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diff --git a/15460.txt b/15460.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..ca61763 --- /dev/null +++ b/15460.txt @@ -0,0 +1,2302 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of A Course In Wood Turning +by Archie S. Milton and Otto K. Wohlers + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: A Course In Wood Turning + +Author: Archie S. Milton and Otto K. Wohlers + +Release Date: March 25, 2005 [EBook #15460] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A COURSE IN WOOD TURNING *** + + + + +Produced by Jason Isbell and the PG Online Distributed Proofreading Team + + + + +[Transcribers note: Mis-spelled words in the original left as is. +Below is a list of all known mis-spelled words kept from the original: + +Table Of Contents - Classification of Plates + bowels - should be bowls + +Chapter II - SPEED OF THE LATHE + centrificial - should be centrifugal + +Chapter IX - METHODS OF FASTENING STOCK + epecially - should be especially + +Chapter XI - SPIRAL TURNING + modelling - should be modeling + +Chapter XI - PLATES B-V--2-b, b' + midde - should be middle] + + +A COURSE IN WOOD TURNING + +By ARCHIE S. MILTON + +OTTO K. WOHLERS + +[Illustration: BRUCE MILWAUKEE (Publishers Stamp)] + +THE BRUCE PUBLISHING COMPANY + +MILWAUKEE, WISCONSIN + +Copyright 1919 + +Archie S. Milton + +Otto K. Wohlers + + + + +PREFACE + + +This book is the outgrowth of problems given to high school pupils by +the writers, and has been compiled in logical sequence. Stress is laid +upon the proper use of tools, and the problems are presented in such a +way that each exercise, or project, depends somewhat on the one +preceding. It is not the idea of the writers that all problems shown +should be made, but that the instructor select only such as will give +the pupils enough preliminary work in the use of the tools to prepare +them for other models following. + +The related matter on the care of the lathe and tools, the grinding of +chisels, the polishing of projects, and the specific directions and +cautions for working out the various exercises and projects with the +drawings, make the book not only valuable for reference, but also as a +class text to be studied in connection with the making of projects. The +drawings show exact dimensions and are tabulated in the upper right-hand +corner in such a way that they may be used in a filing case if desired. +At least two designs are shown for each model, and these may be used as +suggestions from which students, with the aid of the instructor, may +work out their own designs. + +The book has been divided into two parts: (A) Spindle Turning, and (B) +Face-Plate Turning. The same order is followed in each part; the related +information is supplied where required as the pupil progresses. + +Part A takes up the following: (I) Exercises; (II) Models, involving the +same tool processes, only in a somewhat different degree; (III) Oval +Turning, explaining the use of two centers; (IV) Duplicate Turning, +where identical pieces are turned. + +Part B is arranged as follows: (I) Exercises; (II) Models, which are an +application of cuts in exercises that involve only face-plate work; +(III) Models, which require chucking; (IV) Assembling Exercises, +involving spindle turning, face-plate work and chucking; (V) Spiral +Turning, showing the method of turning a spiral on the lathe. + +The ultimate aim of this book is to give, through the exercises and +problems, a thorough understanding of the principles of wood turning by +gradually developing the confidence of the pupil in the complete control +of his tools, at the same time suggesting harmonious lines in design +which will lead to other ideas in designing problems. + + + + +TABLE OF CONTENTS + + Pages +CHAPTER I. + Introductory + --Commercial and Educational Values of Wood Turning + --Elements of Success 9-10 + +CHAPTER II. + The Lathe + --Care of the Lathe + --Speed of the Lathe + --Method of Figuring the Diameter of Pulleys + --Rules for Finding the Speeds and Sizes of Pulleys + --Points on Setting Up the Lathe and Shafting 11-14 + +CHAPTER III. + Wood Turning Tools + --Grinding and Whetting Turning Tools + --The Gouge + --The Parting Tool + --Scraping Tools 15-18 + +CHAPTER IV. + Spindle Turning + --Centering Stock + --Clamping Stock in the Lathe + --Adjusting the Tool Rest + --Position of the Operator at the Lathe + --Holding the Tools + --Use of the Tools in Spindle Turning 19-21 + +CHAPTER V. + Tool Processes in Spindle Turning + --The Roughing Cut + --The Sizing Cut + --The Smoothing Cut + --Testing for Smoothness + --Measuring for Length + --Squaring Ends + --Cutting Off + --Shoulder Cuts + --Taper Cuts + --V Cuts-Concave Cuts + --Convex Cuts + --Combination Cuts + --Chisel Handles + --Mallets and Handles + --Vise Handles 22-32 + +CHAPTER VI. + Oval Turning + --Tool Operations 33-34 + +CHAPTER VII. + Duplicate Turning + --Use of Measuring Stick + --Use of Templets 35 + +CHAPTER VIII. + Finishing and Polishing + --Ordinary Cabinet Finishing + --French Polishing + --Method of Applying French Polish 36-38 + +CHAPTER IX. + Face-Plate and Chuck Turning + --Methods of Fastening Stock + --Small Single Screw Face-Plate + --Large Surface Screw Face-Plate + --Gluing to Waste Stock + --Lathe Adjustments + --Position of Tool Rest 39-40 + +CHAPTER X. + Tool Processes in Face-Plate and Chuck Turning + --Straight Cuts + --Roughing Off Corners + --Calipering for Diameter + --Smoothing Cut + --Roughing Cut on the Face + --Smoothing the Face + --Laying Off Measurements + --External Shoulders + --Internal Shoulders + --Taper Cuts + --V Cuts + --Concave Cuts + --Convex Cuts + --Combination Cuts + --Use of Scraping Tools + --Internal Boring + --Turning a Sphere 41-48 + +CHAPTER XI. + Spiral Turning + --Single Spiral, Straight Shaft + --Tapered Shaft + --Double Spiral, Tapered Shaft + --Double Spiral, Straight Shaft + --Double Groove Spiral, Straight Shaft 49-55 + + +PLATES--SPINDLE TURNING. + Straight Cuts, 57 + Shoulder Cuts, 59-65 + Taper Cuts, 67-77 + V Cuts, 79-81 + Concave Cuts, 83-87 + Convex Cuts, 89-95 + Combination Cuts, 97-101 + Chisel Handles, 103-107 + Cabinet File Handle, 109 + Scratch Awl Handle, 111 + Carving Tool Handle, 113 + Turning Chisel Handle, 115 + Mallets, 117-119 + Gavels, 121-127 + Darning Eggs, 129-133 + Stocking Darner, 131 + Potato Masher, 135 + Rolling Pins, 139-141 + Vise Handle, 143 + Screw Driver Handles, 145-147 + Pene Hammer Handle, 149 + Claw Hammer Handle, 151 + Indian Clubs, 153-155 + Dumb Bells, 157-159 + Ten Pins, 161 + + +PLATES--CHUCK TURNING. + Straight Cuts, 167-169 + Shoulder Cuts, 171-173 + Taper Cuts, 175-177 + V Cuts, 179-181 + Concave Cuts, 183-185 + Convex Cuts, 187-189 + Combination Cuts, 191-195 + Match Boxes, 197-201 + Pin Trays, 203-205 + Hair Pin Receivers, 207-209 + Hat Pin Receivers, 211-213 + Ornamental Vases, 215-219 + Spinnet, 221 + Towel Rings, 223-227 + Card Trays, 229-235 + Picture Frames, 237-243 + Nut Bowls, 245-251 + Napkin Rings, 253-257 + Jewel Boxes, 259-273 + Collar Boxes, 275-279 + Sphere, 281 + Checker Men, 283 + Candle Sticks, 285-293 + Shaving Stands, 295-301 + Reading Lamp Stands, 303-307 + Pedestal, 309 + Smokers' Stands, 311-313 + Pin Cushion and Spoon Holder, 315 + Chess Men, 317-319 + Pedestals, 321-325 + Electric Reading Lamps, 327-335 + Magazine Holders, 337-339 + + +CLASSIFICATION OF PLATES + + A. SPINDLE TURNING + + I. Exercises + 1. Straight Cuts, a + 2. Shoulder Cuts, a-b-c-d + 3. Taper Cuts, a-b-c-d-e-f + 4. V Cuts, a-b + 5. Concave Cuts, a-b-c + 6. Convex Cuts, a-b-c-d + 7. Combination Cuts, a-b-c + II. Models + 1. Chisel Handles, a-b-c-d-e-f-g + 2. Mallets, a-b + 3. Gavels, a-b-c-d + 4. Stocking Darners, a-b-c + 5. Potato Mashers, a-b + 6. Rolling Pins, a-b + 7. Vise Handles, a + III. Oval Turning + 1. Screw-driver Handles, a-b + 2. Hammer Handles, a-b + IV. Duplicate Turning + 1. Indian Clubs, a-b + 2. Dumb-bells, a-b + 3. Tenpins, a + 4. Drawer Pulls, a-b + + B. FACE-PLATE AND CHUCK TURNING + + I. Exercises + 1. Straight Cuts, a-b + 2. Shoulder Cuts, a-b + 3. Taper Cuts, a-b + 4. V Cuts, a-b + 5. Concave Cuts, a-b + 6. Convex Cuts, a-b + 7. Combination Cuts, a-b-c + II. Face-Plate Models + 1. Match Boxes, a-b-c + 2. Pin Trays, a-b + 3. Hair Pin Receivers, a-b + 4. Hat Pin Receivers, a-b + 5. Ornamental Vases, a-b-c + 6. Spinnet, (game) a + III. Chuck Models + 1. Towel Rings, a-b-c + 2. Card Trays, a-b-c-d + 3. Picture Frames, a-b-c-d + 4. Nut Bowels, a-b-c-d + 5. Napkin Rings, a-b-c + 6. Jewel Boxes, a-b-c-d-e-f-g-h + 7. Collar Boxes, a-b-c + 8. Spheres, a + 9. Checker Men, a + IV. Assembling Exercises + 1. Candle Sticks, a-b-c-d-e + 2. Shaving Stands, a-a'-b-b' + 3. Reading Lamp Stands, a-b-c + 4. Pedestals, a + 5. Smoking Stands, a-b + 6. Pin Cushions and Spool Holder, a + 7. Chess Men, a-a' + V. Spiral Turning + 1. Pedestal, (Single) a-a', (Double) b + 2. Reading Lamps, (Single) a-a'-a'' (Double) b-b' + 3. Magazine Holder, a-a' + + + + + +CHAPTER I + +INTRODUCTORY + + +Wood turning has had a definite place in the commercial world for a +great many years. It is used in various forms in making furniture and +furniture parts, building trim, tool parts, toys, athletic paraphernalia +and many other useful and beautiful articles in common use. + +When properly taught in the schools it is one of the most valuable types +of instruction. It appeals to pupils more than any other type of manual +work, as it embodies both the play and work elements. It is very +interesting and fascinating and, in the hands of a skilled instructor, +is readily correlated with other work. + +Wood turning gives a pupil preliminary experience necessary in pattern +making and machine shop work. It brings into play the scientific element +by demonstrating the laws governing revolving bodies. In bringing the +chisel into contact with the revolving surface, the mathematical +principle of the "point of tangency" is illustrated. Excellent tool +technique is developed in wood turning as on the exactness of every +movement depends the success of the operator, and any slight variation +will spoil a piece of work. This brings in a very close correlation of +the mental and motor activities and also gives the student an +opportunity for observing and thinking while at work. When his tool +makes a "run" he must determine the reason and figure out why a certain +result is obtained when the chisel is held in a given position. Certain +cuts must be fully mastered, and it takes a good deal of experience and +absolute confidence in one's self in manipulating the tools before it is +possible to attempt skilful work. If scraping is allowed the educational +value of the work is lost. + +In wood turning a vast field for design and modeling is opened, and art +and architecture can be correlated. The pupil will see for himself the +need of variety in curves and must use his judgment in determining +curves that are so harmonious and pleasing that they will blend +together. If properly taught the beauty in the orders of architecture +can be brought out in the making of the bead, fillet, scotia, cove, etc. + +A feeling of importance is excited in a boy when he sees his hands +shaping materials into objects of pleasing form. Wood turning properly +taught awakens the aesthetic sense and creates a desire for the +beautiful. The boy or man who has learned to make graceful curves and +clean-cut fillets and beads will never be satisfied with clumsy effects +which are characteristic in cheap commercial work, made only to sell. + +Success in turning depends on the following: + + 1. Care of lathe, tools, selection of materials. + 2. Study of the scientific elements of-- + a. Revolving bodies. + b. Points of tangency. + c. Study of results by reasoning and observing. + 3. Development of technique and exactness. + 4. Correlation of mental and motor activities. + + + + +CHAPTER II + +THE LATHE + + +The sizes of turning lathes are given as 10", 12", etc. These figures +denote the diameter, or size, of the largest piece of work that can be +turned on them. The measurement is taken from the center point of the +live center to the bed of the lathe (usually 5" or 6") and is one-half +the diameter of the entire circle. The length of a lathe is determined +by the length of a piece of work that can be turned. This measurement is +taken from the points of the live and dead centers when the tail stock +is drawn back the full extent of the lathe bed. Fig. 1 shows a turning +lathe with sixteen principal parts named. The student should learn the +names of these parts and familiarize himself with the particular +function of each. + + +CARE OF THE LATHE + +The lathe should be oiled every day before starting. At the end of the +period the lathe should be brushed clean of all chips and shavings, +after which it should be rubbed off with a piece of waste or cloth to +remove all surplus oil. All tools should be wiped clean and put in their +proper places. If a student finds that his lathe is not running as it +should, he should first call the attention of the instructor to that +fact before attempting to adjust it; and then only such adjustments +should be made as the instructor directs. + + +SPEED OF THE LATHE + +The speed of the lathe should range from 2400 to 3000 revolutions per +minute when the belt is on the smallest step of the cone pulley. At this +speed stock up to 3" in diameter can be turned with safety. Stock from +3" to 6" in diameter should be turned on the second or third step, and +all stock over 6" on the last step. The speed at which a lathe should +run depends entirely upon the nature of the work to be done and the kind +of material used. Pieces that cannot be centered accurately and all +glued-up work with rough corners should be run slowly until all corners +are taken off and the stock runs true. At high speed the centrificial +force on such pieces is very great, causing the lathe to vibrate, and +there is a possibility of the piece being thrown from the lathe thus +endangering the worker as well as those around him. After the stock is +running true the speed may be increased. + +[Illustration: Fig. 1. - Wood Turning Lathe] + +TO FIGURE THE DIAMETER OF PULLEYS + +Suppose a motor runs 1500 R.P.M. and is fitted with a 4" pulley. Suppose +also, a main shaft should run 300 R.P.M. + + Then, 1500 : 300 :: x : 4; + Or, 300x = 6000, + x = 20, or the diameter of the large pulley on the main shaft. + + +Suppose again that a line shaft runs 300 R.P.M., and a counter shaft 600 +R.P.M. The counter shaft has a pulley 4" in diameter. The pulley on the +line shaft must then have a diameter of 8". + + + 300 : 600 :: 4 : x; + Or, 300x = 2400, + x = 8" + +Suppose the cone pulley on the counter shaft runs 600 R.P.M.; a lathe +spindle runs 2200 R.P.M., when connected with the small cone pulley +which has a diameter of 3". The large cone pulley has then a diameter of +11". + + 600 : 2200 :: 3 : x + Or, 600x = 6600; + x = 11" + + +RULES FOR FINDING THE SPEEDS AND SIZES OF PULLEYS + +1. To find the diameter of the driving pulley: + +Multiply the diameter of the driven by the number of revolutions it +should make and divide the product by the number of revolutions of the +driver. (20 x 300 = 6000; 6000 / 1500 = 4"--diameter of motor pulley.) + +2. To find the diameter of the driven pulley: + +Multiply the diameter of the driver by its number of revolutions and +divide the product by the number of revolutions of the driven. (4 x 1500 += 6000; 6000 / 300 = 20"--diameter of the driven pulley.) + +3. To find the number of revolutions of the driven pulley: + +Multiply the diameter of the driver by its number of revolutions and +divide by the diameter of the driven. (4 x 1500 = 6000; 6000 / 20 = +300--revolutions of driven pulley.) + + +POINTS ON SETTING UP LATHE AND SHAFTING + +The counter shaft should be about 7' above the lathe. A distance of 6' +from the center of the shaft to the center of the spindle is sufficient. +In setting a lathe or hanging a counter shaft it is necessary that both +be level. The counter shaft must be parallel to the line shaft. When the +counter shaft is in position a plumb bob should be hung from the counter +shaft cone to the spindle cone; the lathe should be adjusted so that the +belt will track between the two cone pulleys. The axis of the lathe must +be parallel to that of the counter shaft. The lathe, however, need not +be directly beneath the counter shaft as the belt will run on an angle +as well as perpendicular. + + + + +CHAPTER III + +WOOD TURNING TOOLS + + +A wood turning kit should consist of one each of the following tools. +Fig. 2 shows the general shape of these tools. + + + 1-1/4" Gouge + 3/4" Gouge + 1/2" Gouge + 1/4" Gouge + 1-1/4" Skew + 3/4" Skew + 1/2" Skew + 1/4" Skew + 1/8" Parting Tool + 1/2" Round Nose + 1/4" Round Nose + 1/2" Square Nose + 1/4" Square Nose + 1/2" Spear Point + 1/2" Right Skew + 1/2" Left Skew + Slip Stone with round edges + 6" Outside Calipers + 6" Inside Calipers + 8" Dividers + 12" Rule + 1/2 pt. Oil Can + Bench Brush + + +GRINDING AND WHETTING TURNING TOOLS + +Skew Chisel + +The skew chisel is sharpened equally on both sides On this tool the +cutting edge should form an angle of about 20 deg. with one of the edges. +The skew is used in cutting both to the right and to the left, and +therefore, must be beveled on both sides. The length of the bevel should +equal about twice the thickness of the chisel at the point where it is +sharpened. In grinding the bevel, the chisel must be held so that the +cutting edge will be parallel to the axis of the emery wheel. The wheel +should be about 6" in diameter as this will leave the bevel slightly +hollow ground. Cool the chisel in water occasionally when using a dry +emery. Otherwise the wheel will burn the chisel, taking out the temper; +the metal will be soft and the edge will not stand up. Care should be +exercised that the same bevel is kept so that it will be uniformly +hollow ground. The rough edge left by the emery wheel should be whetted +off with a slip stone by holding the chisel on the flat side of the +stone so that the toe and heel of the bevel are equally in contact with +it. Rub first on one side and then on the other. The wire edge is thus +worn off quickly as there is no metal to be worn away in the middle of +the bevels. The chisel is sharp when the edge, which may be tested by +drawing it over the thumb nail, is smooth and will take hold evenly +along its entire length. If any wire edge remains it should be whetted +again. + +[Illustration: Fig. 2. - Lathe Tools] + + +Gouge + +The gouge used in wood turning is beveled on the outside and is ground +so that the nose is approximately semi-circular in shape. The tool is a +combination of the round nose chisel and the ordinary gouge. The bevel +should extend well around to the ends so that the cutting edge extends +to each side. This is necessary to avoid the abrupt corners which would +be present if the nose were left straight across as in the ordinary +wood-working gouge. In making shearing cuts the round nose permits the +tool to be rolled to the side to avoid scraping the work. The length of +the bevel should be about twice the thickness of the blade at the point +where the sharpening begins. + +The sharpening of a gouge for turning is rather difficult for the +average student. The ordinary gouge which has a square nose may be +beveled by merely turning it half way around and back again. In working +out the round nose of a gouge for wood turning, it is necessary that the +handle be swung from one side to the other while, at the same time, the +chisel is revolved to cut the bevel evenly. It is sometimes necessary to +allow some pupils to use the side of the emery wheel in sharpening the +gouge. This kind of grinding, however, does not leave the tool hollow +ground as when the face of the wheel is used. + +To complete the sharpening the rough edge is worked smooth on a slip +stone, the cross section of which is wedge-shaped and the edges of which +are rounded. The toe and heel of the beveled side of the gouge are +brought into contact with the flat side of the stone. As the sharpening +proceeds the wire edge is worked to the inside of the gouge. The rounded +edge of the stone is then placed inside the gouge and is worked back and +forth until the rough edge disappears. Great care must be taken not to +bevel the inside of the gouge when whetting with the round edges of the +stone, as the result will be the same as with an ordinary chisel or +plane bit. + + +Parting Tool + +The parting tool is sharpened on both sides. This tool differs from the +ordinary chisel in that it is between 5/8" and 3/4" thick and only about +1/8" wide at the widest point, which is in the center of its entire +length. The bevels must meet exactly at the center, or the widest +point, and should make an angle of about 50 deg. with each other. If the +bevels do not meet at the widest point the tool will not clear, and the +sides will rub against the revolving stock; the tool will be burned and +will thus lose its temper. The bevel should be hollow ground slightly as +then comparatively little metal need be removed when whetting. + + +Scraping Tools + +The round nose, square nose, spear point, right skew and left skew are +scraping tools, used chiefly in pattern work and sometimes in face-plate +work. They are sharpened on one side only, and the bevel is about twice +the thickness of the chisel at the point where sharpened. These tools +should be slightly hollow ground to facilitate the whetting. Scraping +tools become dull quite easily as their edges are in contact with the +wood almost at right angles. After sharpening, the edges of these tools +may be turned with a burnisher or the broad side of a skew chisel in the +same manner that the edge of a cabinet scraper is turned though not +nearly to so great a degree. This will help to keep the tool sharp for, +as the edge wears off, the tool sharpens itself to a certain extent. The +chisel is of harder material than a cabinet scraper so that it will not +stand a great amount of turning over on the edge. Small pieces will be +broken out, unless a flat surface is rubbed against the edge at a more +acute angle than was used in the whetting. If a narrow burnisher is +used, pieces are more likely to be broken out from the sharp edge and +thus make the tool useless. + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +SPINDLE TURNING + + +Spindle turning is the term applied to all work done on a lathe in which +the stock to be worked upon is held firmly between the live and dead +centers. There are two methods in common use in wood turning: first, the +scraping or pattern-makers' method; and second, the cutting method. Each +has its advantages and disadvantages, but it is necessary that both be +learned in order to develop a well rounded turner. Care should be +exercised, however, that each method be used in its proper place. The +first is slower, harder on the cutting edge of tools, and less skill is +required to obtain accurate work; the second is faster, easier on the +cutting edge of tools, and the accuracy of results obtained depends upon +the skill acquired. As skill is the one thing most sought for in high +school work, the use of the cutting method is advocated entirely for all +spindle turning and, with but few exceptions, for face-plate and chuck +turning. + + +TO CENTER STOCK + +If the wood to be turned is square or rectangular in shape the best way +to locate the center is to draw diagonals across the end of the stock. +The point of intersection locates the center. + + +CLAMPING STOCK IN THE LATHE + +Take the live center from the spindle and with a wooden mallet drive the +spur deep into the wood. Never drive the wood onto the live center while +in the spindle because serious injury may be done the machine by such +practice. When extremely hard wood is being used, it is a good practice +to make saw cuts along the diagonal lines and bore a hole at the +intersection, thus allowing the spur to enter the wood more freely. Oil +the other end of the wood while holding it in a vertical position, and +give the oil a chance to penetrate into the wood. Then replace the live +center by taking the stock and center and forcing it into the spindle by +a sudden push of the hand. The tail stock is then moved about 1/2" to 1" +from the end of the piece to be turned, having the tail spindle well +back in the tail stock. The tail stock is then clamped to the lathe bed. +Turn the tail stock hand wheel until the wood is held firmly. Work the +cone pulley by hand at the same time, so that the cup or dead center +will be forced deeply into the wood, so deeply that the live center will +not continue to turn. Now turn the dead spindle back until the live +spindle begins to turn freely and clamp the dead spindle fast. + +[Illustration: Fig. 3] + + +ADJUSTING THE TOOL REST + +Horizontally the tool rest should be set about 1/8" from the farthest +projecting corner of the wood and should be readjusted occasionally as +the stock diminishes in size. The vertical height varies slightly +according to the height of the operator. It is even with the center of +the spindle for a short person; 1/8" above for a medium person; and 1/4" +above for a tall person. So long as the stock is in its square form the +tool rest should never be adjusted while the machine is in motion as +there is danger of the rest catching the corners and throwing the stock +from the machine. Also see that everything is clamped tight before +starting the lathe. + + +POSITION OF THE OPERATOR + +The operator stands firmly on the floor back far enough from the lathe +to allow him to pass the tools from right to left in front of his body +without changing the position of the feet. It may be found convenient +to turn slightly, bringing the left side of the body a little closer to +the lathe. In no case, however, should the tools be brought in contact +with the body as the cutting operation from right to left should be +accomplished by a movement of the arms alone and not the swaying of the +body. (Fig. 3.) + + +HOLDING THE TOOLS + +All tools should be held firmly but not rigidly. The right hand should +grasp the handle at the extreme end for two reasons: first, to give as +much leverage as possible so that the tool will not be thrown from the +hands in case it should catch in the wood; second, a slight wavering of +the hand will not cause as much variance in the cuts as when held closer +up to the rest. The left hand should act as a guide and should be held +over the tool near the cutting edge. The little finger and the back part +of the palm of the hand should touch the tool rest thus assuring a +steady movement. The left hand should not grasp the tool at any time. +(Fig. 3.) + + +USE OF THE TOOLS IN SPINDLE TURNING + +The correct use of the various tools used in spindle turning will be +explained in detail as the steps are worked out in the sequence of +operations on the exercises in Section A-I. + + + + +CHAPTER V + +TOOL PROCESSES IN SPINDLE TURNING + + +Exercise A-I--1-a. Straight Cuts + +1. THE ROUGHING CUT (LARGE GOUGE). + +FIG. 4. Place the gouge on the rest so that the level is above the wood +and the cutting edge is tangent to the circle or surface of the +cylinder. The handle should be held well down. + +[Illustration: Fig. 4.] + +Roll the gouge over slightly to the right so that it will make a +shearing cut instead of a scraping cut. This rolling of the tool will +also throw the chips from the operator. + + +Then lift the handle slowly, forcing the cutting edge deep enough into +the wood to remove all or nearly all of the corners, at the end of the +work which is being turned. This cut is begun about 3/4" from the dead +center end. Work back another 3/4", moving toward the live center and +make a second cut, and so on until the entire length of the cylinder is +gone over. This method of removing corners should always be followed to +avoid any possibility of breaking a large sliver from the stock, with +consequent danger to the worker. + +The tool may then be worked from one end to the other, getting a +fairly-smooth, regular surface, slightly above the diameter required. +However, do not begin on the very edge of the cylinder end. It is better +to begin about 2" from one end and work to the other, and then reverse +and work back. + +The tool should also be held at a slight angle to the axis of the +cylinder, with the cutting point always in advance of the handle. + +[Illustration: Fig. 5.] + + +2. THE SIZING CUT (SMALL GOUGE). FIG. 5. + +Set the calipers to the required diameter of the cylinder. + +With a small gouge held in the right hand scrape grooves about 1" apart, +holding the calipers in the left hand perpendicular to the cylinder and +measuring the cuts as they are made. The scraping should continue until +the calipers will pass easily over the cylinder. It will be well while +scraping to work the handle of the gouge a little from side to side so +that the nose has more clearance. This will prevent the piece which is +being turned from chattering or vibrating. + +The calipers will be slightly sprung by coming in contact with the +revolving stock but this error in diameter will be removed by the +finishing cut which removes these marks from the finished cylinder. + + +3. THE SMOOTHING CUT (LARGE SKEW). + +FIG. 6. Lay the skew chisel on the rest with the cutting edge above the +cylinder and at an angle of about 60 deg. to the surface. + +Slowly draw the chisel back and at the same time raise the handle until +the chisel begins to cut about 1/4" to 3/8" from the heel. The first cut +is begun from 1" to 2" from either end and is pushed toward the near +end. Then begin at the first starting point and cut toward the other +end. One should never start at the end to make a cut as there is danger +that the chisel will catch and cause the wood to split or that the +chisel will be torn from the hands. + +The first cut takes off the bumps and rings left by the gouge, and takes +the stock down so one can just see where the scraping to size was done. +Then take the last cut and remove all traces of these, leaving the +cylinder perfectly smooth and of the required diameter at each end. Test +the cylinder for accuracy with a straight edge. + +[Illustration: Fig. 6.] + + +4. TESTING FOR SMOOTHNESS. In testing for smoothness place the palm of +the hand, with the fingers extended straight, lightly on the back of the +cylinder opposite the tool rest. This position will avoid any +possibility of the hand being drawn in between the cylinder and the +rest. + +[Illustration: Fig. 7.] + + +5. MEASURING FOR LENGTH (RULE AND PENCIL). FIG. 7. Hold the back edge of +the rule in the left hand and place it on the tool rest so that the +front edge is almost in contact with the revolving cylinder. + +With a sharp pencil mark off the required length, starting from the dead +center end. The first mark should be just far enough in on the cylinder +to insure cutting past the point of the dead center. This will leave all +surplus stock at the live center end where it is needed, because, if not +enough stock is left at this end, there is danger of striking the live +center spur with the tool and of injuring the chisel and perhaps the +work. + +In case several measurements are to be made, as in some of the following +exercises, the rule should not be moved until all are marked. This will +insure more accurate work than if the rule be changed several times. + + +6. SQUARING ENDS (SMALL SKEW AND PARTING TOOL). FIG. 8. This operation +is done with the toe or acute angle of the 1/2" or 1/4" skew chisel. + +Place the chisel square on the tool rest. Swing the handle out from the +cylinder so that the grind, which forms the cutting edge, next to the +stock is perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder. The heel of the +chisel is then tipped slightly from the cylinder in order to give +clearness. Raise the handle and push the toe of the chisel into the +stock about 1/8" outside the line indicating the end of the cylinder. +Swing the handle still farther from the cylinder and cut a half V. This +will give clearance for the chisel point and will prevent burning. +Continue this operation on both ends until the cylinder is cut to about +3/16" in diameter. + +The remaining 1/8" is then removed by taking very thin cuts (about +1/32") holding the chisel as first stated. After each cut is made the +end should be tested for squareness by holding the edge of the chisel +over the end of the cylinder. + +[Illustration: Fig. 8.] + +This is an easy cut after it is mastered, but is one of the hardest to +learn. Should the operator lose control of the tool and allow any part +other than the point to touch the cylinder, a run or gashing of the +wood will be caused. + +In large cylinders where considerable stock has to be cut away in order +to square the ends, time will be saved by sizing the ends down with the +parting tool to within 1/8" of the desired line, leaving enough stock at +the base of the cuts to still hold the cylinder rigid while cutting on +the ends. + +[Illustration: Fig. 9.] + +For this operation hold the parting tool on the rest with the cutting +edge parallel to the axis of the cylinder and the lower grind tangent to +the cylinder. Lift the handle and force the cutting edge into the wood; +at the same time push the chisel forward to keep it at the proper +tangency. + + +7. CUTTING OFF (SMALL SKEW). FIG. 9. + +After both ends have been squared cut away stock, at both ends, to leave +just enough to hold the cylinder from separating from the waste ends. + +With the chisel held in the right hand in the same position as in +squaring the ends, and the fingers of the left hand around the stock to +catch it, slowly force the point of the chisel into the stock at the +live center end, until it is cut free and the cylinder stops in the +operator's hand. Too much pressure should not be used in this operation +or it will cause the cylinder to twist off instead of being cut, and +will leave a ragged hole in the end. + +The dead center end, which has been scored heavily before cutting off at +the live center, is then removed by holding the grind of the chisel flat +on the end of the cylinder. The latter is revolved by hand until the +stock is cut away. + + +Exercise A-I--2-a. Shoulder Cuts + +1. Turn a cylinder to the largest diameter required. + +2. Lay off measurements with rule and pencil. + +3. With the gouge (where space permits) or the parting tool (in narrow +spaces) rough out surplus stock, keeping 1/16" away from the lines +indicating shoulders. + +4. Caliper to the diameter of the second step. + +5. The shoulders are cut down as described in "Squaring Ends, Step 6, +Straight Cuts." + +6. The new diameter or step is then trued up with a skew chisel in the +same manner as a cylinder; except that in nearing the shoulder the +chisel is pushed up on the cylinder until the heel, which is the only +part that can be worked into the corner, becomes the cutting point. Fig. +10. In very narrow steps it will be advisable to use the heel entirely +as a cutting point. + +In spaces between shoulders, too narrow to permit the use of the skew +chisel, very effective work can be accomplished by slightly tipping the +parting tool sideways to allow a shearing cut to be taken with the +cutting edge. + +7. Where several steps are required on the same cylinder, each +successive one is worked out as above described. + +Note:--All preliminary steps in working stock to size, laying of +dimensions, etc., in preparation for the exercise in hand, will be +omitted in the following exercises: + + +Exercise A-I--3-a. Taper Cuts + +[Illustration: Fig. 10.] + +Calipering for New Diameters. For all diameters on tapers the calipers +should be set 1/16" larger than the desired measurement in order to +avoid working under size in the finishing cut which removes all caliper +marks. + +If the taper runs to the extreme end of the cylinder, as in Plate +A-I--3-a, a parting tool should be used, instead of a gouge, to take off +a very thin shoulder. + +If the taper forms an internal angle as in Plate A-I--3-b, a gouge is +used as in Step 2--Sizing Cut--Plate A-I--1-a. + +In other cases where tapers connect with straight cylindrical shoulders +it is best to turn the shoulders to size before working the tapers. + +In cutting a long straight taper the skew chisel is used, much in the +same manner as in ordinary cylinder work, except that at the start of +each cut the heel must be the cutting point. This will avoid any chance +of the chisel catching and drawing back and thus gouging the wood beyond +the starting point. As soon as the cut is well under way the chisel may +be pushed up on the cylinder so that the cutting point is a little above +the heel. All cuts should be made from the highest point on the cylinder +to the lowest and thus cut across the grain of the wood. + +In making the cut, care should be taken to see that the chisel is not +tipped to a greater angle than that of the taper wanted. Should that be +done a hollow, or dished out, taper is sure to be the result instead of +a straight one. + + +Exercise A-I--4-a. V Cutting + +In cutting V's a small skew is almost always used and the cutting is +done with the heel. + +Place the chisel square on the tool rest so that the cutting edge is +perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder. Draw the chisel back and +raise the handle so that the heel is driven into the wood, thus scoring +it. This cut should not be too deep or the chisel will burn. This +scoring should be at the exact center of the V cut. + +Swing the handle a little to the right and at the same time tip the +chisel so that the grind, which forms the cutting edge, is at an angle +of about 45 deg. with the axis of the cylinder. The handle is then raised at +an angle of 45 deg. bringing the heel down to make a good cut. The chisel is +then swung to the other side and a similar cut is taken. These cuts are +continued, together with the center scoring, until quite close to the +pencil marks. Test the angle before the finishing cut is taken. + +It will be found best to have the V slightly greater than 90 deg. at the +base until the final cut is made, at which time it can be trued up. + +The V should be tested with the square end of a rule. The cylinder +should not be in motion while testing. + +When angles other than 45 deg. are cut, the cutting edge of the chisel +should be tipped so that it is parallel or nearly so to the side of the +cut desired. + + +A-I--5-a. Concave Cuts + +The concave cuts as a rule will give the pupil considerable trouble at +first owing to the fact that the grind, which forms the cutting edge and +which must be held perpendicular to the cylinder at the start, is on the +under side of the tool and cannot be seen. However, as soon as the +correct angle of the tool is located, the cut will be found as easy as +any. Concaves are usually made with a medium sized gouge either the 1/2" +or 3/4". + +Place the gouge on the rest with the grind or cutting edge well above +the wood. The tool is then rolled on its side so that the grind at the +cutting point, which is on the lip of the gouge well below the center, +is perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder. Fig. 11. + +Slowly raise the handle to force the gouge into the wood. As soon as the +gouge has taken hold, the tool is forced forward and upward by a slight +lowering of the handle, while at the same time it is rolled back toward +its first position. Care should be taken not to roll the chisel too fast +or a perfect arc will not be cut. + +[Illustration: Fig. 11.] + +By this triple action the grind, which comes in contact with the surface +of the curve, forces the lip sidewise and cuts one quarter of a circle. +Reverse the position of the gouge and cut from the other side in the +same manner to form the other half of the semi-circle. The cutting +should always stop at the base of the cut as there is danger that the +tool will catch when cutting against the grain of the wood on the other +side. Repeat this operation until within about 1/16" of the required +size. At the end of each successive cut the tool should have been forced +far enough forward and upward to bring the grind or nose of the chisel +well out on top of the cut. Fig. 12. + +The exact depth of the concave is then calipered in the usual manner as +described before. A finishing cut is then taken after the cut has been +tested with a templet. + +[Illustration: Fig. 12.] + + +A-I--6-a. Convex Cuts + +The convex cut, or Bead as it is usually called, is generally considered +the hardest cut to make.--The cut is made with the heel of a small skew +chisel, usually the 1/4" or 1/8". + +After the cylinder has been marked off, rough out all stock between the +beads with a parting tool. The base of the cuts is finished the same as +described in Plate A-I--1-a, for shoulder cutting. With a sharp pencil +mark the center of each bead to be made. This line is the starting point +for all cutting. + +Place the chisel on the rest, with the cutting edge above the cylinder +and the lower grind tangent to it. Draw the chisel back and raise the +handle to bring the heel of the chisel in contact with the cylinder at +the line indicating the center of the bead. The chisel is then moved to +the right (if cutting the right side of the bead); at the same time the +chisel is continually tipped to keep the lower grind tangent to the +revolving cylinder and also to the bead at the point of contact. Fig. +13. This cut is continued until the bottom of the bead is reached. It is +well in turning a series of beads to work the same side of all before +reversing to the other side. + +Note:--The same principles employed in this exercise are also used in +working out long convex curves such as are found in chisel handles, +mallet handles, etc. The only exception is that in most cases the point +of contact need not be the heel of the chisel but higher up as in +ordinary straight work. + + +A-I--7-a--Combination Cuts + +These exercises are so designed as to include one or more of each of the +foregoing cuts. The student here is given an opportunity of combining +these cuts into one finished product. + +[Illustration: Fig. 13.] + +An analysis of the exercise chosen should be made to determine which of +the various cuts should be made first, second, etc., in order to produce +the exercise in the shortest time and with the least amount of tool +manipulation. + +After the student has mastered these cuts with a certain degree of skill +and accuracy, he is ready to apply them in working out various models in +Section II. + + +A-II--1-a. Chisel Handles + +At this point it is well to state that the small end of all work should +be turned at the dead center. In the case of chisel handles the socket +or ferrule end is at the dead center where the stock can safely be cut +away to permit the fitting of the ferrule or the socket. + +After the stock is turned to a cylinder of the largest dimension +desired, the taper, for the socket chisel, should be turned first and +fitted to the chisel in which it is to be used. Then the rest of the +handle is worked out. Ferrules should also be fitted in the same manner. +A drive fit should be used for all ferrules. + + +A-II--2 and 3. Mallets and Gavels + +The biggest source of trouble in these models is getting the handles to +fit true. This is caused by not getting the hole in the head straight. + +Turn the head to a cylinder 3/16" larger than the finished dimension. +Then bore the hole perpendicular to the axis as near as possible, +either by leaving it between the lathe centers or by placing it in a +vise. The handle is then fitted into the head. A snug fit is necessary. +If one side "hangs" or is lower than the other the centers are moved +sufficiently to correct it. The head is then turned to exact size and +finished. + + +A-II--7. Vise Handles. + +Turn the spindle with the solid head to dimensions. Bore a hole through +a 1-1/4" square block and fit the block snugly to the end of the +spindle. Turn this block to the same dimensions as the other head. This +method will save chucking the second head and is much quicker. + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +OVAL TURNING + + +Oval work as a problem in turning will be found to be a very good one as +well as interesting to the pupil. It brings in the principle of the oval +as used in ordinary shop practice; (arcs from points on the major and +minor axes). For thick heavy ovals the off-centering is very slight, +while for long, thin ones the off-centering is greater. The measurements +given on Plates A-III--1-a, b and A-III--2-a, b will give a good idea of +approximate distances to be used. + +While the tool operations are much the same as in other spindle turning +there is one notable difference. The design must be worked out by eye, +because of the nature of the work no caliper measurements can be made +for depth of cuts. + +To get the best results the stock of oval turning should be cut square +or slightly rectangular in cross-section and about 3" longer than the +model to be made. The thickness of the stock should be about 1/8" +greater than the major axis of the oval wanted. + +The centers are located in the usual manner after which perpendicular +lines are drawn from the sides, passing through the points of the +centers. From the ends of one of these, perpendicular lines are extended +lengthwise of the stock (on opposite sides) meeting the corresponding +perpendicular at the other end of the stock. These lines form the ridge +of the oval. On the other perpendiculars, the points for off-centering +are laid off, measuring the required distance on both sides of the +center point. + +With a 1/8" drill bore holes 1/4" deep at each of the off-centering +points as well as the original center. This will insure the lathe +centers penetrating the stock at the proper point. The stock is then +placed in the lathe, using two corresponding off-center points as +centers. + +With the lathe running at third speed turn down the stock to the +horizontal line forming the ridge of the oval, excepting for a distance +of about 1-1/4" at the ends. The stock at the ends is necessary for the +off-centering and, if cut away, will spoil the centering for the other +side, especially at the live center end. The stock is then changed to +the other off-center points and the second side is cut down to the line. + +All measurements are then laid out and the design is cut, changing the +stock in the lathe when necessary. Care should be taken that the sharp +ridge left on the work forms a straight line the full length of the +stock. After the design has been finished, the stock is centered on the +true center and a very thin cut is taken the full length of the object +to remove the sharp corners. The model is then sandpapered while the +lathe is running very slowly. + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +DUPLICATE TURNING + + +Under the head of duplicate turning have been classified only such +models as clearly indicate the necessity of making two or more articles +to complete the model or set of articles desired. But it is not intended +to convey the idea that other models may not be made in duplicate as in +many cases it is very desirable and even preferable that they should be +made that way. Whatever the problem may be the suggestions offered at +this point may be applied effectively. + +Whenever two or more models are to be made identically alike there are +always two possibilities of inaccuracies that will render the work +dissimilar: First, inaccurate measuring both for length and points of +new diameters and also on the new diameters themselves; second, a +variation in the curved surfaces either on long convex or concave cuts. + +The first difficulty can be overcome to a great extent by the use of a +measuring stick. This stick should be made of any soft wood. It should +be straight on one edge and about the thickness of an ordinary rule. On +the straight edge lay off very carefully measurements for length, +shoulders, beads, concaves and all points where calipering for new +diameters will be necessary. Insert at each point measured a small brad +which has been sharpened at both ends, leaving the end protrude about +1/8". Care should be taken that all brads protrude the same distance. + +After the stock has been turned to the largest diameter, the stick is +held in the position of the rule while measuring and the points are +forced against the revolving cylinder, thus scoring it. This stick can +be used as many times as the model is to be made and the measurements +will always be the same. + +To avoid dissimilar curves it is well to cut out a full sized templet of +the model to be made. This templet can be made of any thin, stiff +material, preferably light sheet iron. In some cases it will be +necessary to make the templet in several pieces in order to help +facilitate the tool operations. + +The use of this templet will not only be a help to getting all curved +surfaces the same, but will also check up on the various new diameters +on the model. The cylinder should never be in motion while the templet +is being used. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +FINISHING AND POLISHING + + +To get a high and lasting polish on wood, the work must be first sanded +so as to be perfectly smooth. In addition to this, open grained wood, +such as oak, must be properly filled with a wood filler. If properly +sharpened tools have been used very little sanding is required, and then +worn sandpaper should be used as it does not cut into the work as new +paper cuts. Remember sandpaper is not to be used as a tool in cutting +down stock when working to dimensions. In using old sandpaper run the +lathe at a moderate speed to avoid burning the wood, especially on +square or round fillets. Keep the edges of the work sharp and do not +wear them round. In using new sandpaper use a fine grit (00 or 0) and +move the paper from one end of the work to the other slowly, so that no +scratches result on the surface of the work. + +The work may be finished by one of two methods. In the first method as +in finishing ordinary cabinet work, the pieces should be stained and +filled. In applying filler, run the lathe at the slowest speed after the +material has dried sufficiently to rub into the pores of the wood. If +the highlights are to be brought out, as in the case of oak, stain and +then give a light coat of shellac, and apply the filler after the +shellac is dry. The shellac keeps the dark filler from staining the +flakes of the oak darker, and the pores of the wood fill in as before. +The pores become darker than the flakes, and at the same time a smooth +surface is produced. After the filler has hardened the wood may be waxed +or varnished. + +The second method, or French polishing, is rather difficult to apply and +requires a little skill. A close grained wood, like maple, will be found +more satisfactory for the beginner. An open grained wood may be filled +in the ordinary way, or the grain may be filled by rubbing into the +pores of the wood a combination of shellac, rotten stone or pumice, oil +and alcohol. Rotten stone is used for dark wood and pumice is used for +light wood. The wood may be left in the natural or stained as in the +first method. The mixture of shellac, rotten stone, oil and alcohol, is +applied to the work with a pad made of cotton waste, wrapped in cheese +cloth to keep it from sticking to the work. It should be about 1-1/2" in +diameter and 1/2" thick. Hold the pad over the mouth of a bottle of +shellac and tip the bottle so that the shellac comes in contact with the +pad. The shellac will remain clean in a bottle and will be handy. The +mouth of the shellac bottle should be about 1" in diameter and should be +dipped once. Do likewise with a bottle, having a mouth 1/2" in diameter, +containing alcohol. This should be dipped twice allowing the alcohol to +dilute the shellac. Then drop on a couple of drops of oil and rub over +the pad evenly; this aids in distributing the shellac properly and keeps +the pad from sticking to the work. A bottle may also be used for this. +For the rotten stone use a pepper shaker so that it may be sifted on the +work as needed. + +When the mixture has been applied to the pad, hold the pad against the +work lightly at first, until most of the moisture has been worked out of +it, and then gradually increase the pressure until the pad is almost +dry. In putting on the first coat, use more shellac and alcohol and just +enough oil at all times to prevent the pad from sticking to the work. +However, the pad should not contain as much shellac that it can be +squeezed out with the fingers. When the pad is dry, another mixture is +applied, and where open grained wood is used, rotten stone, or pumice +stone, is sprinkled on the work to gradually fill up the pores and to +build up a smooth surface. Run the lathe at a low speed, depending on +the size of the piece that is being polished. Allow the first coat to +dry before applying a second coat for, if too much is put on at any one +time, the heat generated in the rubbing will cause the shellac to pull, +and it will form rings by piling up. These rings may be worked out in +two ways, either by a slight pressure of the pad on the rings or by +cutting them with alcohol applied to the pad. If too much alcohol is +used it will cut through the shellac and remove what has already been +rubbed on. If at any time too much shellac is used it will pile up and +form rings. Too much rotten stone will cut down the polish and by +absorbing the mixture will leave the pad dry. If too much oil is used +the polish will become dull after a day or two. + +After the first coat has hardened apply the second, but use less shellac +and more alcohol and just enough oil to prevent the pad from sticking. +This may be done by dipping the tip of a finger in the oil and spreading +it over the pad. The entire mixture should be so that only a dampness +can be felt on the pad. As the process goes on less oil and shellac are +used. All oil must be removed when applying the last coat, or the piece +will lose its polish. All the pores should be filled, and no rings +should be on the finished work. Where a natural finish is desired, apply +a coat of boiled linseed oil twelve hours before the work is to be +polished. This will bring out the grain and will also aid in applying +the first coat; no oil need then be used in the first coat. + +A great amount of practice and patience is required to get a first class +polish. Polishing can only be learned by experience. Correct your +troubles in properly proportioning the mixture. Never use too much +shellac as it will build up too fast and will not harden, thus causing +rings; or it will pull and catch to the pad, thus forming bunches. The +purpose of alcohol is mainly to dilute the shellac and to prevent +against putting it on the work too fast, but care must be taken not to +use too much alcohol to cut the shellac entirely. The oil helps to +distribute the shellac evenly, but it must be removed when finishing the +last coat, or the polish will not remain. It also helps to keep the pad +from sticking to the work. + +It is impossible to obtain a polish that will be as lasting and rich by +any method other than the one described. For success it is essential to +learn the proportions of the mixture and to acquire skill in applying +the materials by using exactly the right pressure and the right movement +of the pad. + + + + +CHAPTER IX + +FACE-PLATE AND CHUCK TURNING + + +Face-plate and chuck turning open an entirely new field of work from +that taken up in previous chapters of this book. If handled correctly, +it has much greater educational and practical value than cylinder +turning. From the practical standpoint the field of work is broader and +the models to be made are of much greater value. Aside from this, trade +methods and practices can be applied and a broad insight into commercial +work can be given the student. + +In some details of chuck turning the tool operations already learned can +be employed, but for the most part they are entirely different. In order +to preserve the educational value of the work as brought out by skill +and dexterity in handling tools, it will be necessary to use the cutting +method wherever possible. In some instances that method will be +impossible, and the scraping method must be used. + + +METHODS OF FASTENING STOCK + +All the work thus far has been on models where the stock worked upon is +held between the live and dead centers. In face-plate and chuck turning +the work is done at the head stock only and the piece is supported by +means of a face-plate, or chuck, that is fastened to a face-plate, which +is screwed onto the end of the live spindle. There are three methods of +fastening stock to the face-plate, and it depends upon the nature of the +exercise or model to be made which method is used. + +1. SMALL SINGLE SCREW FACE-PLATE. For all work that does not require +deep cutting in the center, such as in towel rings, picture frames, +etc., the small face-plate with a single screw should be used. + +Note:--Should it be found difficult to keep the block from working loose +and turning, it is a good plan to fold a piece of sandpaper, grit side +out, and place it between the face-plate and the stock. + +2. LARGE SURFACE SCREW FACE-PLATE. For all work that does not require +deep cutting on the outside, such as exercises, jewel boxes, etc., as +well as all large stock, and all stock from which chucks are to be +made, the large face-plate with the surface screws should be used. + +3. GLUING TO WASTE STOCK. A block of scrap wood is fastened to a +face-plate the same as for a chuck and surfaced off square. The block +from which the model is to be made is planed square on one side and +glued to the block on the face-plate with a sheet of paper between the +two. To separate the model from the chuck, after it is completed, place +a chisel on the waste stock, 1/16" back of the glue joint at such a +point as will bring the chisel parallel to the grain of the model, and +strike lightly with a mallet. This will cause the paper to separate and +the model to become free. + +This method will be found very convenient epecially on models where the +base is to be left straight. It will also be found to save much stock +when working with expensive woods. + + +LATHE ADJUSTMENTS + +To get the best results in face-plate or chuck turning there should be +no end play in the spindle of the lathe. The spindle should always be +tested out, and if any play is found, should be adjusted before +attempting any work. It is almost impossible to make a true cut when +such a condition obtains. + + +POSITION OF TOOL REST + +For all face-plate and chuck turning the tool rest should be kept as +close to the stock as possible, the same as in spindle turning, +regardless of the angle it may be set. Vertically, the rest in most +cases should be sufficiently below the center of the stock to bring the +center or cutting point of the tools used, when held parallel to the bed +of the lathe, even with the center of the stock. This last condition +will necessitate adjusting the height occasionally when changing from +large to small tools. + + + + +CHAPTER X + +TOOL PROCESSES IN FACE-PLATE AND CHUCK TURNING + + +B-I--1-a. Straight Cuts + +1. ROUGHING OFF CORNERS. (3/4" GOUGE.) FIG. 14. The tool rest is set +crosswise to the bed of the lathe and parallel to the face of the stock. + +Place the gouge on the rest with the handle well down. Roll the gouge to +the left until the grind which forms the cutting edge is perpendicular +to the stock. The point of contact should be slightly below the center +or nose of the tool. + +The handle of the gouge is then swung well to the back of the lathe or +to the operator's right. The gouge is then pushed forward into the stock +and to the left, making a shearing cut. The cut should not be too heavy. +The starting point for this cut should be a line which will indicate the +largest diameter or circle that can be made from the block.--This cut +should be repeated until the corners are removed from the block. + +To complete the cutting of thick stock it will be found necessary to +change the tool rest to an angle of 45 deg. with the bed of the lathe. + +[Illustration: Fig. 14.] + +When hardwood is being turned it is sometimes advisable to saw the block +almost round with a compass saw or bandsaw, if one is to be had. Should +this be done the preceding steps are omitted. + +The tool rest is then placed parallel with the lathe bed and a roughing +cut is taken with the gouge the entire thickness of the block. + +The lathe should be run on second or third speed until the corners are +removed, and then changed to first speed. + +2. CALIPERING FOR DIAMETER. The true diameter is then calipered the same +as in spindle work. + +3. SMOOTHING CUT. A smoothing cut is taken with a skew chisel the same +as in spindle work. + +[Illustration: Fig. 15.] + +4. ROUGHING CUT ON THE FACE. (3/4" GOUGE.) FIG. 15. The rest is now +placed parallel to the bed of the lathe and slightly above the center of +the spindle. Place the gouge on the rest on its edge with the grind +toward the stock and parallel to the face to be surfaced. The nose of +the gouge is the cutting point. + +The handle is then raised and the cutting point is forced toward the +center. A very thin shaving should be taken. If the gouge is allowed to +roll back so the grind above the cutting point comes in contact with the +wood it is sure to catch and gash the wood. + +5. SMOOTHING THE FACE. (SMALL SKEW CHISEL.) FIG. 16. For all work up to +3" in diameter, the surface may be smoothed by using a small skew chisel +in the same manner as in squaring the ends of Stock in cylinder work. +(Step 6--Exercise A-I--1-a, Straight Cuts.) + +For larger work, place the chisel flat on the rest with the toe next to +the stock and the back edge of the chisel parallel to the face to be +surfaced. + +The point of the chisel is then forced toward the center of the stock, +using the straight back of the tool as a guide against the finished +surface. Only a very thin cut should be taken at a time. + +[Illustration: Fig. 16.] + +Note:--While this operation may be termed a scraping cut, it will be +found to be much easier on the tool than if the cutting edge were held +flat against the work as in other scraping cuts. + +The surface of the work should be tested for squareness by holding the +edge of the chisel or a straight edge across the face. + + +LAYING OFF MEASUREMENTS + +In laying off measurements on the face of the stock a pencil compass or +dividers should be used. Set the compass or dividers to one-half the +diameter of the circle wanted. While one point is held at the exact +center of the stock, which is easily located while the stock is +revolving, the other is brought in contact with the revolving stock +until a circle of the correct diameter is marked. + +[Illustration: Fig. 17.] + +Should the center of the stock be cut away, rendering this method +impossible, the following method may be used: Set the compass or +dividers to the exact diameter wanted. Place one point in contact with +the stock a little to one side of the required line on the part that is +to be cut-away. Bring the other point to the stock and see if it touches +the line first made. If not, move the first point until the two points +track in the same line. + +[Illustration: Fig. 18.] + +The rest should be set at the exact center for measuring. + +All measurements on the edge of the stock can be made with pencil and +rule as in cylinder turning. + + +B-I--2-a. Shoulder Cuts + +1. EXTERNAL SHOULDERS. FIG. 18. The surplus stock at each successive +shoulder is roughed out with a 3/4" gouge, keeping well outside the +finished measurements. The gouge for this work is held in the same +position as described in B-I--1-a, Step 1, for Roughing Off Corners. + +[Illustration: Fig. 19.] + +2. For the finishing cut a small skew chisel is used, and the process +is the same as that used in squaring ends of stock. Both the vertical +and horizontal shoulders can be handled easily by this method. Fig, 19. + +3. INTERNAL SHOULDERS. For internal shoulder cutting the same methods +may be used for roughing out and cutting the horizontal shoulders, but +for the vertical or base shoulder it will be necessary to use the +scraping process. (See "Use of Scraping Tools.") + + +B-I--3-a. Taper Cuts + +Taper cutting will not be found hard as the gouge and skew chisel are +used in the same manner as described in B-I--1-a, Steps 4 and 5. After +the stock has been roughed away with the gouge to the approximate angle +desired, a smoothing cut is taken with the skew. Care should be taken +that the skew chisel is held at the exact angle of the taper desired. + + +B-I--4-a. V Cuts + +V cutting will also be found easy as the tool process is exactly the +same as that used in spindle turning. Exercise A-I--4-a. Fig. 20. + + +B-I--5-a. Concave Cuts + +Place the 3/4" gouge on the rest with the handle parallel to the bed of +the lathe. Roll the gouge on its edge and swing the handle so that the +grind is perpendicular to the stock with the nose of the tool as the +cutting point. + +[Illustration: Fig. 20.] + +Force the gouge forward into the wood. As soon as the cut is started, +the handle is lowered and swung to the left; (if cutting the left side +of the concave) at the same time the tool is rolled back toward its +original position. This movement brings the cutting point farther down +on the lip and the grind, resting on the side of the cut, will force the +gouge sidewise and will form one-quarter of the circle. Fig. 21. + +[Illustration: Fig. 21.] + +This cut is continued from alternate side until the concave is nearly to +size. The cut should be tested with a templet before the finishing cut +is taken. + + +B-I--6-a. Convex Cuts + +Rough out the stock between the beads with a parting tool. + +Hold the edge of the gouge on the rest with the handle, parallel to the +bed of the lathe, to make the nose the cutting point. + +Swing the handle to the left so that the grind will form a tangent to +the bead at its highest point. + +The gouge is then forced into the stock and to the right; at the same +time the handle is swung to the right; keeping the grind tangent to the +bead at the point of contact. Fig. 22. This cut is continued until the +base of the bead is reached. + + +B-I--7-a. Combination Cuts + +As in spindle turning, a combination exercise should be given at this +point to provide an opportunity for studying out the best methods of +working the various cuts just described into a finished product. + + +USE OF SCRAPING TOOLS + +When scraping is to be employed, it should be done with only those tools +that are made for that purpose, i.e., Square Nose, Round Nose, Spear +Point, Right and Left Skew. The handling of these tools will be found +easy. The only point to remember is that they should be held flat on the +tool rest and parallel to the bed of the lathe when in use. + +In general practice the ordinary skew chisel should not be used as a +scraping tool, for the cutting edge is not sharpened to withstand the +heavy strain required by such work. Should it be necessary, however, to +use a skew chisel as a scraper, the tool should be held so that the top +grind is parallel to the bed of the lathe while in use. + + +INTERNAL BORING + +In roughing out the center for Napkin Rings, Jewel Boxes, etc., the +quickest method is to work it out with a small gouge. + +Place the gouge on the rest parallel to the bed of the lathe, having the +point even with the center of the stock. + +Force the gouge into the wood until a hole is bored to the depth +required. If the hole is deeper than 1", remove the tool often and clear +out the shavings in order not to burn the point. + +In order to enlarge the hole to the proper size the point of the gouge +is pressed against the left side of the hole a little above the center +and a shearing cut is taken. To obviate the danger of the tool catching, +all cuts should start from the back of the hole and proceed toward the +front. + +[Illustration: Fig. 22.] + + +B-III--8-a. Sphere + +After the sphere is turned as nearly perfect as is possible when working +between centers (Steps 1 to 4) it is cut free from the waste stock and +is centered in a chuck. + +The chuck is made of any soft wood and should be cut in the end grain, +which will insure equal pressure on all sides. Equal pressure cannot be +obtained if the Chuck is cut in cross grain wood, owing to the tendency +of side grain to give more than the end grain. The sphere should be +forced into the chuck with slightly over half protruding. Very thin cuts +should be taken and the sphere should be revolved one-quarter turn after +each until true. As the sphere becomes smaller during the cutting, it +will be necessary to cut the face of the chuck down and bore the hole +deeper and smaller in order to keep more than half of it protruding at +all times. + +[Illustration: Mirror (See Pages 299-301).] + +To remove the sphere tap the chuck lightly with a hammer just above it, +at the same time pull out on the sphere. + + + + +CHAPTER XI + +SPIRAL TURNING + + +Spiral turning is a subject that has received very little attention by +most schools in which wood turning is taught. Spiral work is seen in +antique furniture and also in the modern furniture of the present day. +It seems that it takes the wheel of fashion about a century to make a +complete turn, for what our forefathers neglected and destroyed the +people of the present day value and cherish. + +Spiral work gives excellent practice in shaping and modelling wood. It +brings into play the principle of the helix as used in cutting threads, +etc.; and its form, size and shape may be varied according to the taste +of the individual. As in threads so in spiral work we have single and +double spirals, and their form and proportion depend upon their use and +application in furniture making. A variation of the spiral may be made +in several ways: First, by changing the number of turns of the spiral on +a straight shaft; second, by running a spiral on a tapered shaft; third, +by changing the shape or form of the spiral itself; and fourth, by +making more than one spiral on a shaft. It is uncommon to see ten or +twelve spirals running around a single shaft. + +Some of the forms of the above types are fully taken up and explained in +the work that is to follow. + + +PLATES B-V--1-a, a'. SINGLE SPIRAL. STRAIGHT SHAFT + +To work out a single spiral for a pedestal proceed as follows: + +1. Turn a cylinder 2-1/4" in diameter. Make the ends slightly larger in +order that the design may be turned on each, after the spiral has been +worked out. + +2. Lay off spaces 2-1/16" apart on the cylinder while the spindle is +turning in the lathe and divide each of these into four equal parts. +Each one of these large spaces represents one turn of the spiral. A good +proportion is slightly less than the diameter of the cylinder; thus the +diameter of the cylinder equals 2-1/4" and the width of the space +2-1/16". + +3. On the cylinder parallel to the axis draw lines A-A B-B C-C D-D. +These lines should be 90 deg. apart as shown in the top diagram (Plate +B-V--1-a'). Line D-D is on the other side of the cylinder as shown in +the top and middle diagrams. + +[Illustration: Fig. 23.] + +4. Start on line A-A at point X, circle 1, and draw a line connecting it +with line B-B on circle 1'. Then connect B-B on circle 1' with C-C on +circle 2 and so on until a spiral has been drawn the entire length of +the cylinder. This line will form the ridge of the spiral as shown in +the middle diagram. + +5. Next begin on line C-C at circle 1, and draw a line connecting it +with D-D on circle 1' then to line A-A on circle 2, and so on as before. +This spiral represents the center of the groove or the portion which is +to be cut away. This is not shown in the diagram because more or less +confusion would be caused with the line representing the ridge of the +spiral. + +6. Begin on line C-C at circle 1, and saw to a depth of 3/4". Saw the +entire length of the cylinder leaving about 1-1/2" at the ends. Do not +follow the line here, but switch off gradually and follow circles 1 and +15, so as to allow the spiral to begin and end gradually and not +abruptly. + +7. Rough out with a knife or chisel by cutting on both sides of the saw +cut. Then use a wood rasp to finish shaping out the spiral. When +properly shaped out allow the lathe to turn slowly and smooth with +sandpaper by following the spiral as the lathe turns. + +[Illustration: Fig. 24.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 24-a.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 25.] + +8. Cut the design on both ends of the cylinder and polish. + + +PLATES B-V--2-a, a', a''. SINGLE SPIRAL. TAPERED SHAFT + +To lay off a single spiral for the electric lamp shown in Figs. 24 and +24a proceed as follows: + +1. Select your wood and bore a hole through it. Plug the hole and center +the piece in the lathe. This insures getting the hole exactly in the +center, and it will not be cut into while the cutting of the groove of +the spiral proceeds. A groove may also be cut in two pieces of stock and +glued together to form a hole through the stock. + +2. Turn a cylinder 2-1/2" in diameter, tapering it to 1-1/2" at the one +end; this part should be 12-1/8" long. Both ends should be left larger +than 2-1/2" as the lower and upper designs must be cut here. + +3. Let the spindle revolve in the lathe and draw circles as shown in the +layout (Plate B-V--2-a'). The number of circles will vary with the +taper. Since seven turns are needed in the present spiral, 28 circles +will be necessary--four circles for each turn of the spiral as shown in +the middle diagram. A good proportion to follow is to measure the +diameter of the spindle at circle 2 and lay off this distance from +circle 1 to circle 3. Then measure the diameter at circle 4 and lay off +this diameter from circle 3 to circle 5 and so on until all circles have +been made. Then divide these large divisions into four equal parts. + +4. Draw four lines the entire length of the spindle, each 90 deg. apart as +shown by the heavy lines in the middle diagram. The heavy circles of the +same diagram represent the complete turns of the spiral. + +5. Lay out the line representing the ridge of the spiral as shown in the +middle diagram. Begin on circle 1, where the straight line crosses it, +draw to circle 1' at the point where the next straight line crosses it, +then to 2--2'--3--3' and so on until the end is reached. This forms the +ridge of the spiral as shown in diagram 3. Next it may be more +convenient to draw another line representing the groove. In this case +begin at point X in the middle diagram, opposite the point where first +started, and continue in the preceding manner, making this line parallel +to the other line. + +6. Saw on the line last made, being careful not to saw too deeply. The +depth must be 1/4" less than half the diameter of the spindle where the +cut is made. This saw cut forms the groove of the spiral. The groove is +then cut out by hand with a chisel or knife, by working down the wood on +both sides of the saw cut. After the spirals have been roughed out, a +rasp is used to finish shaping them. The work is then sandpapered +smooth, while the spindle is revolved slowly in the lathe. + +7. Cut designs on the ends of the cylinder and polish. + + +PLATES B-V--2-b, b'. DOUBLE SPIRAL. TAPERED SHAFT + +To work out a double spiral for the electric lamp illustrated in Fig. 25 +proceed as follows: + +1. Turn up the spindle in the usual manner. Since the base of the shaft +is larger than the top, the spiral must also be in proportion and lines +A-A', B-B', C-C', D-D', and E-E', are drawn around the shaft. To get the +approximate spacing from circles A-A to B-B measure the diameter at A-A' +plus about 3/16" and lay off from A-A' to B-B'. Then take the diameter +of B-B' plus about 3/16" and lay off from A-A' to B-B'. Then take the +diameter at B-B' plus about 3/16" and lay off from circle B-B' to C-C' +and so on. If the shaft is tapered more, a different proportion must be +used. Also if it is desired to have the twist wind around the shaft +three times, a variation must be made in the number of circles. + +[Illustration: Fig. 27.] + +2. If it is desired to have the twist wind around the shaft twice, draw +circles 1-1', 2-2', 3-3', and 4-4' and the spaces will grow +proportionately smaller at the small end. + +3. Draw four lines running lengthwise on the spindle and 90 deg. apart as +shown in the midde figure in heavy lines (Plate B-V--2-b'). + +4. Begin at A and draw a curved line to where the 90 deg. line crosses +circle 1-1'. From there extend the line to where the next 90 deg. line +crosses circle B-B' at point B'. Continue in this manner until the other +end of the shaft is reached. Begin at A' and draw a line on the opposite +side of the shaft. These two lines running around and along the shaft +form the grooves while the portion in between forms the beads of the +double spiral. + +5. Saw to the desired depth, being 1/4" less than half the diameter at +the point where cut. With a chisel or knife form the grooves and beads. +It is necessary to be careful about not ending the grooves too abruptly. +(See point 6 in Plates B-V--1-a, a'.) Smooth with a rasp and sandpaper +while the lathe is revolving slowly. + +6. Cut the design on the ends and polish. + + +PLATES B-V--3-a, a'. DOUBLE GROOVE SPIRAL. STRAIGHT SHAFT + +To work out the double groove spiral for the magazine holder +illustrated, proceed as follows: + +1. Square up the stock to 1-3/8". Center carefully and turn the design +on both ends as shown, in the upper diagram (Plate B-V--3-a'). Turn the +cylinder between the top and bottom, making it 5-1/2" long and 1-3/8" in +diameter. + +[Illustration: Fig. 26.] + +2. Divide the cylinder into two equal parts. Each part represents one +revolution of the spiral. + +3. Divide each half into four equal parts as shown in the top and center +diagrams (Plate B-V--3-a'), 1-1', 2-2', 3-3' and so on. The proportion +of the distance between these circles should be one-half the diameter of +the cylinder. + +4. Draw lines A-A, B-B, C-C, and D-D, parallel to the axis of the +cylinder 90 deg. apart. + +5. With a band 3/16" wide of any substantial material (preferably a +narrow strip of tin or a watch main spring) begin on the line A-A at +circle 1, and connect circle 1' at line B-B, and then connect circle 2 +at C-C, and so on until the spiral is made the entire length. Mark on +both sides of the 3/16" band so as to keep the spiral parallel. + +6. Next begin at the line C-C where circle 1 crosses it and connect from +here to 1' at B-B. Proceed as in Step 5, as shown in the center diagram. + +7. Now erase the extreme ends of the spiral near circles 1 and 5, and +deviate from the original spiral and follow the circles in a more +parallel direction so as to allow the spiral to begin and end gradually +and not too abruptly. Refer to the lower diagram for this. + +8. Cut out portions of wood between the bands previously marked around, +as shown in the lower figure. The wood should be cut out with a knife so +as to leave the corners sharp on the narrow bands. The portion cut out +should be a semi-circle and can be sanded by making a spindle a little +smaller than the distance between the bands and fastening sandpaper on +the spindle. Place in the lathe and hold the spiral on the sandpaper +cylinder at an angle so that the spiral will fit. Turn gradually and the +sandpaper will smooth up the portion between the bands and true it up. +At the ends where the grooves are smaller, use a smaller stick around +which sandpaper has been wound and work out by hand. + +9. It is well to cut straight down, about 1/32" deep, along the lines +marking out the narrow bands. Then the wood will not be so likely to +split while removing the stock which forms the grooves between the +bands. + +10. Cut out the mortises in the square portions which have been left at +both ends. Make the frame work for the sides and cane. Glue together and +polish. + +Note:--By making the posts smaller and using the same construction for a +side a nice looking book stall may be made. The proportions for the +posts are the same as mentioned in Step 3. + + +[Transcribers note: There are 142 line art illustrations after this +point in the book. They are all provided in the illustrated HTML +edition of this book.] + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A Course In Wood Turning +by Archie S. Milton and Otto K. 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