I observ’d that under the wings of most kind of Flies, + Bees, <i>&c.</i> there were plac’d certain <i>pendulums</i> or + extended drops (as I may so call them from their resembling motion and + figure) for they much resembled a long hanging drop of some transparent + viscous liquor; and I observed them constantly to move just before the + wings of the Fly began to move, so that at the first sight I could not + but ghess, that there was some excellent use, as to the regulation of the + motion of the wing, and did phancy, that it might be something like the + handle of a Cock, which by vibrating to and fro, might, as ’twere, open + and shut the Cock, and thereby give a passage to the determinate + influences into the Muscles; afterwards, upon some other trials, I + suppos’d that they might be for some use in respiration, which for many + reasons I suppose those Animals to use, and, me thought, it was not very + improbable, but that they might have convenient passages under the wings + for the emitting, at least, of the air, if not admitting, as in the gills + of Fishes is most evident; or, perhaps, this <i>Pendulum</i> might be + somewhat like the staff to a Pump, whereby these creatures might exercise + their <i>Analogous</i> lungs, and not only draw in, but force out, the + air they live by: but these were but conjectures, and upon further + examination seem’d less probable.</p> + +<div class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-23.png"><i>Schem.</i> 23.</a><br /><i>Fig.</i> 4.<br /> +<a href="images/scheme-26.png"><i>Schem.</i> 26.</a><br /><i>Fig.</i> 2. +</div> + + <p>The fabrick of the wing, as it appears through a moderately magnifying + <i>Microscope</i>, seems to be a body consisting of two parts, as is + visible in the 4. <i>Figure</i> of the 23. <i>Scheme</i>; and by the 2. + <i>Figure</i> of the 26. <i>Scheme</i>; the one is a quilly + or finny substance, consisting of several long, slender and variously + bended quills or wires, something resembling the veins of leaves; these + are, as ’twere, the finns or quills which stiffen the whole <i>Area</i>, + and keep the other part distended, which is a very thin transparent skin + or membrane variously folded, and platted, but not very regularly, and is + besides exceeding thickly bestuck with innumerable small bristles, which + are onely perceptible by the bigger magnifying <i>Microscope</i>, and not + with that neither, but with a very convenient augmentation of sky-light + projected on the Object with a burning Glass, as I have elsewhere shew’d, + or by looking through it against the light.</p> + + <p>In steed of these small hairs, in several other Flies, there are + infinite of small Feathers, which cover both the under and upper sides of + this thin film as in almost all the sorts of Butterflies and Moths: and + those small parts are not onely shap’d very much like the feathers of + Birds, but like those variegated with all the variety of curious bright + and vivid colours imaginable; and those feathers are likewise so + admirably and delicately rang’d, as to compose very fine flourishings and + ornamental paintings, like <i>Turkie</i> and <i>Persian</i> Carpets, but + of far more surpassing beauty, as is evident enough to the naked eye, in + the painted wings of Butterflies, but much more through an ordinary + <i>Microscope</i>.</p> + + <p>Intermingled likewise with these hairs, may be perceived multitudes of + little pits, or black spots, in the extended membrane, which seem to be + the root of the hairs that grow on the other side; these two bodies seem + dispers’d over the whole surface of the wing.</p> + + <p>The hairs are best perceiv’d, by looking through it against the light, + or, by laying the wing upon a very white piece of Paper, in a convenient + light, for thereby every little hair most manifestly appears; a +<span class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-23.png"><i>Schem.</i> 23.</a><br /><i>Fig.</i> 4. +</span> + <i>Specimen</i> of which you may observe drawn in the fourth + <i>Figure</i> of the 23. <i>Scheme</i>, AB, CD, EF whereof represent some + parts of the bones or quills of the wing, each of which you may perceive + to be cover’d over with a multitude of scales, or bristles, the former + AB, is the biggest stem of all the wing, and may be properly enough + call’d the cut-air, it being that which terminates and stiffens the + formost edge of the wing; the fore-edge of this is arm’d with a multitude + of little brisles, or Tenter-hooks, in some standing regular and in + order, in others not; all the points of which are directed from the body + towards the tip of the wing, nor is this edge onely thus fring’d, but + even all the whole edge of the wing is covered with a small fringe, + consisting of short and more slender brisles.</p> + + <p>This Subject, had I time, would afford excellent matter for the + contemplation of the nature of wings and of flying, but, because I may, + perhaps, get a more convenient time to prosecute that speculation, and + recollect several Observations that I have made of that particular. I + shall at present proceed to<br /></p> +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class='chapter' /> +<h2>Observ. <a name="obsXXXIX" id="obsXXXIX">XXXIX</a>. <i>Of the Eyes and Head of a </i>Grey drone-Fly<i>, +and of several other creatures.</i></h2> + + <p>I took a large grey <i>Drone-Fly</i>, that had a large head, but a + small and slender body in proportion to it, and cutting off its head, I + fix’d it with the forepart or face upwards upon my Object Plate (this I + made choice of rather then the head of a great blue Fly, because my + enquiry being now about the eyes, I found this Fly to have, first the + biggest clusters of eyes in proportion to his head, of any small kind of + Fly that I have yet seen, it being somewhat inclining towards the make of + the large <i>Dragon-Flies</i>. Next, because there is a greater variety + in the knobs or balls of each cluster, then is of any small Fly.) Then + examining it according to my usual manner, by varying the degrees of + light, and altering its position to each kinde of light, I drew that +<span class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-24.png"><i>Schem.</i> 24.</a> +</span> + representation of it which is delineated in the 24. <i>Scheme</i>, and + found these things to be as plain and evident, as notable and + pleasant.</p> + + <p><i>First</i>, that the greatest part of the face, nay, of the head, + was nothing else but two large and <i>protuberant</i> bunches, or + <i>prominent</i> parts, ABCDEA, the surface of each of which was all + cover’d over, or shap’d into a multitude of small <i>Hemispheres</i>, + plac’d in a <i>triagonal</i> order, that being the closest and most + compacted, and in that order, rang’d over the whole surface of the eye in + very lovely rows, between each of which, as is necessary, were left long + and regular trenches, the bottoms of every of which, were perfectly + intire and not at all perforated or drill’d through, which I most + certainly was assured of, by the regularly reflected Image of certain + Objects which I mov’d to and fro between the head and the light. And by + examining the <i>Cornea</i> or outward skin, after I had stript it off + from the several substances that lay within it, and by looking both upon + the inside and against the light.</p> + + <p><i>Next</i>, that of those multitudes of <i>Hemispheres</i>, there + were observable two degrees of bigness, the half of them that were + lowermost, and look’d toward the ground or their own leggs, namely, CDE, + CDE being a pretty deal smaller then the other, namely, ABCE, ABCE, that + look’d upward, and side-ways, or foreright, and backward, which variety I + have not found in any other small Fly.</p> + + <p><i>Thirdly</i>, that every one of these <i>Hemispheres</i>, as they + seem’d to be pretty neer the true shape of a <i>Hemisphere</i>, so was + the surface exceeding smooth and regular, reflecting as exact, regular, + and perfect an Image of any Object from the surface of them, as a small + Ball of Quick-silver of that bigness would do, but nothing neer so vivid, + the reflection from these being very languid, much like the reflection + from the outside of Water, Glass, Crystal, <i>&c.</i> In so much that + in each of these <i>Hemispheres</i>, I have been able to discover a + Land-scape of those things which lay before my window, + one thing of which was a large Tree, whose trunk and top I could plainly + discover, as I could also the parts of my window, and my hand and + fingers, if I held it between the Window and the Object; a small draught + of nineteen of which, as they appear’d in the bigger Magnifying-glass to + reflect the Image of the two windows of my Chamber, are delineated in the +<span class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-23.png"><i>Schem.</i> 23.</a><br /><i>Fig.</i> 3. +</span> + third <i>Figure</i> of the 23. <i>Scheme</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Fourthly</i>, that these rows were so dispos’d, that there was no + quarter visible from his head that there was not some of these + <i>Hemispheres</i> directed against, so that a Fly may be truly said to + have <i>an eye every way</i>, and to be really <i>circumspect</i>. And it + was further observable, that that way where the trunk of his body did + hinder his prospect backward, these <i>protuberances</i> were elevated, + as it were, above the plain of his shoulders and back, so that he was + able to see backwards also over his back.</p> + + <p><i>Fifthly</i>, in living Flies, I have observ’d, that when any small + mote or dust, which flies up and down the air, chances to light upon any + part of these knobs, as it is sure to stick firmly to it and not fall, + though through the <i>Microscope</i> it appears like a large stone or + stick (which one would admire, especially since it is no ways probable + that there is any wet or glutinous matter upon these <i>Hemispheres</i>, + but I hope I shall render the reason in another place) so the Fly + presently makes use of his two fore-feet in stead of eye-lids, with + which, as with two Brooms or Brushes, they being all bestuck with + Brisles, he often sweeps or brushes off what ever hinders the prospect of + any of his <i>Hemispheres</i>, and then, to free his leggs from that + dirt, he rubs them one against another, the pointed Brisles or Tenters of + which looking both one way, the rubbing of them to and fro one against + another, does cleanse them in the same manner as I have observ’d those + that Card Wool, to cleanse their Cards, by placing their Cards, so as the + teeth of both look the same way, and then rubbing them one against + another. In the very same manner do they brush and cleanse their bodies + and wings, as I shall by and by shew; other creatures have other + contrivances for the cleansing and cleering their eyes.</p> + + <p><i>Sixthly</i> that the number of the <i>Pearls</i> or + <i>Hemispheres</i> in the clusters of this Fly, was neer 14000. which I + judged by numbering certain rows of them several ways, and casting up the + whole content, accounting each cluster to contain about seven thousand + Pearls, three thousand of which were of a size, and consequently the rows + not so thick, and the foure thousand I accounted to be the number of the + smaller Pearls next the feet and <i>proboscis</i>. Other Animals I + observ’d to have yet a greater number, as the <i>Dragon-Fly</i> or + <i>Adderbolt</i>: And others to have a much less company, as an + <i>Ant</i>, &c. and several other small Flies and Insects.</p> + + <p><i>Seventhly</i>, that the order of these eies or <i>Hemispheres</i> + was altogether curious and admirable, they being plac’d in all kind of + Flies, and <i>aerial</i> animals, in a most curious and regular + ordination of triangular rows, in which order they are rang’d the neerest + together that possibly they can, and consequently leave the least pits or + trenches between them. But in <i>Shrimps</i>, <i>Crawfishes</i>, + <i>Lobsters</i>, and such kinds of <i>Crustaceous</i> water Animals, I + have yet observ’d them rang’d in a quadrangular + order, the rows cutting each other at right angles, which as it admits of + a less number of Pearls in equal surfaces; so have those creatures a + recompence made them, by having their eyes a little movable in their + heads, which the other altogether want. So infinitely wise and provident + do we find all the Dispensations in Nature, that certainly + <i>Epicurus</i>, and his followers, must very little have consider’d + them, who ascrib’d those things to the production of chance, that wil, to + a more attentive considerer, appear the products of the highest Wisdom + and Providence.</p> + + <p>Upon the Anatomy or Dissection of the Head, I observ’d these + particulars:</p> + + <p>First, that this outward skin, like the <i>Cornea</i> of the eyes of + the greater Animals, was both flexible and transparent, and seem’d, + through the <i>Microscope</i> perfectly to resemble the very substance of + the <i>Cornea</i> of a man’s eye; for having cut out the cluster, and + remov’d the dark and <i>mucous</i> stuff that is subjacent to it, I could + see it transparent like a thin piece of skin, having as many cavities in + the inside of it, and rang’d in the same order as it had + <i>protuberances</i> on the outside, and this propriety, I found the same + in all the Animals that had it, whether Flies or Shell-Fish.</p> + + <p>Secondly, I found that all Animals that I have observ’d with those + kind of eyes; have within this <i>Cornea</i>, a certain cleer liquor or + juice, though in a very little quantity, and,</p> + + <p>I observ’d thirdly, that within that cleer liquor, they had a kind of + dark <i>mucous</i> lining, which was all spread round within the cavity + of the clutter, and seem’d very neer adjoining to it, the colour of + which, in some Flies, was grey; in others, black, in others red; in + others, of a mix’d colour; in others, spotted; and that the whole + clusters, when look’d on whilst the Animal was living, or but newly + kill’d, appear’d of the same colour that this coat (as I may so call it) + appear’d of, when that outward skin, or <i>Cornea</i>, was remov’d.</p> + + <p>Fourthly, that the rest of the capacity of the clusters was in some, + as in Dragon Flies, <i>&c.</i> hollow, or empty; in others fill’d + with some kind of substance; in blue Flies, with a reddish musculous + substance, with <i>fibres</i> tending from the center or bottom outwards; + and divers other, with various and differing kinds of substances.</p> + + <p>That this curious contrivance is the organ of sight to all those + various <i>Crustaceous</i> Animals, which are furnish’d with it, I think + we need not doubt, if we consider but the several congruities it has with + the eyes of greater creatures.</p> + + <p>As first, that it is furnish’d with a <i>Cornea</i>, with a + <i>transparent humour</i>, and with a <i>uvea</i> or <i>retina</i>, that + the Figure of each of the small <i>Hemispheres</i> are very + <i>Spherical</i>, exactly polish’d, and most vivid, lively and plump, + when the Animal is living, as in greater Animals, and in like manner + dull, flaccid, and irregular, or shrunk, when the Animal is dead.</p> + + <p>Next, that those creatures that are furnish’d with it, have no other + organs that have any resemblance to the known eyes of other + creatures.</p> + + <p>Thirdly, that those which they call the eyes of Crabs, Lobsters, + Shrimps, and the like, and are really so, are <i>Hemispher’d</i>, almost + in the same manner as these of Flies are. And that they really are so, I + have very often try’d, by cutting off these little movable knobs, and + putting the creature again into the water, that it would swim to and fro, + and move up and down as well as before, but would often hit it self + against the rocks or stones; and though I put my hand just before its + head, it would not at all start or fly back till I touch’d it, whereas + whil’st those were remaining, it would start back, and avoid my hand or a + stick at a good distance before it touch’d it. And if in + <i>crustaceous</i> Sea-animals, then it seems very probable also, that + these knobs are the eyes in <i>crustaceous</i> Insects, which are also of + the same kind, onely in a higher and more active Element; this the + conformity or congruity of many other parts common to either of them, + will strongly argue, their <i>crustaceous</i> armour, their number of + leggs, which are six, beside the two great claws, which answer to the + wings in Insects; and in all kind of Spiders, as also in many other + Insects that want wings, we shall find the compleat number of them, and + not onely the number, but the very shape, figure, joints, and claws of + Lobsters and Crabs, as is evident in Scorpions and Spiders, as is visible +<span class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-31.png"><i>Schem.</i> 31.</a><br /><i>Fig.</i> 2.<br /> +<a href="images/scheme-33.png"><i>Schem.</i> 33.</a><br /><i>Fig.</i> 2. +</span> + in the second <i>Figure</i> of the 31. <i>Scheme</i>, and in the little + Mite-worm, which I call a Land-crab, describ’d in the second Figure of + the 33. <i>Scheme</i>, but in their manner of generation being oviparous, + <i>&c.</i> And it were very worthy observation, whether there be not + some kinds of transformation and metamorphosis in the several states of + <i>crustaceous</i> water-animals, as there is in several sorts of + Insects; for if such could be met with, the progress of the variations + would be much more conspicuous in those larger Animals, then they can be + in any kind of Insects our colder Climate affords.</p> + + <p>These being their eyes, it affords us a very pretty Speculation to + contemplate their manner of vision, which, as it is very differing from + that of <i>biocular</i> Animals, so is it not less admirable.</p> + + <p>That each of these Pearls or <i>Hemispheres</i> is a perfect eye, I + think we need not doubt, if we consider onely the outside or figure of + any one of them, for they being each of them cover’d with a transparent + protuberant <i>Cornea</i>, and containing a liquor within them, + resembling the watry or glassie humours of the eye, must necessarily + refract all the parallel Rays that fall on them out of the air, into a + point not farr distant within them, where (in all probability) the + <i>Retina</i> of the eye is placed, and that opacous, dark, and mucous + inward coat that (I formerly shew’d) I found to subtend the concave part + of the cluster is very likely to be that <i>tunicle</i> or coat, it + appearing through the <i>Microscope</i> to be plac’d a little more than a + Diameter of those Pearls below or within the <i>tunica cornea</i>. And if + so, then is there in all probability, a little Picture or Image of the + objects without, painted or made at the bottom of the <i>Retina</i> + against every one of those Pearls, so that there are as many impressions + on the <i>Retina</i> or opacous skin, as there are Pearls or + <i>Hemispheres</i> on the cluster. But because it is impossible for any + protuberant surface whatsoever, whether <i>sphærial</i> or other, so to + refract the Rays that come from farr remote <i>lateral</i> points of any Object as to collect them again, and unite + them each in a distinct point, and that onely those Rays which come from + some point that lies in the <i>Axis</i> of the Figure produc’d, are so + accurately refracted to one and the same point again, and that the + <i>lateral</i> Rays, the further they are remov’d, the more imperfect is + their refracted confluence; It follows therefore, that onely the Picture + of those parts of the external objects that lie in, or neer, the + <i>Axis</i> of each <i>Hemisphere</i>, are discernably painted or made on + the <i>Retina</i> of each <i>Hemisphere</i>, and that therefore each of + them can distinctly sensate or see onely those parts which are very neer + perpendicularly oppos’d to it, or lie in or neer its optick <i>Axis</i>. + Now, though there may be by each of these eye-pearls, a representation to + the Animal of a whole <i>Hemisphere</i> in the same manner as in a man’s + eye there is a picture or sensation in the <i>Retina</i> of all the + objects lying almost in an <i>Hemisphere</i>; yet, as in a man’s eye + also, there are but some very few points which liyng in, or neer, the + optick <i>Axis</i> are distinctly discern’d: So there may be multitudes + of Pictures made of an Object in the several Pearls, and yet but one, or + some very few that are distinct; The representation of any object that is + made in any other Pearl, but that which is directly, or very neer + directly, oppos’d, being altogether confus’d and unable to produce a + distinct vision.</p> + + <p>So that we see, that though it has pleas’d the All-wise Creator, to + indue this creature with such multitudes of eyes, yet has he not indued + it with the faculty of seeing more then another creature; for whereas + this cannot move his head, at least can move it very little, without + moving his whole body, <i>biocular</i> creatures can in an instant (or + <i>the twinkling of an eye</i>, which, being very quick, is vulgarly used + in the same signification) move their eyes so as to direct the optick + <i>Axis</i> to any point; nor is it probable, that they are able to see + attentively at one time more then one Physical point; for though there be + a distinct Image made in every eye, yet ’tis very likely, that the + observing faculty is only imploy’d about some one object for which they + have most concern.</p> + + <p>Now, as we accurately distinguish the site or position of an Object by + the motion of the Muscles of the eye requisite to put the optick Line in + a direct position, and confusedly by the position of the imperfect + Picture of the object at the bottom of the eye; so are these + <i>crustaceous</i> creatures able to judge confusedly of the position of + objects by the Picture or impression made at the bottom of the opposite + Pearl, and distinctly by the removal of the attentive or observing + faculty, from one Pearl to another, but what this faculty is, as it + requires another place, so a much deeper speculation. Now, because it + were impossible, even with this multitude of eye-balls, to see any object + distinct (for as I hinted before, onely those parts that lay in, or very + neer, the optick Lines could be so) the Infinitely wise Creator has not + left the creature without a power of moving the head a little in + <i>Aerial crustaceous</i> animals, and the very eyes also in + <i>crustaceous</i> Sea-animals; so that by these means they are inabled + to direct some optick line or other against any object, and by that means + they have the visive faculty as compleat as any Animal that can move its + eyes.</p> + + <p>Distances of Objects also, ’tis very likely they distinguish, partly + by the consonant impressions made in some two convenient Pearls, one in + each cluster; for, according as those congruous impressions affect, two + Pearls neerer approach’d to each other, the neerer is the Object, and the + farther they are distant, the more distant is the Object: partly also by + the alteration of each Pearl, requisite to make the Sensation or Picture + perfect; for ’tis impossible that the Pictures of two Objects, variously + distant, can be perfectly painted, or made on the same <i>Retina</i> or + bottom of the eye not altered, as will be very evident to any one that + shall attentively consider the nature of refraction. Now, whether this + alteration may be in the Figure of the <i>Cornea</i>, in the motion of + access or recess of the <i>Retina</i> towards the <i>Cornea</i>, or in + the alteration of a crystalline humour, if such there be, I pretend not to + determine; though I think we need not doubt, but that there may be as + much curiosity of contrivance and structure in every one of these Pearls, + as in the eye of a Whale or Elephant, and the almighty’s <i>Fiat</i> + could as easily cause the existence of the one as the other; and as one + day and a thousand years are the same with him, so may one eye and ten + thousand.</p> + + <p>This we may be sure of, that the filaments or sensative parts of the + <i>Retina</i> must be most exceedingly curious and minute, since the + whole Picture it self is such; what must needs the component parts be of + that <i>Retina</i>, which distinguishes the part of an object’s Picture + that must be many millions of millions less then that in a man’s eye? And + how exceeding curious and subtile must the component parts of the + <i>medium</i> that conveys light be, when we find the instrument made for + its reception or refraction to be so exceedingly small? we may, I think, + from this speculation be sufficiently discouraged from hoping to discover + by any optick or other instrument the determinate bulk of the parts of + the <i>medium</i> that conveys the pulse of light, since we find that + there is not less accurateness shewn in the Figure and polish of those + exceedingly minute lenticular surfaces, then in those more large and + conspicuous surfaces of our own eyes. And yet can I not doubt, but that + there is a determinate bulk of those parts, since I find them unable to + enter between the parts of Mercury, which being in motion, must + necessarily have pores, as I shall elsewhere shew, and here pass by, as + being a digression.</p> + + <p>As concerning the horns FF, the feelers or smellers, GG, the + <i>Proboscis</i> HH, and I, the hairs and brisles, KK, I shall indeavour + to describe in the 42. <i>Observation</i>.<br /></p> +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class='chapter' /> +<h2>Observ. <a name="obsXL" id="obsXL">XL</a>. <i>Of the Teeth of a </i>Snail<i>.</i></h2> + + <p>I have little more to add of the Teeth of a Snail, besides the Picture +<span class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-25.png"><i>Schem.</i> 25.</a><br /><i>Fig.</i> 1. +</span> + of it, which is represented in the first <i>Figure</i> of the 25. + <i>Scheme</i>, save that his bended body, ABCDEF, which seem’d fashioned + very much like a row of small teeth, orderly plac’d in the Gums, and + looks as if it were divided into several smaller and + greater black teeth, was nothing but one small bended hard bone, which + was plac’d in the upper jaw of the mouth of a House-Snail, with which I + observ’d this very Snail to feed on the leaves of a Rose-tree, and to + bite out pretty large and half round bits, not unlike the Figure of a (C) + nor very much differing from it in bigness, the upper part ABCD of this + bone, I found to be much whiter, and to grow out of the upper chap of the + Snail, GGG, and not to be any thing neer so much creas’d as the lower and + blacker part of it HIIHKKH which was exactly shap’d like teeth, the bone + growing thinner, or tapering to an edge towards KKK. It seem’d to have + nine teeth, or prominent parts IK, IK, IF, <i>&c.</i> which were + join’d together by the thinner interpos’d parts of the bone. The Animal + to which these teeth belong, is a very <i>anomalous</i> creature, and + seems of a kind quite distinct from any other terrestrial Animal or + Insect, the Anatomy whereof exceedingly differing from what has been + hitherto given of it I should have inserted, but that it will be more + proper in another place. I have never met with any kind of Animal whose + teeth are all join’d in one, save onely that I lately observ’d, that all + the teeth of a Rhinocerot, which grow on either side of its mouth, are + join’d into one large bone, the weight of one of which I found to be neer + eleven pound <i>Haverdupois</i>. So that it seems one of the biggest sort + of terrestrial Animals, as well as one of the smallest, has his teeth + thus shap’d.<br /></p> +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class='chapter' /> +<h2>Observ. <a name="obsXLI" id="obsXLI">XLI</a>. <i>Of the Eggs of </i>Silk-worms<i>, and other Insects.</i></h2> + +<div class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-25.png"><i>Schem.</i> 25.</a><br /><i>Fig.</i> 2. +</div> + + <p>The Eggs of Silk-worms (one of which I have describ’d in the second + <i>Figure</i> of 25. <i>Scheme</i>) afford a pretty Object for a + <i>Microscope</i> that magnifies very much, especially if it be bright + weather, and the light of a window be cast or collected on it by a deep + <i>Convex glass</i>, or Water-ball. For then the whole surface of the + Shell may be perceiv’d all cover’d over with exceeding small pits or + cavities with interposed edges, almost in the manner of the surface of a + Poppy-seed, but that these holes are not an hundredth part scarce of + their bigness; the Shell, when the young ones were hatch’d (which I found + an easie thing to do, if the Eggs were kept in a warm place) appear’d no + thicker in proportion to its bulk, then that of an Hen’s or Goos’s Egg is + to its bulk, and all the Shell appear’d very white (which seem’d to + proceed from its transparency) whence all those pittings did almost + vanish, so that they could not, without much difficulty, be discern’d, + the inside of the Shell seem’d to be lin’d also with a kind of thin film, + not unlike (keeping the proportion to its Shell) that with which the + shell of an Hen-egg is lin’d; and the shell it self seem’d like common + Egg-shells; very brittle, and crack’d. In divers other of these Eggs I + could plainly enough, through the shell, perceive the small Insect lie + coyled round the edges of the shell. The shape of the Egg it self, the + Figure pretty well represents (though by default of the Graver it does + not appear so rounded, and lying above the + Paper, as it were, as it ought to do) that is, it was for the most part + pretty oval end-ways, somewhat like an Egg, but the other way it was a + little flatted on two opposite sides. Divers of these Eggs, as is common + to most others, I found to be barren, or addle, for they never afforded + any young ones. And those I usually found much whiter then the other that + were prolifick. The Eggs of other kinds of Oviparous Insects I have found + to be perfectly round every way, like so many Globules, of this sort I + have observ’d some sorts of Spiders Eggs; and chancing the last Summer to + inclose a very large and curiously painted Butterfly in a Box, intending + to examine its gaudery with my <i>Microscope</i>, I found within a day or + two after I inclos’d her, almost all the inner surface of the Box cover’d + over with an infinite of exactly round Eggs, which were stuck very fast + to the sides of it, and in so exactly regular and close an order, that + made me call to mind my <i>Hypothesis</i>, which I had formerly thought + on for the making out of all the regular Figures of Salt, which I have + elsewhere hinted; for here I found all of them rang’d into a most exact + <i>triagonal</i> order, much after the manner as the <i>Hemispheres</i> + are place on the eye of a Fly; all which Eggs I found after a little time + to be hatch’d, and out of them to come a multitude of small Worms, very + much resembling young Silk-worms, leaving all their thin hollow shells + behind them, sticking on the Box in their <i>triagonal</i> posture; these + I found with the <i>Microscope</i> to have much such a substance as the + Silk-worms Eggs, but could not perceive them pitted. And indeed, there is + as great a variety in the shape of the Eggs of Oviparous Insects as among + those of Birds.</p> + + <p>Of these Eggs, a large and lusty Fly will at one time lay neer four or + five hundred, so that the increase of these kind of Insects must needs be + very prodigious, were they not prey’d on by multitudes of Birds, and + destroy’d by Frosts and Rains; and hence ’tis those hotter Climates + between the <i>Tropicks</i> are infested with such multitudes of Locusts, + and such other Vermine.<br /></p> +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class='chapter' /> +<h2>Observ. <a name="obsXLII" id="obsXLII">XLII</a>. <i>Of a blue </i>Fly<i>.</i></h2> + +<div class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-26.png"><i>Schem.</i> 26.</a><br /><i>Fig.</i> 1. +</div> + + <p>This kind of Fly, whereof a <i>Microscopical</i> Picture is delineated + in the first <i>Figure</i> of the 26. <i>Scheme</i>, is a very beautifull + creature, and has many things about it very notable; divers of which I + have already partly describ’d, namely, the feet, wings, eyes, and head, + in the preceding Observations.</p> + + <p>And though the head before describ’d be that of a grey + <i>Drone-Fly</i>, yet for the main it is very agreeable to this. The + things wherein they differ most, will be easily enough found by the + following particulars:</p> + + <p>First, the clusters of eyes of this Fly, are very much smaller then + those of the <i>Dron-Fly</i>, in proportion to the head.</p> + + <p>And next, all the eyes of each cluster seem’d much of the same bigness + one with another, not differing as the other, but rang’d in the same + <i>triagonal</i> order.</p> + + <p>Thirdly, between these two clusters, there was a scaly prominent + <i>front</i> B, which was arm’d and adorn’d with large tapering sharp + black brisles, which growing out in rows on either side, were so bent + toward each other neer the top, as to make a kind of arched arbour of + Brisles, which almost cover’d the former <i>front</i>.</p> + + <p>Fourthly, at the end of this Arch, about the middle of the face, on a + prominent part C, grew two small oblong bodies, DD, which through a + <i>Microscope</i> look’d not unlike the Pendants in Lillies, these seem’d + to be jointed on to two small parts at C, each of which seem’d again + jointed into the front.</p> + + <p>Fifthly, out of the upper part and outsides of these horns (as I may +<span class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-24.png"><i>Schem.</i> 24.</a> +</span> + call them, from the Figure they are of, in the 24. <i>Scheme</i>, where + they are marked with FF) there grows a single feather, or brushy Brisle, + EE, somewhat of the same kind with the tufts of a Gnat, which I have + before described.</p> + + <p>What the use of these kind of horned and tufted bodies should be, I + cannot well imagine, unless they serve for smelling or hearing, though + how they are adapted for either, it seems very difficult to describe: + they are in almost every several kind of Flies of so various a shape; + though certainly they are some very essential part of the head, and have + some very notable office assign’d them by Nature, since in all Insects + they are to be found in one or other form.</p> + + <p>Sixthly, at the under part of the face FF, were several of the former + sort of bended Brisles, and below all, the mouth, out of the middle of + which, grew the <i>proboscis</i> GHI, which, by means of several joints, + whereof it seem’d to consist, the Fly was able to move to and fro, and + thrust it in and out as it pleas’d; the end of this hollow body (which + was all over cover’d with small short hairs or brisles) was, as ’twere, + bent at H, and the outer or formost side of the bended part HI, slit, as + it were, into two chaps, HI, HI, all the outside of which where cover’d + with hairs, and pretty large brisles; these he could, like two chaps, + very readily open and shut, and when he seem’d to suck any thing from the + surface of a body, he would spread abroad those chaps, and apply the + hollow part of them very close to it.</p> + + <p>From either side of the <i>Proboscis</i>, within the mouth, grew two + other small horns, or fingers, KK, which were hairy, but small in this +<span class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-24.png"><i>Schem.</i> 24.</a> +</span> + Figure; but of another shape, and bigger in proportion, in the 24. + <i>Scheme</i>, where they are marked with GG, which two indeed seem’d a + kind of smellers, but whether so or not, I cannot positively + determine.</p> + + <p>The <i>Thorax</i> or middle part of this Fly, was cas’d, both above + and beneath, with a very firm crust of armour, the upper part more round, + and covered over with long <i>conical</i> brisles, all whose ends pointed + backwards; out of the hinder and under part of this grew out in a cluster + six leggs, three of which are apparent in the Figure, the other three + were hid by the body plac’d in that posture. The leggs were + all much of the same make, being all of them cover’d with a strong hairy + scale or shel, just like the legs of a Crab or Lobster, and the + contrivance of the joints seem’d much the same, each legg seem’d made up + of eight parts, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, to the eighth or last of which, + grew the soles and claws, described before in the 38. + <i>Observation</i>.</p> + + <p>Out of the upper part of this trunk grew the two wings, which I + mention’d in the 38. <i>Observation</i>, consisting of a film, extended + on certain small stiff wires or bones: these in a blue Fly, were much + longer then the body, but in other kind of Flies they are of very + differing proportions to the body. These films, in many Flies, were so + thin, that, like several other plated bodies (mention’d in the ninth + <i>Observation</i>) they afforded all varieties of fantastical or + transient colours (the reason of which I have here endeavoured to + explain) they seem’d to receive their nourishment from the stalks or + wires, which seem’d to be hollow, and neer the upper part of the wing LL + several of them seem’d jointed, the shape of which will sufficiently +<span class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-26.png"><i>Schem.</i> 26.</a> +</span> + appear by the black lines in the second Figure of the 26. <i>Scheme</i>, + which is a delineation of one of those wings expanded directly to the + eyes.</p> + + <p>All the hinder part of its body is cover’d with a most curious blue + shining armour, looking exactly like a polish’d piece of steel brought to + that blue colour by annealing, all which armour is very thick bestuck + with abundance of tapering brisles, such as grow on its back, as is + visible enough by the Figure.</p> + + <p>Nor was the inside of this creature less beautifull then its outside, + for cutting off a part of the belly, and then viewing it, to see if I + could discover any Vessels, such as are to be found in a greater Animals, + and even in Snails exceeding manifestly, I found, much beyond my + expectation, that there were abundance of branchings of Milk-white + vessels, no less curious then the branchings of veins and arteries in + bigger terrestrial Animals, in one of which, I found two notable + branches, joining their two main stocks, as it were, into one common + <i>ductus</i>; now, to what veins or arteries these Vessells were + <i>analogus</i>, whether to the <i>vena porta</i>, or the <i>meseraick + vessells</i>, or the like, or indeed, whether they were veins and + arteries, or <i>vasa lactea</i>, properly so called, I am not hitherto + able to determine, having not yet made sufficient enquiry; but in all + particulars, there seems not to be any thing less of curious contrivance + in these Insects, then in those larger terrestrial Animals, for I had + never seen any more curious branchings of Vessels, then those I observ’d + in two or three of these Flies thus opened.</p> + + <p>It is a creature active and nimble, so as there are very few creatures + like it, whether bigger or smaller, in so much, that it will scape and + avoid a small body, though coming on it exceeding swiftly, and if it sees + any thing approaching it, which it fears, it presently squats down, as it + were, that it may be the more ready for its rise.</p> + + <p>Nor is it less hardy in the Winter, then active in the Summer, + induring all the Frosts, and surviving till the next Summer, + notwithstanding the bitter cold of our Climate; + nay, this creature will indure to be frozen, and yet not be destroy’d, + for I have taken one of them out of the Snow whereon it has been frozen + almost white, with the Ice about it, and yet by thawing it gently by the + warmth of a fire, it has quickly reviv’d and flown about.</p> + + <p>This kind of Fly seems by the steams or taste of fermenting and + putrifying meat (which it often kisses, as ’twere, with its + <i>proboscis</i> as it trips over it) to be stimulated or excited to + eject its Eggs or Seed on it, perhaps, from the same reason as Dogs, + Cats, and many other brute creatures are excited to their particular + lusts, by the smell of their females, when by Nature prepared for + generation; the males seeming by those kind of smells, or other + incitations, to be as much necessitated thereto, as <i>Aqua Regis</i> + strongly impregnated with a solution of Gold, is forced to precipitate it + by the affusion of spirit of <i>Urine</i>, or a solution of <i>Salt</i> + of <i>Tartar</i>.</p> + + <p>One of these put in spirit of <i>Wine</i>, was very quickly seemingly + kill’d, and both its eys and mouth began to look very red, but upon the + taking of it out, and suffering it to lie three or four hours, and + heating it with the Sun beams cast through a Burning-glass, it again + reviv’d, seeming, as it were, to have been all the intermediate time, but + dead drunk, and after certain hours to grow fresh again and sober.<br /></p> +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class='chapter' /> +<h2>Observ. <a name="obsXLIII" id="obsXLIII">XLIII</a>. <i>Of the </i>Water Insect<i> or </i>Gnat<i>.</i></h2> + +<div class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-27.png"><i>Schem.</i> 27.</a><br /><i>Fig.</i> 1. +</div> + + <p>This little creature, described in the first <i>Figure</i> of the 27. + <i>Scheme</i>, was a small scaled or crusted Animal, which I have often + observ’d to be generated in Rain-water; I have also observ’d it both in + Pond and River-water. It is suppos’d by some, to deduce its first + original from the putrifaction of Rain-water, in which, if it have stood + any time open to the air, you shall seldom miss, all the Summer long, of + store of them frisking too and fro.</p> + + <p>’Tis a creature, wholly differing in shape from any I ever observ’d; + nor is its motion less strange: It has a very large head, in proportion + to its body, all covered with a shell, like other <i>testaceous</i> + Animals, but it differs in this, that it has, up and down several parts + of it, several tufts of hairs, or brisles, plac’d in the order express’d + in the Figure; It has two horns, which seem’d almost like the horns of an + Oxe, inverted, and, as neer as I could guess, were hollow, with tufts of + brisles, likewise at the top; these horns they could move easily this or + that way, and might, perchance, be their nostrils. It has a pretty large + mouth, which seem’d contriv’d much like those of Crabs and Lobsters, by + which, I have often observ’d them to feed on water, or some imperceptible + nutritive substance in it.</p> + + <p>I could perceive, through the transparent shell, while the Animal + surviv’d, several motions in the head, thorax, and belly, very + distinctly, of differing kinds which I may, perhaps, + elsewhere endeavour more accurately to examine, and to shew of how great + benefit the use of a <i>Microscope</i> may be for the discovery of + Nature’s course in the operations perform’d in Animal bodies, by which we + have the opportunity of observing her through these delicate and pellucid + teguments of the bodies of Insects acting according to her usual course + and way, undisturbed, whereas, when we endeavour to pry into her secrets + by breaking open the doors upon her, and dissecting and mangling + creatures whil’st there is life yet within them, we find her indeed at + work, but put into such disorder by the violence offer’d, as it may + easily be imagin’d, how differing a thing we should find, if we could, as + we can with a <i>Microscope</i> in these smaller creatures, quietly peep + in at the windows, without frighting her out of her usual byas.</p> + + <p>The form of the whole creature, as it appear’d in the + <i>Microscope</i>, may, without troubling you with more descriptions, be + plainly enough perceiv’d by the <i>Scheme</i>, the hinder part or belly + consisting of eight several jointed parts, namely, ABCDEFGH, of the first + <i>Figure</i>, from the midst of each of which, on either side issued out + three or four small brisles or hairs, I, I, I, I, I, the tail was divided + into two parts of very differing make; one of them, namely, K, having + many tufts of hair or brisles, which seem’d to serve both for the finns + and tail, for the Oars and Ruder of this little creature, wherewith it + was able, by frisking and bending its body nimbly to and fro, to move + himself any whither, and to skull and steer himself as he pleas’d, the + other part, L, seem’d to be, as ’twere, the ninth division of his belly, + and had many single brisles on either side. From the end V, of which, + through the whole belly, there was a kind of Gut of a darker colour, MMM, + wherein, by certain <i>Peristaltick</i> motions there was a kind of black + substance mov’d upwards and downwards through it from the orbicular part + of it, N, (which seem’d the <i>Ventricle</i>, or stomach) to the tail V, + and so back again, which <i>peristaltick</i> motion I have observ’d also + in a Louse, a Gnat, and several other kinds of transparent body’d Flies. + The <i>Thorax</i> or chest of this creature OOOO, was thick and short, + and pretty transparent, for through it I could see the white heart (which + is the colour also of the bloud in these, and most other Insects) to + beat, and several other kind of motions. It was bestuck and adorn’d up + and down with several tufts of brisles, such as are pointed out by P, P, + P, P, the head Q was likewise bestuck with several of those tufts, SSS; + it was broad and short, had two black eyes, TT, which I could not + perceive at all pearl’d, as they afterwards appear’d, and two small + horns, RR, such as I formerly describ’d.</p> + + <p>Both its motion and rest is very strange, and pleasant, and differing + from those of most other creatures I have observ’d; for, where it ceases + from moving its body, the tail of it seeming much lighter then the rest + of its body, and a little lighter then the water it swims in, presently + boys it up to the top of the water, where it hangs suspended with the + head always downward; and like our <i>Antipodes</i>, if they do by a + frisk get below that superficies, they presently ascend again unto it, if + they cease moving, until they tread, as it were, under + that superficies with their tails; the hanging of these in this posture, + put me in mind of a certain creature I have seen in <i>London</i>, that + was brought out of <i>America</i>, which would very firmly suspend it + self by the tail, with the head downwards, and was said to keep in that + posture, with her young ones in her false belly, which is a Purse, + provided by Nature for the production, nutrition, and preservation of her + young ones, which is described by <i>Piso</i> in the 24. Chapter of the + fifth Book of his Natural History of <i>Brasil</i>.</p> + + <p>The motion of it was with the tail forwards, drawing its self + backwards, by the striking to and fro of that tuft which grew out of one + of the stumps of its tail. It had another motion, which was more sutable + to that of other creatures, and that is, with the head forward; for by + the moving of his chaps (if I may so call the parts of his mouth) it was + able to move it self downwards very gently towards the bottom, and did, + as ’twere, eat up its way through the water.</p> + + <p>But that which was most observable in this creature, was, its + Metamorphosis or change; for having kept several of these Animals in a + Glass of Rain-water, in which they were produc’d, I found, after about a + fortnight or three weeks keeping, that several of them flew away in + Gnats, leaving their husks behind them in the water floating under the + surface, the place where these Animals were wont to reside, whil’st they + were inhabitants of the water: this made me more diligently to watch + them, to see if I could find them at the time of their transformation; + and not long after, I observ’d several of them to be changed into an + unusual shape, wholly differing from that they were of before, their head + and body being grown much bigger and deeper, but not broader, and their + belly, or hinder part smaller, and coyl’d, about this great body much of +<span class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-27.png"><i>Schem.</i> 27.</a><br /><i>Fig.</i> 2. +</span> + the fashion represented by the prick’d line in the second <i>Figure</i> + of the 27. <i>Scheme</i>, the head and horns now swam uppermost, and the + whole bulk of the body seem’d to be grown much lighter; for when by my + frighting of it, it would by frisking out of its tail (in the manner + express’d in the Figure by BC) sink it self below the surface towards the + bottom; the body would more swiftly re-ascend, then when it was in its + former shape.</p> + + <p>I still marked its progress from time to time, and found its body + still to grow bigger and bigger, Nature, as it were, fitting and + accoutring it for the lighter Element, of which it was now going to be an + inhabitant; for, by observing one of these with my <i>Microscope</i>, I + found the eyes of it to be altogether differing from what they seem’d + before, appearing now all over pearl’d or knobb’d, like the eyes of + Gnats, as is visible in the second <i>Figure</i> by A. At length, I saw + part of this creature to swim above, and part beneath the surface of the + water, below which though it would quickly plunge it self if I by any + means frighted it, and presently re-ascend into its former posture; after + a little longer expectation, I found that the head and body of a Gnat, + began to appear and stand cleer above the surface, and by degrees it drew + out its leggs, first the two formost, then the other, at length its whole + body perfect and entire appear’d out of the husk (which it left in the + water) standing on its leggs upon the top + of the water, and by degrees it began to move, and after flew about the + Glass a perfect Gnat.</p> + + <p>I have been the more particular, and large in the relation of the + transformation of divers of these little Animals which I observ’d, + because I have not found that any Authour has observ’d the like, and + because the thing it self is so strange and heterogeneous from the usual + progress of other Animals, that I judge it may not onely be pleasant, but + very usefull and necessary towards the compleating of Natural + History.</p> + + <p>There is indeed in <i>Piso</i>, a very odd History, which this + relation may make the more probable; and that is in the 2. Chapter of the + 4. Book of his Natural History of <i>Brasil</i>, where he says, <i>Porro + præter tot documenta fertilitatis circa vegetabilia & sensitiva + marina telluris æmula, accidit & illud, quod paucis à Paranambucensi + milliaribus, piscatoris uncum citra intentionem contingat infigi vadis + petrosis, & loco piscis spongia, coralla, aliasque arbusculas marinas + capi. Inter hæc inusitatæ formæ prodit spongiosa arbuscula sesquipedis + longitudinis, brevioribus radicibus, lapideis nitens vadis, & rupibus + infixa, erigiturque in corpus spongiosum molle oblongum rotundum + turbinatum: intus miris cancellis & alveis fabricatum, extus autem + tenaci glutine instar Apum propolis undique vestitum, ostio satis patulo + & profundo in summitate relicto, sicut ex altera iconum probe depicta + videre licet </i>(see +<span class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-27.png"><i>Schem.</i> 27.</a><br /><i>Fig.</i> 3. & 4. +</span> + the third and fourth <i>Figures</i> of the 27. + <i>Scheme</i>.)<i> Ita ut Apiarium marinum vere dixeris; primo enim + intuitu è Mare ad Terram delatum, vermiculis scatebat cæruleis parvis, + qui mox à calore solis in Muscas, vel Apes potius, easq; exiguas & + nigras transformebantur, circumvolantesque evanescebant, ita ut de eorum + mellificatione nihil certi conspici datum fuerit, cum tamen cærosa + materia propolis Apumque cellæ manifeste apparerent, atque ipsa mellis + qualiscunque substantia proculdubio urinatoribus patebit, ubi curiosius + inquisiverint hæc apiaria, eaque in natali solo & salo diversis + temporibus penitius lustrarint</i>.</p> + + <p>Which History contains things sufficiently strange to be consider’d, + as whether the husk were a Plant, growing at the bottom of the Sea + before, of it self, out of whose putrifaction might be generated these + strange kind of Magots; or whether the seed of certain Bees, sinking to + the bottom, might there naturally form it self that vegetable hive, and + take root; or, whether it might not be placed there by some diving Fly; + or, whether it might not be some peculiar propriety of that Plant, + whereby it might ripen or form its vegetable juice into an Animal + substance; or, whether it may not be of the nature of a Sponge, or rather + a Sponge of the nature of this, according to some of those relations and + conjectures I formerly made of that body, is a matter very difficult to + be determined. But indeed, in this description, the Excellent <i>Piso</i> + has not been sufficiently particular in the setting down the whole + process, as it were to be wish’d: There are indeed very odd progresses in + the production of several kinds of Insects, which are not less + instructive then pleasant, several of which, the diligent + <i>Goedartius</i> has carefully observ’d and recorded, but among all his + Observations, he has none like this, though that of the <i>Hemerobius</i> + be somewhat of this kind, which is added as an Appendix by <i>Johannes + Mey</i>.</p> + + <p>I have, for my own particular, besides several of those mention’d by + him, observ’d divers other circumstances, perhaps, not much taken notice + of, though very common, which do indeed afford us a very <i>coercive</i> + argument to admire the goodness and providence of the infinitely wise + Creator in his most excellent contrivances and dispensations. I have + observ’d, at several times of the Summer, that many of the leaves of + divers Plants have been spotted, or, as it were scabbed, and looking on + the undersides of those of them that have been but a little irregular, I + have perceiv’d them to be sprinkled with divers sorts of little Eggs, + which letting alone, I have found by degrees to grow bigger, and become + little Worms with leggs, but still to keep their former places, and those + places of the leaves, of their own accords, to be grown very protuberant + upwards, and very hollow, and arched underneath, whereby those young + creatures are, as it were, shelter’d and housed from external injury; + divers leaves I have observ’d to grow and swell so farr, as at length + perfectly to inclose the Animal, which, by other observations I have + made, I ghess to contain it, and become, as it were a womb to it, so + long, till it be fit and prepar’d to be translated into another state, at + what time, like (what they say of) Vipers, they gnaw their way through + the womb that bred them; divers of these kinds I have met with upon + Goosberry leaves, Rose-tree leaves, Willow leaves, and many other + kinds.</p> + + <p>There are often to be found upon Rose-trees and Brier bushes, little + red tufts, which are certain knobs or excrescencies, growing out from the + Rind, or barks of those kinds of Plants, they are cover’d with strange + kinds of threads or red hairs, which feel very soft, and look not + unpleasantly. In most of these, if it has no hole in it, you shall find + certain little Worms, which I suppose to be the causes of their + production; for when that Worm has eat its way through, they, having + performed what they were design’d by Nature to do, by degrees die and + wither away.</p> + + <p>Now, the manner of their production, I suppose to be thus, that the + Alwise Creator has as well implanted in every creature a faculty of + knowing what place is convenient for the hatching, nutrition, and + preservation of their Eggs and of-springs whereby they are stimulated and + directed to convenient places, which become, as ’twere the wombs that + perform those offices: As he has also suited and adapted a property to + those places wherby they grow and inclose those seeds, and having + inclosed them, provide a convenient nourishment for them, but as soon as + they have done the office of a womb, they die and wither.</p> + + <p>The progress of inclosure I have often observ’d in leaves, which in + those places where those seeds have been cast, have by degrees swell’d + and inclos’d them, so perfectly round, as not to leave any perceptible + passage out.</p> + + <p>From this same cause, I suppose that Galls, Oak-apples, and several + other productions of that kind, upon the branches and leaves of Trees, + have their original, for if you open any of them, when almost ripe, you + shall find a little Worm in them. Thus, if you open never so many dry + Galls, you shall find either a hole whereby the Worm has eat its passage + out, or if you find no passage, you may, by + breaking or cutting the Gall, find in the middle of it a small cavity, + and in it a small body, which does plainly enough yet retain a shape, to + manifest it once to have been a Worm, though it dy’d by a too early + separation from the Oak on which it grew, its navel-string, as ’twere, + being broken off from the leaf or branch by which the Globular body that + invelop’d it, received its nourishment from the Oak.</p> + + <p>And indeed, if we consider the great care of the Creator in the + dispensations of his providences for the propagation and increase of the + race, not onely of all kind of Animals, but even of Vegetables, we cannot + chuse but admire and adore him for his Excellencies, but we shall leave + off to admire the creature, or to wonder at the strange kind of acting in + several Animals, which seem to favour so much of reason; it seeming to me + most manifest, that those are but actings according to their structures, + and such operations as such bodies, so compos’d, must necessarily, when + there are such and such circumstances concurring, perform: thus, when we + find Flies swarming, about any piece of flesh that does begin a little to + ferment; Butterflies about Colworts, and several other leaves, which will + serve to hatch and nourish their young; Gnats, and several other Flies + about the Waters, and marishy places, or any other creatures, seeking and + placing their Seeds in convenient repositories, we may, if we attentively + consider and examine it, find that there are circumstances sufficient, + upon the supposals of the excellent contrivance of their machine, to + excite and force them to act after such or such a manner; those steams + that rise from these several places may, perhaps, set several parts of + these little Animals at work, even as in the contrivance of killing a Fox + or Wolf with a Gun, the moving of a string, is the death of the Animal; + for the Beast, by moving the flesh that is laid to entrap him, pulls the + string which moves the trigger, and that lets go the Cock which on the + steel strikes certain sparks of fire which kindle the powder in the pann, + and that presently flies into the barrel, where the powder catching fire + rarifies and drives out the bullet which kills the Animal; in all which + actions, there is nothing of intention or ratiocination to be ascrib’d + either to the Animal or Engine, but all to the ingeniousness of the + contriver.</p> + + <p>But to return to the more immediate consideration of our Gnat: We have + in it an Instance, not usual or common, of a very strange + <i>amphibious</i> creature, that being a creature that inhabits the Air, + does yet produce a creature, that for some time lives in the water as a + Fish, though afterward (which is as strange) it becomes an inhabitant of + the Air, like its Sire, in the form of a Fly. And this, methinks, does + prompt me to propose certain conjectures, as Queries, having not yet had + sufficient opportunity and leisure to answer them my self from my own + Experiments or Observations.</p> + + <p>And the first is, Whether all those things that we suppose to be bred + from corruption and putrifaction, may not be rationally suppos’d to have + their origination as natural as these Gnats, who, ’tis very probable, + were first dropt into this Water, in the form of Eggs. Those Seeds or + Eggs must certainly be very small, which so + small a creature as a Gnat yields, and therefore, we need not wonder that + we find not the Eggs themselves, some of the younger of them, which I + have observ’d, having not exceeded a tenth part of the bulk they have + afterwards come to; and next, I have observed some of those little ones + which must have been generated after the Water was inclosed in the + Bottle, and therefore most probably from Eggs, whereas those creatures + have been suppos’d to be bred of the corruption of the Water, there being + not formerly known any probable way how they should be generated.</p> + + <p>A second is, whether these Eggs are immediately dropt into the Water + by the Gnats themselves, or, mediately, are brought down by the falling + rain; for it seems not very improbable, but that those small seeds of + Gnats may (being, perhaps, of so light a nature, and having so great a + proportion of surface to so small a bulk of body) be ejected into the + Air, and so, perhaps, carried for a good while too and fro in it, till by + the drops of Rain it be wash’d out of it.</p> + + <p>A third is, whether multitudes of those other little creatures that + are found to inhabit the Water for some time, do not, at certain times, + take wing and fly into the Air, others dive and hide themselves in the + Earth, and so contribute to the increase both of the one and the other + Element.<br /></p> +<hr /> + +<h3><i>Postscript.</i></h3> + + <p>A good while since the writing of this Description, I was presented by + Doctor <i>Peter Ball</i>, an ingenious Member of the <i>Royal + Society</i>, with a little Paper of Nuts, which he told me was sent him + from a Brother of his out of the Countrey, from <i>Mamhead</i> in + <i>Devonshire</i>, some of them were loose, having been, as I suppose, + broken off, others were still growing fast on upon the sides of a stick, + which seem’d by the bark, pliableness of it, and by certain strings that + grew out of it, to be some piece of the root of a Tree; they were all of + them dry’d, and a little shrivell’d, others more round, of a brown + colour; their shape was much like a Figg, but very much smaller, some + being about the bigness of a Bay-berry, others, and the biggest, of a + Hazel-Nut. Some of these that had no hole in them, I carefully opened + with my Knife, and found in them a good large round white Maggot, almost + as bigg as a small Pea, which seem’d shap’d like other Maggots, but + shorter. I could not find them to move, though I ghess’d them to be + alive, because upon pricking them with a Pinn, there would issue out a + great deal of white <i>mucous</i> matter, which seem’d to be from a + voluntary contraction of their skin; their husk or matrix consisted of + three Coats, like the barks of Trees, the outermost being more rough and + spongie, and the thickest, the middlemost more close, hard, white, and + thin, the innermost very thin, seeming almost like the skin within an + Egg’s shell. The two outermost had root in the branch or stick, but the + innermost had no stem or process, but was onely a skin that cover’d the + cavity of the Nut. All the Nuts that had no holes eaten in them, I found + to contain these Maggots, but all that had holes, I found empty, the + Maggots, it seems, having eaten their way through, + taken wings and flown away, as this following account (which I receiv’d + in writing from the same person, as it was sent him by his Brother) + manifests. <i>In a moorish black Peaty mould, with some small veins of + whitish yellow Sands, upon occasion of digging a hole two or three foot + deep, at the head of a Pond or Pool, to set a Tree in, at that depth, + were found, about the end of </i>October 1663.<i> in those very veins of + Sand, those Buttons or Nuts, sticking to a little loose stick, that is, + not belonging to any live Tree, and some of them also free by + themselves.</i></p> + + <p><i>Four or five of which being then open’d, some were found to contain + live Insects come to perfection, most like to flying </i>Ants<i>, if not + the same; in others, Insects, yet imperfect, having but the head and + wings form’d, the rest remaining a soft white pulpy substance.</i></p> + + <p>Now, as this furnishes us with one odd History more, very agreeable to + what I before hinted, so I doubt not, but were men diligent observers, + they might meet with multitudes of the same kind, both in the Earth and + in the Water, and in the Air, on Trees, Plants, and other Vegetables, all + places and things being, as it were, <i>animarum plena</i>. And I have + often, with wonder and pleasure, in the Spring and Summer time, look’d + close to, and diligently on, common Garden mould, and in a very small + parcel of it, found such multitudes and diversities of little + <i>reptiles</i>, some in husks, others onely creepers, many wing’d, and + ready for the Air; divers husks or habitations left behind empty. Now, if + the Earth of our cold Climate be so fertile of animate bodies, what may + we think of the fat Earth of hotter Climates? Certainly, the Sun may + there, by its activity, cause as great a parcel of Earth to fly on wings + in the Air, as it does of Water in steams and vapours. And what swarms + must we suppose to be sent out of those plentifull inundations of water + which are poured down by the sluces of Rain in such vast quantities? So + that we need not much wonder at those innumerable clouds of Locusts with + which <i>Africa</i>, and other hot countries are so pestred, since in + those places are found all the convenient causes of their production, + namely, genitors, or Parents, concurrent receptacles or matrixes, and a + sufficient degree of natural heat and moisture.</p> + + <p>I was going to annex a little draught of the Figure of those Nuts sent + out of <i>Devonshire</i>, but chancing to examine Mr. <i>Parkinson</i>’s + Herbal for something else, and particularly about Galls and Oak-apples, I + found among no less then 24. several kinds of excrescencies of the Oak, + which I doubt not, but upon examination, will be all found to be the + <i>matrixes</i> of so many several kinds of Insects; I having observ’d + many of them my self to be so, among 24. several kinds, I say, I found + one described and Figur’d directly like that which I had by me, the + <i>Scheme</i> is there to be seen, the description, because but short, I + have here adjoin’d <i>Theatri Botanici trib. 16. Chap. 2. There groweth + at the roots of old Oaks in the Spring-time, and sometimes also in the + very heat of Summer, a peculiar kind of Mushrom or Excrescence, call’d + </i>Uva Quercina<i>, swelling out of the Earth, many growing one close + unto another, of the fashion of a Grape, and therefore took the name, the + </i>Oak-Grape<i>, and is of a Purplish colour on the outside, + and white within like Milk, and in the end + of Summer becometh hard and woody.</i> Whether this be the very same + kind, I cannot affirm, but both the Picture and Description come very + neer to that I have, but that he seems not to take notice of the + hollowness or Worm, for which ’tis most observable. And therefore ’tis + very likely, if men did but take notice, they might find very many + differing Species of these Nuts, <i>Ovaries</i>, or <i>Matrixes</i>, and + all of them to have much the same designation and office. And I have very + lately found several kinds of Excrescencies on Trees and Shrubs, which + having endured the Winter, upon opening them, I found most of them to + contain little Worms, but dead, those things that contain’d them being + wither’d and dry.<br /></p> +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class='chapter' /> +<h2>Observ. <a name="obsXLIV" id="obsXLIV">XLIV</a>. <i>Of the tufted or Brush-horn’d </i>Gnat<i>.</i></h2> + + <p>This little creature was one of those multitudes that fill our + <i>English</i> air all the time that warm weather lasts, and is exactly + of the shape of that I observ’d to be generated and hatch’d out of those + little Insects that wriggle up and down in Rain-water. But, though many + were of this form, yet I observ’d others to be of quite other kinds; nor + were all of this or the other kind generated out of Water Insects; for + whereas I observ’d that those that proceeded from those Insects were at + their full growth, I have also found multitudes of the same shape, but + much smaller and tenderer seeming to be very young ones, creep up and + down upon the leaves of Trees, and flying up and down in small clusters, + in places very remote from water; and this Spring, I observ’d one day, + when the Wind was very calm, and the afternoon very fair, and pretty + warm, though it had for a long time been very cold weather, and the wind + continued still in the East, several small swarms of them playing to and + fro in little clouds in the Sun, each of which were not a tenth part of + the bigness of one of these I here have delineated, though very much of + the same shape, which makes me ghess, that each of these swarms might be + the of-spring of one onely Gnat, which had been hoorded up in some safe + repository all this Winter by some provident Parent, and were now, by the + warmth of the Spring-air, hatch’d into little Flies.</p> + + <p>And indeed, so various, and seemingly irregular are the generations or + productions of Insects, that he that shall carefully and diligently + observe the several methods of Nature therein, will have infinitely cause + further to admire the wisdom and providence of the Creator; for not onely + the same kind of creature may be produc’d from several kinds of ways, but + the very same creature may produce several kinds: For, as divers Watches + may be made out of several materials, which may yet have all the same + appearance, and move after the same manner, that is, shew the hour + equally true, the one as the other, and out of the same kind of matter, + like Watches, may be wrought differing ways; and, as one and the same + Watch may, by being diversly agitated, or mov’d, + by this or that agent, or after this or that manner, produce a quite + contrary effect: So may it be with these most curious Engines of Insect’s + bodies; the All-wise God of Nature, may have so ordered and disposed the + little <i>Automatons</i>, that when nourished, acted, or enlivened by + this cause, they produce one kind of effect, or animate shape, when by + another they act quite another way, and another Animal is produc’d. So + may he so order several materials, as to make them, by several kinds of + methods, produce similar <i>Automatons</i>.</p> + + <p>But to come to the Description of this Insect, as it appears through a +<span class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-28.png"><i>Schem.</i> 28.</a> +</span> + <i>Microscope</i>, of which a representation is made in the 28. + <i>Scheme</i>. Its head A, is exceeding small, in proportion to its body, + consisting of two clusters of pearl’d eyes BB, on each side of its head, + whose pearls or eye-balls are curiously rang’d like those of other Flies; + between these, in the forehead of it, there are plac’d upon two small + black balls, CC, two long jointed horns, tapering towards the top, much + resembling the long horns of Lobsters, each of whose stems or quills, DD, + were brisled or brushed with multitudes of small stiff hairs, issuing out + every way from the several joints, like the strings or sproutings of the + herb <i>Horse-tail</i>, which is oft observ’d to grow among Corn, and for + the whole shape, it does very much resemble those <i>brushy + Vegetables</i>; besides these, there are two other jointed and brisled + horns, or feelers, EE, in the forepart of the head, and a + <i>proboscis</i>, F, underneath, which in some Gnats are very long, + streight hollow pipes, by which these creatures are able to drill and + penetrate the skin, and thence, through those pipes suck so much bloud as + to stuff their bellies so full till they be ready to burst.</p> + + <p>This small head, with its appurtenances, is fastned on by a short + neck, G, to the middle of the <i>thorax</i>, which is large, and seems + cased with a strong black shel, HIK, out of the under part of which, + issue six long and slender legs, LLLLLL, shap’d just like the legs of + Flies, but spun or drawn out longer and slenderer, which could not be + express’d in the Figure, because of their great length; and from the + upper part, two oblong, but slender transparent wings, MM, shaped + somewhat like those of a Fly, underneath each of which, as I have + observ’d also in divers sorts of Flies, and other kinds of Gnats, was + placed a small body, N, much resembling a drop of some transparent + glutinous substance, hardned or cool’d, as it was almost ready to fall, + for it has a round knob at the end, which by degrees grows slenderer into + a small stem, and neer the insertion under the wing, this stem again + grows bigger; these little <i>Pendulums</i>, I may so call them, the + little creature vibrates to and fro very quick when it moves its wings, + and I have sometimes observ’d it to move them also, whil’st the wing lay + still, but always their motion seem’d to further the motion of the wing + ready to follow; of what use they are, as to the moving of the wing, or + otherwise, I have not now time to examine.</p> + + <p>Its belly was large, as it is usually in all Insects, and extended + into nine lengths or partitions, each of which was cover’d with round + armed rings or shells; six of which, OPQRST were transparent, and divers + kinds of <i>Peristaltick</i> motions might be very easily perceiv’d, + whil’st the Animal was alive, but especially a + small cleer white part V, seemed to beat like the heart of a larger + Animal. The last three divisios, WXY, were cover’d with black and opacous + shells. To conclude, take this creature altogether, and for beauty and + curious contrivances, it may be compared with the largest Animal upon the + Earth. Nor doth the Alwise Creator seem to have shewn less care and + providence in the fabrick of it, then in those which seem most + considerable.<br /></p> +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class='chapter' /> +<h2>Observ. <a name="obsXLV" id="obsXLV">XLV</a>. <i>Of the great Belly’d </i>Gnat<i> or female </i>Gnat<i>.</i></h2> + +<div class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-29.png"><i>Schem.</i> 29.</a> +</div> + + <p>The second Gnat, delineated in the twenty ninth <i>Scheme</i>, is of a + very differing shape from the former; but yet of this sort also, I found + several of the Gnats, that were generated out of the Water Insect: the + wings of this, were much larger then those of the other, and the belly + much bigger, shorter and of an other shape; and, from several + particulars, I ghest it to be the Female Gnat, and the former to be the + Male.</p> + + <p>The <i>thorax</i> of this, was much like that of the other, having a + very strong and ridged back-piece, which went also on either side of its + leggs; about the wings there were several joynted pieces of Armor, which + seem’d curiously and conveniently contriv’d, for the promoting and + strengthning the motion of the wings: its head was much differing from + the other, being much bigger and neater shap’d, and the horns that grew + out between his eyes on two little balls, were of a very differing shape + from the tufts of the other Gnat, these having but a few knots or joynts, + and each of those but a few, and those short and strong, brisles. The + formost horns or feelers, were like those of the former Gnat.</p> + + <p>One of these Gnats I have suffer’d to pierce the skin of my hand, with + its <i>proboscis</i>, and thence to draw out as much blood as to fill its + belly as full as it could hold, making it appear very red and + transparent; and this without any further pain, then whilst it was + sinking in its <i>proboscis</i>, as it is also in the stinging of Fleas: + a good argument, that these creatures do not wound the skin, and suck the + blood out of enmity and revenge, but for meer necessity, and to satisfy + their hunger. By what means this creature is able to suck, we shall shew + in another place.<br /></p> +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class='chapter' /> +<h2>Observ. <a name="obsXLVI" id="obsXLVI">XLVI</a>. <i>Of the white featherwing’d </i>Moth<i> or </i>Tinea +Argentea<i>.</i></h2> + +<div class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-30.png"><i>Schem.</i> 30.</a> +</div> + + <p>This white long wing’d Moth, which is delineated in the 30. + <i>Scheme</i>; afforded a lovely object both to the naked Eye, and + through a <i>Microscope</i>: to the Eye it appear’d a small Milk-white + Fly with four white Wings, the two formost + somewhat longer then the two hindermost, and the two shorter about half + an Inch long, each of which four Wings seem’d to consist of two small + long Feathers, very curiously tufted, or haired on each side, with purely + white, and exceedingly fine and small Haires, proportion’d to the stalks + or stems, out of which they grew, much like the tufts of a long + wing-feather of some Bird, and their stalks or stems were, like those, + bended backwards and downwards, as may be plainly seen by the draughts of + them in the Figure.</p> + + <p>Observing one of these in my <i>Microscope</i>, I found, in the first + place, that all the Body, Legs, Horns and the Stalks of the Wings, were + covered over with various kinds of curious white Feathers, which did, + with handling or touching, easily rubb off and fly about, in so much that + looking on my Fingers, with which I had handled this Moth, and perceiving + on them little white specks, I found by my <i>Microscope</i>, that they + were several of the small Feathers of this little creature, that stuck up + and down in the <i>rugosities</i> of my Skin.</p> + + <p>Next, I found that underneath these Feathers, the pretty Insect was + covered all over with a crusted Shell, like other of those Animals, but + with one much thinner and tenderer.</p> + + <p>Thirdly, I found, as in Birds also is notable, it had differing and + appropriate kinds of Feathers, that covered several parts of its + body.</p> + + <p>Fourthly, surveying the parts of its body, with a more accurate and + better Magnifying <i>Microscope</i>, I found that the tufts or haires of + its Wings were nothing else but a congeries, or thick set cluster of + small <i>vimina</i> or twiggs, resembling a small twigg of Birch, stript + or whitened, with which Brushes are usually made, to beat out or brush off + the dust from Cloth and Hangings. Every one of the twiggs or branches + that composed the Brush of the Feathers, appeared in this bigger + Magnifying Glass (of which EF which represents ¹⁄₂₄ part of an Inch, is the + scale, as G is of the lesser, which is only ⅓) like the figure D. The + Feathers also that covered a part of his Body, and were interspersed + among the brush of his Wings, I found, in the bigger Magnifying Glass, of + the shape A, consisting of a stalk or stem in the middle, and a seeming + tuftedness or brushy part on each side. The Feathers that cover’d most + part of his Body and the stalk of his wings, were, in the same + <i>Microscope</i>, much of the figure B, appearing of the shape of a + small Feather, and seemed tufted: those which covered the Horns and small + parts of the Leggs, through the same <i>Microscope</i>, appear’d of the + shape C. Whether the tufts of any or all of these small Feathers, + consisted of such component particles as the Feathers of Birds, I much + doubt, because I find that Nature does not alwaies keep, or operate after + the same method, in smaller and bigger creatures. And of this, we have + particular Instances in the Wings of several creatures. For whereas, in + Birds of all kinds, it composes each of the Feathers of which its Wing + consists, of such an exceeding curious and most admirable and stupendious + texture, as I else-where shew, in the Observations on a Feather; we find + it to alter its method quite, in the fabrick of the Wings of these minute + creatures, composing some of thin extended membranes + or skins, such as the Wings of Dragon-flys; in others, those skins are + all over-grown, or pretty thick bestuck, with short brisles, as in + Flesh-flies; in others, those filmes are covered, both on the upper and + under side, with small Feathers, plac’d almost like the tyles on a House, + and are curiously rang’d and adorn’d with most lively colours, as is + observable in Butter-flies, and several kinds of Moths; In others, + instead of their films, Nature has provided nothing, but a matter of half + a score stalks (if I well remember the number; for I have not lately met + with any of these flys, and did not, when I first observ’d them, take + sufficient notice of divers particulars) and each of these stalks, with a + few single branchings on each side, resembling much the branched + back-bone of a Herring or the like Fish, or a thin hair’d Peacocks + feather, the top or the eye being broken off. With a few of these on + either side (which it was able to shut up or expand at pleasure, much + like a Fann, or rather like the posture of the feathers in a wing, + which ly all one under another, when shut, and by the side of each other, + when expanded) this pretty little grey Moth (for such was the creature I + observ’d, thus wing’d) could very nimbly, and as it seem’d very easily + move its <i>corpuscle</i>, through the Air, from place to place. Other + Insects have their wings cas’d, or cover’d over, with certain hollow + shells, shap’d almost like those hollow Trayes, in which Butchers carry + meat, whose hollow sides being turn’d downwards, do not only secure their + folded wings from injury of the earth, in which most of those creatures + reside, but whilst they fly, serves as a help to sustain and bear them + up. And these are observable in <i>Scarabees</i> and a multitude of other + terrestrial <i>crustaceous</i> Insects; in which we may yet further + observe a particular providence of Nature.</p> + + <p>Now in all these kinds of wings, we observe this particular, as a + thing most worthy remark; that where ever a wing consists of discontinued + parts, the Pores or <i>interstitia</i> between those parts are very + seldom, either much bigger, or much smaller, then these which we here + find between the particles of these brushes, so that it should seem to + intimate, that the parts of the Air are such, that they will not easily + or readily, if at all, pass through these Pores, so that they seem to be + strainers fine enough to hinder the particles of the Air (whether + hinder’d by their bulk, or by their <i>agitation</i>, <i>circulation</i>, + <i>rotation</i> or <i>undulation</i>, I shall not here determine) from + getting through them, and, by that means, serve the Animal as well, if + not better, then if they were little films. I say, if not better, because + I have observ’d that all those creatures, that have film’d wings, move + them aboundantly quicker and more strongly, such as all kind of Flies and + <i>Scarabees</i> and Batts, then such as have their wings covered with + feathers, as Butter-flies and Birds, or twiggs, as Moths, which have each + of them a much slower motion of their wings; That little ruggedness + perhaps of their wings helping them somewhat, by taking better hold of + the parts of the Air, or not suffering them so easily to pass by, any + other way then one.</p> + + <p>But what ever be the reason of it, ’tis most evident, that the smooth + wing’d Insects, have the strongest Muscles or movent parts of their + wings, and the other much weaker; and this very Insect, we are now + describing, had a very small <i>thorax</i> or middle + part of his body, if compar’d to the length and number of his wings; + which therefore, as he mov’d them very slowly, so must he move them very + weakly. And this last propriety do we find somewhat observ’d also in + bigger kind of Flying creatures, Birds; so that we see that the Wisdom + and Providence of the All-wise Creator, is not less shewn in these small + despicable creatures, Flies and Moths, which we have branded with a name + of ignominy, calling them Vermine, then in those greater and more + remarkable animate bodies, Birds.</p> + + <p>I cannot here stand to add any thing about the nature of flying, + though, perhaps, on another occasion, I may say something on that + subject, it being such as may deserve a much more accurate examination + and scrutiny then it has hitherto met with; For to me there seems nothing + wanting to make a man able to fly, but what may be easily enough supply’d + from the Mechanicks hitherto known, save onely the want of strength, + which the Muscles of a man seem utterly uncapable of, by reason of their + smalness and texture, but how even strength also may be mechanically + made, and an artificial Muscle so contriv’d, that thereby a man shall be + able to exert what strength he pleases, and to regulate it also to his + own mind, I may elsewhere endeavour to manifest.<br /></p> +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class='chapter' /> +<h2>Observ. <a name="obsXLVII" id="obsXLVII">XLVII</a>. <i>Of the </i>Shepherd Spider<i>, or long-legg’d +</i>Spider<i>.</i></h2> + + <p>The Carter, Shepherd Spider, or long-legg’d Spider, has, for two + particularities, very few similar creatures that I have met with, the + first, which is discoverable onely by the <i>Microscope</i>, and is in +<span class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-31.png"><i>Schem.</i> 31.</a><br /><i>Fig.</i> 1. & 2. +</span> + the first and second <i>Figures</i> of the 31. <i>Scheme</i>, plainly + describ’d, is the curious contrivance of his eyes, of which (differing + from most other Spiders) he has onely two, and those plac’d upon the top + of a small pillar or hillock, rising out of the middle of the top of its + back, or rather the crown of its head, for they were fix’d on the very + top of this pillar (which is about the heighth of one of the transverse + Diameters of the eye, and look’d on in another posture, appear’d much of + the shape, BCD.) The two eyes, BB, were placed back to back, with the + transparent parts, or the pupils, looking towards either side, but + somewhat more forward then backwards. C was the column or neck on which + they stood, and D the crown of the head out of which that neck + sprung.</p> + + <p>These eyes, to appearance, seem’d to be of the very same structure + with that of larger <i>binocular</i> creatures, seeming to have a very + smooth and very protuberant <i>Cornea</i>, and in the midst of it to + have a very black pupil, incompassed about with a kind of grey + <i>Iris</i>, as appears by the <i>Figure</i>; whether it were able to + move these eyes to and fro, I have not observ’d, but ’tis not very likely + he should, the pillar or neck C, seeming to be cover’d and stiffen’d with + a crusty shell; but Nature, in probability, has supply’d + that defect, by making the <i>Cornea</i> so very protuberant, and setting + it so cleer above the shadowing or obstructing of its prospect by the + body, that ’tis likely each eye may perceive, though not see distinctly, + almost a <i>Hemisphere</i>, whence having so small and round a body + plac’d upon such long leggs, it is quickly able so to wind, and turn it, + as to see any thing distinct. This creature, as do all other Spiders I + have yet examin’d, does very much differ from most other Insects in the + Figure of its eyes; for I cannot, with my best <i>Microscope</i>, + discover its eyes to be any ways knobb’d or pearl’d like those of other + Insects.</p> + + <p>The second Peculiarity which is obvious to the eye, is also very + remarkable, and that is the prodigious length of its leggs, in proportion + to its small round body, each legg of this I drew, being above sixteen + times the length of its whole body, and there are some which have them + yet longer, and others that seem of the same kind, that have them a great + deal shorter; the eight leggs are each of them jointed, just like those + of a Crab, but every of the parts are spun out prodigiously longer in + proportion; each of these leggs are terminated in a small case or shell, + shap’d almost like that of a Musle-shell, as is evident in the third +<span class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-31.png"><i>Schem.</i> 31.</a><br /><i>Fig.</i> 3. +</span> + <i>Figure</i> of the same <i>Scheme</i> (that represents the appearance + ot the under part or belly of the creature) by the shape of the + protuberant <i>conical</i> body, IIII, <i>&c.</i> These are as ’twere + plac’d or fasten’d on to the protuberant body of the Insect, which is to + be suppos’d very high at M, making a kind of blunt cone whereof M is to + be suppos’d the <i>Apex</i>, about which greater cone of the body, the + smaller cones of the leggs are plac’d, each of them almost reaching to + the top in so admirable a manner, as does not a little manifest the + wisdom of Nature in the contrivance; for these long Leavers (as I may so + call them) of the legs, having not the advantage of a long end on the + other side of the <i>hypomochlion</i> or centers on which the parts of + the leggs move, must necessarily require a vast strength to move them, + and keep the body ballanc’d and suspended, in so much, that if we should + suppose a man’s body suspended by such a contrivance, an hundred and + fifty times the strength of a man would not keep the body from falling on + the breast. To supply therefore each of these leggs with its proper + strength, Nature has allow’d to each a large Chest or Cell, in which is + included a very large and strong Muscle, and thereby this little Animal + is not onely able to suspend its body upon less then these eight, but to + move it very swiftly over the tops of grass and leaves.</p> + + <p>Nor are these eight leggs so prodigiously long, but the ninth, and + tenth, which are the two claws, KK, are as short, and serve in steed of a + <i>proboscis</i>, for those seem’d very little longer then his mouth; + each of them had three parts, but very short, the joints KK, which + represented the third, being longer then both the other. This creature, + seems (which I have several times with pleasure observ’d) to throw its + body upon the prey, insteed of its hands, not unlike a hunting Spider, + which leaps like a Cat at a Mouse. The whole Fabrick was a very pretty + one, and could I have dissected it, I doubt not but I should have found + as many singularities within it as without, perhaps, for the most part, + not unlike the parts of a Crab, which this little + creature does in many things, very much resemble; the curiosity of whose + contrivance, I have in another place examin’d. I omit the description of + the horns, AA, of the mouth, LL, which seem’d like that of a Crab; the + speckledness of his shell, which proceeded from a kind of feathers or + hairs, and the hairiness of his leggs, his large <i>thorax</i> and little + belly, and the like, they being manifested by the Figure; and shall onely + take notice that the three parts of the body, namely, the head, breast, + and belly, are in this creature strangely confus’d, so that ’tis + difficult to determine which is which, as they are also in a Crab; and + indeed, this seems to be nothing else, but an Air-crab, being made more + light and nimble, proportionable to the <i>medium</i> wherein it resides; + and as Air seems to have but one thousandth part of the body of Water, so + does this Spider seem not to be a thousandth part of the bulk of a + Crab.<br /></p> +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class='chapter' /> +<h2>Observ. <a name="obsXLVIII" id="obsXLVIII">XLVIII</a>. <i>Of the hunting </i>Spider<i>, and several other sorts +of </i>Spiders<i>.</i></h2> + + <p>The hunting Spider is a small grey Spider, prettily bespeck’d with + black spots all over its body, which the <i>Microscope</i> discovers to + be a kind of feathers like those on Butterflies wings, or the body of the + white Moth I lately describ’d. Its gate is very nimble by fits, sometimes + running, and sometimes leaping, like a Grashopper almost, then standing + still, and setting it self on its hinder leggs, it will very nimbly turn + its body, and look round it self every way: It has six very conspicuous + eyes, two looking directly forwards, plac’d just before; two other, on + either side of those, looking forward and side-ways; and two other about + the middle of the top of its back or head, which look backwards and + side-wards; these seem’d to be the biggest. The surface of them all was + very black, sphærical, purely polish’d, reflecting a very cleer and + distinct Image of all the ambient objects, such as a window, a man’s + hand, a white Paper, or the like. Some other properties of this Spider, + observ’d by the most accomplish’d Mr. <i>Evelyn</i>, in his travels in + <i>Italy</i>, are most emphatically set forth in the History hereunto + annexed, which he was pleas’d upon my desire to send me in writing.</p> + +<blockquote> + <p>Of all the sorts of Insects, there is none has afforded me more + divertisements then the <i>Venatores</i>, which are a sort of + <i>Lupi</i>, that have their Denns in the rugged walls, and crevices of + our houses; a small brown and delicately spotted kind of Spiders, whose + hinder leggs are longer then the rest.</p> + + <p>Such I did frequently observe at <i>Rome</i>, which espying a Fly at + three or four yards distance, upon the Balcony (where I stood) + would not make directly to her, but craul + under the Rail, till being arriv’d to the <i>Antipodes</i>, it would + steal up, seldom missing its aim; but if it chanced to want any thing of + being perfectly opposite, would at first peep, immediately slide down + again, till taking better notice, it would come the next time exactly + upon the Fly’s back: But, if this hapn’d not to be within a competent + leap, then would this Insect move so softly, as the very shadow of the + Gnomon seem’d not to be more imperceptible, unless the Fly mov’d; and + then would the Spider move also in the same proportion, keeping that just + time with her motion, as if the same Soul had animated both those little + bodies; and whether it were forwards, backwards, or to either side, + without at all turning her body, like a well mannag’d Horse: But, if the + capricious Fly took wing, and pitch’d upon another place behind our + Huntress, then would the Spider whirle its body so nimbly about, as + nothing could be imagin’d more swift; by which means, she always kept the + head towards her prey, though to appearance, as immovable, as if it had + been a Nail driven into the Wood, till by that indiscernable progress + (being arriv’d within the sphere of her reach) she made a fatal leap + (swift as Lightning) upon the Fly, catching him in the pole, where she + never quitted hold till her belly was full, and then carried the + remainder home. I have beheld them instructing their young ones, how to + hunt, which they would sometimes discipline for not well observing; but, + when any of the old ones did (as sometimes) miss a leap, they would run + out of the field, and hide them in their crannies, as asham’d, and haply + not be seen abroad for four or five hours after; for so long have I + watched the nature of this strange Insect, the contemplation of whose so + wonderfull sagacity and address has amaz’d me; nor do I find in any chase + whatsoever, more cunning and Stratagem observ’d: I have found some of + these Spiders in my Garden, when the weather (towards the Spring) + is very hot, but they are nothing so eager + of hunting as they are in <i>Italy</i>.</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>There are multitudes of other sorts of Spiders, whose eyes, and most + other parts and properties, are so exceedingly different both from those + I have describ’d, and from one another, that it would be almost endless, + at least too long for my present Essay, to describe them, as some with + six eyes, plac’d in quite another order; others with eight eyes; others + with fewer, and some with more. They all seem to be creatures of prey, + and to feed on other small Insects, but their ways of catching them seem + very differing: the Shepherd Spider by running on his prey; the Hunting + Spider by leaping on it, other sorts weave Nets, or Cobwebs, whereby they + ensnare them, Nature having both fitted them with materials and tools, + and taught them how to work and weave their Nets, and to lie perdue, and + to watch diligently to run on any Fly, as soon as ever entangled.</p> + + <p>Their thread or web seems to be spun out of some viscous kind of + excrement, lying in their belly, which, though soft when drawn out, is, + presently by reason of its smallness, hardned and dried by the ambient + Air. Examining several of which with my <i>Microscope</i>, I found them + to appear much like white Hors-hair, or some such transparent horny + substance, and to be of very differing magnitudes; some appearing as bigg + as a Pigg’s brisle, others equal to a Horss-hair; other no bigger then a + man’s hair; others yet smaller and finer. I observ’d further, that the + radiating chords of the web were much bigger, and smoother then those + that were woven round, which seem’d smaller, and all over knotted or + pearl’d, with small transparent Globules, not unlike small Crystal Beads + or seed Pearls, thin strung on a Clew of Silk; which, whether they were + so spun by the Spider, or by the adventitious moisture of a fogg (which I + have observ’d to cover all these filaments with such Crystalline Beads) I + will not now dispute.</p> + + <p>These threads were some of them so small, that I could very plainly, + with the <i>Microscope</i>, discover the same consecutions of colours as + in a <i>Prisme</i>, and they seem’d to proceed from the same cause with + those colours which I have already describ’d in thin plated bodies.</p> + + <p>Much resembling a Cobweb, or a confus’d lock of these Cylinders, is a + certain white substance which, after a fogg, may be observ’d to fly up + and down the Air; catching several of these, and examining them with my + <i>Microscope</i>, I found them to be much of the same form, looking most + like to a flake of Worsted prepar’d to be spun, though by what means they + should be generated, or produc’d, is not easily imagined: they were of + the same weight, or very little heavier then the Air; and ’tis not + unlikely, but that those great white clouds, that appear all the Summer + time, may be of the same substance.<br /></p> +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class='chapter' /> +<h2>Observ. <a name="obsXLIX" id="obsXLIX">XLIX</a>. <i>Of an </i>Ant<i> or </i>Pismire<i>.</i></h2> + + <p>This was a creature, more troublesome to be drawn, then any of the + rest, for I could not, for a good while, think of a way to make it suffer + its body to ly quiet in a natural posture; but whil’st it was alive, if + its feet were fetter’d in Wax or Glew, it would so twist and wind its + body, that I could not any wayes get a good view of it; and if I killed + it, its body was so little, that I did often spoil the shape of it, + before I could throughly view it: for this is the nature of these minute + Bodies, that as soon, almost, as ever their life is destroy’d, their + parts immediately shrivel, and lose their beauty; and so is it also with + small Plants, as I instanced before, in the description of Moss. And + thence also is the reason of the variations in the beards of wild Oats, + and in those of Musk-grass seed, that their bodies, being exceeding + small, those small variations which are made in the surfaces of all + bodies, almost upon every change of Air, especially if the body be + porous, do here become sensible, where the whole body is so small, that + it is almost nothing but surface; for as in vegetable substances, I see + no great reason to think, that the moisture of the Aire (that, sticking + to a wreath’d beard, does make it untwist) should evaporate, or exhale + away, any faster then the moisture of other bodies, but rather that the + avolation from, or access of moisture to, the surfaces of bodies being + much the same, those bodies become most sensible of it, which have the + least proportion of body to their surface. So is it also with Animal + substances; the dead body of an Ant, or such little creature, does almost + instantly shrivel and dry, and your object shall be quite another thing, + before you can half delineate it, which proceeds not from the + extraordinary exhalation, but from the small proportion of body and + juices, to the usual drying of bodies in the Air, especially if warm. For + which inconvenience, where I could not otherwise remove it, I thought of + this expedient.</p> + + <p>I took the creature, I had design’d to delineate, and put it into a + drop of very well rectified spirit of Wine, this I found would presently + dispatch, as it were, the Animal, and being taken out of it, and lay’d on + a paper, the spirit of Wine would immediately fly away, and leave the + Animal dry, in its natural posture, or at least, in a constitution, that + it might easily with a pin be plac’d, in what posture you desired to draw + it, and the limbs would so remain, without either moving, or shriveling. + And thus I dealt with this Ant, which I have here delineated, which was + one of many, of a very large kind, that inhabited under the Roots of a + Tree, from whence they would sally out in great parties, and make most + grievous havock of the Flowers and Fruits, in the ambient Garden, and + return back again very expertly, by the same wayes and paths they + went.</p> + + <p>It was more then half the bigness of an Earwig, of a dark brown, or + reddish colour, with long legs, on the hinder of which it would stand + up, and raise its head as high as it could + above the ground, that it might stare the further about it, just after + the same manner as I have also observ’d a hunting Spider to do: and + putting my finger towards them, they have at first all run towards it, + till almost at it; and then they would stand round about it, at a certain + distance, and smell, as it were, and consider whether they should any of + them venture any further, till one more bold then the rest venturing to + climb it, all the rest, if I would have suffered them, would have + immediately followed: many such other seemingly rational actions I have + observ’d in this little Vermine with much pleasure, which would be too + long to be here related; those that desire more of them may satisfie + their curiosity in <i>Ligons</i> History of the <i>Barbadoes</i>.</p> + + <p>Having insnar’d several of these into a small Box, I made choice of + the tallest grown among them, and separating it from the rest, I gave it + a Gill of Brandy, or Spirit of Wine, which after a while e’en knock’d him + down dead drunk, so that he became moveless, though at first putting in + he struggled for a pretty while very much, till at last, certain bubbles + issuing out of its mouth, it ceased to move; this (because I had before + found them quickly to recover again, if they were taken out presently) I + suffered to lye above an hour in the Spirit; and after I had taken it + out, and put its body and legs into a natural posture, remained moveless + about an hour; but then, upon a sudden, as if it had been awaken out of a + drunken sleep, it suddenly reviv’d and ran away; being caught, and serv’d + as before, he for a while continued struggling and striving, till at last + there issued several bubbles out of its mouth, and then, <i>tanquam + animam expirasset</i>, he remained moveless for a good while; but at + length again recovering, it was again redipt, and suffered to lye some + hours in the Spirit; notwithstanding which, after it had layen dry some + three or four hours, it again recovered life and motion: Which kind of + Experiments, if prosecuted, which they highly deserve, seem to me of no + inconsiderable use towards the invention of the <i>Latent Scheme</i>, (as + the Noble <i>Verulam</i> calls it) or the hidden, unknown Texture of + Bodies.</p> + +<div class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-32.png"><i>Schem.</i> 32.</a> +</div> + + <p>Of what Figure this Creature appear’d through the <i>Microscope</i>, + the 32. <i>Scheme</i> (though not so carefully graven as it ought) will + represent to the eye, namely, That it had a large head AA, at the upper + end of which were two protuberant eyes, pearl’d like those of a Fly, but + smaller BB; out of the Nose, or foremost part, issued two horns CC, of a + shape sufficiently differing from those of a blew Fly, though indeed they + seem to be both the same kind of Organ, and to serve for a kind of + smelling; beyond these were two indented jaws DD, which he open’d + side-wayes, and was able to gape them asunder very wide; and the ends of + them being armed with teeth, which meeting went between each other, it + was able to grasp and hold a heavy body, three or four times the bulk and + weight of its own body: It had only six legs, shap’d like those of a Fly, + which, as I shewed before, is an Argument that it is a winged Insect, and + though I could not perceive any sign of them in the middle part of its + body (which seem’d to consist of three joints or pieces + EFG, out of which sprung two legs), yet ’tis known that there are of them + that have long wings, and fly up and down in the air.</p> + + <p>The third and last part of its body III was bigger and larger then the + other two, unto which it was joyn’d by a very small middle, and had a + kind of loose shell, or another distinct part of its body H, which seem’d + to be interpos’d, and to keep the <i>thorax</i> and belly from + touching.</p> + + <p>The whole body was cas’d over with a very strong armour, and the belly + III was covered likewise with multitudes of small white shining brisles; + the legs, horns, head, and middle parts of its body were bestuck with + hairs also, but smaller and darker.<br /></p> +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class='chapter' /> +<h2>Observ. <a name="obsL" id="obsL">L</a>. <i>Of the wandring </i>Mite<i>.</i></h2> + + <p>In <i>September</i> and <i>October, 1661.</i> I observ’d in + <i>Oxford</i> several of these little pretty Creatures to wander to and + fro, and often to travel over the plains of my Window. And in + <i>September</i> and <i>October, 1663.</i> I observ’d likewise several of + these very same Creatures traversing a window at <i>London</i>, and + looking without the window upon the subjacent wall, I found whole flocks + of the same kind running to and fro among the small groves and thickets + of green moss, and upon the curiously spreading vegetable blew or yellow + moss, which is a kind of a Mushrome or Jews-ear.</p> + + <p>These Creatures to the naked eye seemed to be a kind of black Mite, + but much nimbler and stronger then the ordinary Cheese-Mites; but + examining them in a <i>Microscope</i>, I found them to be a very fine +<span class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-33.png"><i>Schem.</i> 33.</a><br /><i>Fig.</i> 1. +</span> + crusted or shell’d Insect, much like that represented in the first Figure + of the three and thirtieth <i>Scheme</i>, with a protuberant oval shell + A, indented or pitted with an abundance of small pits, all covered over + with little white brisles, whose points all directed backwards.</p> + + <p>It had eight legs, each of them provided with a very sharp tallon, or + claw at the end, which this little Animal, in its going, fastned into the + pores of the body over which it went. Each of these legs were bestuck in + every joynt of them with multitudes of small hairs, or (if we respect the + proportion they bore to the bigness of the leg) turnpikes, all pointing + towards the claws.</p> + + <p>The <i>Thorax</i>, or middle parts of the body of this Creature, was + exceeding small, in respect both of the head and belly, it being nothing + but that part which was covered by the two shells BB, though it seem’d to + grow thicker underneath: And indeed, if we consider the great variety + Nature uses in proportioning the three parts of the body, (the + <i>Head</i>, <i>Thorax</i>, and <i>Belly</i>) we shall not wonder at the + small proportion of this <i>Thorax</i>, nor at the vaster bulk of the + belly, for could we exactly anatomise this little Creature, and observe + the particular designs of each part, we should doubtless, as we do in all + her more manageable and tractable fabricks, find + much more reason to admire the excellency of her contrivance and + workmanship, then to wonder, it was not made otherwise.</p> + + <p>The head of this little Insect was shap’d somewhat like a Mite’s, that + is, it had a long snout, in the manner of a Hogs, with a knobbed ridge + running along the middle of it, which was bestuck on either side with + many small brisles, all pointing forward, and two very large pikes or + horns, which rose from the top of the head, just over each eye, and + pointed forward also. It had two pretty large black eyes on either side + of the head EE, from one of which I could see a very bright reflection of + the window, which made me ghess, that the <i>Cornea</i> of it was smooth, + like those of bigger Insects. Its motion was pretty quick and strong, it + being able very easily to tumble a stone or clod four times as big as its + whole body.</p> + + <p>At the same time and place, and divers times since, I have observed + with my <i>Microscope</i>, another little Insect, which, though I have + not annexed the picture of, may be worth noting, for its exceeding + nimbleness as well as smalness; it was as small as a Mite, with a body + deep and ridged, almost like a Flea; it had eight blood-red legs, not + very long, but slender; and two horns or feelers before. Its motion was + so exceeding quick, that I have often lost sight of one I have observed + with my naked eye; and though, when it was not frighted, I was able to + follow the motions of some with my <i>Microscope</i>; yet if it were + never so little startled, it posted away with such speed, and turn’d and + winded it self so quick, that I should presently lose sight of it.</p> + + <p>When I first observ’d the former of these Insects, or Mites, I began + to conjecture, that certainly I had found out the vagabond Parents of + those Mites we find in Cheeses, Meal, Corn, Seeds, musty Barrels, musty + Leather, &c. these little Creatures, wandring to and fro every + whither, might perhaps, as they were invited hither and thither by the + musty steams of several putrifying bodies, make their invasions upon + those new and pleasing territories, and there spending the remainder of + their life, which might be perhaps a day, or thereabouts, in very + plentiful and riotous living, might leave their offspring behind them, + which by the change of the soil and Country they now inhabite, might be + quite alter’d from the hew of their <i>primogenitors</i>, and, like + <i>Mores</i> translated into Northern <i>European</i> Climates, after a + little time, change both their skin and shape. And this seems yet more + probable in these Insects, because that the soil or body they inhabit, + seems to be almost half their parent, for it not only hatches and brings + those little eggs, or seminal principles, to perfection, but seems to + augment and nourish them also before they are hatch’d or shaped; for it + is obvious enough to be observ’d, that the eggs of many other Insects, + and particularly of Mites, are increas’d in bulk after they are laid out + of the bodies of the Insects, and plump’d sometimes into many times their + former bigness, so that the bodies they are laid in being, as it were, + half their mothers, we shall not wonder that it should have such an + active power to change their forms. We find by relations + how much the <i>Negro</i> Women do besmeer the of-spring of the + <i>Spaniard</i>, bringing forth neither white-skinn’d nor black, but + tawny hided <i>Mulattos</i>.</p> + + <p>Now, though I propound this as probable, I have not yet been so farr + certify’d by Observations as to conclude any thing, either positively or + negatively, concerning it. Perhaps, some more lucky diligence may please + the curious Inquirer with the discovery of this, to be a truth, which I + now conjecture, and may thereby give him a satisfactory account of the + cause of those creatures, whose original seems yet so obscure, and may + give him cause to believe, that many other animate beings, that seem also + to be the mere product of putrifaction, may be innobled with a Pedigree + as antient as the first creation, and farr exceed the greatest beings in + their numerous Genealogies. But on the other side, if it should be found + that these, or any other animate body, have no immediate similar Parent, + I have in another place set down a conjectural <i>Hypothesis</i> whereby + those <i>Phænomena</i> may likely enough be solv’d, wherein the infinite + wisdom and providence of the Creator is no less rare and wonderfull.<br /></p> +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class='chapter' /> +<h2>Observ. <a name="obsLI" id="obsLI">LI</a>. <i>Of the </i>Crab-like<i> Insect.</i></h2> + + <p>Reading one day in <i>Septemb.</i> I chanced to observe a very smal + creature creep over the Book I was reading, very slowly; having a + <i>Microscope</i> by me, I observ’d it to be a creature of a very unusual +<span class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-33.png"><i>Schem.</i> 33.</a><br /><i>Fig.</i> 2. +</span> + form, and that not less notable; such as is describ’d in the second + <i>Figure</i> of the 33. <i>Scheme</i>. It was about the bigness of a + large Mite, or somewhat longer, it had ten legs, eight of which, AAAA, + were topt with very sharp claws, and were those upon which he walk’d, + seeming shap’d much like those of a Crab, which in many other things also + this little creature resembled; for the two other claws, BB, which were + the formost of all the ten, and seem’d to grow out of his head, like the + horns of other Animals, were exactly form’d in the manner of Crabs or + Lobsters claws, for they were shap’d and jointed much like those + represented in the <i>Scheme</i> and the ends of them were furnish’d with + a pair of claws or pincers, CC, which this little animal did open and + shut at pleasure: It seem’d to make use of those two horns or claws both + for feelers and holders; for in its motion it carried these aloft + extended before, moving them to and fro, just as a man blindfolded would + do his hands when he is fearfull of running against a wall, and if I put + a hair to it, it would readily take hold of it with these claws, and seem + to hold it fast. Now, though these horns seem’d to serve him for two + uses, namely, for feeling and holding; yet he seem’d neither blind, + having two small black spots, DD, which by the make of them, and the + bright reflection from them seem’d to be his eyes, nor did it want other + hands, having another pair of claws, EE, very neer plac’d to its mouth, + and seem’d adjoining to it.</p> + + <p>The whole body was cased over with armour-shells, as is usuall in all + those kinds of <i>crustaceous</i> + creatures, especially about their bellies, and seem’d of three kinds, the + head F seem’d cover’d with a kind of scaly shell, the <i>thorax</i> with + two smooth shells, or Rings, GG, and the belly with eight knobb’d ones. I + could not certainly find whether it had under these last shells any + wings, but I suspect the contrary; for I have not found any wing’d Insect + with eight leggs, two of those leggs being always converted into wings, + and, for the most part, those that have but six, have wings.</p> + + <p>This creature, though I could never meet with more then one of them, + and so could not make so many examinations of it as otherwise I would, I + did notwithstanding, by reason of the great curiosity that appear’d to me + in its shape, delineate it, to shew that, in all likelihood, Nature had + crouded together into this very minute Insect, as many, and as excellent + contrivances, as into the body of a very large Crab, which exceeds it in + bulk, perhaps, some Millions of times; for as to all the apparent parts, + there is a greater rather then a less multiplicity of parts, each legg + has as many parts, and as many joints as a Crabs, nay, and as many hairs + or brisles; and the like may be in all the other visible parts; and ’tis + very likely, that the internal curiosities are not less excellent: It + being a general rule in Nature’s proceedings, that where she begins to + display any excellency, if the subject be further search’d into, it will + manifest, that there is not less curiosity in those parts which our + single eye cannot reach, then in those which are more obvious.<br /></p> +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class='chapter' /> +<h2>Observ. <a name="obsLII" id="obsLII">LII</a>. <i>Of the small Silver-colour’d </i>Book-worm<i>.</i></h2> + + <p>As among greater Animals there are many that are scaled, both for + ornament and defence, so are there not wanting such also among the lesser + bodies of Insects, whereof this little creature gives us an Instance. It + is a small white Silver-shining Worm or Moth, which I found much + conversant among Books and Papers, and is suppos’d to be that which + corrodes and eats holes through the leaves and covers; it appears to the + naked eye, a small glittering Pearl-colour’d Moth, which upon the + removing of Books and Papers in the Summer, is often observ’d very nimbly + to scud, and pack away to some lurking cranney, where it may the better + protect itself from any appearing dangers. Its head appears bigg and + blunt, and its body tapers from it towards the tail, smaller and smaller, + being shap’d almost like a Carret.</p> + +<div class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-33.png"><i>Schem.</i> 33.</a><br /><i>Fig.</i> 3. +</div> + + <p>This the <i>Microscopical</i> appearance will more plainly manifest, + which exhibits, in the third <i>Figure</i> of the 33. <i>Scheme</i>, a + conical body, divided into fourteen several partitions, being the + appearance of so many several shels, or shields that cover the whole + body, every of these shells are again cover’d or tiled over with a + multitude of thin transparent scales, which, from the multiplicity of + their reflecting surfaces, make the whole Animal appear of a perfect + Pearl-colour.</p> + + <p>Which, by the way, may hint us the reason of that so much admired + appearance of those so highly esteem’d bodies, as also of the like in + mother of Pearl shells, and in multitudes of other shelly Sea-substances; + for they each of them consisting of an infinite number of very thin + shells or laminated orbiculations, cause such multitudes of reflections, + that the compositions of them together with the reflections of others + that are so thin as to afford colours (of which I elsewhere give the + reason) gives a very pleasant reflection of light. And that this is the + true cause, seems likely, first, because all those so appearing bodies + are compounded of multitudes of plated substances. And next that, by + ordering any trasparent substance after this manner, the like + <i>Phænomena</i> may be produc’d; this will be made very obvious by the + blowing of Glass into exceeding thin shells, and then breaking them into + scales, which any lamp-worker will presently do; for a good quantity of + these scales, laid in a heap together, have much the same resemblance of + Pearls. Another way, not less instructive and pleasant, is a way which I + have several times done, which is by working and tossing, as ’twere, a + parcel of pure crystalline glass whilst it is kept glowing hot in the + blown flame of a Lamp, for, by that means, that purely transparent body + will be so divided into an infinite number of plates, or small strings, + with interpos’d aerial plates and <i>fibres</i>, that from the + multiplicity of the reflections from each of those internal surfaces, it + may be drawn out into curious Pearl-like or Silver wire, which though + small, will yet be opacous; the same thing I have done with a composition + of red <i>Colophon</i> and <i>Turpentine</i>, and a little Bee’s Wax, and + may be done likewise with Birdlime, and such like glutinous and + transparent bodies: But to return to our description.</p> + + <p>The small blunt head of this Insect was furnish’d on either side of it + with a cluster of eyes, each of which seem’d to contain but a very few, + in comparison of what I had observ’d the clusters of other Insects to + abound with; each of these clusters were beset with a row of small + brisles, much like the <i>cilia</i> or hairs on the eye-lids, and, + perhaps, they serv’d for the same purpose. It had two long horns before, + which were streight, and tapering towards the top, curiously ring’d or + knobb’d, and brisled much like the Marsh Weed, call’d Horse-tail, or + Cats-tail, having at each knot a fring’d Girdle, as I may so call it, of + smaller hairs, and several bigger and larger brisles, here and there + dispers’d among them: besides these, it had two shorter horns, or + feelers, which were knotted and fring’d, just as the former, but wanted + brisles, and were blunt at the ends; the hinder part of the creature was + terminated with three tails, in every particular resembling the two + longer horns that grew out of the head: The leggs of it were scal’d and + hair’d much like the rest, but are not express’d in this <i>Figure</i>, + the Moth being intangled all in Glew, and so the leggs of this appear’d + not through the Glass which looked perpendicularly upon the back.</p> + + <p>This Animal probably feeds upon the Paper and covers of Books, and + perforates in them several small round holes, finding, perhaps, a + convenient nourishment in those husks of Hemp and Flax, which have pass’d + through so many scourings, washings, + dressings and dryings, as the parts of old Paper must necessarily have + suffer’d; the digestive faculty, it seems, of these little creatures + being able yet further to work upon those stubborn parts, and reduce them + into another form.</p> + + <p>And indeed, when I consider what a heap of Saw-dust or chips this + little creature (which is one of the teeth of Time) conveys into its + intrals, I cannot chuse but remember and admire the excellent contrivance + of Nature, in placing in Animals such a fire, as is continually nourished + and supply’d by the materials convey’d into the stomach, and + <i>fomented</i> by the bellows of the lungs; and in so contriving the + most admirable fabrick of Animals, as to make the very spending and + wasting of that fire, to be instrumental to the procuring and collecting + more materials to augment and cherish it self, which indeed seems to be + the principal end of all the contrivances observable in bruit + Animals.<br /></p> +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class='chapter' /> +<h2>Observ. <a name="obsLIII" id="obsLIII">LIII</a>. <i>Of a </i>Flea<i>.</i></h2> + + <p>The strength and beauty of this small creature, had it no other + relation at all to man, would deserve a description.</p> + + <p>For its strength, the <i>Microscope</i> is able to make no greater + discoveries of it then the naked eye, but onely the curious contrivance + of its leggs and joints, for the exerting that strength, is very plainly + manifested, such as no other creature, I have yet observ’d, has any thing + like it; for the joints of it are so adapted, that he can, as ’twere, + fold them short one within another, and suddenly stretch, or spring them +<span class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-34.png"><i>Schem.</i> 34.</a> +</span> + out to their whole length, that is, of the fore-leggs, the part A, of the + 34. <i>Scheme</i>, lies within B, and B within C, parallel to, or side by + side each other; but the parts of the two next, lie quite contrary, that + is, D without E, and E without F, but parallel also; but the parts of the + hinder leggs, G, H and I, bend one within another, like the parts of a + double jointed Ruler, or like the foot, legg and thigh of a man; these + six leggs he clitches up altogether, and when he leaps, springs them all + out, and thereby exerts his whole strength at once.</p> + + <p>But, as for the beauty of it, the <i>Microscope</i> manifests it to be + all over adorn’d with a curiously polish’d suit of <i>sable</i> Armour, + neatly jointed, and beset with multitudes of sharp pinns, shap’d almost + like Porcupine’s Quills, or bright conical Steel-bodkins; the head is on + either side beautify’d with a quick and round black eye K, behind each of + which also appears a small cavity, L, in which he seems to move to and + fro a certain thin film beset with many small transparent hairs, which + probably may be his ears; in the forepart of his head, between the two + fore-leggs, he has two small long jointed feelers, or rather smellers, + MM, which have four joints, and are hairy, like those of several other + creatures; between these, it has a small <i>proboscis</i>, or + <i>probe</i>, NNO, that seems to consist of a tube NN, + and a tongue or sucker O, which I have perceiv’d him to slip in and out. + Besides these, it has also two chaps or biters PP, which are somewhat + like those of an Ant, but I could not perceive them tooth’d; these were + shap’d very like the blades of a pair of round top’d Scizers, and were + opened and shut just after the same manner; with these Instruments does + this little busie Creature bite and pierce the skin, and suck out the + blood of an Animal, leaving the skin inflamed with a small round red + spot. These parts are very difficult to be discovered, because, for the + most part, they lye covered between the fore-legs. There are many other + particulars, which, being more obvious, and affording no great matter of + information, I shall pass by, and refer the Reader to the Figure.<br /></p> +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class='chapter' /> +<h2>Observ. <a name="obsLIV" id="obsLIV">LIV</a>. <i>Of a Louse.</i></h2> + + <p>This is a Creature so officious, that ’twill be known to every one at + one time or other, so busie, and so impudent, that it will be intruding + it self in every ones company, and so proud and aspiring withall, that it + fears not to trample on the best, and affects nothing so much as a Crown; + feeds and lives very high, and that makes it so saucy, as to pull any one + by the ears that comes in its way, and will never be quiet till it has + drawn blood: it is troubled at nothing so much as at a man that scratches + his head, as knowing that man is plotting and contriving some mischief + against it, and that makes it oftentime sculk into some meaner and lower + place, and run behind a mans back, though it go very much against the + hair; which ill conditions of it having made it better known then + trusted, would exempt me from making any further description of it, did + not my faithful <i>Mercury</i>, my <i>Microscope</i>, bring me other + information of it. For this has discovered to me, by means of a very + bright light cast on it, that it is a Creature of a very odd shape; it +<span class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-35.png"><i>Schem.</i> 35.</a> +</span> + has a head shap’d like that exprest in 35. <i>Scheme</i> marked with A, + which seems almost Conical, but is a little flatted on the upper and + under sides, at the biggest part of which, on either side behind the head + (as it were, being the place where other Creatures ears stand) are placed + its two black shining goggle eyes BB, looking backwards, and fenced round + with several small <i>cilia</i>, or hairs that incompass it, so that it + seems this Creature has no very good foresight: It does not seem to have + any eye-lids, and therefore perhaps its eyes were so placed, that it + might the better cleanse them with its fore-legs; and perhaps this may be + the reason, why they so much avoid and run from the light behind them, + for being made to live in the shady and dark recesses of the hair, and + thence probably their eye having a great aperture, the open and clear + light, especially that of the Sun, must needs very much offend them; to + secure these eyes from receiving any injury from the hairs through which + it passes, it has two horns that grow before + it, in the place where one would have thought the eyes should be; each of + these CC hath four joynts, which are fringed, as ’twere, with small + brisles, from which to the tip of its snout D, the head seems very round + and tapering, ending in a very sharp nose D, which seems to have a small + hole, and to be the passage through which he sucks the blood. Now whereas + if it be plac’d on its back, with its belly upwards, as it is in the 35. + <i>Scheme</i>, it seems in several Positions to have a resemblance of + chaps, or jaws, as is represented in the Figure by EE, yet in other + postures those dark strokes disappear; and having kept several of them in + a box for two or three dayes, so that for all that time they had nothing + to feed on, I found, upon letting one creep on my hand, that it + immediately fell to sucking, and did neither seem to thrust its nose very + deep into the skin, nor to open any kind of mouth, but I could plainly + perceive a small current of blood, which came directly from its snout, + and past into its belly; and about A there seem’d a contrivance, somewhat + resembling a Pump, pair of Bellows, or Heart, for by a very swift + <i>systole</i> and <i>diastole</i> the blood seem’d drawn from the nose, + and forced into the body. It did not seem at all, though I viewed it a + good while as it was sucking, to thrust more of its nose into the skin + then the very snout D, nor did it cause the least discernable pain, and + yet the blood seem’d to run through its head very quick and freely, so + that it seems there is no part of the skin but the blood is dispers’d + into, nay, even into the <i>cuticula</i>; for had it thrust its whole + nose in from D to CC, it would not have amounted to the supposed + thickness of that <i>tegument</i>, the length of the nose being not more + then a three hundredth part of an inch. It has six legs, covered with a + very transparent shell, and joynted exactly like a Crab’s, or Lobster’s; + each leg is divided into six parts by these joynts, and those have here + and there several small hairs; and at the end of each leg it has two + claws, very properly adapted for its peculiar use, being thereby inabled + to walk very securely both on the skin and hair; and indeed this + contrivance of the feet is very curious, and could not be made more + commodiously and compendiously, for performing both these requisite + motions, of walking and climbing up the hair of a mans head, then it is: + for, by having the lesser claw (a) set so much short of the bigger (b) + when it walks on the skin the shorter touches not, and then the feet are + the same with those of a Mite, and several other small Insects, but by + means of the small joynts of the longer claw it can bend it round, and so + with both claws take hold of a hair, in the manner represented in the + Figure, the long transparent Cylinder FFF, being a Man’s hair held by + it.</p> + + <p>The <i>Thorax</i> seem’d cas’d with another kind of substance then the + belly, namely, with a thin transparent horny substance, which upon the + fasting of the Creature did not grow flaccid; through this I could + plainly see the blood, suck’d from my hand, to be variously distributed, + and mov’d to and fro; and about G there seem’d a pretty big white + substance, which seem’d to be moved within its <i>thorax</i>; besides, + there appear’d very many small milk-white vessels, which crost over the + breast between the legs, out of which, on either + side, were many small branchings, these seem’d to be the veins and + arteries, for that which is analogus to blood in all Insects is + milk-white.</p> + + <p>The belly is covered with a transparent substance likewise, but more + resembling a skin then a shell, for ’tis grain’d all over the belly just + like the skin in the palms of a man’s hand, and when the belly is empty, + grows very flaccid and wrinkled; at the upper end of this is placed the + stomach HH, and perhaps also the white spot II may be the liver or + <i>pancreas</i>, which, by the <i>peristalick</i> motion of the guts, is + a little mov’d to and fro, not with a <i>systole</i> and <i>diastole</i>, + but rather with a thronging or justling motion. Viewing one of these + Creatures, after it had fasted two dayes, all the hinder part was lank + and flaccid, and the white spot II hardly mov’d, most of the white + branchings disappear’d, and most also of the redness or sucked blood in + the guts, the <i>peristaltick</i> motion of which was scarce discernable; + but upon the suffering it to suck, it presently fill’d the skin of the + belly, and of the six scolop’d embosments on either side, as full as it + could be stuft, the stomach and guts were as full as they could hold; the + <i>peristaltick</i> motion of the gut grew quick, and the justling motion + of II accordingly; multitudes of milk-white vessels seem’d quickly + filled, and turgid, which were perhaps the veins and arteries and the + Creature was so greedy, that though it could not contain more, yet it + continued sucking as fast as ever, and as fast emptying it self behind: + the digestion of this Creature must needs be very quick, for though I + perceiv’d the blood thicker and blacker when suck’d, yet, when in the + guts, it was of a very lovely ruby colour, and that part of it, which was + digested into the veins, seemed white; whence it appears, that a further + digestion of blood may make it milk, at least of a resembling colour: + What is else observable in the figure of this Creature, may be seen by + the 35. <i>Scheme</i>.<br /></p> +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class='chapter' /> +<h2>Observ. <a name="obsLV" id="obsLV">LV</a>. <i>Of </i>Mites<i>.</i></h2> + + <p>The least of <i>Reptiles</i> I have hitherto met with, is a Mite, a + Creature whereof there are some so very small, that the sharpest sight, + unassisted with Glasses, is not able to discern them, though, being white + of themselves, they move on a black and smooth surface; and the Eggs, out + of which these Creatures seem to be hatch’d, are yet smaller, those being + usually not above a four or five hundredth part of a well grown Mite, and + those well grown Mites not much above one hundredth of an inch in + thickness; so that according to this reckoning there may be no less then + a million of well grown Mites contain’d in a cubick inch, and five + hundred times as many Eggs.</p> + + <p>Notwithstanding which minuteness a good <i>Microscope</i> discovers + those small movable specks to be very prettily shap’d Insects, each of + them furnished with eight well shap’d and proportion’d + legs, which are each of them joynted or bendable in eight several places, + or joynts, each of which is covered, for the most part, with a very + transparent shell, and the lower end of the shell of each joynt is + fringed with several small hairs; the contrivance of the joynts seems the + very same with that of Crabs and Lobsters legs, and like those also, they + are each of them terminated with a very sharp claw or point; four of + these legs are so placed, that they seem to draw forwards, the other four + are placed in a quite contrary position, thereby to keep the body + backwards when there is occasion.</p> + +<div class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-36.png"><i>Schem.</i> 36.</a><br /><i>Fig.</i> 1. +</div> + + <p>The body, as in other larger Insects, consists of three regions or parts; the + hinder or belly A, seems covered with one intire shell, the middle, or + chest, seems divided into two shells BC. which running one within the + other, the Mite is able to shrink in and thrust out as it finds occasion, + as it can also the snout D. The whole body is pretty transparent, so that + being look’d on against the light, divers motions within its body may be + perceived; as also all the parts are much more plainly delineable, then + in other postures, to the light. The shell, especially that which covers + the back, is curiously polisht, so that ’tis easie to see, as in a + <i>convex</i> Looking-glass, or <i>foliated</i> Glass-ball, the picture + of all the objects round about; up and down, in several parts of its + body, it has several small long white hairs growing out of its shell, + which are often longer then the whole body, and are represented too short + in the first and second Figures; they seem all pretty straight and + pliable, save only two upon the forepart of its body, which seem to be + the horns, as may be seen in the Figures; the first whereof is a prospect + of a smaller sort of Mites (which are usually more plump) as it was + <i>passant</i> to and fro; the second is the prospect of one fixt on its + tail (by means of a little mouth-glew rub’d on the object plate) + exhibiting the manner of the growing of the legs, together with their + several joynts.</p> + + <p>This Creature is very much diversify’d in shape, colour, and divers + other properties, according to the nature of the substance out of which + it seems to be ingendred and nourished, being in one substance more long, + in another more round, in some more hairy, in others more smooth, in this + nimble, in that slow, here pale and whiter, there browner, blacker, more + transparent, <i>&c.</i> I have observed it to be resident almost on + all kinds of substances that are mouldy, or putrifying, and have seen it + very nimbly meshing through the thickets of mould, and sometimes to lye + <i>dormant</i> underneath them; and ’tis not unlikely, but that it may + feed on that vegetating substance, <i>spontaneous Vegetables</i> seeming + a food proper enough for <i>spontaneous Animals</i>,</p> + + <p>But whether indeed this Creature, or any other, be such or not, I + cannot positively, from any Experiment, or Observation, I have yet made, + determine. But, as I formerly hinted, it seems probable, that some kind + of wandring Mite may sow, as ’twere, the first seeds, or lay the first + eggs, in those places, which Nature has instructed them to know + convenient for the hatching and nourishing their young; and though + perhaps the prime Parent might be of a shape very + differing from what the offspring, after a little while, by reason of the + substance they feed on, or the Region (as ’twere) they inhabite; yet + perhaps even one of these alter’d progeny, wandering again from its + native soil, and lighting on by chance the same place from whence its + prime Parent came, and there settling, and planting, may produce a + generation of Mites of the same shapes and properties with the first + wandring Mite: And from some such accidents as these, I am very apt to + think, the most sorts of Animals, generally accounted <i>spontaneous</i>, + have their <i>origination</i>, and all those various sorts of Mites, that + are to be met with up and down in divers putrifying substances, may + perhaps be all of the same kind, and have sprung from one and the same + sort of Mites at the first.<br /></p> +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class='chapter' /> +<h2>Observ. <a name="obsLVI" id="obsLVI">LVI</a>. <i>Of a small Creature hatch’d on a Vine.</i></h2> + + <p>There is, almost all the Spring and Summer time, a certain small, + round, white Cobweb, as ’twere, about the bigness of a Pea, which sticks + very close and fast to the stocks of Vines nayl’d against a warm wall: + being attentively viewed, they seem cover’d, upon the upper side of them, + with a small husk, not unlike the scale, or shell of a Wood-louse, or + Hog-louse, a small Insect usually found about rotten wood, which upon + touching presently rouls it self into the form of a peppercorn: + Separating several of these from the stock, I found them, with my + <i>Microscope</i>, to consist of a shell, which now seemed more likely to + be the husk of one of these Insects: And the fur seem’d a kind of cobweb, + consisting of abundance of small filaments, or sleaves of cobwebs. In the + midst of this, if they were not hatch’d, and run away before, the time of + which hatching was usually about the latter end of <i>June</i>, or + beginning of <i>July</i>, I have often found abundance of small brown +<span class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-36.png"><i>Schem.</i> 36.</a><br /><i>Fig.</i> 2. +</span> + Eggs, such as A and B in the second Figure of the 36. <i>Scheme</i>, much + about the bigness of Mites Eggs; and at other times, multitudes of small + Insects, shaped exactly like that in the third Figure marked with X. Its + head large, almost half the bigness of its body, which is usual in the + <i>fœtus</i> of most Creatures. It had two small black eyes + <i>aa</i>, and two small long joynted and brisled horns <i>bb</i>. The + hinder part of its body seem’d to consist of nine scales, and the last + ended in a forked tayl, much like that of a <i>Cutio</i>, or Wood-louse, + out of which grew two long hairs; they ran to and fro very swiftly, and + were much of the bigness of a common Mite, but some of them less: The + longest of them seem’d not the hundredth part of an inch, and the Eggs + usually not above half as much. They seemed to have six legs, which were + not visible in this I have here delineated, by reason they were drawn + under its body.</p> + + <p>If these Minute creatures were <i>Wood-lice</i> (as indeed from their + own shape and from the frame, the skin, or shell, that grows on them, one + may with great probability ghess) it affords us an + Instance, whereof perhaps there are not many like in Nature, and that is, + of the prodigious increase of these Creatures, after they are hatch’d and + run about; for a common Wood-louse, of about half an inch long, is no + less then a hundred and twenty five thousand times bigger then one of + these, which though indeed it seems very strange, yet I have observed the + young ones of some Spiders have almost kept the same proportion to their + Dam.</p> + + <p>This, methinks, if it be so, does in the next place hint a Quæry, + which may perhaps deserve a little further examination: And that is, + Whether there be not many of those minute Creatures, such as Mites, and + the like, which, though they are commonly thought of otherwise, are only + the <i>pully</i>, or young ones, of much bigger Insects, and not the + generating, or parent <i>Insect</i>, that has layd those Eggs; for having + many times observ’d those Eggs, which usually are found in great + abundance where Mites are found, it seems something strange, that so + small an Animal should have an Egg so big in proportion to its body. + Though on the other side, I must confess, that having kept divers of + those Mites inclosed in a box for a good while, I did not find them very + much augmented beyond their usual bigness.</p> + + <p>What the husk and cobweb of this little white substance should be, I + cannot imagine, unless it be, that the old one, when impregnated with + Eggs, should there stay, and fix it self on the Vine, and dye, and all + the body by degrees should rot, save only the husk, and the Eggs in the + body: And the heat, or fire, as it were, of the approaching Sun-beams + should vivifie those Relicts of the corrupted Parent, and out of the + ashes, as ’twere, (as it is fabled of the <i>Phœnix</i>) should + raise a new <i>offspring</i> for the perpetuation of the <i>Species</i>. + Nor will the cobweb, as it were, in which these Eggs are inclos’d, make + much against this Conjecture; for we may, by those cobwebs that are + carried up and down the Air after a Fog (which with my <i>Microscope</i> + I have discovered to be made up of an infinite company of small filaments + or threads) learn, that such a texture of body may be otherwise made then + by the spinning of a Worm.<br /></p> +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class='chapter' /> +<h2>Observ. <a name="obsLVII" id="obsLVII">LVII</a>. <i>Of the </i>Eels<i> in Vinegar.</i></h2> + + <p>Of these small Eels, which are to be found in divers sorts of Vinegar, + I have little to add besides their Picture, which you may find drawn in +<span class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-25.png"><i>Schem.</i> 25.</a><br /><i>Fig.</i> 3. +</span> + the third Figure of the 25. <i>Scheme</i>: That is, they were shaped much + like an Eel, save only that their nose A, (which was a little more + opacous then the rest of their body) was a little sharper, and longer, in + proportion to their body, and the wrigling motion of their body seem’d to + be onely upwards and downwards, whereas that of Eels is onely side-wayes: + They seem’d to have a more opacous part about B, + which might, perhaps, be their Gills; it seeming always the same + proportionate distant from their nose, from which, to the tip of their + tail, C, their body seem’d to taper.</p> + + <p>Taking several of these out of their Pond of Vinegar, by the net of a + small piece of filtring Paper, and laying them on a black smooth Glass + plate, I found that they could wriggle and winde their body, as much + almost as a Snake, which made me doubt, whether they were a kind of Eal + or Leech.</p> + + <p>I shall add no other observations made on this minute Animal, being + prevented herein by many excellent ones already publish’d by the + ingenious, Doctor <i>Power</i>, among his <i>Microscopical</i> + Observations, save onely that a quantity of Vinegar repleat with them + being included in a small Viol, and stop’d very close from the ambient + air, all the included Worms in a very short time died, as if they had + been stifled.</p> + + <p>And that their motion seems (contrary to what we may observe in the + motion of all other Infects) exceeding slow. But the reason of it seems + plain, for being to move to and fro after that manner which they do, by + waving onely, or wrigling their body; the tenacity, or glutinousness, and + the density or resistance of the fluid <i>medium</i> becomes so exceeding + sensible to their extremely minute bodies, that it is to me indeed a + greater wonder that they move them so fast as they do, then that they + move them no faster. For what a vastly greater proportion have they of + their superficies to their bulk, then Eels or other larger Fishes, and + next, the tenacity and density of the liquor being much the same to be + moved, both by the one and the other, the resistance or impediment thence + arising to the motions made through it, must be almost infinitely greater + to the small one then to the great. This we find experimentally verify’d + in the Air, which though a <i>medium</i> a thousand times more rarify’d + then the water, the resistance of it to motions made through it, is yet + so sensible to very minute bodies, that a Down-feather (the least of + whose parts seem yet bigger then these Eels, and many of them almost + incomparably bigger, such as the quill and stalk) is suspended by it, and + carried to and fro as if it had no weight.<br /></p> +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class='chapter' /> +<h2>Observ. <a name="obsLVIII" id="obsLVIII">LVIII</a>. <i>Of a new Property in the </i>Air<i>, and several other +transparent </i>Mediums<i> nam’d </i>Inflection<i>, whereby very many considerable +</i>Phænomena<i> are attempted to be solv’d, and divers other +uses are hinted.</i></h2> + + <p>Since the Invention (and perfecting in some measure) of + <i>Telescopes</i>, it has been observ’d by several, that the Sun and Moon + neer the Horizon, are disfigur’d (losing that exactly-smooth terminating + circular limb, which they are observ’d to have when situated neerer the + Zenith) and are bounded with an edge every way (especially upon the right + and left sides) ragged and indented like a Saw: + which inequality of their limbs, I have further observ’d, not to remain + always the same, but to be continually chang’d by a kind of fluctuating + motion, not unlike that of the waves of the Sea, so as that part of the + limb, which was but even now nick’d or indented in, is now protuberant, + and will presently be sinking again; neither is this all but the whole + body of the Luminaries, do in the <i>Telescope</i>, seem to be depress’d + and flatted, the upper, and more especially the under side appearing + neerer to the middle then really they are, and the right and left + appearing more remote: whence the whole <i>Area</i> seems to be + terminated by a kind of Oval. It is further observ’d, that the body, for + the most part, appears red, or of some colour approaching neer unto it, + as some kind of yellow; and this I have always mark’d, that the more the + limb is flatted or ovalled, the more red does the body appear, though not + always the contrary. It is further observable, that both fix’d Stars and + Planets, the neerer they appear to the Horizon, the more red and dull + they look, and the more they are observ’d to twinkle; in so much, that I + have seen the Dog-starr to vibrate so strong and bright a radiation of + light, as almost to dazle my eyes, and presently, almost to disappear. It + is also observable, that those bright scintillations neer the Horizon, + are not by much so quick and sudden in their consecutions of one another, + as the nimbler twinklings of Stars neerer the Zenith. This is also + notable, that the Starrs neer the Horizon, are twinkled with several + colours; so as sometimes to appear red, sometimes more yellow, and + sometimes blue, and this when the Starr is a pretty way elevated above + the Horizon. I have further, very often seen some of the small Starrs of + the fifth or sixth magnitude, at certain times to disappear for a small + moment of time, and again appear more conspicuous, and with a greater + luster. I have several times, with my naked eye, seen many smaller + Starrs, such as may be call’d of the seventh or eighth magnitude to + appear for a short space, and then vanish, which, by directing a small + <i>Telescope</i> towards that part they appear’d and disappear’d in; I + could presently find to be indeed small Starrs so situate, as I had seen + them with my naked eye, and to appear twinkling like the ordinary visible + Stars; nay, in examining some very notable parts of the Heaven, with a + three foot Tube, me thought I now and then, in several parts of the + constellation, could perceive little twinklings of Starrs, making a very + short kind of apparition, and presently vanishing, but noting diligently + the places where they thus seem’d to play at boe-peep, I made use of a + very good twelve foot Tube, and with that it was not uneasie to see + those, and several other degrees of smaller Starrs, and some smaller yet, + that seem’d again to appear and disappear, and these also by giving the + same Object-glass a much bigger aperture, I could plainly and constantly + see appear in their former places; so that I have observ’d some twelve + several magnitudes of Starrs less then those of the six magnitudes + commonly recounted in the Globes.</p> + + <p>It has been observ’d and confirm’d by the accuratest Observations of + the best of our modern Astronomers, that all the Luminous bodies appear + above the Horizon, when they really are below it. So that the + Sun and Moon have both been seen above the + Horizon, whil’st the Moon has been in an Eclipse. I shall not here + instance in the great refractions, that the tops of high mountains, seen + at a distance, have been found to have; all which seem to argue the + Horizontal refraction, much greater then it is hitherto generally + believ’d.</p> + + <p>I have further taken notice, that not onely the Sun, Moon and Starrs, + and high tops of mountains have suffer’d these kinds of refraction, but + Trees, and several bright Objects on the ground: I have often taken + notice of the twinkling of the reflections of the Sun from a Glass-window + at a good distance, and of a Candle in the night, but that is not so + conspicuous, and in observing the setting Sun, I have often taken notice + of the tremulation of the Trees and Bushes, as well as of the edges of + the Sun. Divers of these <i>Phænomena</i> have been taken notice of by + several, who have given several reasons of them, but I have not yet met + with any altogether satisfactory, though some of their conjectures have + been partly true, but partly also false. Setting my self therfore upon + the inquiry of these <i>Phænomena</i>, I first endeavour’d to be very + diligent in taking notice of the several particulars and circumstances + observable in them; and next, in making divers particular Experiments, + that might cleer some doubts, and serve to determine, confirm, and + illustrate the true and adæquate cause of each; and upon the whole, I + find much reason to think, that the true cause of all these + <i>Phænomena</i> is from the <i>inflection</i>, or <i>multiplicate + refraction</i> of those Rays of light within the body of the + <i>Atmosphere</i>, and that it does not proceed from a <i>refraction</i> + caus’d by any terminating <i>superficies</i> of the Air above, nor from + any such exactly defin’d <i>superficies</i> within the body of the + <i>Atmosphere</i>.</p> + + <p>This Conclusion is grounded upon these two Propositions:</p> + + <p>First, that a <i>medium</i>, whose parts are unequally <i>dense</i>, + and mov’d by various motions and transpositions as to one another, will + produce all these visible effects upon the Rays of light, without any + other <i>coefficient</i> cause.</p> + + <p>Secondly, that there is in the Air or <i>Atmosphere</i> such a variety + in the constituent parts of it, both as to their <i>density</i> and + <i>rarity</i>, and as to their divers mutations and positions one to + another.</p> + + <p>By <i>Density</i> and <i>Rarity</i>, I understand a property of a + transparent body, that does either more or less refract a Ray of light + (coming obliquely upon its superficies out of a third <i>medium</i>) + toward its perpendicular: As I call Glass a more dense body then Water, + and Water a more rare body then Glass, because of the refractions (more + or less deflecting towards the perpendicular) that are made in them, of a + Ray of light out of the Air that has the same inclination upon either of + their superficies.</p> + + <p>So as to the business of Refraction, spirit of Wine is a more + <i>dense</i> body then Water, it having been found by an accurate + Instrument that measures the angles of Refractions to Minutes that for + the same refracted angle of 30°.00′. in both those <i>Mediums</i>, the + angle of incidence in Water was but 41°.35′. but the angle of the + incidence in the trial with spirit of Wine was 42°.45′. But as to + gravity, Water is a more <i>dense</i> body then spirit of + Wine, for the proportion of the same Water, to the same very well + rectify’d spirit of Wine was, as 21. to 19.</p> + + <p>So as to Refraction, Water is more Dense then Ice; for I have found by + a most certain Experiment, which I exhibited before divers illustrious + Persons of the <i>Royal Society</i>, that the Refraction of Water was + greater then that of Ice, though some considerable Authors have affirm’d + the contrary, and though the Ice be a very hard, and the Water a very + fluid body.</p> + + <p>That the former of the two preceding Propositions is true, may be + manifested by several Experiments; As first, if you take any two liquors + differing from one another in density, but yet such as will readily mix: + as Salt Water, or Brine, & Fresh; almost any kind of Salt dissolv’d + in Water, and filtrated, so that it be cleer, spirit of Wine and Water; + nay, spirit of Wine, and spirit of Wine, one more highly rectify’d then + the other, and very many other liquors; if (I say) you take any two of + these liquors, and mixing them in a Glass Viol, against one side of which + you have fix’d or glued a small round piece of Paper, and shaking them + well together (so that the parts of them may be somewhat disturb’d and + move up and down) you endeavour to see that round piece of Paper through + the body of the liquors, you shall plainly perceive the Figure to wave, + and to be indented much after the same manner as the limb of the Sun + through a <i>Telescope</i> seems to be, save onely that the mutations + here, are much quicker. And if, in steed of this bigger Circle, you take + a very small spot, and fasten and view it as the former, you will find it + to appear much like the twinkling of the Starrs, though much quicker: + which two <i>Phænomena</i>, (for I shall take notice of no more at + present, though I could instance in multitudes of others) must + necessarily be caus’d by an <i>inflection</i> of the Rays within the + terminating superficies of the compounded <i>medium</i>, since the + surfaces of the transparent body through which the Rays pass to the eye, + are not at all altered or chang’d.</p> + + <p>This <i>inflection</i> (if I may so call it) I imagine to be nothing + else, but a <i>multiplicate refraction</i>, caused by the unequal + <i>density</i> of the constituent parts of the <i>medium</i>, whereby the + motion, action or progress of the Ray of light is hindred from proceeding + in a streight line, and <i>inflected</i> or <i>deflected</i> by a + <i>curve</i>. Now, that it is a <i>curve</i> line is manifest by this +<span class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-37.png"><i>Schem.</i> 37.</a><br /><i>Fig.</i> 1. +</span> + Experiment: I took a Box, such as ADGE, in the first <i>Figure</i> of the + 37. <i>Scheme</i>, whose sides ABCD, and EFGH, were made of two smooth + flat plates of Glass, then filling it half full with a very strong + solution of Salt, I filled the other half with very fair fresh water, + then exposing the opacous side, DHGC, to the Sun, I observ’d both the + <i>refraction</i> and <i>inflection</i> of the Sun beams, ID & KH, + and marking as exactly as I could, the points, P, N, O, M, by which the + Ray, KH, passed through the compounded <i>medium</i>, I found them to be + in a <i>curve</i> line; for the parts of the <i>medium</i> being + continually more dense the neerer they were to the bottom, the Ray + <i>pf</i> was continually more and more deflected downwards from the + streight line.</p> + + <p>This Inflection may be mechanically explained, either by Monsieur + <i>Des Cartes</i> principles by conceiving + the Globuls of the third Element to find less and less resistance against + that side of them which is downwards, or by a way, which I have further + explicated in the Inquisition about Colours, to be from an obliquation of + the pulse of light, whence the under part is continually promoted, and + consequently refracted towards the perpendicular, which cuts the Orbs at + right angles. What the particular Figure of the <i>Curve line</i>, + describ’d by this way of light, is, I shall not now stand to examine, + especially since there may be so many sorts of it as there may be + varieties of the Positions of the <i>intermediate</i> degrees of + <i>density</i> and <i>rarity</i> between the bottom and the top of the + inflecting Medium.</p> + + <p>I could produce many more Examples and Experiments, to illustrate and + prove this first Proposition, <i>viz.</i> that there is such a + constitution of some bodies as will cause inflection. As not to mention + those I have observ’d in <i>Horn</i>, <i>Tortoise-Shell</i>, + <i>transparent Gums</i>, and <i>resinous Substances</i>: The <i>veins</i> + of Glass, nay, of melted <i>Crystal</i>, found, and much complained of by + Glass-grinders, and others, might sufficiently demonstrate the truth of + it to any diligent Observator.</p> + + <p>But that, I presume, I have by this Example given proof sufficient + (<i>viz. ocular demonstration</i>) to evince, that there is such a + modulation, or bending of the rayes of light, as I have call’d + <i>inflection</i>, differing both from <i>reflection</i>, and + <i>refraction</i> (since they are both made in the superficies, this only + in the middle); and likewise, that this is able or sufficient to produce + the effects I have ascribed to it.</p> + + <p>It remains therefore to shew, that there is such a property in the + Air, and that it is sufficient to produce all the above mentioned + <i>Phænomena</i>, and therefore may be the principal, if not the only + cause of them.</p> + + <p>First, That there is such a property, may be proved from this, that + the parts of the Air are some of them more condens’d, others more + rarified, either by the differing heat, or differing pressure it + sustains, or by the somewhat heterogeneous vapours interspers’d through + it. For as the Air is more or less rarified, so does it more or less + refract a ray of light (that comes out of a denser medium) from the + perpendicular. This you may find true, if you make tryal of this + Experiment.</p> + +<div class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-37.png"><i>Schem.</i> 37.</a><br /><i>Fig.</i> 2. +</div> + + <p>Take a small Glass-bubble, made in the form of that in the second + Figure of the 37. <i>Scheme</i>, and by heating the Glass very hot, and + thereby very much rarifying the included Air, or, which is better, by + rarifying a small quantity of water, included in it, into vapours, which + will expel the most part, if not all the Air, and then sealing up the + small neck of it, and letting it cool, you may find, if you place it in a + convenient Instrument, that there will be a manifest difference, as to + the refraction.</p> + + <p>As if in this second Figure you suppose A to represent a small sight + or hole, through which the eye looks upon an object, as C, through the + Glass-bubble B, and the second sight L; all which remain exactly fixt in + their several places, the object C being so cized and placed, that it may + just seem to touch the upper and under edge of the hole L: and so all of + it be seen through the small Glass-ball of rarified Air; then by + breaking off the small seal’d neck of the + Bubble (without at all stirring the sights, object, or glass) and + admitting the external Air, you will find your self unable to see the + utmost ends of the object; but the terminating rayes AE and AD (which + were before refracted to G and F by the rarified Air) will proceed almost + directly to I and H; which alteration of the rayes (seeing there is no + other alteration made in the Organ by which the Experiment is tryed, save + only the admission, or exclusion of the condens’d Air) must necessarily + be caused by the variation of the <i>medium</i> contain’d in the Glass B; + the greatest difficulty in the making of which Experiment, is from the + uneven surfaces of the bubble, which will represent an uneven image of + the object.</p> + + <p>Now, that there is such a difference of the upper and under parts of + the Air is clear enough evinc’d from the late improvement of the + <i>Torricellian</i> Experiment, which has been tryed at the tops and feet + of Mountains; and may be further illustrated, and inquired into, by a + means, which some whiles since I thought of, and us’d, for the finding by + what degrees the Air passes from such a degree of Density to such a + degree of Rarity. And another, for the finding what pressure was + requisite to make it pass from such a degree of Rarefaction to a + determinate Density: Which Experiments, because they may be useful to + illustrate the present Inquiry, I shall briefly describe.</p> + +<div class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-37.png"><i>Schem.</i> 37.</a><br /><i>Fig.</i> 3. +</div> + + <p>I took then a small Glass-pipe AB, about the bigness of a Swans quill, and about + four foot long, which was very equally drawn, so that, as far as I could + perceive, no one part was bigger then another: This Tube (being open at + both ends) I fitted into another small Tube DE, that had a small bore + just big enough to contain the small Pipe, and this was seal’d up at one, + and open at the other, end; about which open end I fastned a small wooden + box C with cement, so that filling the bigger Tube, and part of the box, + with Quicksilver, I could thrust the smaller Tube into it, till it were + all covered with the Quicksilver: Having thus done, I fastned my bigger + Tube against the side of a wall, that it might stand the steadier, and + plunging the small Tube cleer under the <i>Mercury</i> in the box, I + stopt the upper end of it very fast with cement, then lifting up the + small Tube, I drew it up by a small pully, and a string that I had + fastned to the top of the Room, and found the height of the <i>Mercurial + Cylinder</i> to be about twenty nine inches.</p> + + <p>Then letting down the Tube again, I opened the top, and then thrust + down the small Tube, till I perceived the Quicksilver to rise within it + to a mark that I had plac’d just an inch from the top; and immediately + clapping on a small piece of cement that I had kept warm, I with a hot + Iron seal’d up the top very fast, then letting it cool (that both the + cement might grow hard, and more especially, that the Air might come to + its temper, natural for the Day I try’d the Experiment in) I observ’d + diligently, and found the included Air to be exactly an Inch.</p> + + <p>Here you are to take notice, that after the Air is seal’d up, the top + of the Tube is not to be elevated above the superficies of the + Quicksilver in the box, till the surface of that within + the Tube be equal to it, for the Quicksilver (as I have elsewhere prov’d) + being more heterogeneous to the Glass then the Air, will not naturally + rise up so high within the small Pipe, as the superficies of the + <i>Mercury</i> in the box, and therefore you are to observe, how much + below the outward superficies of the <i>Mercury</i> in the box, that of + the same in the Tube does stand, when the top being open, free ingress is + admitted to the outward Air.</p> + + <p>Having thus done, I permitted the <i>Cylinder</i>, or small Pipe, to + rise out of the box, till I found the surface of the Quicksilver in the + Pipe to be two inches above that in the box, and found the Air to have + expanded it self but one sixteenth part of an inch; then drawing up the + small pipe, till I found the height of the Quicksilver within to be four + inches above that without, I observed the Air to be expanded only ⅐ of + an inch more then it was at first, and to take up the room of 1⅐ inch: + then I raised the Tube till the Cylinder was six inches high, and found + the Air to take up 1²⁄₉ inches of room in the Pipe; then to 8, 10, 12. + <i>&c.</i> the expansion of the Air that I found to each of which + Cylinders are set down in the following Table; where the first row + signifies the height of the <i>Mercurial Cylinder</i>; the next, the + expansion of the Air; the third, the pressure of the <i>Atmosphere</i>, + or the highest <i>Cylinder</i> of <i>Mercury</i>, which was then neer + thirty inches: The last signifies the force of the Air so expanded, which + is found by substracting the first row of numbers out of the third; for + having found, that the outward Air would then keep up the Quicksilver to + thirty inches, look whatever of that height is wanting must be attributed + to the Elater of the Air depressing. And therefore having the Expansion + in the second row, and the height of the subjacent <i>Cylinder</i> of + <i>Mercury</i> in the first, and the greatest height of the + <i>Cylinder</i> of <i>Mercury</i>, which of it self counterballances the + whole pressure of the <i>Atmosphere</i>; by substracting the numbers of + the first row out of the numbers of the third, you will have the measure + of the <i>Cylinders</i> so deprest, and consequently the force of the + Air, in the several Expansions, registred.</p> + +<table class="autotable" summary=""> +<colgroup> +<col width='25%'></col> +<col width='25%'></col> +<col width='25%'></col> +<col width='25%'></col> +</colgroup> + +<tr> +<th class="tdc"> The height of the Cylinder of <i>Mercury</i>, that, together with the Elater of the included Air, ballanced the pressure of the Atmosphere.</th> +<th class="tdc"> The Expansion of the Air.</th> +<th class="tdc"> The height of the <i>Mercury</i> that counter-ballanc’d the Atmosphere.</th> +<th class="tdc">The strength of the Elater of the expanded Air.</th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdc"><hr /></td> +<td class="tdc"><hr /></td> +<td class="tdc"><hr /></td> +<td class="tdc"><hr /></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"> 00</td> +<td class="tdl"> 01</td> +<td class="tdl"> 30</td> +<td class="tdl"> 30</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"> 02</td> +<td class="tdl"> 01¹⁄₁₆</td> +<td class="tdl"> 30</td> +<td class="tdl"> 28</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"> 04</td> +<td class="tdl"> 01⅐</td> +<td class="tdl"> 30</td> +<td class="tdl"> 26</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"> 06</td> +<td class="tdl"> 01²⁄₉</td> +<td class="tdl"> 30</td> +<td class="tdl"> 24</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"> 08</td> +<td class="tdl"> 01⅓</td> +<td class="tdl"> 30</td> +<td class="tdl"> 22</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"> 10</td> +<td class="tdl"> 01½</td> +<td class="tdl"> 30</td> +<td class="tdl"> 20</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"> 12</td> +<td class="tdl"> 01⅔</td> +<td class="tdl"> 30</td> +<td class="tdl"> 18</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"> 14</td> +<td class="tdl"> 01⅚</td> +<td class="tdl"> 30</td> +<td class="tdl"> 16</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"> 16</td> +<td class="tdl"> 02²⁄₂₇</td> +<td class="tdl"> 30</td> +<td class="tdl"> 14</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"> 18</td> +<td class="tdl"> 02⁴⁄₉</td> +<td class="tdl"> 30</td> +<td class="tdl"> 12</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"> 20</td> +<td class="tdl"> 03</td> +<td class="tdl"> 30</td> +<td class="tdl"> 10</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"> 22</td> +<td class="tdl"> 03⁷⁄₉</td> +<td class="tdl"> 30</td> +<td class="tdl"> 8</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"> 24</td> +<td class="tdl"> 05⁷⁄₁₈</td> +<td class="tdl"> 30</td> +<td class="tdl"> 6</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"> 25</td> +<td class="tdl"> 06⅔</td> +<td class="tdl"> 30</td> +<td class="tdl"> 5</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"> 26</td> +<td class="tdl"> 08½</td> +<td class="tdl"> 30</td> +<td class="tdl"> 4</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"> 26¼</td> +<td class="tdl"> 09½</td> +<td class="tdl"> 30</td> +<td class="tdl"> 3¾</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"> 26½</td> +<td class="tdl"> 10¾</td> +<td class="tdl"> 30</td> +<td class="tdl"> 3½</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"> 26¾</td> +<td class="tdl"> 13</td> +<td class="tdl"> 30</td> +<td class="tdl"> 3¼</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"> 27</td> +<td class="tdl"> 15½</td> +<td class="tdl"> 30</td> +<td class="tdl"> 3</td> +</tr> +</table> + + + + <p>I had several other Tables of my Observations, and Calculations, which + I then made; but it being above a twelve month since I made them; and by + that means having forgot many circumstances and particulars, I was + resolved to make them over once again, which I did <i>August</i> the + second 1661. with the very same Tube which I used the year before, when I + first made the Experiment (for it being a very good one, I had carefully + preserv’d it:) And after having tryed it over and over again; and being + not well satisfied of some particulars, I, at last, having put all things + in very good order, and being as attentive, and observant, as possibly I + could, of every circumstance requisite to be taken notice of, did + register my several Observations in this following Table. In the making + of which, I did not exactly follow the method that I had used at first; + but, having lately heard of Mr. <i>Townly</i>’s <i>Hypothesis</i>, I + shap’d my course in such sort, as would be most convenient for the + examination of that <i>Hypothesis</i>; the event of which you have in the + latter part of the last Table.</p> + + <p>The other Experiment was, to find what degrees of force were requisite + to compress, or condense, the Air into such or such a bulk.</p> + + <p>The manner of proceeding therein was this: I took a Tube about five + foot long, one of whose ends was sealed up, and bended in the form of a +<span class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-37.png"><i>Schem.</i> 37.</a><br /><i>Fig.</i> 4. +</span> + <i>Syphon</i>, much like that represented in the fourth Figure of the 37. + <i>Scheme</i>, one side whereof AD, that was open at A, was about fifty + inches long, the other side BC, shut at B, was not much above seven + inches long, then placing it exactly perpendicular, I pour’d in a little + Quicksilver, and found that the Air BC was 6⅞ inches, or very near to + seven; then pouring in Quicksilver at the longer Tube, I continued + filling of it till the Air in the shorter part of it was contracted into + half the former dimensions, and found the height exactly nine and twenty + inches; and by making several other tryals, in several other degrees of + condensation of the Air, I found them exactly answer the former + <i>Hypothesis</i>.</p> + + <p>But having (by reason it was a good while since I first made) + forgotten many particulars, and being much unsatisfied in others, I made + the Experiment over again, and, from the several tryals, collected the + former part of the following Table: Where in the row next the left hand + 24. signifies the dimensions of the Air, sustaining only the pressure of + the <i>Atmosphere</i>, which at that time was equal to a <i>Cylinder</i> + of <i>Mercury</i> of nine and twenty inches: The next Figure above it + (20) was the dimensions of the Air induring the first compression, made + by a <i>Cylinder</i> of <i>Mercury</i> 5³⁄₁₆ high, to which the pressure + of the <i>Atmosphere</i> nine and twenty inches being added, the elastick + strength of the Air so comprest will be found 34³⁄₁₆, &c.</p> + +<h3><i>A Table of the Elastick power of the Air, +both Experimentally and Hypothetically calculated, +according to its various Dimensions.</i></h3> + + +<table class="autotable" summary=""> +<colgroup> +<col width='14%'></col> +<col width='14%'></col> +<col width='14%'></col> +<col width='14%'></col> +<col width='14%'></col> +<col width='14%'></col> +<col width='14%'></col> +</colgroup> +<tr> +<th class="tdc"> The dimensions of the included Air.</th> +<th class="tdc">The height of the <i>Mercurial</i> <i>Cylinder</i> counter-pois’d by the Atmosphere.</th> +<th></th> +<th class="tdc">The <i>Mercurial</i> <i>Cylinder</i> added, or taken from the former.</th> +<th></th> +<th class="tdc">The sum or difference of these two <i>Cylinders</i>.</th> +<th class="tdc">What they ought to be according to the <i>Hypothesis</i>.</th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdc"> ----------</td> +<td class="tdc"> --------</td> +<td class="tdc"></td> +<td class="tdc">---------</td> +<td class="tdc"></td> +<td class="tdc"> --------</td> +<td class="tdc"> ----------</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdr"> 12</td> +<td class="tdr"> 29</td> +<td class="tdc"> +</td> +<td class="tdr"> 29</td> +<td class="tdc"> =</td> +<td class="tdr"> 58</td> +<td class="tdr"> 58</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdr"> 13</td> +<td class="tdr"> 29</td> +<td class="tdc"> +</td> +<td class="tdr"> 24¹¹⁄₁₆</td> +<td class="tdc"> =</td> +<td class="tdr"> 53¹¹⁄₁₆</td> +<td class="tdr"> 53⁷⁄₁₃</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdr"> 14</td> +<td class="tdr"> 29</td> +<td class="tdc"> +</td> +<td class="tdr"> 20³⁄₁₆</td> +<td class="tdc"> =</td> +<td class="tdr"> 49³⁄₁₆</td> +<td class="tdr"> 49⁵⁄₇</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdr"> 16</td> +<td class="tdr"> 29</td> +<td class="tdc"> +</td> +<td class="tdr"> 14</td> +<td class="tdc"> =</td> +<td class="tdr"> 43</td> +<td class="tdr"> 43½</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdr"> 18</td> +<td class="tdr"> 29</td> +<td class="tdc"> +</td> +<td class="tdr"> 9⅛</td> +<td class="tdc"> =</td> +<td class="tdr">38⅛</td> +<td class="tdr">38⅔</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdr"> 20</td> +<td class="tdr"> 29</td> +<td class="tdc"> +</td> +<td class="tdr"> 5³⁄₁₆</td> +<td class="tdc"> =</td> +<td class="tdr"> 34³⁄₁₆</td> +<td class="tdr"> 34⅘</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdr"> 24</td> +<td class="tdr"> 29</td> +<td class="tdc"> </td> +<td class="tdr"> 0</td> +<td class="tdc"> =</td> +<td class="tdr"> 29</td> +<td class="tdr"> 29</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdr"> 48</td> +<td class="tdr"> 29</td> +<td class="tdc"> −</td> +<td class="tdr"> 14⅝</td> +<td class="tdc"> =</td> +<td class="tdr">14⅜</td> +<td class="tdr">14½</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdr"> 96</td> +<td class="tdr"> 29</td> +<td class="tdc"> −</td> +<td class="tdr"> 22⅛</td> +<td class="tdc"> =</td> +<td class="tdr"> 6⅞</td> +<td class="tdr"> 7²⁄₈</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdr"> 192</td> +<td class="tdr"> 29</td> +<td class="tdc"> −</td> +<td class="tdr"> 25⅝</td> +<td class="tdc"> =</td> +<td class="tdr"> 3⅜</td> +<td class="tdr"> 3⅝</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdr"> 384</td> +<td class="tdr"> 29</td> +<td class="tdc"> −</td> +<td class="tdr"> 27²⁄₈</td> +<td class="tdc"> =</td> +<td class="tdr"> 1⁶⁄₈</td> +<td class="tdr"> 1⁷⁄₁₆</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdr"> 576</td> +<td class="tdr"> 29</td> +<td class="tdc"> −</td> +<td class="tdr"> 27⅞</td> +<td class="tdc"> =</td> +<td class="tdr"> 1⅛</td> +<td class="tdr"> 1⁵⁄₂₄</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdr"> 768</td> +<td class="tdr"> 29</td> +<td class="tdc"> −</td> +<td class="tdr"> 28⅛</td> +<td class="tdc"> =</td> +<td class="tdr"> 0⅞</td> +<td class="tdr"> 0[7¼]⁄₈</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdr"> 960</td> +<td class="tdr"> 29</td> +<td class="tdc"> −</td> +<td class="tdr"> 28⅜</td> +<td class="tdc"> =</td> +<td class="tdr"> 0⅝</td> +<td class="tdr"> 0[5⅘]⁄₈</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdr"> 1152</td> +<td class="tdr"> 29</td> +<td class="tdc"> −</td> +<td class="tdr"> 28⁷⁄₁₆</td> +<td class="tdc"> =</td> +<td class="tdr"> 0⁹⁄₁₆</td> +<td class="tdr"> 0¹⁰⁄₁₆</td> +</tr> +</table> + + + + <p>From which Experiments, I think, we may safely conclude, that the + Elater of the Air is reciprocal to its extension, or at least very neer. + So that to apply it to our present purpose (which was indeed the chief + cause of inventing these wayes of tryal) we will suppose a + <i>Cylinder</i> indefinitely extended upwards, [I say a <i>Cylinder</i>, + not a piece of a <i>Cone</i>, because, as I may elsewhere shew in the + Explication of Gravity, that <i>triplicate</i> proportion of the shels of + a Sphere, to their respective diameters, I suppose to be removed in this + case by the decrease of the power of Gravity] and the pressure of the Air + at the bottom of this <i>Cylinder</i> to be strong enough to keep up a + <i>Cylinder</i> of <i>Mercury</i> of thirty inches: Now because by the + most accurate tryals of the most illustrious and incomparable Mr. + <i>Boyle</i>, published in his deservedly famous Pneumatick Book, the + weight of Quicksilver, to that of the Air here below, is found neer about + as fourteen thousand to one: If we suppose the parts of the + <i>Cylinder</i> of the <i>Atmosphere</i> to be every where of an equal + density, we shall (as he there deduces) find it extended to the height of + thirty five thousand feet, or seven miles: But because by these + Experiments we have somewhat confirm’d the hypothesis of the reciprocal + proportion of the Elaters to the Extensions we shall find, that by + supposing this <i>Cylinder</i> of the <i>Atmosphere</i> divided into a + thousand parts, each of which being equivalent to thirty five feet, or + seven geometrical paces, that is, each of these divisions containing as + much Air as is suppos’d in a <i>Cylinder</i> neer the earth of equal + diameter, and thirty five foot high, we shall find the lowermost to press + against the surface of the Earth with the whole weight of the above + mentioned thousand parts; the pressure of the bottom of the second + against the top of the first to be 1000 − 1 = 999. of the third against + the second to be 1000 − 2 = 998. of the fourth against the third to be + 1000 − 3 = 997. of the uppermost against the 999. or that next below it, + to be 1000 − 999 = 1. so that the extension of the lowermost next the + Earth, will be to the extension of the next below the uppermost, as 1. to + 999. for as the pressure sustained by the 999. is to the pressure + sustain’d by the first, so is the extension of the first to the extension + of the 999. so that, from this hypothetical calculation, we shall find + the Air to be indefinitely extended: For if we suppose the whole + thickness of the Air to be divided, as I just now instanced, into a + thousand parts, and each of those under differing Dimensions, or + Altitudes, to contain an equall quantity of Air, we shall find, that the + first <i>Cylinder</i>, whose Base is supposed to lean on the Earth, will + be found to be extended 35³⁵⁄₉₉₉ foot; the second equal Division, or + <i>Cylinder</i>, whose <i>basis</i> is supposed to lean on the top of the + first, shall have its top extended higher by 35⁷⁰⁄₉₉₈ the third + 35¹⁰⁵⁄₉₉₇ the fourth 35¹⁴⁰⁄₉₉₆ and so onward, each equal quantity of + Air having its dimensions measured by 35. and some additional number + exprest alwayes in the manner of a fraction, whose numerator is alway the + number of the place multipli’d by 35. and whose denominator is alwayes + the pressure of the <i>Atmosphere</i> sustain’d by that part, so that by + this means we may easily calculate the height of 999. divisions of those + 1000. divisions, I suppos’d; whereas the uppermost may + extend it self more then as high again, nay, perhaps indefinitely, or + beyond the Moon; for the Elaters and Expansions being in reciprocal + proportions, since we cannot yet find the <i>plus ultra</i>, beyond which + the Air will not expand it self, we cannot determine the height of the + Air: for since, as we have shewn, the proportion will be alway as the + pressure sustain’d by any part is to 35. so 1000. to the expansion of + that part; the multiplication or product therefore of the pressure, and + expansion, that is, of the two extream proportionals, being alwayes equal + to the product of the means, or 35000. it follows, since that Rectangle + or Product may be made up of the multiplication of infinite diversities + of numbers, that the height of the Air is also indefinite; for since (as + far as I have yet been able to try) the Air seems capable of an + indefinite Expansion, the pressure may be decreased in <i>infinitum</i>, + and consequently its expansion upwards indefinite also.</p> + + <p>There being therefore such a difference of density, and no Experiment + yet known to prove a <i>Saltus</i>, or skipping from one degree of rarity + to another much differing from it, that is, that an upper part of the Air + should so much differ from that immediately <i>subjacent</i> to it, as to + make a distinct superficies, such as we observe between the Air and + Water, <i>&c.</i> But it being more likely, that there is a continual + increase of rarity in the parts of the Air, the further they are removed + from the surface of the Earth: It will hence necessarily follow, that (as + in the Experiment of the salt and fresh Water) the ray of Light passing + obliquely through the Air also, which is of very different density, will + be continually, and infinitely inflected, or bended, from a streight, or + direct motion.</p> + + <p>This granted, the reason of all the above recited <i>Phænomena</i>, + concerning the appearance of the Celestial Bodies, will very easily be + deduced. As,</p> + + <p>First, The redness of the Sun, Moon, and Stars, will be found to be + caused by the inflection of the rays within the <i>Atmosphere</i>. That + it is not really in or near the luminous bodies, will, I suppose, be very + easily granted, seeing that this redness is observable in several places + differing in Longitude, to be at the same time different, the setting and + rising Sun of all parts being for the most part red:</p> + + <p>And secondly, That it is not meerly the colour of the Air interpos’d, + will, I suppose, without much more difficulty be yielded, seeing that we + may observe a very great <i>interstitium</i> of Air betwixt the Object, + and the Eye, makes it appear of a dead blew, far enough differing from a + red, or yellow.</p> + + <p>But thirdly, That it proceeds from the refraction, or inflection, of + the rays by the <i>Atmosphere</i>, this following Experiment will, I + suppose, sufficiently manifest.</p> + +<div class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-37.png"><i>Schem.</i> 37.</a><br /><i>Fig.</i> 5. +</div> + + <p>Take a sphærical Crystalline Viol, such as is describ’d in the fifth + Figure ABCD, and, having fill’d it with pure clear Water, expose it to + the Sun beams; then taking a piece of very fine <i>Venice</i> Paper, + apply it against that side of the Globe that is opposite to the Sun, as + against the side BC, and you shall perceive a bright + red Ring to appear, caus’d by the refraction of the Rays, AAAA, which is + made by the Globe; in which Experiment, if the Glass and Water be very + cleer, so that there be no Sands nor bubbles in the Glass, nor dirt in + the Water, you shall not perceive any appearance of any other colour. To + apply which Experiment, we may imagine the <i>Atmosphere</i> to be a + great transparent Globe, which being of a substance more dense then the + other, or (which comes to the same) that has its parts more dense towards + the middle, the Sun beams that are tangents, or next within the tangents + of this Globe, will be refracted or inflected from their direct passage + towards the center of the Globe, whence, according to the laws of + refractions made in a triangular <i>Prism</i>, and the generation of + colour set down in the description of Muscovi-glass there must + necessarily appear a red colour in the <i>transitus</i> or passage of + those tangent Rays. To make this more plain, we will suppose (in the + sixth <i>Figure</i>) ABCD, to represent the Globe of the + <i>Atmosphere</i>, EFGH to represent the opacous Globe of the Earth, + lying in the midst of it, neer to which, the parts of the Air, sustaining + a very great pressure, are thereby very much condens’d, from whence those + Rays that are by inflection made tangents to the Globe of the Earth, and + those without them, that pass through the more condens’d part of the + <i>Atmosphere</i>, as suppose between A and E, are by reason of the + inequality of the <i>medium</i>, inflected towards the center, whereby + there must necessarily be generated a red colour, as is more plainly + shewn in the former cited place; hence whatsoever opacous bodies (as + vapours, or the like) shall chance to be elevated into those parts, will + reflect a red towards the eye; and therefore those evenings and mornings + appear reddest, that have the most store of vapours and halituous + substances exhaled to a convenient distance from the Earth; for thereby + the inflection is made the greater, and thereby the colour also the more + intense; and several of those exhalations being opacous, reflect several + of those Rays, which, through an <i>Homogeneous</i> transparent + <i>medium</i> would pass unseen; and therefore we see, that when there + chances to be any clouds situated in those Regions they reflect a strong + and vivid red. Now, though one great cause of the redness may be this + inflection, yet I cannot wholly exclude the colour of the vapours + themselves, which may have something of redness in them, they being + partly nitrous; and partly fuliginous; both which steams tinge the Rays + that pass through them, as is made evident by looking at bodies through + the fumes of <i>Aqua fortis</i> or spirit of <i>Nitre</i> [as the newly + mentioned Illustrious Person has demonstrated] and also through the smoak + of a Fire or Chimney.</p> + + <p>Having therefore made it probable at least, that the morning and + evening redness may partly proceed from this inflection or refraction of + the Rays, we shall next shew how the Oval Figure will be likewise easily + deduced.</p> + +<div class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-37.png"><i>Schem.</i> 37.</a><br /><i>Fig.</i> 6. +</div> + + <p>Suppose we therefore, EFGH in the sixth <i>Figure</i> of the 37. + <i>Scheme</i>, to represent the Earth; ABCD, the <i>Atmosphere</i>; EI, + and EL, two Rays coming from the Sun, the one from the upper, the other + from the neather Limb, these Rays, being by the + <i>Atmosphere</i> inflected, appear to the eye at E, as if they had come + from the points, N and O; and because the Ray L has a greater inclination + upon the inequality of the <i>Atmosphere</i> then I, therefore must it + suffer a greater inflection, and consequently be further elevated above + its true place, then the Ray I, which has a less inclination, will be + elevated above its true place; whence it will follow, that the lower side + appearing neerer the upper then really it is, and the two <i>lateral</i> + sides, <i>viz.</i> the right and left side, suffering no sensible + alteration from the inflection, at least what it does suffer, does rather + increase the visible Diameter then diminish it, as I shall shew by and + by, the Figure of the luminous body must necessarily appear somewhat + <i>Elliptical</i>.</p> + +<div class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-37.png"><i>Schem.</i> 37.</a><br /><i>Fig.</i> 7. +</div> + + <p>This will be more plain, if in the seventh <i>Figure</i> of the 37. + <i>Scheme</i> we suppose AB to represent the sensible Horizon; CDEF, the + body of the Sun really below it; GHIK, the same appearing above it, + elevated by the inflection of the <i>Atmosphere</i>: For if, according to + the best observation, we make the visible Diameter of the Sun to be about + three or four and thirty minutes, and the Horizontal refraction according + to <i>Ticho</i> be thereabout, or somewhat more, the lower limb of the + Sun E, will be elevated to I; but because, by his account, the point C + will be elevated but 29. minutes, as having not so great an inclination + upon the inequality of the Air, therefore IG, which will be the apparent + refracted perpendicular Diameter of the Sun, will be less then CG, which + is but 29. minutes, and consequently six or seven minutes shorter then + the unrefracted apparent Diameter. The parts, D and F, will be likewise + elevated to H and K, whose refraction, by reason of its inclination, will + be bigger then that of the point C, though less then that of E; therefore + will the semidiameter IL, be shorter then LG, and consequently the under + side of the appearing Sun more flat then the upper.</p> + + <p>Now, because the Rays from the right and left sides of the Sun, + <i>&c.</i> have been observ’d by <i>Ricciolo</i> and + <i>Grimaldus</i>, to appear more distant one from another then really + they are, though (by very many Observations that I have made for that + purpose, with a very good <i>Telescope</i>, fitted with a divided Ruler) + I could never perceive any great alteration, yet there being really some, + it will not be amiss, to shew that this also proceeds from the refraction + or inflection of the <i>Atmosphere</i>; and this will be manifest, if we + consider the <i>Atmosphere</i> as a transparent Globe, or at least a + transparent shell, encompassing an opacous Globe, which, being more dense + then the <i>medium</i> encompassing it, refracts or inflects all the + entring parallel Rays into a point or focus, so that wheresoever the + Observator is plac’d within the <i>Atmosphere</i>, between the focus and + the luminous body, the <i>lateral</i> Rays must necessarily be more + converg’d towards his eye by the refraction or inflection, then they + would have been without it; and therefore the Horizontal Diameter of the + luminous body must necessarily be augmented.</p> + + <p>This might be more plainly manifest to the eye by the sixth + <i>Figure</i>; but because it would be somwhat tedious, and the thing + being obvious enough to be imagin’d by any one that + attentively considers it, I shall rather omit it, and proceed to shew, + that the mass of Air neer the surface of the Earth, consists, or is made + up, of parcels, which do very much differ from one another in point of + density and rarity; and consequently the Rays of light that pass through + them will be variously inflected, here one way, and there another, + according as they pass so or so through those differing parts; and those + parts being always in motion, either upwards or downwards, or to the + right or left, or in some way compounded of these, they do by this their + motion inflect the Rays, now this way, and presently that way.</p> + + <p>This irregular, unequal and unconstant inflection of the Rays of + light, is the reason why the limb of the <i>Sun</i>, <i>Moon</i>, + <i>Jupiter</i>, <i>Saturn</i>, <i>Mars</i>, and <i>Venus</i>, appear to + wave or dance; and why the body of the Starrs appear to tremulate or + twinkle, their bodies, by this means, being sometimes magnify’d, and + sometimes diminished; sometimes elevated, otherwhiles depress’d; now + thrown to the right hand, and then to the left.</p> + + <p>And that there is such a property or unequal distribution of parts, is + manifest from the various degrees of heat and cold that are found in the + Air; from whence will follow a differing density and rarity, both as to + quantity and refraction; and likewise from the vapours that are + interpos’d, (which, by the way, I imagine, as to refraction or + inflection, to do the same thing, as if they were rarify’d Air; and that + those vapours that ascend, are both lighter, and less dense, then the + ambient Air which boys them up; and that those which descend, are heavier + and more dense) The first of these may be found true, if you take a good + thick piece of Glass, and heating it pretty hot in the fire, lay it upon + such another piece of Glass, or hang it in the open Air by a piece of + Wire, then looking upon some far distant Object (such as a Steeple or + Tree) so as the Rays from that Object pass directly over the Glass before + they enter your eye, you shall find such a tremulation and wavering of + the remote Object, as will very much offend your eye: The like tremulous + motion you may observe to be caus’d by the ascending steams of Water, and + the like. Now, from the first of these it is manifest, that from the + rarifaction of the parts of the Air, by heat, there is caus’d a differing + refraction, and from the ascension of the more rarify’d parts of the Air, + which are thrust up by the colder, and therefore more condens’d and + heavie, is caus’d an undulation or wavering of the Object; for I think, + that there are very few will grant, that Glass, by as gentle a heat as + may be endur’d by ones hand, should send forth any of its parts in steams + or vapours, which does not seem to be much wasted by that violent fire of + the green Glass-house; but, if yet it be doubted, let Experiment be + further made with that body that is accounted, by Chymists and others, + the most ponderous and fix’d in the world; for by heating of a piece of + Gold, and proceeding in the same manner, you may find the same + effects.</p> + + <p>This trembling and shaking of the Rays, is more sensibly caus’d by an + actual flame, or quick fire, or anything else heated glowing hot; as by a + Candle, live Coal, red-hot Iron, or a piece of Silver, and the like: the + same also appears very conspicuous, if you look at an Object betwixt + which and your eye, the rising smoak of + some Chimney is interpos’d; which brings into my mind what I had once the + opportunity to observe, which was, the Sun rising to my eye just over a + Chimney that sent forth a copious steam of smoak; and taking a short + <i>Telescope</i>, which I had then by me, I observ’d the body of the Sun, + though it was but just peep’d above the Horizon, to have its underside, + not onely flatted, and press’d inward, as it usually is when neer the + Earth; but to appear more protuberant downwards then if it had suffered + no refraction at all; and besides all this, the whole body of the Sun + appear’d to tremble or dance, and the edges or limb to be very ragged or + indented, undulating or waving, much in the manner of a flag in the + Wind.</p> + + <p>This I have likewise often observ’d in a hot Sunshiny Summer’s day, + that looking on an Object over a hot stone, or dry hot earth, I have + found the Object to be undulated or shaken, much after the same manner. + And if you look upon any remote Object through a <i>Telescope</i> (in a + hot Summer’s day especially) you shall find it likewise to appear + tremulous. And further, if there chance to blow any wind, or that the air + between you and the Object be in a motion or current, whereby the parts + of it, both rarify’d and condens’d, are swiftly remov’d towards the right + or left, if then you observe the Horizontal ridge of a Hill far distant, + through a very good <i>Telescope</i>, you shall find it to wave much like + the Sea, and those waves will appear to pass the same way with the + wind.</p> + + <p>From which, and many other Experiments, ’tis cleer that the lower + Region of the Air, especially that part of it which lieth neerest to the + Earth, has, for the most part, its constituent parcels variously + agitated, either by heat or winds, by the first of which, some of them + are made more rare, and so suffer a less refraction; others are + interwoven, either with ascending or descending vapours; the former of + which being more light, and so more rarify’d, have likewise a less + refraction; the latter being more heavie, and consequently more dense, + have a greater.</p> + + <p>Now, because that heat and cold are equally diffus’d every way; and + that the further it is spread, the weaker it grows; hence it will follow, + that the most part of the under Region of the Air will be made up of + several kinds of <i>lentes</i>, some whereof will have the properties of + <i>Convex</i>, others of <i>Concave</i> <i>glasses</i>, which, that I may +<span class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-37.png"><i>Schem.</i> 37.</a><br /><i>Fig.</i> 8. +</span> + the more intelligibly make out, we will suppose in the eighth + <i>Figure</i> of the 37. <i>Scheme</i>, that A represents an ascending + vapour, which, by reason of its being somewhat <i>Heterogeneous</i> to + the ambient Air, is thereby thrust into a kind of Globular form, not any + where terminated, but gradually finished, that is, it is most rarify’d in + the middle about A. somewhat more condens’d about BB, more then that + about CC; yet further, about DD, almost of the same density with the + ambient Air about EE;, and lastly, inclosed with the more dense Air FF, + so that from A, to FF, there is a continual increase of density. The + reason of which will be manifest, if we consider the rising vapour to be + much warmer then the ambient heavie Air; for by the coldness of the + ambient Air, the shell EE will be more refrigerated then DD, and that + then CC, which will be yet more then BB, and that more then + A; so that from F to A, there is a continual increase of heat, and + consequently of rarity; from whence it will necessarily follow, that the + Rays of light will be inflected or refracted in it, in the same manner as + they would be in a <i>Concave-glase</i>; for the Rays <i>GKI</i>, + <i>GKI</i> will be inflected by <i>GKH</i>, <i>GKH</i>, which will easily + follow from what I before explained concerning the inflection of the + <i>Atmosphere</i>.</p> + + <p>On the other side, a descending vapour, or any part of the air + included by an ascending vapour, will exhibit the same effects with a + <i>Convex lens</i>; for, if we suppose, in the former Figure, the quite + contrary constitution to that last describ’d; that is, the ambient Air FF + being hotter then any part of that matter within any circle, therefore + the coldest part must necessarily be A, as being farthest remov’d from + the heat, all the intermediate spaces will be gradually discriminated by + the continuall mixture of heat and cold, so that it will be hotter at EE, + then DD, in DD then CC, in CC then BB, and in BB then A. From which, a + like refraction and condensation will follow, and consequently a lesser + or greater refraction, so that every included part will refract more then + the including, by which means the Rays, GKI, GKI, coming from a Starr, or + some remote Object, are so inflected, that they will again concurr and + meet, in the point M. By the interposition therefore of this desending + vapour the visible body of the Star, or other Object, is very much + augmented, as by the former it was diminished.</p> + + <p>From the quick consecutions of these two, one after another, between + the Object and your eye, caused by their motion upwards or downwards, + proceeding from their levity or gravity, or to the right or left, + proceeding from the wind, a Starr may appear, now bigger, now less, then + really it would otherwise without them; and this is that property of a + Starr, which is commonly call’d twinkling, or scintillation.</p> + + <p>The reason why a Star will now appear of one colour, now of another, + which for the most part happens when ’tis neer the Horizon, may very + easily be deduc’d from its appearing now in the middle of the vapour, + other whiles neer the edge; for if you look against the body of a Starr + with a <i>Telescope</i> that has a pretty deep <i>Convex</i> Eye-glass, + and so order it, that the Star may appear sometimes in one place, and + sometimes in another of it; you may perceive this or that particular + colour to be predominant in the apparent Figure of the Starr, according + as it is more or less remote from the middle of the <i>Lens</i>. This I + had here further explain’d, but that it does more properly belong to + another place.</p> + + <p>I shall therefore onely add some few Quæries, which the consideration + of these particulars hinted, and so finish this Section.</p> + + <p>And the first I shall propound is, Whether there may not be made an + artificial transparent body of an exact Globular Figure that shall so + inflect or refract all the Rays, that, coming from one point, fall upon + any <i>Hemisphere</i> of it; that every one of them may meet on the + opposite side, and cross one another exactly in a point; and that it may + do the like also with all the Rays that, coming from a <i>lateral</i> + point, fall upon any other <i>Hemisphere</i>; for if so, there were to be + hoped a perfection of <i>Dioptricks</i>, and a + transmigration into heaven, even whil’st we remain here upon earth in the + flesh, and a descending or penetrating into the center and innermost + recesses of the earth, and all earthly bodies; nay, it would open not + onely a cranney, but a large window (as I may so speak) into the Shop of + Nature, whereby we might be enabled to see both the tools and operators, + and the very manner of the operation it self of Nature; this, could it be + effected, would as farr surpass all other kind of perspectives as the + vast extent of Heaven does the small point of the Earth, which distance + it would immediately remove, and unite them, as ’twere, into one, at + least, that there should appear no more distance between them then the + length of the Tube, into the ends of which these Glasses should be + inserted: Now, whether this may not be effected with parcels of Glass of + several densities, I have sometimes proceeded so farr as to doubt (though + in truth, as to the general, I have wholly despair’d of it) for I have + often observ’d in Optical Glasses a very great variety of the parts, + which are commonly called Veins; nay, some of them round enough (for they + are for the most part, drawn out into strings) to constitute a kind of + <i>lens</i>.</p> + + <p>This I should further proceed to hope, had any one been so inquisitive + as to have found out the way of making any transparent body, either more + dense or more rare, for then it might be possible to compose a Globule + that should be more dense in the middle of it, then in any other part, + and to compose the whole bulk, so as that there should be a continual + gradual transition from one degree of density to another; such as should + be found requisite for the desired inflection of the + <i>transmigrating</i> Rays; but of this enough at present, because I may + say more of it when I set down my own Trials concerning the melioration + of <i>Dioptricks</i>, where I shall enumerate with how many several + substances I have made both <i>Microscopes</i>, and <i>Telescopes</i>, + and by what and how many, ways: Let such as have leisure and opportunity + farther consider it.</p> + + <p>The next Quæry shall be, whether by the same collection of a more + dense body then the other, or at least, of the denser part of the other, + there might not be imagin’d a reason of the apparition of some new fix’d + Stars, as those in the Swan, <i>Cassiope’s Charr</i>, + <i>Serpentarius</i>, <i>Piscis</i>, <i>Cetus</i>, &c.</p> + + <p>Thirdly, Whether it be possible to define the height of the + <i>Atmosphere</i> from this inflection of the Rays, or from the + Quicksilver Experiment of the rarifaction or extension of the Air.</p> + + <p>Fourthly, Whether the disparity between the upper and under Air be not + sometimes so great, as to make a reflecting superficies; I have had + several Observations which seem to have proceeded from some such cause, + but it would be too long to relate and examine them. An Experiment, also + somewhat analogous to this, I have made with Salt-water and Fresh, which + two liquors, in most Positions, seem’d the same, and not to be separated + by any determinate superficies, which separating surface yet in some + other Positions did plainly appear.</p> + + <p>And if so, Whether the reason of the equal bounding or <i>terminus</i> + of the under parts of the clouds may not proceed from this cause; + whether, secondly, the Reason of the apparition of + many Suns may not be found out, by considering how the Rays of the Sun + may so be reflected, as to describe a pretty true Image of the body, as + we find them from any regular Superficies. Whether also this may not be + found to cause the apparition of some of those <i>Parelii</i>, of + counterfeit Suns, which appear coloured, by refracting the Rays so, as to + make the body of the Sun appear in quite another place then really it is. + But of this more elsewhere.</p> + + <p>5. Whether the <i>Phænomena</i> of the Clouds may not be made out by + this diversity of density in the upper and under parts of the Air, by + supposing the Air above them to be much lighter then they themselves are, + and they themselves to be yet lighter then that which is subjacent to + them, many of them seeming to be the same substance with the Cobwebs that + fly in the Air after a Fog.</p> + + <p>Now that such a constitution of the Air and Clouds, if such there be, + may be sufficient to perform this effect, may be confirm’d by this + Experiment.</p> + + <p>Make as strong a Solution of Salt as you are able, then filling a + Glass of some depth half full with it, fill the other half with fresh + Water, and poyse a little Glass-bubble, so as that it may sink pretty + quick in fresh Water, which take and put into the aforesaid Glass, and + you shall find it to sink till it comes towards the middle, where it will + remain fixt, without moving either upwards or downwards. And by a second + Experiment, of poising such a bubble in water, whose upper part is + warmer, and consequently lighter, then the under, which is colder and + heavier; the manner of which follows in this next Quæry, which is,</p> + + <p>6. Whether the rarifaction and condensation of Water be not made after + the same manner, as those effects are produc’d in the Air by heat; for I + once pois’d a seal’d up Glass-bubble so exactly, that never so small an + addition would make it sink, and as small a detraction make it swim, + which suffering to rest in that Vessel of Water for some time, I alwayes + found it about noon to be at the bottom of the Water, and at night, and + in the morning, at the top: Imagining this to proceed from the + Rarifaction of the Water, caus’d by the heat, I made tryal, and found + most true; for I was able at any time, either to depress, or raise it, by + heat and cold; for if I let the Pipe stand for some time in cold water, I + could easily raise the Bubble from the bottom, whither I had a little + afore detruded it, by putting the same Pipe into warm Water. And this way + I have been able, for a very considerable time, to keep a Bubble so + poys’d in the Water, as that it should remain in the middle, and neither + sink, nor swim: For gently heating the upper part of the Pipe with a + Candle, Coal, or hot Iron, till I perceived the Bubble begin to descend, + then forbearing, I have observed it to descend to such or such a station, + and there to remain suspended for some hours, till the heat by degrees + were quite vanished, when it would again ascend to its former place. This + I have also often observed naturally performed by the heat of the Air, + which being able to rarifie the upper parts of the Water sooner then the + lower, by reason of its immediate contact, the heat of the Air + has sometimes so slowly increased, that I + have observed the Bubble to be some hours in passing between the top and + bottom.</p> + + <p>7. Whether the appearance of the <i>Pike</i> of <i>Tenerif</i>, and + several other high Mountains, at so much greater a distance then seems to + agree with their respective heights, be not to be attributed to the + <i>Curvature</i> of the visual Ray, that is made by its passing obliquely + through so differingly <i>Dense</i> a Medium from the top to the eye very + far distant in the Horizon: For since we have already, I hope, made it + very probable, that there is such an <i>inflection</i> of the Rays by the + differing density of the parts of the Air; and since I have found, by + several Experiments made on places comparatively not very high, and have + yet found the pressure sustain’d by those parts of the Air at the top and + bottom, and also their differing Expansions very considerable: Insomuch + that I have found the pressure of the <i>Atmosphere</i> lighter at the + top of St. <i>Paul</i>’s Steeple in <i>London</i> (which is about two + hundred foot high) then at the bottom by a sixtieth or fiftieth part, and + the expansion at the top greater then that at the bottom by neer about so + much also; for the <i>Mercurial Cylinder</i> at the bottom was about 39. + inches, and at the top half an inch lower; the Air also included in the + Weather-glass, that at the bottom fill’d only 155. spaces, at the top + fill’d 158. though the heat at the top and bottom was found exactly the + same with a scal’d <i>Thermometer</i>: I think it very rational to + suppose, that the greatest Curvature of the Rays is made nearest the + Earth, and that the inflection of the Rays, above 3. or 4. miles upwards, + is very inconsiderable, and therefore that by this means such + calculations of the height of Mountains, as are made from the distance + they are visible in the Horizon, from the supposal that that Ray is a + straight Line (that from the top of the Mountain is, as ’twere, a Tangent + to the Horizon whence it is seen) which really is a <i>Curve</i>, is very + erroneous. Whence, I suppose, proceeds the reason of the exceedingly + differing Opinions and Assertions of several Authors, about the height of + several very high Hills.</p> + + <p>8. Whether this Inflection of the Air will not very much alter the + supposed distances of the Planets, which seem to have a very great + dependence upon the Hypothetical refraction or inflection of the Air, and + that refraction upon the hypothetical height and density of the Air: For + since (as I hope) I have here shewn the Air to be quite otherwise then + has been hitherto suppos’d, by manifesting it to be, both of a vast, at + least an uncertain, height, and of an unconstant and irregular density; + It must necessarily follow, that its inflection must be varied + accordingly: And therefore we may hence learn, upon what sure grounds all + the Astronomers hitherto have built, who have calculated the distance of + the Planets from their Horizontal <i>Parallax</i>; for since the + Refraction and <i>Parallax</i> are so nearly ally’d, that the one cannot + be known without the other, especially by any wayes that have been yet + attempted, how uncertain must the <i>Parallax</i> be, when the Refraction + is unknown? And how easie is it for Astronomers to assign what distance + they please to the Planets, and defend them, when they have such a + curious <i>subterfuge</i> as that of Refraction, wherein a very little + variation will allow them liberty enough to place the Celestial Bodies at + what distance they please.</p> + + <p>If therefore we would come to any certainty in this point, we must go + other wayes to work; and as I have here examined the height and + refractive property of the Air by other wayes then are usual, so must we + find the Parallax of the Planets by wayes not yet practiced; and to this + end, I cannot imagine any better way, then the Observations of them by + two persons at very far distant parts of the Earth, that lye as neer as + may be under the same Meridian, or Degree of longitude, but differing as + much in latitude, as there can be places conveniently found: These two + persons, at certain appointed times, should (as near as could be) both at + the same time, observe the way of the <i>Moon</i>, <i>Mars</i>, + <i>Venus</i>, <i>Jupiter</i>, and <i>Saturn</i>, amongst the fixt Stars, + with a good large <i>Telescope</i>, and making little Iconismes, or + pictures, of the small fixed Stars, that appear to each of them to lye in + or near the way of the Center of the Planet, and the exact measure of the + apparent Diameter; from the comparing of such Observations together, we + might certainly know the true distance, or Parallax, of the Planet. And + having any one true Parallax of these Planets, we might very easily have + the other by their apparent Diameters, which the <i>Telescope</i> + likewise affords us very accurately. And thence their motions might be + much better known, and their Theories more exactly regulated. And for + this purpose I know not any one place more convenient for such an + Observation to be made in, then in the Island of St. <i>Helena</i>, upon + the Coast of <i>Africk</i>, which lyes about sixteen degrees to the + Southwards of the Line, and is very near, according to the latest + Geographical Maps, in the same Meridian with <i>London</i>; for though + they may not perhaps lye exactly in the same, yet their Observations, + being ordered according to what I shall anon shew, it will not be + difficult to find the true distance of the Planet. But were they both + under the same Meridian, it would be much better.</p> + + <p>And because Observations may be much easier, and more accurately made + with good <i>Telescopes</i>, then with any other Instruments, it will + not, I suppose, seem impertinent to explain a little what wayes I judge + most fit and convenient for that particular. Such therefore as shall be + the Observators for this purpose, should be furnished with the best + <i>Telescopes</i> that can be had, the longer the better and more exact + will their Observations be, though they are somewhat the more difficultly + manag’d. These should be fitted with a <i>Rete</i>, or divided Scale, + plac’d at such a distance within the Eye-glass, that they may be + distinctly seen, which should be the measures of minutes and seconds; by + this Instrument each Observator should, at certain prefixt times, observe + the Moon, or other Planet, in, or very near, the Meridian; and because it + may be very difficult to find two convenient stations that will happen to + be just under the same Meridian, they shall, each of them, observe the + way of the Planet, both for an hour before, and an hour after, it arrive + at the Meridian; and by a line, or stroke, amongst the small fixed Stars, + they shall denote out the way that each of them observ’d the Center of + the Planet to be mov’d in for those two hours: These Observations each of + them shall repeat for many dayes together, that both it may happen, that + both of them may sometimes make their Observations + together, and that from divers Experiments we may be the better assured + of what certainty and exactness such kind of Observations are like to + prove. And because many of the Stars which may happen to come within the + compass of such an <i>Iconism</i>, or Map, may be such as are only + visible through a good <i>Telescope</i>, whose Positions perhaps have not + been noted, nor their longitudes, or latitudes, any where remarked; + therefore each Observator should indeavour to insert some fixt Star, + whose longitude, and latitude, is known; or with his <i>Telescope</i> he + shall find the Position of some notable <i>telescopical</i> Star, + inserted in his Map, to some known fixt Star, whose place in the + <i>Zodiack</i> is well defin’d.</p> + + <p>Having by this means found the true distance of the Moon, and having + observed well the <i>apparent Diameter</i> of it at that time with a good + <i>Telescope</i>, it is easie enough, by one single Observation of the + apparent Diameter of the Moon with a good Glass, to determine her + distances in any other part of her <i>Orbit</i>, or <i>Dragon</i>, and + consequently, some few Observations will tell us, whether she be mov’d in + an <i>Ellipsis</i>, (which, by the way, may also be found, even now, + though I think we are yet ignorant of her true distance) and next (which + without such Observations, I think, we shall not be sure of) we may know + exactly the bigness of that <i>Ellipsis</i>, or Circle, and her true + velocity in each part, and thereby be much the better inabled to find out + the true cause of all her Motions. And though, even now also, we may, by + such Observations in one station, as here at <i>London</i>, observe the + <i>apparent Diameter</i> and motion of the Moon in her <i>Dragon</i>, and + consequently be inabled to make a better ghess at the <i>Species</i> or + kind of Curve, in which she is mov’d, that is, whether it be sphærical, + or <i>elliptical</i>, or neither, and with what proportional velocities + she is carried in that Curve; yet till her true <i>Parallax</i> be known, + we cannot determine either.</p> + + <p>Next, for the true distance of the Sun, the best way will be, by + accurate Observations, made in both these forementioned stations, of some + convenient Eclipse of the Sun, many of which may so happen, as to be seen + by both; for the <i>Penumbra</i> of the Moon may, if she be sixty + Semidiameters distant from the Earth, and the Sun above seven thousand, + extend to about seventy degrees on the Earth, and consequently be seen by + Observators as far distant as <i>London</i>, and St. <i>Helena</i>, which + are not full sixty nine degrees distant. And this would much more + accurately, then any way that has been yet used, determine the Parallax, + and distance, of the Sun; for as for the Horizontal Parallax I have + already shewn it sufficiently uncertain; nor is the way of finding it by + the Eclipse of the Moon any other then hypothetical; and that by the + difference of the true and apparent quadrature of the Moon is not less + uncertain, witness their Deductions from it, who have made use of it; for + <i>Vendeline</i> puts that difference to be but 4′.30″. whence he deduces + a vast distance of the Sun, as I have before shewn. <i>Ricciolo</i> makes + it full 30′.00. but <i>Reinoldus</i>, and <i>Kircher</i>, no less then + three degrees. And no wonder, for if we examine the <i>Theory</i>, we + shall find it so complicated with uncertainties.</p> + + <p>First, From the irregular surface of the Moon, and from several + Parallaxes, that unless the <i>Dichotomy</i> happen in the + <i>Nonagesimus</i> of the <i>Ecliptick</i>, and that in the Meridian, + <i>&c.</i> all which happen so very seldom, that it is almost + impossible to make them otherwise then uncertainly. Besides, we are not + yet certain, but that there may be somewhat about the Moon + <i>analogus</i> to the Air about the Earth, which may cause a refraction + of the light of the Sun, and consequently make a great difference in the + apparent <i>dichotomy</i> of the Moon. Their way indeed is very rational + and ingenious; and such as is much to be preferred before the way by the + Horizontal Parallax, could all the uncertainties be remov’d, and were the + true distance of the Moon known.</p> + + <p>But because we find by the Experiments of <i>Vendiline</i>, + <i>Reinoldus</i>, &c. that Observations of this kind are very + uncertain also: It were to be wisht, that such kind of Observations, made + at two very distant stations, were promoted. And it is so much the more + desirable, because, from what I have now shewn of the nature of the Air, + it is evident, that the refraction may be very much greater then all the + Astronomers hitherto have imagined it: And consequently, that the + distance of the Moon, and other Planets, may be much lesse then what they + have hitherto made it.</p> + + <p>For first, this Inflection, I have here propounded, will allow the + shadow of the Earth to be much shorter then it can be made by the other + <i>Hypothesis</i> of refraction, and consequently, the Moon will not + suffer an Eclipse, unless it comes very much nearer the Earth then the + Astronomers hitherto have supposed it.</p> + + <p>Secondly, There will not in this <i>Hypothesis</i> be any other shadow + of the Earth, such as <i>Kepler</i> supposes, and calls the + <i>Penumbra</i>, which is the shadow of the refracting <i>Atmosphere</i>; + for the bending of the Rays being altogether caus’d by <i>Inflection</i>, + as I have already shewn, all that part which is ascribed by + <i>Kepler</i>, and others after him, to the <i>Penumbra</i>, or dark + part, which is without the <i>umbra terræ</i>, does clear vanish; for in + this <i>Hypothesis</i> there is no refracting surface of the Air, and +<span class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-37.png"><i>Schem.</i> 37.</a><br /><i>Fig.</i> 9. +</span> + consequently there can be no shadows, such as appear in the ninth Figure + of the 37. <i>Scheme</i>, where let ABCD represent the Earth, and EFGH + the <i>Atmosphere</i>, which according to <i>Keplers</i> supposition, is + like a Sphære of Water terminated with an exact surface EFGH, let the + lines MF, LB, ID, KH, represent the Rays of the Sun; ’tis manifest, that + all the Rayes between LB, and ID, will be reflected by the surface of the + Earth BAD, and consequently, the conical space BOD would be dark and + obscure; but, say the followers of <i>Kepler</i>, the Rays between MF, + and LB, and between ID, and KH, falling on the <i>Atmosphere</i>, are + refracted, both at their ingress and egress out of the <i>Atmosphere</i>, + nearer towards the Axis of the sphærical shadow CO, and consequently, + inlighten a great part of that former dark Cone, and shorten, and + contract, its top to N. And because of this Reflection of these Rays, say + they, there is superinduc’d another shell of a dark Cone FPH, whose Apex + P is yet further distant from the Earth: By this <i>Penumbra</i>, say + they, the Moon is Eclipsed, for it alwayes passes between + the lines 12, and 34.</p> + + <p>To which I say, That if the Air be such, as I have newly shewn it to + be, and consequently cause such an inflection of the Rays that fall into + it, those dark <i>Penumbra’s</i> FYZQ, HXVT, and ORPS, will all vanish. + For if we suppose the Air indefinitely extended, and to be no where + bounded with a determinate refracting surface, as I have shewn it + uncapable of having, from the nature of it; it will follow, that the Moon + will no where be totally obscured, but when it is below the Apex N, of + the dark blunt Cone of the Earth’s shadow: Now, from the supposition, + that the Sun is distant about seven thousand Diameters, the point N, + according to calculation, being not above twenty five terrestrial + Semidiameters from the Center of the Earth: It follows, that whensoever + the Moon eclipsed is totally darkned, without affording any kind of + light, it must be within twenty five Semidiameters of the Earth, and + consequently much lower then any Astronomers have hitherto put it.</p> + + <p>This will seem much more consonant to the rest of the secundary + Planets; for the highest of <i>Jupiter’s</i> Moons is between twenty and + thirty <i>Jovial Semidiameters</i> distant from the Center of + <i>Jupiter</i>; and the Moons of <i>Saturn</i> much about the same number + of <i>Saturnial Semidiameters</i> from the Center of that Planet.</p> + + <p>But these are but conjectures also, and must be determin’d by such + kind of Observations as I have newly mention’d.</p> + + <p>Nor will it be difficult, by this <i>Hypothesis</i>, to salve all the + appearances of Eclipses of the Moon, for in this <i>Hypothesis</i> also, + there will be on each side of the shadow of the Earth, a <i>Penumbra</i>, + not caus’d by the Refraction of the Air, as in the <i>Hypothesis</i> of + <i>Kepler</i>; but by the faint inlightning of it by the Sun: For if, in + the sixth Figure, we suppose ESQ, and GSR, to be the Rays that terminate + the shadow from either side of the Earth; ESQ coming from the upper limb + of the Sun, and GSR from the under; it will follow, that the shadow of + the Earth, within those Rays, that is, the Cone GSE, will be totally + dark. But the Sun being not a point, but a large <i>area</i> of light, + there will be a secondary dark Cone of shadow EPG, which will be caus’d + by the earth’s hindring part of the Rays of the Sun from falling on the + parts GPR, and EPQ, of which halved shadow, or <i>Penumbra</i>, that part + will appear brightest which lyes nearest the terminating Rayes GP, and + EP, and those darker that lye nearest to GS, and ES: when therefore the + Moon appears quite dark in the middle of the Eclipse, she must be below + S, that is, between S and F; when she appears lighter near the middle of + the Eclipse, she must pass some where between RQ and S; and when she is + alike light through the whole Eclipse, she must pass between RQ, and + P.<br /></p> +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class='chapter' /> +<h2>Observ. <a name="obsLIX" id="obsLIX">LIX</a>. <i>Of multitudes of small </i>Stars<i> discoverable by the +</i>Telescope<i>.</i></h2> + + <p>Having, in the last Observation, premis’d some particulars observable + in the <i>medium</i>, through which we must look upon + <i>Cœlestial</i> Objects, I shall here add one Observation of the + Bodies themselves; and for a <i>specimen</i> I have made choice of the + <i>Pleiades</i>, or seven Stars, commonly so called (though in our time + and Climate there appear no more then six to the naked eye) and this I + did the rather, because the deservedly famous <i>Galileo</i>, having + publisht a Picture of this <i>Asterisme</i>, was able, it seems, with his + Glass to discover no more then thirty six, whereas with a pretty good +<span class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-38.png"><i>Schem.</i> 38.</a> +</span> + twelve foot <i>Telescope</i>, by which I drew this 38 <i>Iconism</i>, I + could very plainly discover seventy eight, placed in the order they are + ranged in the Figure, and of as many differing Magnitudes as the + <i>Asterisks</i>, wherewith they are Marked, do specifie; there being no + less then fourteen several Magnitudes of those Stars, which are compris’d + within the draught, the biggest whereof is not accounted greater then one + of the third Magnitude; and indeed that account is much too big, if it be + compared with other Stars of the third Magnitude, especially by the help + of a <i>Telescope</i>; for then by it may be perceiv’d, that its + splendor, to the naked eye, may be somewhat augmented by the three little + Stars immediately above it, which are near adjoyning to it. The + <i>Telescope</i> also discovers a great variety, even in the bigness of + those, commonly reckon’d, of the first, second, third, fourth, fifth, and + sixth Magnitude; so that should they be distinguish’d thereby, those six + Magnitudes would, at least, afford no less then thrice that number of + Magnitudes, plainly enough distinguishable by their Magnitude, and + brightness; so that a good twelve foot Glass would afford us no less then + twenty five several Magnitudes. Nor are these all, but a longer Glass + does yet further, both more nicely distinguish the Magnitudes of those + already noted, and also discover several other of smaller Magnitudes, not + discernable by the twelve foot Glass: Thus have I been able, with a good + thirty six foot Glass, to discover many more Stars in the <i>Pleiades</i> + then are here delineated, and those of three or four distinct Magnitudes + less then any of those spots of the fourteenth Magnitude. And by the + twinkling of divers other places of this <i>Asterisme</i>, when the Sky + was very clear, I am apt to think, that with longer Glasses, or such as + would bear a bigger <i>aperture</i>, there might be discovered multitudes + of other small Stars, yet inconspicuous. And indeed, for the discovery of + small Stars, the bigger the <i>aperture</i> be, the better adapted is the + Glass; for though perhaps it does make the several specks more radiant, + and glaring, yet by that means, uniting more Rays very near to one point, + it does make many of those radiant points conspicuous, which, by putting on a less <i>aperture</i>, may be found to vanish; and + therefore, both for the discovery of the fixt Star, and for finding the + <i>Satellites</i> of <i>Jupiter</i>, before it be out of the day, or + twilight, I alwayes leave the Object-glass as clear without any + <i>aperture</i> as I can, and have thereby been able to discover the + <i>Satellites</i> a long while before; I was able to discern them, when + the smaller <i>apertures</i> were put on; and at other times, to see + multitudes of other smaller Stars, which a smaller <i>aperture</i> makes + to disappear.</p> + + <p>In that notable <i>Asterism</i> also of the Sword of <i>Orion</i>, + where the ingenious Monsieur <i>Hugens van Zulichem</i> has discovered + only three little Stars in a cluster, I have with a thirty six foot + Glass, without any <i>aperture</i> (the breadth of the Glass being about + some three inches and a half) discover’d five, and the twinkling of + divers others up and down in divers parts of that small milky Cloud.</p> + + <p>So that ’tis not unlikely, but that the meliorating of + <i>Telescopes</i> will afford as great a variety of new Discoveries in + the Heavens, as better <i>Microscopes</i> would among small terrestrial + Bodies, and both would give us infinite cause, more and more to admire + the omnipotence of the Creator.<br /></p> +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class='chapter' /> +<h2>Observ. <a name="obsLX" id="obsLX">LX</a>. <i>Of the </i>Moon<i>.</i></h2> + + <p>Having a pretty large corner of the Plate for the seven Starrs, void, + for the filling it up, I have added one small <i>Specimen</i> of the + appearance of the parts of the Moon, by describing a small spot of it, + which, though taken notice of, both by the Excellent <i>Hevelius</i>, and + called <i>Mons Olympus</i> (though I think somewhat improperly, being +<span class="sidenote"> +<a href="images/scheme-38.png"><i>Schem.</i> 38.</a><br /><i>Fig.</i> X, <i>&c</i>. +</span> + rather a vale) and represented by the Figure X. of the 38. <i>Scheme</i>, + and also by the Learn’d <i>Ricciolus</i>, who calls it <i>Hipparchus</i>, + and describes it by the Figure Y, yet how far short both of them come of + the truth, may be somewhat perceiv’d by the draught, which I have here + added of it, in the Figure Z, (which I drew by a thirty foot Glass, in + <i>October</i> 1664. just before the Moon was half inlightned) but much + better by the Reader’s diligently observing it himself, at a convenient + time, with a Glass of that length, and much better yet with one of + threescore foot long, for through these it appears a very spacious Vale, + incompassed with a ridge of Hills, not very high in comparison of many + other in the Moon, nor yet very steep. The Vale it self ABCD, is much of + the figure of a Pear, and from several appearances of it, seems to be + some very fruitful place, that is, to have its surface all covered over + with some kinds of vegetable substances; for in all positions of the + light on it, it seems to give a much fainter reflection then the more + barren tops of the incompassing Hills, and those a much fainter then + divers other cragged, chalky, or rocky Mountains of the Moon. So that I + am not unapt to think, that the Vale may have + Vegetables <i>analogus</i> to our Grass, Shrubs, and Trees; and most of + these incompassing Hills may be covered with so thin a vegetable Coat, as + we may observe the Hills with us to be, such as the short Sheep pasture + which covers the Hills of <i>Salisbury</i> Plains.</p> + + <p>Up and down in several parts of this place here describ’d (as there + are multitudes in other places all over the surface of the Moon) may be + perceived several kinds of pits, which are shap’d almost like a dish, + some bigger, some less, some shallower, some deeper, that is, they seem + to be a hollow <i>Hemisphere</i>, incompassed with a round rising bank, + as if the substance in the middle had been digg’d up, and thrown on + either side. These seem to me to have been the effects of some motions + within the body of the Moon, <i>analogus</i> to our Earthquakes, by the + eruption of which, as it has thrown up a brim, or ridge, round about, + higher then the Ambient surface of the Moon, so has it left a hole, or + depression, in the middle, proportionably lower; divers places resembling + some of these, I have observ’d here in <i>England</i>, on the tops of + some Hills, which might have been caus’d by some Earthquake in the + younger dayes of the world. But that which does most incline me to this + belief, is, first, the generality and diversity of the Magnitude of these + pits all over the body of the Moon. Next, the two experimental wayes, by + which I have made a representation of them.</p> + + <p>The first was with a very soft and well temper’d mixture of + Tobacco-pipe clay and Water, into which, if I let fall any heavy body, as + a Bullet, it would throw up the mixture round the place, which for a + while would make a representation, not unlike these of the Moon; but + considering the state and condition of the Moon, there seems not any + probability to imagine, that it should proceed from any cause + <i>analogus</i> to this; for it would be difficult to imagine whence + those bodies should come; and next, how the substance of the Moon should + be so soft; but if a Bubble be blown under the surface of it, and + suffer’d to rise, and break; or if a Bullet, or other body, sunk in it, + be pull’d out from it, these departing bodies leave an impression on the + surface of the mixture, exactly like these of the Moon, save that these + also quickly subside and vanish. But the second, and most notable, + representation was, what I observ’d in a pot of boyling Alabaster, for + there that powder being by the eruption of vapours reduc’d to a kind of + fluid consistence, if, whil’st it boyls, it be gently remov’d besides the + fire, the Alabaster presently ceasing to boyl, the whole surface, + especially that where some of the last Bubbles have risen, will appear + all over covered with small pits, exactly shap’d like these of the Moon, + and by holding a lighted Candle in a large dark Room, in divers positions + to this surface, you may exactly represent all the <i>Phænomena</i> of + these pits in the Moon, according as they are more or less inlightned by + the Sun.</p> + + <p>And that there may have been in the Moon some such motion as this, + which may have made these pits, will seem the more probable, if we + suppose it like our Earth, for the Earthquakes here with us seem to + proceed from some such cause, as the boyling of the pot of Alabaster, + there seeming to be generated in the Earth + from some subterraneous fires, or heat, great quantities of vapours, that + is, of expanded aerial substances, which not presently finding a passage + through the ambient parts of the Earth, do, as they are increased by the + supplying and generating principles, and thereby (having not sufficient + room to expand themselves) extreamly condens’d, at last overpower, with + their <i>elastick</i> properties, the resistence of the incompassing + Earth, and lifting it up, or cleaving it, and so shattering of the parts + of the Earth above it, do at length, where they find the parts of the + Earth above them more loose, make their way upwards, and carrying a great + part of the Earth before them, not only raise a small brim round about + the place, out of which they break, but for the most part considerable + high Hills and Mountains, and when they break from under the Sea, divers + times, mountainous Islands; this seems confirm’d by the <i>Vulcans</i> in + several places of the Earth, the mouths of which, for the most part, are + incompassed with a Hill of a considerable height, and the tops of those + Hills, or Mountains, are usually shap’d very much like these pits, or + dishes, of the Moon: Instances of this we have in the descriptions of + <i>Ætna</i> in <i>Sicily</i>, of <i>Hecla</i> in <i>Iceland</i>, of + <i>Tenerif</i> in the <i>Canaries</i>, of the several <i>Vulcans</i> in + <i>New-Spain</i>, describ’d by <i>Gage</i>, and more especially in the + eruption of late years in one of the <i>Canary</i> Islands. In all of + which there is not only a considerable high Hill raised about the mouth + of the <i>Vulcan</i>, but, like the spots of the Moon, the top of those + Hills are like a dish, or bason. And indeed, if one attentively consider + the nature of the thing, one may find sufficient reason to judge, that it + cannot be otherwise; for these eruptions, whether of fire, or smoak, + alwayes raising great quantities of Earth before them, must necessarily, + by the fall of those parts on either side, raise very considerable + heaps.</p> + + <p>Now, both from the figures of them, and from several other + circumstances; these pits in the Moon seem to have been generated much + after the same manner that the holes in Alabaster, and the <i>Vulcans</i> + of the Earth are made. For first, it is not improbable, but that the + substance of the Moon may be very much like that of our Earth, that is, + may consist of an earthy, sandy, or rocky substance, in several of its + superficial parts, which parts being agitated, undermin’d, or heav’d up, + by eruptions of vapours, may naturally be thrown into the same kind of + figured holes, as the small dust, or powder of Alabaster. Next, it is not + improbable, but that there may be generated, within the body of the Moon, + divers such kind of internal fires and heats, as may produce such + Exhalations; for since we can plainly enough discover with a + <i>Telescope</i>, that there are multitudes of such kind of eruptions in + the body of the Sun it self, which is accounted the most noble Ætherial + body, certainly we need not be much scandaliz’d at such kind of + alterations, or corruptions, in the body of this lower and less + considerable part of the universe, the Moon, which is only secundary, or + attendant, on the bigger, and more considerable body of the Earth. + Thirdly, ’tis not unlikely, but that supposing such a sandy or mouldring + substance to be there found, and supposing also a + possibility of the generation of the internal <i>elastical</i> body + (whether you will call it air or vapours) ’tis not unlikely, I say, but + that there is in the Moon a principle of gravitation, such as in the + Earth. And to make this probable, I think, we need no better Argument, + then the roundness, or globular Figure of the body of the Moon it self, + which we may perceive very plainly by the <i>Telescope</i>, to be (bating + the small inequality of the Hills and Vales in it, which are all of them + likewise shap’d, or levelled, as it were, to answer to the center of the + Moons body) perfectly of a Sphærical figure, that is, all the parts of it + are so rang’d (bating the comparatively small ruggedness of the Hills and + Dales) that the outmost bounds of them are equally distant from the + Center of the Moon, and consequently, it is exceedingly probable also, + that they are equidistant from the Center of gravitation; and indeed, the + figure of the superficial parts of the Moon are so exactly shap’d, + according as they should be, supposing it had a gravitating principle as + the Earth has, that even the figure of those parts themselves is of + sufficient efficacy to make the gravitation, and the other two + suppositions probable: so that the other suppositions may be rather + prov’d by this considerable Circumstance, or Observation, then this + suppos’d Explication can by them; for he that shall attentively observe + with an excellent <i>Telescope</i>, how all the Circumstances, notable in + the shape of the superficial parts, are, as it were, exactly adapted to + suit with such a principle, will, if he well considers the usual method + of Nature in its other proceedings, find abundant argument to believe it + to have really there also such a principle; for I could never observe, + among all the mountainous or prominent parts of the Moon (whereof there + is a huge variety) that any one part of it was plac’d in such a manner, + that if there should be a gravitating, or attracting principle in the + body of the Moon, it would make that part to fall, or be mov’d out of its + visible posture. Next, the shape and position of the parts is such, that + they all seem put into those very shapes they are in by a gravitating + power: For first, there are but very few clifts, or very steep + declivities in the ascent of these Mountains; for besides those + Mountains, which are by <i>Hevelius</i> call’d the <i>Apennine</i> + Mountains, and some other, which seem to border on the Seas of the Moon, + and those only upon one side, as is common also in those Hills that are + here on the Earth; there are very few that seem to have very steep + ascents, but, for the most part, they are made very round, and much + resemble the make of the Hills and Mountains also of the Earth; this may + be partly perceived by the Hills incompassing this Vale, which I have + here describ’d; and as on the Earth also, the middlemost of these Hills + seems the highest, so is it obvious also, through a good + <i>Telescope</i>, in those of the Moon; the Vales also in many are much + shap’d like those of the Earth, and I am apt to think, that could we look + upon the Earth from the Moon, with a good <i>Telescope</i>, we might + easily enough perceive its surface to be very much like that of the + Moon.</p> + + <p>Now whereas in this small draught, (as there would be multitudes if + the whole Moon were drawn after this manner) there are several little + Ebullitions, or Dishes, even in the Vales + themselves, and in the incompassing Hills also; this will, from this + supposition, (which I have, I think, upon very good reason taken) be + exceeding easily explicable; for, as I have several times also observ’d, + in the surface of Alabaster so ordered, as I before describ’d, so may the + later eruptions of vapours be even in the middle, or on the edges of the + former; and other succeeding these also in time may be in the middle or + edges of these, <i>&c.</i> of which there are Instances enough in + divers parts of the body of the Moon, and by a boyling pot of Alabaster + will be sufficiently exemplifi’d.</p> + + <p>To conclude therefore, it being very probable, that the Moon has a + principle of gravitation, it affords an excellent distinguishing Instance + in the search after the cause of gravitation, or attraction, to hint, + that it does not depend upon the diurnal or turbinated motion of the + Earth, as some have somewhat inconsiderately supposed and affirmed it to + do; for if the Moon has an attractive principle, whereby it is not only + shap’d round, but does firmly contain and hold all its parts united, + though many of them seem as loose as the sand on the Earth, and that the + Moon is not mov’d about its Center; then certainly the turbination cannot + be the cause of the attraction of the Earth, and therefore some other + principle must be thought of, that will agree with all the secundary as + well as primary Planets. But this, I confess, is but a probability, and + not a demonstration, which (from any Observation yet made) it seems + hardly capable of, though how successful future indeavours (promoted by + the meliorating of Glasses, and observing particular circumstances) may + be in this, or any other, kind, must be with patience expected.<br /></p> +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class='chapter' /><h2><i>FINIS.</i></h2> + +<hr class="full" /> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:60%;"> + <a href="images/rule-06.png"><img width="100%" src="images/rule-06.png" alt="Decorative rule" /></a> + <br /></div> + +<div class='chapter' /><h2>THE TABLE.</h2> + + <p>Observat. <a href="#obsI">1</a>. Of the point of a Needle.</p> + + <p><i>A Description of it: what other Bodies have the sharpest points: of + the ruggedness of polisht Metal. A description of a printed point. Of + very small writing, and the use of it for secret intelligence: the cause + of the coursness of printed lines and points.</i></p> + + <p>Observ. <a href="#obsII">2</a>. Of the Edge of a Razor.</p> + + <p><i>A description of it: the causes of its roughness: of the roughness + of very well polisht Optick Glasses.</i>.</p> + + <p>Obser. <a href="#obsIII">3</a>. Of fine Lawn.</p> + + <p><i>A description of it: A silken Flax mention’d, an attempt to + explicate the </i>Phænomena<i> of it, with a conjecture at the cause of + the gloss of Silk.</i></p> + + <p>Observ. <a href="#obsIV">4</a>. Of Tabby.</p> + + <p><i>A short description of it. A conjecture about the reason why Silk + is so susceptible of vivid colours: and why Flax and Hair is not. A + conjecture, that it may perhaps be possible to spin a kind of artificial + Silk, out of some glutinous substance that may equalize natural + Silk.</i></p> + + <p>Observ. <a href="#obsV">5</a>. Of water’d Silks.</p> + + <p><i>The great unaccurateness of artificial works. A description of a + piece of water’d Silk; an Explication of the cause of the + </i>Phænomena<i>: the way by which that operation is perform’d: some + other </i>Phænomena<i> mention’d depending on the same cause.</i></p> + + <p>Observ. <a href="#obsVI">6</a>. Of Glass Canes.</p> + + <p><i>The exceeding smallness of some of these Bodies. By what means the + hollowness of these small pipes was discover’d: several </i>Phænomena<i> + of it mention’d. An attempt to explicate them from the congruity and + incongruity of Bodies: what those proprieties are. A hypothetical + explication of fluidity: of the fluidity of the air, and several other + </i>Phænomena<i> of it: of congruity & incongruity; illustrated with + several Experiments: what effects may be ascrib’d to these properties: an + explication of the roundness of the surface of fluid Bodies: how the + ingress of fluid bodies into a small hole of an heterogeneous body is + hindred by incongruity; a multitude of </i>Phænomena<i> explicable + hereby. Several Quæries propounded; 1. Concerning the propagation of + light through differing mediums. 2. Concerning Gravity. 3. Concerning the + roundness of the Sun, Moon, and Planets. 4. Concerning the roundness of + Fruits, Stones, and divers artificial Bodies. His Highness Prince + </i>Rupert’s<i> way of making Shot. Of the roundness of Hail. Of the + grain of </i>Kettering<i> Stone, and of the Sparks of fire. 5. Concerning + springiness and tenacity. 6. Concerning the original of Fountains; + several Histories and Experiments relating thereto. 7. Concerning the + dissolution of Bodies in Liquors. 8. Concerning the universality of this + Principle: what method was taken in making and applying experiments. The + explication of filtration, and several + other </i>Phænomena<i>; such as the motion of Bodies on the surface of + Liquors; several Experiments mention’d to this purpose. Of the height to + which the water may rise in these Pipes; and a conjecture about the + juices of Vegetables, & the use of their pores. A further explication + of Congruity: And an attempt of solving the </i>Phænomena<i> of the + strange Experiment of the suspension of the </i>Mercury<i> at a much + greater height then thirty inches. The efficacy of immediate contact, and + the reason of it.</i></p> + + <p>Observ. <a href="#obsVII">7</a>. Of Glass drops.</p> + + <p><i>Several Experiments made with these small Bodies. The manner of the + breaking and flawing of them, explicated by Figures. What other bodies + will be flawed much in the same manner: some other tryals, and a + description of the Drops themselves: some conjectures at the cause of the + </i>Phænomena<i>, indeavoured to be made probable by several Arguments + and Experiments. An Experiment of the expansion of Water by heat, and + shrinking by cold: the like Proprieties suppos’d in Glass drops, and what + effects proceed from them: the seven Propositions on which the + conjectures are grounded. Experiments to shew, that bodies expand by + heat. The manner of making </i>Thermometers<i>, and the Instrument for + </i>graduating<i> them. The manner of </i>graduating<i> them, and their + use: Other Experiments to prove the expansion of bodies by heat. Four + experimental Arguments to prove the expansion of Glass by heat: further + prov’d by the Experiment of boyling Alabaster; which is explicated. An + explication of the contracting of heated Glass upon cooling. An + explication how the parts of the Glass become bent by sudden cold, and + how kept from extricating themselves by the contignation of the Glass + drop; which is further explicated by another Experiment made with a + hollow Glass ball: the reason of the flying asunder of the parts further + explicated: that ’tis probable these bodies may have many flaws, though + not visible, and why: how a gradual heating and cooling does put the + parts of Glass, and other hardned bodies, into a looser texture.</i></p> + + <p>Observ. <a href="#obsVIII">8</a>. Of Fiery Sparks.</p> + + <p><i>The occasion and manner of making this Experiment: divers + Observations set down in order to the finding out the reasons: some + conjectures concerning it, which are endeavoured to be explicated and + confirm’d by several Experiments and Reasons: the </i>Hypothesis<i> a + little further explicated. Some Observations about the Globular Figure: + and an Experiment of reducing the filings of Tin or Lead to exactly round + Globules.</i></p> + + <p>Observ. <a href="#obsIX">9</a>. Of Fantastical Colours.</p> + + <p><i>The texture of </i>Muscovy<i> Glass; its Figures: what other Bodies + are like it: that it exhibits several colours, and how: several + Observations and Experiments about those colours: the reason why on this + occasion the nature of colours is inquir’d into. A conjecture at the + reason of these colours explicated by several Experiments and Reasons: + First, by continual cleaving the Body till it become colour’d. Secondly, + by producing all kinds of colours with two flat Plates of Glass. Thirdly, + by blowing Glass so thin in the Lamp, till it produce the same effect. + Fourthly, by doing the same with Bubbles of divers other transparent + Bodies: the reasons of the colours on nealed Steel, where by the way the + causes of the hardning and tempering of Steel, + endeavour’d to be shewn and explicated by several Reasons and + Experiments: the reason of the colours on Lead, Brass, Copper, Silver, + </i>&c.<i> other Instances of such colour’d bodies in animal + substances: several other distinguishing Observations. </i>Des Cartes + Hypothesis<i> of Colours examin’d. An </i>Hypothesis<i> for the + explication of light by motion, indeavoured to be explicated and + determined by several Reasons and Experiments: three distinguishing + Properties of the motion of light. The distinguishing Properties of a + trasparent </i>Medium<i> [that there seems to be no Experiment that + proves the Instantaneous motion of light] the manner of the propagation + of light through them. Of the </i>homogeniety<i> and </i>heterogeniety<i> + of transparent </i>Mediums<i>, and what effects they cause on the Rayes + of light, explicated by a Figure: an Examination of the refraction of the + Rays by a plain Surface, which causes Colours. An Examination of the like + effects produced by a spherical Surface: the use that may be made of + these Experiments, for the examination of several </i>Hypotheses<i> of + Colours. </i>Des Cartes Hypothesis<i> examin’d. Some Difficulties taken + notice of in it. What seems most likely to be the cause of colour: that + propriety is indeavoured to be shewn in a Glass ball: that the reflection + is not necessary to produce Colours nor a double refraction: the + </i>Hypothesis<i> further examined, both in the </i>pellucid Medium<i> + and in the Eye. The definitions of Colours; and a further explication and + examination of the Proprieties of </i>laminated<i> Bodies; by what means + they conduce to the production of Colours.</i></p> + + <p>Observ. <a href="#obsX">10</a>. Of Metalline Colours.</p> + + <p><i>That all Colours seem to be caus’d by refraction. An + </i>Hypothesis<i> consonant hereunto, explicated by Figures. How several + Experiments, of the sudden changing of Colours by Chymical Liquors may be + hereby explicated: how many wayes such Chymical Liquors may alter the + colours of Bodies. Objections made against this </i>Hypothesis<i> of two + colours only, indeavoured to be answer’d, by several Reasons and + Experiments. The reason why some Colours are capable of being diluted, + others not: what those are: that probably the particles of most metalline + Colours are transparent; for this several Arguments and Observations are + recited: how Colours become incapable of diluting, explicated by a + Similitude. An Instrument, by which one and the same coloured Liquor at + once exhibited all the degrees of colours between the palest yellow and + deepest red: as likewise another that exhibited all varieties of blues: + several Experiments try’d with these Boxes. An Objection drawn from the + nature of Painters colours answered: that diluting and whitening a colour + are different operations; as are deepening and blackening: why some may + be diluted by grinding, and some other by being tempered with Oyl: + several Experiments for the explicating of some former Assertions: why + Painters are forced to make use of many colours: what those colours are: + and how mixt. The conclusion, that most coloured Bodies seem to consist + of transparent particles: that all colours dissoluble in Liquors are + capable of diluting: some of mixing, what a strange variety may thereby + be produc’d.</i></p> + + <p>Observ. <a href="#obsXI">11</a>. Of the Figures of Sand.</p> + + <p><i>Of the substances and shapes of common + and other Sands: a description of a very small Shell.</i></p> + + <p>Observ. <a href="#obsXII">12</a>. Of Gravel in Urine.</p> + + <p><i>A description of such Gravel, and some tryals made with it, and + conjectures at its cause.</i></p> + + <p>Obser. <a href="#obsXIII">13</a>. Of Diamonds in Flints.</p> + + <p><i>A description and examination of some of them, explicated further + by Cornish Diamonds: several Observations about reflection and + refraction: and some deductions therefrom; as an explication of + whiteness; that the Air has a stronger reflection then Water. How several + Bodies may be made transparent: an explication of the </i>Phænomena<i> of + </i>Oculus Mundi<i>. Of the regular Geometrical Figures of several + Bodies: an hypothetical explication mentioned: the method of prosecuting + this inquiry.</i></p> + + <p>Observ. <a href="#obsXIV">14</a>. Of frozen Figure.</p> + + <p><i>The Figures of hoar Frost, and the Vortices on windows: several + Observations on the branched Figures of Urine: the Figures of </i>Regulus + Martis stellatus<i>, and of Fern. Of the Figures of Snow. Of frozen + water.</i></p> + + <p>Observ. <a href="#obsXV">15</a>. Of Kettering-Stone.</p> + + <p><i>A description of the Figure of the Particles, and of the Pores, and + of the Contexture. Several Observations and Considerations thereupon: + some Conjectures about the </i>medium<i> and propagation of light, and + the constitution of fluid and transparent Bodies. Several Experiments to + prove the porousness of Marble, and some other Stones. An account of some + Experiments to this purpose made on an </i>Oculus Mundi<i>: some other + Considerations and Experiments about the porousness of Bodies: some other + Considerations about the propagation of light and refraction.</i></p> + + <p>Observ. <a href="#obsXVI">16</a>. Of Charcoal.</p> + + <p><i>Of two sort of Pores to be found in all Woods and Vegetables; the + shape of them; the number, thickness, manner and use of these Pores. An + explication of the </i>Phænomena<i> of Coals. The manner of charring + Wood, or any other body. What part of Wood is combustible. An + </i>Hypothesis<i> of fire explicated in twelve particulars, wherein the + Action of the Air, as a </i>Menstruum<i> in the dissolution of all + sulphureous bodies, is very particularly explicated, and some other + Considerations about the Air proposed: the examination of a piece of + </i>Lignum fossile<i> sent from </i>Rome<i>, and some Conclusions thence + deduc’d.</i></p> + + <p>Observ. <a href="#obsXVII">17</a>. Of Wood, and other Bodies, + petrified.</p> + + <p><i>Several Observations of divers kinds of these substances. A more + particular examination and explication of one very notable piece of + petrified Wood; and some Conjectures about the cause of those + productions: several Observations made on other petrified Bodies, as + shells, </i>&c.<i> And some probable Conclusions thence deduc’d, + about the original cause of those Bodies.</i></p> + + <p>Observ. <a href="#obsXVIII">18</a>. Of the Pores of Cork, and other + Bodies.</p> + + <p><i>Several Observations and Considerations about the nature of Cork: + the number of Pores in a cubical Inch, and + several considerations about Pores. Several Experiments and Observations + about the nature of Cork: the Texture and Pores of the Pith of an Elder, + and several other Trees: of the Stalks of Burdocks, Teasels, Daisies, + Carret, Fennel, Ferne, Reeds, </i>&c.<i> of the frothy texture of the + Pith of a Feather: some Conjectures about the probability of values in + these Pores. Argued also from the </i>Phænomena<i> of sensible and humble + Plant: some Observations on which are inserted.</i></p> + + <p>Observ. <a href="#obsXIX">19</a>. Of a Vegetable growing on blighted + Leaves.</p> + + <p><i>Several Observations and Examinations made of them: several + Considerations about spontaneous generation arising from the putrefaction + of Bodies.</i></p> + + <p>Observ. <a href="#obsXX">20</a>. Of Blew Mould and Mushromes.</p> + + <p><i>The description of several kinds of Moulds. The method of + proceeding in natural Inquiries. Several Considerations about the nature + of Mould and Mushromes. 1. That they may be produc’d without seed. 2. + That they seem to have none. 3. That Salts, </i>&c.<i> are shap’d + into as curious figures without a seed. 4. Of a kind of Mushrome growing + in a Candle: A more particular explication of this last sort of + Mushromes. 5. Of the figure and manner of the production of petrified + Iceicles: several deductions from these Considerations, about the nature + of the vegetation of Mould and Mushromes.</i></p> + + <p>Observ. <a href="#obsXXI">21</a>. Of Moss.</p> + + <p><i>The description of several sorts of Mosses; upon this occasion + several Conjectures, about the manner of the production of these kinds of + Bodies, are hinted, and some of them explicated by a Similitude taken + from a piece of Clock-work, The vast difference of the bigness of + vegetable Bodies; and the probability that the least may comprehend as + curious contrivances as the greatest. Of multitudes of other Moulds, + Mosses, and Mushromes, and other vegetating Principles, in Water, Wood, + </i>&c.</p> + + <p>Observ. <a href="#obsXXII">22</a>. Of Sponges, and other fibrous + Bodies.</p> + + <p><i>Several Observations and Conjectures about the making of these + Bodies, and several Histories out of Authors. Scarce any other Body hath + such a texture; the fibrous texture of Leather, Spunk, </i>&c.<i> + (which are there describ’d) come nearest to it That upon tryal with a + piece of Spunge and Oyl the necessity of respiration could not be + alter’d.</i></p> + + <p>Observ. <a href="#obsXXIII">23</a>. Of the Form of Sea-weed.</p> + + <p><i>From the curiously shap’d Surface of this Sea-weed, and some + others, is conjectured the possibility of multitudes of the like.</i></p> + + <p>Observ. <a href="#obsXXIV">24</a>. Of the Surfaces of some Leaves.</p> + + <p><i>The description, 1. Of the bald Surfaces of Leaves. 2. Of the downy + Surfaces of several others. 3. Of the gummous exsudation, or small + transparent Pearls, discovered with a </i>Microscope<i> in several + others. An Instance of all which is afforded in a Rosemary Leaf.</i></p> + + <p>Observ. <a href="#obsXXV">25</a>. Of the stinging Points of a + Nettle.</p> + + <p><i>A description of the Needles and several other contrivances in the + leaf of a Nettle: how the stinging pain is created: upon this several + considerations about poysoning Darts are set down. An Experiment of + killing Effs, and Fishes with Salt. Some conjectures at the efficacy of + Baths; the use that may be made of injecting into the Veins. A very + remarkable History out of </i>Bellonius<i>; and some Considerations about + staining and dying of Bodies.</i></p> + + <p>Observ. <a href="#obsXXVI">26</a>. Of Cowage.</p> + + <p><i>The description of it out of </i>Parkinson<i>: an Experiment made of + it: a description, and some conjectures at the cause of the + </i>Phænomena<i>.</i></p> + + <p>Observ. <a href="#obsXXVII">27</a>. Of the Beard of a wild Oat.</p> + + <p><i>The description of its shape and properties: the manner of making a + </i>Hygroscope<i> with it; and a Conjecture at the causes of these + motions, and of the motions of the Muscles.</i></p> + + <p>Observ. <a href="#obsXXVIII">28</a>. Of the Seeds of <i>Venice</i> + Looking-glass.</p> + + <p><i>The description of them.</i></p> + + <p>Obser. <a href="#obsXXIX">29</a>. Of the Seeds of Time.</p> + + <p><i>A description of them. A digression about Natures method.</i></p> + + <p>Observ. <a href="#obsXXX">30</a>. Of Poppy Seeds.</p> + + <p><i>The description and use of them.</i></p> + + <p>Observ. <a href="#obsXXXI">31</a>. Of Purslane Seeds.</p> + + <p><i>A description of these and many other Seeds.</i></p> + + <p>Observ. <a href="#obsXXXII">32</a>. Of Hair.</p> + + <p><i>The description of several sorts of Hair; their Figures and + Textures: the reason of their colours, A description of the texture of + the skin, and of Spunk and Sponges: by what passages and pores of the + skin transpiration seems to be made. Experiments to prove the porousness + of the skin of Vegetables.</i></p> + + <p>Observ. <a href="#obsXXXIII">33</a>. Of the Scales of a Soale.</p> + + <p><i>A description of their beauteous form.</i></p> + + <p>Observ. <a href="#obsXXXIV">34</a>. Of the Sting of a Bee.</p> + + <p><i>A description of its shape, mechanisme, and use.</i></p> + + <p>Observ. <a href="#obsXXXV">35</a>. Of Feathers.</p> + + <p><i>A description of the shape and curious contexture of Feathers: and + some conjectures thereupon.</i></p> + + <p>Obser. <a href="#obsXXXVI">36</a>. Of Peacocks Feathers.</p> + + <p><i>A description of their curious form and proprieties; with a + conjecture at the cause of their variable colours.</i></p> + + <p>Obser. <a href="#obsXXXVII">37</a>. Of the Feet of Flyes, and other + Insects.</p> + + <p><i>A description of their figure, parts, and use; and some + considerations thereupon.</i></p> + + <p>Obser. <a href="#obsXXXVIII">38</a>. Of the Wings of Flyes.</p> + + <p><i>After what manner and how swiftly the wings of Insects move. A + description of the Pendulums under the wings, and their motion; the shape + and structure of the parts of the wing.</i></p> + + <p>Obser. <a href="#obsXXXIX">39</a>. Of the Head of a Fly.</p> + + <p><i>1. All the face of a Drone-fly is nothing almost but eyes. 2. Those + are of two magnitudes. 3. They are Hemispheres, and very reflective and + smooth. 4. Some directed towards every quarter. 5. How the fly cleanses + them. 6. Their number. 7. Their order: divers particulars observ’d in the + dissecting a head. That these are very probably the eyes of the Creature; + argued from several Observations and Experiments, that Crabs, Lobsters, + Shrimps, seem to be water Insects, and to be framed much like Air + Insects. Several Considerations about their manner of vision.</i></p> + + <p>Obser. <a href="#obsXL">40</a>. Of the Teeth of a Snail.</p> + + <p><i>A brief description of it.</i></p> + + <p>Observ. <a href="#obsXLI">41</a>. Of the Eggs of Silk-worms.</p> + + <p><i>Several Observables about the Eggs of Insects.</i></p> + + <p>Observ. <a href="#obsXLII">42</a>. Of a blue Fly.</p> + + <p><i>A description of its outward and inward parts. Its hardiness to + indure freezing, and sleeping in Spirit of wine.</i></p> + + <p>Observ. <a href="#obsXLIII">43</a>. Of a water Insect.</p> + + <p><i>A description of its shape, transparency, motion, both internal and + progressive, and transformation. A History somewhat </i>Analogus<i> cited + out of </i>Piso<i>. Several Observations about the various wayes of the + generations of Insects: by what means they act so seemingly wisely and + prudently. Several Quæries propounded. Postscript, containing a relation + of another very odd way of the generation of Insects. An Observation + about the fertility of the Earth of our Climate in producing Insects, and + of divers other wayes of their generation.</i></p> + + <p>Observ. <a href="#obsXLIV">44</a>. Of the tufted Gnat.</p> + + <p><i>Several Observables about Insects, and a more particular + description the parts of this Gnat.</i></p> + + <p>Ob. <a href="#obsXLV">45</a>. Of the great belly’d Gnat.</p> + + <p><i>A short description of it.</i></p> + + <p>Obser. <a href="#obsXLVI">46</a>. Of a white Moth.</p> + + <p><i>A description of the feathers and wings of this, and several other + Insects. Divers Considerations about the wings, and the flying of Insects + and Birds.</i></p> + + <p>Obs. <a href="#obsXLVII">47</a>. Of the Shepherd Spider.</p> + + <p><i>A description of its Eyes: and the sockets of its long legs: and a + Conjecture of the mechanical reason of its fabrick; together with a + supposition, that ’tis not unlikely, but Spiders may have the make of + their inward parts exactly like a Crab, which may be call’d a water + Spider.</i></p> + + <p>Obser. <a href="#obsXLVIII">48</a>. Of the hunting Spider.</p> + + <p><i>A short description of it; to which is annext an excellent History + of it, made by Mr. </i>Evelyn<i>. Some further Observations on other Spiders, and their Webs, together with an + examination of a white Substance flying up and down in the Air after a + Fog.</i></p> + + <p>Obser. <a href="#obsXLIX">49</a>. Of an Ant.</p> + + <p><i>That all small Bodies, both Vegetable and Animal, do quickly dry + and wither. The best remedy I found to hinder it, and to make the Animal + lye still to be observ’d. Several particulars related of the actions of + this Creature and a short description of its parts.</i></p> + + <p>Obs. <a href="#obsL">50</a>. Of the wandring Mite.</p> + + <p><i>A description of this Creature, and of another very small one, + which usually bore it company. A Conjecture at the original of + Mites.</i></p> + + <p>Observ. <a href="#obsLI">51</a>. Of a Crab-like Insect.</p> + + <p><i>A brief description of it.</i></p> + + <p>Observ. <a href="#obsLII">52</a>. Of a Book-worm.</p> + + <p><i>A description of it; where by the way is inserted a digression, + experimentally explicating the </i>Phænomena<i> of Pearl. A consideration + of its digestive faculty.</i></p> + + <p>Observ. <a href="#obsLIII">53</a>. Of a Flea.</p> + + <p><i>A short description of it.</i></p> + + <p>Observ. <a href="#obsLIV">54</a>. Of a Louse.</p> + + <p><i>A description of its parts, and some notable circumstances.</i></p> + + <p>Observ. <a href="#obsLV">55</a>. Of Mites.</p> + + <p><i>The exceeding smalness of some Mites, and their Eggs. A description + of the Mites of Cheese: and an intimation of the variety of forms in + other Mites, with a Conjecture at the reason.</i></p> + + <p>Ob. <a href="#obsLVI">56</a>. Of small Vine-Mites.</p> + + <p><i>A description of them; a ghess at their original; their exceeding + smalness compar’d with that of a Wood-louse, from which they may be + suppos’d to come.</i></p> + + <p>Observ. <a href="#obsLVII">57</a>. Of Vinegar-worms.</p> + + <p><i>A description of them, with some considerations on their + motions.</i></p> + + <p>Obs. <a href="#obsLVIII">58</a>. Of the Inflection of the Rays of Light + in the Air.</p> + + <p><i>A short rehearsal of several </i>Phænomena<i>. An attempt to + explicate them: the supposition founded on two Propositions, both which + are indeavoured to be made out by several Experiments, What density and + rarity is in respect of refraction: the refraction of Spirit of Wine + compared with that of common Water: the refraction of Ice. An Experiment + of making an Undulation of the Rays by the mixing of Liquors of differing + density. The explication of </i>inflection<i>, mechanically and + hypothetically: what Bodies have such an inflection. Several Experiments + to shew that the Air has this propriety; that it proceeds from the + differing density of the Air: that the upper and under part of the Air + are of differing density: some Experiments to prove this. A Table of the + strength of the spring of the Air, answering to each degree of extension; + when first made, and when repeated. Another Experiment of compressing the + Air. A Table of the strength of the Air, answering to each compression + and expansion; from which the height of the + Air may be suppos’d indefinite; to what degree the Air is rarifi’d at any + distance above the Surface of the Earth: how, from this, Inflection is + inferr’d; and several </i>Phænomena<i> explain’d. That the Air near the + Earth is compos’d of parts of differing density; made probable by several + Experiments and Observations; how this propriety produces the effects of + the waving and dancing of Bodies; and of the twinkling of the Stars. + Several </i>Phænomena<i> explicated. Some Quæries added.</i></p> + + <p>1. <i>Whether this Principle may not be made use of, for perfecting + Optick Glasses? What might be hoped from it if it were to be + done?</i></p> + + <p>2. <i>Whether from this Principle the apparition of some new Stars may + not be explicated?</i></p> + + <p>3. <i>Whether the height of the Air may be defin’d by it?</i></p> + + <p>4. <i>Whether there may not sometimes be so great a disparity of + density between the upper and under parts of the Air, as to make a + reflecting Surface?</i></p> + + <p>5. <i>Whether, if so, this will not explicate the </i>Phænomena<i> of + the Clouds. An Experiment to this purpose?</i></p> + + <p>7. <i>Whether the Rayes from the top of Mountains are not bended into + Curve-lines by inflection? An Argument for it, taken from an Experiment + made on St. </i>Paul<i>’s Steeple.</i></p> + + <p>8. <i>Whether the distance of the Planets will not be more difficult + to be found? What wayes are most likely to rectifie the distance of the + Moon: the way of fitting </i>Telescopes<i> for such Observations. How to + make the Observations, and how from them to find the true distance of the + Moon at any time. How the distance of the Sun may be found by two + Observators. The way by the Dichotomy of the Moon uncertain. That the + distance of the Moon may be less then it has been hitherto suppos’d. + </i>Kepler<i>’s Supposition not so probable: the explication of the + </i>Phænomena<i> by another </i>Hypothesis<i>.</i></p> + + <p>Observ. <a href="#obsLIX">59</a>. Of the fixt Stars.</p> + + <p><i>Of the multitudes of Stars discoverable by the </i>Telescope<i>, + and the variety of their magnitudes: 78. Stars distinguisht in the + </i>Pleiades<i>: that there are degrees of bigness even in the Stars + accounted of the same magnitude: the longer the Glasses are, and the + bigger apertures they will indure, the more fit they are for these + discoveries: that ’tis probable, longer Glasses would yet make greater + discoveries. 5. Stars discover’d in the </i>Galaxie<i> of </i>Orion<i>’s + Sword.</i></p> + + <p>Observ. <a href="#obsLX">60</a>. Of the Moon.</p> + + <p><i>A description of a Vale in the Moon; what call’d by </i>Hevelius<i> + and </i>Ricciolus<i>, and how describ’d by them: with what substances the + hills of the Moon may be cover’d. A description of the pits of the Moon, + and a conjecture at their cause: two Experiments that make it probable, + that of the surface of boyl’d Alabaster dust seeming the most likely to + be resembled by eruptions of vapours out of the body of the Moon: that + Earthquakes seem to be generated much the same way, and their effects + seem very similar. An Argument that there may be such variations in the + Moon, because greater have been observ’d in the Sun: because the substance of + the Moon and Earth seem much alike: and because ’tis probable the Moon + has a gravitating principle: this is argued from several particulars. The + reason why several pits are one within another. The use that may be made + of this Instance of a gravity in the Moon.</i><br /></p> +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class='chapter' /><h2>The <i>Schemes</i>.</h2> +<table border="1"> + <tr> + <td class="tc"><a href="images/scheme-01.png"> + <img class="nobo" src="images/scheme-01t.png" alt="Scheme 1" /></a><br /><i>Schem.</i> 1.<br /> + <a href="#prefref">Prefix.</a> + </td> + <td class="tc"><a href="images/scheme-02.png"> + <img class="nobo" src="images/scheme-02t.png" alt="Scheme 2" /></a><br /><i>Schem.</i> 2.<br /> + Obs. <a href="#obsI">1.</a> + </td> + <td class="tc"><a href="images/scheme-03.png"> + <img class="nobo" src="images/scheme-03t.png" alt="Scheme 3" /></a><br /><i>Schem.</i> 3.<br /> + Obs. <a href="#obsIV">4,</a> <a href="#obsV">5.</a> + </td> + <td class="tc"><a href="images/scheme-04.png"> + <img class="nobo" src="images/scheme-04t.png" alt="Scheme 4" /></a><br /><i>Schem.</i> 4.<br /> + Obs. <a href="#obsVI">6,</a> <a href="#obsVII">7.</a> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tc"><a href="images/scheme-05.png"> + <img class="nobo" src="images/scheme-05t.png" alt="Scheme 5" /></a><br /><i>Schem.</i> 5.<br /> + Obs. <a href="#obsVIII">8,</a> <a href="#obsXI">11,</a> <a href="#obsXXXII">32.</a> + </td> + <td class="tc"><a href="images/scheme-06.png"> + <img class="nobo" src="images/scheme-06t.png" alt="Scheme 6" /></a><br /><i>Schem.</i> 6.<br /> + Obs. <a href="#obsIX">9,</a> <a href="#obsX">10.</a> + </td> + <td class="tc"><a href="images/scheme-07.png"> + <img class="nobo" src="images/scheme-07t.png" alt="Scheme 7" /></a><br /><i>Schem.</i> 7.<br /> + Obs. <a href="#obsXII">12,</a> <a href="#obsXIII">13.</a> + </td> + <td class="tc"><a href="images/scheme-08.png"> + <img class="nobo" src="images/scheme-08t.png" alt="Scheme 8" /></a><br /><i>Schem.</i> 8.<br /> + Obs. <a href="#obsXIV">14.</a> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tc"><a href="images/scheme-09.png"> + <img class="nobo" src="images/scheme-09t.png" alt="Scheme 9" /></a><br /><i>Schem.</i> 9.<br /> + Obs. <a href="#obsXV">15,</a> <a href="#obsXXII">22,</a> <a href="#obsXXIII">23.</a> + </td> + <td class="tc"><a href="images/scheme-10.png"> + <img class="nobo" src="images/scheme-10t.png" alt="Scheme 10" /></a><br /><i>Schem.</i> 10.<br /> + Obs. <a href="#obsXVII">17.</a> + </td> + <td class="tc"><a href="images/scheme-11.png"> + <img class="nobo" src="images/scheme-11t.png" alt="Scheme 11" /></a><br /><i>Schem.</i> 11.<br /> + Obs. <a href="#obsXVIII">18.</a> + </td> + <td class="tc"><a href="images/scheme-12.png"> + <img class="nobo" src="images/scheme-12t.png" alt="Scheme 12" /></a><br /><i>Schem.</i> 12.<br /> + Obs. <a href="#obsXIX">19,</a> <a href="#obsXX">20.</a> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tc"><a href="images/scheme-13.png"> + <img class="nobo" src="images/scheme-13t.png" alt="Scheme 13" /></a><br /><i>Schem.</i> 13.<br /> + Obs. <a href="#obsXXI">21.</a> + </td> + <td class="tc"><a href="images/scheme-14.png"> + <img class="nobo" src="images/scheme-14t.png" alt="Scheme 14" /></a><br /><i>Schem.</i> 14.<br /> + Obs. <a href="#obsXXIII">23,</a> <a href="#obsXXIV">24.</a> + </td> + <td class="tc"><a href="images/scheme-15.png"> + <img class="nobo" src="images/scheme-15t.png" alt="Scheme 15" /></a><br /><i>Schem.</i> 15.<br /> + Obs. <a href="#obsXXV">25,</a> <a href="#obsXXVII">27.</a> + </td> + <td class="tc"><a href="images/scheme-16.png"> + <img class="nobo" src="images/scheme-16t.png" alt="Scheme 16" /></a><br /><i>Schem.</i> 16.<br /> + Obs. <a href="#obsXXVI">26,</a> <a href="#obsXXXIV">34.</a> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tc"><a href="images/scheme-17.png"> + <img class="nobo" src="images/scheme-17t.png" alt="Scheme 17" /></a><br /><i>Schem.</i> 17.<br /> + Obs. <a href="#obsXXVIII">28.</a> + </td> + <td class="tc"><a href="images/scheme-18.png"> + <img class="nobo" src="images/scheme-18t.png" alt="Scheme 18" /></a><br /><i>Schem.</i> 18.<br /> + Obs. <a href="#obsXXIX">29.</a> + </td> + <td class="tc"><a href="images/scheme-19.png"> + <img class="nobo" src="images/scheme-19t.png" alt="Scheme 19" /></a><br /><i>Schem.</i> 19.<br /> + Obs. <a href="#obsXXX">30.</a> + </td> + <td class="tc"><a href="images/scheme-20.png"> + <img class="nobo" src="images/scheme-20t.png" alt="Scheme 20" /></a><br /><i>Schem.</i> 20.<br /> + Obs. <a href="#obsXXXI">31.</a> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tc"><a href="images/scheme-21.png"> + <img class="nobo" src="images/scheme-21t.png" alt="Scheme 21" /></a><br /><i>Schem.</i> 21.<br /> + Obs. <a href="#obsXXXIII">33.</a> + </td> + <td class="tc"><a href="images/scheme-22.png"> + <img class="nobo" src="images/scheme-22t.png" alt="Scheme 22" /></a><br /><i>Schem.</i> 22.<br /> + Obs. <a href="#obsXXXV">35,</a> <a href="#obsXXXVI">36.</a> + </td> + <td class="tc"><a href="images/scheme-23.png"> + <img class="nobo" src="images/scheme-23t.png" alt="Scheme 23" /></a><br /><i>Schem.</i> 23.<br /> + Obs. <a href="#obsXXXVII">37,</a> <a href="#obsXXXVIII">38,</a> <a href="#obsXXXIX">39.</a> + </td> + <td class="tc"><a href="images/scheme-24.png"> + <img class="nobo" src="images/scheme-24t.png" alt="Scheme 24" /></a><br /><i>Schem.</i> 24.<br /> + Obs. <a href="#obsXXXIX">39,</a> <a href="#obsXLII">42.</a> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tc"><a href="images/scheme-25.png"> + <img class="nobo" src="images/scheme-25t.png" alt="Scheme 25" /></a><br /><i>Schem.</i> 25.<br /> + Obs. <a href="#obsXL">40,</a> <a href="#obsXLI">41,</a> <a href="#obsLVII">57.</a> + </td> + <td class="tc"><a href="images/scheme-26.png"> + <img class="nobo" src="images/scheme-26t.png" alt="Scheme 26" /></a><br /><i>Schem.</i> 26.<br /> + Obs. <a href="#obsXXXVIII">38,</a> <a href="#obsXLII">42.</a> + </td> + <td class="tc"><a href="images/scheme-27.png"> + <img class="nobo" src="images/scheme-27t.png" alt="Scheme 27" /></a><br /><i>Schem.</i> 27.<br /> + Obs. <a href="#obsXLIII">43.</a> + </td> + <td class="tc"><a href="images/scheme-28.png"> + <img class="nobo" src="images/scheme-28t.png" alt="Scheme 28" /></a><br /><i>Schem.</i> 28.<br /> + Obs. <a href="#obsXLIV">44.</a> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tc"><a href="images/scheme-29.png"> + <img class="nobo" src="images/scheme-29t.png" alt="Scheme 29" /></a><br /><i>Schem.</i> 29.<br /> + Obs. <a href="#obsXLV">45.</a> + </td> + <td class="tc"><a href="images/scheme-30.png"> + <img class="nobo" src="images/scheme-30t.png" alt="Scheme 30" /></a><br /><i>Schem.</i> 30.<br /> + Obs. <a href="#obsXLVI">46.</a> + </td> + <td class="tc"><a href="images/scheme-31.png"> + <img class="nobo" src="images/scheme-31t.png" alt="Scheme 31" /></a><br /><i>Schem.</i> 31.<br /> + Obs. <a href="#obsXLVII">47.</a> + </td> + <td class="tc"><a href="images/scheme-32.png"> + <img class="nobo" src="images/scheme-32t.png" alt="Scheme 32" /></a><br /><i>Schem.</i> 32.<br /> + Obs. <a href="#obsXLIX">49.</a> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tc"><a href="images/scheme-33.png"> + <img class="nobo" src="images/scheme-33t.png" alt="Scheme 33" /></a><br /><i>Schem.</i> 33.<br /> + Obs. <a href="#obsL">50,</a> <a href="#obsLI">51,</a> <a href="#obsLII">52.</a> + </td> + <td class="tc" colspan="2"><a href="images/scheme-34.png"> + <img class="nobo" src="images/scheme-34t.png" alt="Scheme 34" /></a><br /><i>Schem.</i> 34.<br /> + Obs. <a href="#obsLIII">53.</a> + </td> + <td class="tc"><a href="images/scheme-35.png"> + <img class="nobo" src="images/scheme-35t.png" alt="Scheme 35" /></a><br /><i>Schem.</i> 35.<br /> + Obs. <a href="#obsLIV">54.</a> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tc"><a href="images/scheme-36.png"> + <img class="nobo" src="images/scheme-36t.png" alt="Scheme 36" /></a><br /><i>Schem.</i> 36.<br /> + Obs. <a href="#obsLVI">56.</a> + </td> + <td class="tc"><a href="images/scheme-37.png"> + <img class="nobo" src="images/scheme-37t.png" alt="Scheme 37" /></a><br /><i>Schem.</i> 37.<br /> + Obs. <a href="#obsLVIII">58.</a> + </td> + <td class="tc"><a href="images/scheme-38.png"> + <img class="nobo" src="images/scheme-38t.png" alt="Scheme 38" /></a><br /><i>Schem.</i> 38.<br /> + Obs. <a href="#obsLX">60.</a> + </td> + <td class="tc"> + </td> + </tr> +</table> + + + + +<div style='display:block;margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MICROGRAPHIA ***</div> +<div style='display:block;margin:1em 0;'>This file should be named 15491-h.htm or 15491-h.zip</div> +<div style='display:block;margin:1em 0;'>This and all associated files of various formats will be found in https://www.gutenberg.org/1/5/4/9/15491/</div> +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> +Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will +be renamed. +</div> + +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> +Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright +law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, +so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United +States without permission 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