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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of A Course In Wood Turning
+by Archie S. Milton and Otto K. Wohlers
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: A Course In Wood Turning
+
+Author: Archie S. Milton and Otto K. Wohlers
+
+Release Date: March 25, 2005 [EBook #15460]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A COURSE IN WOOD TURNING ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Jason Isbell and the PG Online Distributed Proofreading Team
+
+
+
+
+[Transcribers note: Mis-spelled words in the original left as is.
+Below is a list of all known mis-spelled words kept from the original:
+
+Table Of Contents - Classification of Plates
+    bowels - should be bowls
+
+Chapter II - SPEED OF THE LATHE
+    centrificial - should be centrifugal
+
+Chapter IX - METHODS OF FASTENING STOCK
+    epecially - should be especially
+
+Chapter XI - SPIRAL TURNING
+    modelling - should be modeling
+
+Chapter XI - PLATES B-V--2-b, b´
+    midde - should be middle]
+
+
+A COURSE IN WOOD TURNING
+
+By ARCHIE S. MILTON
+
+OTTO K. WOHLERS
+
+[Illustration: BRUCE MILWAUKEE (Publishers Stamp)]
+
+THE BRUCE PUBLISHING COMPANY
+
+MILWAUKEE, WISCONSIN
+
+Copyright 1919
+
+Archie S. Milton
+
+Otto K. Wohlers
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+This book is the outgrowth of problems given to high school pupils by
+the writers, and has been compiled in logical sequence. Stress is laid
+upon the proper use of tools, and the problems are presented in such a
+way that each exercise, or project, depends somewhat on the one
+preceding. It is not the idea of the writers that all problems shown
+should be made, but that the instructor select only such as will give
+the pupils enough preliminary work in the use of the tools to prepare
+them for other models following.
+
+The related matter on the care of the lathe and tools, the grinding of
+chisels, the polishing of projects, and the specific directions and
+cautions for working out the various exercises and projects with the
+drawings, make the book not only valuable for reference, but also as a
+class text to be studied in connection with the making of projects. The
+drawings show exact dimensions and are tabulated in the upper right-hand
+corner in such a way that they may be used in a filing case if desired.
+At least two designs are shown for each model, and these may be used as
+suggestions from which students, with the aid of the instructor, may
+work out their own designs.
+
+The book has been divided into two parts: (A) Spindle Turning, and (B)
+Face-Plate Turning. The same order is followed in each part; the related
+information is supplied where required as the pupil progresses.
+
+Part A takes up the following: (I) Exercises; (II) Models, involving the
+same tool processes, only in a somewhat different degree; (III) Oval
+Turning, explaining the use of two centers; (IV) Duplicate Turning,
+where identical pieces are turned.
+
+Part B is arranged as follows: (I) Exercises; (II) Models, which are an
+application of cuts in exercises that involve only face-plate work;
+(III) Models, which require chucking; (IV) Assembling Exercises,
+involving spindle turning, face-plate work and chucking; (V) Spiral
+Turning, showing the method of turning a spiral on the lathe.
+
+The ultimate aim of this book is to give, through the exercises and
+problems, a thorough understanding of the principles of wood turning by
+gradually developing the confidence of the pupil in the complete control
+of his tools, at the same time suggesting harmonious lines in design
+which will lead to other ideas in designing problems.
+
+
+
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS
+
+                                                                 Pages
+CHAPTER I.
+  Introductory
+    --Commercial and Educational Values of Wood Turning
+    --Elements of Success                                         9-10
+
+CHAPTER II.
+  The Lathe
+    --Care of the Lathe
+    --Speed of the Lathe
+    --Method of Figuring the Diameter of Pulleys
+    --Rules for Finding the Speeds and Sizes of Pulleys
+    --Points on Setting Up the Lathe and Shafting                11-14
+
+CHAPTER III.
+  Wood Turning Tools
+    --Grinding and Whetting Turning Tools
+    --The Gouge
+    --The Parting Tool
+    --Scraping Tools                                             15-18
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+  Spindle Turning
+    --Centering Stock
+    --Clamping Stock in the Lathe
+    --Adjusting the Tool Rest
+    --Position of the Operator at the Lathe
+    --Holding the Tools
+    --Use of the Tools in Spindle Turning                        19-21
+
+CHAPTER V.
+  Tool Processes in Spindle Turning
+    --The Roughing Cut
+    --The Sizing Cut
+    --The Smoothing Cut
+    --Testing for Smoothness
+    --Measuring for Length
+    --Squaring Ends
+    --Cutting Off
+    --Shoulder Cuts
+    --Taper Cuts
+    --V Cuts-Concave Cuts
+    --Convex Cuts
+    --Combination Cuts
+    --Chisel Handles
+    --Mallets and Handles
+    --Vise Handles                                               22-32
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+  Oval Turning
+    --Tool Operations                                            33-34
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+  Duplicate Turning
+    --Use of Measuring Stick
+    --Use of Templets                                               35
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+  Finishing and Polishing
+    --Ordinary Cabinet Finishing
+    --French Polishing
+    --Method of Applying French Polish                           36-38
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+  Face-Plate and Chuck Turning
+    --Methods of Fastening Stock
+    --Small Single Screw Face-Plate
+    --Large Surface Screw Face-Plate
+    --Gluing to Waste Stock
+    --Lathe Adjustments
+    --Position of Tool Rest                                      39-40
+
+CHAPTER X.
+  Tool Processes in Face-Plate and Chuck Turning
+    --Straight Cuts
+    --Roughing Off Corners
+    --Calipering for Diameter
+    --Smoothing Cut
+    --Roughing Cut on the Face
+    --Smoothing the Face
+    --Laying Off Measurements
+    --External Shoulders
+    --Internal Shoulders
+    --Taper Cuts
+    --V Cuts
+    --Concave Cuts
+    --Convex Cuts
+    --Combination Cuts
+    --Use of Scraping Tools
+    --Internal Boring
+    --Turning a Sphere                                           41-48
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+  Spiral Turning
+    --Single Spiral, Straight Shaft
+    --Tapered Shaft
+    --Double Spiral, Tapered Shaft
+    --Double Spiral, Straight Shaft
+    --Double Groove Spiral, Straight Shaft                       49-55
+
+
+PLATES--SPINDLE TURNING.
+  Straight Cuts, 57
+  Shoulder Cuts, 59-65
+  Taper Cuts, 67-77
+  V Cuts, 79-81
+  Concave Cuts, 83-87
+  Convex Cuts, 89-95
+  Combination Cuts, 97-101
+  Chisel Handles, 103-107
+  Cabinet File Handle, 109
+  Scratch Awl Handle, 111
+  Carving Tool Handle, 113
+  Turning Chisel Handle, 115
+  Mallets, 117-119
+  Gavels, 121-127
+  Darning Eggs, 129-133
+  Stocking Darner, 131
+  Potato Masher, 135
+  Rolling Pins, 139-141
+  Vise Handle, 143
+  Screw Driver Handles, 145-147
+  Pene Hammer Handle, 149
+  Claw Hammer Handle, 151
+  Indian Clubs, 153-155
+  Dumb Bells, 157-159
+  Ten Pins, 161
+
+
+PLATES--CHUCK TURNING.
+  Straight Cuts, 167-169
+  Shoulder Cuts, 171-173
+  Taper Cuts, 175-177
+  V Cuts, 179-181
+  Concave Cuts, 183-185
+  Convex Cuts, 187-189
+  Combination Cuts, 191-195
+  Match Boxes, 197-201
+  Pin Trays, 203-205
+  Hair Pin Receivers, 207-209
+  Hat Pin Receivers, 211-213
+  Ornamental Vases, 215-219
+  Spinnet, 221
+  Towel Rings, 223-227
+  Card Trays, 229-235
+  Picture Frames, 237-243
+  Nut Bowls, 245-251
+  Napkin Rings, 253-257
+  Jewel Boxes, 259-273
+  Collar Boxes, 275-279
+  Sphere, 281
+  Checker Men, 283
+  Candle Sticks, 285-293
+  Shaving Stands, 295-301
+  Reading Lamp Stands, 303-307
+  Pedestal, 309
+  Smokers' Stands, 311-313
+  Pin Cushion and Spoon Holder, 315
+  Chess Men, 317-319
+  Pedestals, 321-325
+  Electric Reading Lamps, 327-335
+  Magazine Holders, 337-339
+
+
+CLASSIFICATION OF PLATES
+
+  A. SPINDLE TURNING
+
+      I. Exercises
+         1. Straight Cuts, a
+         2. Shoulder Cuts, a-b-c-d
+         3. Taper Cuts, a-b-c-d-e-f
+         4. V Cuts, a-b
+         5. Concave Cuts, a-b-c
+         6. Convex Cuts, a-b-c-d
+         7. Combination Cuts, a-b-c
+     II. Models
+         1. Chisel Handles, a-b-c-d-e-f-g
+         2. Mallets, a-b
+         3. Gavels, a-b-c-d
+         4. Stocking Darners, a-b-c
+         5. Potato Mashers, a-b
+         6. Rolling Pins, a-b
+         7. Vise Handles, a
+    III. Oval Turning
+         1. Screw-driver Handles, a-b
+         2. Hammer Handles, a-b
+     IV. Duplicate Turning
+         1. Indian Clubs, a-b
+         2. Dumb-bells, a-b
+         3. Tenpins, a
+         4. Drawer Pulls, a-b
+
+  B. FACE-PLATE AND CHUCK TURNING
+
+      I. Exercises
+         1. Straight Cuts, a-b
+         2. Shoulder Cuts, a-b
+         3. Taper Cuts, a-b
+         4. V Cuts, a-b
+         5. Concave Cuts, a-b
+         6. Convex Cuts, a-b
+         7. Combination Cuts, a-b-c
+     II. Face-Plate Models
+         1. Match Boxes, a-b-c
+         2. Pin Trays, a-b
+         3. Hair Pin Receivers, a-b
+         4. Hat Pin Receivers, a-b
+         5. Ornamental Vases, a-b-c
+         6. Spinnet, (game) a
+    III. Chuck Models
+         1. Towel Rings, a-b-c
+         2. Card Trays, a-b-c-d
+         3. Picture Frames, a-b-c-d
+         4. Nut Bowels, a-b-c-d
+         5. Napkin Rings, a-b-c
+         6. Jewel Boxes, a-b-c-d-e-f-g-h
+         7. Collar Boxes, a-b-c
+         8. Spheres, a
+         9. Checker Men, a
+     IV. Assembling Exercises
+         1. Candle Sticks, a-b-c-d-e
+         2. Shaving Stands, a-a´-b-b´
+         3. Reading Lamp Stands, a-b-c
+         4. Pedestals, a
+         5. Smoking Stands, a-b
+         6. Pin Cushions and Spool Holder, a
+         7. Chess Men, a-a´
+      V. Spiral Turning
+         1. Pedestal, (Single) a-a´, (Double) b
+         2. Reading Lamps, (Single) a-a´-a´´ (Double) b-b´
+         3. Magazine Holder, a-a´
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+INTRODUCTORY
+
+
+Wood turning has had a definite place in the commercial world for a
+great many years. It is used in various forms in making furniture and
+furniture parts, building trim, tool parts, toys, athletic paraphernalia
+and many other useful and beautiful articles in common use.
+
+When properly taught in the schools it is one of the most valuable types
+of instruction. It appeals to pupils more than any other type of manual
+work, as it embodies both the play and work elements. It is very
+interesting and fascinating and, in the hands of a skilled instructor,
+is readily correlated with other work.
+
+Wood turning gives a pupil preliminary experience necessary in pattern
+making and machine shop work. It brings into play the scientific element
+by demonstrating the laws governing revolving bodies. In bringing the
+chisel into contact with the revolving surface, the mathematical
+principle of the "point of tangency" is illustrated. Excellent tool
+technique is developed in wood turning as on the exactness of every
+movement depends the success of the operator, and any slight variation
+will spoil a piece of work. This brings in a very close correlation of
+the mental and motor activities and also gives the student an
+opportunity for observing and thinking while at work. When his tool
+makes a "run" he must determine the reason and figure out why a certain
+result is obtained when the chisel is held in a given position. Certain
+cuts must be fully mastered, and it takes a good deal of experience and
+absolute confidence in one's self in manipulating the tools before it is
+possible to attempt skilful work. If scraping is allowed the educational
+value of the work is lost.
+
+In wood turning a vast field for design and modeling is opened, and art
+and architecture can be correlated. The pupil will see for himself the
+need of variety in curves and must use his judgment in determining
+curves that are so harmonious and pleasing that they will blend
+together. If properly taught the beauty in the orders of architecture
+can be brought out in the making of the bead, fillet, scotia, cove, etc.
+
+A feeling of importance is excited in a boy when he sees his hands
+shaping materials into objects of pleasing form. Wood turning properly
+taught awakens the aesthetic sense and creates a desire for the
+beautiful. The boy or man who has learned to make graceful curves and
+clean-cut fillets and beads will never be satisfied with clumsy effects
+which are characteristic in cheap commercial work, made only to sell.
+
+Success in turning depends on the following:
+
+  1. Care of lathe, tools, selection of materials.
+  2. Study of the scientific elements of--
+        a. Revolving bodies.
+        b. Points of tangency.
+        c. Study of results by reasoning and observing.
+  3. Development of technique and exactness.
+  4. Correlation of mental and motor activities.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+THE LATHE
+
+
+The sizes of turning lathes are given as 10", 12", etc. These figures
+denote the diameter, or size, of the largest piece of work that can be
+turned on them. The measurement is taken from the center point of the
+live center to the bed of the lathe (usually 5" or 6") and is one-half
+the diameter of the entire circle. The length of a lathe is determined
+by the length of a piece of work that can be turned. This measurement is
+taken from the points of the live and dead centers when the tail stock
+is drawn back the full extent of the lathe bed. Fig. 1 shows a turning
+lathe with sixteen principal parts named. The student should learn the
+names of these parts and familiarize himself with the particular
+function of each.
+
+
+CARE OF THE LATHE
+
+The lathe should be oiled every day before starting. At the end of the
+period the lathe should be brushed clean of all chips and shavings,
+after which it should be rubbed off with a piece of waste or cloth to
+remove all surplus oil. All tools should be wiped clean and put in their
+proper places. If a student finds that his lathe is not running as it
+should, he should first call the attention of the instructor to that
+fact before attempting to adjust it; and then only such adjustments
+should be made as the instructor directs.
+
+
+SPEED OF THE LATHE
+
+The speed of the lathe should range from 2400 to 3000 revolutions per
+minute when the belt is on the smallest step of the cone pulley. At this
+speed stock up to 3" in diameter can be turned with safety. Stock from
+3" to 6" in diameter should be turned on the second or third step, and
+all stock over 6" on the last step. The speed at which a lathe should
+run depends entirely upon the nature of the work to be done and the kind
+of material used. Pieces that cannot be centered accurately and all
+glued-up work with rough corners should be run slowly until all corners
+are taken off and the stock runs true. At high speed the centrificial
+force on such pieces is very great, causing the lathe to vibrate, and
+there is a possibility of the piece being thrown from the lathe thus
+endangering the worker as well as those around him. After the stock is
+running true the speed may be increased.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1. - Wood Turning Lathe]
+
+TO FIGURE THE DIAMETER OF PULLEYS
+
+Suppose a motor runs 1500 R.P.M. and is fitted with a 4" pulley. Suppose
+also, a main shaft should run 300 R.P.M.
+
+  Then, 1500 : 300 :: x : 4;
+    Or, 300x = 6000,
+      x = 20, or the diameter of the large pulley on the main shaft.
+
+
+Suppose again that a line shaft runs 300 R.P.M., and a counter shaft 600
+R.P.M. The counter shaft has a pulley 4" in diameter. The pulley on the
+line shaft must then have a diameter of 8".
+
+
+  300 : 600 :: 4 : x;
+    Or, 300x = 2400,
+      x = 8"
+
+Suppose the cone pulley on the counter shaft runs 600 R.P.M.; a lathe
+spindle runs 2200 R.P.M., when connected with the small cone pulley
+which has a diameter of 3". The large cone pulley has then a diameter of
+11".
+
+  600 : 2200 :: 3 : x
+    Or, 600x = 6600;
+      x = 11"
+
+
+RULES FOR FINDING THE SPEEDS AND SIZES OF PULLEYS
+
+1. To find the diameter of the driving pulley:
+
+Multiply the diameter of the driven by the number of revolutions it
+should make and divide the product by the number of revolutions of the
+driver. (20 x 300 = 6000; 6000 ÷ 1500 = 4"--diameter of motor pulley.)
+
+2. To find the diameter of the driven pulley:
+
+Multiply the diameter of the driver by its number of revolutions and
+divide the product by the number of revolutions of the driven. (4 x 1500
+= 6000; 6000 ÷ 300 = 20"--diameter of the driven pulley.)
+
+3. To find the number of revolutions of the driven pulley:
+
+Multiply the diameter of the driver by its number of revolutions and
+divide by the diameter of the driven. (4 x 1500 = 6000; 6000 ÷ 20 =
+300--revolutions of driven pulley.)
+
+
+POINTS ON SETTING UP LATHE AND SHAFTING
+
+The counter shaft should be about 7' above the lathe. A distance of 6'
+from the center of the shaft to the center of the spindle is sufficient.
+In setting a lathe or hanging a counter shaft it is necessary that both
+be level. The counter shaft must be parallel to the line shaft. When the
+counter shaft is in position a plumb bob should be hung from the counter
+shaft cone to the spindle cone; the lathe should be adjusted so that the
+belt will track between the two cone pulleys. The axis of the lathe must
+be parallel to that of the counter shaft. The lathe, however, need not
+be directly beneath the counter shaft as the belt will run on an angle
+as well as perpendicular.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+WOOD TURNING TOOLS
+
+
+A wood turning kit should consist of one each of the following tools.
+Fig. 2 shows the general shape of these tools.
+
+
+   1-1/4" Gouge
+     3/4" Gouge
+     1/2" Gouge
+     1/4" Gouge
+   1-1/4" Skew
+     3/4" Skew
+     1/2" Skew
+     1/4" Skew
+     1/8" Parting Tool
+     1/2" Round Nose
+     1/4" Round Nose
+     1/2" Square Nose
+     1/4" Square Nose
+     1/2" Spear Point
+     1/2" Right Skew
+     1/2" Left Skew
+          Slip Stone with round edges
+       6" Outside Calipers
+       6" Inside Calipers
+       8" Dividers
+      12" Rule
+  1/2 pt. Oil Can
+          Bench Brush
+
+
+GRINDING AND WHETTING TURNING TOOLS
+
+Skew Chisel
+
+The skew chisel is sharpened equally on both sides On this tool the
+cutting edge should form an angle of about 20° with one of the edges.
+The skew is used in cutting both to the right and to the left, and
+therefore, must be beveled on both sides. The length of the bevel should
+equal about twice the thickness of the chisel at the point where it is
+sharpened. In grinding the bevel, the chisel must be held so that the
+cutting edge will be parallel to the axis of the emery wheel. The wheel
+should be about 6" in diameter as this will leave the bevel slightly
+hollow ground. Cool the chisel in water occasionally when using a dry
+emery. Otherwise the wheel will burn the chisel, taking out the temper;
+the metal will be soft and the edge will not stand up. Care should be
+exercised that the same bevel is kept so that it will be uniformly
+hollow ground. The rough edge left by the emery wheel should be whetted
+off with a slip stone by holding the chisel on the flat side of the
+stone so that the toe and heel of the bevel are equally in contact with
+it. Rub first on one side and then on the other. The wire edge is thus
+worn off quickly as there is no metal to be worn away in the middle of
+the bevels. The chisel is sharp when the edge, which may be tested by
+drawing it over the thumb nail, is smooth and will take hold evenly
+along its entire length. If any wire edge remains it should be whetted
+again.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2. - Lathe Tools]
+
+
+Gouge
+
+The gouge used in wood turning is beveled on the outside and is ground
+so that the nose is approximately semi-circular in shape. The tool is a
+combination of the round nose chisel and the ordinary gouge. The bevel
+should extend well around to the ends so that the cutting edge extends
+to each side. This is necessary to avoid the abrupt corners which would
+be present if the nose were left straight across as in the ordinary
+wood-working gouge. In making shearing cuts the round nose permits the
+tool to be rolled to the side to avoid scraping the work. The length of
+the bevel should be about twice the thickness of the blade at the point
+where the sharpening begins.
+
+The sharpening of a gouge for turning is rather difficult for the
+average student. The ordinary gouge which has a square nose may be
+beveled by merely turning it half way around and back again. In working
+out the round nose of a gouge for wood turning, it is necessary that the
+handle be swung from one side to the other while, at the same time, the
+chisel is revolved to cut the bevel evenly. It is sometimes necessary to
+allow some pupils to use the side of the emery wheel in sharpening the
+gouge. This kind of grinding, however, does not leave the tool hollow
+ground as when the face of the wheel is used.
+
+To complete the sharpening the rough edge is worked smooth on a slip
+stone, the cross section of which is wedge-shaped and the edges of which
+are rounded. The toe and heel of the beveled side of the gouge are
+brought into contact with the flat side of the stone. As the sharpening
+proceeds the wire edge is worked to the inside of the gouge. The rounded
+edge of the stone is then placed inside the gouge and is worked back and
+forth until the rough edge disappears. Great care must be taken not to
+bevel the inside of the gouge when whetting with the round edges of the
+stone, as the result will be the same as with an ordinary chisel or
+plane bit.
+
+
+Parting Tool
+
+The parting tool is sharpened on both sides. This tool differs from the
+ordinary chisel in that it is between 5/8" and 3/4" thick and only about
+1/8" wide at the widest point, which is in the center of its entire
+length. The bevels must meet exactly at the center, or the widest
+point, and should make an angle of about 50° with each other. If the
+bevels do not meet at the widest point the tool will not clear, and the
+sides will rub against the revolving stock; the tool will be burned and
+will thus lose its temper. The bevel should be hollow ground slightly as
+then comparatively little metal need be removed when whetting.
+
+
+Scraping Tools
+
+The round nose, square nose, spear point, right skew and left skew are
+scraping tools, used chiefly in pattern work and sometimes in face-plate
+work. They are sharpened on one side only, and the bevel is about twice
+the thickness of the chisel at the point where sharpened. These tools
+should be slightly hollow ground to facilitate the whetting. Scraping
+tools become dull quite easily as their edges are in contact with the
+wood almost at right angles. After sharpening, the edges of these tools
+may be turned with a burnisher or the broad side of a skew chisel in the
+same manner that the edge of a cabinet scraper is turned though not
+nearly to so great a degree. This will help to keep the tool sharp for,
+as the edge wears off, the tool sharpens itself to a certain extent. The
+chisel is of harder material than a cabinet scraper so that it will not
+stand a great amount of turning over on the edge. Small pieces will be
+broken out, unless a flat surface is rubbed against the edge at a more
+acute angle than was used in the whetting. If a narrow burnisher is
+used, pieces are more likely to be broken out from the sharp edge and
+thus make the tool useless.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+SPINDLE TURNING
+
+
+Spindle turning is the term applied to all work done on a lathe in which
+the stock to be worked upon is held firmly between the live and dead
+centers. There are two methods in common use in wood turning: first, the
+scraping or pattern-makers' method; and second, the cutting method. Each
+has its advantages and disadvantages, but it is necessary that both be
+learned in order to develop a well rounded turner. Care should be
+exercised, however, that each method be used in its proper place. The
+first is slower, harder on the cutting edge of tools, and less skill is
+required to obtain accurate work; the second is faster, easier on the
+cutting edge of tools, and the accuracy of results obtained depends upon
+the skill acquired. As skill is the one thing most sought for in high
+school work, the use of the cutting method is advocated entirely for all
+spindle turning and, with but few exceptions, for face-plate and chuck
+turning.
+
+
+TO CENTER STOCK
+
+If the wood to be turned is square or rectangular in shape the best way
+to locate the center is to draw diagonals across the end of the stock.
+The point of intersection locates the center.
+
+
+CLAMPING STOCK IN THE LATHE
+
+Take the live center from the spindle and with a wooden mallet drive the
+spur deep into the wood. Never drive the wood onto the live center while
+in the spindle because serious injury may be done the machine by such
+practice. When extremely hard wood is being used, it is a good practice
+to make saw cuts along the diagonal lines and bore a hole at the
+intersection, thus allowing the spur to enter the wood more freely. Oil
+the other end of the wood while holding it in a vertical position, and
+give the oil a chance to penetrate into the wood. Then replace the live
+center by taking the stock and center and forcing it into the spindle by
+a sudden push of the hand. The tail stock is then moved about 1/2" to 1"
+from the end of the piece to be turned, having the tail spindle well
+back in the tail stock. The tail stock is then clamped to the lathe bed.
+Turn the tail stock hand wheel until the wood is held firmly. Work the
+cone pulley by hand at the same time, so that the cup or dead center
+will be forced deeply into the wood, so deeply that the live center will
+not continue to turn. Now turn the dead spindle back until the live
+spindle begins to turn freely and clamp the dead spindle fast.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3]
+
+
+ADJUSTING THE TOOL REST
+
+Horizontally the tool rest should be set about 1/8" from the farthest
+projecting corner of the wood and should be readjusted occasionally as
+the stock diminishes in size. The vertical height varies slightly
+according to the height of the operator. It is even with the center of
+the spindle for a short person; 1/8" above for a medium person; and 1/4"
+above for a tall person. So long as the stock is in its square form the
+tool rest should never be adjusted while the machine is in motion as
+there is danger of the rest catching the corners and throwing the stock
+from the machine. Also see that everything is clamped tight before
+starting the lathe.
+
+
+POSITION OF THE OPERATOR
+
+The operator stands firmly on the floor back far enough from the lathe
+to allow him to pass the tools from right to left in front of his body
+without changing the position of the feet. It may be found convenient
+to turn slightly, bringing the left side of the body a little closer to
+the lathe. In no case, however, should the tools be brought in contact
+with the body as the cutting operation from right to left should be
+accomplished by a movement of the arms alone and not the swaying of the
+body. (Fig. 3.)
+
+
+HOLDING THE TOOLS
+
+All tools should be held firmly but not rigidly. The right hand should
+grasp the handle at the extreme end for two reasons: first, to give as
+much leverage as possible so that the tool will not be thrown from the
+hands in case it should catch in the wood; second, a slight wavering of
+the hand will not cause as much variance in the cuts as when held closer
+up to the rest. The left hand should act as a guide and should be held
+over the tool near the cutting edge. The little finger and the back part
+of the palm of the hand should touch the tool rest thus assuring a
+steady movement. The left hand should not grasp the tool at any time.
+(Fig. 3.)
+
+
+USE OF THE TOOLS IN SPINDLE TURNING
+
+The correct use of the various tools used in spindle turning will be
+explained in detail as the steps are worked out in the sequence of
+operations on the exercises in Section A-I.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+TOOL PROCESSES IN SPINDLE TURNING
+
+
+Exercise A-I--1-a. Straight Cuts
+
+1. THE ROUGHING CUT (LARGE GOUGE).
+
+FIG. 4. Place the gouge on the rest so that the level is above the wood
+and the cutting edge is tangent to the circle or surface of the
+cylinder. The handle should be held well down.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4.]
+
+Roll the gouge over slightly to the right so that it will make a
+shearing cut instead of a scraping cut. This rolling of the tool will
+also throw the chips from the operator.
+
+
+Then lift the handle slowly, forcing the cutting edge deep enough into
+the wood to remove all or nearly all of the corners, at the end of the
+work which is being turned. This cut is begun about 3/4" from the dead
+center end. Work back another 3/4", moving toward the live center and
+make a second cut, and so on until the entire length of the cylinder is
+gone over. This method of removing corners should always be followed to
+avoid any possibility of breaking a large sliver from the stock, with
+consequent danger to the worker.
+
+The tool may then be worked from one end to the other, getting a
+fairly-smooth, regular surface, slightly above the diameter required.
+However, do not begin on the very edge of the cylinder end. It is better
+to begin about 2" from one end and work to the other, and then reverse
+and work back.
+
+The tool should also be held at a slight angle to the axis of the
+cylinder, with the cutting point always in advance of the handle.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 5.]
+
+
+2. THE SIZING CUT (SMALL GOUGE). FIG. 5.
+
+Set the calipers to the required diameter of the cylinder.
+
+With a small gouge held in the right hand scrape grooves about 1" apart,
+holding the calipers in the left hand perpendicular to the cylinder and
+measuring the cuts as they are made. The scraping should continue until
+the calipers will pass easily over the cylinder. It will be well while
+scraping to work the handle of the gouge a little from side to side so
+that the nose has more clearance. This will prevent the piece which is
+being turned from chattering or vibrating.
+
+The calipers will be slightly sprung by coming in contact with the
+revolving stock but this error in diameter will be removed by the
+finishing cut which removes these marks from the finished cylinder.
+
+
+3. THE SMOOTHING CUT (LARGE SKEW).
+
+FIG. 6. Lay the skew chisel on the rest with the cutting edge above the
+cylinder and at an angle of about 60° to the surface.
+
+Slowly draw the chisel back and at the same time raise the handle until
+the chisel begins to cut about 1/4" to 3/8" from the heel. The first cut
+is begun from 1" to 2" from either end and is pushed toward the near
+end. Then begin at the first starting point and cut toward the other
+end. One should never start at the end to make a cut as there is danger
+that the chisel will catch and cause the wood to split or that the
+chisel will be torn from the hands.
+
+The first cut takes off the bumps and rings left by the gouge, and takes
+the stock down so one can just see where the scraping to size was done.
+Then take the last cut and remove all traces of these, leaving the
+cylinder perfectly smooth and of the required diameter at each end. Test
+the cylinder for accuracy with a straight edge.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 6.]
+
+
+4. TESTING FOR SMOOTHNESS. In testing for smoothness place the palm of
+the hand, with the fingers extended straight, lightly on the back of the
+cylinder opposite the tool rest. This position will avoid any
+possibility of the hand being drawn in between the cylinder and the
+rest.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 7.]
+
+
+5. MEASURING FOR LENGTH (RULE AND PENCIL). FIG. 7. Hold the back edge of
+the rule in the left hand and place it on the tool rest so that the
+front edge is almost in contact with the revolving cylinder.
+
+With a sharp pencil mark off the required length, starting from the dead
+center end. The first mark should be just far enough in on the cylinder
+to insure cutting past the point of the dead center. This will leave all
+surplus stock at the live center end where it is needed, because, if not
+enough stock is left at this end, there is danger of striking the live
+center spur with the tool and of injuring the chisel and perhaps the
+work.
+
+In case several measurements are to be made, as in some of the following
+exercises, the rule should not be moved until all are marked. This will
+insure more accurate work than if the rule be changed several times.
+
+
+6. SQUARING ENDS (SMALL SKEW AND PARTING TOOL). FIG. 8. This operation
+is done with the toe or acute angle of the 1/2" or 1/4" skew chisel.
+
+Place the chisel square on the tool rest. Swing the handle out from the
+cylinder so that the grind, which forms the cutting edge, next to the
+stock is perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder. The heel of the
+chisel is then tipped slightly from the cylinder in order to give
+clearness. Raise the handle and push the toe of the chisel into the
+stock about 1/8" outside the line indicating the end of the cylinder.
+Swing the handle still farther from the cylinder and cut a half V. This
+will give clearance for the chisel point and will prevent burning.
+Continue this operation on both ends until the cylinder is cut to about
+3/16" in diameter.
+
+The remaining 1/8" is then removed by taking very thin cuts (about
+1/32") holding the chisel as first stated. After each cut is made the
+end should be tested for squareness by holding the edge of the chisel
+over the end of the cylinder.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 8.]
+
+This is an easy cut after it is mastered, but is one of the hardest to
+learn. Should the operator lose control of the tool and allow any part
+other than the point to touch the cylinder, a run or gashing of the
+wood will be caused.
+
+In large cylinders where considerable stock has to be cut away in order
+to square the ends, time will be saved by sizing the ends down with the
+parting tool to within 1/8" of the desired line, leaving enough stock at
+the base of the cuts to still hold the cylinder rigid while cutting on
+the ends.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 9.]
+
+For this operation hold the parting tool on the rest with the cutting
+edge parallel to the axis of the cylinder and the lower grind tangent to
+the cylinder. Lift the handle and force the cutting edge into the wood;
+at the same time push the chisel forward to keep it at the proper
+tangency.
+
+
+7. CUTTING OFF (SMALL SKEW). FIG. 9.
+
+After both ends have been squared cut away stock, at both ends, to leave
+just enough to hold the cylinder from separating from the waste ends.
+
+With the chisel held in the right hand in the same position as in
+squaring the ends, and the fingers of the left hand around the stock to
+catch it, slowly force the point of the chisel into the stock at the
+live center end, until it is cut free and the cylinder stops in the
+operator's hand. Too much pressure should not be used in this operation
+or it will cause the cylinder to twist off instead of being cut, and
+will leave a ragged hole in the end.
+
+The dead center end, which has been scored heavily before cutting off at
+the live center, is then removed by holding the grind of the chisel flat
+on the end of the cylinder. The latter is revolved by hand until the
+stock is cut away.
+
+
+Exercise A-I--2-a. Shoulder Cuts
+
+1. Turn a cylinder to the largest diameter required.
+
+2. Lay off measurements with rule and pencil.
+
+3. With the gouge (where space permits) or the parting tool (in narrow
+spaces) rough out surplus stock, keeping 1/16" away from the lines
+indicating shoulders.
+
+4. Caliper to the diameter of the second step.
+
+5. The shoulders are cut down as described in "Squaring Ends, Step 6,
+Straight Cuts."
+
+6. The new diameter or step is then trued up with a skew chisel in the
+same manner as a cylinder; except that in nearing the shoulder the
+chisel is pushed up on the cylinder until the heel, which is the only
+part that can be worked into the corner, becomes the cutting point. Fig.
+10. In very narrow steps it will be advisable to use the heel entirely
+as a cutting point.
+
+In spaces between shoulders, too narrow to permit the use of the skew
+chisel, very effective work can be accomplished by slightly tipping the
+parting tool sideways to allow a shearing cut to be taken with the
+cutting edge.
+
+7. Where several steps are required on the same cylinder, each
+successive one is worked out as above described.
+
+Note:--All preliminary steps in working stock to size, laying of
+dimensions, etc., in preparation for the exercise in hand, will be
+omitted in the following exercises:
+
+
+Exercise A-I--3-a. Taper Cuts
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 10.]
+
+Calipering for New Diameters. For all diameters on tapers the calipers
+should be set 1/16" larger than the desired measurement in order to
+avoid working under size in the finishing cut which removes all caliper
+marks.
+
+If the taper runs to the extreme end of the cylinder, as in Plate
+A-I--3-a, a parting tool should be used, instead of a gouge, to take off
+a very thin shoulder.
+
+If the taper forms an internal angle as in Plate A-I--3-b, a gouge is
+used as in Step 2--Sizing Cut--Plate A-I--1-a.
+
+In other cases where tapers connect with straight cylindrical shoulders
+it is best to turn the shoulders to size before working the tapers.
+
+In cutting a long straight taper the skew chisel is used, much in the
+same manner as in ordinary cylinder work, except that at the start of
+each cut the heel must be the cutting point. This will avoid any chance
+of the chisel catching and drawing back and thus gouging the wood beyond
+the starting point. As soon as the cut is well under way the chisel may
+be pushed up on the cylinder so that the cutting point is a little above
+the heel. All cuts should be made from the highest point on the cylinder
+to the lowest and thus cut across the grain of the wood.
+
+In making the cut, care should be taken to see that the chisel is not
+tipped to a greater angle than that of the taper wanted. Should that be
+done a hollow, or dished out, taper is sure to be the result instead of
+a straight one.
+
+
+Exercise A-I--4-a. V Cutting
+
+In cutting V's a small skew is almost always used and the cutting is
+done with the heel.
+
+Place the chisel square on the tool rest so that the cutting edge is
+perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder. Draw the chisel back and
+raise the handle so that the heel is driven into the wood, thus scoring
+it. This cut should not be too deep or the chisel will burn. This
+scoring should be at the exact center of the V cut.
+
+Swing the handle a little to the right and at the same time tip the
+chisel so that the grind, which forms the cutting edge, is at an angle
+of about 45° with the axis of the cylinder. The handle is then raised at
+an angle of 45° bringing the heel down to make a good cut. The chisel is
+then swung to the other side and a similar cut is taken. These cuts are
+continued, together with the center scoring, until quite close to the
+pencil marks. Test the angle before the finishing cut is taken.
+
+It will be found best to have the V slightly greater than 90° at the
+base until the final cut is made, at which time it can be trued up.
+
+The V should be tested with the square end of a rule. The cylinder
+should not be in motion while testing.
+
+When angles other than 45° are cut, the cutting edge of the chisel
+should be tipped so that it is parallel or nearly so to the side of the
+cut desired.
+
+
+A-I--5-a. Concave Cuts
+
+The concave cuts as a rule will give the pupil considerable trouble at
+first owing to the fact that the grind, which forms the cutting edge and
+which must be held perpendicular to the cylinder at the start, is on the
+under side of the tool and cannot be seen. However, as soon as the
+correct angle of the tool is located, the cut will be found as easy as
+any. Concaves are usually made with a medium sized gouge either the 1/2"
+or 3/4".
+
+Place the gouge on the rest with the grind or cutting edge well above
+the wood. The tool is then rolled on its side so that the grind at the
+cutting point, which is on the lip of the gouge well below the center,
+is perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder. Fig. 11.
+
+Slowly raise the handle to force the gouge into the wood. As soon as the
+gouge has taken hold, the tool is forced forward and upward by a slight
+lowering of the handle, while at the same time it is rolled back toward
+its first position. Care should be taken not to roll the chisel too fast
+or a perfect arc will not be cut.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 11.]
+
+By this triple action the grind, which comes in contact with the surface
+of the curve, forces the lip sidewise and cuts one quarter of a circle.
+Reverse the position of the gouge and cut from the other side in the
+same manner to form the other half of the semi-circle. The cutting
+should always stop at the base of the cut as there is danger that the
+tool will catch when cutting against the grain of the wood on the other
+side. Repeat this operation until within about 1/16" of the required
+size. At the end of each successive cut the tool should have been forced
+far enough forward and upward to bring the grind or nose of the chisel
+well out on top of the cut. Fig. 12.
+
+The exact depth of the concave is then calipered in the usual manner as
+described before. A finishing cut is then taken after the cut has been
+tested with a templet.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 12.]
+
+
+A-I--6-a. Convex Cuts
+
+The convex cut, or Bead as it is usually called, is generally considered
+the hardest cut to make.--The cut is made with the heel of a small skew
+chisel, usually the 1/4" or 1/8".
+
+After the cylinder has been marked off, rough out all stock between the
+beads with a parting tool. The base of the cuts is finished the same as
+described in Plate A-I--1-a, for shoulder cutting. With a sharp pencil
+mark the center of each bead to be made. This line is the starting point
+for all cutting.
+
+Place the chisel on the rest, with the cutting edge above the cylinder
+and the lower grind tangent to it. Draw the chisel back and raise the
+handle to bring the heel of the chisel in contact with the cylinder at
+the line indicating the center of the bead. The chisel is then moved to
+the right (if cutting the right side of the bead); at the same time the
+chisel is continually tipped to keep the lower grind tangent to the
+revolving cylinder and also to the bead at the point of contact. Fig.
+13. This cut is continued until the bottom of the bead is reached. It is
+well in turning a series of beads to work the same side of all before
+reversing to the other side.
+
+Note:--The same principles employed in this exercise are also used in
+working out long convex curves such as are found in chisel handles,
+mallet handles, etc. The only exception is that in most cases the point
+of contact need not be the heel of the chisel but higher up as in
+ordinary straight work.
+
+
+A-I--7-a--Combination Cuts
+
+These exercises are so designed as to include one or more of each of the
+foregoing cuts. The student here is given an opportunity of combining
+these cuts into one finished product.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 13.]
+
+An analysis of the exercise chosen should be made to determine which of
+the various cuts should be made first, second, etc., in order to produce
+the exercise in the shortest time and with the least amount of tool
+manipulation.
+
+After the student has mastered these cuts with a certain degree of skill
+and accuracy, he is ready to apply them in working out various models in
+Section II.
+
+
+A-II--1-a. Chisel Handles
+
+At this point it is well to state that the small end of all work should
+be turned at the dead center. In the case of chisel handles the socket
+or ferrule end is at the dead center where the stock can safely be cut
+away to permit the fitting of the ferrule or the socket.
+
+After the stock is turned to a cylinder of the largest dimension
+desired, the taper, for the socket chisel, should be turned first and
+fitted to the chisel in which it is to be used. Then the rest of the
+handle is worked out. Ferrules should also be fitted in the same manner.
+A drive fit should be used for all ferrules.
+
+
+A-II--2 and 3. Mallets and Gavels
+
+The biggest source of trouble in these models is getting the handles to
+fit true. This is caused by not getting the hole in the head straight.
+
+Turn the head to a cylinder 3/16" larger than the finished dimension.
+Then bore the hole perpendicular to the axis as near as possible,
+either by leaving it between the lathe centers or by placing it in a
+vise. The handle is then fitted into the head. A snug fit is necessary.
+If one side "hangs" or is lower than the other the centers are moved
+sufficiently to correct it. The head is then turned to exact size and
+finished.
+
+
+A-II--7. Vise Handles.
+
+Turn the spindle with the solid head to dimensions. Bore a hole through
+a 1-1/4" square block and fit the block snugly to the end of the
+spindle. Turn this block to the same dimensions as the other head. This
+method will save chucking the second head and is much quicker.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+OVAL TURNING
+
+
+Oval work as a problem in turning will be found to be a very good one as
+well as interesting to the pupil. It brings in the principle of the oval
+as used in ordinary shop practice; (arcs from points on the major and
+minor axes). For thick heavy ovals the off-centering is very slight,
+while for long, thin ones the off-centering is greater. The measurements
+given on Plates A-III--1-a, b and A-III--2-a, b will give a good idea of
+approximate distances to be used.
+
+While the tool operations are much the same as in other spindle turning
+there is one notable difference. The design must be worked out by eye,
+because of the nature of the work no caliper measurements can be made
+for depth of cuts.
+
+To get the best results the stock of oval turning should be cut square
+or slightly rectangular in cross-section and about 3" longer than the
+model to be made. The thickness of the stock should be about 1/8"
+greater than the major axis of the oval wanted.
+
+The centers are located in the usual manner after which perpendicular
+lines are drawn from the sides, passing through the points of the
+centers. From the ends of one of these, perpendicular lines are extended
+lengthwise of the stock (on opposite sides) meeting the corresponding
+perpendicular at the other end of the stock. These lines form the ridge
+of the oval. On the other perpendiculars, the points for off-centering
+are laid off, measuring the required distance on both sides of the
+center point.
+
+With a 1/8" drill bore holes 1/4" deep at each of the off-centering
+points as well as the original center. This will insure the lathe
+centers penetrating the stock at the proper point. The stock is then
+placed in the lathe, using two corresponding off-center points as
+centers.
+
+With the lathe running at third speed turn down the stock to the
+horizontal line forming the ridge of the oval, excepting for a distance
+of about 1-1/4" at the ends. The stock at the ends is necessary for the
+off-centering and, if cut away, will spoil the centering for the other
+side, especially at the live center end. The stock is then changed to
+the other off-center points and the second side is cut down to the line.
+
+All measurements are then laid out and the design is cut, changing the
+stock in the lathe when necessary. Care should be taken that the sharp
+ridge left on the work forms a straight line the full length of the
+stock. After the design has been finished, the stock is centered on the
+true center and a very thin cut is taken the full length of the object
+to remove the sharp corners. The model is then sandpapered while the
+lathe is running very slowly.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+DUPLICATE TURNING
+
+
+Under the head of duplicate turning have been classified only such
+models as clearly indicate the necessity of making two or more articles
+to complete the model or set of articles desired. But it is not intended
+to convey the idea that other models may not be made in duplicate as in
+many cases it is very desirable and even preferable that they should be
+made that way. Whatever the problem may be the suggestions offered at
+this point may be applied effectively.
+
+Whenever two or more models are to be made identically alike there are
+always two possibilities of inaccuracies that will render the work
+dissimilar: First, inaccurate measuring both for length and points of
+new diameters and also on the new diameters themselves; second, a
+variation in the curved surfaces either on long convex or concave cuts.
+
+The first difficulty can be overcome to a great extent by the use of a
+measuring stick. This stick should be made of any soft wood. It should
+be straight on one edge and about the thickness of an ordinary rule. On
+the straight edge lay off very carefully measurements for length,
+shoulders, beads, concaves and all points where calipering for new
+diameters will be necessary. Insert at each point measured a small brad
+which has been sharpened at both ends, leaving the end protrude about
+1/8". Care should be taken that all brads protrude the same distance.
+
+After the stock has been turned to the largest diameter, the stick is
+held in the position of the rule while measuring and the points are
+forced against the revolving cylinder, thus scoring it. This stick can
+be used as many times as the model is to be made and the measurements
+will always be the same.
+
+To avoid dissimilar curves it is well to cut out a full sized templet of
+the model to be made. This templet can be made of any thin, stiff
+material, preferably light sheet iron. In some cases it will be
+necessary to make the templet in several pieces in order to help
+facilitate the tool operations.
+
+The use of this templet will not only be a help to getting all curved
+surfaces the same, but will also check up on the various new diameters
+on the model. The cylinder should never be in motion while the templet
+is being used.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+FINISHING AND POLISHING
+
+
+To get a high and lasting polish on wood, the work must be first sanded
+so as to be perfectly smooth. In addition to this, open grained wood,
+such as oak, must be properly filled with a wood filler. If properly
+sharpened tools have been used very little sanding is required, and then
+worn sandpaper should be used as it does not cut into the work as new
+paper cuts. Remember sandpaper is not to be used as a tool in cutting
+down stock when working to dimensions. In using old sandpaper run the
+lathe at a moderate speed to avoid burning the wood, especially on
+square or round fillets. Keep the edges of the work sharp and do not
+wear them round. In using new sandpaper use a fine grit (00 or 0) and
+move the paper from one end of the work to the other slowly, so that no
+scratches result on the surface of the work.
+
+The work may be finished by one of two methods. In the first method as
+in finishing ordinary cabinet work, the pieces should be stained and
+filled. In applying filler, run the lathe at the slowest speed after the
+material has dried sufficiently to rub into the pores of the wood. If
+the highlights are to be brought out, as in the case of oak, stain and
+then give a light coat of shellac, and apply the filler after the
+shellac is dry. The shellac keeps the dark filler from staining the
+flakes of the oak darker, and the pores of the wood fill in as before.
+The pores become darker than the flakes, and at the same time a smooth
+surface is produced. After the filler has hardened the wood may be waxed
+or varnished.
+
+The second method, or French polishing, is rather difficult to apply and
+requires a little skill. A close grained wood, like maple, will be found
+more satisfactory for the beginner. An open grained wood may be filled
+in the ordinary way, or the grain may be filled by rubbing into the
+pores of the wood a combination of shellac, rotten stone or pumice, oil
+and alcohol. Rotten stone is used for dark wood and pumice is used for
+light wood. The wood may be left in the natural or stained as in the
+first method. The mixture of shellac, rotten stone, oil and alcohol, is
+applied to the work with a pad made of cotton waste, wrapped in cheese
+cloth to keep it from sticking to the work. It should be about 1-1/2" in
+diameter and 1/2" thick. Hold the pad over the mouth of a bottle of
+shellac and tip the bottle so that the shellac comes in contact with the
+pad. The shellac will remain clean in a bottle and will be handy. The
+mouth of the shellac bottle should be about 1" in diameter and should be
+dipped once. Do likewise with a bottle, having a mouth 1/2" in diameter,
+containing alcohol. This should be dipped twice allowing the alcohol to
+dilute the shellac. Then drop on a couple of drops of oil and rub over
+the pad evenly; this aids in distributing the shellac properly and keeps
+the pad from sticking to the work. A bottle may also be used for this.
+For the rotten stone use a pepper shaker so that it may be sifted on the
+work as needed.
+
+When the mixture has been applied to the pad, hold the pad against the
+work lightly at first, until most of the moisture has been worked out of
+it, and then gradually increase the pressure until the pad is almost
+dry. In putting on the first coat, use more shellac and alcohol and just
+enough oil at all times to prevent the pad from sticking to the work.
+However, the pad should not contain as much shellac that it can be
+squeezed out with the fingers. When the pad is dry, another mixture is
+applied, and where open grained wood is used, rotten stone, or pumice
+stone, is sprinkled on the work to gradually fill up the pores and to
+build up a smooth surface. Run the lathe at a low speed, depending on
+the size of the piece that is being polished. Allow the first coat to
+dry before applying a second coat for, if too much is put on at any one
+time, the heat generated in the rubbing will cause the shellac to pull,
+and it will form rings by piling up. These rings may be worked out in
+two ways, either by a slight pressure of the pad on the rings or by
+cutting them with alcohol applied to the pad. If too much alcohol is
+used it will cut through the shellac and remove what has already been
+rubbed on. If at any time too much shellac is used it will pile up and
+form rings. Too much rotten stone will cut down the polish and by
+absorbing the mixture will leave the pad dry. If too much oil is used
+the polish will become dull after a day or two.
+
+After the first coat has hardened apply the second, but use less shellac
+and more alcohol and just enough oil to prevent the pad from sticking.
+This may be done by dipping the tip of a finger in the oil and spreading
+it over the pad. The entire mixture should be so that only a dampness
+can be felt on the pad. As the process goes on less oil and shellac are
+used. All oil must be removed when applying the last coat, or the piece
+will lose its polish. All the pores should be filled, and no rings
+should be on the finished work. Where a natural finish is desired, apply
+a coat of boiled linseed oil twelve hours before the work is to be
+polished. This will bring out the grain and will also aid in applying
+the first coat; no oil need then be used in the first coat.
+
+A great amount of practice and patience is required to get a first class
+polish. Polishing can only be learned by experience. Correct your
+troubles in properly proportioning the mixture. Never use too much
+shellac as it will build up too fast and will not harden, thus causing
+rings; or it will pull and catch to the pad, thus forming bunches. The
+purpose of alcohol is mainly to dilute the shellac and to prevent
+against putting it on the work too fast, but care must be taken not to
+use too much alcohol to cut the shellac entirely. The oil helps to
+distribute the shellac evenly, but it must be removed when finishing the
+last coat, or the polish will not remain. It also helps to keep the pad
+from sticking to the work.
+
+It is impossible to obtain a polish that will be as lasting and rich by
+any method other than the one described. For success it is essential to
+learn the proportions of the mixture and to acquire skill in applying
+the materials by using exactly the right pressure and the right movement
+of the pad.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+FACE-PLATE AND CHUCK TURNING
+
+
+Face-plate and chuck turning open an entirely new field of work from
+that taken up in previous chapters of this book. If handled correctly,
+it has much greater educational and practical value than cylinder
+turning. From the practical standpoint the field of work is broader and
+the models to be made are of much greater value. Aside from this, trade
+methods and practices can be applied and a broad insight into commercial
+work can be given the student.
+
+In some details of chuck turning the tool operations already learned can
+be employed, but for the most part they are entirely different. In order
+to preserve the educational value of the work as brought out by skill
+and dexterity in handling tools, it will be necessary to use the cutting
+method wherever possible. In some instances that method will be
+impossible, and the scraping method must be used.
+
+
+METHODS OF FASTENING STOCK
+
+All the work thus far has been on models where the stock worked upon is
+held between the live and dead centers. In face-plate and chuck turning
+the work is done at the head stock only and the piece is supported by
+means of a face-plate, or chuck, that is fastened to a face-plate, which
+is screwed onto the end of the live spindle. There are three methods of
+fastening stock to the face-plate, and it depends upon the nature of the
+exercise or model to be made which method is used.
+
+1. SMALL SINGLE SCREW FACE-PLATE. For all work that does not require
+deep cutting in the center, such as in towel rings, picture frames,
+etc., the small face-plate with a single screw should be used.
+
+Note:--Should it be found difficult to keep the block from working loose
+and turning, it is a good plan to fold a piece of sandpaper, grit side
+out, and place it between the face-plate and the stock.
+
+2. LARGE SURFACE SCREW FACE-PLATE. For all work that does not require
+deep cutting on the outside, such as exercises, jewel boxes, etc., as
+well as all large stock, and all stock from which chucks are to be
+made, the large face-plate with the surface screws should be used.
+
+3. GLUING TO WASTE STOCK. A block of scrap wood is fastened to a
+face-plate the same as for a chuck and surfaced off square. The block
+from which the model is to be made is planed square on one side and
+glued to the block on the face-plate with a sheet of paper between the
+two. To separate the model from the chuck, after it is completed, place
+a chisel on the waste stock, 1/16" back of the glue joint at such a
+point as will bring the chisel parallel to the grain of the model, and
+strike lightly with a mallet. This will cause the paper to separate and
+the model to become free.
+
+This method will be found very convenient epecially on models where the
+base is to be left straight. It will also be found to save much stock
+when working with expensive woods.
+
+
+LATHE ADJUSTMENTS
+
+To get the best results in face-plate or chuck turning there should be
+no end play in the spindle of the lathe. The spindle should always be
+tested out, and if any play is found, should be adjusted before
+attempting any work. It is almost impossible to make a true cut when
+such a condition obtains.
+
+
+POSITION OF TOOL REST
+
+For all face-plate and chuck turning the tool rest should be kept as
+close to the stock as possible, the same as in spindle turning,
+regardless of the angle it may be set. Vertically, the rest in most
+cases should be sufficiently below the center of the stock to bring the
+center or cutting point of the tools used, when held parallel to the bed
+of the lathe, even with the center of the stock. This last condition
+will necessitate adjusting the height occasionally when changing from
+large to small tools.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+TOOL PROCESSES IN FACE-PLATE AND CHUCK TURNING
+
+
+B-I--1-a. Straight Cuts
+
+1. ROUGHING OFF CORNERS. (3/4" GOUGE.) FIG. 14. The tool rest is set
+crosswise to the bed of the lathe and parallel to the face of the stock.
+
+Place the gouge on the rest with the handle well down. Roll the gouge to
+the left until the grind which forms the cutting edge is perpendicular
+to the stock. The point of contact should be slightly below the center
+or nose of the tool.
+
+The handle of the gouge is then swung well to the back of the lathe or
+to the operator's right. The gouge is then pushed forward into the stock
+and to the left, making a shearing cut. The cut should not be too heavy.
+The starting point for this cut should be a line which will indicate the
+largest diameter or circle that can be made from the block.--This cut
+should be repeated until the corners are removed from the block.
+
+To complete the cutting of thick stock it will be found necessary to
+change the tool rest to an angle of 45° with the bed of the lathe.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 14.]
+
+When hardwood is being turned it is sometimes advisable to saw the block
+almost round with a compass saw or bandsaw, if one is to be had. Should
+this be done the preceding steps are omitted.
+
+The tool rest is then placed parallel with the lathe bed and a roughing
+cut is taken with the gouge the entire thickness of the block.
+
+The lathe should be run on second or third speed until the corners are
+removed, and then changed to first speed.
+
+2. CALIPERING FOR DIAMETER. The true diameter is then calipered the same
+as in spindle work.
+
+3. SMOOTHING CUT. A smoothing cut is taken with a skew chisel the same
+as in spindle work.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 15.]
+
+4. ROUGHING CUT ON THE FACE. (3/4" GOUGE.) FIG. 15. The rest is now
+placed parallel to the bed of the lathe and slightly above the center of
+the spindle. Place the gouge on the rest on its edge with the grind
+toward the stock and parallel to the face to be surfaced. The nose of
+the gouge is the cutting point.
+
+The handle is then raised and the cutting point is forced toward the
+center. A very thin shaving should be taken. If the gouge is allowed to
+roll back so the grind above the cutting point comes in contact with the
+wood it is sure to catch and gash the wood.
+
+5. SMOOTHING THE FACE. (SMALL SKEW CHISEL.) FIG. 16. For all work up to
+3" in diameter, the surface may be smoothed by using a small skew chisel
+in the same manner as in squaring the ends of Stock in cylinder work.
+(Step 6--Exercise A-I--1-a, Straight Cuts.)
+
+For larger work, place the chisel flat on the rest with the toe next to
+the stock and the back edge of the chisel parallel to the face to be
+surfaced.
+
+The point of the chisel is then forced toward the center of the stock,
+using the straight back of the tool as a guide against the finished
+surface. Only a very thin cut should be taken at a time.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 16.]
+
+Note:--While this operation may be termed a scraping cut, it will be
+found to be much easier on the tool than if the cutting edge were held
+flat against the work as in other scraping cuts.
+
+The surface of the work should be tested for squareness by holding the
+edge of the chisel or a straight edge across the face.
+
+
+LAYING OFF MEASUREMENTS
+
+In laying off measurements on the face of the stock a pencil compass or
+dividers should be used. Set the compass or dividers to one-half the
+diameter of the circle wanted. While one point is held at the exact
+center of the stock, which is easily located while the stock is
+revolving, the other is brought in contact with the revolving stock
+until a circle of the correct diameter is marked.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 17.]
+
+Should the center of the stock be cut away, rendering this method
+impossible, the following method may be used: Set the compass or
+dividers to the exact diameter wanted. Place one point in contact with
+the stock a little to one side of the required line on the part that is
+to be cut-away. Bring the other point to the stock and see if it touches
+the line first made. If not, move the first point until the two points
+track in the same line.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 18.]
+
+The rest should be set at the exact center for measuring.
+
+All measurements on the edge of the stock can be made with pencil and
+rule as in cylinder turning.
+
+
+B-I--2-a. Shoulder Cuts
+
+1. EXTERNAL SHOULDERS. FIG. 18. The surplus stock at each successive
+shoulder is roughed out with a 3/4" gouge, keeping well outside the
+finished measurements. The gouge for this work is held in the same
+position as described in B-I--1-a, Step 1, for Roughing Off Corners.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 19.]
+
+2. For the finishing cut a small skew chisel is used, and the process
+is the same as that used in squaring ends of stock. Both the vertical
+and horizontal shoulders can be handled easily by this method. Fig, 19.
+
+3. INTERNAL SHOULDERS. For internal shoulder cutting the same methods
+may be used for roughing out and cutting the horizontal shoulders, but
+for the vertical or base shoulder it will be necessary to use the
+scraping process. (See "Use of Scraping Tools.")
+
+
+B-I--3-a. Taper Cuts
+
+Taper cutting will not be found hard as the gouge and skew chisel are
+used in the same manner as described in B-I--1-a, Steps 4 and 5. After
+the stock has been roughed away with the gouge to the approximate angle
+desired, a smoothing cut is taken with the skew. Care should be taken
+that the skew chisel is held at the exact angle of the taper desired.
+
+
+B-I--4-a. V Cuts
+
+V cutting will also be found easy as the tool process is exactly the
+same as that used in spindle turning. Exercise A-I--4-a. Fig. 20.
+
+
+B-I--5-a. Concave Cuts
+
+Place the 3/4" gouge on the rest with the handle parallel to the bed of
+the lathe. Roll the gouge on its edge and swing the handle so that the
+grind is perpendicular to the stock with the nose of the tool as the
+cutting point.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 20.]
+
+Force the gouge forward into the wood. As soon as the cut is started,
+the handle is lowered and swung to the left; (if cutting the left side
+of the concave) at the same time the tool is rolled back toward its
+original position. This movement brings the cutting point farther down
+on the lip and the grind, resting on the side of the cut, will force the
+gouge sidewise and will form one-quarter of the circle. Fig. 21.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 21.]
+
+This cut is continued from alternate side until the concave is nearly to
+size. The cut should be tested with a templet before the finishing cut
+is taken.
+
+
+B-I--6-a. Convex Cuts
+
+Rough out the stock between the beads with a parting tool.
+
+Hold the edge of the gouge on the rest with the handle, parallel to the
+bed of the lathe, to make the nose the cutting point.
+
+Swing the handle to the left so that the grind will form a tangent to
+the bead at its highest point.
+
+The gouge is then forced into the stock and to the right; at the same
+time the handle is swung to the right; keeping the grind tangent to the
+bead at the point of contact. Fig. 22. This cut is continued until the
+base of the bead is reached.
+
+
+B-I--7-a. Combination Cuts
+
+As in spindle turning, a combination exercise should be given at this
+point to provide an opportunity for studying out the best methods of
+working the various cuts just described into a finished product.
+
+
+USE OF SCRAPING TOOLS
+
+When scraping is to be employed, it should be done with only those tools
+that are made for that purpose, i.e., Square Nose, Round Nose, Spear
+Point, Right and Left Skew. The handling of these tools will be found
+easy. The only point to remember is that they should be held flat on the
+tool rest and parallel to the bed of the lathe when in use.
+
+In general practice the ordinary skew chisel should not be used as a
+scraping tool, for the cutting edge is not sharpened to withstand the
+heavy strain required by such work. Should it be necessary, however, to
+use a skew chisel as a scraper, the tool should be held so that the top
+grind is parallel to the bed of the lathe while in use.
+
+
+INTERNAL BORING
+
+In roughing out the center for Napkin Rings, Jewel Boxes, etc., the
+quickest method is to work it out with a small gouge.
+
+Place the gouge on the rest parallel to the bed of the lathe, having the
+point even with the center of the stock.
+
+Force the gouge into the wood until a hole is bored to the depth
+required. If the hole is deeper than 1", remove the tool often and clear
+out the shavings in order not to burn the point.
+
+In order to enlarge the hole to the proper size the point of the gouge
+is pressed against the left side of the hole a little above the center
+and a shearing cut is taken. To obviate the danger of the tool catching,
+all cuts should start from the back of the hole and proceed toward the
+front.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 22.]
+
+
+B-III--8-a. Sphere
+
+After the sphere is turned as nearly perfect as is possible when working
+between centers (Steps 1 to 4) it is cut free from the waste stock and
+is centered in a chuck.
+
+The chuck is made of any soft wood and should be cut in the end grain,
+which will insure equal pressure on all sides. Equal pressure cannot be
+obtained if the Chuck is cut in cross grain wood, owing to the tendency
+of side grain to give more than the end grain. The sphere should be
+forced into the chuck with slightly over half protruding. Very thin cuts
+should be taken and the sphere should be revolved one-quarter turn after
+each until true. As the sphere becomes smaller during the cutting, it
+will be necessary to cut the face of the chuck down and bore the hole
+deeper and smaller in order to keep more than half of it protruding at
+all times.
+
+[Illustration: Mirror (See Pages 299-301).]
+
+To remove the sphere tap the chuck lightly with a hammer just above it,
+at the same time pull out on the sphere.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+SPIRAL TURNING
+
+
+Spiral turning is a subject that has received very little attention by
+most schools in which wood turning is taught. Spiral work is seen in
+antique furniture and also in the modern furniture of the present day.
+It seems that it takes the wheel of fashion about a century to make a
+complete turn, for what our forefathers neglected and destroyed the
+people of the present day value and cherish.
+
+Spiral work gives excellent practice in shaping and modelling wood. It
+brings into play the principle of the helix as used in cutting threads,
+etc.; and its form, size and shape may be varied according to the taste
+of the individual. As in threads so in spiral work we have single and
+double spirals, and their form and proportion depend upon their use and
+application in furniture making. A variation of the spiral may be made
+in several ways: First, by changing the number of turns of the spiral on
+a straight shaft; second, by running a spiral on a tapered shaft; third,
+by changing the shape or form of the spiral itself; and fourth, by
+making more than one spiral on a shaft. It is uncommon to see ten or
+twelve spirals running around a single shaft.
+
+Some of the forms of the above types are fully taken up and explained in
+the work that is to follow.
+
+
+PLATES B-V--1-a, a´. SINGLE SPIRAL. STRAIGHT SHAFT
+
+To work out a single spiral for a pedestal proceed as follows:
+
+1. Turn a cylinder 2-1/4" in diameter. Make the ends slightly larger in
+order that the design may be turned on each, after the spiral has been
+worked out.
+
+2. Lay off spaces 2-1/16" apart on the cylinder while the spindle is
+turning in the lathe and divide each of these into four equal parts.
+Each one of these large spaces represents one turn of the spiral. A good
+proportion is slightly less than the diameter of the cylinder; thus the
+diameter of the cylinder equals 2-1/4" and the width of the space
+2-1/16".
+
+3. On the cylinder parallel to the axis draw lines A-A B-B C-C D-D.
+These lines should be 90° apart as shown in the top diagram (Plate
+B-V--1-a´). Line D-D is on the other side of the cylinder as shown in
+the top and middle diagrams.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 23.]
+
+4. Start on line A-A at point X, circle 1, and draw a line connecting it
+with line B-B on circle 1´. Then connect B-B on circle 1´ with C-C on
+circle 2 and so on until a spiral has been drawn the entire length of
+the cylinder. This line will form the ridge of the spiral as shown in
+the middle diagram.
+
+5. Next begin on line C-C at circle 1, and draw a line connecting it
+with D-D on circle 1´ then to line A-A on circle 2, and so on as before.
+This spiral represents the center of the groove or the portion which is
+to be cut away. This is not shown in the diagram because more or less
+confusion would be caused with the line representing the ridge of the
+spiral.
+
+6. Begin on line C-C at circle 1, and saw to a depth of 3/4". Saw the
+entire length of the cylinder leaving about 1-1/2" at the ends. Do not
+follow the line here, but switch off gradually and follow circles 1 and
+15, so as to allow the spiral to begin and end gradually and not
+abruptly.
+
+7. Rough out with a knife or chisel by cutting on both sides of the saw
+cut. Then use a wood rasp to finish shaping out the spiral. When
+properly shaped out allow the lathe to turn slowly and smooth with
+sandpaper by following the spiral as the lathe turns.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 24.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 24-a.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 25.]
+
+8. Cut the design on both ends of the cylinder and polish.
+
+
+PLATES B-V--2-a, a´, a´´. SINGLE SPIRAL. TAPERED SHAFT
+
+To lay off a single spiral for the electric lamp shown in Figs. 24 and
+24a proceed as follows:
+
+1. Select your wood and bore a hole through it. Plug the hole and center
+the piece in the lathe. This insures getting the hole exactly in the
+center, and it will not be cut into while the cutting of the groove of
+the spiral proceeds. A groove may also be cut in two pieces of stock and
+glued together to form a hole through the stock.
+
+2. Turn a cylinder 2-1/2" in diameter, tapering it to 1-1/2" at the one
+end; this part should be 12-1/8" long. Both ends should be left larger
+than 2-1/2" as the lower and upper designs must be cut here.
+
+3. Let the spindle revolve in the lathe and draw circles as shown in the
+layout (Plate B-V--2-a´). The number of circles will vary with the
+taper. Since seven turns are needed in the present spiral, 28 circles
+will be necessary--four circles for each turn of the spiral as shown in
+the middle diagram. A good proportion to follow is to measure the
+diameter of the spindle at circle 2 and lay off this distance from
+circle 1 to circle 3. Then measure the diameter at circle 4 and lay off
+this diameter from circle 3 to circle 5 and so on until all circles have
+been made. Then divide these large divisions into four equal parts.
+
+4. Draw four lines the entire length of the spindle, each 90° apart as
+shown by the heavy lines in the middle diagram. The heavy circles of the
+same diagram represent the complete turns of the spiral.
+
+5. Lay out the line representing the ridge of the spiral as shown in the
+middle diagram. Begin on circle 1, where the straight line crosses it,
+draw to circle 1´ at the point where the next straight line crosses it,
+then to 2--2´--3--3´ and so on until the end is reached. This forms the
+ridge of the spiral as shown in diagram 3. Next it may be more
+convenient to draw another line representing the groove. In this case
+begin at point X in the middle diagram, opposite the point where first
+started, and continue in the preceding manner, making this line parallel
+to the other line.
+
+6. Saw on the line last made, being careful not to saw too deeply. The
+depth must be 1/4" less than half the diameter of the spindle where the
+cut is made. This saw cut forms the groove of the spiral. The groove is
+then cut out by hand with a chisel or knife, by working down the wood on
+both sides of the saw cut. After the spirals have been roughed out, a
+rasp is used to finish shaping them. The work is then sandpapered
+smooth, while the spindle is revolved slowly in the lathe.
+
+7. Cut designs on the ends of the cylinder and polish.
+
+
+PLATES B-V--2-b, b´. DOUBLE SPIRAL. TAPERED SHAFT
+
+To work out a double spiral for the electric lamp illustrated in Fig. 25
+proceed as follows:
+
+1. Turn up the spindle in the usual manner. Since the base of the shaft
+is larger than the top, the spiral must also be in proportion and lines
+A-A´, B-B´, C-C´, D-D´, and E-E´, are drawn around the shaft. To get the
+approximate spacing from circles A-A to B-B measure the diameter at A-A´
+plus about 3/16" and lay off from A-A´ to B-B´. Then take the diameter
+of B-B´ plus about 3/16" and lay off from A-A´ to B-B´. Then take the
+diameter at B-B´ plus about 3/16" and lay off from circle B-B´ to C-C´
+and so on. If the shaft is tapered more, a different proportion must be
+used. Also if it is desired to have the twist wind around the shaft
+three times, a variation must be made in the number of circles.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 27.]
+
+2. If it is desired to have the twist wind around the shaft twice, draw
+circles 1-1´, 2-2´, 3-3´, and 4-4´ and the spaces will grow
+proportionately smaller at the small end.
+
+3. Draw four lines running lengthwise on the spindle and 90° apart as
+shown in the midde figure in heavy lines (Plate B-V--2-b´).
+
+4. Begin at A and draw a curved line to where the 90° line crosses
+circle 1-1´. From there extend the line to where the next 90° line
+crosses circle B-B´ at point B´. Continue in this manner until the other
+end of the shaft is reached. Begin at A´ and draw a line on the opposite
+side of the shaft. These two lines running around and along the shaft
+form the grooves while the portion in between forms the beads of the
+double spiral.
+
+5. Saw to the desired depth, being 1/4" less than half the diameter at
+the point where cut. With a chisel or knife form the grooves and beads.
+It is necessary to be careful about not ending the grooves too abruptly.
+(See point 6 in Plates B-V--1-a, a´.) Smooth with a rasp and sandpaper
+while the lathe is revolving slowly.
+
+6. Cut the design on the ends and polish.
+
+
+PLATES B-V--3-a, a´. DOUBLE GROOVE SPIRAL. STRAIGHT SHAFT
+
+To work out the double groove spiral for the magazine holder
+illustrated, proceed as follows:
+
+1. Square up the stock to 1-3/8". Center carefully and turn the design
+on both ends as shown, in the upper diagram (Plate B-V--3-a´). Turn the
+cylinder between the top and bottom, making it 5-1/2" long and 1-3/8" in
+diameter.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 26.]
+
+2. Divide the cylinder into two equal parts. Each part represents one
+revolution of the spiral.
+
+3. Divide each half into four equal parts as shown in the top and center
+diagrams (Plate B-V--3-a´), 1-1´, 2-2´, 3-3´ and so on. The proportion
+of the distance between these circles should be one-half the diameter of
+the cylinder.
+
+4. Draw lines A-A, B-B, C-C, and D-D, parallel to the axis of the
+cylinder 90° apart.
+
+5. With a band 3/16" wide of any substantial material (preferably a
+narrow strip of tin or a watch main spring) begin on the line A-A at
+circle 1, and connect circle 1´ at line B-B, and then connect circle 2
+at C-C, and so on until the spiral is made the entire length. Mark on
+both sides of the 3/16" band so as to keep the spiral parallel.
+
+6. Next begin at the line C-C where circle 1 crosses it and connect from
+here to 1´ at B-B. Proceed as in Step 5, as shown in the center diagram.
+
+7. Now erase the extreme ends of the spiral near circles 1 and 5, and
+deviate from the original spiral and follow the circles in a more
+parallel direction so as to allow the spiral to begin and end gradually
+and not too abruptly. Refer to the lower diagram for this.
+
+8. Cut out portions of wood between the bands previously marked around,
+as shown in the lower figure. The wood should be cut out with a knife so
+as to leave the corners sharp on the narrow bands. The portion cut out
+should be a semi-circle and can be sanded by making a spindle a little
+smaller than the distance between the bands and fastening sandpaper on
+the spindle. Place in the lathe and hold the spiral on the sandpaper
+cylinder at an angle so that the spiral will fit. Turn gradually and the
+sandpaper will smooth up the portion between the bands and true it up.
+At the ends where the grooves are smaller, use a smaller stick around
+which sandpaper has been wound and work out by hand.
+
+9. It is well to cut straight down, about 1/32" deep, along the lines
+marking out the narrow bands. Then the wood will not be so likely to
+split while removing the stock which forms the grooves between the
+bands.
+
+10. Cut out the mortises in the square portions which have been left at
+both ends. Make the frame work for the sides and cane. Glue together and
+polish.
+
+Note:--By making the posts smaller and using the same construction for a
+side a nice looking book stall may be made. The proportions for the
+posts are the same as mentioned in Step 3.
+
+
+[Transcribers note: There are 142 line art illustrations after this
+point in the book. They are all provided in the illustrated HTML
+edition of this book.]
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A Course In Wood Turning
+by Archie S. Milton and Otto K. Wohlers
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A COURSE IN WOOD TURNING ***
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+    <title>
+      The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Course In Wood Turning, by Archie S. Milton.
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of A Course In Wood Turning
+by Archie S. Milton and Otto K. Wohlers
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: A Course In Wood Turning
+
+Author: Archie S. Milton and Otto K. Wohlers
+
+Release Date: March 25, 2005 [EBook #15460]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A COURSE IN WOOD TURNING ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Jason Isbell and the PG Online Distributed Proofreading Team
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+<p>Transcribers note: Mis-spelled words in the original left as is. Below
+is a list of all known mis-spelled words kept from the original:</p>
+
+<p>Table Of Contents - Classification of Plates<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">bowels - should be bowls</span><br />
+Chapter II - SPEED OF THE LATHE<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">centrificial - should be centrifugal</span><br />
+Chapter IX - METHODS OF FASTENING STOCK<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">epecially - should be especially</span><br />
+Chapter XI - SPIRAL TURNING<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">modelling - should be modeling</span><br />
+Chapter XI - PLATES B-V--2-b, b&rsquo;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">midde - should be middle</span><br />
+</p>
+<hr />
+<h1>A COURSE IN WOOD TURNING<a name="Page_1" id="Page_1" /></h1>
+
+<h2>By ARCHIE S. MILTON</h2>
+
+<h2>OTTO K. WOHLERS</h2>
+
+<p class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/pubstamp.jpg" width="97" alt="BRUCE MILWAUKEE (Publishers Stamp)" title="BRUCE MILWAUKEE (Publishers Stamp)" />
+</p>
+
+<h6>THE BRUCE PUBLISHING COMPANY</h6>
+
+<h6>MILWAUKEE, WISCONSIN</h6>
+
+<h6><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2" />1919</h6>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="PREFACE" id="PREFACE" /><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3" />PREFACE</h2>
+
+
+<p>This book is the outgrowth of problems given to high school pupils by
+the writers, and has been compiled in logical sequence. Stress is laid
+upon the proper use of tools, and the problems are presented in such a
+way that each exercise, or project, depends somewhat on the one
+preceding. It is not the idea of the writers that all problems shown
+should be made, but that the instructor select only such as will give
+the pupils enough preliminary work in the use of the tools to prepare
+them for other models following.</p>
+
+<p>The related matter on the care of the lathe and tools, the grinding of
+chisels, the polishing of projects, and the specific directions and
+cautions for working out the various exercises and projects with the
+drawings, make the book not only valuable for reference, but also as a
+class text to be studied in connection with the making of projects. The
+drawings show exact dimensions and are tabulated in the upper right-hand
+corner in such a way that they may be used in a filing case if desired.
+At least two designs are shown for each model, and these may be used as
+suggestions from which students, with the aid of the instructor, may
+work out their own designs.</p>
+
+<p>The book has been divided into two parts: (A) Spindle Turning, and (B)
+Face-Plate Turning. The same order is followed in each part; the related
+information is supplied where required as the pupil progresses.</p>
+
+<p>Part A takes up the following: (I) Exercises; (II) Models, involving the
+same tool processes, only in a somewhat different degree; (III) Oval
+Turning, explaining the use of two centers; (IV) Duplicate Turning,
+where identical pieces are turned.</p>
+
+<p>Part B is arranged as follows: (I) Exercises; (II) Models, which are an
+application of cuts in exercises that involve only face-plate work;
+(III) Models, which require chucking; (IV) Assembling Exercises,
+involving spindle turning, face-plate work and chucking; (V) Spiral
+Turning, showing the method of turning a spiral on the lathe.</p>
+
+<p>The ultimate aim of this book is to give, through the exercises and
+problems, a thorough understanding of the principles of wood turning by
+gradually developing the confidence of the pupil in the complete control
+of his tools, at the same time suggesting harmonious lines in design
+which will lead to other ideas in designing problems. <a name="Page_4" id="Page_4" /></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+
+<h2><a name="TABLE_OF_CONTENTS" id="TABLE_OF_CONTENTS" /><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5" />TABLE OF CONTENTS</h2>
+
+<table summary="Table of Contents">
+<tr>
+	<td style="width: 400px"></td>
+	<td class="middle">Pages<br /></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+	<td> <a href="#CHAPTER_I"><b>CHAPTER I</b></a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Introductory</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">--Commercial and Educational Values of Wood Turning</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">--Elements of Success</span></td>
+	<td class="middle">9-10<br />
+    </td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td><a href="#CHAPTER_II"><b>CHAPTER II</b></a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">The Lathe</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">--Care of the Lathe</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">--Speed of the Lathe</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">--Method of Figuring the Diameter of Pulleys</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">--Rules for Finding the Speeds and Sizes of Pulleys</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">--Points on Setting Up the Lathe and Shafting</span></td>
+	<td class="middle">11-14<br />
+    </td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td><a href="#CHAPTER_III"><b>CHAPTER III</b></a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Wood Turning Tools</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">--Grinding and Whetting Turning Tools</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">--The Gouge</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">--The Parting Tool</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">--Scraping Tools</span></td>
+	<td class="middle">15-18<br />
+    </td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td><a href="#CHAPTER_IV"><b>CHAPTER IV</b></a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spindle Turning</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">--Centering Stock</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">--Clamping Stock in the Lathe</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">--Adjusting the Tool Rest</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">--Position of the Operator at the Lathe</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">--Holding the Tools</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">--Use of the Tools in Spindle Turning</span></td>
+	<td class="middle">19-21<br />
+    </td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td><a href="#CHAPTER_V"><b>CHAPTER V</b></a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tool Processes in Spindle Turning</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">--The Roughing Cut</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">--The Sizing Cut</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">--The Smoothing Cut</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">--Testing for Smoothness</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">--Measuring for Length</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">--Squaring Ends</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">--Cutting Off</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">--Shoulder Cuts</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">--Taper Cuts</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">--V Cuts-Concave Cuts</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">--Convex Cuts</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">--Combination Cuts</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">--Chisel Handles</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">--Mallets and Handles</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">--Vise Handles</span></td>
+	<td class="middle">22-32<br />
+
+    </td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td><a href="#CHAPTER_VI"><b>CHAPTER VI</b></a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Oval Turning</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">--Tool Operations</span></td>
+	<td class="middle">33-34<br />
+
+     </td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td><a href="#CHAPTER_VII"><b>CHAPTER VII</b></a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Duplicate Turning</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">--Use of Measuring Stick</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">--Use of Templets</span></td>
+	<td class="middle">35<br />
+
+     </td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII"><b>CHAPTER VIII</b></a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Finishing and Polishing</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">--Ordinary Cabinet Finishing</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">--French Polishing</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">--Method of Applying French Polish</span></td>
+	<td class="middle">36-38<br />
+
+    </td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td> <a href="#CHAPTER_IX"><b>CHAPTER IX</b></a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Face-Plate and Chuck Turning</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">--Methods of Fastening Stock</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">--Small Single Screw Face-Plate</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">--Large Surface Screw Face-Plate</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">--Gluing to Waste Stock</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">--Lathe Adjustments</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">--Position of Tool Rest</span></td>
+	<td class="middle">39-40<br />
+
+     </td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td><a href="#CHAPTER_X"><b>CHAPTER X</b></a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tool Processes in Face-Plate and Chuck Turning</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">--Straight Cuts</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">--Roughing Off Corners</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">--Calipering for Diameter</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">--Smoothing Cut</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">--Roughing Cut on the Face</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">--Smoothing the Face</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">--Laying Off Measurements</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">--External Shoulders</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">--Internal Shoulders</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">--Taper Cuts</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">--V Cuts</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">--Concave Cuts</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">--Convex Cuts</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">--Combination Cuts</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">--Use of Scraping Tools</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">--Internal Boring</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">--Turning a Sphere</span></td>
+	<td class="middle">41-48<br />
+
+     </td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+	<td><a href="#CHAPTER_XI"><b>CHAPTER XI</b></a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spiral Turning</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">--Single Spiral, Straight Shaft</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">--Tapered Shaft</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">--Double Spiral, Tapered Shaft</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">--Double Spiral, Straight Shaft</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">--Double Groove Spiral, Straight Shaft</span></td>
+	<td class="middle">49-55<br />
+<a name="Page_6" id="Page_6" />
+    </td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<h2>PLATES--SPINDLE TURNING.</h2>
+
+<table summary="PLATES--SPINDLE TURNING.">
+	<tr><td style="width: 400px"><a href="#A-I--1">Straight Cuts</a></td><td class="middle">57</td></tr>
+	<tr><td><a href="#A-I--2">Shoulder Cuts</a></td><td class="middle">59-65</td></tr>
+	<tr><td><a href="#A-I--3">Taper Cuts</a></td><td class="middle">67-77</td></tr>
+	<tr><td><a href="#A-I--4">V Cuts</a></td><td class="middle">79-81</td></tr>
+	<tr><td><a href="#A-I--5">Concave Cuts</a></td><td class="middle">83-87</td></tr>
+	<tr><td><a href="#A-I--6">Convex Cuts</a></td><td class="middle">89-95</td></tr>
+	<tr><td><a href="#A-I--7">Combination Cuts</a></td><td class="middle">97-101</td></tr>
+	<tr><td><a href="#A-II--1">Chisel Handles</a></td><td class="middle">103-107</td></tr>
+	<tr><td><a href="#A-II--1-d">Cabinet File Handle</a></td><td class="middle">109</td></tr>
+	<tr><td><a href="#A-II--1-e">Scratch Awl Handle</a></td><td class="middle">111</td></tr>
+	<tr><td><a href="#A-II--1-f">Carving Tool Handle</a></td><td class="middle">113</td></tr>
+	<tr><td><a href="#A-II--1-g">Turning Chisel Handle</a></td><td class="middle">115</td></tr>
+	<tr><td><a href="#A-II--2">Mallets</a></td><td class="middle">117-119</td></tr>
+	<tr><td><a href="#A-II--3">Gavels</a></td><td class="middle">121-127</td></tr>
+	<tr><td><a href="#A-II--4-c">Darning Eggs</a></td><td class="middle">129-133</td></tr>
+	<tr><td><a href="#A-II--4">Stocking Darner</a></td><td class="middle">131</td></tr>
+	<tr><td><a href="#A-II--5">Potato Masher</a></td><td class="middle">135</td></tr>
+	<tr><td><a href="#A-II--6">Rolling Pins</a></td><td class="middle">139-141</td></tr>
+	<tr><td><a href="#A-II--7">Vise Handle</a></td><td class="middle">143</td></tr>
+	<tr><td><a href="#A-III--1">Screw Driver Handles</a></td><td class="middle">145-147</td></tr>
+	<tr><td><a href="#A-III--2-a">Pene Hammer Handle</a></td><td class="middle">149</td></tr>
+	<tr><td><a href="#A-III--2-b">Claw Hammer Handle</a></td><td class="middle">151</td></tr>
+	<tr><td><a href="#A-IV--1">Indian Clubs</a></td><td class="middle">153-155</td></tr>
+	<tr><td><a href="#A-IV--2">Dumb Bells</a></td><td class="middle">157-159</td></tr>
+	<tr><td><a href="#A-IV--3">Ten Pins</a></td><td class="middle">161</td></tr>
+	<tr><td><a href="#A-IV--4">Drawer Pulls</a></td><td class="middle">163-165</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<h2>PLATES--CHUCK TURNING.</h2>
+<table summary="PLATES--CHUCK TURNING.">
+	<tr><td style="width: 400px"><a href="#B-I--1">Straight Cuts</a></td><td class="middle">167-169</td></tr>
+	<tr><td><a href="#B-I--2">Shoulder Cuts</a></td><td class="middle">171-173</td></tr>
+	<tr><td><a href="#B-I--3">Taper Cuts</a></td><td class="middle">175-177</td></tr>
+	<tr><td><a href="#B-I--4">V Cuts</a></td><td class="middle">179-181</td></tr>
+	<tr><td><a href="#B-I--5">Concave Cuts</a></td><td class="middle">183-185</td></tr>
+	<tr><td><a href="#B-I--6">Convex Cuts</a></td><td class="middle">187-189</td></tr>
+	<tr><td><a href="#B-I--7">Combination Cuts</a></td><td class="middle">191-195</td></tr>
+	<tr><td><a href="#B-II--1">Match Boxes</a></td><td class="middle">197-201</td></tr>
+	<tr><td><a href="#B-II--2">Pin Trays</a></td><td class="middle">203-205</td></tr>
+	<tr><td><a href="#B-II--3">Hair Pin Receivers</a></td><td class="middle">207-209</td></tr>
+	<tr><td><a href="#B-II--4">Hat Pin Receivers</a></td><td class="middle">211-213</td></tr>
+	<tr><td><a href="#B-II--5">Ornamental Vases</a></td><td class="middle">215-219</td></tr>
+	<tr><td><a href="#B-II--6">Spinnet</a></td><td class="middle">221</td></tr>
+	<tr><td><a href="#B-III--1">Towel Rings</a></td><td class="middle">223-227</td></tr>
+	<tr><td><a href="#B-III--2">Card Trays</a></td><td class="middle">229-235</td></tr>
+	<tr><td><a href="#B-III--3">Picture Frames</a></td><td class="middle">237-243</td></tr>
+	<tr><td><a href="#B-III--4">Nut Bowls</a></td><td class="middle">245-251</td></tr>
+	<tr><td><a href="#B-III--5">Napkin Rings</a></td><td class="middle">253-257</td></tr>
+	<tr><td><a href="#B-III--6">Jewel Boxes</a></td><td class="middle">259-273</td></tr>
+	<tr><td><a href="#B-III--7">Collar Boxes</a></td><td class="middle">275-279</td></tr>
+	<tr><td><a href="#B-III--8">Sphere</a></td><td class="middle">281</td></tr>
+	<tr><td><a href="#B-III--9">Checker Men</a></td><td class="middle">283</td></tr>
+	<tr><td><a href="#B-IV--1">Candle Sticks</a></td><td class="middle">285-293</td></tr>
+	<tr><td><a href="#B-IV--2">Shaving Stands</a></td><td class="middle">295-301</td></tr>
+	<tr><td><a href="#B-IV--3">Reading Lamp Stands</a></td><td class="middle">303-307</td></tr>
+	<tr><td><a href="#B-IV--4">Pedestal</a></td><td class="middle">309</td></tr>
+	<tr><td><a href="#B-IV--5">Smokers' Stands</a></td><td class="middle">311-313</td></tr>
+	<tr><td><a href="#B-IV--6">Pin Cushion and Spoon Holder</a></td><td class="middle">315</td></tr>
+	<tr><td><a href="#B-IV--7">Chess Men</a></td><td class="middle">317-319</td></tr>
+	<tr><td><a href="#B-V--1">Pedestals</a></td><td class="middle">321-325</td></tr>
+	<tr><td><a href="#B-V--2">Electric Reading Lamps</a></td><td class="middle">327-335</td></tr>
+	<tr><td><a href="#B-V--3">Magazine Holders</a></td><td class="middle">337-339</td></tr>
+</table>
+<p><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7" /></p>
+
+<h2>CLASSIFICATION OF PLATES</h2>
+
+<table summary="CLASSIFICATION OF PLATES">
+<tr><td style="width: 400px">
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><a name="A" id="A" />A. SPINDLE TURNING</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;"><a name="A-I" id="A-I" />I. Exercises</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;"><a name="A-I--1" id="A-I--1" />1. Straight Cuts, <a href="images/A-I--1-a.png" id="images-A-I--1-a.png">a</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;"><a name="A-I--2" id="A-I--2" />2. Shoulder Cuts, <a href="images/A-I--2-a.png" id="images-A-I--2-a.png">a</a>-<a href="images/A-I--2-b.png" id="images-A-I--2-b.png">b</a>-<a href="images/A-I--2-c.png" id="images-A-I--2-c.png">c</a>-<a href="images/A-I--2-d.png" id="images-A-I--2-d.png">d</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;"><a name="A-I--3" id="A-I--3" />3. Taper Cuts, <a href="images/A-I--3-a.png" id="images-A-I--3-a.png">a</a>-<a href="images/A-I--3-b.png" id="images-A-I--3-b.png">b</a>-<a href="images/A-I--3-c.png" id="images-A-I--3-c.png">c</a>-<a href="images/A-I--3-d.png" id="images-A-I--3-d.png">d</a>-<a href="images/A-I--3-e.png" id="images-A-I--3-e.png">e</a>-<a href="images/A-I--3-f.png" id="images-A-I--3-f.png">f</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;"><a name="A-I--4" id="A-I--4" />4. V Cuts, <a href="images/A-I--4-a.png" id="images-A-I--4-a.png">a</a>-<a href="images/A-I--4-b.png" id="images-A-I--4-b.png">b</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;"><a name="A-I--5" id="A-I--5" />5. Concave Cuts, <a href="images/A-I--5-a.png" id="images-A-I--5-a.png">a</a>-<a href="images/A-I--5-b.png" id="images-A-I--5-b.png">b</a>-<a href="images/A-I--5-c.png" id="images-A-I--5-c.png">c</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;"><a name="A-I--6" id="A-I--6" />6. Convex Cuts, <a href="images/A-I--6-a.png" id="images-A-I--6-a.png">a</a>-<a href="images/A-I--6-b.png" id="images-A-I--6-b.png">b</a>-<a href="images/A-I--6-c.png" id="images-A-I--6-c.png">c</a>-<a href="images/A-I--6-d.png" id="images-A-I--6-d.png">d</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;"><a name="A-I--7" id="A-I--7" />7. Combination Cuts, <a href="images/A-I--7-a.png" id="images-A-I--7-a.png">a</a>-<a href="images/A-I--7-b.png" id="images-A-I--7-b.png">b</a>-<a href="images/A-I--7-c.png" id="images-A-I--7-c.png">c</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;"><a name="A-II" id="A-II" />II. Models</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;"><a name="A-II--1" id="A-II--1" />1. Chisel Handles, <a href="images/A-II--1-a.png" id="images-A-II--1-a.png">a</a>-<a href="images/A-II--1-b.png" id="images-A-II--1-b.png">b</a>-<a href="images/A-II--1-c.png" id="images-A-II--1-c.png">c</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 6em;"><a name="A-II--1-d" id="A-II--1-d" />Cabinet File Handle, <a href="images/A-II--1-d.png" id="images-A-II--1-d.png">d</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 6em;"><a name="A-II--1-e" id="A-II--1-e" />Scratch Awl Handle, <a href="images/A-II--1-e.png" id="images-A-II--1-e.png">e</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 6em;"><a name="A-II--1-f" id="A-II--1-f" />Carving Tool Handle, <a href="images/A-II--1-f.png" id="images-A-II--1-f.png">f</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 6em;"><a name="A-II--1-g" id="A-II--1-g" />Turning Chisel Handle, <a href="images/A-II--1-g.png" id="images-A-II--1-g.png">g</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;"><a name="A-II--2" id="A-II--2" />2. Mallets, <a href="images/A-II--2-a.png" id="images-A-II--2-a.png">a</a>-<a href="images/A-II--2-b.png" id="images-A-II--2-b.png">b</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;"><a name="A-II--3" id="A-II--3" />3. Gavels, <a href="images/A-II--3-a.png" id="images-A-II--3-a.png">a</a>-<a href="images/A-II--3-b.png" id="images-A-II--3-b.png">b</a>-<a href="images/A-II--3-c.png" id="images-A-II--3-c.png">c</a>-<a href="images/A-II--3-d.png" id="images-A-II--3-d.png">d</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;"><a name="A-II--4" id="A-II--4" />4. Stocking Darners, <a href="images/A-II--4-a.png" id="images-A-II--4-a.png">a</a>-<a href="images/A-II--4-b.png" id="images-A-II--4-b.png">b</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 6em;"><a name="A-II--4-c" id="A-II--4-c" />Darning Egg, <a href="images/A-II--4-c.png" id="images-A-II--4-c.png">c</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;"><a name="A-II--5" id="A-II--5" />5. Potato Mashers, <a href="images/A-II--5-a.png" id="images-A-II--5-a.png">a</a>-<a href="images/A-II--5-b.png" id="images-A-II--5-b.png">b</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;"><a name="A-II--6" id="A-II--6" />6. Rolling Pins, <a href="images/A-II--6-a.png" id="images-A-II--6-a.png">a</a>-<a href="images/A-II--6-b.png" id="images-A-II--6-b.png">b</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;"><a name="A-II--7" id="A-II--7" />7. Vise Handles, <a href="images/A-II--7-a.png" id="images-A-II--7-a.png">a</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><a name="A-III" id="A-III" />III. Oval Turning</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;"><a name="A-III--1" id="A-III--1" />1. Screw-driver Handles, <a href="images/A-III--1-a.png" id="images-A-III--1-a.png">a</a>-<a href="images/A-III--1-b.png" id="images-A-III--1-b.png">b</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;"><a name="A-III--2" id="A-III--2" />2. Hammer Handles</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 6em;"><a name="A-III--2-a" id="A-III--2-a" />Penne Hammer Handle, <a href="images/A-III--2-a.png" id="images-A-III--2-a.png">a</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 6em;"><a name="A-III--2-b" id="A-III--2-b" />Claw Hammer Handle, <a href="images/A-III--2-b.png" id="images-A-III--2-b.png">b</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;"><a name="A-IV" id="A-IV" />IV. Duplicate Turning</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;"><a name="A-IV--1" id="A-IV--1" />1. Indian Clubs, <a href="images/A-IV--1-a.png" id="images-A-IV--1-a.png">a</a>-<a href="images/A-IV--1-b.png" id="images-A-IV--1-b.png">b</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;"><a name="A-IV--2" id="A-IV--2" />2. Dumb-bells, <a href="images/A-IV--2-a.png" id="images-A-IV--2-a.png">a</a>-<a href="images/A-IV--2-b.png" id="images-A-IV--2-b.png">b</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;"><a name="A-IV--3" id="A-IV--3" />3. Tenpins, <a href="images/A-IV--3-a.png" id="images-A-IV--3-a.png">a</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;"><a name="A-IV--4" id="A-IV--4" />4. Drawer Pulls, <a href="images/A-IV--4-a.png" id="images-A-IV--4-a.png">a</a>-<a href="images/A-IV--4-b.png" id="images-A-IV--4-b.png">b</a></span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><a name="B" id="B" />B. FACE-PLATE AND CHUCK TURNING</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;"><a name="B-I" id="B-I" />I. Exercises</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;"><a name="B-I--1" id="B-I--1" />1. Straight Cuts, <a href="images/B-I--1-a.png" id="images-B-I--1-a.png">a</a>-<a href="images/B-I--1-b.png" id="images-B-I--1-b.png">b</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;"><a name="B-I--2" id="B-I--2" />2. Shoulder Cuts, <a href="images/B-I--2-a.png" id="images-B-I--2-a.png">a</a>-<a href="images/B-I--2-b.png" id="images-B-I--2-b.png">b</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;"><a name="B-I--3" id="B-I--3" />3. Taper Cuts, <a href="images/B-I--3-a.png" id="images-B-I--3-a.png">a</a>-<a href="images/B-I--3-b.png" id="images-B-I--3-b.png">b</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;"><a name="B-I--4" id="B-I--4" />4. V Cuts, <a href="images/B-I--4-a.png" id="images-B-I--4-a.png">a</a>-<a href="images/B-I--4-b.png" id="images-B-I--4-b.png">b</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;"><a name="B-I--5" id="B-I--5" />5. Concave Cuts, <a href="images/B-I--5-a.png" id="images-B-I--5-a.png">a</a>-<a href="images/B-I--5-b.png" id="images-B-I--5-b.png">b</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;"><a name="B-I--6" id="B-I--6" />6. Convex Cuts, <a href="images/B-I--6-a.png" id="images-B-I--6-a.png">a</a>-<a href="images/B-I--6-b.png" id="images-B-I--6-b.png">b</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;"><a name="B-I--7" id="B-I--7" />7. Combination Cuts, <a href="images/B-I--7-a.png" id="images-B-I--7-a.png">a</a>-<a href="images/B-I--7-b.png" id="images-B-I--7-b.png">b</a>-<a href="images/B-I--7-c.png" id="images-B-I--7-c.png">c</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;"><a name="B-II" id="B-II" />II. Face-Plate Models</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;"><a name="B-II--1" id="B-II--1" />1. Match Boxes, <a href="images/B-II--1-a.png" id="images-B-II--1-a.png">a</a>-<a href="images/B-II--1-b.png" id="images-B-II--1-b.png">b</a>-<a href="images/B-II--1-c.png" id="images-B-II--1-c.png">c</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;"><a name="B-II--2" id="B-II--2" />2. Pin Trays, <a href="images/B-II--2-a.png" id="images-B-II--2-a.png">a</a>-<a href="images/B-II--2-b.png" id="images-B-II--2-b.png">b</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;"><a name="B-II--3" id="B-II--3" />3. Hair Pin Receivers, <a href="images/B-II--3-a.png" id="images-B-II--3-a.png">a</a>-<a href="images/B-II--3-b.png" id="images-B-II--3-b.png">b</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;"><a name="B-II--4" id="B-II--4" />4. Hat Pin Receivers, <a href="images/B-II--4-a.png" id="images-B-II--4-a.png">a</a>-<a href="images/B-II--4-b.png" id="images-B-II--4-b.png">b</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;"><a name="B-II--5" id="B-II--5" />5. Ornamental Vases, <a href="images/B-II--5-a.png" id="images-B-II--5-a.png">a</a>-<a href="images/B-II--5-b.png" id="images-B-II--5-b.png">b</a>-<a href="images/B-II--5-c.png" id="images-B-II--5-c.png">c</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;"><a name="B-II--6" id="B-II--6" />6. Spinnet, (game) <a href="images/B-II--6-a.png" id="images-B-II--6-a.png">a</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><a name="B-III" id="B-III" />III. Chuck Models</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;"><a name="B-III--1" id="B-III--1" />1. Towel Rings, <a href="images/B-III--1-a.png" id="images-B-III--1-a.png">a</a>-<a href="images/B-III--1-b.png" id="images-B-III--1-b.png">b</a>-<a href="images/B-III--1-c.png" id="images-B-III--1-c.png">c</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;"><a name="B-III--2" id="B-III--2" />2. Card Trays, <a href="images/B-III--2-a.png" id="images-B-III--2-a.png">a</a>-<a href="images/B-III--2-b.png" id="images-B-III--2-b.png">b</a>-<a href="images/B-III--2-c.png" id="images-B-III--2-c.png">c</a>-<a href="images/B-III--2-d.png" id="images-B-III--2-d.png">d</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;"><a name="B-III--3" id="B-III--3" />3. Picture Frames, <a href="images/B-III--3-a.png" id="images-B-III--3-a.png">a</a>-<a href="images/B-III--3-b.png" id="images-B-III--3-b.png">b</a>-<a href="images/B-III--3-c.png" id="images-B-III--3-c.png">c</a>-<a href="images/B-III--3-d.png" id="images-B-III--3-d.png">d</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;"><a name="B-III--4" id="B-III--4" />4. Nut Bowels, <a href="images/B-III--4-a.png" id="images-B-III--4-a.png">a</a>-<a href="images/B-III--4-b.png" id="images-B-III--4-b.png">b</a>-<a href="images/B-III--4-c.png" id="images-B-III--4-c.png">c</a>-<a href="images/B-III--4-d.png" id="images-B-III--4-d.png">d</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;"><a name="B-III--5" id="B-III--5" />5. Napkin Rings, <a href="images/B-III--5-a.png" id="images-B-III--5-a.png">a</a>-<a href="images/B-III--5-b.png" id="images-B-III--5-b.png">b</a>-<a href="images/B-III--5-c.png" id="images-B-III--5-c.png">c</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;"><a name="B-III--6" id="B-III--6" />6. Jewel Boxes, <a href="images/B-III--6-a.png" id="images-B-III--6-a.png">a</a>-<a href="images/B-III--6-b.png" id="images-B-III--6-b.png">b</a>-<a href="images/B-III--6-c.png" id="images-B-III--6-c.png">c</a>-<a href="images/B-III--6-d.png" id="images-B-III--6-d.png">d</a>-<a href="images/B-III--6-e.png" id="images-B-III--6-e.png">e</a>-<a href="images/B-III--6-f.png" id="images-B-III--6-f.png">f</a>-<a href="images/B-III--6-g.png" id="images-B-III--6-g.png">g</a>-<a href="images/B-III--6-h.png" id="images-B-III--6-h.png">h</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;"><a name="B-III--7" id="B-III--7" />7. Collar Boxes, <a href="images/B-III--7-a.png" id="images-B-III--7-a.png">a</a>-<a href="images/B-III--7-b.png" id="images-B-III--7-b.png">b</a>-<a href="images/B-III--7-c.png" id="images-B-III--7-c.png">c</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;"><a name="B-III--8" id="B-III--8" />8. Spheres, <a href="images/B-III--8-a.png" id="images-B-III--8-a.png">a</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;"><a name="B-III--9" id="B-III--9" />9. Checker Men, <a href="images/B-III--9-a.png" id="images-B-III--9-a.png">a</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;"><a name="B-IV" id="B-IV" />IV. Assembling Exercises</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;"><a name="B-IV--1" id="B-IV--1" />1. Candle Sticks, <a href="images/B-IV--1-a.png" id="images-B-IV--1-a.png">a</a>-<a href="images/B-IV--1-b.png" id="images-B-IV--1-b.png">b</a>-<a href="images/B-IV--1-c.png" id="images-B-IV--1-c.png">c</a>-<a href="images/B-IV--1-d.png" id="images-B-IV--1-d.png">d</a>-<a href="images/B-IV--1-e.png" id="images-B-IV--1-e.png">e</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;"><a name="B-IV--2" id="B-IV--2" />2. Shaving Stands, <a href="images/B-IV--2-a.png" id="images-B-IV--2-a.png">a</a>-<a href="images/B-IV--2-a'.png">a&rsquo;</a>-<a href="images/B-IV--2-b.png" id="images-B-IV--2-b.png">b</a>-<a href="images/B-IV--2-b'.png">b&rsquo;</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;"><a name="B-IV--3" id="B-IV--3" />3. Reading Lamp Stands, <a href="images/B-IV--3-a.png" id="images-B-IV--3-a.png">a</a>-<a href="images/B-IV--3-b.png" id="images-B-IV--3-b.png">b</a>-<a href="images/B-IV--3-c.png" id="images-B-IV--3-c.png">c</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;"><a name="B-IV--4" id="B-IV--4" />4. Pedestals, <a href="images/B-IV--4-a.png" id="images-B-IV--4-a.png">a</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;"><a name="B-IV--5" id="B-IV--5" />5. Smoking Stands, <a href="images/B-IV--5-a.png" id="images-B-IV--5-a.png">a</a>-<a href="images/B-IV--5-b.png" id="images-B-IV--5-b.png">b</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;"><a name="B-IV--6" id="B-IV--6" />6. Pin Cushions and Spool Holder, <a href="images/B-IV--6-a.png" id="images-B-IV--6-a.png">a</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;"><a name="B-IV--7" id="B-IV--7" />7. Chess Men, <a href="images/B-IV--7-a.png" id="images-B-IV--7-a.png">a</a>-<a href="images/B-IV--7-a'.png">a&rsquo;</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;"><a name="B-V" id="B-V" />V. Spiral Turning</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;"><a name="B-V--1" id="B-V--1" />1. Pedestal, (Single) <a href="images/B-V--1-a.png" id="images-B-V--1-a.png">a</a>-<a href="images/B-V--1-a'.png">a&rsquo;</a>, (Double) <a href="images/B-V--1-b.png" id="images-B-V--1-b.png">b</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;"><a name="B-V--2" id="B-V--2" />2. Reading Lamps, (Single) <a href="images/B-V--2-a.png" id="images-B-V--2-a.png">a</a>-<a href="images/B-V--2-a'.png">a&rsquo;</a>-<a href="images/B-V--2-a''.png">a&rsquo;&rsquo;</a> (Double) <a href="images/B-V--2-b.png" id="images-B-V--2-b.png">b</a>-<a href="images/B-V--2-b'.png">b&rsquo;</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;"><a name="B-V--3" id="B-V--3" />3. Magazine Holder, <a href="images/B-V--3-a.png" id="images-B-V--3-a.png">a</a>-<a href="images/B-V--3-a'.png">a&rsquo;</a></span><br />
+</td></tr>
+</table>
+<p><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8" /></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I" /><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9" />CHAPTER I</h2>
+
+<p><br /><b>INTRODUCTORY</b></p>
+
+
+<p>Wood turning has had a definite place in the commercial world for a
+great many years. It is used in various forms in making furniture and
+furniture parts, building trim, tool parts, toys, athletic paraphernalia
+and many other useful and beautiful articles in common use.</p>
+
+<p>When properly taught in the schools it is one of the most valuable types
+of instruction. It appeals to pupils more than any other type of manual
+work, as it embodies both the play and work elements. It is very
+interesting and fascinating and, in the hands of a skilled instructor,
+is readily correlated with other work.</p>
+
+<p>Wood turning gives a pupil preliminary experience necessary in pattern
+making and machine shop work. It brings into play the scientific element
+by demonstrating the laws governing revolving bodies. In bringing the
+chisel into contact with the revolving surface, the mathematical
+principle of the &quot;point of tangency&quot; is illustrated. Excellent tool
+technique is developed in wood turning as on the exactness of every
+movement depends the success of the operator, and any slight variation
+will spoil a piece of work. This brings in a very close correlation of
+the mental and motor activities and also gives the student an
+opportunity for observing and thinking while at work. When his tool
+makes a &quot;run&quot; he must determine the reason and figure out why a certain
+result is obtained when the chisel is held in a given position. Certain
+cuts must be fully mastered, and it takes a good deal of experience and
+absolute confidence in one's self in manipulating the tools before it is
+possible to attempt skilful work. If scraping is allowed the educational
+value of the work is lost.</p>
+
+<p>In wood turning a vast field for design and modeling is opened, and art
+and architecture can be correlated. The pupil will see for himself the
+need of variety in curves and must use his judgment in determining
+curves that are so harmonious and pleasing that they will blend
+together. If properly taught the beauty in the orders of architecture
+can be brought out in the making of the bead, fillet, scotia, cove, etc.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10" />A feeling of importance is excited in a boy when he sees his hands
+shaping materials into objects of pleasing form. Wood turning properly
+taught awakens the aesthetic sense and creates a desire for the
+beautiful. The boy or man who has learned to make graceful curves and
+clean-cut fillets and beads will never be satisfied with clumsy effects
+which are characteristic in cheap commercial work, made only to sell.</p>
+
+<p>Success in turning depends on the following:</p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">1. Care of lathe, tools, selection of materials.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">2. Study of the scientific elements of--</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4em;">a. Revolving bodies.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4em;">b. Points of tangency.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4em;">c. Study of results by reasoning and observing.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">3. Development of technique and exactness.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">4. Correlation of mental and motor activities.</span><br />
+</p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II" /><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11" />CHAPTER II</h2>
+
+<p><br /><b>THE LATHE</b></p>
+
+
+<p>The sizes of turning lathes are given as 10&quot;, 12&quot;, etc. These figures
+denote the diameter, or size, of the largest piece of work that can be
+turned on them. The measurement is taken from the center point of the
+live center to the bed of the lathe (usually 5&quot; or 6&quot;) and is one-half
+the diameter of the entire circle. The length of a lathe is determined
+by the length of a piece of work that can be turned. This measurement is
+taken from the points of the live and dead centers when the tail stock
+is drawn back the full extent of the lathe bed. Fig. 1 shows a turning
+lathe with sixteen principal parts named. The student should learn the
+names of these parts and familiarize himself with the particular
+function of each.</p>
+
+
+<p><br /><b>CARE OF THE LATHE</b></p>
+
+<p>The lathe should be oiled every day before starting. At the end of the
+period the lathe should be brushed clean of all chips and shavings,
+after which it should be rubbed off with a piece of waste or cloth to
+remove all surplus oil. All tools should be wiped clean and put in their
+proper places. If a student finds that his lathe is not running as it
+should, he should first call the attention of the instructor to that
+fact before attempting to adjust it; and then only such adjustments
+should be made as the instructor directs.</p>
+
+
+<p><br /><b>SPEED OF THE LATHE</b></p>
+
+<p>The speed of the lathe should range from 2400 to 3000 revolutions per
+minute when the belt is on the smallest step of the cone pulley. At this
+speed stock up to 3&quot; in diameter can be turned with safety. Stock from
+3&quot; to 6&quot; in diameter should be turned on the second or third step, and
+all stock over 6&quot; on the last step. The speed at which a lathe should
+run depends entirely upon the nature of the work to be done and the kind
+of material used. Pieces that cannot be centered accurately and all
+glued-up work with rough corners should be run slowly until all corners
+are taken off and the stock runs true. At high speed the centrificial
+force on such pieces is very great, causing the lathe to vibrate, and
+there is a<a name="Page_12" id="Page_12" /><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13" /> possibility of the piece being thrown from the lathe thus
+endangering the worker as well as those around him. After the stock is
+running true the speed may be increased.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/fig1.jpg" width="800" height="478" alt="Fig. 1. - Wood Turning Lathe" title="Fig. 1. - Wood Turning Lathe" />
+<br /><b>Fig. 1. - Wood Turning Lathe</b>
+</p>
+
+<p><br /><b>TO FIGURE THE DIAMETER OF PULLEYS</b></p>
+
+<p>Suppose a motor runs 1500 R.P.M. and is fitted with a 4&quot; pulley. Suppose
+also, a main shaft should run 300 R.P.M.</p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Then, 1500 : 300 :: x : 4;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Or, 300x = 6000,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">x = 20, or the diameter of the large pulley on the main shaft.</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>Suppose again that a line shaft runs 300 R.P.M., and a counter shaft 600
+R.P.M. The counter shaft has a pulley 4&quot; in diameter. The pulley on the
+line shaft must then have a diameter of 8&quot;.</p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">300 : 600 :: 4 : x;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Or, 300x = 2400,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">x = 8&quot;</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>Suppose the cone pulley on the counter shaft runs 600 R.P.M.; a lathe
+spindle runs 2200 R.P.M., when connected with the small cone pulley
+which has a diameter of 3&quot;. The large cone pulley has then a diameter of
+11&quot;.</p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">600 : 2200 :: 3 : x</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Or, 600x = 6600;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">x = 11&quot;</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p><br /><b>RULES FOR FINDING THE SPEEDS AND SIZES OF PULLEYS</b></p>
+
+<p>1. To find the diameter of the driving pulley:</p>
+
+<p>Multiply the diameter of the driven by the number of revolutions it
+should make and divide the product by the number of revolutions of the
+driver. (20 x 300 = 6000; 6000 &divide; 1500 = 4&quot;--diameter of motor pulley.)</p>
+
+<p>2. To find the diameter of the driven pulley:</p>
+
+<p>Multiply the diameter of the driver by its number of revolutions and
+divide the product by the number of revolutions of the driven. (4 x 1500
+= 6000; 6000 &divide; 300 = 20&quot;--diameter of the driven pulley.)</p>
+
+<p>3. To find the number of revolutions of the driven pulley:</p>
+
+<p>Multiply the diameter of the driver by its number of revolutions and
+divide by the diameter of the driven. (4 x 1500 = 6000; 6000 &divide; 20 =
+300--revolutions of driven pulley.)</p>
+
+
+<p><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14" /><br /><b>POINTS ON SETTING UP LATHE AND SHAFTING</b></p>
+
+<p>The counter shaft should be about 7' above the lathe. A distance of 6'
+from the center of the shaft to the center of the spindle is sufficient.
+In setting a lathe or hanging a counter shaft it is necessary that both
+be level. The counter shaft must be parallel to the line shaft. When the
+counter shaft is in position a plumb bob should be hung from the counter
+shaft cone to the spindle cone; the lathe should be adjusted so that the
+belt will track between the two cone pulleys. The axis of the lathe must
+be parallel to that of the counter shaft. The lathe, however, need not
+be directly beneath the counter shaft as the belt will run on an angle
+as well as perpendicular.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III" /><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15" />CHAPTER III</h2>
+
+<p><br /><b>WOOD TURNING TOOLS</b></p>
+
+
+<p>A wood turning kit should consist of one each of the following tools.
+Fig. 2 shows the general shape of these tools.</p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">1&frac14;&quot; Gouge</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">&frac34;&quot; Gouge</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">&frac12;&quot; Gouge</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">&frac14;&quot; Gouge</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">1&frac14;&quot; Skew</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">&frac34;&quot; Skew</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">&frac12;&quot; Skew</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">&frac14;&quot; Skew</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">&#8539;&quot; Parting Tool</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">&frac12;&quot; Round Nose</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">&frac14;&quot; Round Nose</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">&frac12;&quot; Square Nose</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">&frac14;&quot; Square Nose</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">&frac12;&quot; Spear Point</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">&frac12;&quot; Right Skew</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">&frac12;&quot; Left Skew</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 5em;">Slip Stone with round edges</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3.5em;">6&quot; Outside Calipers</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3.5em;">6&quot; Inside Calipers</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3.5em;">8&quot; Dividers</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">12&quot; Rule</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">&frac12; pt. Oil Can</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 5em;">Bench Brush</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p><br /><b>GRINDING AND WHETTING TURNING TOOLS</b></p>
+
+<p>Skew Chisel</p>
+
+<p>The skew chisel is sharpened equally on both sides On this tool the
+cutting edge should form an angle of about 20&deg; with one of the edges.
+The skew is used in cutting both to the right and to the left, and
+therefore, must be beveled on both sides. The length of the bevel should
+equal about twice the thickness of the chisel at the point where it is
+sharpened. In grinding the bevel, the chisel must be held so that the
+cutting edge will be parallel to the axis of the emery wheel. The wheel
+should be about 6&quot; in diameter as this will leave the bevel slightly
+hollow ground. Cool the chisel in water occasionally when using a dry
+emery. Otherwise the wheel will burn the chisel, taking out the temper;
+the metal will be soft and the edge will not stand up. Care should be
+exercised that the same bevel is kept so that it will be uniformly
+hollow ground. The rough edge left by the emery wheel should be whetted
+off with a slip stone by holding the chisel on the flat side of the
+stone so that the toe and heel of the bevel are equally in contact with
+it. Rub first on one side and then on the other. The wire edge is thus
+worn off quickly as there is no metal to be worn away in the middle of
+the bevels. The chisel is sharp when the edge, which may be tested by
+<a name="Page_16" id="Page_16" /><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17" />drawing it over the thumb nail, is smooth and will take hold evenly
+along its entire length. If any wire edge remains it should be whetted
+again.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/fig2.jpg" width="800" height="488" alt="Fig. 2. - Lathe Tools" title="Fig. 2. - Lathe Tools" />
+<br /><b>Fig. 2. - Lathe Tools</b>
+</p>
+
+
+<p>Gouge</p>
+
+<p>The gouge used in wood turning is beveled on the outside and is ground
+so that the nose is approximately semi-circular in shape. The tool is a
+combination of the round nose chisel and the ordinary gouge. The bevel
+should extend well around to the ends so that the cutting edge extends
+to each side. This is necessary to avoid the abrupt corners which would
+be present if the nose were left straight across as in the ordinary
+wood-working gouge. In making shearing cuts the round nose permits the
+tool to be rolled to the side to avoid scraping the work. The length of
+the bevel should be about twice the thickness of the blade at the point
+where the sharpening begins.</p>
+
+<p>The sharpening of a gouge for turning is rather difficult for the
+average student. The ordinary gouge which has a square nose may be
+beveled by merely turning it half way around and back again. In working
+out the round nose of a gouge for wood turning, it is necessary that the
+handle be swung from one side to the other while, at the same time, the
+chisel is revolved to cut the bevel evenly. It is sometimes necessary to
+allow some pupils to use the side of the emery wheel in sharpening the
+gouge. This kind of grinding, however, does not leave the tool hollow
+ground as when the face of the wheel is used.</p>
+
+<p>To complete the sharpening the rough edge is worked smooth on a slip
+stone, the cross section of which is wedge-shaped and the edges of which
+are rounded. The toe and heel of the beveled side of the gouge are
+brought into contact with the flat side of the stone. As the sharpening
+proceeds the wire edge is worked to the inside of the gouge. The rounded
+edge of the stone is then placed inside the gouge and is worked back and
+forth until the rough edge disappears. Great care must be taken not to
+bevel the inside of the gouge when whetting with the round edges of the
+stone, as the result will be the same as with an ordinary chisel or
+plane bit.</p>
+
+
+<p>Parting Tool</p>
+
+<p>The parting tool is sharpened on both sides. This tool differs from the
+ordinary chisel in that it is between &#8541;&quot; and &frac34;&quot; thick and only about
+&#8539;&quot; wide at the widest point, which is in the center of its entire
+length. The <a name="Page_18" id="Page_18" />bevels must meet exactly at the center, or the widest
+point, and should make an angle of about 50&deg; with each other. If the
+bevels do not meet at the widest point the tool will not clear, and the
+sides will rub against the revolving stock; the tool will be burned and
+will thus lose its temper. The bevel should be hollow ground slightly as
+then comparatively little metal need be removed when whetting.</p>
+
+
+<p>Scraping Tools</p>
+
+<p>The round nose, square nose, spear point, right skew and left skew are
+scraping tools, used chiefly in pattern work and sometimes in face-plate
+work. They are sharpened on one side only, and the bevel is about twice
+the thickness of the chisel at the point where sharpened. These tools
+should be slightly hollow ground to facilitate the whetting. Scraping
+tools become dull quite easily as their edges are in contact with the
+wood almost at right angles. After sharpening, the edges of these tools
+may be turned with a burnisher or the broad side of a skew chisel in the
+same manner that the edge of a cabinet scraper is turned though not
+nearly to so great a degree. This will help to keep the tool sharp for,
+as the edge wears off, the tool sharpens itself to a certain extent. The
+chisel is of harder material than a cabinet scraper so that it will not
+stand a great amount of turning over on the edge. Small pieces will be
+broken out, unless a flat surface is rubbed against the edge at a more
+acute angle than was used in the whetting. If a narrow burnisher is
+used, pieces are more likely to be broken out from the sharp edge and
+thus make the tool useless.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV" /><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19" />CHAPTER IV</h2>
+
+<p><br /><b>SPINDLE TURNING</b></p>
+
+
+<p>Spindle turning is the term applied to all work done on a lathe in which
+the stock to be worked upon is held firmly between the live and dead
+centers. There are two methods in common use in wood turning: first, the
+scraping or pattern-makers' method; and second, the cutting method. Each
+has its advantages and disadvantages, but it is necessary that both be
+learned in order to develop a well rounded turner. Care should be
+exercised, however, that each method be used in its proper place. The
+first is slower, harder on the cutting edge of tools, and less skill is
+required to obtain accurate work; the second is faster, easier on the
+cutting edge of tools, and the accuracy of results obtained depends upon
+the skill acquired. As skill is the one thing most sought for in high
+school work, the use of the cutting method is advocated entirely for all
+spindle turning and, with but few exceptions, for face-plate and chuck
+turning.</p>
+
+
+<p><br /><b>TO CENTER STOCK</b></p>
+
+<p>If the wood to be turned is square or rectangular in shape the best way
+to locate the center is to draw diagonals across the end of the stock.
+The point of intersection locates the center.</p>
+
+
+<p><br /><b>CLAMPING STOCK IN THE LATHE</b></p>
+
+<p>Take the live center from the spindle and with a wooden mallet drive the
+spur deep into the wood. Never drive the wood onto the live center while
+in the spindle because serious injury may be done the machine by such
+practice. When extremely hard wood is being used, it is a good practice
+to make saw cuts along the diagonal lines and bore a hole at the
+intersection, thus allowing the spur to enter the wood more freely. Oil
+the other end of the wood while holding it in a vertical position, and
+give the oil a chance to penetrate into the wood. Then replace the live
+center by taking the stock and center and forcing it into the spindle by
+a sudden push of the hand. The tail stock is then moved about &frac12;&quot; to 1&quot;
+from the end of the piece to be turned, having the tail spindle well
+back in the tail stock. The tail stock is then clamped to the lathe bed.
+Turn the tail stock hand wheel until the wood is held firmly. Work the
+cone pulley by <a name="Page_20" id="Page_20" />hand at the same time, so that the cup or dead center
+will be forced deeply into the wood, so deeply that the live center will
+not continue to turn. Now turn the dead spindle back until the live
+spindle begins to turn freely and clamp the dead spindle fast.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/fig3.jpg" width="300" height="402" alt="Fig. 3" title="Fig. 3" />
+<br /><b>Fig. 3</b>
+</p>
+
+
+<p><br /><b>ADJUSTING THE TOOL REST</b></p>
+
+<p>Horizontally the tool rest should be set about &#8539;&quot; from the farthest
+projecting corner of the wood and should be readjusted occasionally as
+the stock diminishes in size. The vertical height varies slightly
+according to the height of the operator. It is even with the center of
+the spindle for a short person; &#8539;&quot; above for a medium person; and &frac14;&quot;
+above for a tall person. So long as the stock is in its square form the
+tool rest should never be adjusted while the machine is in motion as
+there is danger of the rest catching the corners and throwing the stock
+from the machine. Also see that everything is clamped tight before
+starting the lathe.</p>
+
+
+<p><br /><b>POSITION OF THE OPERATOR</b></p>
+
+<p>The operator stands firmly on the floor back far enough from the lathe
+to allow him to pass the tools from right to left in front of his body
+without changing <a name="Page_21" id="Page_21" />the position of the feet. It may be found convenient
+to turn slightly, bringing the left side of the body a little closer to
+the lathe. In no case, however, should the tools be brought in contact
+with the body as the cutting operation from right to left should be
+accomplished by a movement of the arms alone and not the swaying of the
+body. (Fig. 3.)</p>
+
+
+<p><br /><b>HOLDING THE TOOLS</b></p>
+
+<p>All tools should be held firmly but not rigidly. The right hand should
+grasp the handle at the extreme end for two reasons: first, to give as
+much leverage as possible so that the tool will not be thrown from the
+hands in case it should catch in the wood; second, a slight wavering of
+the hand will not cause as much variance in the cuts as when held closer
+up to the rest. The left hand should act as a guide and should be held
+over the tool near the cutting edge. The little finger and the back part
+of the palm of the hand should touch the tool rest thus assuring a
+steady movement. The left hand should not grasp the tool at any time.
+(Fig. 3.)</p>
+
+
+<p><br /><b>USE OF THE TOOLS IN SPINDLE TURNING</b></p>
+
+<p>The correct use of the various tools used in spindle turning will be
+explained in detail as the steps are worked out in the sequence of
+operations on the exercises in Section A-I.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V" /><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22" />CHAPTER V</h2>
+
+<p><br /><b>TOOL PROCESSES IN SPINDLE TURNING</b></p>
+
+
+<p>Exercise <a href="images/A-I--1-a.png">A-I--1-a</a>. Straight Cuts</p>
+
+<p>1. THE ROUGHING CUT (LARGE GOUGE).</p>
+
+<p>FIG. 4. Place the gouge on the rest so that the level is above the wood
+and the cutting edge is tangent to the circle or surface of the
+cylinder. The handle should be held well down.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/fig4.jpg" width="600" height="345" alt="Fig. 4." title="Fig. 4" />
+<br /><b>Fig. 4.</b>
+</p>
+
+<p>Roll the gouge over slightly to the right so that it will make a
+shearing cut instead of a scraping cut. This rolling of the tool will
+also throw the chips from the operator.</p>
+
+
+<p>Then lift the handle slowly, forcing the cutting edge deep enough into
+the wood to remove all or nearly all of the corners, at the end of the
+work which is being turned. This cut is begun about &frac34;&quot; from the dead
+center end. Work back another &frac34;&quot;, moving toward the live center and
+make a second cut, and so on until the entire length of the cylinder is
+gone over. This method of removing corners should always be followed to
+avoid any possibility of breaking a large sliver from the stock, with
+consequent danger to the worker.</p>
+
+<p>The tool may then be worked from one end to the other, getting a
+fairly-smooth, regular surface, slightly above the diameter required.
+However, do not begin on the very edge of the cylinder end. It is better
+to begin about 2&quot; from one end and work to the other, and then reverse
+and work back.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23" />The tool should also be held at a slight angle to the axis of the
+cylinder, with the cutting point always in advance of the handle.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/fig5.jpg" width="600" height="285" alt="Fig. 5." title="Fig. 5." />
+<br /><b>Fig. 5.</b>
+</p>
+
+
+<p>2. THE SIZING CUT (SMALL GOUGE). FIG. 5.</p>
+
+<p>Set the calipers to the required diameter of the cylinder.</p>
+
+<p>With a small gouge held in the right hand scrape grooves about 1&quot; apart,
+holding the calipers in the left hand perpendicular to the cylinder and
+measuring the cuts as they are made. The scraping should continue until
+the calipers will pass easily over the cylinder. It will be well while
+scraping to work the handle of the gouge a little from side to side so
+that the nose has more clearance. This will prevent the piece which is
+being turned from chattering or vibrating.</p>
+
+<p>The calipers will be slightly sprung by coming in contact with the
+revolving stock but this error in diameter will be removed by the
+finishing cut which removes these marks from the finished cylinder.</p>
+
+
+<p>3. THE SMOOTHING CUT (LARGE SKEW).</p>
+
+<p>FIG. 6. Lay the skew chisel on the rest with the cutting edge above the
+cylinder and at an angle of about 60&deg; to the surface.</p>
+
+<p>Slowly draw the chisel back and at the same time raise the handle until
+the chisel begins to cut about &frac14;&quot; to &#8540;&quot; from the heel. The first cut
+is begun from 1&quot; to 2&quot; from either end and is pushed toward the near
+end. Then begin at the first starting point and cut toward the other
+end. One should never start at the end to make a cut as there is danger
+that the chisel will catch and cause the wood to split or that the
+chisel will be torn from the hands.</p>
+
+<p>The first cut takes off the bumps and rings left by the gouge, and takes
+the stock down so one can just see <a name="Page_24" id="Page_24" />where the scraping to size was done.
+Then take the last cut and remove all traces of these, leaving the
+cylinder perfectly smooth and of the required diameter at each end. Test
+the cylinder for accuracy with a straight edge.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/fig6.jpg" width="600" height="354" alt="Fig. 6." title="Fig. 6." />
+<br /><b>Fig. 6.</b>
+</p>
+
+
+<p>4. TESTING FOR SMOOTHNESS. In testing for smoothness place the palm of
+the hand, with the fingers extended straight, lightly on the back of the
+cylinder opposite the tool rest. This position will avoid any
+possibility of the hand being drawn in between the cylinder and the
+rest.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/fig7.jpg" width="600" height="350" alt="Fig. 7." title="Fig. 7." />
+<br /><b>Fig. 7.</b>
+</p>
+
+
+<p>5. MEASURING FOR LENGTH (RULE AND PENCIL). FIG. 7. Hold the back edge of
+the rule in the left hand and place it on the tool rest so that the
+front edge is almost in contact with the revolving cylinder.</p>
+
+<p>With a sharp pencil mark off the required length, starting from the dead
+center end. The first mark should <a name="Page_25" id="Page_25" />be just far enough in on the cylinder
+to insure cutting past the point of the dead center. This will leave all
+surplus stock at the live center end where it is needed, because, if not
+enough stock is left at this end, there is danger of striking the live
+center spur with the tool and of injuring the chisel and perhaps the
+work.</p>
+
+<p>In case several measurements are to be made, as in some of the following
+exercises, the rule should not be moved until all are marked. This will
+insure more accurate work than if the rule be changed several times.</p>
+
+
+<p>6. SQUARING ENDS (SMALL SKEW AND PARTING TOOL). FIG. 8. This operation
+is done with the toe or acute angle of the &frac12;&quot; or &frac14;&quot; skew chisel.</p>
+
+<p>Place the chisel square on the tool rest. Swing the handle out from the
+cylinder so that the grind, which forms the cutting edge, next to the
+stock is perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder. The heel of the
+chisel is then tipped slightly from the cylinder in order to give
+clearness. Raise the handle and push the toe of the chisel into the
+stock about &#8539;&quot; outside the line indicating the end of the cylinder.
+Swing the handle still farther from the cylinder and cut a half V. This
+will give clearance for the chisel point and will prevent burning.
+Continue this operation on both ends until the cylinder is cut to about
+3/16&quot; in diameter.</p>
+
+<p>The remaining &#8539;&quot; is then removed by taking very thin cuts (about
+1/32&quot;) holding the chisel as first stated. After each cut is made the
+end should be tested for squareness by holding the edge of the chisel
+over the end of the cylinder.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/fig8.jpg" width="600" height="331" alt="Fig. 8." title="Fig. 8." />
+<br /><b>Fig. 8.</b>
+</p>
+
+<p>This is an easy cut after it is mastered, but is one of the hardest to
+learn. Should the operator lose control of the tool and allow any part
+other than the point to <a name="Page_26" id="Page_26" />touch the cylinder, a run or gashing of the
+wood will be caused.</p>
+
+<p>In large cylinders where considerable stock has to be cut away in order
+to square the ends, time will be saved by sizing the ends down with the
+parting tool to within &#8539;&quot; of the desired line, leaving enough stock at
+the base of the cuts to still hold the cylinder rigid while cutting on
+the ends.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/fig9.jpg" width="600" height="331" alt="Fig. 9." title="Fig. 9." />
+<br /><b>Fig. 9.</b>
+</p>
+
+<p>For this operation hold the parting tool on the rest with the cutting
+edge parallel to the axis of the cylinder and the lower grind tangent to
+the cylinder. Lift the handle and force the cutting edge into the wood;
+at the same time push the chisel forward to keep it at the proper
+tangency.</p>
+
+
+<p>7. CUTTING OFF (SMALL SKEW). FIG. 9.</p>
+
+<p>After both ends have been squared cut away stock, at both ends, to leave
+just enough to hold the cylinder from separating from the waste ends.</p>
+
+<p>With the chisel held in the right hand in the same position as in
+squaring the ends, and the fingers of the left hand around the stock to
+catch it, slowly force the point of the chisel into the stock at the
+live center end, until it is cut free and the cylinder stops in the
+operator's hand. Too much pressure should not be used in this operation
+or it will cause the cylinder to twist off instead of being cut, and
+will leave a ragged hole in the end.</p>
+
+<p>The dead center end, which has been scored heavily before cutting off at
+the live center, is then removed by holding the grind of the chisel flat
+on the end of the cylinder. The latter is revolved by hand until the
+stock is cut away.</p>
+
+
+<p>Exercise <a href="images/A-I--2-a.png">A-I--2-a</a>. Shoulder Cuts</p>
+
+<p>1. Turn a cylinder to the largest diameter required.</p>
+
+<p>2. Lay off measurements with rule and pencil.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27" />3. With the gouge (where space permits) or the parting tool (in narrow
+spaces) rough out surplus stock, keeping 1/16&quot; away from the lines
+indicating shoulders.</p>
+
+<p>4. Caliper to the diameter of the second step.</p>
+
+<p>5. The shoulders are cut down as described in &quot;Squaring Ends, Step 6,
+Straight Cuts.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>6. The new diameter or step is then trued up with a skew chisel in the
+same manner as a cylinder; except that in nearing the shoulder the
+chisel is pushed up on the cylinder until the heel, which is the only
+part that can be worked into the corner, becomes the cutting point. Fig.
+10. In very narrow steps it will be advisable to use the heel entirely
+as a cutting point.</p>
+
+<p>In spaces between shoulders, too narrow to permit the use of the skew
+chisel, very effective work can be accomplished by slightly tipping the
+parting tool sideways to allow a shearing cut to be taken with the
+cutting edge.</p>
+
+<p>7. Where several steps are required on the same cylinder, each
+successive one is worked out as above described.</p>
+
+<p>Note:--All preliminary steps in working stock to size, laying of
+dimensions, etc., in preparation for the exercise in hand, will be
+omitted in the following exercises:</p>
+
+
+<p>Exercise <a href="images/A-I--3-a.png">A-I--3-a</a>. Taper Cuts</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/fig10.jpg" width="600" height="385" alt="Fig. 10." title="Fig. 10." />
+<br /><b>Fig. 10.</b>
+</p>
+
+<p>Calipering for New Diameters. For all diameters on tapers the calipers
+should be set 1/16&quot; larger than the desired measurement in order to
+avoid working under size in the finishing cut which removes all caliper
+marks.</p>
+
+<p>If the taper runs to the extreme end of the cylinder, as in Plate
+<a href="images/A-I--3-a.png">A-I--3-a</a>, a parting tool should be used, instead of a gouge, to take off
+a very thin shoulder.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28" />If the taper forms an internal angle as in Plate <a href="images/A-I--3-b.png">A-I--3-b</a>, a gouge is
+used as in Step 2--Sizing Cut--Plate <a href="images/A-I--1-a.png">A-I--1-a</a>.</p>
+
+<p>In other cases where tapers connect with straight cylindrical shoulders
+it is best to turn the shoulders to size before working the tapers.</p>
+
+<p>In cutting a long straight taper the skew chisel is used, much in the
+same manner as in ordinary cylinder work, except that at the start of
+each cut the heel must be the cutting point. This will avoid any chance
+of the chisel catching and drawing back and thus gouging the wood beyond
+the starting point. As soon as the cut is well under way the chisel may
+be pushed up on the cylinder so that the cutting point is a little above
+the heel. All cuts should be made from the highest point on the cylinder
+to the lowest and thus cut across the grain of the wood.</p>
+
+<p>In making the cut, care should be taken to see that the chisel is not
+tipped to a greater angle than that of the taper wanted. Should that be
+done a hollow, or dished out, taper is sure to be the result instead of
+a straight one.</p>
+
+
+<p>Exercise <a href="images/A-I--4-a.png">A-I--4-a</a>. V Cutting</p>
+
+<p>In cutting V's a small skew is almost always used and the cutting is
+done with the heel.</p>
+
+<p>Place the chisel square on the tool rest so that the cutting edge is
+perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder. Draw the chisel back and
+raise the handle so that the heel is driven into the wood, thus scoring
+it. This cut should not be too deep or the chisel will burn. This
+scoring should be at the exact center of the V cut.</p>
+
+<p>Swing the handle a little to the right and at the same time tip the
+chisel so that the grind, which forms the cutting edge, is at an angle
+of about 45&deg; with the axis of the cylinder. The handle is then raised at
+an angle of 45&deg; bringing the heel down to make a good cut. The chisel is
+then swung to the other side and a similar cut is taken. These cuts are
+continued, together with the center scoring, until quite close to the
+pencil marks. Test the angle before the finishing cut is taken.</p>
+
+<p>It will be found best to have the V slightly greater than 90&deg; at the
+base until the final cut is made, at which time it can be trued up.</p>
+
+<p>The V should be tested with the square end of a rule. The cylinder
+should not be in motion while testing.</p>
+
+<p>When angles other than 45&deg; are cut, the cutting edge <a name="Page_29" id="Page_29" />of the chisel
+should be tipped so that it is parallel or nearly so to the side of the
+cut desired.</p>
+
+
+<p><a href="images/A-I--5-a.png">A-I--5-a</a>. Concave Cuts</p>
+
+<p>The concave cuts as a rule will give the pupil considerable trouble at
+first owing to the fact that the grind, which forms the cutting edge and
+which must be held perpendicular to the cylinder at the start, is on the
+under side of the tool and cannot be seen. However, as soon as the
+correct angle of the tool is located, the cut will be found as easy as
+any. Concaves are usually made with a medium sized gouge either the &frac12;&quot;
+or &frac34;&quot;.</p>
+
+<p>Place the gouge on the rest with the grind or cutting edge well above
+the wood. The tool is then rolled on its side so that the grind at the
+cutting point, which is on the lip of the gouge well below the center,
+is perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder. Fig. 11.</p>
+
+<p>Slowly raise the handle to force the gouge into the wood. As soon as the
+gouge has taken hold, the tool is forced forward and upward by a slight
+lowering of the handle, while at the same time it is rolled back toward
+its first position. Care should be taken not to roll the chisel too fast
+or a perfect arc will not be cut.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/fig11.jpg" width="600" height="324" alt="Fig. 11." title="Fig. 11." />
+<br /><b>Fig. 11.</b>
+</p>
+
+<p>By this triple action the grind, which comes in contact with the surface
+of the curve, forces the lip sidewise and cuts one quarter of a circle.
+Reverse the position of the gouge and cut from the other side in the
+same manner to form the other half of the semi-circle. The cutting
+should always stop at the base of the cut as there is danger that the
+tool will catch when cutting against the grain of the wood on the other
+side. Repeat this operation until within about 1/16&quot; of the required
+size. At the end of each successive cut the tool should have been forced
+far enough forward and upward to bring the <a name="Page_30" id="Page_30" />grind or nose of the chisel
+well out on top of the cut. Fig. 12.</p>
+
+<p>The exact depth of the concave is then calipered in the usual manner as
+described before. A finishing cut is then taken after the cut has been
+tested with a templet.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/fig12.jpg" width="600" height="368" alt="Fig. 12." title="Fig. 12." />
+<br /><b>Fig. 12.</b>
+</p>
+
+
+<p><a href="images/A-I--6-a.png">A-I--6-a</a>. Convex Cuts</p>
+
+<p>The convex cut, or Bead as it is usually called, is generally considered
+the hardest cut to make.--The cut is made with the heel of a small skew
+chisel, usually the &frac14;&quot; or &#8539;&quot;.</p>
+
+<p>After the cylinder has been marked off, rough out all stock between the
+beads with a parting tool. The base of the cuts is finished the same as
+described in Plate <a href="images/A-I--1-a.png">A-I--1-a</a>, for shoulder cutting. With a sharp pencil
+mark the center of each bead to be made. This line is the starting point
+for all cutting.</p>
+
+<p>Place the chisel on the rest, with the cutting edge above the cylinder
+and the lower grind tangent to it. Draw the chisel back and raise the
+handle to bring the heel of the chisel in contact with the cylinder at
+the line indicating the center of the bead. The chisel is then moved to
+the right (if cutting the right side of the bead); at the same time the
+chisel is continually tipped to keep the lower grind tangent to the
+revolving cylinder and also to the bead at the point of contact. Fig.
+13. This cut is continued until the bottom of the bead is reached. It is
+well in turning a series of beads to work the same side of all before
+reversing to the other side.</p>
+
+<p>Note:--The same principles employed in this exercise are also used in
+working out long convex curves such as are found in chisel handles,
+mallet handles, etc. The only exception is that in most cases the point
+of contact need not be the heel of the chisel but higher up as in
+ordinary straight work.</p>
+
+
+<p><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31" /><a href="images/A-I--7-a.png">A-I--7-a</a>--Combination Cuts</p>
+
+<p>These exercises are so designed as to include one or more of each of the
+foregoing cuts. The student here is given an opportunity of combining
+these cuts into one finished product.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/fig13.jpg" width="600" height="319" alt="Fig. 13." title="Fig. 13." />
+<br /><b>Fig. 13.</b>
+</p>
+
+<p>An analysis of the exercise chosen should be made to determine which of
+the various cuts should be made first, second, etc., in order to produce
+the exercise in the shortest time and with the least amount of tool
+manipulation.</p>
+
+<p>After the student has mastered these cuts with a certain degree of skill
+and accuracy, he is ready to apply them in working out various models in
+Section II.</p>
+
+
+<p><a href="images/A-II--1-a.png">A-II--1-a</a>. Chisel Handles</p>
+
+<p>At this point it is well to state that the small end of all work should
+be turned at the dead center. In the case of chisel handles the socket
+or ferrule end is at the dead center where the stock can safely be cut
+away to permit the fitting of the ferrule or the socket.</p>
+
+<p>After the stock is turned to a cylinder of the largest dimension
+desired, the taper, for the socket chisel, should be turned first and
+fitted to the chisel in which it is to be used. Then the rest of the
+handle is worked out. Ferrules should also be fitted in the same manner.
+A drive fit should be used for all ferrules.</p>
+
+
+<p>A-II--2 and 3. Mallets and Gavels</p>
+
+<p>The biggest source of trouble in these models is getting the handles to
+fit true. This is caused by not getting the hole in the head straight.</p>
+
+<p>Turn the head to a cylinder 3/16&quot; larger than the finished dimension.
+Then bore the hole perpendicular <a name="Page_32" id="Page_32" />to the axis as near as possible,
+either by leaving it between the lathe centers or by placing it in a
+vise. The handle is then fitted into the head. A snug fit is necessary.
+If one side &quot;hangs&quot; or is lower than the other the centers are moved
+sufficiently to correct it. The head is then turned to exact size and
+finished.</p>
+
+
+<p>A-II--7. Vise Handles.</p>
+
+<p>Turn the spindle with the solid head to dimensions. Bore a hole through
+a 1&frac14;&quot; square block and fit the block snugly to the end of the
+spindle. Turn this block to the same dimensions as the other head. This
+method will save chucking the second head and is much quicker.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI" /><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33" />CHAPTER VI</h2>
+
+<p><br /><b>OVAL TURNING</b></p>
+
+
+<p>Oval work as a problem in turning will be found to be a very good one as
+well as interesting to the pupil. It brings in the principle of the oval
+as used in ordinary shop practice; (arcs from points on the major and
+minor axes). For thick heavy ovals the off-centering is very slight,
+while for long, thin ones the off-centering is greater. The measurements
+given on Plates <a href="images/A-III--1-a.png">A-III--1-a</a>, b and <a href="images/A-III--2-a.png">A-III--2-a</a>, b will give a good idea of
+approximate distances to be used.</p>
+
+<p>While the tool operations are much the same as in other spindle turning
+there is one notable difference. The design must be worked out by eye,
+because of the nature of the work no caliper measurements can be made
+for depth of cuts.</p>
+
+<p>To get the best results the stock of oval turning should be cut square
+or slightly rectangular in cross-section and about 3&quot; longer than the
+model to be made. The thickness of the stock should be about &#8539;&quot;
+greater than the major axis of the oval wanted.</p>
+
+<p>The centers are located in the usual manner after which perpendicular
+lines are drawn from the sides, passing through the points of the
+centers. From the ends of one of these, perpendicular lines are extended
+lengthwise of the stock (on opposite sides) meeting the corresponding
+perpendicular at the other end of the stock. These lines form the ridge
+of the oval. On the other perpendiculars, the points for off-centering
+are laid off, measuring the required distance on both sides of the
+center point.</p>
+
+<p>With a &#8539;&quot; drill bore holes &frac14;&quot; deep at each of the off-centering
+points as well as the original center. This will insure the lathe
+centers penetrating the stock at the proper point. The stock is then
+placed in the lathe, using two corresponding off-center points as
+centers.</p>
+
+<p>With the lathe running at third speed turn down the stock to the
+horizontal line forming the ridge of the oval, excepting for a distance
+of about 1&frac14;&quot; at the ends. The stock at the ends is necessary for the
+off-centering and, if cut away, will spoil the centering for the other
+side, <a name="Page_34" id="Page_34" />especially at the live center end. The stock is then changed to
+the other off-center points and the second side is cut down to the line.</p>
+
+<p>All measurements are then laid out and the design is cut, changing the
+stock in the lathe when necessary. Care should be taken that the sharp
+ridge left on the work forms a straight line the full length of the
+stock. After the design has been finished, the stock is centered on the
+true center and a very thin cut is taken the full length of the object
+to remove the sharp corners. The model is then sandpapered while the
+lathe is running very slowly.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII" /><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35" />CHAPTER VII</h2>
+
+<p><br /><b>DUPLICATE TURNING</b></p>
+
+
+<p>Under the head of duplicate turning have been classified only such
+models as clearly indicate the necessity of making two or more articles
+to complete the model or set of articles desired. But it is not intended
+to convey the idea that other models may not be made in duplicate as in
+many cases it is very desirable and even preferable that they should be
+made that way. Whatever the problem may be the suggestions offered at
+this point may be applied effectively.</p>
+
+<p>Whenever two or more models are to be made identically alike there are
+always two possibilities of inaccuracies that will render the work
+dissimilar: First, inaccurate measuring both for length and points of
+new diameters and also on the new diameters themselves; second, a
+variation in the curved surfaces either on long convex or concave cuts.</p>
+
+<p>The first difficulty can be overcome to a great extent by the use of a
+measuring stick. This stick should be made of any soft wood. It should
+be straight on one edge and about the thickness of an ordinary rule. On
+the straight edge lay off very carefully measurements for length,
+shoulders, beads, concaves and all points where calipering for new
+diameters will be necessary. Insert at each point measured a small brad
+which has been sharpened at both ends, leaving the end protrude about
+&#8539;&quot;. Care should be taken that all brads protrude the same distance.</p>
+
+<p>After the stock has been turned to the largest diameter, the stick is
+held in the position of the rule while measuring and the points are
+forced against the revolving cylinder, thus scoring it. This stick can
+be used as many times as the model is to be made and the measurements
+will always be the same.</p>
+
+<p>To avoid dissimilar curves it is well to cut out a full sized templet of
+the model to be made. This templet can be made of any thin, stiff
+material, preferably light sheet iron. In some cases it will be
+necessary to make the templet in several pieces in order to help
+facilitate the tool operations.</p>
+
+<p>The use of this templet will not only be a help to getting all curved
+surfaces the same, but will also check up on the various new diameters
+on the model. The cylinder should never be in motion while the templet
+is being used.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII" /><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36" />CHAPTER VIII</h2>
+
+<p><br /><b>FINISHING AND POLISHING</b></p>
+
+
+<p>To get a high and lasting polish on wood, the work must be first sanded
+so as to be perfectly smooth. In addition to this, open grained wood,
+such as oak, must be properly filled with a wood filler. If properly
+sharpened tools have been used very little sanding is required, and then
+worn sandpaper should be used as it does not cut into the work as new
+paper cuts. Remember sandpaper is not to be used as a tool in cutting
+down stock when working to dimensions. In using old sandpaper run the
+lathe at a moderate speed to avoid burning the wood, especially on
+square or round fillets. Keep the edges of the work sharp and do not
+wear them round. In using new sandpaper use a fine grit (00 or 0) and
+move the paper from one end of the work to the other slowly, so that no
+scratches result on the surface of the work.</p>
+
+<p>The work may be finished by one of two methods. In the first method as
+in finishing ordinary cabinet work, the pieces should be stained and
+filled. In applying filler, run the lathe at the slowest speed after the
+material has dried sufficiently to rub into the pores of the wood. If
+the highlights are to be brought out, as in the case of oak, stain and
+then give a light coat of shellac, and apply the filler after the
+shellac is dry. The shellac keeps the dark filler from staining the
+flakes of the oak darker, and the pores of the wood fill in as before.
+The pores become darker than the flakes, and at the same time a smooth
+surface is produced. After the filler has hardened the wood may be waxed
+or varnished.</p>
+
+<p>The second method, or French polishing, is rather difficult to apply and
+requires a little skill. A close grained wood, like maple, will be found
+more satisfactory for the beginner. An open grained wood may be filled
+in the ordinary way, or the grain may be filled by rubbing into the
+pores of the wood a combination of shellac, rotten stone or pumice, oil
+and alcohol. Rotten stone is used for dark wood and pumice is used for
+light wood. The wood may be left in the natural or stained as in the
+first method. The mixture of shellac, rotten stone, oil and alcohol, is
+applied to the work with a pad made of <a name="Page_37" id="Page_37" />cotton waste, wrapped in cheese
+cloth to keep it from sticking to the work. It should be about 1&frac12;&quot; in
+diameter and &frac12;&quot; thick. Hold the pad over the mouth of a bottle of
+shellac and tip the bottle so that the shellac comes in contact with the
+pad. The shellac will remain clean in a bottle and will be handy. The
+mouth of the shellac bottle should be about 1&quot; in diameter and should be
+dipped once. Do likewise with a bottle, having a mouth &frac12;&quot; in diameter,
+containing alcohol. This should be dipped twice allowing the alcohol to
+dilute the shellac. Then drop on a couple of drops of oil and rub over
+the pad evenly; this aids in distributing the shellac properly and keeps
+the pad from sticking to the work. A bottle may also be used for this.
+For the rotten stone use a pepper shaker so that it may be sifted on the
+work as needed.</p>
+
+<p>When the mixture has been applied to the pad, hold the pad against the
+work lightly at first, until most of the moisture has been worked out of
+it, and then gradually increase the pressure until the pad is almost
+dry. In putting on the first coat, use more shellac and alcohol and just
+enough oil at all times to prevent the pad from sticking to the work.
+However, the pad should not contain as much shellac that it can be
+squeezed out with the fingers. When the pad is dry, another mixture is
+applied, and where open grained wood is used, rotten stone, or pumice
+stone, is sprinkled on the work to gradually fill up the pores and to
+build up a smooth surface. Run the lathe at a low speed, depending on
+the size of the piece that is being polished. Allow the first coat to
+dry before applying a second coat for, if too much is put on at any one
+time, the heat generated in the rubbing will cause the shellac to pull,
+and it will form rings by piling up. These rings may be worked out in
+two ways, either by a slight pressure of the pad on the rings or by
+cutting them with alcohol applied to the pad. If too much alcohol is
+used it will cut through the shellac and remove what has already been
+rubbed on. If at any time too much shellac is used it will pile up and
+form rings. Too much rotten stone will cut down the polish and by
+absorbing the mixture will leave the pad dry. If too much oil is used
+the polish will become dull after a day or two.</p>
+
+<p>After the first coat has hardened apply the second, but use less shellac
+and more alcohol and just enough oil to prevent the pad from sticking.
+This may be done by dipping the tip of a finger in the oil and spreading
+it over the pad. The entire mixture should be so that only a dampness
+can be felt on the pad. As the process goes <a name="Page_38" id="Page_38" />on less oil and shellac are
+used. All oil must be removed when applying the last coat, or the piece
+will lose its polish. All the pores should be filled, and no rings
+should be on the finished work. Where a natural finish is desired, apply
+a coat of boiled linseed oil twelve hours before the work is to be
+polished. This will bring out the grain and will also aid in applying
+the first coat; no oil need then be used in the first coat.</p>
+
+<p>A great amount of practice and patience is required to get a first class
+polish. Polishing can only be learned by experience. Correct your
+troubles in properly proportioning the mixture. Never use too much
+shellac as it will build up too fast and will not harden, thus causing
+rings; or it will pull and catch to the pad, thus forming bunches. The
+purpose of alcohol is mainly to dilute the shellac and to prevent
+against putting it on the work too fast, but care must be taken not to
+use too much alcohol to cut the shellac entirely. The oil helps to
+distribute the shellac evenly, but it must be removed when finishing the
+last coat, or the polish will not remain. It also helps to keep the pad
+from sticking to the work.</p>
+
+<p>It is impossible to obtain a polish that will be as lasting and rich by
+any method other than the one described. For success it is essential to
+learn the proportions of the mixture and to acquire skill in applying
+the materials by using exactly the right pressure and the right movement
+of the pad.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX" /><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39" />CHAPTER IX</h2>
+
+<p><br /><b>FACE-PLATE AND CHUCK TURNING</b></p>
+
+
+<p>Face-plate and chuck turning open an entirely new field of work from
+that taken up in previous chapters of this book. If handled correctly,
+it has much greater educational and practical value than cylinder
+turning. From the practical standpoint the field of work is broader and
+the models to be made are of much greater value. Aside from this, trade
+methods and practices can be applied and a broad insight into commercial
+work can be given the student.</p>
+
+<p>In some details of chuck turning the tool operations already learned can
+be employed, but for the most part they are entirely different. In order
+to preserve the educational value of the work as brought out by skill
+and dexterity in handling tools, it will be necessary to use the cutting
+method wherever possible. In some instances that method will be
+impossible, and the scraping method must be used.</p>
+
+
+<p><br /><b>METHODS OF FASTENING STOCK</b></p>
+
+<p>All the work thus far has been on models where the stock worked upon is
+held between the live and dead centers. In face-plate and chuck turning
+the work is done at the head stock only and the piece is supported by
+means of a face-plate, or chuck, that is fastened to a face-plate, which
+is screwed onto the end of the live spindle. There are three methods of
+fastening stock to the face-plate, and it depends upon the nature of the
+exercise or model to be made which method is used.</p>
+
+<p>1. SMALL SINGLE SCREW FACE-PLATE. For all work that does not require
+deep cutting in the center, such as in towel rings, picture frames,
+etc., the small face-plate with a single screw should be used.</p>
+
+<p>Note:--Should it be found difficult to keep the block from working loose
+and turning, it is a good plan to fold a piece of sandpaper, grit side
+out, and place it between the face-plate and the stock.</p>
+
+<p>2. LARGE SURFACE SCREW FACE-PLATE. For all work that does not require
+deep cutting on the outside, such as exercises, jewel boxes, etc., as
+well as all large stock, and all stock from which chucks are to be
+<a name="Page_40" id="Page_40" />made, the large face-plate with the surface screws should be used.</p>
+
+<p>3. GLUING TO WASTE STOCK. A block of scrap wood is fastened to a
+face-plate the same as for a chuck and surfaced off square. The block
+from which the model is to be made is planed square on one side and
+glued to the block on the face-plate with a sheet of paper between the
+two. To separate the model from the chuck, after it is completed, place
+a chisel on the waste stock, 1/16&quot; back of the glue joint at such a
+point as will bring the chisel parallel to the grain of the model, and
+strike lightly with a mallet. This will cause the paper to separate and
+the model to become free.</p>
+
+<p>This method will be found very convenient epecially on models where the
+base is to be left straight. It will also be found to save much stock
+when working with expensive woods.</p>
+
+
+<p><br /><b>LATHE ADJUSTMENTS</b></p>
+
+<p>To get the best results in face-plate or chuck turning there should be
+no end play in the spindle of the lathe. The spindle should always be
+tested out, and if any play is found, should be adjusted before
+attempting any work. It is almost impossible to make a true cut when
+such a condition obtains.</p>
+
+
+<p><br /><b>POSITION OF TOOL REST</b></p>
+
+<p>For all face-plate and chuck turning the tool rest should be kept as
+close to the stock as possible, the same as in spindle turning,
+regardless of the angle it may be set. Vertically, the rest in most
+cases should be sufficiently below the center of the stock to bring the
+center or cutting point of the tools used, when held parallel to the bed
+of the lathe, even with the center of the stock. This last condition
+will necessitate adjusting the height occasionally when changing from
+large to small tools.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X" /><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41" />CHAPTER X</h2>
+
+<p><br /><b>TOOL PROCESSES IN FACE-PLATE AND CHUCK TURNING</b></p>
+
+
+<p><a href="images/B-I--1-a.png">B-I--1-a</a>. Straight Cuts</p>
+
+<p>1. ROUGHING OFF CORNERS. (&frac34;&quot; GOUGE.) FIG. 14. The tool rest is set
+crosswise to the bed of the lathe and parallel to the face of the stock.</p>
+
+<p>Place the gouge on the rest with the handle well down. Roll the gouge to
+the left until the grind which forms the cutting edge is perpendicular
+to the stock. The point of contact should be slightly below the center
+or nose of the tool.</p>
+
+<p>The handle of the gouge is then swung well to the back of the lathe or
+to the operator's right. The gouge is then pushed forward into the stock
+and to the left, making a shearing cut. The cut should not be too heavy.
+The starting point for this cut should be a line which will indicate the
+largest diameter or circle that can be made from the block.--This cut
+should be repeated until the corners are removed from the block.</p>
+
+<p>To complete the cutting of thick stock it will be found necessary to
+change the tool rest to an angle of 45&deg; with the bed of the lathe.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/fig14.jpg" width="600" height="354" alt="Fig. 14." title="Fig. 14." />
+<br /><b>Fig. 14.</b>
+</p>
+
+<p>When hardwood is being turned it is sometimes advisable to saw the block
+almost round with a compass saw or bandsaw, if one is to be had. Should
+this be done the preceding steps are omitted.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42" />The tool rest is then placed parallel with the lathe bed and a roughing
+cut is taken with the gouge the entire thickness of the block.</p>
+
+<p>The lathe should be run on second or third speed until the corners are
+removed, and then changed to first speed.</p>
+
+<p>2. CALIPERING FOR DIAMETER. The true diameter is then calipered the same
+as in spindle work.</p>
+
+<p>3. SMOOTHING CUT. A smoothing cut is taken with a skew chisel the same
+as in spindle work.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/fig15.jpg" width="600" height="338" alt="Fig. 15." title="Fig. 15." />
+<br /><b>Fig. 15.</b>
+</p>
+
+<p>4. ROUGHING CUT ON THE FACE. (&frac34;&quot; GOUGE.) FIG. 15. The rest is now
+placed parallel to the bed of the lathe and slightly above the center of
+the spindle. Place the gouge on the rest on its edge with the grind
+toward the stock and parallel to the face to be surfaced. The nose of
+the gouge is the cutting point.</p>
+
+<p>The handle is then raised and the cutting point is forced toward the
+center. A very thin shaving should be taken. If the gouge is allowed to
+roll back so the grind above the cutting point comes in contact with the
+wood it is sure to catch and gash the wood.</p>
+
+<p>5. SMOOTHING THE FACE. (SMALL SKEW CHISEL.) FIG. 16. For all work up to
+3&quot; in diameter, the surface may be smoothed by using a small skew chisel
+in the same manner as in squaring the ends of Stock in cylinder work.
+(Step 6--Exercise <a href="images/A-I--1-a.png">A-I--1-a</a>, Straight Cuts.)</p>
+
+<p>For larger work, place the chisel flat on the rest with the toe next to
+the stock and the back edge of the chisel parallel to the face to be
+surfaced.</p>
+
+<p>The point of the chisel is then forced toward the center of the stock,
+using the straight back of the tool <a name="Page_43" id="Page_43" />as a guide against the finished
+surface. Only a very thin cut should be taken at a time.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/fig16.jpg" width="600" height="366" alt="Fig. 16." title="Fig. 16." />
+<br /><b>Fig. 16.</b>
+</p>
+
+<p>Note:--While this operation may be termed a scraping cut, it will be
+found to be much easier on the tool than if the cutting edge were held
+flat against the work as in other scraping cuts.</p>
+
+<p>The surface of the work should be tested for squareness by holding the
+edge of the chisel or a straight edge across the face.</p>
+
+
+<p><br /><b>LAYING OFF MEASUREMENTS</b></p>
+
+<p>In laying off measurements on the face of the stock a pencil compass or
+dividers should be used. Set the compass or dividers to one-half the
+diameter of the circle wanted. While one point is held at the exact
+center of the stock, which is easily located while the stock is
+revolving, the other is brought in contact with the revolving stock
+until a circle of the correct diameter is marked.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/fig17.jpg" width="600" height="359" alt="Fig. 17." title="Fig. 17." />
+<br /><b>Fig. 17.</b>
+</p>
+
+<p>Should the center of the stock be cut away, rendering this method
+impossible, the following method may be <a name="Page_44" id="Page_44" />used: Set the compass or
+dividers to the exact diameter wanted. Place one point in contact with
+the stock a little to one side of the required line on the part that is
+to be cut-away. Bring the other point to the stock and see if it touches
+the line first made. If not, move the first point until the two points
+track in the same line.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/fig18.jpg" width="600" height="343" alt="Fig. 18." title="Fig. 18." />
+<br /><b>Fig. 18.</b>
+</p>
+
+<p>The rest should be set at the exact center for measuring.</p>
+
+<p>All measurements on the edge of the stock can be made with pencil and
+rule as in cylinder turning.</p>
+
+
+<p><a href="images/B-I--2-a.png">B-I--2-a</a>. Shoulder Cuts</p>
+
+<p>1. EXTERNAL SHOULDERS. FIG. 18. The surplus stock at each successive
+shoulder is roughed out with a &frac34;&quot; gouge, keeping well outside the
+finished measurements. The gouge for this work is held in the same
+position as described in <a href="images/B-I--1-a.png">B-I--1-a</a>, Step 1, for Roughing Off Corners.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/fig19.jpg" width="600" height="373" alt="Fig. 19." title="Fig. 19." />
+<br /><b>Fig. 19.</b>
+</p>
+
+<p>2. For the finishing cut a small skew chisel is used, <a name="Page_45" id="Page_45" />and the process
+is the same as that used in squaring ends of stock. Both the vertical
+and horizontal shoulders can be handled easily by this method. Fig, 19.</p>
+
+<p>3. INTERNAL SHOULDERS. For internal shoulder cutting the same methods
+may be used for roughing out and cutting the horizontal shoulders, but
+for the vertical or base shoulder it will be necessary to use the
+scraping process. (See &quot;Use of Scraping Tools.&quot;)</p>
+
+
+<p><a href="images/B-I--3-a.png">B-I--3-a</a>. Taper Cuts</p>
+
+<p>Taper cutting will not be found hard as the gouge and skew chisel are
+used in the same manner as described in <a href="images/B-I--1-a.png">B-I--1-a</a>, Steps 4 and 5. After
+the stock has been roughed away with the gouge to the approximate angle
+desired, a smoothing cut is taken with the skew. Care should be taken
+that the skew chisel is held at the exact angle of the taper desired.</p>
+
+
+<p><a href="images/B-I--4-a.png">B-I--4-a</a>. V Cuts</p>
+
+<p>V cutting will also be found easy as the tool process is exactly the
+same as that used in spindle turning. Exercise <a href="images/A-I--4-a.png">A-I--4-a</a>. Fig. 20.</p>
+
+
+<p><a href="images/B-I--5-a.png">B-I--5-a</a>. Concave Cuts</p>
+
+<p>Place the &frac34;&quot; gouge on the rest with the handle parallel to the bed of
+the lathe. Roll the gouge on its edge and swing the handle so that the
+grind is perpendicular to the stock with the nose of the tool as the
+cutting point.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/fig20.jpg" width="600" height="350" alt="Fig. 20." title="Fig. 20." />
+<br /><b>Fig. 20.</b>
+</p>
+
+<p>Force the gouge forward into the wood. As soon as the cut is started,
+the handle is lowered and swung to <a name="Page_46" id="Page_46" />the left; (if cutting the left side
+of the concave) at the same time the tool is rolled back toward its
+original position. This movement brings the cutting point farther down
+on the lip and the grind, resting on the side of the cut, will force the
+gouge sidewise and will form one-quarter of the circle. Fig. 21.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/fig21.jpg" width="600" height="326" alt="Fig. 21." title="Fig. 21." />
+<br /><b>Fig. 21.</b>
+</p>
+
+<p>This cut is continued from alternate side until the concave is nearly to
+size. The cut should be tested with a templet before the finishing cut
+is taken.</p>
+
+
+<p><a href="images/B-I--6-a.png">B-I--6-a</a>. Convex Cuts</p>
+
+<p>Rough out the stock between the beads with a parting tool.</p>
+
+<p>Hold the edge of the gouge on the rest with the handle, parallel to the
+bed of the lathe, to make the nose the cutting point.</p>
+
+<p>Swing the handle to the left so that the grind will form a tangent to
+the bead at its highest point.</p>
+
+<p>The gouge is then forced into the stock and to the right; at the same
+time the handle is swung to the right; keeping the grind tangent to the
+bead at the point of contact. Fig. 22. This cut is continued until the
+base of the bead is reached.</p>
+
+
+<p><a href="images/B-I--7-a.png">B-I--7-a</a>. Combination Cuts</p>
+
+<p>As in spindle turning, a combination exercise should be given at this
+point to provide an opportunity for studying out the best methods of
+working the various cuts just described into a finished product.</p>
+
+
+<p><br /><b>USE OF SCRAPING TOOLS</b></p>
+
+<p>When scraping is to be employed, it should be done with only those tools
+that are made for that purpose, i.e., <a name="Page_47" id="Page_47" />Square Nose, Round Nose, Spear
+Point, Right and Left Skew. The handling of these tools will be found
+easy. The only point to remember is that they should be held flat on the
+tool rest and parallel to the bed of the lathe when in use.</p>
+
+<p>In general practice the ordinary skew chisel should not be used as a
+scraping tool, for the cutting edge is not sharpened to withstand the
+heavy strain required by such work. Should it be necessary, however, to
+use a skew chisel as a scraper, the tool should be held so that the top
+grind is parallel to the bed of the lathe while in use.</p>
+
+
+<p><br /><b>INTERNAL BORING</b></p>
+
+<p>In roughing out the center for Napkin Rings, Jewel Boxes, etc., the
+quickest method is to work it out with a small gouge.</p>
+
+<p>Place the gouge on the rest parallel to the bed of the lathe, having the
+point even with the center of the stock.</p>
+
+<p>Force the gouge into the wood until a hole is bored to the depth
+required. If the hole is deeper than 1&quot;, remove the tool often and clear
+out the shavings in order not to burn the point.</p>
+
+<p>In order to enlarge the hole to the proper size the point of the gouge
+is pressed against the left side of the hole a little above the center
+and a shearing cut is taken. To obviate the danger of the tool catching,
+all cuts should start from the back of the hole and proceed toward the
+front.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/fig22.jpg" width="600" height="304" alt="Fig. 22." title="Fig. 22." />
+<br /><b>Fig. 22.</b>
+</p>
+
+
+<p><a href="images/B-III--8-a.png">B-III--8-a</a>. Sphere</p>
+
+<p>After the sphere is turned as nearly perfect as is possible when working
+between centers (Steps 1 to 4) it is cut free from the waste stock and
+is centered in a chuck.</p>
+
+<p>The chuck is made of any soft wood and should be cut in the end grain,
+which will insure equal pressure on all <a name="Page_48" id="Page_48" />sides. Equal pressure cannot be
+obtained if the Chuck is cut in cross grain wood, owing to the tendency
+of side grain to give more than the end grain. The sphere should be
+forced into the chuck with slightly over half protruding. Very thin cuts
+should be taken and the sphere should be revolved one-quarter turn after
+each until true. As the sphere becomes smaller during the cutting, it
+will be necessary to cut the face of the chuck down and bore the hole
+deeper and smaller in order to keep more than half of it protruding at
+all times.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/mirror.jpg" width="534" height="363" alt="Mirror (See Pages 299-301)." title="Mirror (See Pages 299-301)." />
+<br /><b>Mirror (See Pages <a href="images/B-IV--2-b.png">299</a>-<a href="images/B-IV--2-b'.png">301</a>).</b>
+</p>
+
+<p>To remove the sphere tap the chuck lightly with a hammer just above it,
+at the same time pull out on the sphere.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XI" id="CHAPTER_XI" /><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49" />CHAPTER XI</h2>
+
+<p><br /><b>SPIRAL TURNING</b></p>
+
+
+<p>Spiral turning is a subject that has received very little attention by
+most schools in which wood turning is taught. Spiral work is seen in
+antique furniture and also in the modern furniture of the present day.
+It seems that it takes the wheel of fashion about a century to make a
+complete turn, for what our forefathers neglected and destroyed the
+people of the present day value and cherish.</p>
+
+<p>Spiral work gives excellent practice in shaping and modelling wood. It
+brings into play the principle of the helix as used in cutting threads,
+etc.; and its form, size and shape may be varied according to the taste
+of the individual. As in threads so in spiral work we have single and
+double spirals, and their form and proportion depend upon their use and
+application in furniture making. A variation of the spiral may be made
+in several ways: First, by changing the number of turns of the spiral on
+a straight shaft; second, by running a spiral on a tapered shaft; third,
+by changing the shape or form of the spiral itself; and fourth, by
+making more than one spiral on a shaft. It is uncommon to see ten or
+twelve spirals running around a single shaft.</p>
+
+<p>Some of the forms of the above types are fully taken up and explained in
+the work that is to follow.</p>
+
+
+<p>PLATES <a href="images/B-V--1-a.png">B-V--1-a</a>, <a href="images/B-V--1-a'.png">B-V--1-a&rsquo;</a>. SINGLE SPIRAL. STRAIGHT SHAFT</p>
+
+<p>To work out a single spiral for a pedestal proceed as follows:</p>
+
+<p>1. Turn a cylinder 2&frac14;&quot; in diameter. Make the ends slightly larger in
+order that the design may be turned on each, after the spiral has been
+worked out.</p>
+
+<p>2. Lay off spaces 2-1/16&quot; apart on the cylinder while the spindle is
+turning in the lathe and divide each of these into four equal parts.
+Each one of these large spaces represents one turn of the spiral. A good
+proportion is slightly less than the diameter of the cylinder; thus the
+diameter of the cylinder equals 2&frac14;&quot; and the width of the space
+2-1/16&quot;.</p>
+
+<p>3. On the cylinder parallel to the axis draw lines A-A B-B C-C D-D.
+These lines should be 90&deg; apart as shown in the top diagram (Plate
+<a href="images/B-V--1-a'.png">B-V--1-a&rsquo;</a>). Line D-D <a name="Page_50" id="Page_50" />is on the other side of the cylinder as shown in
+the top and middle diagrams.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/fig23.jpg" width="200" height="527" alt="Fig. 23." title="Fig. 23." />
+<br /><b>Fig. 23.</b>
+</p>
+
+<p>4. Start on line A-A at point X, circle 1, and draw a line connecting it
+with line B-B on circle 1&rsquo;. Then connect B-B on circle 1&rsquo; with C-C on
+circle 2 and so on until a spiral has been drawn the entire length of
+the cylinder. This line will form the ridge of the spiral as shown in
+the middle diagram.</p>
+
+<p>5. Next begin on line C-C at circle 1, and draw a line connecting it
+with D-D on circle 1&rsquo; then to line A-A on circle 2, and so on as before.
+This spiral represents the center of the groove or the portion which is
+to be cut away. This is not shown in the diagram because more or less
+confusion would be caused with the line representing the ridge of the
+spiral.</p>
+
+<p>6. Begin on line C-C at circle 1, and saw to a depth of &frac34;&quot;. Saw the
+entire length of the cylinder leaving about 1&frac12;&quot; at the ends. Do not
+follow the line here, but switch off gradually and follow circles 1 and
+15, so as to allow the spiral to begin and end gradually and not
+abruptly.</p>
+
+<p>7. Rough out with a knife or chisel by cutting on both sides of the saw
+cut. Then use a wood rasp to finish shaping out the spiral. When
+properly shaped out allow the lathe to turn slowly and smooth with
+sandpaper by following the spiral as the lathe turns.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51" /></p>
+
+<table summary="Figures 24, 24a and 25">
+  <tr><td>
+	<img src="images/fig24.jpg" width="170" height="325" alt="Fig. 24." title="Fig. 24." /><br />
+	<b>Fig. 24.</b>
+  </td><td>
+	<img src="images/fig24a.jpg" width="250" height="325" alt="Fig. 24-a." title="Fig. 24-a." /><br />
+	<b>Fig. 24-a.</b>
+  </td><td>
+	<img src="images/fig25.jpg" width="200" height="325" alt="Fig. 25." title="Fig. 25." /><br />
+	<b>Fig. 25.</b>
+  </td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52" />8. Cut the design on both ends of the cylinder and polish.</p>
+
+
+<p>PLATES <a href="images/B-V--2-a.png">B-V--2-a</a>, <a href="images/B-V--2-a'.png">B-V--2-a&rsquo;</a>, <a href="images/B-V--2-a''.png">B-V--2-a&rsquo;&rsquo;</a>;. SINGLE SPIRAL. TAPERED SHAFT</p>
+
+<p>To lay off a single spiral for the electric lamp shown in Figs. 24 and
+24a proceed as follows:</p>
+
+<p>1. Select your wood and bore a hole through it. Plug the hole and center
+the piece in the lathe. This insures getting the hole exactly in the
+center, and it will not be cut into while the cutting of the groove of
+the spiral proceeds. A groove may also be cut in two pieces of stock and
+glued together to form a hole through the stock.</p>
+
+<p>2. Turn a cylinder 2&frac12;&quot; in diameter, tapering it to 1&frac12;&quot; at the one
+end; this part should be 12&#8539;&quot; long. Both ends should be left larger
+than 2&frac12;&quot; as the lower and upper designs must be cut here.</p>
+
+<p>3. Let the spindle revolve in the lathe and draw circles as shown in the
+layout (Plate <a href="images/B-V--2-a'.png">B-V--2-a&rsquo;</a>). The number of circles will vary with the
+taper. Since seven turns are needed in the present spiral, 28 circles
+will be necessary--four circles for each turn of the spiral as shown in
+the middle diagram. A good proportion to follow is to measure the
+diameter of the spindle at circle 2 and lay off this distance from
+circle 1 to circle 3. Then measure the diameter at circle 4 and lay off
+this diameter from circle 3 to circle 5 and so on until all circles have
+been made. Then divide these large divisions into four equal parts.</p>
+
+<p>4. Draw four lines the entire length of the spindle, each 90&deg; apart as
+shown by the heavy lines in the middle diagram. The heavy circles of the
+same diagram represent the complete turns of the spiral.</p>
+
+<p>5. Lay out the line representing the ridge of the spiral as shown in the
+middle diagram. Begin on circle 1, where the straight line crosses it,
+draw to circle 1&rsquo; at the point where the next straight line crosses it,
+then to 2--2&rsquo;--3--3&rsquo; and so on until the end is reached. This forms the
+ridge of the spiral as shown in diagram 3. Next it may be more
+convenient to draw another line representing the groove. In this case
+begin at point X in the middle diagram, opposite the point where first
+started, and continue in the preceding manner, making this line parallel
+to the other line.</p>
+
+<p>6. Saw on the line last made, being careful not to saw too deeply. The
+depth must be &frac14;&quot; less than half the diameter of the spindle where the
+cut is made. This <a name="Page_53" id="Page_53" />saw cut forms the groove of the spiral. The groove is
+then cut out by hand with a chisel or knife, by working down the wood on
+both sides of the saw cut. After the spirals have been roughed out, a
+rasp is used to finish shaping them. The work is then sandpapered
+smooth, while the spindle is revolved slowly in the lathe.</p>
+
+<p>7. Cut designs on the ends of the cylinder and polish.</p>
+
+
+<p>PLATES <a href="images/B-V--2-b.png">B-V--2-b</a>, <a href="images/B-V--2-b'.png">B-V--2-b&rsquo;</a>. DOUBLE SPIRAL. TAPERED SHAFT</p>
+
+<p>To work out a double spiral for the electric lamp illustrated in Fig. 25
+proceed as follows:</p>
+
+<p>1. Turn up the spindle in the usual manner. Since the base of the shaft
+is larger than the top, the spiral must also be in proportion and lines
+A-A&rsquo;, B-B&rsquo;, C-C&rsquo;, D-D&rsquo;, and E-E&rsquo;, are drawn around the shaft. To get the
+approximate spacing from circles A-A to B-B measure the diameter at A-A&rsquo;
+plus about 3/16&quot; and lay off from A-A&rsquo; to B-B&rsquo;. Then take the diameter
+of B-B&rsquo; plus about 3/16&quot; and lay off from A-A&rsquo; to B-B&rsquo;. Then take the
+diameter at B-B&rsquo; plus about 3/16&quot; and lay off from circle B-B&rsquo; to C-C&rsquo;
+and so on. If the shaft is tapered more, a different proportion must be
+used. Also if it is desired to have the twist wind around the shaft
+three times, a variation must be made in the number of circles.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/fig27.jpg" width="600" height="489" alt="Fig. 27." title="Fig. 27." />
+<br /><b>Fig. 27.</b>
+</p>
+
+<p>2. If it is desired to have the twist wind around the shaft twice, draw
+circles 1-1&rsquo;, 2-2&rsquo;, 3-3&rsquo;, and 4-4&rsquo; and the spaces will grow
+proportionately smaller at the small end.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54" />3. Draw four lines running lengthwise on the spindle and 90&deg; apart as
+shown in the midde figure in heavy lines (Plate <a href="images/B-V--2-b'.png">B-V--2-b&rsquo;</a>).</p>
+
+<p>4. Begin at A and draw a curved line to where the 90&deg; line crosses
+circle 1-1&rsquo;. From there extend the line to where the next 90&deg; line
+crosses circle B-B&rsquo; at point B&rsquo;. Continue in this manner until the other
+end of the shaft is reached. Begin at A&rsquo; and draw a line on the opposite
+side of the shaft. These two lines running around and along the shaft
+form the grooves while the portion in between forms the beads of the
+double spiral.</p>
+
+<p>5. Saw to the desired depth, being &frac14;&quot; less than half the diameter at
+the point where cut. With a chisel or knife form the grooves and beads.
+It is necessary to be careful about not ending the grooves too abruptly.
+(See point 6 in Plates <a href="images/B-V--1-a.png">B-V--1-a</a>, <a href="images/B-V--1-a'.png">B-V--1-a&rsquo;</a>.) Smooth with a rasp and sandpaper
+while the lathe is revolving slowly.</p>
+
+<p>6. Cut the design on the ends and polish.</p>
+
+
+<p>PLATES <a href="images/B-V--3-a.png">B-V--3-a</a>, <a href="images/B-V--3-a'.png">B-V--3-a&rsquo;</a>. DOUBLE GROOVE SPIRAL. STRAIGHT SHAFT</p>
+
+<p>To work out the double groove spiral for the magazine holder
+illustrated, proceed as follows:</p>
+
+<p>1. Square up the stock to 1&#8540;&quot;. Center carefully and turn the design
+on both ends as shown, in the upper diagram (Plate <a href="images/B-V--3-a'.png">B-V--3-a&rsquo;</a>). Turn the
+cylinder between the top and bottom, making it 5&frac12;&quot; long and 1&#8540;&quot; in
+diameter.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/fig26.jpg" width="496" height="504" alt="Fig. 26." title="Fig. 26." />
+<br /><b>Fig. 26.</b>
+</p>
+
+<p>2. Divide the cylinder into two equal parts. Each part represents one
+revolution of the spiral.</p>
+
+<p>3. Divide each half into four equal parts as shown in the top and center
+diagrams (Plate <a href="images/B-V--3-a'.png">B-V--3-a&rsquo;</a>), 1-1&rsquo;, <a name="Page_55" id="Page_55" />2-2&rsquo;, 3-3&rsquo; and so on. The proportion
+of the distance between these circles should be one-half the diameter of
+the cylinder.</p>
+
+<p>4. Draw lines A-A, B-B, C-C, and D-D, parallel to the axis of the
+cylinder 90&deg; apart.</p>
+
+<p>5. With a band 3/16&quot; wide of any substantial material (preferably a
+narrow strip of tin or a watch main spring) begin on the line A-A at
+circle 1, and connect circle 1&rsquo; at line B-B, and then connect circle 2
+at C-C, and so on until the spiral is made the entire length. Mark on
+both sides of the 3/16&quot; band so as to keep the spiral parallel.</p>
+
+<p>6. Next begin at the line C-C where circle 1 crosses it and connect from
+here to 1&rsquo; at B-B. Proceed as in Step 5, as shown in the center diagram.</p>
+
+<p>7. Now erase the extreme ends of the spiral near circles 1 and 5, and
+deviate from the original spiral and follow the circles in a more
+parallel direction so as to allow the spiral to begin and end gradually
+and not too abruptly. Refer to the lower diagram for this.</p>
+
+<p>8. Cut out portions of wood between the bands previously marked around,
+as shown in the lower figure. The wood should be cut out with a knife so
+as to leave the corners sharp on the narrow bands. The portion cut out
+should be a semi-circle and can be sanded by making a spindle a little
+smaller than the distance between the bands and fastening sandpaper on
+the spindle. Place in the lathe and hold the spiral on the sandpaper
+cylinder at an angle so that the spiral will fit. Turn gradually and the
+sandpaper will smooth up the portion between the bands and true it up.
+At the ends where the grooves are smaller, use a smaller stick around
+which sandpaper has been wound and work out by hand.</p>
+
+<p>9. It is well to cut straight down, about 1/32&quot; deep, along the lines
+marking out the narrow bands. Then the wood will not be so likely to
+split while removing the stock which forms the grooves between the
+bands.</p>
+
+<p>10. Cut out the mortises in the square portions which have been left at
+both ends. Make the frame work for the sides and cane. Glue together and
+polish.</p>
+
+<p>Note:--By making the posts smaller and using the same construction for a
+side a nice looking book stall may be made. The proportions for the
+posts are the same as mentioned in Step 3.</p>
+
+<p>[Transcribers note: There are 142 line art illustrations after this
+point in the book. See the <a href="#Page_7">Classification of
+Plates</a> for all of them.]</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A Course In Wood Turning
+by Archie S. Milton and Otto K. Wohlers
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A COURSE IN WOOD TURNING ***
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+</body>
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+
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of A Course In Wood Turning
+by Archie S. Milton and Otto K. Wohlers
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: A Course In Wood Turning
+
+Author: Archie S. Milton and Otto K. Wohlers
+
+Release Date: March 25, 2005 [EBook #15460]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A COURSE IN WOOD TURNING ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Jason Isbell and the PG Online Distributed Proofreading Team
+
+
+
+
+[Transcribers note: Mis-spelled words in the original left as is.
+Below is a list of all known mis-spelled words kept from the original:
+
+Table Of Contents - Classification of Plates
+    bowels - should be bowls
+
+Chapter II - SPEED OF THE LATHE
+    centrificial - should be centrifugal
+
+Chapter IX - METHODS OF FASTENING STOCK
+    epecially - should be especially
+
+Chapter XI - SPIRAL TURNING
+    modelling - should be modeling
+
+Chapter XI - PLATES B-V--2-b, b'
+    midde - should be middle]
+
+
+A COURSE IN WOOD TURNING
+
+By ARCHIE S. MILTON
+
+OTTO K. WOHLERS
+
+[Illustration: BRUCE MILWAUKEE (Publishers Stamp)]
+
+THE BRUCE PUBLISHING COMPANY
+
+MILWAUKEE, WISCONSIN
+
+Copyright 1919
+
+Archie S. Milton
+
+Otto K. Wohlers
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+This book is the outgrowth of problems given to high school pupils by
+the writers, and has been compiled in logical sequence. Stress is laid
+upon the proper use of tools, and the problems are presented in such a
+way that each exercise, or project, depends somewhat on the one
+preceding. It is not the idea of the writers that all problems shown
+should be made, but that the instructor select only such as will give
+the pupils enough preliminary work in the use of the tools to prepare
+them for other models following.
+
+The related matter on the care of the lathe and tools, the grinding of
+chisels, the polishing of projects, and the specific directions and
+cautions for working out the various exercises and projects with the
+drawings, make the book not only valuable for reference, but also as a
+class text to be studied in connection with the making of projects. The
+drawings show exact dimensions and are tabulated in the upper right-hand
+corner in such a way that they may be used in a filing case if desired.
+At least two designs are shown for each model, and these may be used as
+suggestions from which students, with the aid of the instructor, may
+work out their own designs.
+
+The book has been divided into two parts: (A) Spindle Turning, and (B)
+Face-Plate Turning. The same order is followed in each part; the related
+information is supplied where required as the pupil progresses.
+
+Part A takes up the following: (I) Exercises; (II) Models, involving the
+same tool processes, only in a somewhat different degree; (III) Oval
+Turning, explaining the use of two centers; (IV) Duplicate Turning,
+where identical pieces are turned.
+
+Part B is arranged as follows: (I) Exercises; (II) Models, which are an
+application of cuts in exercises that involve only face-plate work;
+(III) Models, which require chucking; (IV) Assembling Exercises,
+involving spindle turning, face-plate work and chucking; (V) Spiral
+Turning, showing the method of turning a spiral on the lathe.
+
+The ultimate aim of this book is to give, through the exercises and
+problems, a thorough understanding of the principles of wood turning by
+gradually developing the confidence of the pupil in the complete control
+of his tools, at the same time suggesting harmonious lines in design
+which will lead to other ideas in designing problems.
+
+
+
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS
+
+                                                                 Pages
+CHAPTER I.
+  Introductory
+    --Commercial and Educational Values of Wood Turning
+    --Elements of Success                                         9-10
+
+CHAPTER II.
+  The Lathe
+    --Care of the Lathe
+    --Speed of the Lathe
+    --Method of Figuring the Diameter of Pulleys
+    --Rules for Finding the Speeds and Sizes of Pulleys
+    --Points on Setting Up the Lathe and Shafting                11-14
+
+CHAPTER III.
+  Wood Turning Tools
+    --Grinding and Whetting Turning Tools
+    --The Gouge
+    --The Parting Tool
+    --Scraping Tools                                             15-18
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+  Spindle Turning
+    --Centering Stock
+    --Clamping Stock in the Lathe
+    --Adjusting the Tool Rest
+    --Position of the Operator at the Lathe
+    --Holding the Tools
+    --Use of the Tools in Spindle Turning                        19-21
+
+CHAPTER V.
+  Tool Processes in Spindle Turning
+    --The Roughing Cut
+    --The Sizing Cut
+    --The Smoothing Cut
+    --Testing for Smoothness
+    --Measuring for Length
+    --Squaring Ends
+    --Cutting Off
+    --Shoulder Cuts
+    --Taper Cuts
+    --V Cuts-Concave Cuts
+    --Convex Cuts
+    --Combination Cuts
+    --Chisel Handles
+    --Mallets and Handles
+    --Vise Handles                                               22-32
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+  Oval Turning
+    --Tool Operations                                            33-34
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+  Duplicate Turning
+    --Use of Measuring Stick
+    --Use of Templets                                               35
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+  Finishing and Polishing
+    --Ordinary Cabinet Finishing
+    --French Polishing
+    --Method of Applying French Polish                           36-38
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+  Face-Plate and Chuck Turning
+    --Methods of Fastening Stock
+    --Small Single Screw Face-Plate
+    --Large Surface Screw Face-Plate
+    --Gluing to Waste Stock
+    --Lathe Adjustments
+    --Position of Tool Rest                                      39-40
+
+CHAPTER X.
+  Tool Processes in Face-Plate and Chuck Turning
+    --Straight Cuts
+    --Roughing Off Corners
+    --Calipering for Diameter
+    --Smoothing Cut
+    --Roughing Cut on the Face
+    --Smoothing the Face
+    --Laying Off Measurements
+    --External Shoulders
+    --Internal Shoulders
+    --Taper Cuts
+    --V Cuts
+    --Concave Cuts
+    --Convex Cuts
+    --Combination Cuts
+    --Use of Scraping Tools
+    --Internal Boring
+    --Turning a Sphere                                           41-48
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+  Spiral Turning
+    --Single Spiral, Straight Shaft
+    --Tapered Shaft
+    --Double Spiral, Tapered Shaft
+    --Double Spiral, Straight Shaft
+    --Double Groove Spiral, Straight Shaft                       49-55
+
+
+PLATES--SPINDLE TURNING.
+  Straight Cuts, 57
+  Shoulder Cuts, 59-65
+  Taper Cuts, 67-77
+  V Cuts, 79-81
+  Concave Cuts, 83-87
+  Convex Cuts, 89-95
+  Combination Cuts, 97-101
+  Chisel Handles, 103-107
+  Cabinet File Handle, 109
+  Scratch Awl Handle, 111
+  Carving Tool Handle, 113
+  Turning Chisel Handle, 115
+  Mallets, 117-119
+  Gavels, 121-127
+  Darning Eggs, 129-133
+  Stocking Darner, 131
+  Potato Masher, 135
+  Rolling Pins, 139-141
+  Vise Handle, 143
+  Screw Driver Handles, 145-147
+  Pene Hammer Handle, 149
+  Claw Hammer Handle, 151
+  Indian Clubs, 153-155
+  Dumb Bells, 157-159
+  Ten Pins, 161
+
+
+PLATES--CHUCK TURNING.
+  Straight Cuts, 167-169
+  Shoulder Cuts, 171-173
+  Taper Cuts, 175-177
+  V Cuts, 179-181
+  Concave Cuts, 183-185
+  Convex Cuts, 187-189
+  Combination Cuts, 191-195
+  Match Boxes, 197-201
+  Pin Trays, 203-205
+  Hair Pin Receivers, 207-209
+  Hat Pin Receivers, 211-213
+  Ornamental Vases, 215-219
+  Spinnet, 221
+  Towel Rings, 223-227
+  Card Trays, 229-235
+  Picture Frames, 237-243
+  Nut Bowls, 245-251
+  Napkin Rings, 253-257
+  Jewel Boxes, 259-273
+  Collar Boxes, 275-279
+  Sphere, 281
+  Checker Men, 283
+  Candle Sticks, 285-293
+  Shaving Stands, 295-301
+  Reading Lamp Stands, 303-307
+  Pedestal, 309
+  Smokers' Stands, 311-313
+  Pin Cushion and Spoon Holder, 315
+  Chess Men, 317-319
+  Pedestals, 321-325
+  Electric Reading Lamps, 327-335
+  Magazine Holders, 337-339
+
+
+CLASSIFICATION OF PLATES
+
+  A. SPINDLE TURNING
+
+      I. Exercises
+         1. Straight Cuts, a
+         2. Shoulder Cuts, a-b-c-d
+         3. Taper Cuts, a-b-c-d-e-f
+         4. V Cuts, a-b
+         5. Concave Cuts, a-b-c
+         6. Convex Cuts, a-b-c-d
+         7. Combination Cuts, a-b-c
+     II. Models
+         1. Chisel Handles, a-b-c-d-e-f-g
+         2. Mallets, a-b
+         3. Gavels, a-b-c-d
+         4. Stocking Darners, a-b-c
+         5. Potato Mashers, a-b
+         6. Rolling Pins, a-b
+         7. Vise Handles, a
+    III. Oval Turning
+         1. Screw-driver Handles, a-b
+         2. Hammer Handles, a-b
+     IV. Duplicate Turning
+         1. Indian Clubs, a-b
+         2. Dumb-bells, a-b
+         3. Tenpins, a
+         4. Drawer Pulls, a-b
+
+  B. FACE-PLATE AND CHUCK TURNING
+
+      I. Exercises
+         1. Straight Cuts, a-b
+         2. Shoulder Cuts, a-b
+         3. Taper Cuts, a-b
+         4. V Cuts, a-b
+         5. Concave Cuts, a-b
+         6. Convex Cuts, a-b
+         7. Combination Cuts, a-b-c
+     II. Face-Plate Models
+         1. Match Boxes, a-b-c
+         2. Pin Trays, a-b
+         3. Hair Pin Receivers, a-b
+         4. Hat Pin Receivers, a-b
+         5. Ornamental Vases, a-b-c
+         6. Spinnet, (game) a
+    III. Chuck Models
+         1. Towel Rings, a-b-c
+         2. Card Trays, a-b-c-d
+         3. Picture Frames, a-b-c-d
+         4. Nut Bowels, a-b-c-d
+         5. Napkin Rings, a-b-c
+         6. Jewel Boxes, a-b-c-d-e-f-g-h
+         7. Collar Boxes, a-b-c
+         8. Spheres, a
+         9. Checker Men, a
+     IV. Assembling Exercises
+         1. Candle Sticks, a-b-c-d-e
+         2. Shaving Stands, a-a'-b-b'
+         3. Reading Lamp Stands, a-b-c
+         4. Pedestals, a
+         5. Smoking Stands, a-b
+         6. Pin Cushions and Spool Holder, a
+         7. Chess Men, a-a'
+      V. Spiral Turning
+         1. Pedestal, (Single) a-a', (Double) b
+         2. Reading Lamps, (Single) a-a'-a'' (Double) b-b'
+         3. Magazine Holder, a-a'
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+INTRODUCTORY
+
+
+Wood turning has had a definite place in the commercial world for a
+great many years. It is used in various forms in making furniture and
+furniture parts, building trim, tool parts, toys, athletic paraphernalia
+and many other useful and beautiful articles in common use.
+
+When properly taught in the schools it is one of the most valuable types
+of instruction. It appeals to pupils more than any other type of manual
+work, as it embodies both the play and work elements. It is very
+interesting and fascinating and, in the hands of a skilled instructor,
+is readily correlated with other work.
+
+Wood turning gives a pupil preliminary experience necessary in pattern
+making and machine shop work. It brings into play the scientific element
+by demonstrating the laws governing revolving bodies. In bringing the
+chisel into contact with the revolving surface, the mathematical
+principle of the "point of tangency" is illustrated. Excellent tool
+technique is developed in wood turning as on the exactness of every
+movement depends the success of the operator, and any slight variation
+will spoil a piece of work. This brings in a very close correlation of
+the mental and motor activities and also gives the student an
+opportunity for observing and thinking while at work. When his tool
+makes a "run" he must determine the reason and figure out why a certain
+result is obtained when the chisel is held in a given position. Certain
+cuts must be fully mastered, and it takes a good deal of experience and
+absolute confidence in one's self in manipulating the tools before it is
+possible to attempt skilful work. If scraping is allowed the educational
+value of the work is lost.
+
+In wood turning a vast field for design and modeling is opened, and art
+and architecture can be correlated. The pupil will see for himself the
+need of variety in curves and must use his judgment in determining
+curves that are so harmonious and pleasing that they will blend
+together. If properly taught the beauty in the orders of architecture
+can be brought out in the making of the bead, fillet, scotia, cove, etc.
+
+A feeling of importance is excited in a boy when he sees his hands
+shaping materials into objects of pleasing form. Wood turning properly
+taught awakens the aesthetic sense and creates a desire for the
+beautiful. The boy or man who has learned to make graceful curves and
+clean-cut fillets and beads will never be satisfied with clumsy effects
+which are characteristic in cheap commercial work, made only to sell.
+
+Success in turning depends on the following:
+
+  1. Care of lathe, tools, selection of materials.
+  2. Study of the scientific elements of--
+        a. Revolving bodies.
+        b. Points of tangency.
+        c. Study of results by reasoning and observing.
+  3. Development of technique and exactness.
+  4. Correlation of mental and motor activities.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+THE LATHE
+
+
+The sizes of turning lathes are given as 10", 12", etc. These figures
+denote the diameter, or size, of the largest piece of work that can be
+turned on them. The measurement is taken from the center point of the
+live center to the bed of the lathe (usually 5" or 6") and is one-half
+the diameter of the entire circle. The length of a lathe is determined
+by the length of a piece of work that can be turned. This measurement is
+taken from the points of the live and dead centers when the tail stock
+is drawn back the full extent of the lathe bed. Fig. 1 shows a turning
+lathe with sixteen principal parts named. The student should learn the
+names of these parts and familiarize himself with the particular
+function of each.
+
+
+CARE OF THE LATHE
+
+The lathe should be oiled every day before starting. At the end of the
+period the lathe should be brushed clean of all chips and shavings,
+after which it should be rubbed off with a piece of waste or cloth to
+remove all surplus oil. All tools should be wiped clean and put in their
+proper places. If a student finds that his lathe is not running as it
+should, he should first call the attention of the instructor to that
+fact before attempting to adjust it; and then only such adjustments
+should be made as the instructor directs.
+
+
+SPEED OF THE LATHE
+
+The speed of the lathe should range from 2400 to 3000 revolutions per
+minute when the belt is on the smallest step of the cone pulley. At this
+speed stock up to 3" in diameter can be turned with safety. Stock from
+3" to 6" in diameter should be turned on the second or third step, and
+all stock over 6" on the last step. The speed at which a lathe should
+run depends entirely upon the nature of the work to be done and the kind
+of material used. Pieces that cannot be centered accurately and all
+glued-up work with rough corners should be run slowly until all corners
+are taken off and the stock runs true. At high speed the centrificial
+force on such pieces is very great, causing the lathe to vibrate, and
+there is a possibility of the piece being thrown from the lathe thus
+endangering the worker as well as those around him. After the stock is
+running true the speed may be increased.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1. - Wood Turning Lathe]
+
+TO FIGURE THE DIAMETER OF PULLEYS
+
+Suppose a motor runs 1500 R.P.M. and is fitted with a 4" pulley. Suppose
+also, a main shaft should run 300 R.P.M.
+
+  Then, 1500 : 300 :: x : 4;
+    Or, 300x = 6000,
+      x = 20, or the diameter of the large pulley on the main shaft.
+
+
+Suppose again that a line shaft runs 300 R.P.M., and a counter shaft 600
+R.P.M. The counter shaft has a pulley 4" in diameter. The pulley on the
+line shaft must then have a diameter of 8".
+
+
+  300 : 600 :: 4 : x;
+    Or, 300x = 2400,
+      x = 8"
+
+Suppose the cone pulley on the counter shaft runs 600 R.P.M.; a lathe
+spindle runs 2200 R.P.M., when connected with the small cone pulley
+which has a diameter of 3". The large cone pulley has then a diameter of
+11".
+
+  600 : 2200 :: 3 : x
+    Or, 600x = 6600;
+      x = 11"
+
+
+RULES FOR FINDING THE SPEEDS AND SIZES OF PULLEYS
+
+1. To find the diameter of the driving pulley:
+
+Multiply the diameter of the driven by the number of revolutions it
+should make and divide the product by the number of revolutions of the
+driver. (20 x 300 = 6000; 6000 / 1500 = 4"--diameter of motor pulley.)
+
+2. To find the diameter of the driven pulley:
+
+Multiply the diameter of the driver by its number of revolutions and
+divide the product by the number of revolutions of the driven. (4 x 1500
+= 6000; 6000 / 300 = 20"--diameter of the driven pulley.)
+
+3. To find the number of revolutions of the driven pulley:
+
+Multiply the diameter of the driver by its number of revolutions and
+divide by the diameter of the driven. (4 x 1500 = 6000; 6000 / 20 =
+300--revolutions of driven pulley.)
+
+
+POINTS ON SETTING UP LATHE AND SHAFTING
+
+The counter shaft should be about 7' above the lathe. A distance of 6'
+from the center of the shaft to the center of the spindle is sufficient.
+In setting a lathe or hanging a counter shaft it is necessary that both
+be level. The counter shaft must be parallel to the line shaft. When the
+counter shaft is in position a plumb bob should be hung from the counter
+shaft cone to the spindle cone; the lathe should be adjusted so that the
+belt will track between the two cone pulleys. The axis of the lathe must
+be parallel to that of the counter shaft. The lathe, however, need not
+be directly beneath the counter shaft as the belt will run on an angle
+as well as perpendicular.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+WOOD TURNING TOOLS
+
+
+A wood turning kit should consist of one each of the following tools.
+Fig. 2 shows the general shape of these tools.
+
+
+   1-1/4" Gouge
+     3/4" Gouge
+     1/2" Gouge
+     1/4" Gouge
+   1-1/4" Skew
+     3/4" Skew
+     1/2" Skew
+     1/4" Skew
+     1/8" Parting Tool
+     1/2" Round Nose
+     1/4" Round Nose
+     1/2" Square Nose
+     1/4" Square Nose
+     1/2" Spear Point
+     1/2" Right Skew
+     1/2" Left Skew
+          Slip Stone with round edges
+       6" Outside Calipers
+       6" Inside Calipers
+       8" Dividers
+      12" Rule
+  1/2 pt. Oil Can
+          Bench Brush
+
+
+GRINDING AND WHETTING TURNING TOOLS
+
+Skew Chisel
+
+The skew chisel is sharpened equally on both sides On this tool the
+cutting edge should form an angle of about 20 deg. with one of the edges.
+The skew is used in cutting both to the right and to the left, and
+therefore, must be beveled on both sides. The length of the bevel should
+equal about twice the thickness of the chisel at the point where it is
+sharpened. In grinding the bevel, the chisel must be held so that the
+cutting edge will be parallel to the axis of the emery wheel. The wheel
+should be about 6" in diameter as this will leave the bevel slightly
+hollow ground. Cool the chisel in water occasionally when using a dry
+emery. Otherwise the wheel will burn the chisel, taking out the temper;
+the metal will be soft and the edge will not stand up. Care should be
+exercised that the same bevel is kept so that it will be uniformly
+hollow ground. The rough edge left by the emery wheel should be whetted
+off with a slip stone by holding the chisel on the flat side of the
+stone so that the toe and heel of the bevel are equally in contact with
+it. Rub first on one side and then on the other. The wire edge is thus
+worn off quickly as there is no metal to be worn away in the middle of
+the bevels. The chisel is sharp when the edge, which may be tested by
+drawing it over the thumb nail, is smooth and will take hold evenly
+along its entire length. If any wire edge remains it should be whetted
+again.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2. - Lathe Tools]
+
+
+Gouge
+
+The gouge used in wood turning is beveled on the outside and is ground
+so that the nose is approximately semi-circular in shape. The tool is a
+combination of the round nose chisel and the ordinary gouge. The bevel
+should extend well around to the ends so that the cutting edge extends
+to each side. This is necessary to avoid the abrupt corners which would
+be present if the nose were left straight across as in the ordinary
+wood-working gouge. In making shearing cuts the round nose permits the
+tool to be rolled to the side to avoid scraping the work. The length of
+the bevel should be about twice the thickness of the blade at the point
+where the sharpening begins.
+
+The sharpening of a gouge for turning is rather difficult for the
+average student. The ordinary gouge which has a square nose may be
+beveled by merely turning it half way around and back again. In working
+out the round nose of a gouge for wood turning, it is necessary that the
+handle be swung from one side to the other while, at the same time, the
+chisel is revolved to cut the bevel evenly. It is sometimes necessary to
+allow some pupils to use the side of the emery wheel in sharpening the
+gouge. This kind of grinding, however, does not leave the tool hollow
+ground as when the face of the wheel is used.
+
+To complete the sharpening the rough edge is worked smooth on a slip
+stone, the cross section of which is wedge-shaped and the edges of which
+are rounded. The toe and heel of the beveled side of the gouge are
+brought into contact with the flat side of the stone. As the sharpening
+proceeds the wire edge is worked to the inside of the gouge. The rounded
+edge of the stone is then placed inside the gouge and is worked back and
+forth until the rough edge disappears. Great care must be taken not to
+bevel the inside of the gouge when whetting with the round edges of the
+stone, as the result will be the same as with an ordinary chisel or
+plane bit.
+
+
+Parting Tool
+
+The parting tool is sharpened on both sides. This tool differs from the
+ordinary chisel in that it is between 5/8" and 3/4" thick and only about
+1/8" wide at the widest point, which is in the center of its entire
+length. The bevels must meet exactly at the center, or the widest
+point, and should make an angle of about 50 deg. with each other. If the
+bevels do not meet at the widest point the tool will not clear, and the
+sides will rub against the revolving stock; the tool will be burned and
+will thus lose its temper. The bevel should be hollow ground slightly as
+then comparatively little metal need be removed when whetting.
+
+
+Scraping Tools
+
+The round nose, square nose, spear point, right skew and left skew are
+scraping tools, used chiefly in pattern work and sometimes in face-plate
+work. They are sharpened on one side only, and the bevel is about twice
+the thickness of the chisel at the point where sharpened. These tools
+should be slightly hollow ground to facilitate the whetting. Scraping
+tools become dull quite easily as their edges are in contact with the
+wood almost at right angles. After sharpening, the edges of these tools
+may be turned with a burnisher or the broad side of a skew chisel in the
+same manner that the edge of a cabinet scraper is turned though not
+nearly to so great a degree. This will help to keep the tool sharp for,
+as the edge wears off, the tool sharpens itself to a certain extent. The
+chisel is of harder material than a cabinet scraper so that it will not
+stand a great amount of turning over on the edge. Small pieces will be
+broken out, unless a flat surface is rubbed against the edge at a more
+acute angle than was used in the whetting. If a narrow burnisher is
+used, pieces are more likely to be broken out from the sharp edge and
+thus make the tool useless.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+SPINDLE TURNING
+
+
+Spindle turning is the term applied to all work done on a lathe in which
+the stock to be worked upon is held firmly between the live and dead
+centers. There are two methods in common use in wood turning: first, the
+scraping or pattern-makers' method; and second, the cutting method. Each
+has its advantages and disadvantages, but it is necessary that both be
+learned in order to develop a well rounded turner. Care should be
+exercised, however, that each method be used in its proper place. The
+first is slower, harder on the cutting edge of tools, and less skill is
+required to obtain accurate work; the second is faster, easier on the
+cutting edge of tools, and the accuracy of results obtained depends upon
+the skill acquired. As skill is the one thing most sought for in high
+school work, the use of the cutting method is advocated entirely for all
+spindle turning and, with but few exceptions, for face-plate and chuck
+turning.
+
+
+TO CENTER STOCK
+
+If the wood to be turned is square or rectangular in shape the best way
+to locate the center is to draw diagonals across the end of the stock.
+The point of intersection locates the center.
+
+
+CLAMPING STOCK IN THE LATHE
+
+Take the live center from the spindle and with a wooden mallet drive the
+spur deep into the wood. Never drive the wood onto the live center while
+in the spindle because serious injury may be done the machine by such
+practice. When extremely hard wood is being used, it is a good practice
+to make saw cuts along the diagonal lines and bore a hole at the
+intersection, thus allowing the spur to enter the wood more freely. Oil
+the other end of the wood while holding it in a vertical position, and
+give the oil a chance to penetrate into the wood. Then replace the live
+center by taking the stock and center and forcing it into the spindle by
+a sudden push of the hand. The tail stock is then moved about 1/2" to 1"
+from the end of the piece to be turned, having the tail spindle well
+back in the tail stock. The tail stock is then clamped to the lathe bed.
+Turn the tail stock hand wheel until the wood is held firmly. Work the
+cone pulley by hand at the same time, so that the cup or dead center
+will be forced deeply into the wood, so deeply that the live center will
+not continue to turn. Now turn the dead spindle back until the live
+spindle begins to turn freely and clamp the dead spindle fast.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3]
+
+
+ADJUSTING THE TOOL REST
+
+Horizontally the tool rest should be set about 1/8" from the farthest
+projecting corner of the wood and should be readjusted occasionally as
+the stock diminishes in size. The vertical height varies slightly
+according to the height of the operator. It is even with the center of
+the spindle for a short person; 1/8" above for a medium person; and 1/4"
+above for a tall person. So long as the stock is in its square form the
+tool rest should never be adjusted while the machine is in motion as
+there is danger of the rest catching the corners and throwing the stock
+from the machine. Also see that everything is clamped tight before
+starting the lathe.
+
+
+POSITION OF THE OPERATOR
+
+The operator stands firmly on the floor back far enough from the lathe
+to allow him to pass the tools from right to left in front of his body
+without changing the position of the feet. It may be found convenient
+to turn slightly, bringing the left side of the body a little closer to
+the lathe. In no case, however, should the tools be brought in contact
+with the body as the cutting operation from right to left should be
+accomplished by a movement of the arms alone and not the swaying of the
+body. (Fig. 3.)
+
+
+HOLDING THE TOOLS
+
+All tools should be held firmly but not rigidly. The right hand should
+grasp the handle at the extreme end for two reasons: first, to give as
+much leverage as possible so that the tool will not be thrown from the
+hands in case it should catch in the wood; second, a slight wavering of
+the hand will not cause as much variance in the cuts as when held closer
+up to the rest. The left hand should act as a guide and should be held
+over the tool near the cutting edge. The little finger and the back part
+of the palm of the hand should touch the tool rest thus assuring a
+steady movement. The left hand should not grasp the tool at any time.
+(Fig. 3.)
+
+
+USE OF THE TOOLS IN SPINDLE TURNING
+
+The correct use of the various tools used in spindle turning will be
+explained in detail as the steps are worked out in the sequence of
+operations on the exercises in Section A-I.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+TOOL PROCESSES IN SPINDLE TURNING
+
+
+Exercise A-I--1-a. Straight Cuts
+
+1. THE ROUGHING CUT (LARGE GOUGE).
+
+FIG. 4. Place the gouge on the rest so that the level is above the wood
+and the cutting edge is tangent to the circle or surface of the
+cylinder. The handle should be held well down.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4.]
+
+Roll the gouge over slightly to the right so that it will make a
+shearing cut instead of a scraping cut. This rolling of the tool will
+also throw the chips from the operator.
+
+
+Then lift the handle slowly, forcing the cutting edge deep enough into
+the wood to remove all or nearly all of the corners, at the end of the
+work which is being turned. This cut is begun about 3/4" from the dead
+center end. Work back another 3/4", moving toward the live center and
+make a second cut, and so on until the entire length of the cylinder is
+gone over. This method of removing corners should always be followed to
+avoid any possibility of breaking a large sliver from the stock, with
+consequent danger to the worker.
+
+The tool may then be worked from one end to the other, getting a
+fairly-smooth, regular surface, slightly above the diameter required.
+However, do not begin on the very edge of the cylinder end. It is better
+to begin about 2" from one end and work to the other, and then reverse
+and work back.
+
+The tool should also be held at a slight angle to the axis of the
+cylinder, with the cutting point always in advance of the handle.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 5.]
+
+
+2. THE SIZING CUT (SMALL GOUGE). FIG. 5.
+
+Set the calipers to the required diameter of the cylinder.
+
+With a small gouge held in the right hand scrape grooves about 1" apart,
+holding the calipers in the left hand perpendicular to the cylinder and
+measuring the cuts as they are made. The scraping should continue until
+the calipers will pass easily over the cylinder. It will be well while
+scraping to work the handle of the gouge a little from side to side so
+that the nose has more clearance. This will prevent the piece which is
+being turned from chattering or vibrating.
+
+The calipers will be slightly sprung by coming in contact with the
+revolving stock but this error in diameter will be removed by the
+finishing cut which removes these marks from the finished cylinder.
+
+
+3. THE SMOOTHING CUT (LARGE SKEW).
+
+FIG. 6. Lay the skew chisel on the rest with the cutting edge above the
+cylinder and at an angle of about 60 deg. to the surface.
+
+Slowly draw the chisel back and at the same time raise the handle until
+the chisel begins to cut about 1/4" to 3/8" from the heel. The first cut
+is begun from 1" to 2" from either end and is pushed toward the near
+end. Then begin at the first starting point and cut toward the other
+end. One should never start at the end to make a cut as there is danger
+that the chisel will catch and cause the wood to split or that the
+chisel will be torn from the hands.
+
+The first cut takes off the bumps and rings left by the gouge, and takes
+the stock down so one can just see where the scraping to size was done.
+Then take the last cut and remove all traces of these, leaving the
+cylinder perfectly smooth and of the required diameter at each end. Test
+the cylinder for accuracy with a straight edge.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 6.]
+
+
+4. TESTING FOR SMOOTHNESS. In testing for smoothness place the palm of
+the hand, with the fingers extended straight, lightly on the back of the
+cylinder opposite the tool rest. This position will avoid any
+possibility of the hand being drawn in between the cylinder and the
+rest.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 7.]
+
+
+5. MEASURING FOR LENGTH (RULE AND PENCIL). FIG. 7. Hold the back edge of
+the rule in the left hand and place it on the tool rest so that the
+front edge is almost in contact with the revolving cylinder.
+
+With a sharp pencil mark off the required length, starting from the dead
+center end. The first mark should be just far enough in on the cylinder
+to insure cutting past the point of the dead center. This will leave all
+surplus stock at the live center end where it is needed, because, if not
+enough stock is left at this end, there is danger of striking the live
+center spur with the tool and of injuring the chisel and perhaps the
+work.
+
+In case several measurements are to be made, as in some of the following
+exercises, the rule should not be moved until all are marked. This will
+insure more accurate work than if the rule be changed several times.
+
+
+6. SQUARING ENDS (SMALL SKEW AND PARTING TOOL). FIG. 8. This operation
+is done with the toe or acute angle of the 1/2" or 1/4" skew chisel.
+
+Place the chisel square on the tool rest. Swing the handle out from the
+cylinder so that the grind, which forms the cutting edge, next to the
+stock is perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder. The heel of the
+chisel is then tipped slightly from the cylinder in order to give
+clearness. Raise the handle and push the toe of the chisel into the
+stock about 1/8" outside the line indicating the end of the cylinder.
+Swing the handle still farther from the cylinder and cut a half V. This
+will give clearance for the chisel point and will prevent burning.
+Continue this operation on both ends until the cylinder is cut to about
+3/16" in diameter.
+
+The remaining 1/8" is then removed by taking very thin cuts (about
+1/32") holding the chisel as first stated. After each cut is made the
+end should be tested for squareness by holding the edge of the chisel
+over the end of the cylinder.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 8.]
+
+This is an easy cut after it is mastered, but is one of the hardest to
+learn. Should the operator lose control of the tool and allow any part
+other than the point to touch the cylinder, a run or gashing of the
+wood will be caused.
+
+In large cylinders where considerable stock has to be cut away in order
+to square the ends, time will be saved by sizing the ends down with the
+parting tool to within 1/8" of the desired line, leaving enough stock at
+the base of the cuts to still hold the cylinder rigid while cutting on
+the ends.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 9.]
+
+For this operation hold the parting tool on the rest with the cutting
+edge parallel to the axis of the cylinder and the lower grind tangent to
+the cylinder. Lift the handle and force the cutting edge into the wood;
+at the same time push the chisel forward to keep it at the proper
+tangency.
+
+
+7. CUTTING OFF (SMALL SKEW). FIG. 9.
+
+After both ends have been squared cut away stock, at both ends, to leave
+just enough to hold the cylinder from separating from the waste ends.
+
+With the chisel held in the right hand in the same position as in
+squaring the ends, and the fingers of the left hand around the stock to
+catch it, slowly force the point of the chisel into the stock at the
+live center end, until it is cut free and the cylinder stops in the
+operator's hand. Too much pressure should not be used in this operation
+or it will cause the cylinder to twist off instead of being cut, and
+will leave a ragged hole in the end.
+
+The dead center end, which has been scored heavily before cutting off at
+the live center, is then removed by holding the grind of the chisel flat
+on the end of the cylinder. The latter is revolved by hand until the
+stock is cut away.
+
+
+Exercise A-I--2-a. Shoulder Cuts
+
+1. Turn a cylinder to the largest diameter required.
+
+2. Lay off measurements with rule and pencil.
+
+3. With the gouge (where space permits) or the parting tool (in narrow
+spaces) rough out surplus stock, keeping 1/16" away from the lines
+indicating shoulders.
+
+4. Caliper to the diameter of the second step.
+
+5. The shoulders are cut down as described in "Squaring Ends, Step 6,
+Straight Cuts."
+
+6. The new diameter or step is then trued up with a skew chisel in the
+same manner as a cylinder; except that in nearing the shoulder the
+chisel is pushed up on the cylinder until the heel, which is the only
+part that can be worked into the corner, becomes the cutting point. Fig.
+10. In very narrow steps it will be advisable to use the heel entirely
+as a cutting point.
+
+In spaces between shoulders, too narrow to permit the use of the skew
+chisel, very effective work can be accomplished by slightly tipping the
+parting tool sideways to allow a shearing cut to be taken with the
+cutting edge.
+
+7. Where several steps are required on the same cylinder, each
+successive one is worked out as above described.
+
+Note:--All preliminary steps in working stock to size, laying of
+dimensions, etc., in preparation for the exercise in hand, will be
+omitted in the following exercises:
+
+
+Exercise A-I--3-a. Taper Cuts
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 10.]
+
+Calipering for New Diameters. For all diameters on tapers the calipers
+should be set 1/16" larger than the desired measurement in order to
+avoid working under size in the finishing cut which removes all caliper
+marks.
+
+If the taper runs to the extreme end of the cylinder, as in Plate
+A-I--3-a, a parting tool should be used, instead of a gouge, to take off
+a very thin shoulder.
+
+If the taper forms an internal angle as in Plate A-I--3-b, a gouge is
+used as in Step 2--Sizing Cut--Plate A-I--1-a.
+
+In other cases where tapers connect with straight cylindrical shoulders
+it is best to turn the shoulders to size before working the tapers.
+
+In cutting a long straight taper the skew chisel is used, much in the
+same manner as in ordinary cylinder work, except that at the start of
+each cut the heel must be the cutting point. This will avoid any chance
+of the chisel catching and drawing back and thus gouging the wood beyond
+the starting point. As soon as the cut is well under way the chisel may
+be pushed up on the cylinder so that the cutting point is a little above
+the heel. All cuts should be made from the highest point on the cylinder
+to the lowest and thus cut across the grain of the wood.
+
+In making the cut, care should be taken to see that the chisel is not
+tipped to a greater angle than that of the taper wanted. Should that be
+done a hollow, or dished out, taper is sure to be the result instead of
+a straight one.
+
+
+Exercise A-I--4-a. V Cutting
+
+In cutting V's a small skew is almost always used and the cutting is
+done with the heel.
+
+Place the chisel square on the tool rest so that the cutting edge is
+perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder. Draw the chisel back and
+raise the handle so that the heel is driven into the wood, thus scoring
+it. This cut should not be too deep or the chisel will burn. This
+scoring should be at the exact center of the V cut.
+
+Swing the handle a little to the right and at the same time tip the
+chisel so that the grind, which forms the cutting edge, is at an angle
+of about 45 deg. with the axis of the cylinder. The handle is then raised at
+an angle of 45 deg. bringing the heel down to make a good cut. The chisel is
+then swung to the other side and a similar cut is taken. These cuts are
+continued, together with the center scoring, until quite close to the
+pencil marks. Test the angle before the finishing cut is taken.
+
+It will be found best to have the V slightly greater than 90 deg. at the
+base until the final cut is made, at which time it can be trued up.
+
+The V should be tested with the square end of a rule. The cylinder
+should not be in motion while testing.
+
+When angles other than 45 deg. are cut, the cutting edge of the chisel
+should be tipped so that it is parallel or nearly so to the side of the
+cut desired.
+
+
+A-I--5-a. Concave Cuts
+
+The concave cuts as a rule will give the pupil considerable trouble at
+first owing to the fact that the grind, which forms the cutting edge and
+which must be held perpendicular to the cylinder at the start, is on the
+under side of the tool and cannot be seen. However, as soon as the
+correct angle of the tool is located, the cut will be found as easy as
+any. Concaves are usually made with a medium sized gouge either the 1/2"
+or 3/4".
+
+Place the gouge on the rest with the grind or cutting edge well above
+the wood. The tool is then rolled on its side so that the grind at the
+cutting point, which is on the lip of the gouge well below the center,
+is perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder. Fig. 11.
+
+Slowly raise the handle to force the gouge into the wood. As soon as the
+gouge has taken hold, the tool is forced forward and upward by a slight
+lowering of the handle, while at the same time it is rolled back toward
+its first position. Care should be taken not to roll the chisel too fast
+or a perfect arc will not be cut.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 11.]
+
+By this triple action the grind, which comes in contact with the surface
+of the curve, forces the lip sidewise and cuts one quarter of a circle.
+Reverse the position of the gouge and cut from the other side in the
+same manner to form the other half of the semi-circle. The cutting
+should always stop at the base of the cut as there is danger that the
+tool will catch when cutting against the grain of the wood on the other
+side. Repeat this operation until within about 1/16" of the required
+size. At the end of each successive cut the tool should have been forced
+far enough forward and upward to bring the grind or nose of the chisel
+well out on top of the cut. Fig. 12.
+
+The exact depth of the concave is then calipered in the usual manner as
+described before. A finishing cut is then taken after the cut has been
+tested with a templet.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 12.]
+
+
+A-I--6-a. Convex Cuts
+
+The convex cut, or Bead as it is usually called, is generally considered
+the hardest cut to make.--The cut is made with the heel of a small skew
+chisel, usually the 1/4" or 1/8".
+
+After the cylinder has been marked off, rough out all stock between the
+beads with a parting tool. The base of the cuts is finished the same as
+described in Plate A-I--1-a, for shoulder cutting. With a sharp pencil
+mark the center of each bead to be made. This line is the starting point
+for all cutting.
+
+Place the chisel on the rest, with the cutting edge above the cylinder
+and the lower grind tangent to it. Draw the chisel back and raise the
+handle to bring the heel of the chisel in contact with the cylinder at
+the line indicating the center of the bead. The chisel is then moved to
+the right (if cutting the right side of the bead); at the same time the
+chisel is continually tipped to keep the lower grind tangent to the
+revolving cylinder and also to the bead at the point of contact. Fig.
+13. This cut is continued until the bottom of the bead is reached. It is
+well in turning a series of beads to work the same side of all before
+reversing to the other side.
+
+Note:--The same principles employed in this exercise are also used in
+working out long convex curves such as are found in chisel handles,
+mallet handles, etc. The only exception is that in most cases the point
+of contact need not be the heel of the chisel but higher up as in
+ordinary straight work.
+
+
+A-I--7-a--Combination Cuts
+
+These exercises are so designed as to include one or more of each of the
+foregoing cuts. The student here is given an opportunity of combining
+these cuts into one finished product.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 13.]
+
+An analysis of the exercise chosen should be made to determine which of
+the various cuts should be made first, second, etc., in order to produce
+the exercise in the shortest time and with the least amount of tool
+manipulation.
+
+After the student has mastered these cuts with a certain degree of skill
+and accuracy, he is ready to apply them in working out various models in
+Section II.
+
+
+A-II--1-a. Chisel Handles
+
+At this point it is well to state that the small end of all work should
+be turned at the dead center. In the case of chisel handles the socket
+or ferrule end is at the dead center where the stock can safely be cut
+away to permit the fitting of the ferrule or the socket.
+
+After the stock is turned to a cylinder of the largest dimension
+desired, the taper, for the socket chisel, should be turned first and
+fitted to the chisel in which it is to be used. Then the rest of the
+handle is worked out. Ferrules should also be fitted in the same manner.
+A drive fit should be used for all ferrules.
+
+
+A-II--2 and 3. Mallets and Gavels
+
+The biggest source of trouble in these models is getting the handles to
+fit true. This is caused by not getting the hole in the head straight.
+
+Turn the head to a cylinder 3/16" larger than the finished dimension.
+Then bore the hole perpendicular to the axis as near as possible,
+either by leaving it between the lathe centers or by placing it in a
+vise. The handle is then fitted into the head. A snug fit is necessary.
+If one side "hangs" or is lower than the other the centers are moved
+sufficiently to correct it. The head is then turned to exact size and
+finished.
+
+
+A-II--7. Vise Handles.
+
+Turn the spindle with the solid head to dimensions. Bore a hole through
+a 1-1/4" square block and fit the block snugly to the end of the
+spindle. Turn this block to the same dimensions as the other head. This
+method will save chucking the second head and is much quicker.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+OVAL TURNING
+
+
+Oval work as a problem in turning will be found to be a very good one as
+well as interesting to the pupil. It brings in the principle of the oval
+as used in ordinary shop practice; (arcs from points on the major and
+minor axes). For thick heavy ovals the off-centering is very slight,
+while for long, thin ones the off-centering is greater. The measurements
+given on Plates A-III--1-a, b and A-III--2-a, b will give a good idea of
+approximate distances to be used.
+
+While the tool operations are much the same as in other spindle turning
+there is one notable difference. The design must be worked out by eye,
+because of the nature of the work no caliper measurements can be made
+for depth of cuts.
+
+To get the best results the stock of oval turning should be cut square
+or slightly rectangular in cross-section and about 3" longer than the
+model to be made. The thickness of the stock should be about 1/8"
+greater than the major axis of the oval wanted.
+
+The centers are located in the usual manner after which perpendicular
+lines are drawn from the sides, passing through the points of the
+centers. From the ends of one of these, perpendicular lines are extended
+lengthwise of the stock (on opposite sides) meeting the corresponding
+perpendicular at the other end of the stock. These lines form the ridge
+of the oval. On the other perpendiculars, the points for off-centering
+are laid off, measuring the required distance on both sides of the
+center point.
+
+With a 1/8" drill bore holes 1/4" deep at each of the off-centering
+points as well as the original center. This will insure the lathe
+centers penetrating the stock at the proper point. The stock is then
+placed in the lathe, using two corresponding off-center points as
+centers.
+
+With the lathe running at third speed turn down the stock to the
+horizontal line forming the ridge of the oval, excepting for a distance
+of about 1-1/4" at the ends. The stock at the ends is necessary for the
+off-centering and, if cut away, will spoil the centering for the other
+side, especially at the live center end. The stock is then changed to
+the other off-center points and the second side is cut down to the line.
+
+All measurements are then laid out and the design is cut, changing the
+stock in the lathe when necessary. Care should be taken that the sharp
+ridge left on the work forms a straight line the full length of the
+stock. After the design has been finished, the stock is centered on the
+true center and a very thin cut is taken the full length of the object
+to remove the sharp corners. The model is then sandpapered while the
+lathe is running very slowly.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+DUPLICATE TURNING
+
+
+Under the head of duplicate turning have been classified only such
+models as clearly indicate the necessity of making two or more articles
+to complete the model or set of articles desired. But it is not intended
+to convey the idea that other models may not be made in duplicate as in
+many cases it is very desirable and even preferable that they should be
+made that way. Whatever the problem may be the suggestions offered at
+this point may be applied effectively.
+
+Whenever two or more models are to be made identically alike there are
+always two possibilities of inaccuracies that will render the work
+dissimilar: First, inaccurate measuring both for length and points of
+new diameters and also on the new diameters themselves; second, a
+variation in the curved surfaces either on long convex or concave cuts.
+
+The first difficulty can be overcome to a great extent by the use of a
+measuring stick. This stick should be made of any soft wood. It should
+be straight on one edge and about the thickness of an ordinary rule. On
+the straight edge lay off very carefully measurements for length,
+shoulders, beads, concaves and all points where calipering for new
+diameters will be necessary. Insert at each point measured a small brad
+which has been sharpened at both ends, leaving the end protrude about
+1/8". Care should be taken that all brads protrude the same distance.
+
+After the stock has been turned to the largest diameter, the stick is
+held in the position of the rule while measuring and the points are
+forced against the revolving cylinder, thus scoring it. This stick can
+be used as many times as the model is to be made and the measurements
+will always be the same.
+
+To avoid dissimilar curves it is well to cut out a full sized templet of
+the model to be made. This templet can be made of any thin, stiff
+material, preferably light sheet iron. In some cases it will be
+necessary to make the templet in several pieces in order to help
+facilitate the tool operations.
+
+The use of this templet will not only be a help to getting all curved
+surfaces the same, but will also check up on the various new diameters
+on the model. The cylinder should never be in motion while the templet
+is being used.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+FINISHING AND POLISHING
+
+
+To get a high and lasting polish on wood, the work must be first sanded
+so as to be perfectly smooth. In addition to this, open grained wood,
+such as oak, must be properly filled with a wood filler. If properly
+sharpened tools have been used very little sanding is required, and then
+worn sandpaper should be used as it does not cut into the work as new
+paper cuts. Remember sandpaper is not to be used as a tool in cutting
+down stock when working to dimensions. In using old sandpaper run the
+lathe at a moderate speed to avoid burning the wood, especially on
+square or round fillets. Keep the edges of the work sharp and do not
+wear them round. In using new sandpaper use a fine grit (00 or 0) and
+move the paper from one end of the work to the other slowly, so that no
+scratches result on the surface of the work.
+
+The work may be finished by one of two methods. In the first method as
+in finishing ordinary cabinet work, the pieces should be stained and
+filled. In applying filler, run the lathe at the slowest speed after the
+material has dried sufficiently to rub into the pores of the wood. If
+the highlights are to be brought out, as in the case of oak, stain and
+then give a light coat of shellac, and apply the filler after the
+shellac is dry. The shellac keeps the dark filler from staining the
+flakes of the oak darker, and the pores of the wood fill in as before.
+The pores become darker than the flakes, and at the same time a smooth
+surface is produced. After the filler has hardened the wood may be waxed
+or varnished.
+
+The second method, or French polishing, is rather difficult to apply and
+requires a little skill. A close grained wood, like maple, will be found
+more satisfactory for the beginner. An open grained wood may be filled
+in the ordinary way, or the grain may be filled by rubbing into the
+pores of the wood a combination of shellac, rotten stone or pumice, oil
+and alcohol. Rotten stone is used for dark wood and pumice is used for
+light wood. The wood may be left in the natural or stained as in the
+first method. The mixture of shellac, rotten stone, oil and alcohol, is
+applied to the work with a pad made of cotton waste, wrapped in cheese
+cloth to keep it from sticking to the work. It should be about 1-1/2" in
+diameter and 1/2" thick. Hold the pad over the mouth of a bottle of
+shellac and tip the bottle so that the shellac comes in contact with the
+pad. The shellac will remain clean in a bottle and will be handy. The
+mouth of the shellac bottle should be about 1" in diameter and should be
+dipped once. Do likewise with a bottle, having a mouth 1/2" in diameter,
+containing alcohol. This should be dipped twice allowing the alcohol to
+dilute the shellac. Then drop on a couple of drops of oil and rub over
+the pad evenly; this aids in distributing the shellac properly and keeps
+the pad from sticking to the work. A bottle may also be used for this.
+For the rotten stone use a pepper shaker so that it may be sifted on the
+work as needed.
+
+When the mixture has been applied to the pad, hold the pad against the
+work lightly at first, until most of the moisture has been worked out of
+it, and then gradually increase the pressure until the pad is almost
+dry. In putting on the first coat, use more shellac and alcohol and just
+enough oil at all times to prevent the pad from sticking to the work.
+However, the pad should not contain as much shellac that it can be
+squeezed out with the fingers. When the pad is dry, another mixture is
+applied, and where open grained wood is used, rotten stone, or pumice
+stone, is sprinkled on the work to gradually fill up the pores and to
+build up a smooth surface. Run the lathe at a low speed, depending on
+the size of the piece that is being polished. Allow the first coat to
+dry before applying a second coat for, if too much is put on at any one
+time, the heat generated in the rubbing will cause the shellac to pull,
+and it will form rings by piling up. These rings may be worked out in
+two ways, either by a slight pressure of the pad on the rings or by
+cutting them with alcohol applied to the pad. If too much alcohol is
+used it will cut through the shellac and remove what has already been
+rubbed on. If at any time too much shellac is used it will pile up and
+form rings. Too much rotten stone will cut down the polish and by
+absorbing the mixture will leave the pad dry. If too much oil is used
+the polish will become dull after a day or two.
+
+After the first coat has hardened apply the second, but use less shellac
+and more alcohol and just enough oil to prevent the pad from sticking.
+This may be done by dipping the tip of a finger in the oil and spreading
+it over the pad. The entire mixture should be so that only a dampness
+can be felt on the pad. As the process goes on less oil and shellac are
+used. All oil must be removed when applying the last coat, or the piece
+will lose its polish. All the pores should be filled, and no rings
+should be on the finished work. Where a natural finish is desired, apply
+a coat of boiled linseed oil twelve hours before the work is to be
+polished. This will bring out the grain and will also aid in applying
+the first coat; no oil need then be used in the first coat.
+
+A great amount of practice and patience is required to get a first class
+polish. Polishing can only be learned by experience. Correct your
+troubles in properly proportioning the mixture. Never use too much
+shellac as it will build up too fast and will not harden, thus causing
+rings; or it will pull and catch to the pad, thus forming bunches. The
+purpose of alcohol is mainly to dilute the shellac and to prevent
+against putting it on the work too fast, but care must be taken not to
+use too much alcohol to cut the shellac entirely. The oil helps to
+distribute the shellac evenly, but it must be removed when finishing the
+last coat, or the polish will not remain. It also helps to keep the pad
+from sticking to the work.
+
+It is impossible to obtain a polish that will be as lasting and rich by
+any method other than the one described. For success it is essential to
+learn the proportions of the mixture and to acquire skill in applying
+the materials by using exactly the right pressure and the right movement
+of the pad.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+FACE-PLATE AND CHUCK TURNING
+
+
+Face-plate and chuck turning open an entirely new field of work from
+that taken up in previous chapters of this book. If handled correctly,
+it has much greater educational and practical value than cylinder
+turning. From the practical standpoint the field of work is broader and
+the models to be made are of much greater value. Aside from this, trade
+methods and practices can be applied and a broad insight into commercial
+work can be given the student.
+
+In some details of chuck turning the tool operations already learned can
+be employed, but for the most part they are entirely different. In order
+to preserve the educational value of the work as brought out by skill
+and dexterity in handling tools, it will be necessary to use the cutting
+method wherever possible. In some instances that method will be
+impossible, and the scraping method must be used.
+
+
+METHODS OF FASTENING STOCK
+
+All the work thus far has been on models where the stock worked upon is
+held between the live and dead centers. In face-plate and chuck turning
+the work is done at the head stock only and the piece is supported by
+means of a face-plate, or chuck, that is fastened to a face-plate, which
+is screwed onto the end of the live spindle. There are three methods of
+fastening stock to the face-plate, and it depends upon the nature of the
+exercise or model to be made which method is used.
+
+1. SMALL SINGLE SCREW FACE-PLATE. For all work that does not require
+deep cutting in the center, such as in towel rings, picture frames,
+etc., the small face-plate with a single screw should be used.
+
+Note:--Should it be found difficult to keep the block from working loose
+and turning, it is a good plan to fold a piece of sandpaper, grit side
+out, and place it between the face-plate and the stock.
+
+2. LARGE SURFACE SCREW FACE-PLATE. For all work that does not require
+deep cutting on the outside, such as exercises, jewel boxes, etc., as
+well as all large stock, and all stock from which chucks are to be
+made, the large face-plate with the surface screws should be used.
+
+3. GLUING TO WASTE STOCK. A block of scrap wood is fastened to a
+face-plate the same as for a chuck and surfaced off square. The block
+from which the model is to be made is planed square on one side and
+glued to the block on the face-plate with a sheet of paper between the
+two. To separate the model from the chuck, after it is completed, place
+a chisel on the waste stock, 1/16" back of the glue joint at such a
+point as will bring the chisel parallel to the grain of the model, and
+strike lightly with a mallet. This will cause the paper to separate and
+the model to become free.
+
+This method will be found very convenient epecially on models where the
+base is to be left straight. It will also be found to save much stock
+when working with expensive woods.
+
+
+LATHE ADJUSTMENTS
+
+To get the best results in face-plate or chuck turning there should be
+no end play in the spindle of the lathe. The spindle should always be
+tested out, and if any play is found, should be adjusted before
+attempting any work. It is almost impossible to make a true cut when
+such a condition obtains.
+
+
+POSITION OF TOOL REST
+
+For all face-plate and chuck turning the tool rest should be kept as
+close to the stock as possible, the same as in spindle turning,
+regardless of the angle it may be set. Vertically, the rest in most
+cases should be sufficiently below the center of the stock to bring the
+center or cutting point of the tools used, when held parallel to the bed
+of the lathe, even with the center of the stock. This last condition
+will necessitate adjusting the height occasionally when changing from
+large to small tools.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+TOOL PROCESSES IN FACE-PLATE AND CHUCK TURNING
+
+
+B-I--1-a. Straight Cuts
+
+1. ROUGHING OFF CORNERS. (3/4" GOUGE.) FIG. 14. The tool rest is set
+crosswise to the bed of the lathe and parallel to the face of the stock.
+
+Place the gouge on the rest with the handle well down. Roll the gouge to
+the left until the grind which forms the cutting edge is perpendicular
+to the stock. The point of contact should be slightly below the center
+or nose of the tool.
+
+The handle of the gouge is then swung well to the back of the lathe or
+to the operator's right. The gouge is then pushed forward into the stock
+and to the left, making a shearing cut. The cut should not be too heavy.
+The starting point for this cut should be a line which will indicate the
+largest diameter or circle that can be made from the block.--This cut
+should be repeated until the corners are removed from the block.
+
+To complete the cutting of thick stock it will be found necessary to
+change the tool rest to an angle of 45 deg. with the bed of the lathe.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 14.]
+
+When hardwood is being turned it is sometimes advisable to saw the block
+almost round with a compass saw or bandsaw, if one is to be had. Should
+this be done the preceding steps are omitted.
+
+The tool rest is then placed parallel with the lathe bed and a roughing
+cut is taken with the gouge the entire thickness of the block.
+
+The lathe should be run on second or third speed until the corners are
+removed, and then changed to first speed.
+
+2. CALIPERING FOR DIAMETER. The true diameter is then calipered the same
+as in spindle work.
+
+3. SMOOTHING CUT. A smoothing cut is taken with a skew chisel the same
+as in spindle work.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 15.]
+
+4. ROUGHING CUT ON THE FACE. (3/4" GOUGE.) FIG. 15. The rest is now
+placed parallel to the bed of the lathe and slightly above the center of
+the spindle. Place the gouge on the rest on its edge with the grind
+toward the stock and parallel to the face to be surfaced. The nose of
+the gouge is the cutting point.
+
+The handle is then raised and the cutting point is forced toward the
+center. A very thin shaving should be taken. If the gouge is allowed to
+roll back so the grind above the cutting point comes in contact with the
+wood it is sure to catch and gash the wood.
+
+5. SMOOTHING THE FACE. (SMALL SKEW CHISEL.) FIG. 16. For all work up to
+3" in diameter, the surface may be smoothed by using a small skew chisel
+in the same manner as in squaring the ends of Stock in cylinder work.
+(Step 6--Exercise A-I--1-a, Straight Cuts.)
+
+For larger work, place the chisel flat on the rest with the toe next to
+the stock and the back edge of the chisel parallel to the face to be
+surfaced.
+
+The point of the chisel is then forced toward the center of the stock,
+using the straight back of the tool as a guide against the finished
+surface. Only a very thin cut should be taken at a time.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 16.]
+
+Note:--While this operation may be termed a scraping cut, it will be
+found to be much easier on the tool than if the cutting edge were held
+flat against the work as in other scraping cuts.
+
+The surface of the work should be tested for squareness by holding the
+edge of the chisel or a straight edge across the face.
+
+
+LAYING OFF MEASUREMENTS
+
+In laying off measurements on the face of the stock a pencil compass or
+dividers should be used. Set the compass or dividers to one-half the
+diameter of the circle wanted. While one point is held at the exact
+center of the stock, which is easily located while the stock is
+revolving, the other is brought in contact with the revolving stock
+until a circle of the correct diameter is marked.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 17.]
+
+Should the center of the stock be cut away, rendering this method
+impossible, the following method may be used: Set the compass or
+dividers to the exact diameter wanted. Place one point in contact with
+the stock a little to one side of the required line on the part that is
+to be cut-away. Bring the other point to the stock and see if it touches
+the line first made. If not, move the first point until the two points
+track in the same line.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 18.]
+
+The rest should be set at the exact center for measuring.
+
+All measurements on the edge of the stock can be made with pencil and
+rule as in cylinder turning.
+
+
+B-I--2-a. Shoulder Cuts
+
+1. EXTERNAL SHOULDERS. FIG. 18. The surplus stock at each successive
+shoulder is roughed out with a 3/4" gouge, keeping well outside the
+finished measurements. The gouge for this work is held in the same
+position as described in B-I--1-a, Step 1, for Roughing Off Corners.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 19.]
+
+2. For the finishing cut a small skew chisel is used, and the process
+is the same as that used in squaring ends of stock. Both the vertical
+and horizontal shoulders can be handled easily by this method. Fig, 19.
+
+3. INTERNAL SHOULDERS. For internal shoulder cutting the same methods
+may be used for roughing out and cutting the horizontal shoulders, but
+for the vertical or base shoulder it will be necessary to use the
+scraping process. (See "Use of Scraping Tools.")
+
+
+B-I--3-a. Taper Cuts
+
+Taper cutting will not be found hard as the gouge and skew chisel are
+used in the same manner as described in B-I--1-a, Steps 4 and 5. After
+the stock has been roughed away with the gouge to the approximate angle
+desired, a smoothing cut is taken with the skew. Care should be taken
+that the skew chisel is held at the exact angle of the taper desired.
+
+
+B-I--4-a. V Cuts
+
+V cutting will also be found easy as the tool process is exactly the
+same as that used in spindle turning. Exercise A-I--4-a. Fig. 20.
+
+
+B-I--5-a. Concave Cuts
+
+Place the 3/4" gouge on the rest with the handle parallel to the bed of
+the lathe. Roll the gouge on its edge and swing the handle so that the
+grind is perpendicular to the stock with the nose of the tool as the
+cutting point.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 20.]
+
+Force the gouge forward into the wood. As soon as the cut is started,
+the handle is lowered and swung to the left; (if cutting the left side
+of the concave) at the same time the tool is rolled back toward its
+original position. This movement brings the cutting point farther down
+on the lip and the grind, resting on the side of the cut, will force the
+gouge sidewise and will form one-quarter of the circle. Fig. 21.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 21.]
+
+This cut is continued from alternate side until the concave is nearly to
+size. The cut should be tested with a templet before the finishing cut
+is taken.
+
+
+B-I--6-a. Convex Cuts
+
+Rough out the stock between the beads with a parting tool.
+
+Hold the edge of the gouge on the rest with the handle, parallel to the
+bed of the lathe, to make the nose the cutting point.
+
+Swing the handle to the left so that the grind will form a tangent to
+the bead at its highest point.
+
+The gouge is then forced into the stock and to the right; at the same
+time the handle is swung to the right; keeping the grind tangent to the
+bead at the point of contact. Fig. 22. This cut is continued until the
+base of the bead is reached.
+
+
+B-I--7-a. Combination Cuts
+
+As in spindle turning, a combination exercise should be given at this
+point to provide an opportunity for studying out the best methods of
+working the various cuts just described into a finished product.
+
+
+USE OF SCRAPING TOOLS
+
+When scraping is to be employed, it should be done with only those tools
+that are made for that purpose, i.e., Square Nose, Round Nose, Spear
+Point, Right and Left Skew. The handling of these tools will be found
+easy. The only point to remember is that they should be held flat on the
+tool rest and parallel to the bed of the lathe when in use.
+
+In general practice the ordinary skew chisel should not be used as a
+scraping tool, for the cutting edge is not sharpened to withstand the
+heavy strain required by such work. Should it be necessary, however, to
+use a skew chisel as a scraper, the tool should be held so that the top
+grind is parallel to the bed of the lathe while in use.
+
+
+INTERNAL BORING
+
+In roughing out the center for Napkin Rings, Jewel Boxes, etc., the
+quickest method is to work it out with a small gouge.
+
+Place the gouge on the rest parallel to the bed of the lathe, having the
+point even with the center of the stock.
+
+Force the gouge into the wood until a hole is bored to the depth
+required. If the hole is deeper than 1", remove the tool often and clear
+out the shavings in order not to burn the point.
+
+In order to enlarge the hole to the proper size the point of the gouge
+is pressed against the left side of the hole a little above the center
+and a shearing cut is taken. To obviate the danger of the tool catching,
+all cuts should start from the back of the hole and proceed toward the
+front.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 22.]
+
+
+B-III--8-a. Sphere
+
+After the sphere is turned as nearly perfect as is possible when working
+between centers (Steps 1 to 4) it is cut free from the waste stock and
+is centered in a chuck.
+
+The chuck is made of any soft wood and should be cut in the end grain,
+which will insure equal pressure on all sides. Equal pressure cannot be
+obtained if the Chuck is cut in cross grain wood, owing to the tendency
+of side grain to give more than the end grain. The sphere should be
+forced into the chuck with slightly over half protruding. Very thin cuts
+should be taken and the sphere should be revolved one-quarter turn after
+each until true. As the sphere becomes smaller during the cutting, it
+will be necessary to cut the face of the chuck down and bore the hole
+deeper and smaller in order to keep more than half of it protruding at
+all times.
+
+[Illustration: Mirror (See Pages 299-301).]
+
+To remove the sphere tap the chuck lightly with a hammer just above it,
+at the same time pull out on the sphere.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+SPIRAL TURNING
+
+
+Spiral turning is a subject that has received very little attention by
+most schools in which wood turning is taught. Spiral work is seen in
+antique furniture and also in the modern furniture of the present day.
+It seems that it takes the wheel of fashion about a century to make a
+complete turn, for what our forefathers neglected and destroyed the
+people of the present day value and cherish.
+
+Spiral work gives excellent practice in shaping and modelling wood. It
+brings into play the principle of the helix as used in cutting threads,
+etc.; and its form, size and shape may be varied according to the taste
+of the individual. As in threads so in spiral work we have single and
+double spirals, and their form and proportion depend upon their use and
+application in furniture making. A variation of the spiral may be made
+in several ways: First, by changing the number of turns of the spiral on
+a straight shaft; second, by running a spiral on a tapered shaft; third,
+by changing the shape or form of the spiral itself; and fourth, by
+making more than one spiral on a shaft. It is uncommon to see ten or
+twelve spirals running around a single shaft.
+
+Some of the forms of the above types are fully taken up and explained in
+the work that is to follow.
+
+
+PLATES B-V--1-a, a'. SINGLE SPIRAL. STRAIGHT SHAFT
+
+To work out a single spiral for a pedestal proceed as follows:
+
+1. Turn a cylinder 2-1/4" in diameter. Make the ends slightly larger in
+order that the design may be turned on each, after the spiral has been
+worked out.
+
+2. Lay off spaces 2-1/16" apart on the cylinder while the spindle is
+turning in the lathe and divide each of these into four equal parts.
+Each one of these large spaces represents one turn of the spiral. A good
+proportion is slightly less than the diameter of the cylinder; thus the
+diameter of the cylinder equals 2-1/4" and the width of the space
+2-1/16".
+
+3. On the cylinder parallel to the axis draw lines A-A B-B C-C D-D.
+These lines should be 90 deg. apart as shown in the top diagram (Plate
+B-V--1-a'). Line D-D is on the other side of the cylinder as shown in
+the top and middle diagrams.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 23.]
+
+4. Start on line A-A at point X, circle 1, and draw a line connecting it
+with line B-B on circle 1'. Then connect B-B on circle 1' with C-C on
+circle 2 and so on until a spiral has been drawn the entire length of
+the cylinder. This line will form the ridge of the spiral as shown in
+the middle diagram.
+
+5. Next begin on line C-C at circle 1, and draw a line connecting it
+with D-D on circle 1' then to line A-A on circle 2, and so on as before.
+This spiral represents the center of the groove or the portion which is
+to be cut away. This is not shown in the diagram because more or less
+confusion would be caused with the line representing the ridge of the
+spiral.
+
+6. Begin on line C-C at circle 1, and saw to a depth of 3/4". Saw the
+entire length of the cylinder leaving about 1-1/2" at the ends. Do not
+follow the line here, but switch off gradually and follow circles 1 and
+15, so as to allow the spiral to begin and end gradually and not
+abruptly.
+
+7. Rough out with a knife or chisel by cutting on both sides of the saw
+cut. Then use a wood rasp to finish shaping out the spiral. When
+properly shaped out allow the lathe to turn slowly and smooth with
+sandpaper by following the spiral as the lathe turns.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 24.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 24-a.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 25.]
+
+8. Cut the design on both ends of the cylinder and polish.
+
+
+PLATES B-V--2-a, a', a''. SINGLE SPIRAL. TAPERED SHAFT
+
+To lay off a single spiral for the electric lamp shown in Figs. 24 and
+24a proceed as follows:
+
+1. Select your wood and bore a hole through it. Plug the hole and center
+the piece in the lathe. This insures getting the hole exactly in the
+center, and it will not be cut into while the cutting of the groove of
+the spiral proceeds. A groove may also be cut in two pieces of stock and
+glued together to form a hole through the stock.
+
+2. Turn a cylinder 2-1/2" in diameter, tapering it to 1-1/2" at the one
+end; this part should be 12-1/8" long. Both ends should be left larger
+than 2-1/2" as the lower and upper designs must be cut here.
+
+3. Let the spindle revolve in the lathe and draw circles as shown in the
+layout (Plate B-V--2-a'). The number of circles will vary with the
+taper. Since seven turns are needed in the present spiral, 28 circles
+will be necessary--four circles for each turn of the spiral as shown in
+the middle diagram. A good proportion to follow is to measure the
+diameter of the spindle at circle 2 and lay off this distance from
+circle 1 to circle 3. Then measure the diameter at circle 4 and lay off
+this diameter from circle 3 to circle 5 and so on until all circles have
+been made. Then divide these large divisions into four equal parts.
+
+4. Draw four lines the entire length of the spindle, each 90 deg. apart as
+shown by the heavy lines in the middle diagram. The heavy circles of the
+same diagram represent the complete turns of the spiral.
+
+5. Lay out the line representing the ridge of the spiral as shown in the
+middle diagram. Begin on circle 1, where the straight line crosses it,
+draw to circle 1' at the point where the next straight line crosses it,
+then to 2--2'--3--3' and so on until the end is reached. This forms the
+ridge of the spiral as shown in diagram 3. Next it may be more
+convenient to draw another line representing the groove. In this case
+begin at point X in the middle diagram, opposite the point where first
+started, and continue in the preceding manner, making this line parallel
+to the other line.
+
+6. Saw on the line last made, being careful not to saw too deeply. The
+depth must be 1/4" less than half the diameter of the spindle where the
+cut is made. This saw cut forms the groove of the spiral. The groove is
+then cut out by hand with a chisel or knife, by working down the wood on
+both sides of the saw cut. After the spirals have been roughed out, a
+rasp is used to finish shaping them. The work is then sandpapered
+smooth, while the spindle is revolved slowly in the lathe.
+
+7. Cut designs on the ends of the cylinder and polish.
+
+
+PLATES B-V--2-b, b'. DOUBLE SPIRAL. TAPERED SHAFT
+
+To work out a double spiral for the electric lamp illustrated in Fig. 25
+proceed as follows:
+
+1. Turn up the spindle in the usual manner. Since the base of the shaft
+is larger than the top, the spiral must also be in proportion and lines
+A-A', B-B', C-C', D-D', and E-E', are drawn around the shaft. To get the
+approximate spacing from circles A-A to B-B measure the diameter at A-A'
+plus about 3/16" and lay off from A-A' to B-B'. Then take the diameter
+of B-B' plus about 3/16" and lay off from A-A' to B-B'. Then take the
+diameter at B-B' plus about 3/16" and lay off from circle B-B' to C-C'
+and so on. If the shaft is tapered more, a different proportion must be
+used. Also if it is desired to have the twist wind around the shaft
+three times, a variation must be made in the number of circles.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 27.]
+
+2. If it is desired to have the twist wind around the shaft twice, draw
+circles 1-1', 2-2', 3-3', and 4-4' and the spaces will grow
+proportionately smaller at the small end.
+
+3. Draw four lines running lengthwise on the spindle and 90 deg. apart as
+shown in the midde figure in heavy lines (Plate B-V--2-b').
+
+4. Begin at A and draw a curved line to where the 90 deg. line crosses
+circle 1-1'. From there extend the line to where the next 90 deg. line
+crosses circle B-B' at point B'. Continue in this manner until the other
+end of the shaft is reached. Begin at A' and draw a line on the opposite
+side of the shaft. These two lines running around and along the shaft
+form the grooves while the portion in between forms the beads of the
+double spiral.
+
+5. Saw to the desired depth, being 1/4" less than half the diameter at
+the point where cut. With a chisel or knife form the grooves and beads.
+It is necessary to be careful about not ending the grooves too abruptly.
+(See point 6 in Plates B-V--1-a, a'.) Smooth with a rasp and sandpaper
+while the lathe is revolving slowly.
+
+6. Cut the design on the ends and polish.
+
+
+PLATES B-V--3-a, a'. DOUBLE GROOVE SPIRAL. STRAIGHT SHAFT
+
+To work out the double groove spiral for the magazine holder
+illustrated, proceed as follows:
+
+1. Square up the stock to 1-3/8". Center carefully and turn the design
+on both ends as shown, in the upper diagram (Plate B-V--3-a'). Turn the
+cylinder between the top and bottom, making it 5-1/2" long and 1-3/8" in
+diameter.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 26.]
+
+2. Divide the cylinder into two equal parts. Each part represents one
+revolution of the spiral.
+
+3. Divide each half into four equal parts as shown in the top and center
+diagrams (Plate B-V--3-a'), 1-1', 2-2', 3-3' and so on. The proportion
+of the distance between these circles should be one-half the diameter of
+the cylinder.
+
+4. Draw lines A-A, B-B, C-C, and D-D, parallel to the axis of the
+cylinder 90 deg. apart.
+
+5. With a band 3/16" wide of any substantial material (preferably a
+narrow strip of tin or a watch main spring) begin on the line A-A at
+circle 1, and connect circle 1' at line B-B, and then connect circle 2
+at C-C, and so on until the spiral is made the entire length. Mark on
+both sides of the 3/16" band so as to keep the spiral parallel.
+
+6. Next begin at the line C-C where circle 1 crosses it and connect from
+here to 1' at B-B. Proceed as in Step 5, as shown in the center diagram.
+
+7. Now erase the extreme ends of the spiral near circles 1 and 5, and
+deviate from the original spiral and follow the circles in a more
+parallel direction so as to allow the spiral to begin and end gradually
+and not too abruptly. Refer to the lower diagram for this.
+
+8. Cut out portions of wood between the bands previously marked around,
+as shown in the lower figure. The wood should be cut out with a knife so
+as to leave the corners sharp on the narrow bands. The portion cut out
+should be a semi-circle and can be sanded by making a spindle a little
+smaller than the distance between the bands and fastening sandpaper on
+the spindle. Place in the lathe and hold the spiral on the sandpaper
+cylinder at an angle so that the spiral will fit. Turn gradually and the
+sandpaper will smooth up the portion between the bands and true it up.
+At the ends where the grooves are smaller, use a smaller stick around
+which sandpaper has been wound and work out by hand.
+
+9. It is well to cut straight down, about 1/32" deep, along the lines
+marking out the narrow bands. Then the wood will not be so likely to
+split while removing the stock which forms the grooves between the
+bands.
+
+10. Cut out the mortises in the square portions which have been left at
+both ends. Make the frame work for the sides and cane. Glue together and
+polish.
+
+Note:--By making the posts smaller and using the same construction for a
+side a nice looking book stall may be made. The proportions for the
+posts are the same as mentioned in Step 3.
+
+
+[Transcribers note: There are 142 line art illustrations after this
+point in the book. They are all provided in the illustrated HTML
+edition of this book.]
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A Course In Wood Turning
+by Archie S. Milton and Otto K. Wohlers
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A COURSE IN WOOD TURNING ***
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