initial commit of ebook 15364HEADmain

1 files changed, 2415 insertions, 0 deletions

diff --git a/15364.txt b/15364.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1a3d386
--- /dev/null
+++ b/15364.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,2415 @@
+Project Gutenberg's Society for Pure English Tract 4, by John Sargeaunt
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Society for Pure English Tract 4
+       The Pronunciation of English Words Derived from the Latin
+
+Author: John Sargeaunt
+
+Annotator:   H. Bradley
+
+
+Release Date: March 15, 2005 [EBook #15364]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SOCIETY FOR PURE ENGLISH TRACT 4 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by David Starner, William Flis, and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team.
+
+
+
+
+
+  Transcriber's Note: Phonetic characters are represented by the
+      following symbols:
+  [`x] = any letter "x" with grave accent
+  ['x] = any letter "x" with acute accent
+  [:x] = any letter "x" with superior double-dot (dieresis)
+  [^x] = any letter "x" with superior circumflex
+  [=x] = any letter "x" with superior macron
+  [)x] = any letter "x" with superior breve
+  [e] = inverted "e" or schwa
+  [ae], [oe] = ae, oe ligature characters
+  [=xy] = any pair of letters "xy" with joining macron, except
+  [=OE], [=ae] = OE, ae ligature characters with macron and
+  ['oe], ['ae] = oe, ae ligature characters with acute accent and
+  [)xy] = any pair of letters "xy" with joining breve, except
+  [)AE], [)ae], [)OE], [)oe] = AE, ae, OE, oe ligature characters
+          with breve
+  [^1] = raised "1", etc.
+
+
+
+
+_S.P.E. TRACT NO. IV_
+
+THE PRONUNCIATION OF ENGLISH WORDS DERIVED FROM THE LATIN
+
+BY JOHN SARGEAUNT
+
+WITH PREFACE AND NOTES BY H. BRADLEY
+
+CORRESPONDENCE & MISCELLANEOUS NOTES BY H.B., R.B., W.H.F., AND
+EDITORIAL
+
+
+_AT THE CLARENDON PRESS_ MDCCCCXX
+
+
+
+
+ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF ENGLISH WORDS DERIVED FROM LATIN
+
+
+[This paper may perhaps need a few words of introduction concerning
+the history of the pronunciation of Latin in England.
+
+The Latin taught by Pope Gregory's missionaries to their English
+converts at the beginning of the seventh century was a living
+language. Its pronunciation, in the mouths of educated people when
+they spoke carefully, was still practically what it had been in
+the first century, with the following important exceptions. 1. The
+consonantal _u_ was sounded like the _v_ of modern English, 2. The
+_c_ before front vowels (_e_, _i_, _o_, _[ae]_, _[oe]_), and the
+combinations _t[)i]_, _c[)i]_ before vowels, were pronounced _ts_. 3.
+The _g_ before front vowels had a sound closely resembling that of the
+Latin consonantal _i_. 4. The _s_ between vowels was pronounced like
+our _s_. 5. The combinations _[ae]_, _[oe]_ were no longer pronounced
+as diphthongs, but like the simple _e_. 6. The ancient vowel-quantities
+were preserved only in the penultima of polysyllables (where they
+determined the stress); in all other positions the original system of
+quantities had given place to a new system based mainly on rhythm. Of
+this system in detail we have little certain knowledge; but one of
+its features was that the vowel which ended the first syllable of
+a disyllabic was always long: _p[=a]ter_, _p[=a]trem_, _D[=e]us_,
+_p[=i]us_, _[=i]ter_, _[=o]vis_, _h[=u]mus_.
+
+Even so early as the beginning of the fifth century, St. Augustine
+tells us that the vowel-quantities, which it was necessary to learn
+in order to write verse correctly, were not observed in speech. The
+Latin-speaking schoolboy had to learn them in much the same fashion as
+did the English schoolboy of the nineteenth century.
+
+It is interesting to observe that, while the English scholars of
+the tenth century pronounced their Latin in the manner which their
+ancestors had learned from the continental missionaries, the tradition
+of the ancient vowel-quantities still survived (to some extent at
+least) among their British neighbours, whose knowledge of Latin was an
+inheritance from the days of Roman rule. On this point the following
+passage from the preface to [AE]lfric's Latin Grammar (written for
+English schoolboys about A.D. 1000) is instructive:--
+
+    Miror ualde quare multi corripiunt sillabas in prosa quae in
+    metro breues sunt, cum prosa absoluta sit a lege metri; sicut
+    pronuntiant _pater_ brittonice et _malus_ et similia, quae in
+    metro habentur breues. Mihi tamen uidetur melius inuocare Deum
+    Patrem honorifice producta sillaba quam brittonice corripere,
+    quia nec Deus arti grammaticae subiciendus est.
+
+The British contagion of which [AE]lfric here complains had no
+permanent effect. For after the Norman Conquest English boys learned
+their Latin from teachers whose ordinary language was French. For a
+time, they were not usually taught to write or read English, but only
+French and Latin; so that the Englishmen who attempted to write their
+native language did so in a phonetic orthography on a French basis.
+The higher classes in England, all through the thirteenth century, had
+two native languages, English and French.
+
+In the grammar schools, the Latin lessons were given in French; it was
+not till the middle of the fourteenth century that a bold educational
+reformer, John Cornwall, could venture to make English the vehicle
+of instruction. In reading Latin, the rhythmically-determined
+vowel-quantities of post-classical times were used; and the Roman
+letters were pronounced, first as they were in French, and afterwards
+as in English, but in the fourteenth century this made little
+difference.
+
+In Chaucer's time, the other nations of Europe, no less than England,
+pronounced Latin after the fashion of their own vernaculars. When,
+subsequently, the phonetic values of the letters in the vernacular
+gradually changed, the Latin pronunciation altered likewise. Hence, in
+the end, the pronunciation of Latin has become different in different
+countries. A scholar born in Italy has great difficulty in following
+a Frenchman speaking Latin. He has greater difficulty in understanding
+an Englishman's Latin, because in English the changes in the sounds
+of the letters have been greater than in any other language. Every
+vowel-letter has several sounds, and the normal long sound of every
+vowel-letter has no resemblance whatever to its normal short sound. As
+in England the pronunciation of Latin developed insensibly along with
+that of the native tongue, it eventually became so peculiar that by
+comparison the 'continental pronunciation' may be regarded as uniform.
+
+It is sometimes imagined that the modern English way of pronouncing
+Latin was a deliberate invention of the Protestant reformers. For this
+view there is no foundation in fact. It may be conceded that English
+ecclesiastics and scholars who had frequent occasion to converse in
+Latin with Italians would learn to pronounce it in the Italian way;
+and no doubt the Reformation must have operated to arrest the growing
+tendency to the Italianization of English Latin. But there is no
+evidence that before the Reformation the un-English pronunciation was
+taught in the schools. The grammar-school pronunciation of the early
+nineteenth century was the lineal descendant of the grammar-school
+pronunciation of the fourteenth century.
+
+This traditional system of pronunciation is now rapidly becoming
+obsolete, and for very good reasons. But it is the basis of the
+pronunciation of the many classical derivatives in English; and
+therefore it is highly important that we should understand precisely
+what it was before it began to be sophisticated (as in our own early
+days) by sporadic and inconsistent attempts to restore the classical
+quantities. In the following paper Mr. Sargeaunt describes, with a
+minuteness not before attempted, the genuine English tradition of
+Latin pronunciation, and points out its significance as a factor in
+the development of modern English.
+
+H.B.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+It seems not to be generally known that there is a real principle
+in the English pronunciation of words borrowed from Latin and Greek,
+whether directly or through French. In this matter the very knowledge
+of classical Latin, of its stresses and its quantities, still more
+perhaps an acquaintance with Greek, is apt to mislead. Some speakers
+seem to think that their scholarship will be doubted unless they say
+'doctr['i]nal' and 'script['u]ral' and 'cin['e]ma'. The object of
+this paper is to show by setting forth the principles consciously or
+unconsciously followed by our ancestors that such pronunciations are
+as erroneous as in the case of the ordinary man they are unnatural and
+pedantic. An exception for which there is a reason must of course be
+accepted, but an exception for which reason is unsound is on every
+ground to be deprecated. Among other motives for preserving the
+traditional pronunciation must be reckoned the claim of poetry. Mark
+Pattison notes how a passage of Pope which deals with the Barrier
+Treaty loses much of its effect because we no longer stress the second
+syllable of 'barrier'. Pope's word is gone beyond recovery, but others
+which are threatened by false theories may yet be preserved.
+
+The _New English Dictionary_, whose business it is to record facts,
+shows that in not a few common words there is at present much
+confusion and uncertainty concerning the right pronunciation. This
+applies mostly to the position of the stress or, as some prefer to
+call it, the accent, but in many cases it is true also of the quantity
+of the vowels. It is desirable to show that there is a principle in
+this matter, rules which have been naturally and unconsciously obeyed,
+because they harmonize with the genius of the English tongue.
+
+For nearly three centuries from the Reformation to the Victorian era
+there was in this country a uniform pronunciation of Latin. It had its
+own definite principles, involving in some cases a disregard of the
+classical quantities though not of the classical stress or accent. It
+survives in borrowed words such as _[=a]li[)a]s_ and _st[)a]mina_,
+in naturalized legal phrases, such as _N[=i]s[=i] Prius_ and _[=o]nus
+probandi_, and with some few changes in the Westminster Play. This
+pronunciation is now out of fashion, but, since its supersession does
+not justify a change in the pronunciation of words which have become
+part of our language, it will be well to begin with a formulation of
+its rules.
+
+The rule of Latin stress was observed as it obtained in the time
+of Quintilian. In the earliest Latin the usage had been other, the
+stress coming as early in the word as was possible. Down to the days
+of Terence and probably somewhat later the old rule still held good
+of quadrisyllables with the scansion of _m[)u]l[)i][)e]r[)i]s_ or
+_m[)u]l[)i][)e]r[=e]s_, but in other words had given way to the later
+Quintilian rule, that all words with a long unit as penultimate
+had the stress on the vowel in that unit, while words of more
+than two syllables with a short penultimate had the stress on the
+antepenultimate. I say 'unit' because here, as in scansion, what
+counts is not the syllable, but the vowel plus all the consonants
+that come between it and the next vowel. Thus _inf['e]rnus_, where
+the penultimate vowel is short, no less than _supr['e]mus_, where it
+is long, has the stress on the penultima. In _volucris_, where the
+penultimate unit was short, as it was in prose and could be in verse,
+the stress was on the _o_, but when _ucr_ made a long unit the
+stress comes on the _u_, though of course the vowel remains short. In
+polysyllables there was a secondary stress on the alternate vowels.
+Ignorance of this usage has made a present-day critic falsely accuse
+Shakespeare of a false quantity in the line
+
+  Cor['i]ol['a]nus in Cor['i]oli.
+
+It may be safely said that from the Reformation to the nineteenth
+century no Englishman pronounced the last word otherwise than I
+have written it. The author of the Pronouncing Dictionary attached
+to the 'Dictionary of Gardening' unfortunately instructs us to say
+_gl['a]diolus_ on the ground that the _i_ is short. The ground
+alleged, though true, is irrelevant, and, although Terence would have
+pronounced it _gl['a]diolus_, Quintilian, like Cicero, would have said
+_glad['i]olus_. Mr. Myles quotes Pliny for the word, but Pliny would
+no more have thought of saying _gl['a]diolus_ than we should now think
+of saying 'labo['u]r' except when we are reading Chaucer.
+
+We need not here discuss the dubious exceptions to this rule, such
+as words with an enclitic attached, e.g. _prim[)a]que_ in which some
+authorities put the stress on the vowel which precedes the enclitic,
+or such clipt words as 'illuc', where the stress may at one time have
+fallen on the last vowel. In any case no English word is concerned.
+
+In very long words the due alternation of stressed and unstressed
+vowels was not easy to maintain. There was no difficulty in
+such a combination as _h['o]nor['i]fic['a]bil['i]_ or as
+_tud['i]nit['a]tib['u]s_, but with the halves put together there
+would be a tendency to say _h['o]nor['i]ficabilit['u]dinit['a]tibus_.
+Thus there ought not to be much difficulty in saying
+_C['o]nstant['i]nop['o]lit['a]ni_, whether you keep the long
+antepenultima or shorten it after the English way; but he
+who forced the reluctant word to end an hexameter must have
+had 'Constantin['o]ple' in his mind, and therefore said
+_Const['a]ntin['o]polit['a]ni_ with two false stresses. The result
+was an illicit lengthening of the second _o_. His other false
+quantity, the shortening of the second _i_, was due to the English
+pronunciation, the influence of such words as 'metropol[)i]tan', and,
+as old schoolmasters used to put it, a neglect of the Gradus. Even
+when the stress falls on this antepenultimate _i_, it is short in
+English speech. Doubtless Milton shortened it in 'Areopagitica', just
+as English usage made him lengthen the initial vowel of the word.
+
+Probably very few of the Englishmen who used the traditional
+pronunciation of Latin knew that they gave many different sounds to
+each of the symbols or letters. Words which have been transported
+bodily into English will provide examples under each head. It will be
+understood that in the traditional pronunciation of Latin these words
+were spoken exactly as they are spoken in the English of the present
+day. For the sake of simplicity it may be allowed us to ignore some
+distinctions rightly made by phoneticians. Thus the long initial vowel
+of _alias_ is not really the same as the long initial vowel of _area_,
+but the two will be treated as identical. It will thus be possible to
+write of only three kinds of vowels, long, short, and obscure.
+
+The letter or symbol _a_ stood for two long sounds, heard in the first
+syllables of _alias_ and of _larva_, for the short sound heard in the
+first syllable of _stamina_, and for the obscure sound heard in the
+last syllable of each of these last two words in English.
+
+The letter _e_ stood for the long sounds heard in _genus_ and in
+_verbum_, for the short sound heard in _item_, and for the obscure
+sound heard in _cancer_. When it ended a word it had, if short, the
+sound of a short _i_, as in _pro lege_, _rege_, _grege_, as also in
+unstressed syllables in such words as _precentor_ and _regalia_.
+
+The letter _i_ stood for the two long sounds heard in _minor_ and in
+_circus_ and for the short sound heard in _premium_ and _incubus_.
+
+The letter _o_ stood for the two long sounds heard in _odium_ and in
+_corpus_, for the short sound in _scrofula_, and for the obscure in
+_extempore_.
+
+The two long sounds of _u_ are heard in _rumor_, if that spelling
+may be allowed, and in the middle syllable of _laburnum_, the two
+short sounds in the first _u_ of _incubus_ and in the first _u_ of
+_lustrum_, the obscure sound in the final syllables of these two
+words. Further the long sound was preceded except after _l_ and _r_ by
+a parasitic _y_ as in _albumen_ and _incubus_. This parasitic _y_ is
+perhaps not of very long standing. In some old families the tradition
+still compels such pronunciations as _moosic_.
+
+The diphthongs _[ae]_ and _[oe]_ were merely _e_, while _au_ and
+_eu_ were sounded as in our _August_ and _Euxine_. The two latter
+diphthongs stood alone in never being shortened even when they were
+unstressed and followed by two consonants. Thus men said _[=Eu]stolia_
+and _[=Au]gustus_, while they said _[)[AE]]schylus_ and _[)OE]dipus._
+Dryden and many others usually wrote the _[AE]_ as _E_. Thus Garrick
+in a letter commends an adaptation of 'Eschylus', and although Boswell
+reports him as asking Harris 'Pray, Sir, have you read Potter's
+_[AE]schylus_?' both the speaker and the reporter called the name
+_Eschylus_.
+
+The letter _y_ was treated as _i_.
+
+The consonants were pronounced as in English words derived from
+Latin. Thus _c_ before _e_, _i_, _y_, _[ae]_, and _[oe]_ was _s_, as in
+_census_, _circus_, _Cyrus_, _C[ae]sar_, and _c[oe]lestial_, a spelling
+not classical and now out of use. Elsewhere _c_ was _k_. Before the
+same vowels _g_ was _j_ (d[ezh]), as in _genus_, _gibbus_, _gyrus_.
+The sibilant was voiced or voiceless as in English words, the one in
+_rosaceus_, the other in _saliva_.
+
+It will be seen that the Latin sounds were throughout frankly
+Anglicized. According to Burney a like principle was followed by
+Burke when he read French poetry aloud. He read it as though it were
+English. Thus on his lips the French word _comment_ was pronounced as
+the English word _comment_.
+
+The rule that overrode all others, though it has the exceptions given
+below, was that vowels and any other diphthongs than _au_ and _eu_, if
+they were followed by two consonants, were pronounced short. Thus _a_
+in _magnus_, though long in classical Latin, was pronounced as in our
+'magnitude', and _e_ in _census_, in Greek transcription represented
+by [Greek: eta], was pronounced short, as it is when borrowed into
+English. So were the penultimate vowels in _villa_, _nullus_, _c[ae]spes_.
+
+This rule of shortening the vowel before two consonants held good even
+when in fact only one was pronounced, as in _nullus_ and other words
+where a double consonant was written and in Italian pronounced.
+
+Moreover, the parasitic _y_ was treated as a consonant, hence our
+'v[)a]cuum'.
+
+In the penultima _qu_ was treated as a single consonant, so that the
+vowel was pronounced long in _[=a]quam_, _[=e]quam_, _in[=i]quam_,
+_l[=o]quor_. So it was after _o_, hence our 'coll[=o]quial'; but in
+earlier syllables than the penultima _qu_ was treated as a double
+consonant, hence our 'sub[)a]queous', 'equity', 'iniquity'.
+
+EXCEPTIONS.
+
+1. When the former of the two consonants was _r_ and the latter
+another consonant than _r_, as in the series represented by _larva_,
+_verbum_, _circus_, _corpus_, _laburnum_, the vowels are a separate
+class of long vowels, though not really recognized as such. Of course
+our ancestors and the Gradus marked them long because in verse the
+vowel with the two consonants makes a long unit.
+
+2. A fully stressed vowel before a mute and _r_, or before _d_
+or _pl_, was pronounced long in the penultima. Latin examples are
+_labrum_, _Hebrum_, _librum_, _probrum_, _rubrum_, _acrem_, _cedrum_,
+_vafrum_, _agrum_, _pigrum_, _aprum_, _veprem_, _patrem_, _citrum_,
+_utrum_, _triplus_, _duplex_, _Cyclops_. Moreover, in other syllables
+than the penultima the vowel in the same combinations was pronounced
+long if the two following vowels had no consonant between them, as
+_patria_, _Hadria_, _acrius_. (Our 'triple' comes from _triplum_ and
+is a duplicate of '_treble_'. Perhaps the short vowel is due to its
+passage through French. Our 'citron' comes from _citronem_, in which
+_i_ was short.)
+
+3. The preposition and adverb _post_ was pronounced with a long vowel
+both by itself and in composition with verbs, but its adjectives
+did not follow suit. Hence we say in English 'p[=o]stpone', but
+'p[)o]sterior' and 'p[)o]sthumous'.
+
+Monosyllables ending in a vowel were pronounced long, those ending
+in a consonant short. Enclitics like _que_ were no real exception as
+they formed part of the preceding word. There were, however, some real
+exceptions.
+
+1. Pronouns ending in _-os_, as _hos_, _quos_. These followed _eos_
+and _illos_.
+
+2. Words ending in _-es_, as _pes_, _res_.
+
+3. Words ending in _r_, as _par_, _fer_, _vir_, _cor_, _fur_. These
+had that form of long vowel which we use in 'part', 'fertile',
+'virtue', 'cordate', 'furtive'.
+
+In, disyllables the former vowel or diphthong, if followed by a single
+consonant, or by a mute and _r_, or by _cl_ or _pl_, was pronounced
+long, a usage which according to Mr. Henry Bradley dates in spoken
+Latin from the fourth century. Examples are _apex_, _tenet_, _item_,
+_focus_, _pupa_, _Psyche_, _C[ae]sar_, _f[oe]tus_. I believe that
+at first the only exceptions were _tibi_, _sibi_, _ibi_, _quibus_,
+_tribus_. In later days the imperfect and future of _sum_ became
+exceptions. Here perhaps the short vowel arose from the hideous and
+wholly erroneous habit, happily never universal though still in some
+vogue, of reciting _er['a]m_, _er['a]s_, _er['a]t_. There are actually
+schoolbooks which treat the verse _ictus_, the beat of the chanter's
+foot, as a word stress and prescribe _terra trib['u]s scopul['i]s_. I
+can say of these books only _Pereant ipsi, mutescant scriptores_, and
+do not mind using a post-classical word in order to say it.
+
+In disyllables the former vowel or diphthong, if followed immediately
+by another vowel or diphthong, had the quality, and if emphatic also
+the quality, of a long vowel. The distinction was not recognized, and
+seems not to be generally acknowledged even now. We seem not to
+have borrowed many words which will illustrate this. We have however
+_fiat_, and _pius_ was pronounced exactly as we pronounce 'pious',
+while for a diphthong we may quote Shelley,
+
+  Mid the mountains Euganean
+  I stood listening to the paean.
+
+English derivatives will show the long quality of the vowels in _aer_,
+_deus_, _coit_, _duo_. To these add _Graius_.
+
+The rule of _apex_ applies also to words of more than two syllables
+with long penultima, as _gravamen_, _arena_, _saliva_, _abdomen_,
+_acumen_. The rule of _aer_ also holds good though it hardly has
+other instances than Greek names, as _Mach['a]on_, _[AE]n['e]as_,
+_Thal['i]a_, _Achel['o]us_, _Ach['[ae]]i_.
+
+In words of more than two syllables with short penultima the vowel
+in the stressed antepenultima was pronounced short when there was a
+consonant between the two last vowels, and _i_ and _y_ were short
+even when no consonant stood in that place. Examples are _stamina_,
+_Sexagesima_, _minimum_, _modicum_, _tibia_, _Polybius_. But _u_,
+_au_, _eu_ were, as usual, exceptions, as _tumulus_, _Aufidus_,
+_Eutychus_. I believe that originally men said _C[)[ae]]sarem_, as
+they certainly said _c[)[ae]]spitem_ and _C[)[ae]]tulum_, as also
+_C[)[ae]]sarea_, but here in familiar words the cases came to follow
+the nominative.
+
+Exceptions to the rule were verb forms which had _[=a]v_, _[=e]v_,
+_[=i]v_, or _[=o]v_ in the antepenultima, as _am[=a]veram_,
+_defieverat_, _audivero_, _moveras_, and like forms from aorists with
+the penultima long, as _suaseram_, _egero_, _miserat_, _roseras_, and
+their compounds.
+
+This rule was among the first to break down, and about the middle of
+the nineteenth century the Westminster Play began to observe the
+true quantities in the antepenultimate syllables. Thus in spite of
+'cons[)i]deration' boys said _s[=i]dera_, and in spite of 'n[)o]minal'
+they said _n[^o]mina_, while they still said _s[)o]litus_ and
+_r[)a]pidus_.
+
+On the other hand the following rule, of which borrowed words provide
+many examples, still obtains in the Play. In words of more than two
+syllables any vowel in the antepenultima other than _i_ or _y_ was
+pronounced long if no consonant divided the two following vowels.
+Possibly the reason was that there was a syn[ae]resis of the two
+vowels, but I doubt this, for a parasitic _y_ was treated as a
+consonant. Examples are _alias_, _genius_, _odium_, _junior_,
+_an[ae]mia_, and on the other hand _f[)i]lius_, _L[)y]dia_. Compound
+verbs with a short prefix were exceptions, as _[)o]beo_, _r[)e]creo_,
+whence our 'recreant'. A long prefix remained long as in _d[=e]sino_.
+The only other exception that I can remember was _Ph[)o]loe_.
+
+In polysyllables the general rule was that all vowels and diphthongs
+before the penultima other than _u_, when it bore a primary or
+secondary stress, and _au_ and _eu_ were pronounced short except
+where the 'alias' rule or the 'larva' rule applied. Thus we said
+_h[)e]r[)e]ditaritis_, _[)[ae]]qu[)a]bilitas_, _imb[)e]cillus_,
+_susp[)i]cionem_, but _fid[=u]ciarius_, _m[=e]diocritas_,
+_p[=a]rticipare_. I do not know why the popular voice now gives
+_[)A]riadne_, for our forefathers said _[=A]riadne_ as they said
+_[=a]rea_.
+
+In very long words the alternation of stress and no-stress was
+insisted on. I remember a schoolmaster who took his degree at Oxford
+in the year 1827 reproving a boy for saying _['A]lphesib['oe]us_
+instead of _Alphesib['oe]us_, and I suspect that Wordsworth meant no
+inverted stress in
+
+  La['o]dam['i]a, that at Jove's command--
+
+nor Landor in
+
+  Art['e]mid['o]ra, gods invisible--
+
+though I hope that they did.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+It is not to be thought that these rules were in any way arbitrary. So
+little was this so that, I believe, they were never even formulated.
+If examples with the quantities marked were ever given, they must have
+been for the use of foreigners settling in England. English boys did
+not want rules, and their teachers could not really have given them.
+The teachers did not understand that each vowel represented not two
+sounds only, a long and a short, but many more. This fact was no more
+understood by John Walker, the actor and lexicographer, who in 1798
+published a Key to the Classical Pronunciation of Greek and Latin
+proper names. His general rule was wrong as a general rule, and so far
+as it agreed with facts it was useless. He says that when a vowel ends
+a syllable it is long, and when it does not it is short. Apart from
+the confusion of cause and effect there is the error of identifying
+for instance the _e_ in _beatus_ and the _e_ in _habebat_. Moreover,
+Walker confounds the _u_ in 'curfew', really long, with the short and
+otherwise different _u_ in 'but'. The rule was useless as a guide,
+for it did not say whether _moneo_ for instance was to be read as
+_ino-neo_ or as _mon-eo_, and therefore whether the _o_ was to be long
+or short. Even Walker's list is no exact guide. He gives for instance
+_M[=o]-na_, which is right, and _M[=o]-n[ae]ses_, which is not. Now
+without going into the difference between long vowels and ordinary
+vowels, of which latter some are long in scansion and some short, it
+is clear that there is no identity. In fact _Mona_, has the long _o_
+of 'moan' and _Mon[ae]ses_ the ordinary _o_ of 'monaster'. A boy at
+school was not troubled by these matters. He had only two things to
+learn, first the quantity of the penultimate unit, second the fact
+that a final vowel was pronounced. When he knew these two things
+he gave the Latin word the sounds which it would have if it were
+an English word imported from the Latin. Thus he finds the word
+_civilitate_. I am not sure that he could find it, but that does not
+matter. He would know 'civility', and he learns that the penultima of
+the Latin word is long. Therefore he says _c[)i]v[)i]l[)i]t[=a]t[)e]_.
+Again he knows '[)i]nf[)i]n[)i]t' (I must be allowed to spell the
+word as it is pronounced except in corrupt quires). He finds that
+the penultima of _infinitivus_ is long, and he therefore says
+_[)i]nf[)i]n[)i]t[=i]v[)u]s_. Again he knows 'irradiate', and
+finding that the penultima of _irradiabitur_ is short he says
+_[)i]rr[=a]d[)i][)a]b[)i]t[)u]r_. It is true that some of these
+verb forms under the influence of their congeners came to have
+an exceptional pronunciation. Thus _irradi[=a]bit_ led at last to
+_irradi[=a]bitur_, but I doubt whether this occurred before the
+nineteenth century. The word _dabitur_, almost naturalized by Luther's
+adage of _date et dabitur_, kept its short _a_ down to the time when
+it regained it, in a slightly different form, by its Roman right;
+and _am[)a]mini_ and _mon[)e]mini_ were unwavering in their use. Old
+people said _v[=a]ri[)a]bilis_ long after the true quantities had
+asserted themselves, and the word as the specific name of a plant may
+be heard even now. Its first syllable of course follows what I shall
+call the 'alias' rule. We may still see this rule in other instances.
+All men say 'hippop['o]t[)a]mus', and even those who know that this
+_a_ is short in Greek can say nothing but 'Mesopot[=a]mia', unless
+indeed the word lose its blessed and comforting powers in a disyllabic
+abbreviation. When a country was named after Cecil Rhodes, where the
+_e_ in the surname is mute, we all called it 'Rhod[=e]sia'. Had it
+been named after a Newman, where the _a_ is short or rather obscure,
+we should all have called it 'Newm[=a]nia ', while, named after a
+Davis, it would certainly have been 'Dav[)i]sia'. The process of
+thought would in each case have been unconscious. A new example is
+'aviation', whose first vowel has been instinctively lengthened.
+
+Again, when the word 'telegram' was coined, some scholars objected to
+its formation and insisted upon 'telegrapheme', but the most obdurate
+Grecian did not propose to keep the long Greek vowel in the first
+syllable. When only the other day 'cinematograph' made its not wholly
+desirable appearance, it made no claim to a long vowel in either of
+its two first syllables. Not till it was reasonably shortened into
+'c[)i]n[)e]ma' did a Judge from the Bench make a lawless decree for a
+long second vowel, and even he left the _i_ short though it is long in
+Greek.
+
+Of course with the manner of speech the quantities had to be learnt
+separately. The task was not as difficult as some may think. To boys
+with a taste for making verses the thumbing of a Gradus (I hope that
+no one calls it a Gr[)a]dus) was always a delightful occupation, and
+a quantity once learnt was seldom forgotten. It must be admitted that,
+as boys were forced to do verses, whether they could or not, there
+were always some who could read and yet forget.
+
+Although these usages did not precede but followed the pronunciation
+of words already borrowed from Latin, we may use them to classify
+the changes of quantity. We shall see that although there are some
+exceptions for which it is difficult to give a reason, yet most of
+the exceptions fall under two classes. When words came to us through
+French, the pronunciation was often affected by the French form of the
+word. Thus the adjective 'present' would, if it had come direct from
+Latin, have had a long vowel in the first syllable. To an English
+ear 'pr[)e]sent' seemed nearer than 'pr[=e]sent' to the French
+'pr['e]sent'. The _N.E.D._ says that 'gladiator' comes straight from
+the Latin 'gladiatorem'. Surely in that case it would have had its
+first vowel long, as in 'radiator' and 'mediator'. In any case its
+pronunciation must have been affected by 'gladiateur'. The other class
+of exceptions consists of words deliberately introduced by writers
+at a late period. Thus 'adorable' began as a penman's word. Following
+'in['e]xorable' and the like it should have been '['a]dorable'.
+Actually it was formed by adding _-able_ to 'ad['o]re', like
+'laughable'. It is now too stiff in the joints to think of a change,
+and must continue to figure with the other sins of the Restoration.
+
+Before dealing with the words as classified by their formation, we may
+make short lists of typical words to show that for the pronunciation
+of English derivatives it is idle to refer to the classical
+quantities.
+
+From _[=[ae]]_: [)e]difice, [)e]mulate, c[)e]rulean, qu[)e]stion.
+
+From _[=oe]_: [)e]conomy, [)e]cumenical, conf[)e]derate.
+
+From _[=a]_,: don[)a]tive, n[)a]tural, cl[)a]mour, [)a]verse.
+
+From _[)a]_: [=a]lien, st[=a]tion, st[=a]ble, [=a]miable.
+
+From _[=e]_: [)e]vident, Quadrag[)e]sima, pl[)e]nitude, s[)e]gregate.
+
+From _[)e]_: s[=e]ries, s[=e]nile, g[=e]nus, g[=e]nius.
+
+From _[=i]_: lasc[)i]vious, erad[)i]cate, d[)i]vidend, f[)i]lial,
+susp[)i]cion.
+
+From _[)i]_: l[=i]bel, m[=i]tre, s[=i]lex.
+
+From _[=o]_: [)o]rator, pr[)o]minent, pr[)o]montory, s[)o]litude.
+
+From _[)o]_: b[=o]vine, l[=o]cal, f[=o]rum, coll[=o]quial.
+
+From _[=u]_: fig[)u]rative, script[)u]ral, sol[)u]ble.
+
+From _[)u]_: n[=u]merous, C[=u]pid, all[=u]vial, cer[=u]lean.
+
+The _N.E.D._ prefers the spelling '[oe]cumenical'; but Newman wrote
+naturally 'ecumenical', and so does Dr. J.B. Bury. Dublin scholarship
+has in this matter been markedly correct.
+
+
+_CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS ACCORDING TO THEIR LATIN STEMS._
+
+In classification it seems simplest to take the words according
+to their Latin stems. We must, however, first deal with a class of
+adjectives borrowed bodily from the Latin nominative masculine with
+the insertion of a meaningless _o_ before the final _-us_.[1] These
+of course follow the rules given above. In words of more than two
+syllables the antepenultimate and stressed vowel is shortened,
+as '[)e]mulous' from _[ae]mulus_ and in 'fr[)i]volous' from
+_fr[=i]volus_, except where by the 'alias' rule it is long, as in
+'egr[=e]gious' from _egr[)e]gius_. Words coined on this analogy also
+follow the rules. Thus 'glabrous' and 'fibrous' have the vowels long,
+as in the traditional pronunciation of _glabrum_ and _fibrum_, where
+the vowels in classical Latin were short. The stressed _u_ being
+always long we have 'lug[=u]brious' and 'sal[=u]brious', the length
+being independent of the 'alias' rule. Some words ending in _-ous_ are
+not of this class. Thus 'odorous' and 'clamorous' appear in Italian as
+_odoroso_ and _clamoroso_. Milton has
+
+  Son['o]rous mettal blowing Martial sounds.
+
+The Italian is _sonoro_, and our word was simply the Latin _sonorus_
+borrowed bodily at a somewhat late period. Hence the stress remains
+on the penultima. Skeat thought that the word would at last become
+'s['o]norous'. It maybe hoped that Milton's line will save it from the
+effect of a false analogy.
+
+[Footnote 1: I regard this statement as inaccurate. The _-ous_ in
+these words does not come from the nominative ending _-us_, but is the
+ordinary _-ous_ from L. _-osus_ (through Fr.). It was added to many
+Latin adjective stems, because the need of a distinctly adjectival
+ending was felt. Similarly in early French _-eux_ was appended to
+adjectives when they were felt to require a termination, as in
+_pieux_ from _pi-us_. Compare the English _capacious_, _veracious_,
+_hilarious_, where _-ous_ is added to other stems than those in _o_.
+Other suffixes of Latin origin are used in the same way: e.g. _-al_ in
+_aerial_, _ethereal_.--H.B.]
+
+In classifying by stems it will be well to add, where possible, words
+of Greek origin. Except in some late introductions Greek words, except
+when introduced bodily, have been treated as if they came through
+Latin, and some of the bodily introductions are in the same case. Thus
+'an[ae]sthetic' is spelt with the Latin diphthong and the Latin _c_.
+Even 'skeleton' had a _c_ to start with, while the modern and wholly
+abominable 'kaleidoscope' is unprincipled on the face of it.
+
+STEMS ENDING IN -ANT AND -ENT. These are participles or words formed
+as such. Our words have shed a syllable, thus _regentem_ has become
+'regent'. Disyllables follow the 'apex' rule and lengthen the first
+vowel, as 'agent', 'decent', 'potent'. Exceptions are 'clement' and
+'present', perhaps under French influence. Words of more than two
+syllables with a single consonant before the termination throw the
+stress back and shorten a long penultima, as 'ignorant', 'president',
+'confident', 'adjutant'. Where there are two heavy consonants, the
+stress remains on the penultima, as 'consultant', 'triumphant', even
+when one of the consonants is not pronounced, as 'reminiscent'. In
+some cases the Latinists seem to have deliberately altered the natural
+pronunciation. Thus Gower has '['a]ppara['u]nt', but the word became
+'app['a]rent' before Shakespeare's time, and later introductions such
+as 'adherent' followed it. What right 'adjacent' has to its long vowel
+and penultimate stress I do not know, but it cannot be altered now.
+
+STEMS ENDING IN -ATO AND -UTO. These are mostly past participles, but
+many of them are used in English as verbs. It must be admitted that
+the disyllabic words are not wholly constant to a principle. Those
+verbs that come from _-latum_ consistently stress the last vowel, as
+'dilate', 'relate', 'collate'. So does 'create', because of one vowel
+following another. Of the rest all the words of any rank have the
+stress on the penultima, as 'vibrate', 'frustrate', 'm['i]grate',
+'c['a]strate', 'p['u]lsate', 'v['a]cate'. Thus Pope has
+
+  The whisper, that to greatness still too near,
+  Perhaps, yet vibrates on his Sov'reign's ear,
+
+and Shelley
+
+  Music, when soft voices die,
+  Vibrates in the memory.
+
+There are, however, verbs of no literary account which in usage
+either vary in the stress or take it on the latter syllable. Such are
+'locate', 'orate', 'negate', 'placate', and perhaps 'rotate'. With
+most of these we could well dispense. 'Equate' is mainly a technical
+word. Dictionaries seem to prefer the stress on the ultima, but some
+at least of the early Victorian mathematicians said '['e]quate',
+and the pronunciation is to be supported. Trisyllabic verbs throw
+the stress back and shorten the penultima, as 'd['e]s[)o]late',
+'s['u]ff[)o]cate', 'sc['i]nt[)i]llate'. Even words with heavy double
+consonants have adopted this habit. Thus where Browning has (like
+Milton and Cowper)
+
+  I the Trinity ill['u]strate
+    Drinking water'd orange pulp,
+  In three sips the Arian frustrate.
+    While he drains his at one gulp,
+
+it is now usual to say '['i]llustrate'.
+
+Adjectives of this class take as early a stress as they can, as
+'['o]rnate', 'p['i]nnate', 'd['e]licate', 'f['o]rtunate'. Nouns from
+all these words throw the accent back and shorten or obscure all but
+the penultimate vowel, as 'ignorance', 'evaporation'.
+
+STEMS IN -IA. Here even disyllables shorten the penultima, as 'copy',
+'province', while longer words throw the stress back as well as
+shorten the penultima, as 'injury', 'colony', while 'ignominy' almost
+lost its penultimate vowel, and therefore threw back the stress to the
+first syllable. Shakespeare frankly writes the word as a trisyllable,
+
+  Thy ignomy sleep with thee in the grave.
+
+Milton restored the lost syllable, often eliding the final vowel,
+as in
+
+  Exile, or ignominy, or bonds, or pain.
+
+Even with heavy consonants we have the early stress, as in 'industry'.
+Greek words follow the same rules, as 'agony', 'melody'. Some words
+of this class have under French influence been further abbreviated, as
+'concord'.
+
+Corresponding STEMS IN -IO keep the same rules. Perhaps the only
+disyllable is 'study'; the shortening of a stressed _u_ shows its
+immediate derivation from the old French _estudie_. Trisyllabic
+examples are 'colloquy', 'ministry', 'perjury'. Many words of this
+class have been further abbreviated in their passage through French.
+Such are 'benefice', 'divorce', 'office', 'presage', 'suffrage',
+'vestige', 'adverb', 'homicide', 'proverb'. The stress in 'div['o]rce'
+is due to the long vowel and the two consonants. A few of these
+words have been borrowed bodily from Latin, as 'odium', 'tedium',
+'opprobrium'.
+
+STEMS IN -DO AND -TO (-SO). These words lose the final Latin syllable
+and keep the stress on the vowel which bore it in Latin. The stressed
+vowel, except in _au_, _eu_, is short, even when, as in 'vivid',
+'florid', it was long in classical Latin. This, of course, is in
+accord with the English pronunciation of Latin. Examples are 'acid',
+'tepid', 'rigid', 'horrid', 'humid', 'lurid ', 'absurd', 'tacit',
+'digit', 'deposit', 'compact', 'complex', 'revise', 'response',
+'acute'. Those which have the suffix _-es_ prefixed throw the stress
+back, as 'honest', 'modest'. Those which have the suffix _-men_
+prefixed also throw the stress back, as 'moment', 'pigment',
+'torment', and to the antepenultima, if there be one, as 'argument',
+'armament', 'emolument', the penultimate vowel becoming short or
+obscure. In 'temperament' the tendency of the second syllable to
+disappear has carried the stress still further back. We may compare
+'S['e]ptuagint', where _u_ becomes consonantal. An exception for which
+I cannot account is 'cem['e]nt', but Shakespeare has 'c['e]ment'.
+
+STEMS IN -T[=A]T. These are nouns and have the stress on the
+antepenultima, which in Latin bore the secondary stress. They
+of course show the usual shortening of the vowels with the usual
+exceptions. Examples are 'charity', 'equity', 'liberty', 'ferocity',
+'authority', and with long antepenultima 'immunity', 'security',
+'university'. With no vowel before the penultima the long quality is,
+as usual, preserved, as in 'satiety'.
+
+STEMS IN -OSO. These are adjectives and throw the stress back to the
+antepenultima, if there be one. In disyllables the penultimate vowel
+is long, as in 'famous', 'vinous'; in longer words the antepenultimate
+vowel is short, as 'criminous', 'generous'. Many, however, fall
+under the 'alias' rule, as 'ingenious', 'odious', while those which
+have _i_ in the penultimate run the two last syllables into one, as
+'pernicious', 'religious', 'vicious'. A few late introductions, coming
+straight from the Latin, retained the Latin stress, as 'morose',
+'verbose'.
+
+STEMS IN -T[=O]RIO AND -S[=O]RIO. In these words the stress goes
+back to the fourth syllable from the end, this in Latin having the
+secondary stress, or, as in 'circulatory', 'ambulatory', even further.
+In fact the _o_, which of course is shortened, tends to disappear.
+Examples are 'declamatory', 'desultory', 'oratory', 'predatory',
+'territory'. Three consonants running, as in 'perfunctory', keep the
+stress where it has to be in a trisyllable, such as 'victory'. So does
+a long vowel before _r_ and another consonant, as in 'precursory'.
+Otherwise two consonants have not this effect, as in 'pr['o]montory',
+'c['o]nsistory'. In spite of Milton's
+
+  A gloomy Consistory, and them amidst
+  With looks agast and sad he thus bespake,
+
+the word is sometimes mispronounced.
+
+STEMS IN -[=A]RIO. These follow the same rules, except that, as in
+'['a]dversary', combinations like _ers_ are shortened and the stress
+goes back; and that words ending in _-entary_, such as 'elementary'
+and 'testamentary', stress the antepenultima. Examples are
+'antiquary', 'honorary', 'voluntary', 'emissary'. It is difficult to
+see a reason for an irregular quantity in the antepenultima of some
+trisyllables. The general rule makes it short, as in 'granary',
+'salary', but in 'library' and 'notary' it has been lengthened. The
+_N.E.D._ gives 'pl[=e]nary', but our grandfathers said 'pl[)e]nary'.
+Of course 'diary' gives a long quality to the _i_.
+
+STEMS IN -[)I]LI. These seem originally to have retained the short
+_i_. Thus Milton's spelling is 'facil' and 'fertil' while other
+seventeenth-century writers give 'steril'. This pronunciation still
+obtains in America, but in England the words seem to have been usually
+assimilated to 'fragile', as Milton spells it, which perhaps always
+lengthened the vowel. The penultimate vowel is short.
+
+STEMS IN -[=I]LI. Here the long _i_ is retained, and in disyllables
+the penultima is lengthened, as in 'anile', 'senile', 'virile'.
+There is no excuse for following the classical quantity in the former
+syllables of any of these words. As an English word 'sedilia' shortens
+the antepenultimate, like 'tibia' and the rest, the 'alias' rule not
+applying when the vowel is _i_.
+
+STEMS IN -B[)I]LI. These mostly come through French and change the
+suffix into _-ble_. Disyllables lengthen the penultima, as 'able',
+'stable', 'noble', while 'mobile', as in French, lengthens its
+latter vowel. Trisyllables shorten and stress the antepenultima,
+as 'placable', 'equable', but of course _u_ remains long, as in
+'mutable'. Longer words throw the stress further back, except mere
+negatives, like 'impl['a]cable', and words with heavy consonants such
+as 'delectable'. Examples are 'miserable', 'admirable', 'intolerable',
+'despicable'. The Poet Laureate holds that in these words Milton kept
+the long Italian _a_ of the penultimate or secondary stress.
+
+  Fall'n Cherube, to be weak is miserable.
+
+In English we have naturalized _-able_ as a suffix and added it to
+almost any verb, as 'laughable', 'indescribable', 'desirable'. The
+last word may have been taken from French. The form 'des[)i]derable'
+occurs from the fourteenth to the seventeenth century. Originally
+'acceptable' threw the stress back, as in Milton's
+
+  So fit, so acceptable, so Divine,
+
+but the double mute has brought it into line with 'delectable'.
+Nowadays one sometimes hears 'disp['u]table', 'desp['i]cable', but
+these are intolerable vulgarisms.
+
+SUFFIXES IN T[)I]LI AND S[)I]LI. These words mostly lengthen the _i_
+and make the usual shortenings, as 'missile', 'sessile', 'textile',
+'volatile', but of course 'futile'. Exceptions which I cannot explain
+are 'foss[)i]l' and 'fus[)i]le'.
+
+SUFFIX IN [=A]LI. These adjectives shorten the _-a_ and, with
+the usual exceptions, the preceding vowels, as 'd['o]ctrinal',
+'f['i]lial', 'l['i]beral', 'm['a]rital', 'med['i]cinal', but of course
+by the 'alias' rule 'arb[=o]real' (not a classical word in Latin) and
+'g[=e]nial'. Words like 'national' and 'rational' were treated like
+trisyllables, which they now are. The stress is on the antepenultima
+except when heavy consonants bring it on to the penultima, as in
+'sepulcral', 'parental', 'triumphal'.
+
+Those who say 'doctr['i]nal' on the ground that the second vowel
+is long in Latin commit themselves to 'medic['i]nal', 'nat['u]ral',
+'nutr['i]ment', 'instr['u]ment', and, if their own principle be
+applied, they make false quantities by the dozen every day of their
+lives.
+
+Three words mostly mispronounced are, from their rarity, perhaps
+not past rescue. They are 'd['e]canal', 'rurid['e]canal', and
+'pr['e]bendal'. There is no more reason for saying 'dec['a]nal' than
+for saying 'matr['o]nal' or for saying 'preb['e]ndal' than for saying
+'cal['e]ndar'. Of course words like 'tremendous', being imported
+whole, keep the original stress. In our case the Latin words came
+into existence as _d['e]can['a]lis_, _pr['e]bend['a]lis_, parallel
+with _n['a]tur['a]lis_, which gives us 'n['a]tural'. That mostly
+wrong-headed man, Burgon of Chichester, was correct in speaking of his
+rights or at any rate his claims as 'd['e]canal'.
+
+STEMS IN -LO. Of these 'stimulus' and 'villa' have been borrowed
+whole, while _umbella_ is corrupted into 'umbrella'. Disyllables
+lengthen the penultima, as 'stable', 'title', 'pupil'. Under French
+influence 'disciple' follows their example. In longer words the usual
+shortenings are made, as in 'frivolous', 'ridiculous'. The older
+words in _-ulo_ change the suffix into _-le_, as 'uncle', 'maniple',
+'tabernacle', 'conventicle', 'receptacle', 'panicle'. Later words
+retain the _u_, as 'vestibule', 'reticule', 'molecule'.
+
+STEMS IN -NO. The many words of this class are a grief to the
+classifier, who seeks in vain for reasons. Thus 'german' and 'germane'
+have the same source and travelled, it seems, by the same road through
+France. The Latin _hyacinth[)i]nus_ and _adamant[)i]nus_ are parallel
+words, yet Milton has 'hyacinthin' for the one and 'adamantine' for
+the other. One classification goes a little way. Thus 'human' and
+'urban' must have come through French, 'humane' and 'urbane' direct
+from Latin. On the other hand while 'meridian' and 'quartan' are
+French, 'publican', 'veteran', and 'oppidan' are Latin. Words with
+a long _i_, if they came early through France, shorten the vowel,
+as 'doctrine', 'discipline', 'medicine', and 'masculine', while
+'genuine', though a later word, followed them, but 'anserine' and
+'leonine' did not. Disyllables seem to prefer the stress on the
+ultima, as 'divine', 'supine', but even these are not consistent. Some
+critics would scan Cassio's words
+
+  The d['i]vine Desdemona,
+
+though Shakespeare nowhere else has this stress, while Shelley has.
+Shelley, too, has
+
+  She cannot know how well the s['u]pine slaves
+  Of blind authority read the truth of things.
+
+The grammatical term, too, is 's['u]pine'. Later introductions also
+have this stress, as 'b['o]vine', 'c['a]nine', '['e]quine'. The
+last word is not always understood. At any rate Halliwell-Phillips,
+referring to a well-known story of Shakespeare's youth, says that the
+poet probably attended the theatre 'in some equine capacity'. As it
+is agreed that 'bovine' and 'equine' lengthen the former vowel, we
+ought by analogy to say 'c[=a]nine', as probably most people do.
+Words of more than two syllables have the stress on the antepenultima
+and the vowel is short, as in 'libertine', 'adulterine', but of
+course '[=u]terine'. When heavy consonants bring the stress on to
+the penultima, the _i_ is shortened, as in 'clandest[)i]n(e)',
+'intest[)i]n(e)', and so in like disyllables, as 'doctr[)i]n(e)'. The
+modern words 'morphin(e)' and 'strychnin(e)', coined, the one from
+Morpheus and the other from the Greek name of the plant known to
+botanists as _Withania somnifera_, correctly follow 'doctrine' in
+shortening the _i_, though another pronunciation is sometimes heard.
+
+STEMS IN -TUDIN. These shorten the antepenultima, as 'plenitude',
+'solitude', with the usual exceptions, such as 'fortitude'.
+
+STEMS IN -TION. These words retain the suffix, which in early days
+was disyllabic, as it sometimes is in Shakespeare, for instance in
+Portia's
+
+  Before a friend of this descripti['o]n
+  Shall lose a hair through Bassanio's fault.
+
+Thus they came under the 'alias' rule, and what is now the penultimate
+vowel is long unless it be _i_. Examples are 'nation', 'accretion',
+'emotion', 'solution', while _i_ is shortened in 'petition',
+'munition', and the like, and left short in 'admonition' and
+others. In military use an exception is made by 'ration', but the
+pronunciation is confined to one sense of the word, and is new at
+that. I remember old soldiers of George III who spoke of 'r[=a]tions'.
+Perhaps the ugly change is due to French influence.
+
+Originally the adjectives from these words must have lengthened the
+fourth vowel from the end long, as n[=a]t[)i][)o]nal, but when _ti_
+became _sh_ they came to follow the rule of Latin trisyllables in our
+pronunciation.
+
+STEMS IN -IC. Of these words we have a good many, both Latin and
+Greek. Those that came direct keep the stress on the vowel which was
+antepenultimate and is in English penultimate, and this vowel is short
+whatever its original quantity. Examples are 'aquatic', 'italic',
+'Germanic'. Words that came through French threw the stress back, as
+'l['u]natic'. Skeat says that 'fanatic' came through French, but he
+can hardly be right, for the pronunciation 'f['a]natic' is barely
+three score years old. There is no inverted stress in Milton's
+
+  Fan['a]tic Egypt and her priests.
+
+As for 'unique' it is a modern borrowing from French, and of late
+'['a]ntique' or '['a]ntic', as Shakespeare has it, has followed in one
+of its senses the French use. It is a pity in face of Milton's
+
+  With mask and ['a]ntique Pageantry,
+
+and it obscures the etymological identity of 'antique' and 'antic',
+but the old pronunciation is irredeemable. At least the new avoids the
+homophonic inconvenience.
+
+Greek words of this class used as adjectives mostly follow the
+same rule, as 'sporadic', 'dynamic', 'pneumatic', 'esoteric',
+'philanthropic', 'emetic', 'panegyric'. As nouns the earlier
+introductions threw the stress back, as 'heretic', 'arithmetic',
+but later words follow the adjectives, as 'emetic', 'enclitic',
+'panegyric'. As for 'politic', which is stressed as we stress both by
+Shakespeare and by Milton, it must be under French influence, though
+Skeat seems to think that it came straight from Latin.
+
+STEMS IN -OS. These words agree in being disyllabic, but otherwise
+they are a tiresome and quarrelsome people. For their diversity in
+spelling some can make a defence, since 'horror', 'pallor', 'stupor'
+came straight from Latin, but 'tenor', coming through French, should
+have joined hands with 'colour', 'honour', 'odour'. The short vowel is
+inevitable in 'horror' and 'pallor', the long in 'ardour', 'stupor',
+'tumour'. The rest are at war, 'clamour', 'colour', 'honour',
+'dolour', 'rigour', 'squalor', 'tenor', 'vigour' in the short
+legion, 'favour', 'labour', 'odour', 'vapour' in the long. Their
+camp-followers ending in -ous are under their discipline, so that,
+while 'cl[)a]morous', 'r[)i]gorous', 'v[)i]gorous' agree with
+the general rule, '[=o]dorous' makes an exception to it. All
+the derivatives of _favor_ are exceptions to the general rule,
+for 'favourite' and 'favorable' keep its long _a_. Of course
+'l[)a]b[=o]rious' is quite in order, and so is 'v[)a]pid'.
+
+STEMS IN -TOR AND -SOR. These words, when they came through French,
+threw the stress back and shortened the penultimate, _[=o]r[=a]torem_
+becoming _orateur_, and then '[)o]r[)a]tor', with the stress on the
+antepenultimate. Others of the same type are 'auditor', 'competitor',
+'senator', and Shelley has
+
+  The sister-pest, congr['e]gator of slaves,
+
+while 'amateur' is borrowed whole from French and stresses its ultima.
+Trisyllables of course shorten the first vowel, as 'cr[)e]ditor',
+'j[)a]nitor'. Polysyllables follow the stress of the verbs;
+thus '['a]gitate' gives '['a]gitator' and 'comp['o]se' gives
+'comp['o]sitor'. To the first class belongs 'circulator', 'educator',
+'imitator', 'moderator', 'negotiator', 'prevaricator', with which
+'gladiator' associates itself; to the second belongs 'competitor'.
+Words which came straight from Latin keep the stress of the Latin
+nominative, as 'creator', 'spectator', 'testator', 'coadjutor',
+'assessor', to which in Walton's honour must be added 'Piscator'
+and 'Venator'. On 'curator' he who decides does so at his peril.
+On one occasion Eldon from the Bench corrected Erskine for saying
+'c['u]r[)a]tor'. 'Cur[=a]tor, Mr. Erskine, cur[=a]tor.' 'I am glad',
+was the reply, 'to be set right by so eminent a sen[=a]tor and so
+eloquent an or[=a]tor as your Lordship.' Neither eminent lawyer knew
+much about it, but each was so far right that he stuck to the custom
+of his country. On other grounds Erskine might be thought to have
+committed himself to 't['e]st[)a]tor', if not quite to the 'testy
+tricks' of Sally in Mrs. Gaskell's 'Ruth'.
+
+STEMS IN -ERO AND -URO. Adjectives of this type keep the Latin stress,
+which thus falls on the ultima, and shorten or obscure the penultimate
+vowel, as 'mature', 'obscure', 'severe', 'sincere', but of course
+'[=a]ustere'. Of like form though of other origin is 'secure'.
+Nouns take an early stress, as '['a]perture', 's['e]pulture',
+'l['i]terature', 't['e]mperature', unless two mutes obstruct, as in
+'conj['e]cture'. Of the disyllables 'nature' keeps a long penultima,
+while 'figure' has it short, not because of the Latin quantity, but
+because of the French.
+
+The lonely word 'mediocre' lengthens its first vowel by the 'alias'
+rule and also stresses it. Whether the penultima has more than a
+secondary stress is a matter of dispute.
+
+STEMS IN -ARI. These words have the stress on the antepenultima,
+which they shorten, as in 'secular' or keep short as in 'jocular',
+'familiar', but of course 'pec[=u]liar'.
+
+
+_ON CERTAIN GREEK WORDS._
+
+It will have been seen that Greek words are usually treated as Latin.
+Thus 'crisis' lengthens the penultima under the 'apex' rule, while
+'critical' has it short under the general rule of polysyllables.
+Other examples of lengthening are 'bathos', 'pathos', while the long
+quantity is of course kept in 'colon' and 'crasis'. For the 'alias'
+rule we may quote '[=a]theist', 'cryptog[=a]mia', 'h[=o]meopathy',
+'heterog[=e]neous', 'pandem[=o]nium', while the normal shortenings
+are found in 'an[)o]nymous', 'eph[)e]meral', 'pand[)e]monium',
+'[)e]r[)e]mite'. Ignorance of English usage has made some editors
+flounder on a line of Pope's:
+
+  Yes, or we must renounce the Stagirite.
+
+The birthplace of Aristotle was of course Stag[=i]ra or, as it is now
+fashionable to transcribe it, Stageira, as Pope doubtless knew, but
+the editors who accuse him of a false quantity in Greek are on the
+contrary themselves guilty of one in English. The penultima in English
+is short whether it was long or, as in 'dynamite' and 'malachite',
+short in Greek.
+
+There is, however, one distinct class of Greek words in which the
+Latin rule is not followed. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries
+there were scholars who rightly or wrongly treated the Greek accent as
+a mark of stress. It is clear that this habit led to an inability to
+maintain a long quantity in an unstressed syllable. Shakespeare must
+have learnt his little Greek from a scholar who had this habit, for he
+writes 'Andr['o]n[)i]cus' and also
+
+  I am mis['a]nthr[)o]pos and hate mankind.
+
+Of course all scholars shortened the first vowel of the word, and
+doubtless Shakespeare shortened also the third. Busby also thus
+spoke Greek with the result that Dryden in later life sometimes
+wrote epsilon instead of eta and also spoke of 'Cleom['e]nes' and
+'Iphig[=e]n[)i]a'. As a boy at Westminster he wrote
+
+  Learn'd, Vertuous, Pious, Great, and have by this
+  An universal Metempsuchosis.
+
+Macaulay with an ignorance very unusual in him rebuked his nephew for
+saying 'metam['o]rph[)o]sis', and Dr. Johnson, had he been living,
+would have rebuked Macaulay. For the sake of our poets we ought to
+save 'apoth['e][)o]sis', which is in some danger. Garth may perhaps be
+forgotten,
+
+  Allots the prince of his celestial line
+  An Apotheosis and rights divine,
+
+but 'Rejected Addresses' should still carry weight. In the burlesque
+couplet, ascribed in the first edition to the younger Colman and
+afterwards transferred to Theodore Hook, we have
+
+  That John and Mrs. Bull from ale and tea-houses
+  May shout huzza for Punch's apotheosis.
+
+It need hardly be said that 'tea-houses' like 'grandfathers' has the
+stress on the antepenultimate.
+
+There are other words of Greek origin which now break the rules,
+though I believe the infringement to be quite modern. First we have
+the class beginning with _proto_. It can hardly be doubted that our
+ancestors followed rule and said 'pr[)o]tocol', and 'pr[)o]totype',
+and I suspect also 'pr[)o]tomartyr'. There seems, however, to
+be a general agreement nowadays to keep the Greek omega. As for
+'protagonist' the word is so technical and is often so ludicrously
+misunderstood that writers on the Greek drama would do well to retain
+the Greek termination and say 'protagonistes'; for 'protagonist' is
+very commonly mistaken and used for the opposite of 'antagonist'.
+
+Next come words beginning with _hypo_ or _hyph_. In a disyllable the
+vowel is long by the 'apex' rule, as in 'hyphen'. In longer words
+it should be short. So once it was, and we still say 'hypocaust',
+'hypocrit', 'hypochondria' (whence 'hypped'), 'hypothesis', and
+others, but a large group of technical and scientific words seems
+determined to have a long _y_. It looks as though there were a belief
+that _y_ is naturally long, though the French influence which gives us
+'t[=y]rant' does not extend to 'tyranny'. I do not know what Mr. Hardy
+calls his poem, but I hope he follows the old use and calls it 'The
+D[)y]nasts'. It might be thought that 'd[)y]nasty' was safe, but it
+is not. Some modern words like 'dynamite' have been misused from their
+birth.
+
+Another class begins with _hydro-_ from the Greek word for water. None
+of them seem to be very old, but probably 'hydraulic' began life with
+a short _y_. Surely Mrs. Malaprop, when she meant 'hysterics' and said
+'hydrostatics', must have used the short _y_. Of course 'hydra' which
+comes from the same root follows the 'apex' rule.
+
+Words beginning with _hyper-_ seem nowadays always to have a long _y_
+except that one sometimes hears 'h[)y]perbole' and 'h[)y]perbolical'.
+Of course both in _hypo-_ and in _hyper-_ the vowel is short in Greek,
+so that here at least the strange lengthening cannot be ascribed to
+the Grecians. The false theory of a long _y_ has not affected 'cynic'
+or 'cynical', while 'Cyril' has been saved by being a Christian
+name. We may yet hope to retain _y_ short in 'cylinder', 'cynosure',
+'lycanthropy', 'mythology', 'pyramid', 'pyrotechnic', 'sycamore',
+'synonym', 'typical'. As for 'h[=y]brid' it seems as much a caprice
+as '[=a]crid', a pronunciation often heard. Though 'acrid' is a false
+formation it ought to follow 'vivid' and 'florid'. The 'alias' rule
+enforces a long _y_ in 'hygiene' and 'hygienic'.
+
+On the matter of Greek names the lettern and the pulpit are grievous
+offenders. Once it was not so. The clergymen of the old type and
+the scholars of the Oxford Retrogression said T[)i]m[=o]th[)e][)u]s,
+because they had a sense of English and followed, consciously or
+unconsciously, the 'alias' rule. If there was ever an error, it was
+on the lips of some illiterate literate who made three syllables of
+the word. Now it seems fashionable to say T[=i]m[)o]th[)e][)u]s. The
+literate was better than this, for he at least had no theory, and
+frank ignorance is to be forgiven. It is no shame to a man not to know
+that the second _i_ in 'Villiers' is as mute as that in 'Parliament'
+or that Bolingbroke's name began with Bull and ended with brook, but
+when ignorance constructs a theory it is quite another matter. The
+etymological theory of pronunciation is intolerable. Etymology was
+a charming nymph even when men had but a distant acquaintance with
+her, and a nearer view adds to her graces; but when she is dragged
+reluctant from her element she flops like a stranded mermaid.
+The curate says 'Deuteron['o]my', and on his theory ought to say
+'econ['o]my' and 'etymol['o]gy'. When Robert Gomery--why not give
+the reverend poetaster his real if less elegant name--published his
+once popular work, every one called it 'The Omn['i]presence of the
+De[:i]ty', and Shelley had already written
+
+  And, as I look'd, the bright omn['i]presence
+  Of morning through the orient cavern flowed.
+
+It is true that Ken a century earlier had committed himself to
+
+  Thou while below wert yet on high
+  By Omnipr['e]sent Deity,
+
+and later Coleridge, perhaps characteristically, had sinned with
+
+  There is one Mind, one omnipr['e]sent Mind,
+
+but neither the bishop nor the poet would have said 'omnisc['i]ence',
+or 'omnip['o]tence'.
+
+Another word to show signs of etymological corruption is
+'[)e]volution'. It seems to have been introduced as a technical term
+of the art of war, and of course, like 'd[)e]volution', shortened
+the _e_. The biologists first borrowed it and later seem desirous of
+corrupting it. Perhaps they think of such words as '[=e]gress', but
+the long vowel is right in the stressed penultimate.
+
+One natural tendency in English runs strongly against etymology.
+This is the tendency to throw the stress back, which about a century
+ago turned 'cont['e]mplate' into 'c['o]ntemplate' and somewhat
+later 'ill['u]strate' into '['i]llustrate'. Shakespeare and Milton
+pronounced 'instinct' as we pronounce 'distinct' and 'aspect' as we
+pronounce 'respect'. Thus Belarius is made to say
+
+            'Tis wonder
+  That an invisible inst['i]nct should frame them
+  To royalty unlearn'd,
+
+and Milton has
+
+  By this new felt attraction and instinct,
+
+and also
+
+  In battailous asp['e]ct and neerer view.
+
+The retrogression of the stress is in these instances well
+established, and we cannot quarrel with it; but against some very
+recent instances a protest may be made. One seems to be a corruption
+of the War. In 1884 the _N.E.D._ recognized no pronunciation of it
+save 'all['y]', as in Romeo's
+
+  This gentleman, the prince's neer Alie.
+
+The late Mr. B.B. Rogers in his translations of Aristophanes has of
+course no other pronunciation. His verses are too good to be spoiled
+by what began as a vulgarism. Another equally recent vulgarism, not
+recognized by the _N.E.D._ and bad enough to make George Russell
+turn in his grave, is 'm['a]gazine' for 'magaz['i]ne'. It is not yet
+common, but such vulgarisms are apt to climb.
+
+In times not quite so recent the word 'prophecy' has changed, not
+indeed its stress, but the quantity of its final vowel. When Alford
+wrote 'The Queen's English', every one lengthened the last vowel, as
+in the verb, nor do I remember any other pronunciation in my boyhood.
+Now the _N.E.D._ gives the short vowel only. Alford to his own
+satisfaction accounted for the long vowel by the diphthong _ei_ of
+the Greek. It is to be feared that his explanation would involve
+'dynast[=y]' and 'polic[=y]', even if it did not oblige us to turn
+'Pompey' into 'Pomp[=y]'. In this case it may be suspected that
+the noun was assimilated to the verb, which follows the analogy of
+'magnify' and 'multiply'. The voice of the people which now gives
+us 'prophec[)y]' seems here to have felt the power of analogy and
+assuredly will prevail.
+
+
+_ON PROPER NAMES._
+
+It is to be hoped that except in reading Latin and Greek texts we
+shall keep to the traditional pronunciation of proper names as it
+is enshrined in our poetry and other literature. We must continue to
+lengthen the stressed penultimate vowel in Athos, Cato, Draco, Eros,
+Hebrus, Lichas, Nero, Otho, Plato, Pylos, Remus, Samos, Titus, Venus,
+and the many other disyllables wherein it was short in the ancient
+tongues. On the other hand we shall shorten the originally long
+stressed antepenultimate vowel in Brasidas, Euripides, Icarus,
+Lavinia, Lucilius, Lydia, Nicias, Onesimus, Pegasus, Pyramus, Regulus,
+Romulus, Scipio, Sisyphus, Socrates, Thucydides, and many more.
+
+Quin, and the actors of his day, used to give to the first vowel in
+'Cato' the sound of the _a_ in 'father'. They probably thought that
+they were Italianizing such names. In fact their use was neither Latin
+nor English. They were like the men of to-day who speak of the town
+opposite Dover as 'Cally', a name neither French nor English. A town
+which once sent members to the English Parliament has a right to an
+English name. Prior rhymed it with 'Alice' and Browning has
+
+  When Fortune's malice
+  Lost her Calais.
+
+Shakespeare, of course, spelt it 'Callis', and this form, which was
+first evicted by Pope, whom other editors servilely followed, ought
+to be restored to Shakespeare's text. In the pronunciation of Cato the
+stage regained the English diphthong in the mouth of Garrick, whose
+good sense was often in evidence. It is recorded that his example
+was not at once followed in Scotland or Ireland. If there was any
+Highlander on the stage it may be hoped that he gave to the vowel the
+true Latin sound as it appears in 'Mactavish'.
+
+A once well-known schoolmaster, a correspondent of Conington's, had a
+daughter born to him whom in his unregenerate days he christened
+Rosa. At a later time he became a purist in quantities, and then he
+shortened the _o_ and took the voice out of the _s_ and spoke of her
+and to her as Rossa. The mother and the sisters refused to acknowledge
+what they regarded as a touch of shamrock and clung persistently
+to the English flower. The good gentleman did not call his son
+Sol[=o]mon,[2] though this is the form which ought to be used by
+those who turn the traditional English 'Elk[)a]nah' into 'Elk[=a]nah',
+'Ab[)a]na' into 'Ab[=a]na', and 'Zeb[)u]lun' into 'Zeb[=u]lun'. If
+they do not know
+
+  Poor Elk[)a]nah, all other troubles past,
+  For bread in Smithfield dragons hiss'd at last,
+
+yet at least they ought to know
+
+  Of Abb[)a]na and Pharphar, lucid streams.
+
+The malison of Milton on their heads! If the translators of the Bible
+had foreseen 'Zeb[=u]lun', they would have chosen some other word than
+'princes' to avoid the cacophony of 'the princes of Zeb[=u]lun'.
+
+[Footnote 2: But pedantry would not suggest this. The New Testament has
+[Greek: Solom[^o]n], and the Latin Christian poets have the _o_ short.
+True, the Vatican Septuagint has [Greek: Sal[^o]m[^o]n], but there the
+vowel of the first syllable is _a_.--H.B.]
+
+That these usages were familiar is evident from the pronunciation of
+proper, especially Biblical, names. Thus 'B[=a]bel' and 'B[)a]bylon',
+'N[=i]nus' and 'N[)i]neveh', were spoken as unconsciously as
+M[=i]chael' and 'M[)i]chaelmas'. Nobody thought of asking the quantity
+of the Hebrew vowels before he spoke of 'C[=a]leb' and 'B[=a]rak', of
+'G[)i]deon' and 'G[)i]lead', of 'D[)e]borah' and 'Ab[)i]melech', of
+'[=E]phraim' and 'B[=e]lial'. The seeming exceptions can be explained.
+Thus the priest said 'H[)e]rod' because in the Vulgate he read
+'H[)e]rodes', but there was no Greek or Latin form to make him say
+anything else than 'M[=e]roz', 'P[=e]rez', 'S[=e]rah', 'T[=e]resh'.
+He said '[)A]dam' because, although the Septuagint and other books
+retained the bare form of the name, there were other writings in
+which the name was extended by a Latin termination. There was no like
+extension to tempt him to say anything but 'C[=a]desh', '[=E]dom',
+'J[=a]don', 'N[=a]dab'. I must admit my inability to explain
+'Th[)o]mas', but doubtless there is a reason. The abbreviated form was
+of course first 'Th[)o]m' and then 'T[)o]m'. Possibly the pet name has
+claimed dominion over the classical form. As in the _herba impia_
+of the early botanists, these young shoots sometimes refuse to be
+'trash'd for overtopping'.
+
+A story is told of an eccentric Essex rector. He was reading in
+church the fourth chapter of Judges, and after 'Now D[)e]borah, a
+prophetess', suddenly stopped, not much to the astonishment of
+the rustics, for they knew his ways. Then he went on 'Deb[)o]rah?
+Deb[)o]rah? Deb[=o]rah! Now Deb[=o]rah, a prophetess', and so on.
+Probably a freak of memory had reminded him that the letter was
+omega in the Septuagint. It will be remembered that Miss Jenkyns in
+_Cranford_ liked her sister to call her Deb[=o]rah, 'her father having
+once said that the Hebrew name ought to be so pronounced', and it will
+not be forgotten that the good rector was too sound a scholar to read
+'Deb[=o]rah' at the lettern.
+
+An anecdote of Burgon's is to the point. He had preached in St. Mary's
+what he regarded as an epoch-making sermon, and afterwards he walked
+home to Oriel with Hawkins, the famous Provost. He looked for comment
+and hoped for praise, but the Provost's only remark was, 'Why do
+you say Emm[=a]us?' 'I don't know; isn't it Emm[=a]us?' 'No, no;
+Emm[)a]us, Emm[)a]us.' When Hawkins was young, in the days of George
+III, every one said Emmaus, and in such matters he would say, 'I will
+have no innovations in my time.' On the King's lips the phrase, as
+referring to politics, was foolish, but Hawkins used it with sense.
+
+PS.--I had meant to cite an anecdote of Johnson. As he walked in the
+Strand, a man with a napkin in his hand and no hat stept out of a
+tavern and said, 'Pray, Sir, is it irr['e]parable or irrep['a]irable
+that one should say?'--'The last, I think, Sir, for the adjective
+ought to follow the verb; but you had better consult my dictionary
+than me, for that was the result of more thought than you will now
+give me time for.' The dictionary rightly gives _irr['e]parable_, and
+both the rule and example of the Doctor's _obiter dicta_ (literally
+_obiter_) are wrong.
+
+J.S.
+
+
+
+
+MISCELLANEOUS NOTES AND CORRESPONDENCE
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+ADDENDA TO HOMOPHONES IN TRACT II
+
+
+Several correspondents complain of the incompleteness of the list
+of Homophones in Tract II. The object of that list was to convince
+readers of the magnitude of the mischief, and the consequent
+necessity for preserving niceties of pronunciation: evidence of its
+incompleteness must strengthen its plea. The following words may be
+added; they are set here in the order of the literary alphabet.
+
+Add to Table I (p. 7)
+
+  band, [^1] _a tie_, [^2] _a company_.
+
+  bend, [^1] _verb_, [^2] _heraldic sub._
+
+  bay, [^1] _tree_, [^2] _arm of sea_, [^3] _window_,
+    [^4] _barking of dog_, and '_at bay_',
+    [^5] _a dam_, [^6] _of antler_, [^7] _a colour_.
+
+  blaze, [^1] _of flame_, [^2] _to sound forth_.
+
+  bluff, [^1] _adj. & sub. = broad = fronted_,
+    [^2] _blinker_, [^3] _sub. and v. confusing_ [^1] _and_ [^2].
+
+  boom, [^1] _to hum_, [^2] _= beam_.
+
+  cant, [^1] _whine_, [^2] _to tilt_.
+
+  chaff, [^1] _of wheat_, [^2] _= chafe (slang)_.
+
+  cove, [^1] _a recess_, [^2] _= chap (slang)_.
+
+  file, [^1] _string_, [^2] _rasp_, [^3] _= to defile_.
+
+  grave, [^1] _sub._, [^2] _adj._
+
+  hind, [^1] _fem. of stag_, [^2] _a peasant_, [^3] _adj. of behind_.
+
+  limb, [^1] _member_, [^2] _edge_, [^3] limn.
+
+  limber, [^1] _shaft of cart (verb in artillery)_,
+    [^2] _naut. subs._, [^3] _adj. pliant_.
+
+  loom, [^1] _subs._, [^2] _v._
+
+  nice, gneiss.
+
+  ounce, [^1] _animal_, [^2] _a weight_.
+
+  plash, [^1] _= pleach_, [^2] _a puddle_.
+
+  port, [^1] _demeanour, & military v._,
+    [^2] _haven_, [^3] _gate & naut.= port-hole_,
+    [^4] _= larboard_, [^5] _a wine_.
+
+  shingle, [^1] _a wooden tile_, [^2] _gravel_,
+    [^3] (_in pl._) _a disease_.
+
+  shrub, [^1] _a bush_, [^2] _a drink_.
+
+  smack, [^1] _a sounding blow_, [^2] _a fishing boat_, [^3] _taste_.
+
+  throw, throe.
+
+Also note that _so_ should be added to _sew, sow_, and that the words
+_leech_, _leach_, are not sufficiently credited with etymological
+variety: [see below p. 33].
+
+To Table II add
+
+  when, _wen_.
+
+To Table VIII
+
+The following words, the absence of which has been noted, are not true
+homophones:--
+
+  crack
+  fool
+  fume
+  gentle
+  interest
+  palm
+  stem
+  trip
+
+To Table IX add
+
+  must [^1] _obs? new wine_, [^2] _verb._
+
+To Shakespearean obsoletes p. 27 add
+
+  limn, _lost in_ limb.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+THE SKILFUL LEECH
+
+The Poet Laureate has pointed out that several useful words have been
+lost to the English language because their identity in sound with
+other words renders it impossible to use them without the risk either
+of being misunderstood or of calling up undesirable associations.
+It is owing to this cause that English--or, at least, the English of
+Great Britain--has no word that can correctly be used as a general
+designation for a member of the healing profession. In America, I
+believe, the word is 'physician'; but in England that appellation
+belongs to one branch of the profession exclusively. The most usual
+term here is 'doctor'; but the M.D. rightly objects to the application
+of this title to his professional brother who has no degree; and in
+a university town to say that John Smith is a doctor would be
+inconveniently ambiguous. 'Medical man' is cumbrous, and has the
+further disadvantage (in these days) of not being of common gender.
+Now the lack of any proper word for a meaning so constantly needing
+to be expressed is certainly a serious defect in modern (insular)
+English. The Americans have some right to crow over us here; but their
+'physician' is a long word; and though it has been good English in
+the sense of _medicus_ for six hundred years, it ought by etymology
+to mean what _physicien_ does in French, and _physicist_ in modern
+English. Our ancestors were better off in this respect than either we
+or the Americans. The only native word to denote a practiser of the
+healing art is _leech_, which is better than the foreign 'physician'
+because it is shorter. It was once a term of high dignity: Chaucer
+could apply it figuratively to God, as the healer of souls; and even
+in the sixteenth century a poet could address his lady as 'My sorowes
+leech'. Why can we not so use it now? Why do we not speak of 'The
+Royal College of Leeches'? Obviously, because a word of the same form
+happens to be the name of an ugly little animal of disgusting habits.
+If I were to introduce my medical attendant to a friend with the words
+'This is my leech', the gentleman (or lady) so presented would think
+I was indulging in the same sort of pleasantry as is used when a
+coachman is called a 'whip'; and he (or she) would probably not
+consider the joke to be in the best of taste. Of course all educated
+people know that it was once not unusual to speak of a man of medicine
+as a 'leech'; but probably there are many who imagine that this
+designation was a disparaging allusion to the man's tool of trade, and
+that it could be applied only to inferior members of the profession.
+The ancient appellation of the healer is so far obsolete that if I
+were to answer a question as to a man's profession with the words 'Oh,
+he is a leech', there would be some risk of being misunderstood to
+mean that he was a money-lender.
+
+Etymologists generally have regarded the name of the bloodsucking
+animal as the same word with _leech_ a physician, the assumption being
+that the animal received its name from its use as a remedial agent.
+But the early forms, both in English and Low German, show that the
+words are originally unconnected. The English for _medicus_ was in the
+tenth century _l['[ae]]ce_ or _l['e]ce_, and in the thirteenth century
+_leche_; the word for _sanguisuga_ was in the tenth century _lyce_,
+and in the thirteenth century _liche_. According to phonetic law the
+latter word should have become _litch_ in modern English; but it very
+early underwent a punning alteration which made it homophonous with
+the ancient word for physician. The unfortunate consequence is that
+the English language has hopelessly lost a valuable word, for which it
+has never been able to find a satisfactory substitute.
+
+H.B.
+
+
+
+
+DIFFERENTIATION OF HOMOPHONES
+
+
+On this very difficult question the attitude of a careful English
+speaker is shown in the following extract from a letter addressed to
+us:
+
+METAL, METTLE: AND PRINCIPAL, PRINCIPLE
+
+'I find that I do not _naturally_ distinguish _metal_ and _mettle_
+in pronunciation, tho' when there is any danger of ambiguity I say
+_metal_ for the former and _met'l_ for the latter; and I should
+probably do so (without thinking about it) in a public speech. In my
+young days the people about me usually pronounced _met'l_ for both.
+Theoretically I think the distinction is a desirable one to make;
+the fact that the words are etymologically identical seems to me
+irrelevant. The words are distinctly two in modern use: when we talk
+of _mettle_ (meaning spiritedness) there is in our mind no thought
+whatever of the etymological sense of the word, and the recollection
+of it, if it occurred, would only be disturbing. So I intend in future
+to pronounce metal as _met[e]l_ (when I don't forget). And I am not
+sure that _met[e]l_ is, strictly speaking, a "spelling-pronunciation":
+It is possible that the difference in spelling originated in a
+difference of pronunciation, not the other way about. For _metal_ in
+its literal sense was originally a scientific word, and in that sense
+may have been pronounced carefully by people who would pronounce
+it carelessly when they used it in a colloquial transferred sense
+approaching to slang.
+
+'The question of _principal_ and _principle_ is different. When I was
+young, educated people in my circle always, I believe, distinguished
+them; so to this day when I hear principal pronounced as principle it
+gives me a squirm, tho' I am afraid nearly everybody does it now. That
+the words are etymologically distinct does not greatly matter; it is
+of more importance that I have sometimes been puzzled to know which
+word a speaker meant; if I remember right, I once had to ask.
+
+'It would be worth while to distinguish _flower_ and _flour_ (which
+originally, like _metal_ and _mettle_, were the same word); yet in
+practice it is not easy to make the difference audible. The homophony
+is sometimes inconvenient.'
+
+CORRECTION TO TRACT II
+
+On p. 37 of TRACT II the words 'the Anglo-prussian society which Mr.
+Jones represents' have given offence and appear to be inaccurate. The
+German title of the series in which Jones's Dictionary is one has the
+following arrangement of words facing the English title:
+
+HERAUSGEGEBEN
+
+UND
+
+DER "ASSOCIATION PHON['E]TIQUE INTERNATIONALE" GEWIDMET
+
+VON
+
+H. MICHAELIS,
+
+and this misled me. I am assured that, though the dictionary may
+be rightly described as Anglo-Prussian, the Phonetic Association is
+Gallo-Scandinavian. In behalf of the S.P.E. I apologize to the A.
+Ph. I. for my mistake which has led one of its eminent associates to
+accuse me of bearing illwill towards the Germans. The logic of that
+reproach baffles me utterly.
+
+[R.B.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+SOME LEXICAL MATTERS
+
+
+FAST = QUICK OR FIRM
+
+
+'An Old Cricketer' writes:
+
+'After reading your remarks on the ambiguity of the word _fast_ (Tract
+III, p. 12) I read in the report of a Lancashire cricket match that
+_Makepeace was the only batsman who was fast-footed_. But for the
+context and my knowledge of the game I should have concluded that
+Makepeace kept his feet immovably on the crease; but the very opposite
+was intended. At school we used to translate [Greek: podas [^o]kus
+Achilleus] "swift-footed Achilles", and I took that to mean that Achilles
+was a sprinter. I suppose _quick-footed_ would be the epithet for
+Makepeace.'
+
+SPRINTER is a good word, though _Sprinting Achilles_ could not be
+recommended.
+
+
+BRATTLE
+
+A correspondent from Newcastle writes advocating the recognition
+of the word _brattle_ as descriptive of thunder. It is a good old
+echo-word used by Dunbar and Douglas and Burns and by modern English
+writers. It is familiar through the first stanza of Burns's poem 'To a
+Mouse'.
+
+  Wee sleekit cow'rin tim'rous beastie,
+  O what a panic's in thy breastie.
+  Thou need na start awa sae hasty
+      Wi' bickering brattle....
+
+which is not suggestive of thunder. The _N.E.D._ explains this as 'to
+run with brattling feet, to scamper'.
+
+In Burns's 'A Winter Night', it is the noisy confusion of _biting
+Boreas_ in the bare trees and bushes:
+
+  I thought me on the ourie cattle
+  Or silly sheep, wha bide this brattle
+        O' winter war.
+
+It is possible that _brattle_ has fallen into disuse through too
+indiscriminate application. After Burns's famous poem the word can
+establish itself only in the sense of a scurrying dry noise: it is too
+small for thunder.
+
+We would call attention to the principle involved in this judgement,
+for it is one of the main objects of our society to assist and guide
+Englishmen in the use of their language by fully exposing the facts
+that should determine their practice. Every word has its history,
+and no word can prosper in the speech or writing of those who do not
+respect its inherited and unalterable associations; these cannot
+be got rid of by ignoring them. Littr['e] in the preface to his
+dictionary claims for it this pre-eminent quality of usefulness,
+that it will enable his countrymen to speak and write good French
+by acquainting them with historic tradition, and he says that it was
+enthusiasm for this one purpose that sustained him in his great work.
+Its object was to harmonize the present use of the language with
+the past usage, in order that the present usage may possess all
+the fullness, richness, and certitude which it can have, and which
+naturally belong to it. His words are: 'Avant tout, et pour ramener
+[`a] une id['e]e m[`e]re ce qui va [^e]tre expliqu['e] dans la
+_Pr['e]face_, je dirai, d['e]finissant ce dictionnaire, qu'il embrasse
+et combine l'usage pr['e]sent de la langue et son usage pass['e],
+afin de donner [`a] l'usage pr['e]sent toute la pl['e]nitude et la
+s[^u]ret['e] qu'il comporte.'
+
+It is the intention of our society to offer only expert and
+well-considered opinion on these literary matters, which are often
+popularly handled in the newspapers and journals as fit subjects
+for private taste and uninformed prejudice: and since the Oxford
+Dictionary has done more fully for English what Littr['e] did
+for French, our task is comparatively easy. But experts cannot be
+expected, all of them, to have the self-denying zeal of ['E]mile
+Littr['e], and the worth of our tracts will probably improve with the
+increase of our subscribers.
+
+
+BICKER
+
+As Burns happens to use _bickering_ as his epithet for the mouse's
+brattle, we may take this word as another illustration of Littr['e]'s
+principle. The _N.E.D._ gives the original meaning as _skirmish_, and
+quotes Shakespeare,
+
+  If I longer stay
+  We shall begin our ancient bickerings,
+
+which a man transposing the third and fourth words might say to-day
+without rising above colloquial speech; but there is another allied
+signification which Milton has in
+
+  Smoak and bickering flame;
+
+and this is followed by many later writers. It would seem therefore,
+if the word is to have a special sense, that it must be focused in the
+idea of something that both wavers and skirmishes, and this suggests
+another word which caught our eye in the dictionary, that is
+
+
+BRANGLE
+
+It is defined in the _N.E.D._ as 'a brawl, wrangle, squabble' and
+marked _obsolete_. It seems to differ from its numerous synonyms by
+the suggestion of what we call a muddle: that is an active wrangling
+which has become inextricably confused.
+
+
+SURVIVALS IN LANCASHIRE SPEECH
+
+Mr. Ernest Stenhouse sends us notes on Tract II, from which we extract
+the following:
+
+'_Poll_ (= to cut the hair) is still familiar in Lancashire. _Tickle_
+(unstable) is obsolescent but not yet obsolete. As a child I often
+heard _meterly_ (= moderately): e.g. _meterly fausse_ (? false) =
+moderately cunning. It may still be in use. _Bout_ (= without = A.S.
+butan) is commonly heard.
+
+'The words tabulated in Tract II, p. 34, and the following pairs are
+not homophones in Lancashire: stork, stalk; pattern, patten; because
+although the _r_ in stork and pattern is not trilled as in Scotland,
+it is distinctly indicated by a modification of the preceding vowel,
+somewhat similar to that heard in the _[(or]e_ words (p. 35).
+
+'Homophony may arise from a failure to make distinctions that are
+recognized in P.S.P. Thus in Lancashire the diphthong sound in _flow_,
+_snow_, _bone_, _coal_, _those_, &c., is very often pronounced as a
+pure vowel (cf. French _eau_, _mot_): hence confusion arises between
+_flow_ and _flaw_, _sow_ and _saw_, _coal_ and _call_: both these
+vowel sounds tending to become indistinguishable from the French
+_eau_.'
+
+
+FEASIBLE
+
+_Feasible_ is a good example of a word which appears in danger of
+being lost through incorrect and ignorant use. It can very well
+happen that a word which is not quite comfortable may feel its way
+to a useful place in defiance of etymology; and in such cases it is
+pedantry to object to its instinctive vagaries. But _feasible_ is a
+well-set comfortable word which is being ignorantly deprived of its
+useful definite signification. In the following note Mr. Fowler puts
+its case clearly, and his quotations, being typically illustrative of
+the manner in which this sort of mischief comes about, are worthy of
+attention.
+
+'With those who feel that the use of an ordinary word for an ordinary
+notion does not do justice to their vocabulary or sufficiently exhibit
+their cultivation, who in fact prefer the stylish to the working word,
+_feasible_ is now a prime favourite. Its proper sense is "capable of
+being done, accomplished, or carried out". That is, it means the same
+as _possible_ in one of the latter's senses, and its true function
+is to be used instead of _possible_ where that might be ambiguous. _A
+thunderstorm is possible_ (but not _feasible_). Irrigation is possible
+(or, indifferently, _feasible_). _A counter-revolution is possible_;
+i.e., (a) one may for all we know happen, or (b) we can if we choose
+bring one about; but, if _b_ is the meaning, _feasible_ is better than
+_possible_ because it cannot properly bear sense _a_, and therefore
+obviates ambiguity.
+
+'The wrong use of _feasible_ is that in which, by a slipshod
+extension, it is allowed to have also the other sense of _possible_,
+and that of _probable_. This is described by the highest authority
+as "hardly a justifiable sense etymologically, and ... recognized
+by no dictionary". It is however becoming very common; in all the
+following quotations, it will be seen that the natural word would be
+either _possible_ or _probable_, one of which should have been
+chosen:--Continuing, Mr. Wood said: "I think it is very feasible that
+the strike may be brought to an end this week, and it is a significant
+coincidence that ...". / Witness said it was quite feasible that if he
+had had night binoculars he would have seen the iceberg earlier. / We
+ourselves believe that this is the most feasible explanation of the
+tradition. / This would appear to offer a feasible explanation of the
+scaffold puzzle.'
+
+
+PROTAGONIST
+
+Mr. Sargeaunt (on p. 26) suggests that we might do well to keep the
+full Greek form of this word, and speak and write _protagonistes_.
+Familiarity with _Agonistes_ in the title of Milton's drama, where
+it is correctly used as equivalent to 'mighty champion', would be
+misleading, and the rejection of the English form 'protagonist' seems
+otherwise undesirable. The following remarks by Mr. Fowler show that
+popular diction is destroying the word; and if ignorance be allowed
+its way we shall have a good word destroyed.
+
+'The word that has so suddenly become a prime favourite with
+journalists, who more often than not make it mean champion or advocate
+or defender, has no right whatever to any of those meanings, and
+almost certainly owes them to the mistaking of the first syllable
+(representing Greek [Greek: pr[^o]tos] "first") for [Greek: pro] "on
+behalf of"--a mistake made easy by the accidental resemblance to
+_antagonist_. "Accidental", since the Greek [Greek: ag[^o]nist[^e]s]
+has different meanings in the two words, in one "combatant", but
+in the other "play-actor". The Greek [Greek: pr[^o]tag[^o]nist[^e]s]
+means the actor who takes the chief part in a play--a sense readily
+admitting of figurative application to the most conspicuous personage
+in any affair. The deuteragonist and tritagonist take parts of second
+and third importance, and to talk of several protagonists, or of a
+chief protagonist or the like, is an absurdity. In the newspapers
+it is a rarity to meet _protagonist_ in a legitimate sense; but two
+examples of it are put first in the following collection. All the
+others are outrages on this learned-sounding word, because some of
+them distinguish between chief protagonists and others who are not
+chief, some state or imply that there are more protagonists than one
+in an affair, and the rest use _protagonist_ as a mere synonym for
+advocate.
+
+'Legitimate uses: _The "cher Hal['e]vy" who is the protagonist of the
+amazing dialogue. / Marco Landi, the protagonist and narrator of a
+story which is skilfully contrived and excellently told, is a fairly
+familiar type of soldier of fortune._
+
+'Absurd uses with _chief_, &c.: _The chief protagonist is a young
+Nonconformist minister. / Unlike a number of the leading protagonists
+in the Home Rule fight, Sir Edward Carson was not in Parliament
+when.... / It presents a spiritual conflict, centred about its two
+chief protagonists, but shared in by all its characters._
+
+'Absurd plural uses: _One of the protagonists of that glorious fight
+for Parliamentary Reform in 1866 is still actively among us. / One
+of these immense protagonists must fall, and, as we have already
+foreshadowed, it is the Duke. / By a tragic but rapid process of
+elimination most of the protagonists have now been removed. / As on
+a stage where all the protagonists of a drama assemble at the end of
+the last act. / That letter is essential to a true understanding of
+the relations of the three great protagonists at this period. / The
+protagonists in the drama, which has the motion and structure of a
+Greek tragedy_ (Fy! fy!--a Greek tragedy and protagonists?).
+
+'Confusions with _advocate_, &c.: _The new Warden is a strenuous
+protagonist of that party in Convocation. / Mr ----, an enthusiastic
+protagonist of militant Protestantism. / The chief protagonist on
+the company's side in the latest railway strike, Mr ----. / It was a
+happy thought that placed in the hands of the son of one of the great
+protagonists of Evolution the materials for the biography of another.
+/ But most of the protagonists of this demand have shifted their
+ground. / As for what the medium himself or his protagonists may think
+of them--for etymological purposes that is neither here nor there._
+
+'Perhaps we need not consider the Greek scholar's feelings; he
+has many advantages over the rest of us, and cannot expect that in
+addition he shall be allowed to forbid us a word that we find useful.
+Is it useful? or is it merely a pretentious blundering substitute for
+words that are useful? _Pro-_ in _protagonist_ is not the opposite of
+_anti-_; _-agonist_ is not the same as in _antagonist_; _advocate_
+and _champion_ and _defender_ and _combatant_ are better words for the
+wrong senses given to _protagonist_; and _protagonist_ in its right
+sense of _the_ (not _a_) chief actor in an affair has still work to do
+if it could only be allowed to mind its own business.'
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+AMERICAN APPRECIATION
+
+We are glad to reprint the following short extracts from the _New York
+Times Book Review and Magazine_, September 26, 1920.
+
+
+'THE CAMPAIGN FOR PURE ENGLISH
+
+    'Among those who joined it (the S.P.E.) immediately were
+    Arthur J. Balfour, A.C. Bradley, Austin Dobson, Thomas Hardy,
+    J.W. Mackail, Gilbert Murray, Mrs. Humphry Ward, and Mrs.
+    Wharton.... The rallying of these men and women of letters
+    was not more significant than the prompt adhesion of the
+    Professors of English in the various British Universities:
+    W.M. Dixon, Oliver Elton, E.S. Gordon, C.H. Herford, W.P.
+    Ker, G.C. Moore-Smith, F.W. Moorman, A. Quiller-Couch, George
+    Saintsbury, and H.C.K. Wyld....
+
+    'There is a peril to the proper development of the language in
+    offensive affectations, in persistent pedantry, and in other
+    results of that comprehensive ignorance of the history of
+    English, which we find plentifully revealed in many of our
+    grammars. It is high time that men who love the language, who
+    can use it deftly and forcibly, and who are acquainted with
+    the principles and the processes of its growth, should raise
+    the standard of independence....
+
+    'It is encouraging to realize that the atrophy of the
+    word-making habit is less obvious in the United States than
+    it is in Great Britain.... We cannot but regret that it is
+    not now possible to credit to their several inventors American
+    compounds of a delightful expressiveness--_windjammer,
+    loan-shark, scare-head_, and that more delectable
+    _pussy-footed_--all of them verbal creations with an
+    imaginative quality almost Elizabethan in its felicity, and
+    all of them examples of the purest English.... We Americans
+    made the compound _farm-hand_, and employ it in preference to
+    the British [English?] _agricultural labourer_.
+
+    '_The attention of the officers of the society may be called
+    to the late Professor Lounsbury's lively and enlightening_
+    History of the English Language, _and to Professor George
+    Philip Krapp's illuminating study of_ Modern English.
+
+BRANDER MATTHEWS.'
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+REPORT
+
+Of the proceedings of the Society for the first year ending Xmas,
+1920.
+
+The Society still remains governed by the small committee of its
+original founders: the support of the public and the press has been
+altogether satisfactory: the suggestions and programme which the
+committee originally put forward have met with nothing but favourable
+criticism; no opposition has been aroused, and we are therefore
+encouraged to meet the numerous invitations that we have received from
+all parts of the English-speaking world to make our activities more
+widely known. The sale of the Tracts has been sufficient to pay their
+expenses; and we are in this respect very much indebted to the Oxford
+University Press for its generous co-operation; for it has enabled us
+to offer our subscribers good workmanship at a reasonable price. The
+publication of this Tract IV closes our first 'year': we regret that
+the prevalent national disturbances have extended it beyond the solar
+period, but the conditions render explanation and apology needless.
+
+Our list shows 188 members, and their names include many well-known
+men of letters, Professors of Literature, Editors, Journalists,
+and others interested in the history and present condition of the
+language. Nineteen members sent donations (above 10s. 6d.) which
+together amounted to about 40 pounds; and thirty-two sent subscriptions
+of ten shillings for the supply of one year's publications.
+
+To these subscribers (whose names are printed in the list below) all
+the four Tracts for this year have been sent: and it will appear that
+since they might have bought the four Tracts for 7s. 6d., they have
+made a donation of 2s. 6d. apiece to the funds of the Society. This
+margin is very useful and we hope that they will renew their 10s.
+subscription in advance for the ensuing year. That will ensure their
+receiving the Society's papers as they are issued, and it will
+much assist the machinery of publication. Also Members who have not
+hitherto subscribed are now specially invited to do so. They can
+judge of the Society's work, and can best support it in this way.
+The publications of 1921 _will be sent as soon as issued to all such
+subscribers_.
+
+Subscriptions may be sent to the Secretary, L. Pearsall Smith, 11 St.
+Leonard's Terrace, Chelsea, London, S.W., to whom all communications
+should be addressed, or they may be paid direct to 'Treasurer of
+S.P.E.', Barclay's Bank, High Street, Oxford.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+LIST OF SUBSCRIBERS
+
+  *+ Aikin, Dr. W.A., 66 Bedford Gardens.
+  *  Bennett, Arnold, 80 Piccadilly.
+     Bottomley, Gordon, The Sheiling, Silverdale, Carnforth.
+     Brindley, H.H., 25 Madingly Road, Cambridge.
+  *  Brown, Miss E.O., Bournstream, Wotton-under-Edge.
+     Carleton, Brig.-Gen. L.R., Holmdale, Grasmere.
+  *  Case, Thomas, Corpus Christi College, Oxford.
+     Curtis, James, 179 Marylebone Road, N.W. 1.
+     Dixon, Prof. J. Main, Univ. S. California, Los Angeles.
+     Elliott, Rear-Adml. H.V., 13 South Road, Weston-super-Mare.
+     Fry, Miss Agnes, Failand House, nr. Bristol.
+  *  Gainsford, W.D., Skendleby Hall, Spilsbury.
+  *  Harman, Capt. H.A., D.S.O., King's College, Lagos, S. Nigeria.
+     Headlam, Rev. Stewart, Wavertree, St. Margaret-on-Thames.
+  *  Henderson, T., Upumulo Napumulo, Natal.
+     Horniman, Miss A.E.F., 1h.* Montague Mansions, W. 1.
+     Hunt, Howard L., Univ. S. California, Los Angeles.
+  *  Lacy, Miss H., Highbury Crescent, N. 5.
+   + Lawrence, A., 13 Norfolk Crescent, W. 2.
+     Lindsay, Prof. W.M., 5 Howard Place, St. Andrews.
+     Melland, E. Alport, Bakewell.
+     Morton, G.H., 13 Kimberley Terrace, Tredegar.
+  *  Muirhead, L., Haseley Court, Wallingford.
+  *  Nickerson, Rev. D., Newton-on-Ouse, York.
+  *  O'May, J., c/o Messrs. Barker & Co., Singapore.
+     Partington, S., Sunny Brow, Eden Mount, Grange on Sands, Lancs.
+  *  Pickering-Jones, J., West Africa House, Water Street, Liverpool.
+     Portal, Miss E., 82 Carlisle Mansions, Victoria Street, S.W.
+  *  Pryor, Mrs., Lannock Manor, Stevenage, Herts.
+     Ramsden, William, Marshfield, Huddersfield.
+     Reade, H.V., 181 Queen's Gate, S.W.
+     Rieder, Madame A., Lyceum Club, 128 Piccadilly.
+     Robinson, Frances G., The Towers, Sneyd Park, nr. Bristol.
+     Samuel, Rt. Hon. Sir Herbert, 31 Porchester Terrace, Hyde Park.
+     Sampson, John, University Library, Liverpool.
+     Scrivener, Miss J., The Ladies' College, Cheltenham.
+  *  Sheldon, E.W., 46 Park Avenue, New York.
+     Shepherd, Arthur, 46 Edwardes Square, W. 8.
+  *  Strachey, Lady, 51 Gordon Square, W.C.
+     Teixeira de Mattos, A., 9 Cheltenham Terrace, S.W. 3.
+     Thompson, Rev. E.J., Wesleyan College, Bankura, Bengal.
+  *  Tilley A., 2 Selwyn Gardens, Cambridge.
+     Warrington, T.C., High School, Leek, Staffs.
+  *  Waterhouse, Mrs. T.C., Lomberdale Hall, Bakewell.
+     Wheeler, Horace L., Public Library, Back Bay, Boston, Mass.
+     Wigram, Col. Clive, 37 Chester Square, S.W. 1.
+     Wollaston, G.H., Flaxley Cottage, Flax Bourton.
+
+  ++ The Ladies' College, Cheltenham.
+  ++ Queen's University, Belfast.
+  ++ Minnesota University.
+  ++ Princeton University.
+
+* Donors of above 10s. 6d.
+
++ Subscribers for 1921.
+
+++ Universities, Colleges, or Libraries to which the issues of 1921
+will be sent without prepayment.
+
+
+The secretary should be informed of any error in the above addresses,
+and of any permanent change of address.
+
+
+FINIS
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Society for Pure English Tract 4, by John Sargeaunt
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SOCIETY FOR PURE ENGLISH TRACT 4 ***
+
+***** This file should be named 15364.txt or 15364.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        https://www.gutenberg.org/1/5/3/6/15364/
+
+Produced by David Starner, William Flis, and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team.
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+https://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+https://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at https://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit https://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including including checks, online payments and credit card
+donations.  To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     https://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
+
+*** END: FULL LICENSE ***
+