diff options
Diffstat (limited to '15364-8.txt')
| -rw-r--r-- | 15364-8.txt | 2404 |
1 files changed, 2404 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/15364-8.txt b/15364-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..726e4ad --- /dev/null +++ b/15364-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,2404 @@ +Project Gutenberg's Society for Pure English Tract 4, by John Sargeaunt + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Society for Pure English Tract 4 + The Pronunciation of English Words Derived from the Latin + +Author: John Sargeaunt + +Annotator: H. Bradley + + +Release Date: March 15, 2005 [EBook #15364] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SOCIETY FOR PURE ENGLISH TRACT 4 *** + + + + +Produced by David Starner, William Flis, and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team. + + + + + + Transcriber's Note: Phonetic characters are represented by the + following symbols: + [^1] = raised "1", etc. + [e] = inverted "e" or schwa + [oe] = oe ligature character + ['x] = any letter "x" with acute accent + [=x] = any letter "x" with macron + [)x] = any letter "x" with breve + [=xy] = any pair of letters "xy" with joining macron, except + [=OE], [=ae] = OE, ae ligature characters with macron + ['oe], ['ae] = oe, ae ligature characters with acute accent and + [)xy] = any pair of letters "xy" with joining breve, except + [)AE], [)ae], [)OE], [)oe] = AE, ae, OE, oe ligature characters + with breve + + + +_S.P.E. TRACT NO. IV_ + +THE PRONUNCIATION OF ENGLISH WORDS DERIVED FROM THE LATIN + +BY JOHN SARGEAUNT + +WITH PREFACE AND NOTES BY H. BRADLEY + +CORRESPONDENCE & MISCELLANEOUS NOTES BY H.B., R.B., W.H.F., AND +EDITORIAL + + +_AT THE CLARENDON PRESS_ MDCCCCXX + + + + +ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF ENGLISH WORDS DERIVED FROM LATIN + + +[This paper may perhaps need a few words of introduction concerning +the history of the pronunciation of Latin in England. + +The Latin taught by Pope Gregory's missionaries to their English +converts at the beginning of the seventh century was a living +language. Its pronunciation, in the mouths of educated people when +they spoke carefully, was still practically what it had been in +the first century, with the following important exceptions. 1. The +consonantal _u_ was sounded like the _v_ of modern English, 2. The _c_ +before front vowels (_e_, _i_, _o_, _æ_, _oe_), and the combinations +_t[)i]_, _c[)i]_ before vowels, were pronounced _ts_. 3. The _g_ +before front vowels had a sound closely resembling that of the Latin +consonantal _i_. 4. The _s_ between vowels was pronounced like our +_s_. 5. The combinations _æ_, _oe_ were no longer pronounced as +diphthongs, but like the simple _e_. 6. The ancient vowel-quantities +were preserved only in the penultima of polysyllables (where they +determined the stress); in all other positions the original system of +quantities had given place to a new system based mainly on rhythm. Of +this system in detail we have little certain knowledge; but one of +its features was that the vowel which ended the first syllable of +a disyllabic was always long: _p[=a]ter_, _p[=a]trem_, _D[=e]us_, +_p[=i]us_, _[=i]ter_, _[=o]vis_, _h[=u]mus_. + +Even so early as the beginning of the fifth century, St. Augustine +tells us that the vowel-quantities, which it was necessary to learn +in order to write verse correctly, were not observed in speech. The +Latin-speaking schoolboy had to learn them in much the same fashion as +did the English schoolboy of the nineteenth century. + +It is interesting to observe that, while the English scholars of +the tenth century pronounced their Latin in the manner which their +ancestors had learned from the continental missionaries, the tradition +of the ancient vowel-quantities still survived (to some extent at +least) among their British neighbours, whose knowledge of Latin was an +inheritance from the days of Roman rule. On this point the following +passage from the preface to Ælfric's Latin Grammar (written for +English schoolboys about A.D. 1000) is instructive:-- + + Miror ualde quare multi corripiunt sillabas in prosa quae in + metro breues sunt, cum prosa absoluta sit a lege metri; sicut + pronuntiant _pater_ brittonice et _malus_ et similia, quae in + metro habentur breues. Mihi tamen uidetur melius inuocare Deum + Patrem honorifice producta sillaba quam brittonice corripere, + quia nec Deus arti grammaticae subiciendus est. + +The British contagion of which Ælfric here complains had no permanent +effect. For after the Norman Conquest English boys learned their Latin +from teachers whose ordinary language was French. For a time, they +were not usually taught to write or read English, but only French +and Latin; so that the Englishmen who attempted to write their native +language did so in a phonetic orthography on a French basis. The +higher classes in England, all through the thirteenth century, had two +native languages, English and French. + +In the grammar schools, the Latin lessons were given in French; it was +not till the middle of the fourteenth century that a bold educational +reformer, John Cornwall, could venture to make English the vehicle +of instruction. In reading Latin, the rhythmically-determined +vowel-quantities of post-classical times were used; and the Roman +letters were pronounced, first as they were in French, and afterwards +as in English, but in the fourteenth century this made little +difference. + +In Chaucer's time, the other nations of Europe, no less than England, +pronounced Latin after the fashion of their own vernaculars. When, +subsequently, the phonetic values of the letters in the vernacular +gradually changed, the Latin pronunciation altered likewise. Hence, in +the end, the pronunciation of Latin has become different in different +countries. A scholar born in Italy has great difficulty in following +a Frenchman speaking Latin. He has greater difficulty in understanding +an Englishman's Latin, because in English the changes in the sounds +of the letters have been greater than in any other language. Every +vowel-letter has several sounds, and the normal long sound of every +vowel-letter has no resemblance whatever to its normal short sound. As +in England the pronunciation of Latin developed insensibly along with +that of the native tongue, it eventually became so peculiar that by +comparison the 'continental pronunciation' may be regarded as uniform. + +It is sometimes imagined that the modern English way of pronouncing +Latin was a deliberate invention of the Protestant reformers. For this +view there is no foundation in fact. It may be conceded that English +ecclesiastics and scholars who had frequent occasion to converse in +Latin with Italians would learn to pronounce it in the Italian way; +and no doubt the Reformation must have operated to arrest the growing +tendency to the Italianization of English Latin. But there is no +evidence that before the Reformation the un-English pronunciation was +taught in the schools. The grammar-school pronunciation of the early +nineteenth century was the lineal descendant of the grammar-school +pronunciation of the fourteenth century. + +This traditional system of pronunciation is now rapidly becoming +obsolete, and for very good reasons. But it is the basis of the +pronunciation of the many classical derivatives in English; and +therefore it is highly important that we should understand precisely +what it was before it began to be sophisticated (as in our own early +days) by sporadic and inconsistent attempts to restore the classical +quantities. In the following paper Mr. Sargeaunt describes, with a +minuteness not before attempted, the genuine English tradition of +Latin pronunciation, and points out its significance as a factor in +the development of modern English. + +H.B.] + + * * * * * + +It seems not to be generally known that there is a real principle +in the English pronunciation of words borrowed from Latin and Greek, +whether directly or through French. In this matter the very knowledge +of classical Latin, of its stresses and its quantities, still more +perhaps an acquaintance with Greek, is apt to mislead. Some speakers +seem to think that their scholarship will be doubted unless they say +'doctrínal' and 'scriptúral' and 'cinéma'. The object of this paper is +to show by setting forth the principles consciously or unconsciously +followed by our ancestors that such pronunciations are as erroneous +as in the case of the ordinary man they are unnatural and pedantic. +An exception for which there is a reason must of course be accepted, +but an exception for which reason is unsound is on every ground to +be deprecated. Among other motives for preserving the traditional +pronunciation must be reckoned the claim of poetry. Mark Pattison +notes how a passage of Pope which deals with the Barrier Treaty loses +much of its effect because we no longer stress the second syllable of +'barrier'. Pope's word is gone beyond recovery, but others which are +threatened by false theories may yet be preserved. + +The _New English Dictionary_, whose business it is to record facts, +shows that in not a few common words there is at present much +confusion and uncertainty concerning the right pronunciation. This +applies mostly to the position of the stress or, as some prefer to +call it, the accent, but in many cases it is true also of the quantity +of the vowels. It is desirable to show that there is a principle in +this matter, rules which have been naturally and unconsciously obeyed, +because they harmonize with the genius of the English tongue. + +For nearly three centuries from the Reformation to the Victorian era +there was in this country a uniform pronunciation of Latin. It had its +own definite principles, involving in some cases a disregard of the +classical quantities though not of the classical stress or accent. It +survives in borrowed words such as _[=a]li[)a]s_ and _st[)a]mina_, +in naturalized legal phrases, such as _N[=i]s[=i] Prius_ and _[=o]nus +probandi_, and with some few changes in the Westminster Play. This +pronunciation is now out of fashion, but, since its supersession does +not justify a change in the pronunciation of words which have become +part of our language, it will be well to begin with a formulation of +its rules. + +The rule of Latin stress was observed as it obtained in the time +of Quintilian. In the earliest Latin the usage had been other, the +stress coming as early in the word as was possible. Down to the days +of Terence and probably somewhat later the old rule still held good +of quadrisyllables with the scansion of _m[)u]l[)i][)e]r[)i]s_ or +_m[)u]l[)i][)e]r[=e]s_, but in other words had given way to the later +Quintilian rule, that all words with a long unit as penultimate +had the stress on the vowel in that unit, while words of more +than two syllables with a short penultimate had the stress on the +antepenultimate. I say 'unit' because here, as in scansion, what +counts is not the syllable, but the vowel plus all the consonants +that come between it and the next vowel. Thus _inférnus_, where the +penultimate vowel is short, no less than _suprémus_, where it is long, +has the stress on the penultima. In _volucris_, where the penultimate +unit was short, as it was in prose and could be in verse, the stress +was on the _o_, but when _ucr_ made a long unit the stress comes on +the _u_, though of course the vowel remains short. In polysyllables +there was a secondary stress on the alternate vowels. Ignorance of +this usage has made a present-day critic falsely accuse Shakespeare +of a false quantity in the line + + Coríolánus in Coríoli. + +It may be safely said that from the Reformation to the nineteenth +century no Englishman pronounced the last word otherwise than I have +written it. The author of the Pronouncing Dictionary attached to +the 'Dictionary of Gardening' unfortunately instructs us to say +_gládiolus_ on the ground that the _i_ is short. The ground alleged, +though true, is irrelevant, and, although Terence would have +pronounced it _gládiolus_, Quintilian, like Cicero, would have said +_gladíolus_. Mr. Myles quotes Pliny for the word, but Pliny would no +more have thought of saying _gládiolus_ than we should now think of +saying 'laboúr' except when we are reading Chaucer. + +We need not here discuss the dubious exceptions to this rule, such +as words with an enclitic attached, e.g. _prim[)a]que_ in which some +authorities put the stress on the vowel which precedes the enclitic, +or such clipt words as 'illuc', where the stress may at one time have +fallen on the last vowel. In any case no English word is concerned. + +In very long words the due alternation of stressed and unstressed +vowels was not easy to maintain. There was no difficulty in such +a combination as _hónoríficábilí_ or as _tudínitátibús_, but +with the halves put together there would be a tendency to say +_hónoríficabilitúdinitátibus_. Thus there ought not to be much +difficulty in saying _Cónstantínopólitáni_, whether you keep the long +antepenultima or shorten it after the English way; but he who forced +the reluctant word to end an hexameter must have had 'Constantinóple' +in his mind, and therefore said _Constántinópolitáni_ with two false +stresses. The result was an illicit lengthening of the second _o_. +His other false quantity, the shortening of the second _i_, was +due to the English pronunciation, the influence of such words as +'metropol[)i]tan', and, as old schoolmasters used to put it, a neglect +of the Gradus. Even when the stress falls on this antepenultimate +_i_, it is short in English speech. Doubtless Milton shortened it in +'Areopagitica', just as English usage made him lengthen the initial +vowel of the word. + +Probably very few of the Englishmen who used the traditional +pronunciation of Latin knew that they gave many different sounds to +each of the symbols or letters. Words which have been transported +bodily into English will provide examples under each head. It will be +understood that in the traditional pronunciation of Latin these words +were spoken exactly as they are spoken in the English of the present +day. For the sake of simplicity it may be allowed us to ignore some +distinctions rightly made by phoneticians. Thus the long initial vowel +of _alias_ is not really the same as the long initial vowel of _area_, +but the two will be treated as identical. It will thus be possible to +write of only three kinds of vowels, long, short, and obscure. + +The letter or symbol _a_ stood for two long sounds, heard in the first +syllables of _alias_ and of _larva_, for the short sound heard in the +first syllable of _stamina_, and for the obscure sound heard in the +last syllable of each of these last two words in English. + +The letter _e_ stood for the long sounds heard in _genus_ and in +_verbum_, for the short sound heard in _item_, and for the obscure +sound heard in _cancer_. When it ended a word it had, if short, the +sound of a short _i_, as in _pro lege_, _rege_, _grege_, as also in +unstressed syllables in such words as _precentor_ and _regalia_. + +The letter _i_ stood for the two long sounds heard in _minor_ and in +_circus_ and for the short sound heard in _premium_ and _incubus_. + +The letter _o_ stood for the two long sounds heard in _odium_ and in +_corpus_, for the short sound in _scrofula_, and for the obscure in +_extempore_. + +The two long sounds of _u_ are heard in _rumor_, if that spelling +may be allowed, and in the middle syllable of _laburnum_, the two +short sounds in the first _u_ of _incubus_ and in the first _u_ of +_lustrum_, the obscure sound in the final syllables of these two +words. Further the long sound was preceded except after _l_ and _r_ by +a parasitic _y_ as in _albumen_ and _incubus_. This parasitic _y_ is +perhaps not of very long standing. In some old families the tradition +still compels such pronunciations as _moosic_. + +The diphthongs _æ_ and _oe_ were merely _e_, while _au_ and _eu_ were +sounded as in our _August_ and _Euxine_. The two latter diphthongs +stood alone in never being shortened even when they were unstressed +and followed by two consonants. Thus men said _[=Eu]stolia_ and +_[=Au]gustus_, while they said _[)Æ]schylus_ and _[)OE]dipus._ Dryden +and many others usually wrote the _Æ_ as _E_. Thus Garrick in a letter +commends an adaptation of 'Eschylus', and although Boswell reports him +as asking Harris 'Pray, Sir, have you read Potter's _Æschylus_?' both +the speaker and the reporter called the name _Eschylus_. + +The letter _y_ was treated as _i_. + +The consonants were pronounced as in English words derived from Latin. +Thus _c_ before _e_, _i_, _y_, _æ_, and _oe_ was _s_, as in _census_, +_circus_, _Cyrus_, _Cæsar_, and _coelestial_, a spelling not classical +and now out of use. Elsewhere _c_ was _k_. Before the same vowels _g_ +was _j_ (d[ezh]), as in _genus_, _gibbus_, _gyrus_. The sibilant was +voiced or voiceless as in English words, the one in _rosaceus_, the +other in _saliva_. + +It will be seen that the Latin sounds were throughout frankly +Anglicized. According to Burney a like principle was followed by +Burke when he read French poetry aloud. He read it as though it were +English. Thus on his lips the French word _comment_ was pronounced as +the English word _comment_. + +The rule that overrode all others, though it has the exceptions given +below, was that vowels and any other diphthongs than _au_ and _eu_, if +they were followed by two consonants, were pronounced short. Thus _a_ +in _magnus_, though long in classical Latin, was pronounced as in our +'magnitude', and _e_ in _census_, in Greek transcription represented +by [Greek: eta], was pronounced short, as it is when borrowed into +English. So were the penultimate vowels in _villa_, _nullus_, _cæspes_. + +This rule of shortening the vowel before two consonants held good even +when in fact only one was pronounced, as in _nullus_ and other words +where a double consonant was written and in Italian pronounced. + +Moreover, the parasitic _y_ was treated as a consonant, hence our +'v[)a]cuum'. + +In the penultima _qu_ was treated as a single consonant, so that the +vowel was pronounced long in _[=a]quam_, _[=e]quam_, _in[=i]quam_, +_l[=o]quor_. So it was after _o_, hence our 'coll[=o]quial'; but in +earlier syllables than the penultima _qu_ was treated as a double +consonant, hence our 'sub[)a]queous', 'equity', 'iniquity'. + +EXCEPTIONS. + +1. When the former of the two consonants was _r_ and the latter +another consonant than _r_, as in the series represented by _larva_, +_verbum_, _circus_, _corpus_, _laburnum_, the vowels are a separate +class of long vowels, though not really recognized as such. Of course +our ancestors and the Gradus marked them long because in verse the +vowel with the two consonants makes a long unit. + +2. A fully stressed vowel before a mute and _r_, or before _d_ +or _pl_, was pronounced long in the penultima. Latin examples are +_labrum_, _Hebrum_, _librum_, _probrum_, _rubrum_, _acrem_, _cedrum_, +_vafrum_, _agrum_, _pigrum_, _aprum_, _veprem_, _patrem_, _citrum_, +_utrum_, _triplus_, _duplex_, _Cyclops_. Moreover, in other syllables +than the penultima the vowel in the same combinations was pronounced +long if the two following vowels had no consonant between them, as +_patria_, _Hadria_, _acrius_. (Our 'triple' comes from _triplum_ and +is a duplicate of '_treble_'. Perhaps the short vowel is due to its +passage through French. Our 'citron' comes from _citronem_, in which +_i_ was short.) + +3. The preposition and adverb _post_ was pronounced with a long vowel +both by itself and in composition with verbs, but its adjectives +did not follow suit. Hence we say in English 'p[=o]stpone', but +'p[)o]sterior' and 'p[)o]sthumous'. + +Monosyllables ending in a vowel were pronounced long, those ending in +a consonant short. Enclitics like _que_ were no real exception as +they formed part of the preceding word. There were, however, some real +exceptions. + +1. Pronouns ending in _-os_, as _hos_, _quos_. These followed _eos_ +and _illos_. + +2. Words ending in _-es_, as _pes_, _res_. + +3. Words ending in _r_, as _par_, _fer_, _vir_, _cor_, _fur_. These +had that form of long vowel which we use in 'part', 'fertile', +'virtue', 'cordate', 'furtive'. + +In, disyllables the former vowel or diphthong, if followed by a single +consonant, or by a mute and _r_, or by _cl_ or _pl_, was pronounced +long, a usage which according to Mr. Henry Bradley dates in spoken +Latin from the fourth century. Examples are _apex_, _tenet_, _item_, +_focus_, _pupa_, _Psyche_, _Cæsar_, _foetus_. I believe that at first +the only exceptions were _tibi_, _sibi_, _ibi_, _quibus_, _tribus_. In +later days the imperfect and future of _sum_ became exceptions. Here +perhaps the short vowel arose from the hideous and wholly erroneous +habit, happily never universal though still in some vogue, of reciting +_erám_, _erás_, _erát_. There are actually schoolbooks which treat the +verse _ictus_, the beat of the chanter's foot, as a word stress and +prescribe _terra tribús scopulís_. I can say of these books only +_Pereant ipsi, mutescant scriptores_, and do not mind using a +post-classical word in order to say it. + +In disyllables the former vowel or diphthong, if followed immediately +by another vowel or diphthong, had the quality, and if emphatic also +the quality, of a long vowel. The distinction was not recognized, +and seems not to be generally acknowledged even now. We seem not to +have borrowed many words which will illustrate this. We have however +_fiat_, and _pius_ was pronounced exactly as we pronounce 'pious', +while for a diphthong we may quote Shelley, + + Mid the mountains Euganean + I stood listening to the paean. + +English derivatives will show the long quality of the vowels in _aer_, +_deus_, _coit_, _duo_. To these add _Graius_. + +The rule of _apex_ applies also to words of more than two syllables +with long penultima, as _gravamen_, _arena_, _saliva_, _abdomen_, +_acumen_. The rule of _aer_ also holds good though it hardly has +other instances than Greek names, as _Macháon_, _Ænéas_, _Thalía_, +_Achelóus_, _Ach['æ]i_. + +In words of more than two syllables with short penultima the vowel +in the stressed antepenultima was pronounced short when there was a +consonant between the two last vowels, and _i_ and _y_ were short +even when no consonant stood in that place. Examples are _stamina_, +_Sexagesima_, _minimum_, _modicum_, _tibia_, _Polybius_. But _u_, +_au_, _eu_ were, as usual, exceptions, as _tumulus_, _Aufidus_, +_Eutychus_. I believe that originally men said _C[)æ]sarem_, as they +certainly said _c[)æ]spitem_ and _C[)æ]tulum_, as also _C[)æ]sarea_, +but here in familiar words the cases came to follow the nominative. + +Exceptions to the rule were verb forms which had _[=a]v_, _[=e]v_, +_[=i]v_, or _[=o]v_ in the antepenultima, as _am[=a]veram_, +_defieverat_, _audivero_, _moveras_, and like forms from aorists with +the penultima long, as _suaseram_, _egero_, _miserat_, _roseras_, and +their compounds. + +This rule was among the first to break down, and about the middle +of the nineteenth century the Westminster Play began to observe the +true quantities in the antepenultimate syllables. Thus in spite of +'cons[)i]deration' boys said _s[=i]dera_, and in spite of 'n[)o]minal' +they said _nômina_, while they still said _s[)o]litus_ and +_r[)a]pidus_. + +On the other hand the following rule, of which borrowed words provide +many examples, still obtains in the Play. In words of more than two +syllables any vowel in the antepenultima other than _i_ or _y_ was +pronounced long if no consonant divided the two following vowels. +Possibly the reason was that there was a synæresis of the two vowels, +but I doubt this, for a parasitic _y_ was treated as a consonant. +Examples are _alias_, _genius_, _odium_, _junior_, _anæmia_, and +on the other hand _f[)i]lius_, _L[)y]dia_. Compound verbs with a +short prefix were exceptions, as _[)o]beo_, _r[)e]creo_, whence our +'recreant'. A long prefix remained long as in _d[=e]sino_. The only +other exception that I can remember was _Ph[)o]loe_. + +In polysyllables the general rule was that all vowels and diphthongs +before the penultima other than _u_, when it bore a primary or +secondary stress, and _au_ and _eu_ were pronounced short except +where the 'alias' rule or the 'larva' rule applied. Thus we said +_h[)e]r[)e]ditaritis_, _[)æ]qu[)a]bilitas_, _imb[)e]cillus_, +_susp[)i]cionem_, but _fid[=u]ciarius_, _m[=e]diocritas_, +_p[=a]rticipare_. I do not know why the popular voice now gives +_[)A]riadne_, for our forefathers said _[=A]riadne_ as they said +_[=a]rea_. + +In very long words the alternation of stress and no-stress was +insisted on. I remember a schoolmaster who took his degree at Oxford +in the year 1827 reproving a boy for saying _Álphesib['oe]us_ instead +of _Alphesib['oe]us_, and I suspect that Wordsworth meant no inverted +stress in + + Laódamía, that at Jove's command-- + +nor Landor in + + Artémidóra, gods invisible-- + +though I hope that they did. + + * * * * * + +It is not to be thought that these rules were in any way arbitrary. So +little was this so that, I believe, they were never even formulated. +If examples with the quantities marked were ever given, they must have +been for the use of foreigners settling in England. English boys did +not want rules, and their teachers could not really have given them. +The teachers did not understand that each vowel represented not two +sounds only, a long and a short, but many more. This fact was no more +understood by John Walker, the actor and lexicographer, who in 1798 +published a Key to the Classical Pronunciation of Greek and Latin +proper names. His general rule was wrong as a general rule, and so far +as it agreed with facts it was useless. He says that when a vowel ends +a syllable it is long, and when it does not it is short. Apart from +the confusion of cause and effect there is the error of identifying +for instance the _e_ in _beatus_ and the _e_ in _habebat_. Moreover, +Walker confounds the _u_ in 'curfew', really long, with the short and +otherwise different _u_ in 'but'. The rule was useless as a guide, +for it did not say whether _moneo_ for instance was to be read as +_ino-neo_ or as _mon-eo_, and therefore whether the _o_ was to be long +or short. Even Walker's list is no exact guide. He gives for instance +_M[=o]-na_, which is right, and _M[=o]-næses_, which is not. Now +without going into the difference between long vowels and ordinary +vowels, of which latter some are long in scansion and some short, +it is clear that there is no identity. In fact _Mona_, has the long +_o_ of 'moan' and _Monæses_ the ordinary _o_ of 'monaster'. A boy at +school was not troubled by these matters. He had only two things to +learn, first the quantity of the penultimate unit, second the fact +that a final vowel was pronounced. When he knew these two things +he gave the Latin word the sounds which it would have if it were +an English word imported from the Latin. Thus he finds the word +_civilitate_. I am not sure that he could find it, but that does not +matter. He would know 'civility', and he learns that the penultima of +the Latin word is long. Therefore he says _c[)i]v[)i]l[)i]t[=a]t[)e]_. +Again he knows '[)i]nf[)i]n[)i]t' (I must be allowed to spell the +word as it is pronounced except in corrupt quires). He finds that +the penultima of _infinitivus_ is long, and he therefore says +_[)i]nf[)i]n[)i]t[=i]v[)u]s_. Again he knows 'irradiate', and +finding that the penultima of _irradiabitur_ is short he says +_[)i]rr[=a]d[)i][)a]b[)i]t[)u]r_. It is true that some of these +verb forms under the influence of their congeners came to have +an exceptional pronunciation. Thus _irradi[=a]bit_ led at last to +_irradi[=a]bitur_, but I doubt whether this occurred before the +nineteenth century. The word _dabitur_, almost naturalized by Luther's +adage of _date et dabitur_, kept its short _a_ down to the time when +it regained it, in a slightly different form, by its Roman right; +and _am[)a]mini_ and _mon[)e]mini_ were unwavering in their use. Old +people said _v[=a]ri[)a]bilis_ long after the true quantities had +asserted themselves, and the word as the specific name of a plant may +be heard even now. Its first syllable of course follows what I shall +call the 'alias' rule. We may still see this rule in other instances. +All men say 'hippopót[)a]mus', and even those who know that this _a_ +is short in Greek can say nothing but 'Mesopot[=a]mia', unless indeed +the word lose its blessed and comforting powers in a disyllabic +abbreviation. When a country was named after Cecil Rhodes, where the +_e_ in the surname is mute, we all called it 'Rhod[=e]sia'. Had it +been named after a Newman, where the _a_ is short or rather obscure, +we should all have called it 'Newm[=a]nia ', while, named after a +Davis, it would certainly have been 'Dav[)i]sia'. The process of +thought would in each case have been unconscious. A new example is +'aviation', whose first vowel has been instinctively lengthened. + +Again, when the word 'telegram' was coined, some scholars objected to +its formation and insisted upon 'telegrapheme', but the most obdurate +Grecian did not propose to keep the long Greek vowel in the first +syllable. When only the other day 'cinematograph' made its not wholly +desirable appearance, it made no claim to a long vowel in either of +its two first syllables. Not till it was reasonably shortened into +'c[)i]n[)e]ma' did a Judge from the Bench make a lawless decree for a +long second vowel, and even he left the _i_ short though it is long in +Greek. + +Of course with the manner of speech the quantities had to be learnt +separately. The task was not as difficult as some may think. To boys +with a taste for making verses the thumbing of a Gradus (I hope that +no one calls it a Gr[)a]dus) was always a delightful occupation, and +a quantity once learnt was seldom forgotten. It must be admitted that, +as boys were forced to do verses, whether they could or not, there +were always some who could read and yet forget. + +Although these usages did not precede but followed the pronunciation +of words already borrowed from Latin, we may use them to classify +the changes of quantity. We shall see that although there are some +exceptions for which it is difficult to give a reason, yet most of +the exceptions fall under two classes. When words came to us through +French, the pronunciation was often affected by the French form of the +word. Thus the adjective 'present' would, if it had come direct from +Latin, have had a long vowel in the first syllable. To an English ear +'pr[)e]sent' seemed nearer than 'pr[=e]sent' to the French 'présent'. +The _N.E.D._ says that 'gladiator' comes straight from the Latin +'gladiatorem'. Surely in that case it would have had its first vowel +long, as in 'radiator' and 'mediator'. In any case its pronunciation +must have been affected by 'gladiateur'. The other class of exceptions +consists of words deliberately introduced by writers at a late period. +Thus 'adorable' began as a penman's word. Following 'inéxorable' and +the like it should have been 'ádorable'. Actually it was formed by +adding _-able_ to 'adóre', like 'laughable'. It is now too stiff in +the joints to think of a change, and must continue to figure with the +other sins of the Restoration. + +Before dealing with the words as classified by their formation, we may +make short lists of typical words to show that for the pronunciation +of English derivatives it is idle to refer to the classical +quantities. + +From _[=æ]_: [)e]difice, [)e]mulate, c[)e]rulean, qu[)e]stion. + +From _[=oe]_: [)e]conomy, [)e]cumenical, conf[)e]derate. + +From _[=a]_,: don[)a]tive, n[)a]tural, cl[)a]mour, [)a]verse. + +From _[)a]_: [=a]lien, st[=a]tion, st[=a]ble, [=a]miable. + +From _[=e]_: [)e]vident, Quadrag[)e]sima, pl[)e]nitude, s[)e]gregate. + +From _[)e]_: s[=e]ries, s[=e]nile, g[=e]nus, g[=e]nius. + +From _[=i]_: lasc[)i]vious, erad[)i]cate, d[)i]vidend, f[)i]lial, +susp[)i]cion. + +From _[)i]_: l[=i]bel, m[=i]tre, s[=i]lex. + +From _[=o]_: [)o]rator, pr[)o]minent, pr[)o]montory, s[)o]litude. + +From _[)o]_: b[=o]vine, l[=o]cal, f[=o]rum, coll[=o]quial. + +From _[=u]_: fig[)u]rative, script[)u]ral, sol[)u]ble. + +From _[)u]_: n[=u]merous, C[=u]pid, all[=u]vial, cer[=u]lean. + +The _N.E.D._ prefers the spelling 'oecumenical'; but Newman wrote +naturally 'ecumenical', and so does Dr. J.B. Bury. Dublin scholarship +has in this matter been markedly correct. + + +_CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS ACCORDING TO THEIR LATIN STEMS._ + +In classification it seems simplest to take the words according +to their Latin stems. We must, however, first deal with a class of +adjectives borrowed bodily from the Latin nominative masculine with +the insertion of a meaningless _o_ before the final _-us_.[1] These +of course follow the rules given above. In words of more than two +syllables the antepenultimate and stressed vowel is shortened, as +'[)e]mulous' from _æmulus_ and in 'fr[)i]volous' from _fr[=i]volus_, +except where by the 'alias' rule it is long, as in 'egr[=e]gious' from +_egr[)e]gius_. Words coined on this analogy also follow the rules. +Thus 'glabrous' and 'fibrous' have the vowels long, as in the +traditional pronunciation of _glabrum_ and _fibrum_, where the vowels +in classical Latin were short. The stressed _u_ being always long we +have 'lug[=u]brious' and 'sal[=u]brious', the length being independent +of the 'alias' rule. Some words ending in _-ous_ are not of this +class. Thus 'odorous' and 'clamorous' appear in Italian as _odoroso_ +and _clamoroso_. Milton has + + Sonórous mettal blowing Martial sounds. + +The Italian is _sonoro_, and our word was simply the Latin _sonorus_ +borrowed bodily at a somewhat late period. Hence the stress remains +on the penultima. Skeat thought that the word would at last become +'sónorous'. It maybe hoped that Milton's line will save it from the +effect of a false analogy. + +[Footnote 1: I regard this statement as inaccurate. The _-ous_ in +these words does not come from the nominative ending _-us_, but is the +ordinary _-ous_ from L. _-osus_ (through Fr.). It was added to many +Latin adjective stems, because the need of a distinctly adjectival +ending was felt. Similarly in early French _-eux_ was appended to +adjectives when they were felt to require a termination, as in +_pieux_ from _pi-us_. Compare the English _capacious_, _veracious_, +_hilarious_, where _-ous_ is added to other stems than those in _o_. +Other suffixes of Latin origin are used in the same way: e.g. _-al_ in +_aerial_, _ethereal_.--H.B.] + +In classifying by stems it will be well to add, where possible, words +of Greek origin. Except in some late introductions Greek words, except +when introduced bodily, have been treated as if they came through +Latin, and some of the bodily introductions are in the same case. Thus +'anæsthetic' is spelt with the Latin diphthong and the Latin _c_. +Even 'skeleton' had a _c_ to start with, while the modern and wholly +abominable 'kaleidoscope' is unprincipled on the face of it. + +STEMS ENDING IN -ANT AND -ENT. These are participles or words formed +as such. Our words have shed a syllable, thus _regentem_ has become +'regent'. Disyllables follow the 'apex' rule and lengthen the first +vowel, as 'agent', 'decent', 'potent'. Exceptions are 'clement' and +'present', perhaps under French influence. Words of more than two +syllables with a single consonant before the termination throw the +stress back and shorten a long penultima, as 'ignorant', 'president', +'confident', 'adjutant'. Where there are two heavy consonants, the +stress remains on the penultima, as 'consultant', 'triumphant', even +when one of the consonants is not pronounced, as 'reminiscent'. In +some cases the Latinists seem to have deliberately altered the +natural pronunciation. Thus Gower has 'ápparaúnt', but the word became +'appárent' before Shakespeare's time, and later introductions such as +'adherent' followed it. What right 'adjacent' has to its long vowel +and penultimate stress I do not know, but it cannot be altered now. + +STEMS ENDING IN -ATO AND -UTO. These are mostly past participles, but +many of them are used in English as verbs. It must be admitted that +the disyllabic words are not wholly constant to a principle. Those +verbs that come from _-latum_ consistently stress the last vowel, +as 'dilate', 'relate', 'collate'. So does 'create', because of one +vowel following another. Of the rest all the words of any rank have +the stress on the penultima, as 'vibrate', 'frustrate', 'mígrate', +'cástrate', 'púlsate', 'vácate'. Thus Pope has + + The whisper, that to greatness still too near, + Perhaps, yet vibrates on his Sov'reign's ear, + +and Shelley + + Music, when soft voices die, + Vibrates in the memory. + +There are, however, verbs of no literary account which in usage +either vary in the stress or take it on the latter syllable. Such are +'locate', 'orate', 'negate', 'placate', and perhaps 'rotate'. With +most of these we could well dispense. 'Equate' is mainly a technical +word. Dictionaries seem to prefer the stress on the ultima, but some +at least of the early Victorian mathematicians said 'équate', and the +pronunciation is to be supported. Trisyllabic verbs throw the stress +back and shorten the penultima, as 'dés[)o]late', 'súff[)o]cate', +'scínt[)i]llate'. Even words with heavy double consonants have adopted +this habit. Thus where Browning has (like Milton and Cowper) + + I the Trinity illústrate + Drinking water'd orange pulp, + In three sips the Arian frustrate. + While he drains his at one gulp, + +it is now usual to say 'íllustrate'. + +Adjectives of this class take as early a stress as they can, as +'órnate', 'pínnate', 'délicate', 'fórtunate'. Nouns from all these +words throw the accent back and shorten or obscure all but the +penultimate vowel, as 'ignorance', 'evaporation'. + +STEMS IN -IA. Here even disyllables shorten the penultima, as 'copy', +'province', while longer words throw the stress back as well as +shorten the penultima, as 'injury', 'colony', while 'ignominy' almost +lost its penultimate vowel, and therefore threw back the stress to the +first syllable. Shakespeare frankly writes the word as a trisyllable, + + Thy ignomy sleep with thee in the grave. + +Milton restored the lost syllable, often eliding the final vowel, as +in + + Exile, or ignominy, or bonds, or pain. + +Even with heavy consonants we have the early stress, as in 'industry'. +Greek words follow the same rules, as 'agony', 'melody'. Some words +of this class have under French influence been further abbreviated, as +'concord'. + +Corresponding STEMS IN -IO keep the same rules. Perhaps the only +disyllable is 'study'; the shortening of a stressed _u_ shows its +immediate derivation from the old French _estudie_. Trisyllabic +examples are 'colloquy', 'ministry', 'perjury'. Many words of this +class have been further abbreviated in their passage through French. +Such are 'benefice', 'divorce', 'office', 'presage', 'suffrage', +'vestige', 'adverb', 'homicide', 'proverb'. The stress in 'divórce' +is due to the long vowel and the two consonants. A few of these +words have been borrowed bodily from Latin, as 'odium', 'tedium', +'opprobrium'. + +STEMS IN -DO AND -TO (-SO). These words lose the final Latin syllable +and keep the stress on the vowel which bore it in Latin. The stressed +vowel, except in _au_, _eu_, is short, even when, as in 'vivid', +'florid', it was long in classical Latin. This, of course, is in +accord with the English pronunciation of Latin. Examples are 'acid', +'tepid', 'rigid', 'horrid', 'humid', 'lurid ', 'absurd', 'tacit', +'digit', 'deposit', 'compact', 'complex', 'revise', 'response', +'acute'. Those which have the suffix _-es_ prefixed throw the stress +back, as 'honest', 'modest'. Those which have the suffix _-men_ +prefixed also throw the stress back, as 'moment', 'pigment', +'torment', and to the antepenultima, if there be one, as 'argument', +'armament', 'emolument', the penultimate vowel becoming short or +obscure. In 'temperament' the tendency of the second syllable to +disappear has carried the stress still further back. We may compare +'Séptuagint', where _u_ becomes consonantal. An exception for which I +cannot account is 'cemént', but Shakespeare has 'cément'. + +STEMS IN -T[=A]T. These are nouns and have the stress on the +antepenultima, which in Latin bore the secondary stress. They +of course show the usual shortening of the vowels with the usual +exceptions. Examples are 'charity', 'equity', 'liberty', 'ferocity', +'authority', and with long antepenultima 'immunity', 'security', +'university'. With no vowel before the penultima the long quality is, +as usual, preserved, as in 'satiety'. + +STEMS IN -OSO. These are adjectives and throw the stress back to the +antepenultima, if there be one. In disyllables the penultimate vowel +is long, as in 'famous', 'vinous'; in longer words the antepenultimate +vowel is short, as 'criminous', 'generous'. Many, however, fall +under the 'alias' rule, as 'ingenious', 'odious', while those which +have _i_ in the penultimate run the two last syllables into one, as +'pernicious', 'religious', 'vicious'. A few late introductions, coming +straight from the Latin, retained the Latin stress, as 'morose', +'verbose'. + +STEMS IN -T[=O]RIO AND -S[=O]RIO. In these words the stress goes +back to the fourth syllable from the end, this in Latin having the +secondary stress, or, as in 'circulatory', 'ambulatory', even further. +In fact the _o_, which of course is shortened, tends to disappear. +Examples are 'declamatory', 'desultory', 'oratory', 'predatory', +'territory'. Three consonants running, as in 'perfunctory', keep the +stress where it has to be in a trisyllable, such as 'victory'. So does +a long vowel before _r_ and another consonant, as in 'precursory'. +Otherwise two consonants have not this effect, as in 'prómontory', +'cónsistory'. In spite of Milton's + + A gloomy Consistory, and them amidst + With looks agast and sad he thus bespake, + +the word is sometimes mispronounced. + +STEMS IN -[=A]RIO. These follow the same rules, except that, as in +'ádversary', combinations like _ers_ are shortened and the stress goes +back; and that words ending in _-entary_, such as 'elementary' and +'testamentary', stress the antepenultima. Examples are 'antiquary', +'honorary', 'voluntary', 'emissary'. It is difficult to see a reason +for an irregular quantity in the antepenultima of some trisyllables. +The general rule makes it short, as in 'granary', 'salary', but in +'library' and 'notary' it has been lengthened. The _N.E.D._ gives +'pl[=e]nary', but our grandfathers said 'pl[)e]nary'. Of course +'diary' gives a long quality to the _i_. + +STEMS IN -[)I]LI. These seem originally to have retained the short +_i_. Thus Milton's spelling is 'facil' and 'fertil' while other +seventeenth-century writers give 'steril'. This pronunciation still +obtains in America, but in England the words seem to have been usually +assimilated to 'fragile', as Milton spells it, which perhaps always +lengthened the vowel. The penultimate vowel is short. + +STEMS IN -[=I]LI. Here the long _i_ is retained, and in disyllables +the penultima is lengthened, as in 'anile', 'senile', 'virile'. +There is no excuse for following the classical quantity in the former +syllables of any of these words. As an English word 'sedilia' shortens +the antepenultimate, like 'tibia' and the rest, the 'alias' rule not +applying when the vowel is _i_. + +STEMS IN -B[)I]LI. These mostly come through French and change the +suffix into _-ble_. Disyllables lengthen the penultima, as 'able', +'stable', 'noble', while 'mobile', as in French, lengthens its +latter vowel. Trisyllables shorten and stress the antepenultima, +as 'placable', 'equable', but of course _u_ remains long, as in +'mutable'. Longer words throw the stress further back, except mere +negatives, like 'implácable', and words with heavy consonants such as +'delectable'. Examples are 'miserable', 'admirable', 'intolerable', +'despicable'. The Poet Laureate holds that in these words Milton kept +the long Italian _a_ of the penultimate or secondary stress. + + Fall'n Cherube, to be weak is miserable. + +In English we have naturalized _-able_ as a suffix and added it to +almost any verb, as 'laughable', 'indescribable', 'desirable'. The +last word may have been taken from French. The form 'des[)i]derable' +occurs from the fourteenth to the seventeenth century. Originally +'acceptable' threw the stress back, as in Milton's + + So fit, so acceptable, so Divine, + +but the double mute has brought it into line with 'delectable'. +Nowadays one sometimes hears 'dispútable', 'despícable', but these +are intolerable vulgarisms. + +SUFFIXES IN T[)I]LI AND S[)I]LI. These words mostly lengthen the _i_ +and make the usual shortenings, as 'missile', 'sessile', 'textile', +'volatile', but of course 'futile'. Exceptions which I cannot explain +are 'foss[)i]l' and 'fus[)i]le'. + +SUFFIX IN [=A]LI. These adjectives shorten the _-a_ and, with the +usual exceptions, the preceding vowels, as 'dóctrinal', 'fílial', +'líberal', 'márital', 'medícinal', but of course by the 'alias' +rule 'arb[=o]real' (not a classical word in Latin) and 'g[=e]nial'. +Words like 'national' and 'rational' were treated like trisyllables, +which they now are. The stress is on the antepenultima except when +heavy consonants bring it on to the penultima, as in 'sepulcral', +'parental', 'triumphal'. + +Those who say 'doctrínal' on the ground that the second vowel is long +in Latin commit themselves to 'medicínal', 'natúral', 'nutríment', +'instrúment', and, if their own principle be applied, they make false +quantities by the dozen every day of their lives. + +Three words mostly mispronounced are, from their rarity, perhaps not +past rescue. They are 'décanal', 'ruridécanal', and 'prébendal'. There +is no more reason for saying 'decánal' than for saying 'matrónal' or +for saying 'prebéndal' than for saying 'caléndar'. Of course words +like 'tremendous', being imported whole, keep the original stress. +In our case the Latin words came into existence as _décanális_, +_prébendális_, parallel with _náturális_, which gives us 'nátural'. +That mostly wrong-headed man, Burgon of Chichester, was correct in +speaking of his rights or at any rate his claims as 'décanal'. + +STEMS IN -LO. Of these 'stimulus' and 'villa' have been borrowed +whole, while _umbella_ is corrupted into 'umbrella'. Disyllables +lengthen the penultima, as 'stable', 'title', 'pupil'. Under French +influence 'disciple' follows their example. In longer words the usual +shortenings are made, as in 'frivolous', 'ridiculous'. The older +words in _-ulo_ change the suffix into _-le_, as 'uncle', 'maniple', +'tabernacle', 'conventicle', 'receptacle', 'panicle'. Later words +retain the _u_, as 'vestibule', 'reticule', 'molecule'. + +STEMS IN -NO. The many words of this class are a grief to the +classifier, who seeks in vain for reasons. Thus 'german' and 'germane' +have the same source and travelled, it seems, by the same road through +France. The Latin _hyacinth[)i]nus_ and _adamant[)i]nus_ are parallel +words, yet Milton has 'hyacinthin' for the one and 'adamantine' for +the other. One classification goes a little way. Thus 'human' and +'urban' must have come through French, 'humane' and 'urbane' direct +from Latin. On the other hand while 'meridian' and 'quartan' are +French, 'publican', 'veteran', and 'oppidan' are Latin. Words with +a long _i_, if they came early through France, shorten the vowel, +as 'doctrine', 'discipline', 'medicine', and 'masculine', while +'genuine', though a later word, followed them, but 'anserine' and +'leonine' did not. Disyllables seem to prefer the stress on the +ultima, as 'divine', 'supine', but even these are not consistent. Some +critics would scan Cassio's words + + The dívine Desdemona, + +though Shakespeare nowhere else has this stress, while Shelley has. +Shelley, too, has + + She cannot know how well the súpine slaves + Of blind authority read the truth of things. + +The grammatical term, too, is 'súpine'. Later introductions also have +this stress, as 'bóvine', 'cánine', 'équine'. The last word is not +always understood. At any rate Halliwell-Phillips, referring to a +well-known story of Shakespeare's youth, says that the poet probably +attended the theatre 'in some equine capacity'. As it is agreed that +'bovine' and 'equine' lengthen the former vowel, we ought by analogy +to say 'c[=a]nine', as probably most people do. Words of more than two +syllables have the stress on the antepenultima and the vowel is short, +as in 'libertine', 'adulterine', but of course '[=u]terine'. When +heavy consonants bring the stress on to the penultima, the _i_ is +shortened, as in 'clandest[)i]n(e)', 'intest[)i]n(e)', and so in like +disyllables, as 'doctr[)i]n(e)'. The modern words 'morphin(e)' and +'strychnin(e)', coined, the one from Morpheus and the other from the +Greek name of the plant known to botanists as _Withania somnifera_, +correctly follow 'doctrine' in shortening the _i_, though another +pronunciation is sometimes heard. + +STEMS IN -TUDIN. These shorten the antepenultima, as 'plenitude', +'solitude', with the usual exceptions, such as 'fortitude'. + +STEMS IN -TION. These words retain the suffix, which in early days +was disyllabic, as it sometimes is in Shakespeare, for instance in +Portia's + + Before a friend of this descriptión + Shall lose a hair through Bassanio's fault. + +Thus they came under the 'alias' rule, and what is now the penultimate +vowel is long unless it be _i_. Examples are 'nation', 'accretion', +'emotion', 'solution', while _i_ is shortened in 'petition', +'munition', and the like, and left short in 'admonition' and +others. In military use an exception is made by 'ration', but the +pronunciation is confined to one sense of the word, and is new at +that. I remember old soldiers of George III who spoke of 'r[=a]tions'. +Perhaps the ugly change is due to French influence. + +Originally the adjectives from these words must have lengthened the +fourth vowel from the end long, as n[=a]t[)i][)o]nal, but when _ti_ +became _sh_ they came to follow the rule of Latin trisyllables in our +pronunciation. + +STEMS IN -IC. Of these words we have a good many, both Latin and +Greek. Those that came direct keep the stress on the vowel which was +antepenultimate and is in English penultimate, and this vowel is short +whatever its original quantity. Examples are 'aquatic', 'italic', +'Germanic'. Words that came through French threw the stress back, as +'lúnatic'. Skeat says that 'fanatic' came through French, but he can +hardly be right, for the pronunciation 'fánatic' is barely three score +years old. There is no inverted stress in Milton's + + Fanátic Egypt and her priests. + +As for 'unique' it is a modern borrowing from French, and of late +'ántique' or 'ántic', as Shakespeare has it, has followed in one of +its senses the French use. It is a pity in face of Milton's + + With mask and ántique Pageantry, + +and it obscures the etymological identity of 'antique' and 'antic', +but the old pronunciation is irredeemable. At least the new avoids the +homophonic inconvenience. + +Greek words of this class used as adjectives mostly follow the +same rule, as 'sporadic', 'dynamic', 'pneumatic', 'esoteric', +'philanthropic', 'emetic', 'panegyric'. As nouns the earlier +introductions threw the stress back, as 'heretic', 'arithmetic', +but later words follow the adjectives, as 'emetic', 'enclitic', +'panegyric'. As for 'politic', which is stressed as we stress both by +Shakespeare and by Milton, it must be under French influence, though +Skeat seems to think that it came straight from Latin. + +STEMS IN -OS. These words agree in being disyllabic, but otherwise +they are a tiresome and quarrelsome people. For their diversity in +spelling some can make a defence, since 'horror', 'pallor', 'stupor' +came straight from Latin, but 'tenor', coming through French, should +have joined hands with 'colour', 'honour', 'odour'. The short vowel is +inevitable in 'horror' and 'pallor', the long in 'ardour', 'stupor', +'tumour'. The rest are at war, 'clamour', 'colour', 'honour', +'dolour', 'rigour', 'squalor', 'tenor', 'vigour' in the short +legion, 'favour', 'labour', 'odour', 'vapour' in the long. Their +camp-followers ending in -ous are under their discipline, so that, +while 'cl[)a]morous', 'r[)i]gorous', 'v[)i]gorous' agree with +the general rule, '[=o]dorous' makes an exception to it. All +the derivatives of _favor_ are exceptions to the general rule, +for 'favourite' and 'favorable' keep its long _a_. Of course +'l[)a]b[=o]rious' is quite in order, and so is 'v[)a]pid'. + +STEMS IN -TOR AND -SOR. These words, when they came through French, +threw the stress back and shortened the penultimate, _[=o]r[=a]torem_ +becoming _orateur_, and then '[)o]r[)a]tor', with the stress on the +antepenultimate. Others of the same type are 'auditor', 'competitor', +'senator', and Shelley has + + The sister-pest, congrégator of slaves, + +while 'amateur' is borrowed whole from French and stresses its ultima. +Trisyllables of course shorten the first vowel, as 'cr[)e]ditor', +'j[)a]nitor'. Polysyllables follow the stress of the verbs; thus +'ágitate' gives 'ágitator' and 'compóse' gives 'compósitor'. To the +first class belongs 'circulator', 'educator', 'imitator', 'moderator', +'negotiator', 'prevaricator', with which 'gladiator' associates +itself; to the second belongs 'competitor'. Words which came straight +from Latin keep the stress of the Latin nominative, as 'creator', +'spectator', 'testator', 'coadjutor', 'assessor', to which in Walton's +honour must be added 'Piscator' and 'Venator'. On 'curator' he who +decides does so at his peril. On one occasion Eldon from the Bench +corrected Erskine for saying 'cúr[)a]tor'. 'Cur[=a]tor, Mr. Erskine, +cur[=a]tor.' 'I am glad', was the reply, 'to be set right by so +eminent a sen[=a]tor and so eloquent an or[=a]tor as your Lordship.' +Neither eminent lawyer knew much about it, but each was so far right +that he stuck to the custom of his country. On other grounds Erskine +might be thought to have committed himself to 'tést[)a]tor', if not +quite to the 'testy tricks' of Sally in Mrs. Gaskell's 'Ruth'. + +STEMS IN -ERO AND -URO. Adjectives of this type keep the Latin stress, +which thus falls on the ultima, and shorten or obscure the penultimate +vowel, as 'mature', 'obscure', 'severe', 'sincere', but of course +'[=a]ustere'. Of like form though of other origin is 'secure'. Nouns +take an early stress, as 'áperture', 'sépulture', 'líterature', +'témperature', unless two mutes obstruct, as in 'conjécture'. Of the +disyllables 'nature' keeps a long penultima, while 'figure' has it +short, not because of the Latin quantity, but because of the French. + +The lonely word 'mediocre' lengthens its first vowel by the 'alias' +rule and also stresses it. Whether the penultima has more than a +secondary stress is a matter of dispute. + +STEMS IN -ARI. These words have the stress on the antepenultima, +which they shorten, as in 'secular' or keep short as in 'jocular', +'familiar', but of course 'pec[=u]liar'. + + +_ON CERTAIN GREEK WORDS._ + +It will have been seen that Greek words are usually treated as Latin. +Thus 'crisis' lengthens the penultima under the 'apex' rule, while +'critical' has it short under the general rule of polysyllables. +Other examples of lengthening are 'bathos', 'pathos', while the long +quantity is of course kept in 'colon' and 'crasis'. For the 'alias' +rule we may quote '[=a]theist', 'cryptog[=a]mia', 'h[=o]meopathy', +'heterog[=e]neous', 'pandem[=o]nium', while the normal shortenings +are found in 'an[)o]nymous', 'eph[)e]meral', 'pand[)e]monium', +'[)e]r[)e]mite'. Ignorance of English usage has made some editors +flounder on a line of Pope's: + + Yes, or we must renounce the Stagirite. + +The birthplace of Aristotle was of course Stag[=i]ra or, as it is now +fashionable to transcribe it, Stageira, as Pope doubtless knew, but +the editors who accuse him of a false quantity in Greek are on the +contrary themselves guilty of one in English. The penultima in English +is short whether it was long or, as in 'dynamite' and 'malachite', +short in Greek. + +There is, however, one distinct class of Greek words in which the +Latin rule is not followed. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries +there were scholars who rightly or wrongly treated the Greek accent as +a mark of stress. It is clear that this habit led to an inability to +maintain a long quantity in an unstressed syllable. Shakespeare must +have learnt his little Greek from a scholar who had this habit, for he +writes 'Andrón[)i]cus' and also + + I am misánthr[)o]pos and hate mankind. + +Of course all scholars shortened the first vowel of the word, and +doubtless Shakespeare shortened also the third. Busby also thus +spoke Greek with the result that Dryden in later life sometimes +wrote epsilon instead of eta and also spoke of 'Cleoménes' and +'Iphig[=e]n[)i]a'. As a boy at Westminster he wrote + + Learn'd, Vertuous, Pious, Great, and have by this + An universal Metempsuchosis. + +Macaulay with an ignorance very unusual in him rebuked his nephew for +saying 'metamórph[)o]sis', and Dr. Johnson, had he been living, would +have rebuked Macaulay. For the sake of our poets we ought to save +'apothé[)o]sis', which is in some danger. Garth may perhaps be +forgotten, + + Allots the prince of his celestial line + An Apotheosis and rights divine, + +but 'Rejected Addresses' should still carry weight. In the burlesque +couplet, ascribed in the first edition to the younger Colman and +afterwards transferred to Theodore Hook, we have + + That John and Mrs. Bull from ale and tea-houses + May shout huzza for Punch's apotheosis. + +It need hardly be said that 'tea-houses' like 'grandfathers' has the +stress on the antepenultimate. + +There are other words of Greek origin which now break the rules, +though I believe the infringement to be quite modern. First we have +the class beginning with _proto_. It can hardly be doubted that our +ancestors followed rule and said 'pr[)o]tocol', and 'pr[)o]totype', +and I suspect also 'pr[)o]tomartyr'. There seems, however, to be +a general agreement nowadays to keep the Greek omega. As for +'protagonist' the word is so technical and is often so ludicrously +misunderstood that writers on the Greek drama would do well to retain +the Greek termination and say 'protagonistes'; for 'protagonist' is +very commonly mistaken and used for the opposite of 'antagonist'. + +Next come words beginning with _hypo_ or _hyph_. In a disyllable the +vowel is long by the 'apex' rule, as in 'hyphen'. In longer words +it should be short. So once it was, and we still say 'hypocaust', +'hypocrit', 'hypochondria' (whence 'hypped'), 'hypothesis', and +others, but a large group of technical and scientific words seems +determined to have a long _y_. It looks as though there were a belief +that _y_ is naturally long, though the French influence which gives us +'t[=y]rant' does not extend to 'tyranny'. I do not know what Mr. Hardy +calls his poem, but I hope he follows the old use and calls it 'The +D[)y]nasts'. It might be thought that 'd[)y]nasty' was safe, but it +is not. Some modern words like 'dynamite' have been misused from their +birth. + +Another class begins with _hydro-_ from the Greek word for water. None +of them seem to be very old, but probably 'hydraulic' began life with +a short _y_. Surely Mrs. Malaprop, when she meant 'hysterics' and said +'hydrostatics', must have used the short _y_. Of course 'hydra' which +comes from the same root follows the 'apex' rule. + +Words beginning with _hyper-_ seem nowadays always to have a long _y_ +except that one sometimes hears 'h[)y]perbole' and 'h[)y]perbolical'. +Of course both in _hypo-_ and in _hyper-_ the vowel is short in Greek, +so that here at least the strange lengthening cannot be ascribed to +the Grecians. The false theory of a long _y_ has not affected 'cynic' +or 'cynical', while 'Cyril' has been saved by being a Christian +name. We may yet hope to retain _y_ short in 'cylinder', 'cynosure', +'lycanthropy', 'mythology', 'pyramid', 'pyrotechnic', 'sycamore', +'synonym', 'typical'. As for 'h[=y]brid' it seems as much a caprice +as '[=a]crid', a pronunciation often heard. Though 'acrid' is a false +formation it ought to follow 'vivid' and 'florid'. The 'alias' rule +enforces a long _y_ in 'hygiene' and 'hygienic'. + +On the matter of Greek names the lettern and the pulpit are grievous +offenders. Once it was not so. The clergymen of the old type and +the scholars of the Oxford Retrogression said T[)i]m[=o]th[)e][)u]s, +because they had a sense of English and followed, consciously or +unconsciously, the 'alias' rule. If there was ever an error, it was +on the lips of some illiterate literate who made three syllables of +the word. Now it seems fashionable to say T[=i]m[)o]th[)e][)u]s. The +literate was better than this, for he at least had no theory, and +frank ignorance is to be forgiven. It is no shame to a man not to know +that the second _i_ in 'Villiers' is as mute as that in 'Parliament' +or that Bolingbroke's name began with Bull and ended with brook, but +when ignorance constructs a theory it is quite another matter. The +etymological theory of pronunciation is intolerable. Etymology was +a charming nymph even when men had but a distant acquaintance with +her, and a nearer view adds to her graces; but when she is dragged +reluctant from her element she flops like a stranded mermaid. The +curate says 'Deuteronómy', and on his theory ought to say 'económy' +and 'etymológy'. When Robert Gomery--why not give the reverend +poetaster his real if less elegant name--published his once popular +work, every one called it 'The Omnípresence of the Deïty', and Shelley +had already written + + And, as I look'd, the bright omnípresence + Of morning through the orient cavern flowed. + +It is true that Ken a century earlier had committed himself to + + Thou while below wert yet on high + By Omniprésent Deity, + +and later Coleridge, perhaps characteristically, had sinned with + + There is one Mind, one omniprésent Mind, + +but neither the bishop nor the poet would have said 'omniscíence', or +'omnipótence'. + +Another word to show signs of etymological corruption is +'[)e]volution'. It seems to have been introduced as a technical term +of the art of war, and of course, like 'd[)e]volution', shortened +the _e_. The biologists first borrowed it and later seem desirous of +corrupting it. Perhaps they think of such words as '[=e]gress', but +the long vowel is right in the stressed penultimate. + +One natural tendency in English runs strongly against etymology. +This is the tendency to throw the stress back, which about a century +ago turned 'contémplate' into 'cóntemplate' and somewhat later +'illústrate' into 'íllustrate'. Shakespeare and Milton pronounced +'instinct' as we pronounce 'distinct' and 'aspect' as we pronounce +'respect'. Thus Belarius is made to say + + 'Tis wonder + That an invisible instínct should frame them + To royalty unlearn'd, + +and Milton has + + By this new felt attraction and instinct, + +and also + + In battailous aspéct and neerer view. + +The retrogression of the stress is in these instances well +established, and we cannot quarrel with it; but against some very +recent instances a protest may be made. One seems to be a corruption +of the War. In 1884 the _N.E.D._ recognized no pronunciation of it +save 'allý', as in Romeo's + + This gentleman, the prince's neer Alie. + +The late Mr. B.B. Rogers in his translations of Aristophanes has of +course no other pronunciation. His verses are too good to be spoiled +by what began as a vulgarism. Another equally recent vulgarism, not +recognized by the _N.E.D._ and bad enough to make George Russell turn +in his grave, is 'mágazine' for 'magazíne'. It is not yet common, but +such vulgarisms are apt to climb. + +In times not quite so recent the word 'prophecy' has changed, not +indeed its stress, but the quantity of its final vowel. When Alford +wrote 'The Queen's English', every one lengthened the last vowel, as +in the verb, nor do I remember any other pronunciation in my boyhood. +Now the _N.E.D._ gives the short vowel only. Alford to his own +satisfaction accounted for the long vowel by the diphthong _ei_ of +the Greek. It is to be feared that his explanation would involve +'dynast[=y]' and 'polic[=y]', even if it did not oblige us to turn +'Pompey' into 'Pomp[=y]'. In this case it may be suspected that +the noun was assimilated to the verb, which follows the analogy of +'magnify' and 'multiply'. The voice of the people which now gives +us 'prophec[)y]' seems here to have felt the power of analogy and +assuredly will prevail. + + +_ON PROPER NAMES._ + +It is to be hoped that except in reading Latin and Greek texts we +shall keep to the traditional pronunciation of proper names as it +is enshrined in our poetry and other literature. We must continue to +lengthen the stressed penultimate vowel in Athos, Cato, Draco, Eros, +Hebrus, Lichas, Nero, Otho, Plato, Pylos, Remus, Samos, Titus, Venus, +and the many other disyllables wherein it was short in the ancient +tongues. On the other hand we shall shorten the originally long +stressed antepenultimate vowel in Brasidas, Euripides, Icarus, +Lavinia, Lucilius, Lydia, Nicias, Onesimus, Pegasus, Pyramus, Regulus, +Romulus, Scipio, Sisyphus, Socrates, Thucydides, and many more. + +Quin, and the actors of his day, used to give to the first vowel in +'Cato' the sound of the _a_ in 'father'. They probably thought that +they were Italianizing such names. In fact their use was neither Latin +nor English. They were like the men of to-day who speak of the town +opposite Dover as 'Cally', a name neither French nor English. A town +which once sent members to the English Parliament has a right to an +English name. Prior rhymed it with 'Alice' and Browning has + + When Fortune's malice + Lost her Calais. + +Shakespeare, of course, spelt it 'Callis', and this form, which was +first evicted by Pope, whom other editors servilely followed, ought +to be restored to Shakespeare's text. In the pronunciation of Cato the +stage regained the English diphthong in the mouth of Garrick, whose +good sense was often in evidence. It is recorded that his example +was not at once followed in Scotland or Ireland. If there was any +Highlander on the stage it may be hoped that he gave to the vowel the +true Latin sound as it appears in 'Mactavish'. + +A once well-known schoolmaster, a correspondent of Conington's, had +a daughter born to him whom in his unregenerate days he christened +Rosa. At a later time he became a purist in quantities, and then he +shortened the _o_ and took the voice out of the _s_ and spoke of her +and to her as Rossa. The mother and the sisters refused to acknowledge +what they regarded as a touch of shamrock and clung persistently +to the English flower. The good gentleman did not call his son +Sol[=o]mon,[2] though this is the form which ought to be used by +those who turn the traditional English 'Elk[)a]nah' into 'Elk[=a]nah', +'Ab[)a]na' into 'Ab[=a]na', and 'Zeb[)u]lun' into 'Zeb[=u]lun'. If +they do not know + + Poor Elk[)a]nah, all other troubles past, + For bread in Smithfield dragons hiss'd at last, + +yet at least they ought to know + + Of Abb[)a]na and Pharphar, lucid streams. + +The malison of Milton on their heads! If the translators of the Bible +had foreseen 'Zeb[=u]lun', they would have chosen some other word than +'princes' to avoid the cacophony of 'the princes of Zeb[=u]lun'. + +[Footnote 2: But pedantry would not suggest this. The New Testament +has [Greek: Solomôn], and the Latin Christian poets have the _o_ short. +True, the Vatican Septuagint has [Greek: Salômôn], but there the vowel +of the first syllable is _a_.--H.B.] + +That these usages were familiar is evident from the pronunciation of +proper, especially Biblical, names. Thus 'B[=a]bel' and 'B[)a]bylon', +'N[=i]nus' and 'N[)i]neveh', were spoken as unconsciously as +M[=i]chael' and 'M[)i]chaelmas'. Nobody thought of asking the quantity +of the Hebrew vowels before he spoke of 'C[=a]leb' and 'B[=a]rak', of +'G[)i]deon' and 'G[)i]lead', of 'D[)e]borah' and 'Ab[)i]melech', of +'[=E]phraim' and 'B[=e]lial'. The seeming exceptions can be explained. +Thus the priest said 'H[)e]rod' because in the Vulgate he read +'H[)e]rodes', but there was no Greek or Latin form to make him say +anything else than 'M[=e]roz', 'P[=e]rez', 'S[=e]rah', 'T[=e]resh'. +He said '[)A]dam' because, although the Septuagint and other books +retained the bare form of the name, there were other writings in +which the name was extended by a Latin termination. There was no like +extension to tempt him to say anything but 'C[=a]desh', '[=E]dom', +'J[=a]don', 'N[=a]dab'. I must admit my inability to explain +'Th[)o]mas', but doubtless there is a reason. The abbreviated form was +of course first 'Th[)o]m' and then 'T[)o]m'. Possibly the pet name has +claimed dominion over the classical form. As in the _herba impia_ +of the early botanists, these young shoots sometimes refuse to be +'trash'd for overtopping'. + +A story is told of an eccentric Essex rector. He was reading in +church the fourth chapter of Judges, and after 'Now D[)e]borah, a +prophetess', suddenly stopped, not much to the astonishment of +the rustics, for they knew his ways. Then he went on 'Deb[)o]rah? +Deb[)o]rah? Deb[=o]rah! Now Deb[=o]rah, a prophetess', and so on. +Probably a freak of memory had reminded him that the letter was +omega in the Septuagint. It will be remembered that Miss Jenkyns in +_Cranford_ liked her sister to call her Deb[=o]rah, 'her father having +once said that the Hebrew name ought to be so pronounced', and it will +not be forgotten that the good rector was too sound a scholar to read +'Deb[=o]rah' at the lettern. + +An anecdote of Burgon's is to the point. He had preached in St. Mary's +what he regarded as an epoch-making sermon, and afterwards he walked +home to Oriel with Hawkins, the famous Provost. He looked for comment +and hoped for praise, but the Provost's only remark was, 'Why do +you say Emm[=a]us?' 'I don't know; isn't it Emm[=a]us?' 'No, no; +Emm[)a]us, Emm[)a]us.' When Hawkins was young, in the days of George +III, every one said Emmaus, and in such matters he would say, 'I will +have no innovations in my time.' On the King's lips the phrase, as +referring to politics, was foolish, but Hawkins used it with sense. + +PS.--I had meant to cite an anecdote of Johnson. As he walked in the +Strand, a man with a napkin in his hand and no hat stept out of a +tavern and said, 'Pray, Sir, is it irréparable or irrepáirable that +one should say?'--'The last, I think, Sir, for the adjective ought to +follow the verb; but you had better consult my dictionary than me, +for that was the result of more thought than you will now give me time +for.' The dictionary rightly gives _irréparable_, and both the rule +and example of the Doctor's _obiter dicta_ (literally _obiter_) are +wrong. + +J.S. + + + + +MISCELLANEOUS NOTES AND CORRESPONDENCE + + * * * * * + +ADDENDA TO HOMOPHONES IN TRACT II + + +Several correspondents complain of the incompleteness of the list +of Homophones in Tract II. The object of that list was to convince +readers of the magnitude of the mischief, and the consequent +necessity for preserving niceties of pronunciation: evidence of its +incompleteness must strengthen its plea. The following words may be +added; they are set here in the order of the literary alphabet. + +Add to Table I (p. 7) + + band, [^1] _a tie_, [^2] _a company_. + + bend, [^1] _verb_, [^2] _heraldic sub._ + + bay, [^1] _tree_, [^2] _arm of sea_, [^3] _window_, + [^4] _barking of dog_, and '_at bay_', + [^5] _a dam_, [^6] _of antler_, [^7] _a colour_. + + blaze, [^1] _of flame_, [^2] _to sound forth_. + + bluff, [^1] _adj. & sub. = broad = fronted_, + [^2] _blinker_, [^3] _sub. and v. confusing_ [^1] _and_ [^2]. + + boom, [^1] _to hum_, [^2] _= beam_. + + cant, [^1] _whine_, [^2] _to tilt_. + + chaff, [^1] _of wheat_, [^2] _= chafe (slang)_. + + cove, [^1] _a recess_, [^2] _= chap (slang)_. + + file, [^1] _string_, [^2] _rasp_, [^3] _= to defile_. + + grave, [^1] _sub._, [^2] _adj._ + + hind, [^1] _fem. of stag_, [^2] _a peasant_, [^3] _adj. of behind_. + + limb, [^1] _member_, [^2] _edge_, [^3] limn. + + limber, [^1] _shaft of cart (verb in artillery)_, + [^2] _naut. subs._, [^3] _adj. pliant_. + + loom, [^1] _subs._, [^2] _v._ + + nice, gneiss. + + ounce, [^1] _animal_, [^2] _a weight_. + + plash, [^1] _= pleach_, [^2] _a puddle_. + + port, [^1] _demeanour, & military v._, + [^2] _haven_, [^3] _gate & naut.= port-hole_, + [^4] _= larboard_, [^5] _a wine_. + + shingle, [^1] _a wooden tile_, [^2] _gravel_, + [^3] (_in pl._) _a disease_. + + shrub, [^1] _a bush_, [^2] _a drink_. + + smack, [^1] _a sounding blow_, [^2] _a fishing boat_, [^3] _taste_. + + throw, throe. + +Also note that _so_ should be added to _sew, sow_, and that the words +_leech_, _leach_, are not sufficiently credited with etymological +variety: [see below p. 33]. + +To Table II add + + when, _wen_. + +To Table VIII + +The following words, the absence of which has been noted, are not true +homophones:-- + + crack + fool + fume + gentle + interest + palm + stem + trip + +To Table IX add + + must [^1] _obs? new wine_, [^2] _verb._ + +To Shakespearean obsoletes p. 27 add + + limn, _lost in_ limb. + + * * * * * + + +THE SKILFUL LEECH + +The Poet Laureate has pointed out that several useful words have been +lost to the English language because their identity in sound with +other words renders it impossible to use them without the risk either +of being misunderstood or of calling up undesirable associations. +It is owing to this cause that English--or, at least, the English of +Great Britain--has no word that can correctly be used as a general +designation for a member of the healing profession. In America, I +believe, the word is 'physician'; but in England that appellation +belongs to one branch of the profession exclusively. The most usual +term here is 'doctor'; but the M.D. rightly objects to the application +of this title to his professional brother who has no degree; and +in a university town to say that John Smith is a doctor would be +inconveniently ambiguous. 'Medical man' is cumbrous, and has the +further disadvantage (in these days) of not being of common gender. +Now the lack of any proper word for a meaning so constantly needing +to be expressed is certainly a serious defect in modern (insular) +English. The Americans have some right to crow over us here; but their +'physician' is a long word; and though it has been good English in +the sense of _medicus_ for six hundred years, it ought by etymology +to mean what _physicien_ does in French, and _physicist_ in modern +English. Our ancestors were better off in this respect than either we +or the Americans. The only native word to denote a practiser of the +healing art is _leech_, which is better than the foreign 'physician' +because it is shorter. It was once a term of high dignity: Chaucer +could apply it figuratively to God, as the healer of souls; and even +in the sixteenth century a poet could address his lady as 'My sorowes +leech'. Why can we not so use it now? Why do we not speak of 'The +Royal College of Leeches'? Obviously, because a word of the same form +happens to be the name of an ugly little animal of disgusting habits. +If I were to introduce my medical attendant to a friend with the +words 'This is my leech', the gentleman (or lady) so presented would +think I was indulging in the same sort of pleasantry as is used when +a coachman is called a 'whip'; and he (or she) would probably not +consider the joke to be in the best of taste. Of course all educated +people know that it was once not unusual to speak of a man of medicine +as a 'leech'; but probably there are many who imagine that this +designation was a disparaging allusion to the man's tool of trade, and +that it could be applied only to inferior members of the profession. +The ancient appellation of the healer is so far obsolete that if I +were to answer a question as to a man's profession with the words 'Oh, +he is a leech', there would be some risk of being misunderstood to +mean that he was a money-lender. + +Etymologists generally have regarded the name of the bloodsucking +animal as the same word with _leech_ a physician, the assumption being +that the animal received its name from its use as a remedial agent. +But the early forms, both in English and Low German, show that the +words are originally unconnected. The English for _medicus_ was in +the tenth century _l['æ]ce_ or _léce_, and in the thirteenth century +_leche_; the word for _sanguisuga_ was in the tenth century _lyce_, +and in the thirteenth century _liche_. According to phonetic law the +latter word should have become _litch_ in modern English; but it very +early underwent a punning alteration which made it homophonous with +the ancient word for physician. The unfortunate consequence is that +the English language has hopelessly lost a valuable word, for which it +has never been able to find a satisfactory substitute. + +H.B. + + + + +DIFFERENTIATION OF HOMOPHONES + + +On this very difficult question the attitude of a careful English +speaker is shown in the following extract from a letter addressed to +us: + +METAL, METTLE: AND PRINCIPAL, PRINCIPLE + +'I find that I do not _naturally_ distinguish _metal_ and _mettle_ +in pronunciation, tho' when there is any danger of ambiguity I say +_metal_ for the former and _met'l_ for the latter; and I should +probably do so (without thinking about it) in a public speech. In my +young days the people about me usually pronounced _met'l_ for both. +Theoretically I think the distinction is a desirable one to make; +the fact that the words are etymologically identical seems to me +irrelevant. The words are distinctly two in modern use: when we talk +of _mettle_ (meaning spiritedness) there is in our mind no thought +whatever of the etymological sense of the word, and the recollection +of it, if it occurred, would only be disturbing. So I intend in future +to pronounce metal as _met[e]l_ (when I don't forget). And I am not +sure that _met[e]l_ is, strictly speaking, a "spelling-pronunciation": +It is possible that the difference in spelling originated in a +difference of pronunciation, not the other way about. For _metal_ in +its literal sense was originally a scientific word, and in that sense +may have been pronounced carefully by people who would pronounce +it carelessly when they used it in a colloquial transferred sense +approaching to slang. + +'The question of _principal_ and _principle_ is different. When I was +young, educated people in my circle always, I believe, distinguished +them; so to this day when I hear principal pronounced as principle it +gives me a squirm, tho' I am afraid nearly everybody does it now. That +the words are etymologically distinct does not greatly matter; it is +of more importance that I have sometimes been puzzled to know which +word a speaker meant; if I remember right, I once had to ask. + +'It would be worth while to distinguish _flower_ and _flour_ (which +originally, like _metal_ and _mettle_, were the same word); yet in +practice it is not easy to make the difference audible. The homophony +is sometimes inconvenient.' + +CORRECTION TO TRACT II + +On p. 37 of TRACT II the words 'the Anglo-prussian society which Mr. +Jones represents' have given offence and appear to be inaccurate. The +German title of the series in which Jones's Dictionary is one has the +following arrangement of words facing the English title: + +HERAUSGEGEBEN + +UND + +DER "ASSOCIATION PHONÉTIQUE INTERNATIONALE" GEWIDMET + +VON + +H. MICHAELIS, + +and this misled me. I am assured that, though the dictionary may +be rightly described as Anglo-Prussian, the Phonetic Association is +Gallo-Scandinavian. In behalf of the S.P.E. I apologize to the A. +Ph. I. for my mistake which has led one of its eminent associates to +accuse me of bearing illwill towards the Germans. The logic of that +reproach baffles me utterly. + +[R.B.] + + * * * * * + +SOME LEXICAL MATTERS + + +FAST = QUICK OR FIRM + + +'An Old Cricketer' writes: + +'After reading your remarks on the ambiguity of the word _fast_ (Tract +III, p. 12) I read in the report of a Lancashire cricket match that +_Makepeace was the only batsman who was fast-footed_. But for the +context and my knowledge of the game I should have concluded that +Makepeace kept his feet immovably on the crease; but the very opposite +was intended. At school we used to translate [Greek: podas +ôkus Achilleus] "swift-footed Achilles", and I took that to mean that +Achilles was a sprinter. I suppose _quick-footed_ would be the epithet +for Makepeace.' + +SPRINTER is a good word, though _Sprinting Achilles_ could not be +recommended. + + +BRATTLE + +A correspondent from Newcastle writes advocating the recognition +of the word _brattle_ as descriptive of thunder. It is a good old +echo-word used by Dunbar and Douglas and Burns and by modern English +writers. It is familiar through the first stanza of Burns's poem 'To a +Mouse'. + + Wee sleekit cow'rin tim'rous beastie, + O what a panic's in thy breastie. + Thou need na start awa sae hasty + Wi' bickering brattle.... + +which is not suggestive of thunder. The _N.E.D._ explains this as 'to +run with brattling feet, to scamper'. + +In Burns's 'A Winter Night', it is the noisy confusion of _biting +Boreas_ in the bare trees and bushes: + + I thought me on the ourie cattle + Or silly sheep, wha bide this brattle + O' winter war. + +It is possible that _brattle_ has fallen into disuse through too +indiscriminate application. After Burns's famous poem the word can +establish itself only in the sense of a scurrying dry noise: it is too +small for thunder. + +We would call attention to the principle involved in this judgement, +for it is one of the main objects of our society to assist and guide +Englishmen in the use of their language by fully exposing the facts +that should determine their practice. Every word has its history, +and no word can prosper in the speech or writing of those who do not +respect its inherited and unalterable associations; these cannot be +got rid of by ignoring them. Littré in the preface to his dictionary +claims for it this pre-eminent quality of usefulness, that it will +enable his countrymen to speak and write good French by acquainting +them with historic tradition, and he says that it was enthusiasm for +this one purpose that sustained him in his great work. Its object was +to harmonize the present use of the language with the past usage, in +order that the present usage may possess all the fullness, richness, +and certitude which it can have, and which naturally belong to it. His +words are: 'Avant tout, et pour ramener à une idée mère ce qui va être +expliqué dans la _Préface_, je dirai, définissant ce dictionnaire, +qu'il embrasse et combine l'usage présent de la langue et son usage +passé, afin de donner à l'usage présent toute la plénitude et la +sûreté qu'il comporte.' + +It is the intention of our society to offer only expert and +well-considered opinion on these literary matters, which are often +popularly handled in the newspapers and journals as fit subjects +for private taste and uninformed prejudice: and since the Oxford +Dictionary has done more fully for English what Littré did for French, +our task is comparatively easy. But experts cannot be expected, all of +them, to have the self-denying zeal of Émile Littré, and the worth of +our tracts will probably improve with the increase of our subscribers. + + +BICKER + +As Burns happens to use _bickering_ as his epithet for the mouse's +brattle, we may take this word as another illustration of Littré's +principle. The _N.E.D._ gives the original meaning as _skirmish_, and +quotes Shakespeare, + + If I longer stay + We shall begin our ancient bickerings, + +which a man transposing the third and fourth words might say to-day +without rising above colloquial speech; but there is another allied +signification which Milton has in + + Smoak and bickering flame; + +and this is followed by many later writers. It would seem therefore, +if the word is to have a special sense, that it must be focused in the +idea of something that both wavers and skirmishes, and this suggests +another word which caught our eye in the dictionary, that is + + +BRANGLE + +It is defined in the _N.E.D._ as 'a brawl, wrangle, squabble' and +marked _obsolete_. It seems to differ from its numerous synonyms by +the suggestion of what we call a muddle: that is an active wrangling +which has become inextricably confused. + + +SURVIVALS IN LANCASHIRE SPEECH + +Mr. Ernest Stenhouse sends us notes on Tract II, from which we extract +the following: + +'_Poll_ (= to cut the hair) is still familiar in Lancashire. _Tickle_ +(unstable) is obsolescent but not yet obsolete. As a child I often +heard _meterly_ (= moderately): e.g. _meterly fausse_ (? false) = +moderately cunning. It may still be in use. _Bout_ (= without = A.S. +butan) is commonly heard. + +'The words tabulated in Tract II, p. 34, and the following pairs are +not homophones in Lancashire: stork, stalk; pattern, patten; because +although the _r_ in stork and pattern is not trilled as in Scotland, +it is distinctly indicated by a modification of the preceding vowel, +somewhat similar to that heard in the _[(or]e_ words (p. 35). + +'Homophony may arise from a failure to make distinctions that are +recognized in P.S.P. Thus in Lancashire the diphthong sound in _flow_, +_snow_, _bone_, _coal_, _those_, &c., is very often pronounced as a +pure vowel (cf. French _eau_, _mot_): hence confusion arises between +_flow_ and _flaw_, _sow_ and _saw_, _coal_ and _call_: both these +vowel sounds tending to become indistinguishable from the French +_eau_.' + + +FEASIBLE + +_Feasible_ is a good example of a word which appears in danger of +being lost through incorrect and ignorant use. It can very well +happen that a word which is not quite comfortable may feel its way +to a useful place in defiance of etymology; and in such cases it is +pedantry to object to its instinctive vagaries. But _feasible_ is a +well-set comfortable word which is being ignorantly deprived of its +useful definite signification. In the following note Mr. Fowler puts +its case clearly, and his quotations, being typically illustrative of +the manner in which this sort of mischief comes about, are worthy of +attention. + +'With those who feel that the use of an ordinary word for an ordinary +notion does not do justice to their vocabulary or sufficiently exhibit +their cultivation, who in fact prefer the stylish to the working word, +_feasible_ is now a prime favourite. Its proper sense is "capable of +being done, accomplished, or carried out". That is, it means the same +as _possible_ in one of the latter's senses, and its true function +is to be used instead of _possible_ where that might be ambiguous. _A +thunderstorm is possible_ (but not _feasible_). Irrigation is possible +(or, indifferently, _feasible_). _A counter-revolution is possible_; +i.e., (a) one may for all we know happen, or (b) we can if we choose +bring one about; but, if _b_ is the meaning, _feasible_ is better than +_possible_ because it cannot properly bear sense _a_, and therefore +obviates ambiguity. + +'The wrong use of _feasible_ is that in which, by a slipshod +extension, it is allowed to have also the other sense of _possible_, +and that of _probable_. This is described by the highest authority +as "hardly a justifiable sense etymologically, and ... recognized +by no dictionary". It is however becoming very common; in all the +following quotations, it will be seen that the natural word would +be either _possible_ or _probable_, one of which should have been +chosen:--Continuing, Mr. Wood said: "I think it is very feasible that +the strike may be brought to an end this week, and it is a significant +coincidence that ...". / Witness said it was quite feasible that if he +had had night binoculars he would have seen the iceberg earlier. / We +ourselves believe that this is the most feasible explanation of the +tradition. / This would appear to offer a feasible explanation of the +scaffold puzzle.' + + +PROTAGONIST + +Mr. Sargeaunt (on p. 26) suggests that we might do well to keep the +full Greek form of this word, and speak and write _protagonistes_. +Familiarity with _Agonistes_ in the title of Milton's drama, where +it is correctly used as equivalent to 'mighty champion', would be +misleading, and the rejection of the English form 'protagonist' seems +otherwise undesirable. The following remarks by Mr. Fowler show that +popular diction is destroying the word; and if ignorance be allowed +its way we shall have a good word destroyed. + +'The word that has so suddenly become a prime favourite with +journalists, who more often than not make it mean champion or advocate +or defender, has no right whatever to any of those meanings, and +almost certainly owes them to the mistaking of the first syllable +(representing Greek [Greek: prôtos] "first") for [Greek: pro] "on +behalf of"--a mistake made easy by the accidental resemblance to +_antagonist_. "Accidental", since the Greek [Greek: agônistês] has +different meanings in the two words, in one "combatant", but in +the other "play-actor". The Greek [Greek: prôtagônistês] means the +actor who takes the chief part in a play--a sense readily admitting of +figurative application to the most conspicuous personage in any affair. +The deuteragonist and tritagonist take parts of second and third +importance, and to talk of several protagonists, or of a chief +protagonist or the like, is an absurdity. In the newspapers it is a +rarity to meet _protagonist_ in a legitimate sense; but two examples +of it are put first in the following collection. All the others are +outrages on this learned-sounding word, because some of them +distinguish between chief protagonists and others who are not chief, +some state or imply that there are more protagonists than one in an +affair, and the rest use _protagonist_ as a mere synonym for advocate. + +'Legitimate uses: _The "cher Halévy" who is the protagonist of the +amazing dialogue. / Marco Landi, the protagonist and narrator of a +story which is skilfully contrived and excellently told, is a fairly +familiar type of soldier of fortune._ + +'Absurd uses with _chief_, &c.: _The chief protagonist is a young +Nonconformist minister. / Unlike a number of the leading protagonists +in the Home Rule fight, Sir Edward Carson was not in Parliament +when.... / It presents a spiritual conflict, centred about its two +chief protagonists, but shared in by all its characters._ + +'Absurd plural uses: _One of the protagonists of that glorious fight +for Parliamentary Reform in 1866 is still actively among us. / One +of these immense protagonists must fall, and, as we have already +foreshadowed, it is the Duke. / By a tragic but rapid process of +elimination most of the protagonists have now been removed. / As on a +stage where all the protagonists of a drama assemble at the end of the +last act. / That letter is essential to a true understanding of +the relations of the three great protagonists at this period. / The +protagonists in the drama, which has the motion and structure of a +Greek tragedy_ (Fy! fy!--a Greek tragedy and protagonists?). + +'Confusions with _advocate_, &c.: _The new Warden is a strenuous +protagonist of that party in Convocation. / Mr ----, an enthusiastic +protagonist of militant Protestantism. / The chief protagonist on the +company's side in the latest railway strike, Mr ----. / It was a +happy thought that placed in the hands of the son of one of the great +protagonists of Evolution the materials for the biography of another. +/ But most of the protagonists of this demand have shifted their +ground. / As for what the medium himself or his protagonists may think +of them--for etymological purposes that is neither here nor there._ + +'Perhaps we need not consider the Greek scholar's feelings; he +has many advantages over the rest of us, and cannot expect that in +addition he shall be allowed to forbid us a word that we find useful. +Is it useful? or is it merely a pretentious blundering substitute for +words that are useful? _Pro-_ in _protagonist_ is not the opposite of +_anti-_; _-agonist_ is not the same as in _antagonist_; _advocate_ +and _champion_ and _defender_ and _combatant_ are better words for the +wrong senses given to _protagonist_; and _protagonist_ in its right +sense of _the_ (not _a_) chief actor in an affair has still work to do +if it could only be allowed to mind its own business.' + + * * * * * + + +AMERICAN APPRECIATION + +We are glad to reprint the following short extracts from the _New York +Times Book Review and Magazine_, September 26, 1920. + + +'THE CAMPAIGN FOR PURE ENGLISH + + 'Among those who joined it (the S.P.E.) immediately were + Arthur J. Balfour, A.C. Bradley, Austin Dobson, Thomas Hardy, + J.W. Mackail, Gilbert Murray, Mrs. Humphry Ward, and Mrs. + Wharton.... The rallying of these men and women of letters + was not more significant than the prompt adhesion of the + Professors of English in the various British Universities: + W.M. Dixon, Oliver Elton, E.S. Gordon, C.H. Herford, W.P. + Ker, G.C. Moore-Smith, F.W. Moorman, A. Quiller-Couch, George + Saintsbury, and H.C.K. Wyld.... + + 'There is a peril to the proper development of the language in + offensive affectations, in persistent pedantry, and in other + results of that comprehensive ignorance of the history of + English, which we find plentifully revealed in many of our + grammars. It is high time that men who love the language, who + can use it deftly and forcibly, and who are acquainted with + the principles and the processes of its growth, should raise + the standard of independence.... + + 'It is encouraging to realize that the atrophy of the + word-making habit is less obvious in the United States than + it is in Great Britain.... We cannot but regret that it is + not now possible to credit to their several inventors American + compounds of a delightful expressiveness--_windjammer, + loan-shark, scare-head_, and that more delectable + _pussy-footed_--all of them verbal creations with an + imaginative quality almost Elizabethan in its felicity, and + all of them examples of the purest English.... We Americans + made the compound _farm-hand_, and employ it in preference to + the British [English?] _agricultural labourer_. + + '_The attention of the officers of the society may be called + to the late Professor Lounsbury's lively and enlightening_ + History of the English Language, _and to Professor George + Philip Krapp's illuminating study of_ Modern English. + +BRANDER MATTHEWS.' + + * * * * * + + +REPORT + +Of the proceedings of the Society for the first year ending Xmas, +1920. + +The Society still remains governed by the small committee of its +original founders: the support of the public and the press has been +altogether satisfactory: the suggestions and programme which the +committee originally put forward have met with nothing but favourable +criticism; no opposition has been aroused, and we are therefore +encouraged to meet the numerous invitations that we have received from +all parts of the English-speaking world to make our activities more +widely known. The sale of the Tracts has been sufficient to pay their +expenses; and we are in this respect very much indebted to the Oxford +University Press for its generous co-operation; for it has enabled us +to offer our subscribers good workmanship at a reasonable price. The +publication of this Tract IV closes our first 'year': we regret that +the prevalent national disturbances have extended it beyond the solar +period, but the conditions render explanation and apology needless. + +Our list shows 188 members, and their names include many well-known +men of letters, Professors of Literature, Editors, Journalists, +and others interested in the history and present condition of the +language. Nineteen members sent donations (above 10s. 6d.) which +together amounted to about £40; and thirty-two sent subscriptions of +ten shillings for the supply of one year's publications. + +To these subscribers (whose names are printed in the list below) all +the four Tracts for this year have been sent: and it will appear that +since they might have bought the four Tracts for 7s. 6d., they have +made a donation of 2s. 6d. apiece to the funds of the Society. This +margin is very useful and we hope that they will renew their 10s. +subscription in advance for the ensuing year. That will ensure their +receiving the Society's papers as they are issued, and it will +much assist the machinery of publication. Also Members who have not +hitherto subscribed are now specially invited to do so. They can +judge of the Society's work, and can best support it in this way. +The publications of 1921 _will be sent as soon as issued to all such +subscribers_. + +Subscriptions may be sent to the Secretary, L. Pearsall Smith, 11 St. +Leonard's Terrace, Chelsea, London, S.W., to whom all communications +should be addressed, or they may be paid direct to 'Treasurer of +S.P.E.', Barclay's Bank, High Street, Oxford. + + * * * * * + + +LIST OF SUBSCRIBERS + + *+ Aikin, Dr. W.A., 66 Bedford Gardens. + * Bennett, Arnold, 80 Piccadilly. + Bottomley, Gordon, The Sheiling, Silverdale, Carnforth. + Brindley, H.H., 25 Madingly Road, Cambridge. + * Brown, Miss E.O., Bournstream, Wotton-under-Edge. + Carleton, Brig.-Gen. L.R., Holmdale, Grasmere. + * Case, Thomas, Corpus Christi College, Oxford. + Curtis, James, 179 Marylebone Road, N.W. 1. + Dixon, Prof. J. Main, Univ. S. California, Los Angeles. + Elliott, Rear-Adml. H.V., 13 South Road, Weston-super-Mare. + Fry, Miss Agnes, Failand House, nr. Bristol. + * Gainsford, W.D., Skendleby Hall, Spilsbury. + * Harman, Capt. H.A., D.S.O., King's College, Lagos, S. Nigeria. + Headlam, Rev. Stewart, Wavertree, St. Margaret-on-Thames. + * Henderson, T., Upumulo Napumulo, Natal. + Horniman, Miss A.E.F., 1h.* Montague Mansions, W. 1. + Hunt, Howard L., Univ. S. California, Los Angeles. + * Lacy, Miss H., Highbury Crescent, N. 5. + + Lawrence, A., 13 Norfolk Crescent, W. 2. + Lindsay, Prof. W.M., 5 Howard Place, St. Andrews. + Melland, E. Alport, Bakewell. + Morton, G.H., 13 Kimberley Terrace, Tredegar. + * Muirhead, L., Haseley Court, Wallingford. + * Nickerson, Rev. D., Newton-on-Ouse, York. + * O'May, J., c/o Messrs. Barker & Co., Singapore. + Partington, S., Sunny Brow, Eden Mount, Grange on Sands, Lancs. + * Pickering-Jones, J., West Africa House, Water Street, Liverpool. + Portal, Miss E., 82 Carlisle Mansions, Victoria Street, S.W. + * Pryor, Mrs., Lannock Manor, Stevenage, Herts. + Ramsden, William, Marshfield, Huddersfield. + Reade, H.V., 181 Queen's Gate, S.W. + Rieder, Madame A., Lyceum Club, 128 Piccadilly. + Robinson, Frances G., The Towers, Sneyd Park, nr. Bristol. + Samuel, Rt. Hon. Sir Herbert, 31 Porchester Terrace, Hyde Park. + Sampson, John, University Library, Liverpool. + Scrivener, Miss J., The Ladies' College, Cheltenham. + * Sheldon, E.W., 46 Park Avenue, New York. + Shepherd, Arthur, 46 Edwardes Square, W. 8. + * Strachey, Lady, 51 Gordon Square, W.C. + Teixeira de Mattos, A., 9 Cheltenham Terrace, S.W. 3. + Thompson, Rev. E.J., Wesleyan College, Bankura, Bengal. + * Tilley A., 2 Selwyn Gardens, Cambridge. + Warrington, T.C., High School, Leek, Staffs. + * Waterhouse, Mrs. T.C., Lomberdale Hall, Bakewell. + Wheeler, Horace L., Public Library, Back Bay, Boston, Mass. + Wigram, Col. Clive, 37 Chester Square, S.W. 1. + Wollaston, G.H., Flaxley Cottage, Flax Bourton. + + ++ The Ladies' College, Cheltenham. + ++ Queen's University, Belfast. + ++ Minnesota University. + ++ Princeton University. + +* Donors of above 10s. 6d. + ++ Subscribers for 1921. + +++ Universities, Colleges, or Libraries to which the issues of 1921 +will be sent without prepayment. + + +The secretary should be informed of any error in the above addresses, +and of any permanent change of address. + + +FINIS + + + + + + + + + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Society for Pure English Tract 4, by John Sargeaunt + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SOCIETY FOR PURE ENGLISH TRACT 4 *** + +***** This file should be named 15364-8.txt or 15364-8.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/1/5/3/6/15364/ + +Produced by David Starner, William Flis, and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team. + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +https://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +https://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at https://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit https://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including including checks, online payments and credit card +donations. To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + https://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. + +*** END: FULL LICENSE *** + |