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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, A Portraiture of Quakerism, Volume I (of 3),
+by Thomas Clarkson
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: A Portraiture of Quakerism, Volume I (of 3)
+
+Author: Thomas Clarkson
+
+Release Date: March 4, 2005  [eBook #15260]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A PORTRAITURE OF QUAKERISM, VOLUME
+I (OF 3)***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Carlo Traverso, Graeme Mackreth, and the Project
+Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team from images generously made
+available by the Bibliothèque nationale de France (BnF/Gallica) at
+http://gallica.bnf.fr.
+
+
+
+A PORTRAITURE OF QUAKERISM, VOLUME I
+
+Taken from a View of the Education and Discipline, Social Manners,
+Civil and Political Economy, Religious Principles and Character, of
+the Society of Friends
+
+by
+
+THOMAS CLARKSON, M.A.
+
+1806.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: THOMAS CLARKSON, A.M.]
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS OF THE FIRST VOLUME.
+
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+PREFATORY ARRANGEMENTS AND REMARKS
+
+
+
+MORAL EDUCATION.
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+_Amusements distinguishable into useful and hurtful--the latter
+specified and forbidden_.
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+SECT. I.--_Games of chance forbidden--history of the origin of some of
+these_.
+
+SECT. II.--_Forbidden as below the dignity of the intellect of man, and
+of his christian character_.
+
+SECT. III.--_As producing an excitement of the passions, unfavourable to
+religious impressions--historical anecdotes of this excitement_.
+
+SECT. IV.--_As tending to produce, by the introduction of habits of
+gaming, an alteration in the moral character_.
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+SECT. I.--_Music forbidden--instrumental innocent in itself, but greatly
+abused--the use of it almost inseparable from its abuse at the present
+day_.
+
+SECT. II.--_Quakers cannot learn instrumental on the usual motives of
+the world--nor consider it as a source of moral improvement, or of
+solid comfort to the mind--but are fearful that, if indulged in, it
+would interfere with the Christian duty of religious retirement_.
+
+SECT III.--_Quakers cannot learn vocal, because, on account of its
+articulative powers, it is capable of becoming detrimental to
+morals--its tendency to this, as discoverable by an analysis of
+different classes of songs_.
+
+SECT IV.--_The preceding the arguments of the early Quaker--but the new
+state of music has produced others--these explained_.
+
+SECT V.--_An objection stated to the different arguments of the Quakers
+on this subject--their reply_.
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+SECT I.--_The Theatre forbidden--short history of its origin--and of its
+state and progress_.
+
+SECT II.--_Manner of the drama objected to by the Quakers--as it
+personates the characters of others--and it professes to reform vice_.
+
+SECT III.--_Contents of the drama objected to--as they hold our false
+sentiments--and weaken the sinews of morality_.
+
+SECT IV.--_Theater considered by the Quakers to be injurious to the
+happiness of man, as it disqualifies him for the pleasure of religion_.
+
+SECT V.--_To be injurious to the happiness of man, as it disqualifies
+him for domestic enjoyments_.
+
+SECT VI.--_Opinions of the early Christians on this subject_.
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+SECT. I.--_Dancing forbidden--light in which this subject has been
+viewed both by the ancients and the moderns--Quakers principally object
+to it, where it is connected with public assemblies--they conceive it
+productive, in this case, of a frivolous levity, and of an excitement of
+many of the evil passions_.
+
+SECT. II--_These arguments of the Quakers, on dancing, examined in
+three supposed cases put to a moral philosopher_.
+
+SECT. III.--_These arguments further elucidated by a display of the
+Ball-room_.
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+_Novels forbidden--considered by the Quakers as producing an affectation
+of knowledge--a romantic spirit--and a perverted morality_.
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+SECT. I--_Diversions of the field forbidden--general thoughtlessness
+upon this subject--sentiments of some of our best poets--law of the
+Quakers concerning it_.
+
+SECT. II.--_Consistency of this law examined by the morality, which is
+inculcated by the Old Testament_.
+
+SECT. III.--_Examined by the morality of the New--these employments, if
+resorted to as diversions, pronounced, in both cases, to be a breach of
+a moral law_.
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+_Objections to the preceding system, which includes these different
+prohibitions, as a system of moral education_.
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+SECT. I.--_Reply of the Quakers to these objections_.
+
+SECT. II.--_Further reply of the Quakers on the same subject_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+DISCIPLINE.
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+SECT. I.--_Outlines of the discipline of the Quakers_.
+
+SECT. II.--_Manner of the administration of this discipline_.
+
+SECT. III.--_Charges usually brought against the administration of
+it--observations in answer in these charges_.
+
+SECT. IV.--_The principles of this discipline applicable to the
+discipline of larger societies, or to the criminal codes of
+states--beautiful example in Pennsylvania_.
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+_Monthly court or meeting of the Quakers for the purposes of their
+discipline--nature and manner of the business transacted there_.
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+_Quarterly court or meeting for the same purposes--nature and manner of
+the business there_.
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+_Annual court or meeting for the same purposes--nature and manner of the
+business there--striking peculiarities in this manner--character of this
+discipline or government_.
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+_Excommunication or disowning--nature of disowning as a punishment_.
+
+
+
+PECULIAR CUSTOMS.
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+SECT. I.--_Dress--extravagance of the dress of the fifteenth and
+sixteenth centuries--plain manner in which the grave and religious were
+then habited--the Quakers sprang out of these_.
+
+SECT. II.--_Quakers carried with them their plain dresses into their new
+society--extravagance of the world continuing, they defined the objects
+of dress as a Christian people--at length incorporated it into their
+discipline--hence their present dress is only a less deviation from that
+of their ancestors, than that of other people_.
+
+SECT. III.--_Objections of the world to the Quaker dress--those
+examined--a comparison between the language of Quakerism and of
+Christianity on this subject--opinion of the early Christians upon it._
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+_Furniture--the Quakers use plain furniture--reasons for their
+singularities in this respect._
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+SECT. I.--_Language--Quakers have altered the common
+language--substitution of Thou for You--reasons for this
+change--opinions of many learned men concerning it._
+
+SECT. II.--_Various other alterations made--as in titled of address--and
+of honour--reasons for these changes._
+
+SECT. III.--_Another alteration--as in the names of the days and the
+months--reasons for this change--various new phrases also introduced._
+
+SECT. IV.--_Objections by the world against the alteration of Thou for
+You._
+
+SECT. V.--_Against that of titles of address and honour._
+
+SECT. VI.--_Against that of the names of the days and months._
+
+SECT. VIII.--_Advantages and disadvantages of these alterations by the
+Quaker language._
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+_Address--common personal gestures or worldly ceremonies of address
+forbidden--no exception in favour of royalty--reasons against the disuse
+of these._
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+_Manners and conversation--hospitality and freedom in Quakers'
+houses--their conversation more limited than that of others--subjects of
+conversation examined in our towns--and in the metropolis--extraordinary
+circumstance that takes place occasionally in the company of the
+Quakers._
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+_Customs before meals--ancients made an oblation to Vesta--moderns have
+substituted grace--account of a Quaker-grace._
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+_Customs at and after meals--Quakers never drink healths or
+toasts--various reasons for their disuse of these customs--and seldom
+allow women to retire after dinner and leave the men drinking--Quakers a
+sober people._
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+
+MOTIVES FOR THE UNDERTAKING--ORIGIN OF THE NAME OF QUAKERS--GEORGE FOX,
+THE FOUNDER OF THE SOCIETY-SHORT HISTORY OF HIS LIFE.
+
+From the year 1787, when I began to devote my labours to the abolition
+of the slave trade, I was thrown frequently into the company of the
+people, called Quakers, these people had been then long unanimous upon
+this subject. Indeed they had placed it among the articles of their
+religious discipline. Their houses were of course open to me in all
+parts of the kingdom. Hence I came to a knowledge of their living
+manners, which no other person, who was not a Quaker, could have easily
+obtained.
+
+As soon as I became possessed of this knowledge, or at least of so much
+of it, as to feel that it was considerable, I conceived a desire of
+writing their moral history. I believed I should be able to exhibit to
+the rest of the world many excellent customs, of which they were
+ignorant, but which it might be useful to them to know. I believed too,
+that I should be affording to the Quakers themselves, some lessons of
+utility, by letting them see, as it were in a glass, the reflection of
+their own images. I felt also a great desire, amidst these
+considerations, to do them justice; for ignorance and prejudice had
+invented many expressions concerning them, to the detriment of their
+character, which their conduct never gave me reason to suppose, during
+all my intercourse with them, to be true.
+
+Nor was I without the belief, that such a history might afford
+entertainment to many. The Quakers, as every body knows, differ more
+than even many foreigners do, from their own countrymen. They adopt a
+singular mode of language. Their domestic customs are peculiar. They
+have renounced religious ceremonies, which all other christians, in some
+form or other, have retained. They are distinguished from all the other
+islanders by their dress. These differences are great and striking. And
+I thought therefore that those, who were curious in the development of
+character, might be gratified in knowing the principles, which produced
+such numerous exceptions from the general practices of the world.
+
+But though I had conceived from the operation of these sentiments upon
+my mind, as long ago as I have stated, a strong desire to write the
+moral history of the Quakers, yet my incessant occupations on the
+subject of the slave-trade, and indisposition of body afterwards, in
+consequence of the great mental exertions necessary in such a cause,
+prevented me from attempting my design. At length these causes of
+prevention ceased. But when, after this, the subject recurred, I did not
+seem to have the industry and perseverance, though I had still the
+inclination left, for the undertaking. Time, however, continued to steal
+on, till at length I began to be apprehensive, but more particularly
+within the last two years, that, if I were to delay my work much longer,
+I might not live to begin it at all. This consideration operated upon
+me. But I was forcibly struck by another, namely, that, if I were not to
+put my hand to the task, the Quakers would probably continue to be as
+little known to their fellow-citizens, as they are at present. For I did
+not see who was ever to give a full and satisfactory account of them. It
+is true indeed, that there are works, written by Quakers, from which a
+certain portion of their history, and an abstract of their religious
+principles, might be collected; but none, from whence their living
+manners could be taken. It is true also that others, of other religious
+denominations, have written concerning them; but of those authors, who
+have mentioned them in the course of their respective writings, not one,
+to my knowledge, has given a correct account of them. It would be
+tedious to dwell on the errors of Mosheim, or of Formey, or of Hume, or
+on those to be found in many of the modern periodical[1] publications.
+It seemed, therefore, from the circumstance of my familiar intercourse
+with the Quakers, that it devolved upon me particularly to write their
+history. And I was the more confirmed in my opinion, because, in looking
+forward, I was never able to foresee the time when any other cause would
+equally, with that of the slave-trade, bring any other person, who was
+not of the society, into such habits of friendship with the Quakers, as
+that he should obtain an equal degree of knowledge concerning them with
+myself. By this new consideration I was more than ordinarily stimulated,
+and I began my work.
+
+[Footnote 1: I must except Dr. Toulmin's revision of Neal's history of
+the Puritans. One or two publications have appeared since, written, in a
+liberal spirit, but they are confined principally to the religious
+principles of the Quakers.]
+
+It is not improbable but some may imagine from the account already
+given, that this work will be a partial one, or that it will lean, more
+than it ought to do, in favour of the Quakers. I do not pretend to say,
+that I shall be utterly able to divest myself of all undue influence,
+which their attention towards me may have produced, or that I shall be
+utterly unbiased, when I consider them as fellow-labourers in the work
+of the abolition of the slave-trade; for if others had put their
+shoulders to the wheel equally with them on the occasion, one of the
+greatest causes of human misery, and moral evil, that was ever known in
+the world, had been long ago annihilated, nor can I conceal, that I have
+a regard for men, of whom it is a just feature in their character, that,
+whenever they can be brought to argue upon political subjects, they
+reason upon principle, and not upon consequences; for if this mode of
+reasoning had been adopted by others, but particularly by men in exalted
+stations, policy had given way to moral justice, and there had been but
+little public wickedness in the world. But though I am confessedly
+partial to the Quakers on account of their hospitality to me, and on
+account of the good traits in their moral character, I am not so much
+so, as to be blind to their imperfections. Quakerism is of itself a pure
+system, and, if followed closely, will lead towards purity and
+perfection; but I know well that all, who profess it, are not Quakers.
+The deviation therefore of their practice from their profession, and
+their frailties and imperfections, I shall uniformly lay open to them,
+wherever I believe them to exist. And this I shall do, not because I
+wish to avoid the charge of partiality, but from a belief, that it is my
+duty to do it.
+
+The society, of which I am to speak, are called[2] Quakers by the world,
+but are known to each other by the name of friends, a beautiful
+appellation, and characteristic of the relation, which man, under the
+christian dispensation, ought uniformly to bear to man.
+
+[Footnote 2: Justice Bennet of Derby gave the society the name of
+Quakers in the year 1650, because the founder of it ordered him, and
+those present with him, to tremble at the word of the Lord.]
+
+The Founder of the society was George Fox He was born of "honest and
+sufficient parents," at Drayton in Leicestershire, in the year 1624. He
+was put out, when young, according to his own account, to a man, who was
+a shoe-maker by trade, and who dealt in wool, and followed grazing, and
+sold cattle. But it appears from William Penn, who became a member of
+the society, and was acquainted with him that he principally followed
+the country-part of his master's business. He took a great delight in
+sheep, "an employment," says Penn, "that very well suited his mind in
+some respects, both for its innocency and its solitude, and was a just
+figure of his after ministry and service."
+
+In his youth he manifested a seriousness of spirit, not usual in persons
+of his age. This seriousness grew upon him, and as it encreased he
+encouraged it, so that in the year 1643, or in the twentieth year of
+his age, he conceived himself, in consequence of the awful impression
+he had received, to be called upon to separate himself from the world,
+and to devote himself to religion.
+
+At this time the Church of England, as a Protestant church, had been
+established; and many, who were not satisfied with the settlement of it,
+had formed themselves into different religious sects. There was a great
+number of persons also in the kingdom, who approving neither of the
+religion of the establishment, nor of that of the different
+denominations alluded to, withdrew from the communion of every visible
+church. These were ready to follow any teacher, who might inculcate
+doctrines that coincided with their own apprehensions. Thus for a way
+lay open among many for a cordial reception of George Fox. But of those,
+who had formed different visible churches of their own, it may be
+observed, that though they were prejudiced, the reformation had not
+taken place so long, but that they were still alive to religious
+advancement. Nor had it taken place so long, but that thousands were
+still very ignorant, and stood in need of light and information on that
+subject.
+
+It does not appear, however, that George Fox, for the first three years
+from the time, when he conceived it to be his duty to withdraw from the
+world, had done any thing as a public minister of the gospel. He had
+travelled from the year 1643 to 1646, through the counties of Warwick,
+Leicester, Northampton, and Bedford, and as far as London. In this
+interval he appears to have given himself up to solemn impressions, and
+to have endeavoured to find out as many serious people as he could, with
+a view of conversing with them on the subject of religion.
+
+In 1647 he extended his travels to Derbyshire, and from thence into
+Lancashire, but returned to his native county. He met with many friendly
+people in the course of this journey, and had many serious conversations
+with them, but he never joined in profession with any. At Duckenfield,
+however, and at Manchester, he went among those, whom he termed "the
+professors of religion," and according to his own expressions, "he staid
+a while and declared truth among them." Of these some were convinced but
+others were enraged, being startled at his doctrine of perfection. At
+Broughton in Leicestershire, we find him attending a meeting of the
+Baptists, at which many of other denominations were present. Here he
+spoke publicly, and convinced many. After this he went back to the
+county of Nottingham. And here a report having gone abroad, that he was
+an extraordinary young man, many, both priests and people, came far and
+near to see him.
+
+In 1648 he confined his movements to a few counties. In this year we
+find him becoming a public character. In Nottinghamshire he delivered
+himself in public at three different meetings, consisting either of
+priests and professors, as he calls them, or professors and people. In
+Warwickshire he met with a great company of professors, who were praying
+and expounding the scriptures, in the fields. Here he discoursed
+largely, and the hearers fell into contention, and so parted. In
+Leicestershire he attended another meeting, consisting of Church people,
+Presbyterians, Independents, and Baptists, where he spoke publicly
+again. This meeting was held in a church. The persons present discoursed
+and reasoned. Questions were propounded, and answers followed. An answer
+given by George Fox, in which he stated that "the church was the pillar
+and ground of truth, and that it did not consist of a mixed multitude,
+or of an old house, made up of lime, stones, and wood, but of living
+stones, living members, and a spiritual household, of which Christ was
+the head," set them all on fire. The clergyman left the pulpit, the
+people their pews, and the meeting separated. George Fox, however, went
+afterwards to an Inn, where he argued with priests and professors of all
+sorts. Departing from thence, he took up his abode for some time in the
+vale of Beevor, where he preached Repentance, and convinced many. He
+then returned into Nottinghamshire, and passed from thence into
+Derbyshire, in both which counties his doctrines spread. And, after
+this, warning Justices of the Peace, as he travelled along, to do
+justice, and notoriously wicked men to amend their lives, he came into
+the vale of Beevor again. In this vale it was that he received,
+according to his own account, his commission from divine authority, by
+means of impressions on his mind, in consequence of which he conceived
+it to be discovered to him, among other things, that he was "to turn the
+people from darkness to the light." By this time he had converted many
+hundreds to his opinions, and divers meetings of Friends, to use his own
+expression, "had been then gathered."
+
+The year 1649 was ushered in by new labours. He was employed
+occasionally in writing to judges and justices to do justice, and in
+warning persons to fulfil the duties of their respective stations in
+life.
+
+This year was the first of all his years of suffering. For it happened
+on a Sunday morning, that, coming in sight of the town of Nottingham,
+and seeing the great church, he felt an impression on his mind to go
+there. On hearing a part of the sermon, he was so struck with what he
+supposed to be the erroneous doctrine it contained, that he could not
+help publicly contradicting it. For this interruption of the service he
+was seized, and afterwards confined in prison. At Mansfield again, as he
+was declaring his own religious opinions in the church, the people fell
+upon him and beat and bruised him, and put him afterwards in the stocks.
+At Market Bosworth he was stoned and driven out of the place. At
+Chesterfield he addressed both the clergyman and the people, but they
+carried him before the mayor, who detained him till late at night, at
+which unseasonable time the officers and watchmen put him out of the
+town.
+
+And here I would observe, before I proceed to the occurrences of another
+year, that there is reason to believe that George Fox disapproved of his
+own conduct in having interrupted the service of the church at
+Nottingham, which I have stated to have been the first occasion of his
+imprisonment. For if he believed any one of his actions, with which the
+world had been offended, to have been right, he repeated it, as
+circumstances called it forth, though he was sure of suffering for it
+either from the magistrates or the people. But he never repeated this,
+but he always afterwards, when any occasion of religious controversy
+occurred in any of the churches, where his travels lay, uniformly
+suspended his observations, till the service was over.
+
+George Fox spent almost the whole of the next year, that is, of the year
+1650, in confinement in Derby Prison.
+
+In 1651, when he was set at liberty, he seems not to have been in the
+least disheartened by the treatment he had received there, or at the
+different places before mentioned, but to have resumed his travels, and
+to have held religious meetings, as he went along. He had even the
+boldness to go into Litchfield, because he imagined it to be his duty,
+and, with his shoes off to pronounce with an audible voice in the
+streets, and this on the market-day, a woe against that city. He
+continued also to visit the churches, as he journeyed, in the time of
+divine service, and to address the priests and the people publicly, as
+he saw occasion, but not, as I observed before, till he believed the
+service to be over. It does not appear, however, that he suffered any
+interruption upon these occasions, in the course of the present year,
+except at York-Minster; where, as he was beginning to preach after the
+sermon, he was hurried out of it, and thrown down the steps by the
+congregation, which was then breaking up. It appears that he had been
+generally well received in the county of York, and that he had convinced
+many.
+
+In the year 1652, after having passed through the shires of Nottingham
+and Lincoln, he came again into Yorkshire. Here, in the course of his
+journey, he ascended Pendle-Hill. At the top of this he apprehended it
+was opened to him, whither he was to direct his future steps, and that
+he saw a great host of people, who were to be converted by him in the
+course of his ministry. From this time we may consider him as having
+received his commission full and complete in his own mind. For in the
+vale of Beevor he conceived himself to have been informed of the various
+doctrines, which it became his duty to teach, and, on this occasion, to
+have had an insight of the places where he was to spread them.
+
+To go over his life, even in the concise way, in which I have hitherto
+attempted it, would be to swell this introduction into a volume. I shall
+therefore, from this great period of his ministry, make only the
+following simple statement concerning it.
+
+He continued his labours, as a minister of the gospel, and even
+preached, within two days of his death.
+
+During this time he had settled meetings in most parts of the kingdom,
+and had given to these the foundation of that beautiful system of
+discipline, which I shall explain in this volume, and which exists among
+the Quakers at the present day.
+
+He had travelled over England, Scotland, and Wales. He had been in
+Ireland. He had visited the British West-Indies, and America. He had
+extended his travels to Holland, and part of Germany.
+
+He had written, in this interval, several religious books, and had
+addressed letters to kings, princes, magistrates, and people, as he felt
+impressions on his mind, which convinced him, that it become his duty to
+do it.
+
+He had experienced also, during this interval, great bodily sufferings.
+He had been long and repeatedly confined in different gaols of the
+kingdom. The state of the gaols, in these times, is not easily to be
+conceived. That of Doomsdale at Launceston in Cornwall, has never been
+exceeded for filth and pestilential noisomeness, nor those of Lancaster
+and Scarborough-castles for exposure to the inclemency of the elements.
+In the two latter he was scarcely ever dry for two years; for the rain
+used to beat into them, and to run down upon the floor. This exposure to
+the severity of the weather occasioned his body and limbs to be
+benumbed, and to swell to a painful size, and laid the foundation, by
+injuring his health, for future occasional sufferings during the
+remainder of his life.
+
+With respect to the religious doctrines, which George Fox inculcated
+during his ministry, it is not necessary to speak of them here, as they
+will be detailed in their proper places. I must observe, however, that
+he laid a stress upon many things, which the world considered to be of
+little moment, but which his followers thought to be entirely worthy of
+his spiritual calling. He forbade all the modes and gestures, which are
+used as tokens of obeisance, or flattery, or honour, among men. He
+insisted on the necessity of plain speech or language. He declaimed
+against all sorts of music. He protested against the exhibitions of the
+theatre, and many of the accustomary diversions of the times. The early
+Quakers, who followed him in all these points, were considered by some
+as turning the world upside down; but they contended in reply, that they
+were only restoring it to its pure and primitive state; and that they
+had more weighty arguments for acting up to their principles in these
+respects, than others had for condemning them for so doing.
+
+But whatever were the doctrines, whether civil, or moral, or religious,
+which George Fox promulgated, he believed that he had a divine
+commission for teaching them, and that he was to be the RESTORER of
+Christianity; that is, that he was to bring people from Jewish
+ceremonies and Pagan-fables, with which it had been intermixed, and also
+from worldly customs, to a religion which was to consist of spiritual
+feeling. I know not how the world will receive the idea, that he
+conceived himself to have had a revelation for these purposes. But
+nothing is more usual than for pious people, who have succeeded in any
+ordinary work of goodness, to say, that they were providentially led to
+it, and this expression is usually considered among Christians to be
+accurate. But I cannot always find the difference between a man being
+providentially led into a course of virtues and successful action, and
+his having an internal revelation for it. For if we admit that men may
+be providentially led upon such occasions, they must be led by the
+impressions upon their minds. But what are these internal impressions,
+but the dictates of an internal voice to those who follow them? But if
+pious men would believe themselves to have been thus providentially led,
+or acted upon, in any ordinary case of virtue, if it had been crowned
+with success, George Fox would have had equal reason to believe, from
+the success that attended his own particular undertaking, that he had
+been called upon to engage in it. For at a very early age he had
+confuted many of the professors of religion in public disputations. He
+had converted magistrates, priests, and people. Of the clergymen of
+those times some had left valuable livings, and followed him. In his
+thirtieth year he had seen no less than sixty persons, spreading, as
+ministers, his own doctrines. These, and other circumstances which might
+be related, would doubtless operate powerfully upon him to make him
+believe, that he was a chosen vessel. Now, if to these considerations it
+be added, that George Fox was not engaged in any particular or partial
+cause of benevolence, or mercy, or justice, but wholly and exclusively
+in a religious and spiritual work, and that it was the first of all his
+religious doctrines, that the spirit of God, _where men were obedient to
+it, guided them in their spiritual concerns_, he must have believed
+himself, on the consideration of his unparalleled success, to have been
+_providentially led_, or to have had an internal or spiritual commission
+for the cause, which he had undertaken.
+
+But this belief was not confined to himself. His followers believed in
+his commission also. They had seen, like himself, the extraordinary
+success of his ministry. They acknowledged the same internal
+admonitions, or revelations of the same spirit, in spiritual concerns.
+They had been witnesses of his innocent and blameless life. There were
+individuals in the kingdom, who had publicly professed sights and
+prophecies concerning him. At an early age he had been reported, in some
+parts of the country, as a youth, who had a _discerning spirit_. It had
+gone abroad, that he had healed many persons, who had been sick of
+various diseases. Some of his prophecies had come true in the lifetime
+of those, who had heard them delivered. His followers too had seen many,
+who had come purposely to molest and apprehend him, depart quietly, as
+if their anger and their power had been providentially broken. They had
+seen others, who had been his chief persecutors, either falling into
+misfortunes, or dying a miserable or an untimely death. They had seen
+him frequently cast into prison, but always getting out again by means
+of his innocence. From these causes the belief was universal among them,
+that his commission was of divine authority; and they looked upon him
+therefore in no other light, than that of a teacher, who had been sent
+to them from heaven.
+
+George Fox was in his person above the ordinary size. He is described by
+William Penn as a "lusty person." He was graceful in his countenance.
+His eye was particularly piercing, so that some of those, who were
+disputing with him, were unable to bear it. He was, in short, manly,
+dignified, and commanding in his aspect and appearance.
+
+In his manner of living he was temperate. He ate sparingly. He avoided,
+except medicinally, all strong drink.
+
+Notwithstanding the great exercise he was accustomed to take, he allowed
+himself but little sleep.
+
+In his outward demeanour he was modest, and without affectation. He
+possessed a certain gravity of manners, but he was nevertheless affable,
+and courteous, and civil beyond the usual forms of breeding.
+
+In his disposition he was meek, and tender, and compassionate. He was
+kind to the poor, without any exception, and, in his own society, laid
+the foundation of that attention towards them, which the world remarks
+as an honour to the Quaker-character at the present day. But the poor
+were not the only persons, for whom, he manifested an affectionate
+concern. He felt and sympathized wherever humanity could be interested.
+He wrote to the judges on the subject of capital punishments, warning
+them not to take away the lives of persons for theft. On the coast of
+Cornwall he was deeply distressed at finding the inhabitants, more
+intent upon plundering the wrecks of vessels that were driven upon their
+shores, than upon saving the poor and miserable mariners, who were
+clinging to them; and he bore his public testimony against this
+practice, by sending letters to all the clergymen and magistrates in the
+parishes, bordering upon the sea, and reproving them for their
+unchristian conduct In the West-Indies also he exhorted those, who
+attended his meetings to be merciful to their slaves, and to give them
+their freedom in due time. He considered these as belonging to their
+families, and that religious instruction was due to these, as the
+branches of them, for whom one day or other they would be required to
+give a solemn account. Happy had it been, if these christian
+exhortations had been attended to, or if those families only, whom he
+thus seriously addressed, had continued to be true Quakers; for they
+would have set an example, which would have proved to the rest of the
+islanders, and the world at large, that the impolicy is not less than
+the wickedness of oppression. Thus was George Fox probably the first
+person, who publicly declared against this species of slavery. Nothing
+in short, that could be deplored by humanity, seems to have escaped his
+eye; and his benevolence, when excited, appears to have suffered no
+interruption in its progress by the obstacles, which bigotry would have
+thrown in the way of many, on account of the difference of a persons
+country, or of his colour, or of his sect.
+
+He was patient under his own sufferings. To those, who smote his right
+cheek, he offered his left; and, in the true spirit of christianity, he
+indulged no rancour against the worst of his oppressors. He made use
+occasionally of a rough expression towards them; but he would never have
+hurt any of them, if he had had them in his power.
+
+He possessed the most undaunted courage; for he was afraid of no earthly
+power. He was never deterred from going to meetings for worship, though
+he knew the officers would be there, who were to seize his person. In
+his personal conversations with Oliver Cromwell, or in his letters to
+him as protector, or in his letters to the parliament, or to king
+Charles the second, or to any other personage, he discovered his usual
+boldness of character, and never lost, by means of any degrading
+flattery, his dignity as a man.
+
+But his perseverance was equal to his courage; for he was no sooner out
+of gaol, than he repeated the very acts, believing them to be right, for
+which he had been confined. When he was forced also out of the
+meeting-houses by the officers of justice, he preached at the very
+doors. In short, he was never hindered but by sickness, or
+imprisonments, from persevering in his religious pursuits.
+
+With respect to his word, he was known to have held it so sacred, that
+the judges frequently dismissed him without bail, on his bare promise
+that he would be forth coming on a given day. On these occasions, he
+used always to qualify his promise by the expression, _"if the Lord
+permit."_
+
+Of the integrity of his own character, as a christian, he was so
+scrupulously tenacious, that, when he might have been sometimes set at
+liberty by making trifling acknowledgements, he would make none, least
+it should imply a conviction, that he had been confined for that which
+was wrong; and, at one time in particular, king Charles the second was
+so touched with the hardship of his case, that he offered to discharge
+him from prison by a pardon. But George Fox declined it on the idea,
+that, as pardon implied guilt, his innocence would be called in question
+by his acceptance of it. The king, however, replied, that "he need not
+scruple being released by a pardon, for many a man who was as innocent
+as a child, had had a pardon granted him." But still he chose to decline
+it. And he lay in gaol, till, upon a trial of the errors in his
+indictment, he was discharged in an honourable way.
+
+As a minister of the gospel, he was singularly eminent. He had a
+wonderful gift in expounding the scriptures. He was particularly
+impressive in his preaching; but he excelled most in prayer.
+
+Here it was, that he is described by William Penn, as possessing the
+most awful and reverend frame he ever beheld. His presence, says the
+same author, expressed "a religious majesty." That there must have been
+something more than usually striking either in his manner, or in his
+language, or in his arguments, or in all of them combined, or that he
+spoke "in the _demonstration_ of the spirit and with power," we are
+warranted in pronouncing from the general and powerful effects produced.
+In the year 1648, when he had but once before spoken in public, it was
+observed of him at Mansfield, at the end of his prayer, _"that it was
+then, as in the days of the apostles, when the house was shaken where
+they were."_ In the same manner he appears to have gone on, making a
+deep impression upon his hearers, whenever he was fully and fairly
+heard. Many clergymen, as I observed before, in consequence of his
+powerful preaching, gave up their livings; and constables, who attended
+the meetings, in order to apprehend him, felt themselves disarmed, so
+that they went away without attempting to secure his person.
+
+As to his life, it was innocent. It is true indeed, that there were
+persons, high in civil offices, who, because he addressed the people in
+public, considered him as a disturber of the peace. But none of these
+ever pretended to cast a stain on his moral character. He was considered
+both by friends and enemies, as irreproachable in his life.
+
+Such was the character of the founder of Quakerism, He was born in July
+1624, and died on the thirteenth of November 1690, in the sixty-seventh
+year of his age. He had separated himself from the word in order to
+attend to serious things, as I observed before, at the age of nineteen,
+so that he had devoted himself to the exercises and services of religion
+for no less a period than forty-eight years. A few hours before his
+death, upon some friends asking him how he found himself, he replied
+"never heed. All is well. The seed or power of God reigns over all, and
+over death itself, blessed be the Lord." This answer was full of
+courage, and corresponded with that courage, which had been conspicuous
+in him during life. It contained on evidence, as manifested in his own
+feelings, of the tranquillity and happiness of his mind, and that the
+power and terrors of death had been vanquished in himself. It shewed
+also the ground of his courage and of his confidence. "He was full of
+assurance," says William Penn, "that he had triumphed over death, and so
+much so, even to the last, that death appeared to him hardly worth
+notice or mention." Thus he departed this life, affording an instance of
+the truth of those words of the psalmist, "Behold the upright, for the
+end of that man is peace."
+
+
+
+
+PREFATORY ARRANGEMENTS
+
+AND
+
+REMARKS.
+
+
+
+
+PREFATORY ARRANGEMENTS AND REMARKS.
+
+
+QUAKERISM, A HIGH PROFESSION--QUAKERS GENERALLY ALLOWED TO BE A MORAL
+PEOPLE--VARIOUS CAUSES OF THIS MORALITY OF CHARACTER--THEIR MORAL
+EDUCATION, WHICH IS ONE OF THEM, THE FIRST SUBJECT FOR CONSIDERATION
+--THIS EDUCATION UNIVERSAL AMONG THEM--ITS ORIGIN--THE PROHIBITIONS
+BELONGING TO IT CHIEFLY TO BE CONSIDERED.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+George Fox never gave, while living, nor left after his death, any
+definition of Quakerism. He left, however, his journal behind him, and
+he left what is of equal importance, his example. Combining these with
+the sentiments and practice of the early Quakers, I may state, in a few
+words, what Quakerism is, or at least what we may suppose George Fox
+intended it to be.
+
+Quakerism may be defined to be an attempt, under the divine influence,
+at practical christianity as far as it can be carried. Those, who
+profess it, consider themselves bound to regulate their opinions, words,
+actions, and even outward demeanour, by christianity, and by
+christianity alone. They consider themselves bound to give up such of
+the customs, or fashions of men, however general, or generally approved,
+as militate, in any manner, against the letter or the spirit of the
+gospel. Hence they mix but little with the world, that they may be less
+liable to imbibe its spirit. Hence George Fox made a distinction between
+the members of his own society and others, by the different appellations
+of _Friends_, and _People of the world_. They consider themselves also
+under an obligation to follow virtue, not ordinarily, _but even to the
+death_. For they profess never to make a sacrifice of conscience, and
+therefore, if any ordinances of man are enjoined them, which they think
+to be contrary to the divine will, they believe right not to submit to
+them, but rather, after the example of the apostles and primitive
+christians, to suffer any loss, penalty, or inconvenience, which may
+result to them for so doing.
+
+This then, in a few words, is a general definition of [3]Quakerism. It
+is, as we see, a most strict profession of practical virtue under the
+direction of christianity, and such as, when we consider the infirmities
+of human nature, and the temptations that daily surround it, it must be
+exceedingly difficult to fulfil. But, whatever difficulties may have
+lain in the way, or however, on account of the necessary weakness of
+human nature, the best individuals among the Quakers may have fallen
+below the pattern of excellence, which they have copied, nothing is more
+true, than that the result has been, that the whole society, as a body,
+have obtained from their countrymen, the character of a moral people.
+
+[Footnote 3: I wish to be understood, in writing this work, that I can
+give no account that will be applicable to all under the name of
+Quakers. My account will comprehend the general practice, or that which
+ought to be the practice of those, who profess Quakerism.]
+
+If the reader be a lover of virtue, and anxious for the moral
+improvement of mankind, he will be desirous of knowing what means the
+Quakers have used to have preserved, for a hundred and fifty years, this
+desirable reputation in the world.
+
+If we were to put the question to the Quakers themselves for their own
+opinion upon it, I believe I can anticipate their reply. They would
+attribute any morality, they might be supposed to have, _to the Supreme
+Being_, whose will having been discovered by means of the scriptures,
+and of religious impressions upon the mind, when it has been calm, and
+still, and abstracted from the world, they have endeavoured to obey. But
+there is no doubt, that we may add, _auxiliary causes_ of this morality,
+and such as the Quakers themselves would allow to have had their share
+in producing it, under the same influence. The first of these may be
+called their moral education. The second their discipline. The third may
+be said to consist of those domestic, or other customs, which are
+peculiar to them, as a society of christians. The fourth of their
+_peculiar tenets of religion_. In fact, there are many circumstances
+interwoven into the constitution of the society of the Quakers, each of
+which has a separate effect, and all of which have a combined tendency,
+towards the production of moral character.
+
+These auxiliary causes I shall consider and explain in their turn. In
+the course of this explanation the reader will see, that, if other
+people were to resort to the same means as the Quakers, they would
+obtain the same reputation, or that human nature is not so stubborn, but
+that it will yield to a given force. But as it is usual, in examining
+the life of an individual, to begin with his youth, or, if it has been
+eminent, to begin with the education he has received, so I shall fix
+upon the first of the auxiliary causes I have mentioned, or the _moral
+education_ of the Quakers, as the subject for the first division of my
+work.
+
+Of this moral education I may observe here, that it is universal among
+the society, or that it obtains where the individuals are considered to
+be true Quakers. It matters not, how various the tempers of young
+persons may be, who come under it, they must submit to it. Nor does it
+signify what may be the disposition, or the whim, and caprice of their
+parents, they must submit to it alike. The Quakers believe that they
+have discovered that system of morality, which christianity prescribes;
+and therefore that they can give no dispensation to their members, under
+any circumstances whatever, to deviate from it. The origin of this
+system, as a standard of education in the society, is as follows.
+
+When the first Quakers met in union, they consisted of religious or
+spiritually minded men. From that time to the present, there has always
+been, as we may imagine, a succession of such in the society. Many of
+these, at their great meetings, which have been annual since those days,
+have delivered their sentiments on various interesting points. These
+sentiments were regularly printed, in the form of yearly epistles, and
+distributed among Quaker families. Extracts, in process of time, were
+made from them, and arranged under different heads, and published in one
+book, under the name of [4]Advices. Now these advices comprehend
+important subjects. They relate to customs, manners, fashions,
+conversation, conduct. They contain of course _recommendations_, and
+suggest _prohibitions_, to the society, as _rules of guidance:_ and as
+they came from spiritually _minded_ men on _solemn occasions_, they are
+supposed to have had a _spiritual origin_. Hence Quaker parents manage
+their youth according to these _recommendations_ and _prohibitions_, and
+hence this book of extracts (for so it is usually called) from which I
+have obtained a considerable portion of my knowledge on this subject,
+forms the basis of the moral Education of the Society.
+
+[Footnote 4: The Book is intitled "Extracts from the minutes made, and
+from the advices given, at the yearly Meeting of the Quakers in London,
+since its first Institution."]
+
+Of the contents of this book, I shall notice, while I am treating upon
+this subject, not those rules which are of a recommendatory, but those,
+which are of a _prohibitory nature_. Education is regulated either by
+recommendations, or by prohibitions, or by both conjoined. The former
+relate to things, where there is a wish that youth should conform to
+them, but where a trifling deviation from them would not be considered
+as an act of delinquency publicly reprehensible. The latter to things,
+where any compliance with them becomes a positive offence. The Quakers,
+in consequence of the vast power they have over their members by means
+of their discipline, lay a great stress upon the latter. They consider
+their prohibitions, when duly watched and enforced, as so many _barriers
+against vice_ or _preservatives of virtue_. Hence they are the grand
+component parts of their moral education, and hence I shall chiefly
+consider them in the chapters, which are now to follow upon this
+subject.
+
+
+
+
+MORAL EDUCATION OF THE QUAKERS.
+
+
+
+
+CHAP.I.
+
+
+_Moral Education of the Quakers--amusements necessary for youth--Quakers
+distinguish between the useful and the hurtful--the latter specified and
+forbidden._
+
+When the blooming spring sheds abroad its benign influence, man feels it
+equally with the rest of created nature. The blood circulates more
+freely, and a new current of life seems to be diffused, in his veins.
+The aged man is enlivened, and the sick man feels himself refreshed.
+Good spirits and cheerful countenances succeed. But as the year changes
+in its seasons, and rolls round to its end, the tide seems to slacken,
+and the current of feeling to return to its former level.
+
+But this is not the case with the young. The whole year to them is a
+kind of perpetual spring. Their blood runs briskly throughout. Their
+spirits are kept almost constantly alive; and as the cares of the world
+occasion no drawback, they feel a perpetual disposition to cheerfulness
+and to mirth. This disposition seems to be universal in them. It seems
+too to be felt by us all; that is, the spring, enjoyed by youth, seems
+to operate as spring to maturer age. The sprightly and smiling looks of
+children, their shrill, lively, and cheerful voices, their varied and
+exhilarating sports, all these are interwoven with the other objects of
+our senses, and have an imperceptible, though an undoubted influence, in
+adding to the cheerfulness of our minds. Take away the beautiful
+choristers from the woods, and those, who live in the country, would but
+half enjoy the spring. So, if by means of any unparalleled pestilence,
+the children of a certain growth were to be swept away, and we were to
+lose this infantile link in the chain of age, those, who were left
+behind, would find the creation dull, or experience an interruption in
+the cheerfulness of their feelings, till the former were successively
+restored.
+
+The bodies, as well as the minds of children, require exercise for their
+growth: and as their disposition is thus lively and sportive, such
+exercises, as are amusing, are necessary, and such amusements, on
+account of the length of the spring which they enjoy, must be expected
+to be long.
+
+The Quakers, though they are esteemed an austere people, are sensible of
+these wants or necessities of youth. They allow their children most of
+the sports or exercises of the body, and most of the amusements or
+exercises of the mind, which other children of the island enjoy; but as
+children are to become _men_, and men are to become _moral characters_,
+they believe that bounds should be drawn, or that an unlimited
+permission to follow every recreation would be hurtful.
+
+The Quakers therefore have thought it proper to interfere on this
+subject, and to draw the line between those amusements, which they
+consider to be salutary, and those, which they consider to be hurtful.
+They have accordingly struck out of the general list of these such, and
+such only, as, by being likely to endanger their morality, would be
+likely to interrupt the usefulness, and the happiness, of their lives.
+Among the bodily exercises, _dancing_, and the _diversions of the
+field_, have been proscribed; among the mental, _music_, _novels_, the
+_theatre_, and all games of _chance_, of every description, have been
+forbidden. These are the principal prohibitions, which the Quakers have
+made on the subject of their moral education. They were suggested, most
+of them, by George Fox, but were brought into the discipline, at
+different times, by his successors.
+
+I shall now consider each of these prohibitions separately, and I shall
+give all the reasons, which the Quakers themselves give, why, as a
+society of Christians, they have, thought it right to issue and enforce
+them.
+
+
+
+
+CHAP. II ...SECT. I.
+
+_Games of chance--Quakers forbid cards, dice, and other similar
+amusements--also, concerns in lotteries--and certain transactions in the
+stocks--they forbid also all wagers, and speculations by a monied
+stake--the peculiar wisdom of the latter prohibition, as collected from
+the history of the origin of some of the amusements of the times_.
+
+
+When we consider the depravity of heart, and the misery and ruin, that
+are frequently connected with gaming, it would be strange indeed, if the
+Quakers, as highly professing Christians, had not endeavoured to
+extirpate it from their own body.
+
+No people, in fact, have taken more or more effectual measures for its
+suppression. They have proscribed the use of all games of chance, and of
+all games of skill, that are connected with chance in any manner. Hence
+_cards_, _dice_, _horse-racing_, _cock-fighting_, and all the
+amusements, which come under this definition, are forbidden.
+
+But as there are certain transactions, independently of these
+amusements, which are equally connected with hazard, and which
+individuals might convert into the means of moral depravity and temporal
+ruin, they have forbidden these also, by including them under the
+appellation of gaming.
+
+Of this description are concerns in the lottery, from which all Quakers
+are advised to refrain. These include the purchase of tickets, and all
+insurance upon the same.
+
+In transactions of this kind there is always a monied stake, and the
+issue is dependent upon chance. There is of course the same fascinating
+stimulus as in cards, or dice, arising from the hope of gain. The mind
+also must be equally agitated between hope and fear; and the same state
+of desperation may be produced, with other fatal consequences, in the
+event of loss.
+
+Buying and selling in the public stocks of the kingdom is, under
+particular circumstances, discouraged also. Where any of the members of
+the society buy into the stocks, under the idea, that they are likely to
+obtain better security, or more permanent advantages, such a transfer of
+their property is allowable. But if any were to make a practice of
+buying or selling, week after week, upon speculation only, such a
+practice would come under the denomination of gaming. In this case, like
+the preceding, it is evident, that money would be the object in view;
+that the issue would be hazardous; and, if the stake or deposit were of
+great importance, the tranquillity of the mind might be equally
+disturbed, and many temporal sufferings might follow.
+
+The Quakers have thought it right, upon the same principle, to forbid
+the custom of laying wagers upon any occasion whatever, or of reaping
+advantage from any doubtful event, by a previous agreement upon a monied
+stake. This prohibition, however, is not on record, like the former, but
+is observed as a traditional law. No Quaker-parent would suffer his
+child, nor Quaker-schoolmaster the children entrusted to his care, nor
+any member another, to be concerned in amusements of this kind, without
+a suitable reproof.
+
+By means of these prohibitions, which are enforced, in a great measure,
+by the discipline, the Quakers have put a stop to gaming more
+effectually than others, but particularly by means of the latter. For
+history has shewn us, that we cannot always place a reliance on a mere
+prohibition of any particular amusement or employment, as a cure for
+gaming, because any pastime or employment, however innocent in itself,
+may be made an instrument for its designs. There are few customs,
+however harmless, which avarice cannot convert into the means of rapine
+on the one hand, and of distress on the other.
+
+Many of the games, which are now in use with such pernicious effects to
+individuals, were not formerly the instruments of private ruin.
+Horse-racing was originally instituted with a view of promoting a better
+breed of horses for the services of man. Upon this principle it was
+continued. It afforded no private emolument to any individual. The
+by-standers were only spectators. They were not interested in the
+victory. The victor himself was remunerated not with money, but with
+crowns and garlands, the testimonies of public applause. But the spirit
+of gaming got hold of the custom, and turned it into a private
+diversion, which was to afford the opportunity of a private prize.
+
+Cock-fighting, as we learn from Ælian, was instituted by the Athenians,
+immediately after their victory over the Persians, to perpetuate the
+memory of the event, and to stimulate the courage of the youth of Greece
+in the defence of their own freedom; and it was continued upon the same
+principle, or as a public institution for a public good. But the spirit
+of avarice seized it, as it has done the custom of horse-racing, and
+continued it for a private gain.
+
+Cards, that is, European cards, were, as all are agreed, of an harmless
+origin. Charles the sixth, of France, was particularly afflicted with
+the hypochondriasis. While in this disordered state, one of his subjects
+invented them, to give variety of amusement to his mind. From the court
+they passed into private families. And here the same avaricious spirit
+fastened upon them, and, with its cruel talons, clawed them, as it were,
+to its own purposes, not caring how much these little instruments of
+cheerfulness in human disease were converted into instruments for the
+extension of human pain.
+
+In the same manner as the spirit of gaming has seized upon these
+different institutions and amusements of antiquity, and turned them from
+their original to new and destructive uses, so there is no certainty,
+that it will not seize upon others, which may have been innocently
+resorted to, and prostitute them equally with the former. The mere
+prohibition of particular amusements, even if it could be enforced,
+would be no cure for the evil. The brain of man is fertile enough, as
+fast as one custom is prohibited, to fix upon another. And if all the
+games, now in use, were forbidden, it would be still fertile enough to
+invent others for the same purposes. The bird that flies in the air, and
+the snail, that crawls upon the ground, have not escaped the notice of
+the gamester, but have been made, each of them, subservient to his
+pursuits. The wisdom, therefore, of the Quakers, in making it to be
+considered as a law of the society, that no member is to lay wagers, or
+reap advantage from any doubtful event, by a previous agreement upon a
+monied stake, is particularly conspicuous. For, whenever it can be
+enforced, it must be an effectual cure for gaming. For we have no idea,
+how a man can gratify his desire of gain by means of any of the
+amusements of chance, if he can make no monied arrangements about their
+issue.
+
+
+SECT. II.
+
+_The first argument for the prohibition of cards, and of similar
+amusements, by the Quakers, is--that they are below the dignity of the
+intellect of man, and of his moral and christian character--sentiments
+of Addison on this subject_.
+
+
+The reasons, which the Quakers give for the prohibition of cards, and of
+amusements of a similar nature, to the members of their own society, are
+generally such as are given by other Christians, though they make use of
+one, which is peculiar to themselves.
+
+It has been often observed, that the word amusement is proper to
+characterize the employments of children, but that the word utility is
+the only one proper to characterize the employment of men.
+
+The first argument of the Quakers, on this subject, is of a complexion,
+similar to that of the observation just mentioned. For when they
+consider man, as a reasonable being, they are of opinion, that his
+occupations should be rational. And when they consider him as making a
+profession of the Christian religion, they expect that his conduct
+should be manly, serious, and dignified. But all such amusements, as
+those in question, if resorted to for the filling up of his vacant
+hours, they conceive to be unworthy of his intellect, and to be below
+the dignity of his Christian character.
+
+They believe also, when they consider man as a moral being, that it is
+his duty, as it is unquestionably his interest, to aim at the
+improvement of his moral character. Now one of the foundations, on which
+this improvement must be raised, is knowledge. But knowledge is only
+slowly acquired. And human life, or the time for the acquisition of it,
+is but short. It does not appear, therefore, in the judgment of the
+Quakers, that a person can have much time for amusements of this sort,
+if he be bent upon obtaining that object, which will be most conducive
+to his true happiness, or to the end of his existence here.
+
+Upon this first argument of the Quakers I shall only observe, lest it
+should be thought singular, that sentiments of a similar import are to
+be found in authors, of a different religious denomination, and of
+acknowledged judgment and merit. Addison, in one of his excellent
+chapters on the proper employment of life, has the following
+observation: "The next method, says he, that I would propose to fill up
+our time should be innocent and useful diversions. I must confess I
+think it is below reasonable creatures, to be altogether conversant in
+such diversions, as are merely innocent, and have nothing else to
+recommend them, but that there is no hurt in them. Whether any kind of
+gaming has even thus much to say for itself I shall not determine: but I
+think it is very wonderful to see persons of the best sense passing a
+dozen hours together in shuffling and dividing a pack of cards, with no
+other conversation, but what is made up of a few game-phrases, and no
+other ideas, but those of red or black spots ranged together in
+different figures. Would not a man laugh to hear any one of this species
+complaining that life is short?"
+
+
+SECT. III.
+
+_Cards on account of the manner in which they are generally used,
+produce an excitement of the passions--historical anecdotes of this
+excitement--this excitement another cause of their prohibition by the
+Quakers, because it unfits the mind, according to their notions, for the
+reception of religious impressions_.
+
+
+The Quakers are not so superstitious as to imagine that there can be any
+evil in cards, considered abstractedly as cards, or in some of the other
+amusements, that have been mentioned. The red or the black images on
+their surfaces can neither pollute the fingers, nor the minds, of those
+who handle them. They may be moved about, and dealt in various ways, and
+no objectionable consequences may follow. They nay be used, and this
+innocently, to construct the similitudes of things. They may be
+arranged, so as to exhibit devices, which may be productive of harmless
+mirth. The evil, connected with them, will depend solely upon the manner
+of their use. If they are used for a trial of skill, and for this
+purpose only, they will be less dangerous, than where they are used for
+a similar trial, with a monied stake. In the former case, however, they
+may be made to ruffle the temper, for, in the very midst of victory, the
+combatant may experience defeat. In the latter case, the loss of
+victory will be accompanied by a pecuniary loss, and two causes, instead
+of one, of the excitement of the passions, will operate at once upon the
+mind.
+
+It seldom happens, and it is much to be lamented, either that children,
+or that more mature persons, are satisfied with amusements of this kind,
+so as to use them simply as trials of skill. A monied stake is usually
+proposed, as the object to be obtained. This general attachment of a
+monied victory to cards is productive frequently of evil. It generates
+often improper feelings. It gives birth to uneasiness and impatience,
+while the contest is in doubt, and not unfrequently to anger and
+resentment, when it is over.
+
+But the passions, which are thus excited among youth, are excited also,
+but worked up to greater mischief, where grown up persons follow these
+amusements imprudently, than where children are concerned. For though
+avarice, and impatience, and anger, are called forth among children,
+they subside sooner. A boy, though he loses his all when he loses his
+stake, suffers nothing from the idea of having impaired the means of his
+future comfort, and independence. His next week's allowance, or the next
+little gift, will set him right again. But when a grown up person, who
+is settled in the world, is led on by these fascinating amusements, so
+as to lose that which would be of importance to his present comfort,
+but more particularly to the happiness of his future life, the case is
+materially altered. The same passions, which harass the one, will harass
+the other, but the effects will be widely different. I have been told
+that persons have been so agitated before the playing of the card, that
+was to decide their destiny, that large drops of sweat have fallen from
+their faces, though they were under no bodily exertions. Now, what must
+have been the state of their minds, when the card in question proved
+decisive of their loss? Reason must unquestionably have fled. And it
+must have been succeeded instantly either by fury or despair. It would
+not have been at all wonderful, if persons in such a state were to have
+lost their senses, or, if unable to contain themselves, they were
+immediately to have vented their enraged feelings either upon
+themselves, or upon others, who were the authors, or the spectators, of
+their loss.
+
+It is not necessary to have recourse to the theory of the human mind, to
+anticipate the consequences, that would be likely to result to grown up
+persons from such an extreme excitement of the passions. History has
+given a melancholy picture of these, as they have been observable among
+different nations of the world.
+
+The ancient Germans, according to Tacitus, played to such desperation,
+that, when they had lost every thing else, they staked their personal
+liberty, and, in the event of bad fortune, became the slaves of the
+winners.
+
+D'Israeli, in his curiosities of literature, has given us the following
+account. "Dice, says he, and that little pugnacious animal, the cock,
+are the chief instruments employed by the numerous nations of the east,
+to agitate their minds, and ruin their fortunes, to which the Chinese,
+who are desperate gamesters, add the use of cards. When all other
+property is played away, the Asiatic gambler does not scruple to stake
+his wife, or his child, on the cast of a dye, or on the strength and
+courage of a martial bird. If still unsuccessful, the last venture is
+himself."
+
+"In the island of Ceylon, cock-fighting is carried to a great height.
+The Sumatrans are addicted to the use of dice. A strong spirit of play
+characterizes the Malayan. After having resigned every thing to the good
+fortune of the winner, he is reduced to a horrid state of desperation.
+He then loosens a certain lock of hair, which indicates war and
+destruction to all he meets. He intoxicates himself with opium, and
+working himself to a fit of frenzy, he bites and kills every one, who
+comes in his way. But as soon as ever this lock is seen flowing, it is
+lawful to fire at the person, and to destroy him as soon as possible."
+
+"To discharge their gambling debts, the Siamese sell their possessions,
+their families, and at length themselves. The Chinese play night and
+day, till they have lost all they are worth, and then they usually go
+and hang themselves. In the newly discovered islands of the Pacific
+Ocean, they venture even their hatchets, which they hold as invaluable
+acquisitions, on running matches. We saw a man, says Cooke, in his last
+voyage, beating his breast and tearing his hair in the violence of rage,
+for having lost three hatchets at one of these races, and which he had
+purchased with nearly half of his property."
+
+But it is not necessary to go beyond our own country for a confirmation
+of these evils. Civilized as we are beyond all the people who have been
+mentioned, and living where the Christian religion is professed, we have
+the misfortune to see our own countrymen engaged in similar pursuits,
+and equally to the disturbance of the tranquillity of their minds, and
+equally to their own ruin. They cannot, it is true, stake their personal
+liberty, because they can neither sell themselves, nor be held as
+slaves. But we see them staking their comfort, and all their prospects
+in life. We see them driven into a multitude of crimes. We see them
+suffering in a variety of ways. How often has duelling, with all its
+horrible effects, been the legitimate offspring of gaming! How many
+suicides have proceeded from the same source! How many persons in
+consequence of a violation of the laws, occasioned solely by gaming,
+have come to ignominious and untimely ends!
+
+Thus it appears that gaming, wherever it has been practised to excess,
+whether by cards, or by dice, or by other instruments, or whether among
+nations civilized or barbarous, or whether in ancient or modern times,
+has been accompanied with the most violent excitement of the passions,
+so as to have driven its votaries to desperation, and to have ruined
+their morality and their happiness.
+
+It is upon the excitement of the passions, which must have risen to a
+furious height, before such desperate actions as those, which have been
+specified, could have commenced, that the Quakers have founded their
+second argument for the prohibition of games of chance, or of any
+amusements or transactions, connected with a monied stake. It is one of
+their principal tenets, as will be diffusively shewn in a future volume,
+that the supreme Creator of the universe affords a certain portion of
+his own spirit, or a certain emanation of the pure principle, to all his
+rational creatures, for the regulation of their spiritual concerns. They
+believe, therefore, that stillness and quietness, both of spirit and of
+body, are necessary for them, as far as these can be obtained. For how
+can a man, whose earthly passions are uppermost, be in a fit state to
+receive, or a man of noisy and turbulent habits be in a fit state to
+attend to, the spiritual admonitions of this pure influence? Hence one
+of the first points in the education of the Quakers is to attend to the
+subjugation of the will; to take care that every perverse passion be
+checked; and that the creature be rendered calm and passive. Hence
+Quaker children are rebuked for all expressions of anger, as tending to
+raise those feelings, which ought to be suppressed. A raising even of
+their voices beyond due bounds is discouraged, as leading to the
+disturbance of their minds. They are taught to rise in the morning in
+quietness, to go about their ordinary occupations with quietness, and to
+retire in quietness to their beds. Educated in this manner, we seldom
+see a noisy or an irascible Quaker. This kind of education is universal
+among the Quakers. It is adopted at home. It is adopted in their
+schools. The great and practical philanthropist, John Howard, when he
+was at Ackworth, which is the great public school of the Quakers, was so
+struck with the quiet deportment of the children there, that he
+mentioned it with approbation in his work on Lazarettos, and gave to the
+public some of its rules, as models for imitation in other seminaries.
+
+But if the Quakers believe that this pure principle, when attended to,
+is an infallible guide to them in their religious or spiritual concerns;
+if they believe that its influences are best discovered in the quietness
+and silence of their senses; if, moreover, they educate with a view of
+producing such a calm and tranquil state; it must be obvious, that they
+can never allow either to their children, or to those of maturer years,
+the use of any of the games of chance, because these, on account of
+their peculiar nature, are so productive of sudden fluctuations of hope,
+and fear, and joy, and disappointment, that they are calculated, more
+than any other, to promote a turbulence of the human passions.
+
+
+SECT. IV.
+
+_Another cause of their prohibition is, that, if indulged in, they may
+produce habits of gaming--these habits after the moral character-they
+occasion men to become avaricious--dishonest--cruel--and disturbers of
+the order of nature--observations by Hartley from his essay on man._
+
+
+Another reason, why the Quakers do not allow their members the use of
+cards, and of similar amusements, is, that, if indulged in, they may
+produce habits of gaming, which, if once formed, generally ruin the
+moral character.
+
+It is in the nature of cards, that chance should have the greatest share
+in the production of victory, and there is, as I have observed before,
+usually a monied stake. But where chance is concerned, neither victory
+nor defeat can be equally distributed among the combatants. If a person
+wins, he feels himself urged to proceed. The amusement also points out
+to him the possibility of a sudden acquisition of fortune without the
+application of industry. If he loses, he does not despair. He still
+perseveres in the contest, for the amusement points out to him the
+possibility of repairing his loss. In short, there is no end of hope
+upon these occasions. It is always hovering about during the contest.
+Cards, therefore, and amusements of the same nature, by holding up
+prospects of pecuniary acquisitions on the one hand, and of repairing
+losses, that may arise on any occasion, on the other, have a direct
+tendency to produce habits of gaming.
+
+Now the Quakers consider these habits as, of all others, the most
+pernicious; for they usually change the disposition of a man, and ruin
+his moral character.
+
+From generous-hearted they make him avaricious. The covetousness too,
+which they introduce as it were into his nature, is of a kind, that is
+more than ordinarily injurious. It brings disease upon the body, as it
+brings corruption upon the mind. Habitual gamesters regard neither their
+own health, nor their own personal convenience, but will sit up night
+after night, though under bodily indisposition, at play, if they can
+only grasp the object of their pursuit.
+
+From a just and equitable they often render him a dishonest person.
+Professed gamesters, it is well known, lie in wait for the young, the
+ignorant, and the unwary: and they do not hesitate to adopt fraudulent
+practices to secure them as their prey. In toxication has been also
+frequently resorted to for the same purpose.
+
+From humane and merciful they change him into hard hearted and
+barbarous. Habitual gamesters have compassion foe neither men nor
+brutes. The former they can ruin and leave destitute, without the
+sympathy of a tear. The latter they can oppress to death, calculating
+the various powers of their declining strength, and their capability of
+enduring pain.
+
+They convert him from an orderly to a disorderly being, and to a
+disturber of the order of the universe. Professed gamesters sacrifice
+every thing, without distinction, to their wants, not caring if the
+order of nature, or if the very ends of creation, be reversed. They turn
+day into night, and night into day. They force animated nature into
+situations for which it was never destined. They lay their hands upon
+things innocent and useful, and make them noxious. They by hold of
+things barbarous, and render them still more barbarous by their
+pollutions.
+
+Hartley, in his essay upon man, has the following observation upon
+gaming.
+
+"The practice of playing at games of chance and skill is one of the
+principal amusements of life. And it may be thought hard to condemn it
+as absolutely unlawful, since there are particular cases of persons,
+infirm in body and mind, where it seems requisite to draw them out of
+themselves by a variety of ideas and ends in view, which gently engage
+the attention.--But the reason takes place in very few instances.--The
+general motives to play are avarice, joined with a fraudulent intention
+explicit or implicit, ostentation of skill, and spleen, through the
+want of some serious, useful occupation. And as this practice arises
+from such corrupt sources, so it has a tendency to increase them; and
+indeed may be considered as an express method of begetting and
+inculcating self-interest, ill will, envy, and the like. For by gaming a
+man learns to pursue his own interest solely and explicitly, and to
+rejoice at the loss of others, as his own gain, grieve at their gain, as
+his own loss, thus entirely reversing the order established by
+providence for social creatures."
+
+
+
+
+CHAP. III.....SECT. I.
+
+_Music forbidden--general apology for the Quakers on account of their
+prohibition of so delightful a science--music particularly abused at the
+present day--wherein this abuse consists--present use of it almost
+inseparable from the abuse._
+
+
+Plato, when he formed what he called his pure republic, would not allow
+music to have any place in it. George Fox and his followers were of
+opinion, that it could not be admitted in a system of pure Christianity.
+The modern Quakers have not differed from their predecessors on this
+subject; and therefore music is understood to be prohibited throughout
+the society at the present day.
+
+It will doubtless appear strange that there should be found people, to
+object to an art, which is capable of being made productive of so much
+pleasurable feeling, and which, if it be estimated either by the extent
+or the rapidity of its progress, is gaining in the reputation of the
+world. But it may be observed that "all that glitters is not gold." So
+neither is all, that pleases the ear, perfectly salubrious to the mind.
+There are few customs, against which some argument or other may not be
+advanced: few in short, which man has not perverted, and where the use
+has not become, in an undue measure, connected with the abuse.
+
+Providence gave originally to man a beautiful and a perfect world. He
+filled it with things necessary and things delightful. And yet man has
+often turned these from their true and original design. The very wood on
+the surface of the earth he has cut down, and the very stone and metal
+in its bowels he has hewn and cast, and converted into a graven image,
+and worshipped in the place of his beneficent Creator. The food, which
+has been given him for his nourishment, he has frequently converted by
+his intemperance into the means of injuring his health. The wine that
+was designed to make his heart glad on reasonable and necessary
+occasions, he has used often to the stupefaction of his senses, and the
+degradation of his moral character. The very raiment, which has been
+afforded him for his body, he has abused also, so that it has frequently
+become a source for the excitement of his pride.
+
+Just so it has been, and so it is, with music at the present day.
+
+Music acts upon our senses, and may be made productive of a kind of
+natural delight, for in the same manner as we receive, through the organ
+of the eye, a kind of involuntary pleasure, when we look at beautiful
+arrangements, or combinations, or proportions, in nature, and the
+pleasure may be said to be natural, so the pleasure is neither less, nor
+less involuntary, nor less natural, which we receive, through the organ
+of the ear, from a combination of sounds flowing in musical progression.
+
+The latter pleasure, as it seems natural, so, under certain limitations,
+it seems innocent. The first tendency of music, I mean of instrumental,
+is to calm and tranquillize the passions. The ideas, which it excites,
+are of the social, benevolent, and pleasant kind. It leads occasionally
+to joy, to grief, to tenderness, to sympathy, but never to malevolence,
+ingratitude, anger, cruelty, or revenge. For no combination of musical
+sounds can be invented, by which the latter passions can be excited in
+the mind, without the intervention of the human voice.
+
+But notwithstanding that music may be thus made the means both of
+innocent and pleasurable feeling, yet it has been the misfortune of man,
+as mother cases, to abuse it, and never probably more than in the
+present age. For the use of it, as it is at present taught, is almost
+inseparable from its abuse. Music has been so generally cultivated, and
+to such perfection, that it now ceases to delight the ear, unless it
+comes from the fingers of the proficient. But great proficiency cannot
+be obtained in this science, without great sacrifices of time. If young
+females are to be brought up to it, rather as to a profession, than
+introduced to it as a source of occasional innocent recreation, or if
+their education is thought most perfect, where their musical attainments
+are the highest, not only hours, but even years, must be devoted to the
+pursuit. Such a devotion to this one object must, it is obvious, leave
+less time than is proper for others, that are more important. The
+knowledge of domestic occupations, and the various sorts of knowledge,
+that are acquired by reading, must be abridged, in proportion as this
+science is cultivated to professional precision. And hence,
+independently of any arguments, which the Quakers may advance against
+it, it must be acknowledged by the sober world to be chargeable with a
+criminal waste of time. And this waste of time is the more to be
+deprecated, because it frequently happens, that, when young females
+marry, music is thrown aside, after all the years that have been spent
+in its acquisition, as an employment, either then unnecessary, or as an
+employment, which, amidst the new cares of a family, they have not
+leisure to follow.
+
+Another serious charge may be advanced against music, as it is practised
+at the present day. Great proficiency, without which music now ceases to
+be delightful, cannot, as I have just observed, be made without great
+application, or the application of some years. Now all this long
+application is of a sedentary nature. But all occupations of a sedentary
+nature are injurious to the human constitution, and weaken and disorder
+it in time. But in proportion as the body is thus weakened by the
+sedentary nature of the employment, it is weakened again by the
+enervating powers of the art. Thus the nervous system is acted upon by
+two enemies at once, and in the course of the long education necessary
+for this science, the different disorders of hysteria are produced.
+Hence the females of the present age, amongst whom this art has been
+cultivated to excess, are generally found to have a weak and languid
+constitution, and to be disqualified, more than others, from becoming
+healthy wives, or healthy mothers, or the parents of a healthy progeny.
+
+
+SECT. II.
+
+_Instrumental forbidden--Quakers cannot learn it on the motives of the
+world--it is not conducive to the improvement of the moral
+character--affords no solid ground of comfort--nor of true elevation of
+mind--a sensual gratification--remarks of Cowper--and, if encouraged,
+would interfere with the duty recommended by the Quakers, of frequent
+religious retirement._
+
+
+The reader must always bear it in his mind, if the Quakers should differ
+from him on any particular subject, that they set themselves apart as a
+christian community, aiming at christian perfection: that it is their
+wish to educate their children, not as moralists or as philosophers, but
+as christians; and that therefore, in determining the propriety of a
+practice, they will frequently judge of it by an estimate, very
+different from that of the world.
+
+The Quakers do not deny that instrumental music is capable of exciting
+delight. They are not insensible either of its power or of its charms.
+They throw no imputation on its innocence, when viewed abstractly by
+itself; but they do not see anything in it sufficiently useful, to make
+it an object of education, or so useful, as to counterbalance other
+considerations, which make for its disuse.
+
+The Quakers would think it wrong to indulge in their families the usual
+motives for the acquisition of this science. Self-gratification, which
+is one of them, and reputation in the world, which is the other, are not
+allowable in the Christian system. Add to which that where there is a
+desire for such reputation, an emulative disposition is generally
+cherished, and envy and vain glory are often excited in the pursuit.
+
+They are of opinion also, that the learning of this art does not tend to
+promote the most important object of education, the improvement of the
+mind. When a person is taught the use of letters, he is put into the way
+of acquiring natural, historical, religious, and other branches of
+knowledge, and of course of improving his intellectual and moral
+character. But music has no pretensions, in the opinion of the Quakers,
+to the production of such an end. Polybius, indeed relates, that he
+could give no solid reason, why one tribe of the Arcadians should have
+been so civilized, and the others so barbarous, but that the former were
+fond, and the latter were ignorant of music. But the Quakers would
+argue, that if music had any effect in the civilization, this effect
+would be seen in the manners, and not in the morals of mankind. Musical
+Italians are esteemed a soft and effeminate, but they are generally
+reputed a depraved people. Music, in short, though it breathes soft
+influences, cannot yet breathe morality into the mind. It may do to
+soften savages, but a christian community, in the opinion of the
+Quakers, can admit of no better civilization, than that which the spirit
+of the supreme being, and an observance of the pure precepts of
+christianity, can produce.
+
+Music, again, does not appear to the Quakers to be the foundation of any
+solid comfort in life. It may give spirits for the moment as strong
+liquor does, but when the effect of the liquor is over, the spirits
+flag, and the mind is again torpid. It can give no solid encouragement
+nor hope, nor prospects. It can afford no anchorage ground, which shall
+hold the mind in a storm. The early christians, imprisoned, beaten and
+persecuted even to death, would have had but poor consolation, if they
+had not had a better friend than music to have relied upon in the hour
+of their distress. And here I think the Quakers would particularly
+condemn music, if they thought it could be resorted to in the hour of
+affliction, in as much as it would then have a tendency to divert the
+mind from its true and only support.
+
+Music, again, does not appear to them to be productive of elevated
+thoughts, that is, of such thoughts as raise the mind to sublime and
+spiritual things, abstracted from the inclinations, the temper, and the
+prejudices of the world. The most melodious sounds that human
+instruments can make, are from the earth earthly. But nothing can rise
+higher than its own origin. All true elevation therefore can only come,
+in the opinion of the Quakers, from the divine source.
+
+The Quakers therefore, seeing no moral utility in music, cannot make it
+a part of their education. But there are other considerations, of a
+different nature, which influence them in the same way.
+
+Music, in the first place, is a sensual gratification. Even those who
+run after sacred music, never consider themselves as going to a place of
+devotion, but where, in full concert, they may hear the performance of
+the master pieces of the art. This attention to religious compositions,
+for the sake of the music, has been noticed by one of our best poets.
+
+   "and ten thousand sit,
+   Patiently present at a sacred song,
+   Commemoration-mad, content to hear,
+   O wonderful effect of music's power,
+   Messiah's eulogy for Handal's sake!"
+   COWPER.
+
+But the Quakers believe, that all sensual desires should be held in due
+subordination to the pure principle, or that sensual pleasures should be
+discouraged, to much as possible, as being opposed to those spiritual
+feeling, which constitute the only perfect enjoyment of a christian.
+
+Music, again, if it were encouraged in the society, would be considered
+as depriving those of maturer years of hours of comfort, which they now
+frequently enjoy, in the service of religion. Retirement is considered
+by the Quakers as a christian duty. The members therefore of this
+society are expected to wait in silence, not only in their places of
+worship, but occasionally in their families, or in their private
+chambers, in the intervals of their daily occupations, that, in
+stillness of heart, and in freedom from the active contrivance of their
+own wills, they may acquire both directions and strength for the
+performance of the duties of life. The Quakers therefore are of opinion,
+that, if instrumental music were admitted as a gratification in leisure
+hours, it would take the place of many of these serious retirements, and
+become very injurious to their interests and their character as
+christians.
+
+
+SECT. III
+
+_Vocal music forbidden--singing in itself no more immoral than reading
+--but as vocal music articulates ideas, it may convey poison to the mind
+--some ideas in songs contrary to Quaker notions of morality--as
+in hunting songs--or in baccanalian--or in martial--youth make no selection
+--but learn off that fall in their way._
+
+
+It is an observation of Lactantius, that the "pleasures we receive
+through the organ of the ears, may be as injurious as those we receive,
+through the organ of the eyes." He does not, however, consider the
+effect of instrumental music as much to be regarded, "because sounds,
+which proceed from air, are soon gone, and they give birth to no
+sentiments that can be recorded. Songs, on the other hand, or sounds
+from the voice, may have an injurious influence on the mind."
+
+The Quakers, in their view of this subject, make the same distinction as
+this ancient father of the church. They have a stronger objection, if it
+be possible, to vocal, than to instrumental music. Instrumental music,
+though it is considered to be productive of sensual delight, is yet
+considered as incapable, on account of its inability to articulate, or
+its inability to express complex ideas, of conveying either unjust or
+impure sentiments to the mind. Vocal, on the other hand, is capable of
+conveying to it poison of this sort. For vocal music consists of songs,
+or of words musically expressed by the human voice. But words are the
+representatives of ideas, and, as for as these ideas are pure or
+otherwise, so far may vocal music be rendered innocent or immoral.
+
+The mere singing, it must be obvious, can be no more immoral than the
+reading, of the same song, singing is but another mode of expressing it.
+The morality of the action will depend upon the words which it may
+contain. If the words in a song are pure, if the sentiments in it are
+just, and if it be the tendency of these to awaken generous and virtuous
+sympathies, the song will operate no otherwise than a lesson of
+morality. And will a lesson of morality be less serviceable to us,
+because it is dressed up in poetry and musically expressed by the human
+voice, than when it is conveyed to us in prose? But if, on the other
+hand, the words in a song are in themselves unchaste, if they inculcate
+false honour, if they lead to false opinions, if they suggest
+sentiments, that have a tendency to produce depraved feelings, then
+vocal music, by which these are conveyed in pleasing accents to the ear,
+becomes a destroyer of morals, and cannot therefore be encouraged by
+any, who consider parity of heart, as required by the christian
+religion. Now the Quakers are of opinion, that the songs of the world
+contain a great deal of objectionable matter in these respects; and that
+if they were to be promiscuously taken up by children, who have no
+powers of discriminating between the good and the bad, and who generally
+lay hold of all that fall in their way, they would form a system of
+sentimental maxims, very injurious in their tendency to their moral
+character.
+
+If we were to take a collection of songs as published in books, and were
+to examine these, we should find that such a system might easily be
+formed. And if, again, we were to examine the sentiments contained in
+many of these, by the known sentiments of the Quakers on the several
+subjects of each, we should find that, as a highly professing people,
+more objections would arise against vocal music among them, than among
+other people.
+
+Let us, for example, just glance at that class of songs, which in the
+collection would be called hunting songs. In these men are invited to
+the pleasures of the chase, as to pleasures of a superior kind. The
+triumphs over the timid hare are celebrated in these with a kind of
+enthusiastic joy, and celebrated too as triumphs, worthy of the
+character of men. Glory Is even attached to these pursuits. But the
+Quakers, as it will appear in a future chapter, endeavour to prevent
+their youth from following any of the diversions of the field. They
+consider pleasures as placed on a false foundation, and triumphs as
+unmanly and inglorious, which are founded on circumstances, connected
+with the sufferings of the brute creation. They cannot therefore approve
+of songs of this order, because they consider them as disseminating
+sentiments that are both unreasonable and cruel.
+
+Let us now go to another class, which may be found in the same
+collection; I mean the bacchanalian. Men are invited here to sacrifice
+frequently at the shrine of Bacchus. Joy, good humour, and fine spirits,
+are promised to those, who pour out their libations in a liberal manner.
+An excessive use of wine, which injures the constitution, and stupifies
+the faculties, instead of being censured in these songs is sometimes
+recommended in them, as giving to nature that occasional stimulus, which
+is deemed necessary to health. Poets too, in their songs, have
+considered the day as made only for vulgar souls, but the night for the
+better sort of people, that they may the better pursue the pleasures of
+the bottle. Others have gone so far in their songs, as to promise long
+life as a consequence of drinking; while others, who confess that human
+life may be shortened by such means, take care to throw out, that, as a
+man's life thus becomes proportionably abridged, it is rendered
+proportionably a merry one. Now the Quakers are so particularly careful
+with respect to the use of wine and spirituous liquors, that the society
+are annually and publicly admonished to beware of excess. Quakers are
+discouraged from going even to inns but for the purposes of business and
+refreshment, and are admonished to take care, that they stay there no
+longer than is necessary for such purposes. The Quakers therefore,
+cannot be supposed to approve of any of the songs of this class, as far
+as they recommend or promote drunkenness. And they cannot but consider
+them as containing sentiments injurious to the morals of their children.
+
+But let us examine another class of songs, that may be found in the same
+collection. These may be denominated martial. Now what is generally the
+tenor of these songs? The authors celebrate victories. They endeavour,
+regardless of the question, whether their own cause be a right or a
+wrong one, to excite joy at the events, it is their aim frequently to
+rouse the soul to the performance of martial exploits, as to exploits
+the fullest of human glory. They frequently threaten enemies with new
+chastisements, and new victories, and breathe the spirit of revenge. But
+the Quakers consider all wars, whether offensive or defensive, as
+against the spirit of the christian religion. They cannot contemplate
+scenes of victory but with the eye of pity, and the tear of compassion,
+for the sufferings of their fellow-creatures, whether countrymen or
+enemies, and for the devastation of the human race. They allow no glory
+to attach, nor do they give any thing like an honourable reputation, to
+the Alexanders, the Caesars, or the heroes either of ancient or modern
+date. They cannot therefore approve of songs of this class, because they
+conceive them to inculcate sentiments, totally contrary to the mild and
+peaceful spirit of the christian religion.
+
+If we were to examine the collection farther, we might pick out other
+songs, which might be reckoned of the class of the impure. Among these
+will be found ideas, so indelicate, that notwithstanding the gloss,
+which wit and humour had put over them, the chaste ear could not but be
+offended by their recital. It must be obvious, in this case also, that
+not only the Quakers, but all persons filling the stations of parents,
+would be sorry if their children were to come to the knowledge of some
+of these.
+
+It is unnecessary to proceed farther upon this subject. For the reader
+must be aware that, while the Quakers hold such sentiments, they can
+never patronise such songs; and that if those who are taught or allowed
+to sing, generally lay hold of all the songs that come into their way,
+that is, promiscuously and without selection. The Quakers will have a
+strong ground as a Christian society, or as a society, who hold it
+necessary to be watchful over their words as well as their actions, for
+the rejection of vocal music.
+
+
+SECT. IV.
+
+_The preceding are the arguments of the early Quakers--new state of
+music has produced new ones--instrumental now censurable for a waste of
+time--for leading into company--for its connection with vocal_.
+
+
+The arguments which have hitherto appeared against the admission of
+music into education, are those which were nearly coeval with the
+society itself. The incapability of music to answer moral ends, the
+sensuality of the gratification, the impediments it might throw in the
+way of religious retirement, the impurity it might convey to the mind,
+were in the mouths of the early Quakers. Music at that time was
+principally in the hands of those, who made a livelihood of the art.
+Those who followed it as an accomplishment, or a recreation, were few
+and these followed it with moderation. But since those days, its
+progress has been immense. It has traversed the whole kingdom. It has
+got into almost all the families of rank and fortune. Many of the middle
+classes, in imitation of the higher, have received it; and, as it has
+undergone a revolution in the extent, so it has undergone another in the
+object of its practice. It is learned now, not as a source of occasional
+recreation, but as a complicated science, where perfection is insisted
+upon to make it worthy of pursuit. In this new state therefore of music
+new arguments have arisen on the part of the Quakers, which I shall now
+concisely detail.
+
+The Quakers, in the first place, are of opinion, that the learning of
+music, as it is now learned, cannot be admitted by them as a christian
+society, because, proficiency being now the object of it, as has been
+before observed, it would keep them longer employed, than is consistent
+with people, who are commanded to redeem their time.
+
+They believe also that music in its present state, has an immediate
+tendency to leading into the company of the world. In former tunes, when
+music was followed with moderation, it was esteemed as a companion, or
+as a friend: it afforded relaxation after fatigue, and amusement in
+solitary hours. It drew a young person to his home, and hindered him
+from following many of the idle diversions of the times. But now, or
+since it has been practised with a new object, it produces a different
+effect. It leads into company. It leads to trials of skill. It leads to
+the making up of festive parties. It leads, for its own gratification,
+to the various places of public resort. Now this tendency of leading
+into public is considered by the Quakers as a tendency big with the
+dissolution of their society. For they have many customs to keep up,
+which are quite at variance with those of the world. The former appear
+to be steep and difficult as common paths. Those of the world to be
+smooth and easy. The natural inclination of youth, more prone to
+self-gratification than to self-denial, would prefer to walk in the
+latter. And the influence of fashion would point to the same choice. The
+liberty too, which is allowed in the one case, seems more agreeable than
+the discipline imposed in the other. Hence it has been found, that in
+proportion as young Quakers mix with the world, they generally imbibe
+its spirit, and weaken themselves as members of their own body.
+
+The Quakers again, have an objection to the learning of instrumental
+music on account of its almost inseparable connection with vocal, in
+consequence of which, it leads often to the impurity, which the latter
+has been shewn to be capable of conveying to the mind.
+
+This connection does not arise so much from the circumstance, that
+those, who learn to play, generally learn to sing, as from another
+consideration. Musical people, who have acquired skill and taste, are
+desirous of obtaining every new musical publication, as it comes out.
+This desire is produced where there is an aim at perfection in this
+science. The professed novel reader, we know, waits with impatience for
+a new novel. The politician discovers anxiety for his morning paper.
+Just so it is with the musical amateur with respect to a new tune. Now,
+though many of the new compositions come out for instrumental music
+only, yet others come out entirely as vocal. These consist of songs sung
+at our theatres, or at our public gardens, or at our other places of
+public resort, and are afterwards printed with their music, and exposed
+to sale. The words therefore, of these songs, as well as the music that
+is attached to them, fall into the hands of the young amateur. Now as
+such songs are not always chaste, or delicate, and as they frequently
+contain such sentiments, as I have shewn the Quakers to disapprove, the
+young musician, if a Quaker, might have his modestey frequently put to
+the blush, or his delicacy frequently wounded, or his morality often
+broken in upon, by their perusal. Hence, though instrumental music might
+have no immoral tendency in itself, the Quakers have rejected it, among
+other reasons, on account of its almost inseparable connection with
+vocal.
+
+
+SECT. V.
+
+_Objection anticipated, that though the arguments, used by the Quakers
+in the preceding chapters, are generally fair and positive, yet an
+exceptionable one seems to have been introduced, by which it appears to
+be inculcated, that the use of a thing ought to be abandoned on account
+of its abuse--explanation of the distinction, made by the Quakers, in
+the use of this argument_.
+
+
+I purpose to stop for a while, and to make a distinction, which may now
+become necessary, with respect to the use of what may appear to be a
+Quaker principle of argument, before I proceed to a new subject.
+
+It may have been observed by some of my readers, that though the Quakers
+have adduced arguments, which may be considered as fair and positive on
+the subjects, which have come before us, yet they appear to have adduced
+one, which is no other, than that of condemning the use of a thing on
+account of its abuse. Now this mode of reasoning, it will be said has
+been exploded by logicians, and for this, among other reasons, that if
+we were bound to relinquish customs in consequence of it, we should be
+obliged to give up many things that are connected with the comforts, and
+even with the existence of our lives.
+
+To this observation I must reply, that the Quakers never recommend an
+abstinence from any custom, merely because the use of it may lead to its
+abuse.
+
+Where a custom is simply liable to abuse, they satisfy themselves with
+recommending moderation in the use of it.
+
+But where the abuse of a custom is either, in the first place,
+necessarily, or, in the second very generally connected with the use of
+it, they generally consider the omission of it as morally wise and
+prudent. It is in these two cases only that they apply, or that they lay
+any stress upon the species of argument described.
+
+This species of argument, under these two limitations, they believe to
+be tenable in christian morals, and they entertain this belief upon the
+following grounds.
+
+It may be laid down as a position, that the abuse of any custom which is
+innocent in itself, is an evil, and that it may become a moral evil. And
+they conceive it to become a moral evil in the eye of christianity, when
+it occasions either the destruction of the health of individuals, or
+the misapplication of their time, or the excitement of their worst
+passions, or the loss of their moral character.
+
+If therefore the use of any custom be necessarily (which is the first of
+the two cases) connected with its abuse, and the abuse of it be the
+moral evil described, the user or practiser cannot but incur a certain
+degree of guilt. This first case will comprehend all those uses of
+things, which go under the denomination of gaming.
+
+If again, the use of a custom be either through the influence of
+fashion, or its own seductive nature, or any other cause, very generally
+(which is the second case) connected with its abuse, and the abuse be
+also of the nature supposed, then the user or practiser, if the custom
+be unnecessary, throws himself wantonly into danger of evil, contrary to
+the watchfulness which christianity enjoins in morals; and, if he falls,
+falls by his own fault. This watchfulness against moral danger the
+Quakers conceive to be equally incumbent upon Christians, as
+watchfulness upon persons against the common dangers of life. If two
+thirds of all the children, who had ever gone to the edge of a precipice
+to play, had fallen down and been injured, it would be a necessary
+prudence in parents to prohibit all such goings in future. So they
+conceive it to be only a necessary prudence in morals, to prohibit
+customs, where the use of them is very generally connected with a
+censurable abuse. This case will comprehend music, as practised at the
+present day, because they believe it to be injurious to health, to
+occasion a waste of time, to create an emulative disposition, and to
+give an undue indulgence to sensual feeling.
+
+And as the Quakers conceive this species of argument to be tenable in
+Christian morals, so they hold it to be absolutely necessary to be
+adopted in the education of youth. For grown up persons may have
+sufficient judgment to distinguish between the use of a thing and its
+abuse. They may discern the boundaries of each, and enjoy the one, while
+they avoid the other. But youth have no such power of discrimination.
+Like inexperienced mariners, they know not where to look for the deep
+and the shallow water, and, allured by enchanting circumstances, they
+may, like those who are reported to have been enticed by the voices of
+the fabulous Syrens, easily overlook the danger, that assuredly awaits
+them in their course.
+
+
+
+
+CHAP. IV. SECT. I.
+
+_The theatre--the theatre as well as music abused--plays respectable in
+their origin--but degenerated--Solon, Plato, and the ancient moralists
+against them--particularly immoral in England in the time of Charles
+the second--forbidden by George Fox--sentiments of Archbishop
+Tillotson--of William Law--English plays better than formerly, but still
+objectionable--prohibition of George Fox continued by the Quakers._
+
+
+It is much to be lamented that customs, which originated in respectable
+motives, and which might have been made productive of innocent pleasure,
+should have been so perverted in time, that the continuation of them
+should be considered as a grievance by moral men. As we have seen this
+to be the case, in some measure, with respect to music, so it is the
+care with respect to plays.
+
+Dramatic compositions appear to have had no reprehensible origin. It
+certainly was an object with the authors of some of the earliest plays
+to combine the entertainment with the moral improvement of the mind.
+Tragedy was at first simply a monody to Bacohus. But the tragedy of the
+ancients, from which the modern is derived, did not arise in the world,
+till the dialogue and the chorus were introduced. Now the chorus, as
+every scholar knows, was a moral office. They who filled it, were loud
+in their recommendations of justice and temperance. They inculcated a
+religious observance of the laws. They implored punishment on the
+abandoned. They were strenuous in their discouragement of vice, and in
+the promotion of virtue. This office therefore, being coeval with
+tragedy itself, preserves it from the charge of an immoral origin.
+
+Nor was comedy, which took its rise afterwards, the result of corrupt
+motives. In the most ancient comedies, we find it to have been the great
+object of the writers to attack vice. If a chief citizen had acted
+inconsistently with his character, he was ridiculed upon the stage. His
+very name was not concealed on the occasion. In the course of time
+however, the writers of dramatic pieces were forbidden to use the names
+of the persons, whom they proposed to censure. But we find them still
+adhering to the same great object, the exposure of vice; and they
+painted the vicious character frequently so well, that the person was
+soon discovered by the audience, though disguised by a fictitious name.
+When new restrictions, were afterwards imposed upon the writers of such
+pieces, they produced a new species of comedy. This is that which
+obtains at the present day. It consisted of an imitation of the manners
+of common life. The subject, the names, and the characters, belonging
+to it, were now all of them feigned. Writers, however, retained their
+old object of laughing at folly and of exposing vice.
+
+Thus it appears that the theatre, as far as tragedy was employed,
+inculcated frequently as good lessons of morality, as heathenism could
+produce, and as far as comedy was concerned, that it became often the
+next remedy, after the more grave and moral lectures of the ancient
+philosophers, against the prevailing excesses of the times.
+
+But though the theatre professed to encourage virtue, and to censure
+vice, yet such a combination of injurious effects was interwoven with
+the representations there, arising either from the influence of fiction
+upon morals, or from the sight of the degradation of the rational
+character by buffoonery, or from the tendency of such representations to
+produce levity and dissipation, or from various other causes, that they,
+who were the greatest lovers of virtue in those days, and the most
+solicitous of improving the moral condition of man, began to consider
+them as productive of much more evil than of good. Solon forewarned
+Thespis, that the effects of such plays, as he saw him act, would become
+in time injurious to the morals of mankind, and he forbade him to act
+again. The Athenians, though such performances were afterwards allowed,
+would never permit any of their judges to compose a comedy. The
+Spartans under Lycurgus, who were the most virtuous of all the people of
+Greece, would not suffer either tragedies or comedies to be acted at
+all. Plato, as he had banished music, so he banished theatrical
+exhibitions from his pure republic. Seneca considered, that vice made
+insensible approaches by means of the stage, and that it stole on the
+people in the disguise of pleasure. The Romans, in their purer times,
+considered the stage to be so disgraceful, that every Roman was to be
+degraded, who became an actor, and so pernicious to morals, that they
+put it under the power of a censor, to control its effects.
+
+But the stage, in the time of Charles the second, when the Quakers first
+appeared in the world, was in a worse state than even in the Grecian or
+Roman times. If there was ever a period in any country, when it was
+noted as the school of profligate and corrupt morals, it was in this
+reign. George Fox therefore, as a christian reformer, could not be
+supposed to be behind the heathen philosophers, in a case where morality
+was concerned. Accordingly we find him protesting publicly against all
+such spectacles. In this protest, he was joined by Robert Barclay and
+William Penn, two of the greatest men of those times, who in their
+respective publications attacked them with great spirit. These
+publications shewed the sentiments of the Quakers, as a religious body,
+upon this subject. It was understood that no Quaker could be present at
+amusements of this sort. And this idea was confirmed by the sentiments
+and advices of several of the most religious members, which were
+delivered on public occasions. By means of these publications and
+advices the subject was kept alive, till it became at length
+incorporated into the religious discipline of the Quakers. The theatre
+was then specifically forbidden; and an inquiry was annually to be made
+from thenceforward, whether any of the members of the society had been
+found violating the prohibition.
+
+Since the time of Charles the second, when George Fox entered his
+protest against exhibitions of this sort, it must certainly be
+confessed, that an alteration has taken place for the better in the
+constitution of our plays, and that poison is not diffused into morals,
+by means of them, to an equal extent, as at that period. The mischief
+has been considerably circumscribed by legal inspection, and, it is to
+be hoped, by the improved civilization of the times. But it does not
+appear by any historical testimony we have, that a change has been made,
+which is at all proportioned to the quantity of moral light, which has
+been diffused among us since that reign. Archbishop Tillotson was of
+opinion, "that plays might be so framed, and they might be governed by
+such rules, as not only to be innocently diverting, but instructive and
+useful to put some follies and vices out of countenance, which could not
+perhaps be so decently reproved, nor so effectually exposed or corrected
+any other way." And yet he confesses, that, "they were so full of
+profaneness, and that they instilled such bad principles into the mind,
+in his own day, that they ought not to have been tolerated in any
+civilized, and much less in a Christian nation." William Law, an eminent
+divine of the establishment, who lived after Tillitson, declared in one
+of his publications on the subject of the stage, that "you could not
+then see a play in either house, but what abounded with thoughts,
+passages, and language contrary to the Christian religion." From the
+time of William Law to the present about forty years have elapsed, and
+we do not see, if we consult the controversial writers on the subject,
+who live among us, that the theatre has become much less objectionable
+since those days. Indeed if the names only of our modern plays were to
+be collected and published, they would teach us to augur very
+unfavourably as to the morality of their contents. The Quakers
+therefore, as a religions body, have seen no reason, why they should
+differ in opinion from their ancestors on this subject: and hence the
+prohibition which began in former times with respect to the theatre, is
+continued by them at the present day.
+
+
+SECT. II.
+
+_Theatre forbidden by the Quakers on account of the manner of the
+drama--first, as it personates the character of others--secondly, as it
+professes to reform vice_.
+
+
+The Quakers have many reasons to give, why, as a society of christians
+they cannot encourage the theatre, by being present at any of its
+exhibitions. I shall not detail all of them for the reader, but shall
+select such only, as I think most material to the point.
+
+The first class of arguments comprehends such as relate, to what may be
+called the manner of the drama. The Quakers object to the manner of the
+drama, or to its fictitious nature, in consequence of which men
+personate characters, that are not their own. This personification they
+hold to be injurious to the man, who is compelled to practise it. Not
+that he will partake of the bad passions, which he personates, but that
+the trick and trade of representing what he does not feel, must make him
+at all times an actor; and his looks, and words, and actions, will be
+all sophisticated. And this evil will be likely to continue with him in
+the various changes of his life.
+
+They hold it also to be contrary to the spirit of Christianity. For men
+who personate characters in this way, express joy and grief, when in
+reality there may be none of these feelings in their hearts. They
+express noble sentiments, when their whole lives may have been
+remarkable for their meanness, and go often afterwards and wallow in
+sensual delights. They personate the virtuous character to day, and
+perhaps to-morrow that of the rake, and, in the latter case, they utter
+his profligate sentiments, and speak his profane language. Now
+Christianity requires simplicity and truth. It allows no man to pretend
+to be what he is not. And it requires great circumspection of its
+followers with respect to what they may utter, because it makes every
+man accountable for his idle words.
+
+The Quakers therefore are of opinion, that they cannot as men, either
+professing christian tenets, or christian love, encourage others to
+assume false characters, or to [5] personate those which are not their
+own.
+
+[Footnote 5: Rousseau condemns the stage upon the same principle. "It
+is, says he, the art of dissimulation--of assuming a foreign character,
+and of appearing differently from what a man really is--of flying into a
+passion without a cause, and of saying what he does not think, as
+naturally as if he really did--in a word of forgetting himself to
+personate others."]
+
+They object also to the manner of the drama, even where it professes to
+be a school for morals. For where it teaches morality, it inculcates
+rather the refined virtue of heathenism, than the strict, though mild
+discipline of the gospel. And where it attempts to extirpate vice, it
+does it rather by making it ridiculous, than by making men shun it for
+the love of virtue. It no where fixes the deep christian principle, by
+which men are bound to avoid it as sin, but places the propriety of the
+dereliction of it rather upon the loss of reputation among the world,
+than upon any sense of religious duty.
+
+
+SECT. III.
+
+_Theatre forbidden an account of the internal contents of the
+drama--both of those of tragedy--and of comedy--these contents hold out
+false morals and prospects--and weaken the sinews of morality
+--observations of Lord Kaimes upon the subject._
+
+
+The next class of arguments is taken from the internal contents of the
+drama.
+
+The Quakers mean that dramatic compositions generally contain false
+sentiments, that is, such as christianity would disapprove; that, of
+course they hold out false prospects; that they inculcate false morals;
+and that they have a tendency from these, and other of their internal
+contents, to promote dissipation, and to weaken the sinews of morality
+in those who see them represented upon the stage.
+
+Tragedy is considered by the Quakers, as a part of the drama, where the
+hero is generally a warrior, and where a portion of human happiness is
+made to consist of martial glory. Hence it is considered as frequently
+inculcating proud and lofty sentiments, as cherishing a fierce and
+romantic spirit, as encouraging rival enmities, as holding of no
+importance the bond of love and union between man and man. Now as
+christianity enjoins humility, peace, quietness, brotherly affection,
+and charity, which latter is not to be bounded by the limits of any
+country, the Quakers hold as a christian body, that they cannot admit
+their children to spectacles, which have a tendency to engender a
+disposition opposite to these.
+
+Comedy is considered as holding out prospects, and inculcating morals,
+equally false and hurtful. In such compositions, for example, a bad
+impression is not uniformly given of a bad character. Knavery frequently
+accomplishes its ends without the merited punishment. Indeed treachery
+and intrigue are often considered but as jocose occurrences. The laws of
+modern honour are frequently held out to the spectator, as laws that are
+to influence in life. Vulgar expressions, and even swearing are admitted
+upon the stage. Neither is chastity nor delicacy always consulted there.
+Impure allusions are frequently interwoven into the dialogue, so that
+innocence cannot but often blush. Incidents not very favourable to
+morals, are sometimes introduced. New dissipated characters are produced
+to view, by the knowledge of which, the novice in dissipation is not
+diverted from his new and baneful career, but finds only his scope of
+dissipation enlarged, and a wider field to range in. To these hurtful
+views of things, as arising from the internal structure, are to be added
+those, which arise from the extravagant love-tales, the ridiculous
+intrigues, and the silly buffoonery of the compositions of the stage.
+
+Now it is impossible, the Quakers contend, that these ingredients, which
+are the component parts of comic amusements, should not have an
+injurious influence upon the mind that is young and tender and
+susceptible of impressions. If the blush which first started upon the
+cheek of a young person on the first hearing of an indecorous or profane
+sentiment, and continued for some time to be excited at repetitions of
+the same, should at length be so effectually laid asleep, that the
+impudent language of ribaldry can awaken it no more, it is clear, that a
+victory will have been gained over his moral feelings: and if he should
+remember (and what is to hinder him, when the occurrences of the stage
+are marked with strong action, and accompanied with impressive scenery)
+the language, the sentiments, the incidents, the prospects, which
+dramatic pieces have brought before him, he may combine these, as they
+rise to memory, with his own feelings, and incorporate them
+imperceptibly into the habits and manners of his own life. Thus, if vice
+be not represented as odious, he may lose his love of virtue. If
+buffoonery should be made to please him, he may lose the dignity of his
+mind. Love-tales may produce in him a romantic imagination. Low
+characters may teach him low cunning. If the laws of honour strike him
+as the laws of refined life, he may become a fashionable moralist. If
+modes of dissipation strike him us modes of pleasure in the estimation
+of the world, he may abandon himself to these, and become a rake. Thus
+may such representations, in a variety of ways, act upon the moral
+principle, and make an innovation there, detrimental to his moral
+character.
+
+Lord Kaimes, in his elements of criticism, has the following
+observations.
+
+"The licentious court of Charles the second, among its many disorders,
+engendered a pest, the virulence of which subsists to this day. The
+English comedy, copying the manners of the court, became abominably
+licentious; and continues so with very little softening. It is there an
+established rule to deck out the chief characters with every vice in
+fashion however gross; but as such characters, if viewed in a true
+light, would be disgustful, care is taken to disguise their deformity
+under the embellishments of wit, sprightliness and good humour, which,
+in mixed company makes a capital figure. It requires not much thought to
+discover the poisonous influence of such plays. A young man of figure,
+emancipated at last from the severity and restraint of a college
+education, repairs to the capital disposed to every sort of excess. The
+play-house becomes his favourite amusement, and he is enchanted with the
+gaiety and splendour of the chief personages. The disgust which vice
+gives him at first, soon wears off to make way for new notions, more
+liberal in his opinion, by which a sovereign contempt of religion, and a
+declared war upon the chastity of wives, maids and widows, are converted
+from being infamous vices to be fashionable virtues. The infection
+spreads gradually through all ranks and becomes universal. How gladly
+would I listen to any one, who should undertake to prove, that what I
+have been describing is chimerical! But the dissoluteness of our young
+men of birth will not suffer me to doubt its reality. Sir Harry Wildair
+has completed many a rake; and in the suspicious husband, Ranger, the
+humble imitator of Sir Harry, has had no slight influence in spreading
+that character. What woman, tinctured with the play-house morals, would
+not be the sprightly, the witty, though dissolute Lady Townley, rather
+than the cold, the sober, though virtuous Lady Grace? How odious ought
+writers to be who thus employ the talents they have from their maker
+most traitorously against himself, by endeavouring to corrupt and
+disfigure his creatures! If the comedies of Congreve did not rack him
+with remorse in his last moments, he must have been lost to all sense of
+virtue."
+
+
+SECT. IV.
+
+_The theatre forbidden--because injurious to the happiness of man by
+disqualifying him for the pleasures of religion--this effect arises
+from its tendency to accustom individuals to light thoughts--to injure
+their moral feelings--to occasion an extraordinary excitement of the
+mind--and from the very nature of the enjoyments which it produces._
+
+
+As the Quakers consider the theatre to have an injurious effect on the
+morality of man, so they consider it to have an injurious effect on his
+happiness. They believe that amusements of this sort, but particularly
+the comic, unfit the mind for the practical performance of the christian
+duties, and that as the most pure and substantial happiness, that man
+can experience, is derived from a fulfilment of these, so they deprive
+him of the highest enjoyment of which his nature is capable, that is, of
+the pleasures of religion.
+
+If a man were asked, on entering the door of the theatre, if he went
+there to learn the moral duties, he would laugh at the absurdity of the
+question; and if he would consent to give a fair and direct answer, he
+would either reply, that he went there for amusement, or to dissipate
+gloom, or to be made merry. Some one of these expressions would probably
+characterise his errand there. Now this answer would comprise the
+effect, which the Quakers attach to the comic performances of the stage.
+They consider them as drawing the mind from serious reflection, and
+disposing it to levity. But they believe that a mind, gradually
+accustomed to light thoughts, and placing its best gratification in
+light objects, must be disqualified in time for the gravity of religious
+exercise, and be thus hindered from partaking of the pleasures which
+such an exercise must produce.
+
+They are of opinion also, that such exhibitions, having, as was lately
+mentioned, a tendency to weaken the moral character, must have a
+similarly injurious effect. For what innovations can be made on the
+human heart, so as to seduce it from innocence, that will not
+successively wean it both from the love and the enjoyment of the
+Christian virtues?
+
+The Quakers also believe, that dramatic exhibitions have a power of vast
+excitement of the mind. If they have no such power, they are insipid. If
+they have, they are injurious. A person is all the evening at a play in
+an excited state. He goes home, and goes to bed with his imagination
+heated, and his passions roused. The next morning he rises. He remembers
+what he has seen and heard, the scenery, the language, the sentiments,
+the action. He continues in the same excited state for the remainder of
+the day. The extravagant passions of distracted lovers, the wanton
+addresses of actors, are still fresh upon his mind. Now it is contended
+by the Quakers, that a person in such an excited state, but particularly
+if the excitement pleases, must be in a very unfavourable state for the
+reception of the pure principle, or for the promotion of the practical
+duties of religion. It is supposed that if any religious book, or if any
+part of the sacred writings, were handed to him in these moments, he
+would be incapable of enjoying them; and of course, that religious
+retirement, which implies an abstraction from the tilings of the world,
+would be impracticable at such a season.
+
+The Quakers believe also, that the exhibitions of the drama must, from
+their own nature, without any other consideration, disqualify for the
+pleasures of religion. It was a frequent saying of George Fox, taken
+from the apostle Peter, that those who indulged in such pleasures were
+dead, while they were alive; that is, they were active in their bodies;
+they ran about briskly after their business or their pleasures; they
+shewed the life of their bodily powers; but they were extinct as to
+spiritual feeling. By this he meant that the pleasures of the theatre,
+and others of a similar nature, were in direct opposition to the
+pleasures of religion. The former were from the world worldly. They were
+invented according to the dispositions and appetites of men. But the
+latter were from the spirit spiritual. Hence there was no greater
+difference between life and death, than between these pleasures. Hence
+the human mind was made incapable of receiving both at the same time;
+and hence the deeper it were to get into the enjoyment of the former,
+the less qualified it must become of course for the enjoyment of the
+latter.
+
+
+SECT. V.
+
+_Theatre forbidden--because injurious to the happiness of man by
+disqualifying him for domestic enjoyments--Quakers value these next to
+the pleasures of religion--sentiments of Cowper--theatre has this
+tendency, by weaning gradually from a love of home--and has it in a
+greater degree than any other of the amusements of the world._
+
+
+The Quakers, ever since the institution of their society, have abandoned
+the diversions of the world. They have obtained their pleasures from
+other quarters. Some of these they have found in one species of
+enjoyment, and others in another. But those, which they particularly
+prize, they have found in the enjoyment of domestic happiness; and these
+pleasures they value next to the pleasures of religion.
+
+   [6] "Domestic happiness, thou only bliss
+   Of Paradise, that has survived the fall!
+   Thou art the nurse of virtue--In thine arms
+   She smiles, appearing, as in truth she is,
+   Heav'n-born, and destin'd to the skies again.
+   Thou art not known, where pleasure is ador'd,
+   That reeling goddess, with a zoneless waist
+   And wandering eyes, still leaning on the arm
+   Of Novelty, her fickle, frail support;
+   For thou art meek and constant, hating change,
+   And finding, in the calm of truth-tried love,
+   Joys, that her stormy raptures never yield.
+   Forsaking thee, what shipwreck have we made
+   Of honour, dignity, and fair renown!"
+
+[Footnote 6: COWPER.]
+
+But if the Quakers have been accustomed to place one of the sources of
+their pleasures in domestic happiness, they may be supposed to be
+jealous of every thing that appears to them to be likely to interrupt
+it. But they consider dramatic exhibitions, as having this tendency.
+These exhibitions, under the influence of plot, dialogue, dress, music,
+action, and scenery, particularly fascinate. They excite the person, who
+has once seen them, to desire them again. But in proportion as this
+desire is gratified, or in proportion as people leave their homes for
+the amusements of the stage, they lose their relish, and weaken their
+powers, of the enjoyment of domestic society: that is, the Quakers mean
+to say, that domestic enjoyments, and those of the theatre, may become,
+in time, incompatible in the same persons; and that the theatre ought,
+therefore, to be particularly avoided, as an enemy, that may steal them,
+and rob them of those pleasures, which experience has taught them to
+value, as I have observed before, next to the pleasures of religion.
+
+They are of opinion also, that dramatic exhibitions not only tend, of
+themselves, to make home less agreeable, but that they excite a craving
+for stimulants, and, above all, teach a dependence upon external objects
+for amusement. Hence the attention of people is taken off again to new
+objects of pleasure, which lie out of their own families, and out of the
+circle of their friends.
+
+It will not take much time to shew, that the Quakers have not been
+mistaken in this point. It is not unusual in fashionable circles, where
+the theatre is regularly brought into the rounds of pleasure, for the
+father and the mother of a family to go to a play once, or occasionally
+twice, a week. But it seldom happens, that they either go to the same
+theatre, or that they sit together. Their children are at this time left
+at home, under, what is considered to be, proper care, but they are
+probably never seen again by them till the next noon; and perhaps once
+afterwards in the same day, when it is more than an even chance, that
+they must be again left for the gratification of some new pleasure. Now
+this separation of fathers from mothers, and of parents from children,
+does not augur well of domestic enjoyments or of a love of home.
+
+But we will trace the conduct of the parents still farther. We will get
+into their company at their own houses; and here we shall very soon
+discover, how wearisome they consider every hour, that is spent in the
+bosom of their families, when deprived of their accustomed amusements;
+and with what anxiety they count the time, when they are to be restored
+to their favourite rounds of pleasure. We shall find no difficulty in
+judging also from their conversation, the measure of their thought or
+their solicitude about their children. A new play is sure to claim the
+earliest attention or discussion. The capital style, in which an actor
+performed his part on a certain night, furnishes conversation for an
+hour. Observations on a new actress perhaps follow. Such subjects appear
+more interesting to such persons, than the innocent conversation, or
+playful pranks, of their children. If the latter are noisy, they are
+often sent out of the room as troublesome, though the same parents can
+bear the stunning plaudits, or the discordant groans and hissings of the
+audience at the theatre. In the mean time their children grow up, and in
+their turn, are introduced by their parents to these amusements, as to
+places, proper for the dissipation of vacant hours; till, by frequent
+attendances, they themselves lose an affection for home and the domestic
+duties, and have in time as little regard for their parents, as their
+parents appear to have had for them. Marrying at length, not for the
+enjoyment of domestic society, they and their children perpetuate the
+same rounds of pleasure, and the same sentiments and notions.
+
+To these instances many indeed might be added, by looking into the
+family-histories of those, who are in the habit of frequenting theatres
+in search of pleasure, by which it would appear, that such amusements
+are not friendly to the cherishing of the domestic duties and
+affections, but that, on the other hand, in proportion as they are
+followed, they tend to sap the enjoyments of domestic life. And here it
+may be observed, that of all the amusements, which go to the making up
+of the round of pleasures, the theatre has the greatest share in
+diverting from the pleasures of home. For it particularly attracts and
+fascinates, both from the nature, and the diversity, of the amusements
+it contains. It is also always open, in the season, for resort. So that
+if private invitations to pleasure should not come in sufficiently
+numerous, or should be broken off by the indisposition of the parties,
+who give them, the theatre is always ready to supply any vacancy, that
+may be occasioned in the round.
+
+
+SECT. VI.
+
+_Quakers conceive they can sanction no amusements, but such as could
+have originated in christian minds--exhibitions of the drama could have
+had, they believe, no such origin--early christians abandoned them in
+their conversion--arguments of the latter on this subject, as taken
+from Tertullian, Minucius Felix, Cyprian, Lactantius and others._
+
+
+The Quakers conceive, as a christian society, that they ought to have
+nothing to do with any amusements, but such as christians could have
+invented themselves, or such as christians could have sanctioned, by
+becoming partakers of them. But they believe that dramatic exhibitions
+are of such a nature as men of a christian spirit could never have
+invented or encouraged, and that, if the world were to begin again, and
+were to be peopled by pure christians, these exhibitions could never be
+called into existence there.
+
+This inference, the Quakers judge to be deducible from the nature of a
+christian mind. A man, who is in the habit, at his leisure hours, of
+looking into the vast and stupendous works of creation, of contemplating
+the wisdom, goodness, and power of the creator, of trying to fathom the
+great and magnificent plans of his providence, who is in the habit of
+surveying all mankind with the philosophy of revealed religion, of
+tracing, through the same unerring channel, the uses and objects of
+their existence, the design of their different ranks and situations,
+the nature of their relative duties and the like, could never, in the
+opinion of the Quakers, have either any enjoyment, or be concerned in
+the invention, of dramatic exhibitions. To a mind, in the habit of
+taking such an elevated flight, it is supposed that every thing on the
+stage must look little, and childish, and out of place. How could a
+person of such a mind be delighted with the musical note of a fiddler,
+the attitude of a dancer, the impassioned grimace of an actor? How could
+the intrigue, or the love-sick tale of the composition please him? or
+how could he have imagined, that these could be the component parts of a
+christian's joys?
+
+But this inference is considered by the Quakers to be confirmed by the
+practice of the early christians. These generally had been Pagans. They
+had of course Pagan dispositions. They followed Pagan amusements, and,
+among these, the exhibitions of the stage. But soon after their
+conversion, that is, when they had received new minds, and when they had
+exercised these on new and sublime subjects, or, on subjects similar to
+those described, or, in other words, when they had received the
+regenerated spirit of christians, they left the amusements of the stage,
+notwithstanding that, by this act of singularity in a sensual age, they
+were likely to bring upon themselves the odium and the reproaches of
+the world.
+
+But when the early christians abandoned the theatre, they abandoned it,
+as the Quakers contend, not because, leaving Paganism they were to
+relinquish all customs that were Pagan, but because they saw in their
+new religion, or because they saw in this newness of their minds,
+reasons, which held out such amusements to be inadmissible, while they
+considered themselves in the light of christians. These reasons are
+sufficiently displayed by the writers of the second, third, and fourth
+centuries; and as they are alluded to by the Quakers, though never
+quoted, I shall give them to the reader. He will judge by these, how far
+the ancient coincide with the modern christians upon this subject; and
+how for these arguments of antiquity are applicable to modern times.
+
+The early christians, according to Tertullian, Menucius Felix, Cyprian,
+Lactantius, and others, believed, that the "motives for going to these
+amusements were not of the purest sort. People went to them without any
+view of the improvement of their minds. The motive was either to see or
+to be seen."
+
+They considered the manner of the drama as objectionable. They believed
+"that he who was the author of truth, could never approve of that which
+was false, and that he, who condemned hypocrisy, could never approve of
+him, who personated the character of others; and that those therefore,
+who pretended to be in love, or to be angry, or to grieve, when none of
+those passions existed in their minds, were guilty of a kind of adultery
+in the eyes of the Supreme Being."
+
+They considered their contents to be noxious. They "looked upon them as
+consistories of immorality. They affirmed that things were spoken there
+which it did not become christians to hear, and that things were shewn
+there, which it did not become christians to see; and that, while these
+things polluted those from whom they come, they polluted those in time,
+in whose sight and hearing they were shewn or spoken."
+
+They believed also, "that these things not only polluted the spectators,
+but that the representations of certain characters upon the stage
+pointed out to them the various roads to vice, and inclined them to
+become the persons, whom they had seen represented, or to be actors in
+reality of what they had seen feigned upon the stage."
+
+They believed again, "that dramatic exhibitions produced a frame of mind
+contrary to that, which should exist in a christian's breast; that there
+was nothing to be seen upon the stage, that could lead or encourage him
+to devotion; but, on the other hand, that the noise and fury of the
+play-house, and the representations there, produced a state of
+excitement, that disturbed the internal man. Whereas the spirit of a
+christian ought to be calm, and quiet, and composed, to fit it for the
+duties of religion."
+
+They believed also, "that such promiscuous assemblages of men and women
+were not favourable to virtue; for that the sparks of the passions were
+there blown into a flame."
+
+Tertullian, from whom some of the above opinions are taken, gives an
+invitation to those who were fond of public spectacles, in nearly the
+following terms.
+
+Are you fond, says he, of the scenic doctrine, or of theatrical sights
+and compositions? We have plenty of books for you to read. We can give
+you works in prose and in verse. We can give you apothegms and hymns. We
+cannot to besure, give you fictitious plots or fables, but we can give
+you truths. We cannot give you strophies, or the winding dances of the
+chorus, but we can give you simplicities, or plain and straightforward
+paths. Are you fond of seeing contests or trials for victory? You shall
+see these also, and such as are not trivial, but important. You may see,
+in our christian example, chastity overcoming immodesty. You may see
+faithfulness giving a death-wound to perfidy. You may see mercy getting
+the better of cruelty. You may see modesty and delicacy of sentiment
+overcoming impurity and impudence. These are the contests in which it
+becomes us christians to be concerned, and where we ought to endeavour
+to receive the prize.
+
+
+
+
+CHAP. V.... SECT. I.
+
+_Dancing forbidden--Greeks and Romans differed on this subject--motive
+on which the Greeks encouraged dancing--motive on which the moderns
+encouraged it--way in which the Quakers view it--the arguments which
+they use against it._
+
+
+As the Quakers have thought it right to prohibit music, and
+stage-entertainments, to the society, so they have thought it proper to
+prohibit dancing, none of their children being allowed any instruction
+in the latter art.
+
+It is remarkable that two of the most civilized nations, as well as two
+of the wisest men of antiquity, should have differed in their opinions
+with respect to dancing. The Greeks considered it as a wise and an
+honourable employment; and most of the nations therefore under that
+appellation inserted it into their system of education. The name of
+dancer was so honourable, as to be given to some of their gods. Statues
+are recorded to have been erected to good dancers. Socrates is said to
+have admired dancing so much, as to have learnt it in his old age.
+Dancing, on the other hand, was but little regarded at Rome. It was not
+admitted even within the pale of accomplishments. It was considered at
+best as a sorry and trivial employment. Cicero says,
+
+"Nemo, fere saltat sobrius, nisi forte insanit, neque in solitudine,
+neque in convivio honesto." That is, "No man dances, in private, or at
+any respectable entertainment, except he be drunk or mad."
+
+We collect at least from the above statement, that people of old, who
+were celebrated for their wisdom, came to very different conclusions
+with respect to the propriety of the encouragement of this art.
+
+Those nations among the ancients, which encouraged dancing, did it upon
+the principle, that it led to an agility of body, and a quickness of
+motion, that would be useful in military evolutions and exploits. Hence
+swiftness of foot was considered to be an epithet, as honourable as any
+that could be given to a warrior.
+
+The moderns, on the other hand, encourage dancing, or at least defend it
+upon different principles. They consider it as producing a handsome
+carriage of the body; as leading to a graceful and harmonious use of
+the limbs; and as begetting an erectness of position, not more
+favourable to the look of a person than to his health.
+
+That dancing produces dispositions of this sort cannot be denied, though
+certainly not to the extent which many have imagined. Painters, who
+study nature the most, and are the best judges of the appearance of the
+human frame, are of opinion, that modern dancing does not produce
+natural figures or at least such as they would choose for their
+respective compositions. The military exercise has quite as great a
+share as dancing in the production of these dispositions. And there are
+certainly men, who were never taught either the military exercise or
+dancing, whose deportment is harmonious and graceful.
+
+The Quakers think it unnecessary to teach their children dancing, as an
+accomplishment, because they can walk, and carry their persons with
+sufficient ease and propriety without it.
+
+They think it unnecessary also, because, however the practice of it may
+be consistent with the sprightliness of youth, they could never sanction
+it in maturer age. They expect of the members of their society, that
+they should abandon amusements, and substitute useful and dignified
+pursuits, when they become men. But they cannot consider dancing but as
+an employment that is useless, and below the dignity of the
+christian-character in persons, who have come to years of discretion. To
+initiate therefore a youth of twelve or thirteen years of age into
+dancing, when he must relinquish it at twenty, would, in their opinion,
+be a culpable waste of his time.
+
+The Quakers, again, cannot view dancing abstractedly, for no person
+teaches or practises it abstractedly; but they are obliged to view it,
+in connection with other things. If they view it with its usual
+accompaniment of music, it would be inconsistent, they think, to
+encourage it, when they have banished music from their republic. If they
+view it as connected with an assemblage of persons, they must, they
+conceive, equally condemn it. And here it is in fact, that they
+principally level their arguments against it. They prohibit all members
+of their society from being present at balls, and assemblies; and they
+think, if their youth are brought up in ignorance of the art of dancing,
+that this ignorance will operate as one preventative at least against
+attendances at amusements of this nature.
+
+The Quakers are as strict in their inquiry with respect to the
+attendances of any of their members at balls, as at theatrical
+amusements. They consider balls and assemblies among the vain amusements
+of the world. They use arguments against these nearly similar to those
+which have been enumerated on the preceding subjects.
+
+They consider them in the first place, as productive of a kind of
+frivolous levity, and of thoughtlessness with respect to the important
+duties of life. They consider them, in the second place, as giving birth
+to vanity and pride. They consider them, again, as powerful in the
+excitement of some of the malevolent passions. Hence they believe them
+to be injurious to the religious interests of man; for, by depriving him
+of complacency of mind, and by increasing the growth of his bad
+feelings, they become impediments in the way of his improvement as a
+moral being.
+
+
+SECT. II.
+
+_Arguments of the Quakers examined--three cases made out for the
+determination of a moral philosopher--case the first--case the
+second--case the third._
+
+
+I purpose to look into these arguments of the Quakers, and to see how far
+they can be supported. I will suppose therefore a few cases to be made
+out, and to be handed, one by one, to some moral philosopher for his
+decision. I will suppose this philosopher (that all prejudice of
+education may be excluded) to have been ignorant of the nature of
+dancing, but that he had been made acquainted with it, in order that he
+might be enabled to decide the point in question.
+
+Suppose then it was reported to this philosopher that, on a certain day,
+a number of young persons of both sexes, who had casually met at a
+friends house, instead of confining themselves to the room on a summers
+afternoon, had walked out upon the green; that a person present had
+invited them suddenly to dance; that they had danced to the sound of
+musical vibrations for an hour, and that after this they had returned to
+the room, or that they had returned home. Would the philosopher be able
+to say in this case, that there was any thing in it, that incurred any
+of the culpable imputations, fixed upon dancing by the Quakers?
+
+He could hardly; I think, make it out, that there could have been, in
+any part of the business, any opening for the charges in question.
+There appears to have been no previous preparations of extravagant
+dressing; no premeditated design of setting off the person; no previous
+methods of procuring admiration; no circumstance, in short, by which he
+could reasonably suppose, that either pride or vanity could have been
+called into existence. The time also would appear to him to have been
+too short, and the circumstances too limited, to have given birth to
+improper feelings. He would certainly see that a sort of levity would
+have unavoidably arisen on the occasion, but his impartiality and
+justice would oblige him to make a distraction between the levity, that
+only exhilarates, and the levity that corrupts, the heart. Nor could he
+conceive that the dancing for an hour only, and this totally unlooked
+for, could stand much in the way of serious reflection for the future.
+If he were desired to class this sudden dancing for an hour upon the
+green with any of the known pleasures of life, he would probably class
+it with an hours exercise in the fields, or with an hours game at play,
+or with an hours employment in some innocent recreation.
+
+But suppose now, that a new case were opened to the philosopher. Suppose
+it were told him, that the same party had been so delighted with their
+dance upon the green, that they had resolved to meet once a month for
+the purpose of dancing, and that they might not be prevented by bad
+weather, to meet in a public room; that they had met according to their
+resolution; that they had danced at their first meeting but for a short
+time; but that at their meetings after, wards, they had got into the
+habit of dancing from eight or nine at night till twelve or one in the
+morning; that many of them now began to be unduly heated in the course
+of this long exercise; that some of them in consequence of the heat in
+this crowded room, were now occasionally ready to faint; that it was now
+usual for some of them to complain the next morning of colds, others of
+head-achs, others of relaxed nerves, and almost all of them of a general
+lassitude or weariness--what could the philosopher say in the present
+case?
+
+The philosopher would now probably think, that they acted unreasonably
+as human beings; that they turned night into day; and that, as if the
+evils of life were not sufficient in number, they converted hours, which
+might have been spent calmly and comfortably at home, into hours of
+indisposition and of unpleasant feelings to themselves. But this is not
+to the point. Would he or would he not say, that the arguments of the
+Quakers applied in the present case? It certainly does not appear, from
+any thing that has yet transpired on this subject, that he could, with
+any shadow of reason, accuse the persons, meeting on this occasion, of
+vanity or pride, or that he could see from any of the occurrences, that
+have been mentioned, how these evils could be produced. Neither has any
+thing yet come out, from which he could even imagine the sources of any
+improper passions. He might think perhaps, that they might be vexed for
+having brought fatigue and lassitude upon themselves, but he could see
+no opening for serious anger to others, or for any of the feelings of
+malevolence. Neither could he tell what occurrence to fix upon for the
+production of a frivolous levity. He would almost question, judging only
+from what has appeared in the last case, whether there might not be upon
+the whole more pain than pleasure from these meetings, and whether
+those, who on the day subsequent to these meetings felt themselves
+indisposed, and their whole nervous system unbraced, were not so near
+the door of repentance, that serious thoughts would be more natural to
+them than those of a lighter kind.
+
+But let us suppose one other case to be opened to the philosopher. Let
+us now suppose it to be stated to him, that those who frequented these
+monthly meetings, but particularly the females, had become habituated to
+talk, for a day or two beforehand, of nothing but of how they should
+dress themselves, or of what they should wear on the occasion: that some
+time had been spent in examining and canvassing the fashions; that the
+milliner had been called in for this purpose; that the imagination had
+been racked in the study of the decoration of the person; that both on
+the morning and the afternoon of the evening, on which they had publicly
+met to dance, they had been solely employed in preparations for decking
+themselves out; that they had been nearly two hours under one dresser
+only, namely the hair-dresser; that frequently at intervals they had
+looked at their own persons in the glass; that they had walked up and
+down parading before it in admiration of their own appearance, and the
+critical detection of any little fold in their dress, which might appear
+to be out of place, and in the adjustment of the same--what would the
+philosopher say in this new case?
+
+He certainly could not view the case with the same complacent
+countenance as before. He would feel some symptoms of alarm. He would
+begin to think that the truth of the Quaker-arguments was unfolding
+itself, and that what appeared to him to have been an innocent
+amusement, at the first, might possibly be capable of being carried out
+of the bounds of innocence by such and similar accompaniments. He could
+not conceive, if he had any accurate knowledge of the human heart, that
+such an extraordinary attention to dress and the decoration of the
+person, or such a critical examination of these with a view of
+procuring admiration, could produce any other fruits than conceit and
+affectation, or vanity and pride. Nor could he conceive that all these
+preparations, all this previous talk, all this previous consultation,
+about the fashions, added to the employment itself of the decoration of
+the person, could tend to any thing else than to degrade the mind, and
+to render it light and frivolous. He would be obliged to acknowledge
+also, that minds, accustomed to take so deep an interest in the fashions
+and vanities of the world, would not only loath, but be disqualified for
+serious reflection. But if he were to acknowledge, that these
+preparations and accompaniments had on any one occasion a natural
+tendency to produce these effects, he could not but consider these
+preparations, if made once a month, as likely to become in time
+systematic nurseries for frivolous and affected characters.
+
+Having traced the subject up to a point, where it appears, that some of
+the Quaker-arguments begin to bear, let us take leave of our
+philosopher, and as we have advanced nearly to the ball-room door, let
+us enter into the room itself, and see if any circumstances occur there,
+which shall enable us to form a better judgment upon it.
+
+
+SECT. III.
+
+_Arguments of the Quakers still further examined--interior of the
+ball-room displayed--view of the rise of many of the malevolent
+passions--these rise higher and are more painful, than they are
+generally imagined--hence it is probable that the spectators are better
+pleased than those interested in these dances--conclusion of the
+arguments of the Quakers on this subject._
+
+
+I am afraid I shall be thought more cynical than just, more prejudiced
+than impartial, more given to censure than to praise, if in temples,
+apparently dedicated to good humour, cheerfulness and mirth, I should
+say that sources were to be found, from whence we could trace the rise
+of immoral passions. But human nature is alike in all places, and, if
+circumstances should arise in the ball-room, which touch as it were the
+strings of the passions, they will as naturally throw out their tone
+there as in other places. Why should envy, jealousy, pride, malice,
+anger, or revenge, shut themselves out exclusively from these resorts,
+as if these were more than ordinarily sacred, or more than ordinary
+repositories of human worth.
+
+In examining the interior of a ball-room it must be confessed, that we
+shall certainly find circumstances occasionally arising, that give birth
+to feelings neither of a pleasant nor of a moral nature. It is not
+unusual, for instance, to discover among the females one that excels in
+the beauty of her person, and another that excels in the elegance of her
+dress. The eyes of all are more than proportionally turned upon these
+for the whole night. This little circumstance soon generates a variety
+of improper passions. It calls up vanity and conceit in the breasts of
+these objects of admiration. It raises up envy and jealousy, and even
+anger in some of the rest. These become envious of the beauty of the
+former, envious of their taste, envious of their cloathing, and, above
+all, jealous of the admiration bestowed upon them. In this evil state of
+mind one passion begets another; and instances have occurred, where some
+of these have felt displeased at the apparent coldness and indifference
+of their own partners, because they have appeared to turn their eyes
+more upon the favourites of the night, than upon themselves.
+
+In the same room, when the parties begin to take their places to dance;
+other little circumstances not infrequently occur, which give rise to
+other passions. Many aiming to be as near the top of the dance as
+possible, are disappointed of their places by others, who have just
+slept into them, dissatisfaction, and sometimes murmurs, follow. Each in
+his own mind, supposes his claims and pretensions to the higher place to
+be stronger on account of his money, his connections, his profession, or
+his rank. Thus his own dispositions to pride are only the more nursed
+and fostered. Malice too is often engendered on the occasion; and though
+the parties would not be allowed by the master of the ceremonies to
+disturb the tranquillity of the room, animosities have sometimes sprung
+up between them, which have not been healed in a little time. I am aware
+that in some large towns of the kingdom regulations are made with a view
+to the prevention of these evils, but it is in some only; and even where
+they are made, though they prevent outward rude behaviour, they do not
+prevent inward dissatisfaction. Monied influence still feels itself
+often debased by a lower place.
+
+If we were to examine the ball-room further, we should find new
+circumstances arising to call out new and degrading passions. We should
+find disappointment and discontent often throwing irritable matter upon
+the mind. Men, fond of dancing, frequently find an over proportion of
+men, and but few females in the room, and women, wishing to dance,
+sometimes find an over proportion of women, and but few men; so that
+partners are not to be had for all, and a number of each class must make
+up their minds to sit quietly, and to loose their diversion for the
+night. Partners too are frequently dissatisfied with each other. One
+thinks his partner too old, another too ugly, another below him. Matched
+often in this unequal manner, they go down the dance in a sort of
+dudgeon, having no cordial disposition towards each other, and having
+persons before their eyes in the same room with whom they could have
+cordially danced. Nor are instances wanting where the pride of some has
+fixed upon the mediocrity of others, as a reason, why they should
+reluctantly lend them their hands, when falling in with them in the
+dance. The slight is soon perceived, and disgust arises in both parties.
+
+Various other instances might be mentioned, where very improper passions
+are excited. I shall only observe, however, that these passions are
+generally stronger and give more uneasiness, and are called up to a
+greater height, than might generally be imagined from such apparently
+slight causes. In many instances indeed they have led to such serious
+misunderstandings, that they were only terminated by the duel.
+
+From this statement I may remark here, though my observation be not
+immediately to the point, that there is not probably that portion of
+entertainment, or that substantial pleasure, winch people expected to
+find at these monthly meetings. The little jealousies arising about
+precedency, or about the admiration of one more than of another; the
+falling in occasionally with disagreeable partners; the slights and
+omissions that are often thought to be purposely made; the head-achs,
+colds, sicknesses, and lassitude afterwards, must all of them operate as
+so many drawbacks from this pleasure: and it is not unusual to hear
+persons, fond of such amusements, complaining afterwards that they had
+not answered. There is therefore probably more pleasure in the
+preparations for such amusements, and in the previous talk about them,
+than in the amusements themselves.
+
+It is also probable that the greatest pleasure felt in the ball-room, is
+felt by those, who get into it as spectators only. These receive
+pleasure from the music, from the beat of the steps in unison with it,
+but particularly from the idea that all, who join in the dance, are
+happy. These considerations produce in the spectator cheerfulness and
+mirth; and these are continued to him more pure and unalloyed than in
+the former case, because he can have no drawbacks from the admission
+into his own breast of any of those uneasy, immoral passions, above
+described.
+
+But to return to the point in question. The reader has now had the
+different cases laid before him as determined by the moral philosopher.
+He has been conducted also through the interior of the ball-room. He
+will have perceived therefore that the arguments of the Quakers have
+gradually unfolded themselves, and that they are more or less
+conspicuous, or more or less true, as dancing is viewed abstractedly, or
+in connection with the preparations and accompaniments, that may be
+interwoven with it. If it be viewed in connection with these
+preparations and accompaniments, and if these should be found to be so
+inseparably connected with it, that they must invariably go together,
+which is supposed to be the case where it is introduced into the
+ball-room, he will have no difficulty in pronouncing that, in this case,
+it is objectionable as a christian recreation. For it cannot be doubted
+that it has an immediate tendency, in this case, to produce a frivolous
+levity, to generate vanity and pride, and to call up passions of the
+malevolent kind. Now in this point of view it is, that the Quakers
+generally consider dancing. They never view it, as I observed before,
+abstractedly, or solely by itself. They have therefore forbidden it to
+their society, believing it to be the duty of a Christian to be serious
+in his conversation and deportment; to afford an example of humility;
+and to be watchful and diligent in the subjugation of his evil
+passions.
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAP. VI.
+
+_Novels--novels forbidden--their fictitious nature no argument against
+them--arguments of the Quakers are, that they produce an affectation
+knowledge--a romantic spirit--and a perverted morality--and that by
+creating an indisposition towards other kinds of reading, they prevent
+moral improvement and real delight of mind--hence novel-reading more
+pernicious than many other amusements_.
+
+
+Among the prohibitions, which the Quakers have adopted in their moral
+education, as barriers against vice, or as preservatives of virtue, I
+shall consider that next, which relates to the perusal of improper
+books. George Fox seems to have forgotten nothing, that was connected
+with the morals of the society. He was anxious for the purity of its
+character, he seemed afraid of every wind that blew, lest it should
+bring some noxious vapour to defile it. And as those things which were
+spoken or represented, might corrupt the mind, so those which were
+written and printed, might equally corrupt it also. He recommended
+therefore, that the youth of his newly formed society should abstain
+from the reading of romances. William Penn and others, expressed the
+same sentiments on this subject. And the same opinion has been held by
+the Quakers, as a body of christians, down to the present day. Hence
+novels, as a particular species of romance, and as that which is
+considered as of the worst tendency, have been particularly marked for
+prohibition.
+
+Some Quakers have been inclined to think, that novels ought to be
+rejected on account of the fictitious nature of their contents. But this
+consideration is, by no means, generally adopted by the society, as an
+argument against them. Nor would it be a sound argument, if it were. If
+novels contain no evil within themselves, or have no evil tendency, the
+mere circumstance of the subject, names or characters being feigned,
+will not stamp them as censurable. Such fiction will not be like the
+fiction of the drama, where men act and personate characters that are
+not their own. Different men, in different ages of the world, have had
+recourse to different modes of writing, for the promotion of virtue.
+Some have had recourse to allegories, others to fables. The fables of
+Aesop, though a fiction from the beginning to the end, have been useful
+to many. But we have a peculiar instance of the use and innocence of
+fictitious descriptions in the sacred writings. For the author of the
+christian religion made use of parables on many and weighty occasions.
+We cannot therefore condemn fictitious biography, unless it condemn
+itself by becoming a destroyer of morals.
+
+The arguments against novels, in which the Quakers agree as a body, are
+taken from the pernicious influence they have upon the minds of those,
+who read them.
+
+The Quakers do not say, that all novels have this influence, but that
+they have it generally. The great demand for novels, inconsequence of
+the taste, which the world has shewn for this species of writing, has
+induced persons of all descriptions, and of course many who have been
+but ill qualified to write them. Hence, though some novels have appeared
+of considerable merit, the worthless have been greatly preponderant. The
+demand also has occasioned foreign novels, of a complexion by no means
+suited to the good sense and character of our country, to be translated
+into our language. Hence a fresh weight has only been thrown into the
+preponderating scale. From these two causes it has happened, that the
+contents of a great majority of our novels have been unfavourable to the
+improvement of the moral character. Now when we consider this
+circumstance, and when we consider likewise, that professed
+novel-readers generally read all the compositions of this sort that come
+into their way, that they wait for no selection, but that they devour
+the good, the bad, and the indifferent alike, we shall see the reasons,
+which have induced the Quakers to believe, that the effect of this
+species of writing upon the mind has been generally pernicious.
+
+One of the effects, which the Quakers consider to be produced by novels
+upon those who read them, is an affectation of knowledge, which leads
+them to become forward and presumptuous. This effect is highly
+injurious, for while it raises them unduly in their own estimation, it
+lowers them in that of the world. Nothing can be more disgusting, in the
+opinion of the Quakers, than to see persons assuming the authoritative
+appearance of men and women before their age or their talents can have
+given them any pretensions to do it.
+
+Another effect is the following. The Quakers conceive that there is
+among professed novel readers a peculiar cast of mind. They observe in
+them a romantic spirit, a sort of wonder-loving imagination, and a
+disposition towards enthusiastic flights of the fancy, which to sober
+persons has the appearance of a temporary derangement. As the former
+effect must become injurious by producing forwardness, so this must
+become so by producing unsteadiness, of character.
+
+A third effect, which the Quakers find to be produced among this
+description of readers, is conspicuous in a perverted morality. They
+place almost every value in feeling, and in the affectation of
+benevolence. They consider these as the true and only sources of good.
+They make these equivalent, to moral principle. And actions flowing from
+feeling, though feeling itself is not always well founded, and
+sometimes runs into compassion even against justice, they class as moral
+duties arising from moral principles. They consider also too frequently
+the laws of religion as barbarous restraints, and which their new
+notions of civilized refinement may relax at will. And they do not
+hesitate, in consequence, to give a colour to some fashionable vices,
+which no christian painter would admit into any composition, which was
+his own.
+
+To this it may be added, that, believing their own knowledge to be
+supreme, and their own system of morality to be the only enlightened
+one, they fall often into scepticism, and pass easily from thence to
+infidelity. Foreign novels, however, more than our own, have probably
+contributed to the production of this latter effect.
+
+These then are frequently the evils, and those which the Quakers insist
+upon, where persons devote their spare-time to the reading of novels,
+but more particularly among females, who, on account of the greater
+delicacy of their constitutions, are the more susceptible of such
+impressions. These effects the Quakers consider as particularly
+frightful, when they fall upon this sex. For an affectation of
+knowledge, or a forwardness of character, seems to be much more
+disgusting among women than among men. It may be observed also, that an
+unsteady or romantic spirit or a wonder-loving or flighty imagination,
+can never qualify a woman for domestic duties, or make her a sedate and
+prudent wife. Nor can a relaxed morality qualify her for the discharge
+of her duty as a parent in the religious education of her children.
+
+But, independently of these, there is another evil, which the Quakers
+attach to novel-reading, of a nature too serious to be omitted in this
+account. It is that those who are attached to this species of reading,
+become indisposed towards any other.
+
+This indisposition arises from the peculiar construction of novels.
+Their structure is similar to that of dramatic compositions. They
+exhibit characters to view. They have their heroes and heroines in the
+same manner. They lay open the checkered incidents in the lives of
+these. They interweave into their histories the powerful passion of
+love. By animated language, and descriptions which glow with sympathy,
+they rouse the sensibility of the reader, and fill his soul with
+interest in the tale. They fascinate therefore in the same manner as
+plays. They produce also the same kind of [7] mental stimulus, or the
+same powerful excitement of the mind. Hence it is that this
+indisposition is generated. For if other books contain neither
+characters, nor incidents, nor any of the high seasoning, or gross
+stimulants, which belong to novels they become insipid.
+
+[Footnote 7: I have been told by a physician of the first eminence, that
+music and novels have done more to produce the sickly countenances and
+nervous habits of our highly educated females, than any other causes
+that can be assigned. The excess of stimulus on the mind from the
+interesting and melting tales, that are peculiar to novels, affects the
+organs of the body, and relaxes the tone of the nerves, in the same
+manner as the melting tones of music have been described to act upon the
+constitution, after the sedentary employment, necessary for skill in
+that science, has injured it.]
+
+It is difficult to estimate the injury which is done to persons, by this
+last mentioned effect of novel-reading upon the mind. For the contents
+of our best books consist usually of plain and sober narrative. Works of
+this description give no extravagant representations of things, because
+their object is truth. They are found often without characters or
+catastrophies, because these would be often unsuitable to the nature of
+the subject of which they treat. They contain repellants rather than
+stimulants, because their design is the promotion of virtue. The
+novel-reader therefore, by becoming indisposed towards these, excludes
+himself from moral improvement, and deprives himself of the most
+substantial pleasure, which reading can produce. In vain do books on the
+study of nature unfold to him the treasures of the mineral or the
+vegetable world. He foregoes this addition to his knowledge, and this
+innocent food for his mind. In vain do books on science lay open to him
+the constitution and the laws of the motion of bodies. This constitution
+and these laws are still mysteries to him. In vain do books on religion
+discover to him the true path to happiness. He has still this path to
+seek. Neither, if he were to dip into works like these, but particularly
+into those of the latter discription, could he enjoy them. This latter
+consideration makes the reading of novels a more pernicious employment
+than many others. For though there may be amusements, which may
+sometimes produce injurious effects to those, who partake of them, yet
+these may be counteracted by the perusal of works of a moral tendency.
+The effects, on the other hand, which are produced by the reading of
+novels, seem to admit of no corrective or cure; for how, for instance,
+shall a perverted morality, which is considered to be one of them, be
+rectified, if the book which is to contain the advice for this purpose,
+be so uninteresting, or insipid, that the persons in question have no
+disposition to peruse it?
+
+
+
+
+CHAP. VII-SECT. I.
+
+_Diversions of the field--diversions of the field forbidden--general
+thoughtlessness on this subject--sentiments of Thomson--sentiments of
+George Fox--of Edward Burroughs--similar sentiments of Cowper--law of
+the society on the subject._
+
+
+ The diversions of the field are usually followed by people, without any
+consideration, whether they are justifiable, either in the eye of
+morality or of reason. Men receive them as the customs of their
+ancestors, and they are therefore not likely to entertain doubts
+concerning their propriety. The laws of the country also sanction them;
+for we find regulations and qualifications on the subject. Those also
+who attend these diversions, are so numerous, and their rank, and
+station, and character, are often such, that they sanction them again by
+their example, so that few people think of making any inquiry, how far
+they are allowable as pursuits.
+
+But though this general thoughtlessness prevails upon this subject, and
+though many have fallen into these diversions as into the common customs
+of the world, yet benevolent and religious individuals have not allowed
+them to pass unnoticed, nor been backward in their censures and
+reproofs.
+
+It has been matter of astonishment to some, how men, who have the powers
+of reason, can waste their time in galloping after dogs, in a wild and
+tumultuous manner, to the detriment often of their neighbours, and to
+the hazard of their own lives; or how men, who are capable of high
+intellectual enjoyments, can derive pleasure, so as to join in shouts of
+triumph, on account of the death of an harmless animal; or how men, who
+have organic feelings, and who know that other living creatures have the
+same, can make an amusement of that, which puts brute-animals to pain.
+
+Good poets have spoken the language of enlightened nature upon this
+subject. Thomson in his Seasons, introduces the diversions of the field
+in the following manner.
+
+   "Here the rude clamour of the sportsman's joy,
+   The gun fast-thund'ring, and the winded horn,
+   Would tempt the muse to sing the rural game."
+
+But further on he observes,
+
+   "These are not subjects for the peaceful muse;
+   Nor will she stain with such her spotless song;
+   Then most delighted, when she social sees
+   The whole mix'd animal-creation round.
+   Alive and happy; 'Tis not joy to her
+   This falsely cheerful barbarous game of death."
+
+Cowper, in his task, in speaking in praise of the country, takes
+occasion to express his disapprobation of one of the diversions in
+question.
+
+   "They love the country, and none else, who seek
+   For their own sake its silence and its shade,
+   Delights, which who would leave, that has a heart
+   Susceptible of pity, or a mind,
+   Cultur'd, and capable of sober thought,
+   For all the savage din of the swift pack
+   And clamours of the field? Detested sport
+   That owes its pleasures to another's pain,
+   That feeds upon the sobs and dying shrieks
+   Of harmless nature, dumb, but yet endued
+   With eloquence, that agonies inspire
+   Of silent tears, and heart-distending sighs!
+   Vain tears alas! and sighs, that never find
+   A corresponding tone in jovial souls!"
+
+In these sentiments of the poets the Quakers, as a religious body, have
+long joined. George Fox specifically reprobated hunting and hawking,
+which were the field diversions of his own time. He had always shewn, as
+I stated in the introduction, a tender disposition to brute-animals, by
+reproving those, who had treated them improperly in his presence. He
+considered these diversions, as unworthy of the time and attention of
+men, who ought to have much higher objects of pursuit. He believed also,
+that real christians could never follow them; for a christian was a
+renovated man, and a renovated man could not but know the works of
+creation better, than to subject them to his abuse.
+
+Edward Burroughs, who lived at the same time, and was an able minister
+of the society, joined George Fox in his sentiments with respect to the
+treatment of animals. He considered that man in the fall, or the
+apostate man, had a vision so indistinct and vitiated that he could not
+see the animals of the creation, as he ought, but that the man, who was
+restored, or the spiritual christian, had a new and clear discernment
+concerning them, which would oblige him to consider and treat them in a
+proper manner.
+
+This idea of George Fox and of Edward Burroughs seems to have been
+adopted or patronized by the Poet Cowper.
+
+   "Thus harmony, and family accord,
+   Were driven from Paradise; and in that hour
+   The seeds of cruelty, that since have swell'd
+   To such gigantic and enormous growth,
+   Were sown in human natures fruitful soil.
+   Hence date the persecution and the pain,
+   That man inflicts on all inferior kinds,
+   Regardless of their plaints. To make him sport,
+   To gratify the frenzy of his wrath,
+   Or his base gluttony, are causes good,
+   And just, in his account, why bird and beast
+   Should suffer torture--"
+
+Thus the Quakers censured these diversions from the first formation of
+their society, and laid down such moral principles with respect to the
+treatment of animals, as were subversive of their continuance. These
+principles continued to actuate all true Quakers, who were their
+successors; and they gave a proof, in their own conduct, that they were
+influenced by them, not only in treating the different animals under
+their care with tenderness, but in abstaining from all diversions in
+which their feelings could be hurt. The diversions however, of the
+field, notwithstanding that this principle of the brute-creation had
+been long recognized, and that no person of approved character in the
+society followed them, began in time to be resorted to occasionally by
+the young and thoughtless members, either out of curiosity, or with a
+view of trying them, as means of producing pleasure. These deviations,
+however from the true spirit of Quakerism became at length known. And
+the Quakers, that no excuse might be left to any for engaging in such
+pursuits again, came to a resolution in one of their yearly meetings,
+giving advice upon the subject in the following words.
+
+[8]"We clearly rank the practice of hunting and shooting for diversion
+with vain sports; and we believe the awakened mind may see, that even
+the leisure of those whom providence hath permitted to have a competence
+of worldly goods, is but ill filled up with these amusements. Therefore,
+being not only accountable for our substance, but also for our time, let
+our leisure be employed in serving our neighbour, and not in
+distressing the creatures of God for our amusement."
+
+[Footnote 8: Book of Extracts.]
+
+I shall not take upon me to examine the different reasons upon which we
+find the foundation of this law. I shall not enquire how far a man's
+substance, or rather his talent, is wasted or misapplied, in feeding a
+number of dogs in a costly manner, while the poor of the neighbourhood
+may be starving, or how far the galloping after these is in the eye of
+christianity a misapplication of a person's time. I shall adhere only to
+that part of the argument, how far a person has a right to make a
+[9]pleasure of that, which occasions pain and death to the
+animal-creation: and I shall shew in what manner the Quakers argue upon
+this subject, and how they persuade themselves, that they have no right
+to pursue such diversions, but particularly when they consider
+themselves as a body of professing christians.
+
+[Footnote 9: The Quakers and the poet Cowper likewise, in their laudable
+zeal for the happiness of the brute-creation, have given an improper
+description of the nature of the crime of these diversions. They have
+made it to consist in a man's deriving pleasure from the sufferings of the
+animals in question, whereas it should have been made to consist in his
+making a pleasure of a pursuit which puts them to pain. The most
+abandoned sportsman, it is to be presumed, never hunts them because
+he enjoys their sufferings. His pleasure arises from considerations of
+another nature.]
+
+
+
+SECT. II.
+
+_Diversions of the field judged first by the morality of the Old
+Testament--original charter to kill animals--condition annexed to
+it--sentiments of Cowper--rights and duties springing from this
+charter--violation of it the violation of a moral law--diversions in
+question not allowable by this standard._
+
+
+The Quakers usually try the lawfulness of field-diversions, which
+include hunting and shooting, by two standards, and first by the
+morality of the old Testament.
+
+They believe in common with other christians, that men have a right to
+take away the lives of animals for their food. The great creator of the
+universe, to whom every thing that is in it belongs, gave to Noah and
+his descendants a grant or charter for this purpose. In this charter no
+exception is made. Hence wild animals are included in it equally with
+the tame. And hence a hare may as well be killed, if people have
+occasion for food, as a chicken or a lamb.
+
+They believe also that, when the creator of the universe gave men
+dominion over the whole brute-creation, or delivered this creation into
+their hands, he intended them the right of destroying such animals, as
+circumstances warranted them in supposing would become injurious to
+themselves. The preservation of themselves, which is the first law of
+nature, and the preservation of other animals under their care, created
+this new privilege.
+
+But though men have the power given them over the lives of animals,
+there is a condition in the same charter, that they shall take them with
+as little pain as possible to the creatures. If the death of animals is
+to be made serviceable to men, the least they can do in return is to
+mitigate their sufferings, while they expire. This obligation the
+Supreme Being imposed upon those, to whom he originally gave the
+charter, by the command of not eating their flesh, while the life's
+blood was in it. The Jews obliged all their converts to religion, even
+the proselytes of the gate, who were not considered to be so religious
+as the proselytes of the covenant, to observe what they called the
+seventh commandment of Noah, or that "they should[10] not eat the member
+of any beast that was taken from it, while it was alive." This law
+therefore of blood, whatever other objects it might have in view,
+enjoined that, while men were engaged in the distresing task of taking
+away the life of an animal, they should respect its feelings, by
+abstaining from torture, or all unnecessary pain.
+
+[Footnote 10: It seems almost impossible, that men could be so depraved,
+as to take flesh to eat from a poor animal, while alive, and yet from
+the law enjoined to proselytes of the gate it is probable, that it was
+the case. Bruce, whose travels into Abyssynia are gaining in credit,
+asserts that such customs obtained there. And the Harleian Miscellany,
+vol. 6. P. 126, in which is a modern account of Scotland, written in
+1670, states the same practice as having existed in our own island.]
+
+   [11]On Noah, and in him on all mankind
+   The Charter was conferr'd, by which we hold
+   The flesh of animals in fee, and claim
+   O'er all we feed on pow'r of life and death.
+   But read the instrument, and mark it well.
+   The oppression of a tyrannous control
+   Can find no warrant there. Feed then, and yield
+   Thanks for thy food. Carnivorous, through sin,
+   Feed on the slain; but spare the living brute.
+
+[Footnote 11: Cowper.]
+
+From this charter, and from the great condition annexed to it, the
+Quakers are of opinion that rights and duties have sprung up; rights on
+behalf of animals, and duties on the part of men; and that a breach of
+these duties, however often, or however thoughtlessly it may take place,
+is a breach of a moral law. For this charter did not relate to those
+animals only, which lived in the particular country of the Jews, but to
+those in all countries wherever Jews might exist. Nor was the observance
+of it confined to the Jews only, but it was to extend to the Proselytes
+of the covenant and the gate. Nor was the observance of it confined to
+these Proselytes, but it was to extend to all nations; because all
+animals of the same species are in all countries organized alike, and
+have all similar feelings; and because all animals of every kind are
+susceptible of pain.
+
+In trying the lawfulness of the diversions of the field, as the Quakers
+do by this charter, and the great condition that is annexed to it, I
+purpose, in order to save time, to confine myself to hunting, for this
+will appear to be the most objectionable, if examined in this manner.
+
+It must be obvious then, that hunting, even in the case of hares, is
+seldom followed for the purposes of food. It is uncertain in the first
+place, whether in the course of the chase they can be preserved whole
+when they are taken, so as to be fit to be eaten. And, in the second, it
+may be observed, that we may see fifty horsemen after a pack of hounds,
+no one of whom has any property in the pack, nor of course any right to
+the prey. These cannot even pretend, that their object is food, either
+for themselves or others.
+
+Neither is hunting, where foxes are the objects in view, pursued upon
+the principle of the destruction of noxious animals. For it may be
+observed, that rewards are frequently offered to those, who will procure
+them for the chase: that large woods or covers are frequently allotted
+them, that they may breed, and perpetuate their species for the same
+purposes, and that a poor man in the neighbourhood of a foxhunter, would
+be sure to experience his displeasure, if he were caught in the
+destruction of any of these animals.
+
+With respect to the mode of destroying them in either of these cases, it
+is not as expeditious, as it might be made by other means. It is on the
+other hand, peculiarly cruel. A poor animal is followed, not for
+minutes, but frequently for an hour, and sometimes for hours, in pain
+and agony. Its sufferings begin with its first fear. Under this fear,
+perpetually accompanying it, it flies from the noise of horses, and
+horsemen, and the cries of dogs. It pants for breath, till the panting
+becomes difficult and painful. It becomes wearied even to misery, yet
+dares not rest. And under a complication of these sufferings, it is at
+length overtaken, and often literally torn to pieces by its pursuers.
+
+Hunting therefore does not appear, in the opinion of the Quakers, to be
+followed for any of those purposes, which alone, according to the
+original charter, give mankind a right over the lives of brutes. It is
+neither followed for food, nor for prevention of injury to man, or to
+the creatures belonging to him. Neither is life taken away by means of
+it, as mercifully as it ought to be, according to the meaning of the[12]
+great condition. But if hunting be not justifiable, when examined upon
+these principles, it can never be justifiable in the opinion of the
+Quakers, when it is followed on the principle of pleasure, all
+destruction of animal-life upon this last principle, must come within
+the charge of wanton cruelty, and be considered as a violation of a
+moral law.
+
+[Footnote 12: The netting of animals for food, is perfectly
+unobjectionable upon these principles.]
+
+
+SECT. III.
+
+_Diversions of the field judged by the morality of the
+New-Testament--the renovated man or christian has a clearer knowledge of
+creation and of its uses--he views animals as the creatures of
+God--hence he finds animals to have rights independently of any written
+law--he collects again new rights from the benevolence of his new
+feelings--and new rights again from the written word of revelation._
+
+
+The Quakers try the lawfulness of these diversions again by the morality
+of the New-Testament They adopt, in the first place, upon this occasion,
+the idea of George Fox and of Edward Burroughs, which has been already
+stated; and they follow it up in the manner which I shall now explain.
+
+They believe that a man under the new covenant, or one who is really a
+christian, is a renovated man. As long as Adam preserved his primeval
+innocence, or continued in the image of his Maker, his spiritual vision
+was clear. When he lost this image, it became dim, short, and confused.
+This is the case, the Quakers believe, with every apostate or wicked
+man. He sees through a vitiated medium. He sees of course nothing of the
+harmony of the creation. He has but a confused knowledge of the natures
+and ends of things. These natures and these ends he never examines as he
+ought, but in the confusion of his moral vision, he abuses and perverts
+them. Hence it generally happens, that an apostate man is cruel to his
+brute. But in proportion as he is restored to the divine image, or
+becomes as Adam was before he fell, or in proportion as he exchanges
+earthly for spiritual views, he sees all things through a clearer
+medium. It is then, the Quakers believe, that the creation is open to
+him, and that he finds his creator has made nothing in vain. It is then
+that he knows the natures of things; that he estimates their uses and
+their ends, and that he will never stretch these beyond their proper
+bounds. Beholding animals in this sublime light, he will appreciate
+their strength, their capacities, and their feelings; and he will never
+use them but for the purposes intended by providence. It is then that
+the creation will delight him. It is then that he will find a growing
+love to the animated objects of it. And this knowledge of their natures,
+and this love of them, will oblige him to treat them with tenderness and
+respect. Hence all animals will have a security in the breast of every
+christian or renovated man against oppression or abuse. He will never
+destroy them wantonly, nor put them to unnecessary pain. Now the Quakers
+are of opinion, that every person, who professes christianity, ought to
+view things as the man, who is renovated, would view them, and that it
+becomes them therefore in particular, as a body of highly professing
+christians, to view them in the same manner. Hence they uniformly look
+upon animals, not as brute-machines, to be used at discretion, but as
+the creatures of God, of whose existence the use and intention ought
+always to be considered, and to whom duties arise out of this spiritual
+feeling, independently of any written law in the Old-Testament, or any
+grant or charter, by which their happiness might be secured.
+
+The Quakers therefore, viewing animals in this light, believe that they
+are bound to treat them accordingly. Hence the instigation of two horses
+by whips and spurs for a trial of speed, in consequence of a monied
+stake, is considered by the Quakers to be criminal. The horse was made
+for the use of man, to carry his body and to transport his burdens; but
+he was never made to engage in painful conflicts with other horses on
+account of the avarice of his owner. Hence the pitting together of two
+cocks for a trial of victory is considered as equally criminal. For the
+cock, whatever may be his destined object among the winged creation, has
+been long useful to man in awakening him from unseasonable slumber, and
+in sounding to him the approach of day. But it was never intended, that
+he should be employed to the injury and destruction of himself, or to
+the injury and destruction of his own species. In the same manner the
+Quakers condemn the hunting of animals, except on the plea of necessity,
+or that they cannot be destroyed, if their death be required, in any
+other way. For whatever may be their several uses, or the several ends
+of their existence in creation, they were never created to be so used by
+man, that they should suffer, and this entirely for his sport. Whoever
+puts animals to cruel and unnatural uses, disturbs, in the opinion of
+the Quakers, the harmony of the creation, and offends God.
+
+The Quakers in the second place, are of opinion that the renovated man
+must have, in his own benevolent spirit, such an exalted sense of the
+benevolent spirit of the Creator, as to believe, that he never
+constituted any part of animated nature, without assigning it its proper
+share of happiness during the natural time of its existence, or that it
+was to have its moment, its hour, its day, or its year of pleasure. And,
+if this be the case, he must believe also, that any interruption of its
+tranquillity, without the plea of necessity, must be an innovation of
+its rights as a living being.
+
+The Quakers believe also, that the renovated man, who loves all the
+works of the creator, will carry every divine law, which has been
+revealed to him, as far as it is possible to be carried on account of a
+similarity of natures through all animated creation, and particularly
+that law, which forbids him to do to another, what he would dislike to
+be done unto himself. Now this law is founded on the sense of bodily,
+and on the sense of the mental feelings. The mental feelings of men and
+brutes, or the reason of man and the instinct of animals, are different.
+But their bodily feelings are alike; and they are in their due
+proportions, susceptible of pain. The nature therefore of man and of
+animals is alike in this particular. He can anticipate and know their
+feelings by his own. He cannot therefore subject them to any action
+unnecessarily, if on account of a similar construction of his own
+organs, such an action would produce pain to himself. His own power of
+feeling strongly commands sympathy to all that can feel: and that
+general sympathy, which arises to a man, when he sees pain inflicted on
+the person of any individual of his own species, will arise, in the
+opinion of the Quakers, to the renovated man, when he sees it inflicted
+on the body of a brute.
+
+
+
+
+CHAP. VIII.
+
+_Objections started by philosophical moralists to the preceding system
+of education--this system a prohibitory one--prohibitions sometimes the
+cause of greater evil than they prevent--they may confuse morality--and
+break the spirit--they render the vicious more vicious--and are not to
+be relied upon as effectual, because built on a fake foundation--ignorance
+no guardian of virtue--causes, not sub-causes, are to be contended against
+--no certain security but in knowledge and a love of virtue--prohibitions,
+where effectual, produce but a sluggish virtue._
+
+
+I have now stated the principal prohibitions, that are to be found in
+the moral education of the Quakers, and I have annexed to these the
+various reasons, which the Quakers themselves give, why they were
+introduced into their society. I have therefore finished this part of my
+task, and the reader will expect me to proceed to the next subject. But
+as I am certain that many objections will be started here, I shall stop
+for a few minutes to state, and to consider them.
+
+The Quakers differ on the subject of moral education, very materially
+from the world, and indeed from those of the world, who having had a
+more than ordinarily liberal education, may be supposed to have, in most
+cases, a more than ordinarily correct judgment. The Quaker system, as we
+have seen, consists principally of specific prohibitions. These
+prohibitions again, are extended occasionally to things, which are not
+in themselves vicious. They are extended, again, to these, because it is
+possible that they may be made productive, of evil. And they are
+founded apparently on the principle, that ignorance of such things
+secures innocence, or that ignorance, in such cases, has the operation
+of a preventive of vice, or a preservative of virtue.
+
+Philosophical moralists on the other hand, are friends to occasional
+indulgences. They see nothing inherently or necessarily mischievous,
+either in the theatre or in the concert-room, or in the ball-room, or in
+the circulating library, or in many other places of resort. If a young
+female, say they, situated in a provincial town, were to see a play
+annually, would it not give her animation, and afford a spring to her
+heart? or if a youth were to see a play two or three times in the year,
+might not his parents, if they were to accompany him, make it each time,
+by their judicious and moral remarks, subservient to the improvement of
+his morals? neither do these moralists anticipate any danger by looking
+to distant prospects, where the things are innocent in themselves. And
+they are of opinion, that all danger may be counteracted effectually,
+not by prohibitory checks and guards, but by storing the mind with
+knowledge, and filling it with a love of virtue. The arguments
+therefore, which these will advance against the system of the moral
+education of the Quakers, may be seen in the following words.
+
+"All prohibitions, they contend, should be avoided, as much as
+possible, in moral education; for prohibitions may often become the
+cause of greater immorality, than they were intended to prevent. The
+fable of the hen, whose very prohibition led her chickens to the fatal
+well, has often been realized in life, there is a certain curiosity in
+human nature to look into things forbidden. If Quaker youth should have
+the same desires in this respect as others, they cannot gratify them but
+at the expence of their virtue. If they wish for novels, for example,
+they must get them clandestinely. If to go to the theatre, they must go
+in secret. But they must do more than this in the latter case, for as
+they would be known by their dress, they must change it for that of
+another person. Hence they may be made capable of intrigue, hypocrisy,
+and deceit."
+
+"Prohibitions, again, they believe, except they be well founded, may
+confound the notions of children on the subject of morality; for if they
+are forbidden to do what they see worthy and enlightened persons do,
+they may never know where to fix the boundaries between vice and
+virtue."
+
+"Prohibitions, again, they consider, if made without an allowance of
+exceptions, as having a tendency to break the spirit of youth. Break a
+horse in the usual way, and teach him to stop with the check of the
+reins, and you break him, and preserve his courage. But put him in a
+mill to break him, and you break his life and animation. Prohibitions
+therefore may hinder elevated feeling, and may lead to poverty and
+sordidness of spirit."
+
+"Prohibitions, again, they believe, if youth once depart from the right
+way, render them more vicious characters than common. This arises from
+the abruptness or suddenness of transition. For having been shut up
+within narrow boundaries for a part of their lives, they go greater
+lengths, when once let loose, than others, who have not been equally
+curbed and confined."
+
+"But while they are of opinion, that prohibitions are likely to be thus
+injurious to Quaker-youth, they are of opinion, that they are never to
+be relied upon as effectual guardians of morality, because they consider
+them as built upon false principles."
+
+"They are founded, they conceive, on the principle, that ignorance is a
+security for innocence, or that vice is so attractive, that we cannot
+resist it but by being kept out of the way. In the first case, they
+contend that the position is false; for ignorant persons are of all
+others the most likely, when they fall into temptations, to be seduced,
+and in the second, they contend that there is a distrust of divine
+providence in his moral government of the world."
+
+"They are founded, again, they conceive, on false principles, inasmuch
+as the Quakers confound causes with sub-causes, or causes with
+occasions. If a person, for example, were to get over a hedge, and
+receive a thorn in his hand, and die of the wound, this thorn would be
+only the occasion, and not the cause of his death. The bad state in
+which his body must have been, to have made this wound fatal, would have
+been the original cause. In like manner neither the theatre, nor the
+ball-room are the causes of the bad passions, that are to be found
+there. All these passions must have existed in persons previously to
+their entrance into these places. Plays therefore, or novels, or public
+dances, are only the sub-causes, or the occasions of calling forth the
+passions in question. The real cause is in the infected state of the
+mind, or in the want of knowledge, or in the want of a love of virtue."
+
+"Prohibitions therefore, though they may become partial checks of vice,
+can never, they believe, be relied upon as effectual guardians of
+virtue. Bars and bolts seldom prevent thieves from robbing a house. But
+if armed men should be in it, who would venture to enter in? In the same
+manner the mind of man should be armed or prepared. It should be so
+furnished, that men should be able to wander through a vicious world,
+amidst all its foibles and its follies, and pass uncontaminated by them.
+It should have that tone given to it, which should hinder all
+circumstances from becoming occasions. But this can never be done by
+locking up the heart to keep vice out of it, but by filling it with
+knowledge and with a love of virtue."
+
+"That this is the only method to be relied upon in moral education, they
+conceive may be shewn by considering upon whom the pernicious effects of
+the theatre, or of the ball-room, or of the circulating library,
+principally fall. Do they not fall principally upon those, who have
+never had a dignified education. 'Empty noddles, it is said, are fond of
+playhouses,' and the converse, is true, that persons, whose
+understandings have been enriched, and whose tastes have been corrected,
+find all such recreations tiresome. At least they find so much to
+disgust them, that what they approve does not make them adequate amends.
+This is the case also with respect to novels. These do harm principally
+to barren minds. They do harm to those who have no proper employment for
+their time, or to those, who in the manners, conversation, and conduct,
+of their parents, or others with whom they associate, have no examples
+of pure thinking, or of pure living, or of a pure taste. Those, on the
+other hand, who have been taught to love good books, will never run
+after, or be affected by, bad ones. And the same mode of reasoning, they
+conceive, is applicable to other cases. For if people are taught to
+love virtue for virtue's sake, and, in like manner, to hate what is
+unworthy, because they have a genuine and living knowledge of its
+unworthiness, neither the ball, nor concert-room, nor the theatre, nor
+the circulating library, nor the diversions of the field, will have
+charms enough to seduce them, or to injure the morality of their minds."
+
+To sum up the whole. The prohibitions of the Quakers, in the first
+place, may become injurious, in the opinion of these philosophical
+moralists, by occasioning greater evils, than they were intended to
+prevent. They can never, in the second place, be relied upon as
+effectual guardians of virtue, because they consider them to be founded
+on false principles. And if at any time they can believe them to be
+effectual in the office assigned them, they believe them to to be
+productive only of a cold or a sluggish virtue.
+
+
+
+
+MORAL EDUCATION.
+
+CHAP. IX.... SECT. I.
+
+_Reply of the Quakers to these objections--they say first, that they are
+to be guided by revelation in the education of their children--and that
+the education, which they adopt, is sanctioned by revelation, and by the
+practice of the early Christians--they maintain again, that the
+objections are not applicable to them, for they pre-suppose
+circumstances concerning them, which are not true--they allow the system
+of filling the mind with virtue to be the most desirable--but they
+maintain that it cannot be acted upon abstractedly--and, that if it
+could, it would be as dangerous, as the philosophical moralists make
+their system of the prohibitions._
+
+
+To these objections the Quakers would make the following reply.
+
+They do not look up either to their own imaginations, or to the
+imaginations of others, for any rule in the education of their children.
+As a christian society, they conceive themselves bound to be guided by
+revelation, and by revelation only, while it has any injunctions to
+offer, which relate to this subject.
+
+In adverting to the Old Testament, they find that no less than nine, out
+of the ten commandments of Moses, are of a prohibitory nature, and, in
+adverting to the new, that many of the doctrines of Jesus Christ and the
+apostles are delivered in the form of prohibitions. They believe that
+revealed religion prohibits them from following all those pursuits,
+which the objections notice; for though there is no specific prohibition
+of each, yet there is an implied one in the spirit of christianity,
+Violent excitements of the passions on sensual subjects must be
+unfavourable to religious advancement. Worldly pleasures must hinder
+those, which are spiritual. Impure words and spectacles must affect
+morals. Not only evil is to be avoided, but even the appearance of evil.
+While therefore these sentiments are acknowledged by christianity, it is
+to be presumed that the customs, which the objections notice, are to be
+avoided in christian education. And as the Quakers consider these to be
+forbidden to themselves, they feel themselves obliged to forbid them to
+others. And, in these parcticular prohibitions, they consider themselves
+as sanctioned both by the writings and the practice of the early
+christians.
+
+In looking at the objections, which have been made with a view of
+replying to them, they would observe first, that these objections do not
+seem to apply to them as a society, because they presuppose
+circumstances concerning them, which are not true. They presuppose
+first, that their moral education is founded on prohibitions solely,
+whereas they endeavour both by the communication of positive precepts,
+and by their example, to fill the minds of their children with a love of
+virtue. They presuppose again, that they are to mix with the world, and
+to follow the fashions of the world, in which case a moderate knowledge
+of the latter, with suitable advice when they are followed, is
+considered as enabling them to pass through life with less danger than
+the prohibition of the same, whereas they mix but little with others of
+other denominations. They abjure the world, that they may not imbibe its
+spirit. And here they would observe, that the knowledge, which is
+recommended to be obtained, by going through perilous customs is not
+necessary for them as a society. For living much at home, and mixing
+almost solely with one another, they consider their education as
+sufficient for their wants.
+
+If the Quakers could view the two different systems abstractedly, that
+of filling the heart with virtue, and that of shutting it out from a
+knowledge of vice, so that they could be acted upon separately, and so
+that the first of the two were practicable, and practicable without
+having to go through scenes that were dangerous to virtue, they would
+have no hesitation in giving the preference to the former; because if
+men could be taught to love virtue for virtue's sake, all the trouble of
+prohibitions would be unnecessary.
+
+But the Quakers would conceive that the system of filling the mind with
+virtue, if acted upon abstractedly, or by itself, would be impracticable
+with respect to youth. To make it practicable children must be born with
+the full grown intellect and experience of men. They must have an innate
+knowledge of all the tendencies, the bearings, the relations, and the
+effects of virtue and vice. They must be also strong enough to look
+temptation in the face; whereas youth have no such knowledge, or
+experience, or strength, or power.
+
+They would consider also the system of filling the mind with virtue, as
+impossible, if attempted abstractedly or alone, because it is not in
+human wisdom to devise a method of inspiring it with this essence,
+without first teaching it to abstain from vice. It is impossible, they
+would say, for a man to be virtuous, or to be in love with virtue,
+except he were to lay aside his vicious practices. The first step to
+virtue, according both to the Heathen and the Christian philosophy, is
+to abstain from vice. We are to cease to do evil, and to learn to do
+well. This is the process recommended. Hence prohibitions are necessary.
+Hence sub-causes as well as causes are to be attacked. Hence abstinence
+from vice is a Christian, though it may be a sluggish, virtue. Hence
+innocence is to be aimed at by an ignorance of vice. And hence we must
+prohibit all evil, if we wish for the assistance of the moral governor
+of the world.
+
+But if the system of filling the heart with virtue were ever practicable
+of itself, that is, without the aid of prohibitions, yet if it be to be
+followed by allowing young persons to pass through the various
+amusements of the world which the Quakers prohibit, and by giving them
+moral advice at the same time, they would be of opinion, that more
+danger would accrue to their morality, than any, which the prohibitions
+could produce. The prohibitions, as far as they have a tendency to curb
+the spirit, would not be injurious, in the opinion of the Quakers,
+because it is their plan in education to produce humble, and passive,
+and obedient characters; and because spirit, or highmindedness, or high
+feeling, is no trait in the Christian character. As far as the
+curiosity, which is natural to man, would instigate him to look into
+things forbidden, which he could not always do in the particular
+situation of the Quakers, without the admission of intrigue, or
+hypocrisy, or deceit, prohibitions would be to be considered as evils,
+though they would always be necessary evils. But the Quakers would
+apprehend that the same number of youth would not be lost by passing
+through the ordeal of prohibitory education, as through the ordeal of
+the system, which attempts to fill the mind with virtue, by inuring it
+to scenes, which may be dangerous to its morality; for if tastes are to
+be cultivated, and knowledge to be had, by adopting the amusements
+prohibited by the Quakers, many would be lost, though some might be
+advanced to virtue. For parents cannot always accompany their children
+to such places, nor, if they could, can they prevent these from
+fascinating. If these should fascinate, they will suggest repetitions.
+But frequent repetitions, where you accustom youth to see, to hear, and
+to think, what ought never to be heard, seen, or thought of by
+Christians, cannot but have the effect of tinging the character in time.
+This mode of education would be considered by the Quakers as answering
+to that of "dear bought experience." A person may come to see the beauty
+of virtue, when his constitution has been shattered by vice. But many
+will perish in the midst of so hazardous a trial.[13]
+
+[Footnote 13: Though no attempt is to be made to obtain knowledge,
+according to the Christian system, through the medium of customs which
+may be of immoral tendency, yet it does not follow that knowledge,
+properly obtained, is not a powerful guardian of virtue. This important
+subject may probably be resumed in a future volume.]
+
+
+SECT. II.
+
+_Quakers contend, by may of farther reply to the objections, that their
+education has been practically or experimentally beneficial--two facts
+in behalf of this assertion--the first is that young Quakers get earlier
+into the wisdom of life than many others--the second, that there are few
+disorderly persons in the society--error corrected, that the Quakers
+turn persons out of the society, as soon as they begin to be vicious,
+that it may be rescued from the disgrace of a bad character._
+
+
+The answers, which have hitherto been given to the reader, may be
+considered as the statement of theory against theory. But the Quakers,
+would say farther upon this subject, that they have educated upon these
+principles for a hundred and fifty years, and that, where they have been
+attended to, their effects have been uniformly beneficial. They would be
+fearful therefore of departing from a path, which they conceive their
+own experience and that of their ancestors has shewn them to be safe,
+and which after all their inquiries, they believe to be that which is
+pointed out to them by the Christian religion.
+
+I shall not attempt to follow up this practical argument by any history
+of the lives of the Quakers, but shall content myself with one or two
+simple facts, which appear to me to be materially to the point.
+
+In the first place I may observe that it is an old saying, that it is
+difficult to put old heads on young shoulders. The Quakers, however, do
+this more effectually than any other people. It has often been observed
+that a Quaker boy has an unnatural appearance. This idea has arisen from
+his dress and his sedateness, which together have produced an
+appearance of age above the youth in his countenance, or the stature of
+his person. This, however, is confessing, in some degree, in the case
+before us, that the discretion of age has appeared upon youthful
+shoulders. It is certainly an undeniable fact, that the youth of this
+society, generally speaking, get earlier into a knowledge of just
+sentiments, or into a knowledge of human nature, or into a knowledge of
+the true wisdom of life, than those of the world at large. I have often
+been surprised to hear young Quakers talk of the folly and vanity of
+pursuits, in which persons older than themselves were then embarking for
+the purposes of pleasure, and which the same persons have afterwards
+found to have been the pursuits of uneasiness and pain.
+
+Let us stop for a while, just to look at the situation of some of those
+young persons, who, in consequence of a different education, are
+introduced to the pleasures of the world, as to those, which are to
+constitute their happiness. We see them running eagerly first after this
+object, then after that. One man says to himself "this will constitute
+my pleasure." He follows it. He finds it vanity and vexation of spirit.
+He says again "I have found my self deceived. I now see my happiness in
+other pleasures, and not in those where I fancied it." He follows these.
+He becomes sickened. He finds the result different from his
+expectations. He pursues pleasure, but pleasure is not there.
+
+   [14]"They are lost
+   In chase of fancied happiness, still woo'd,
+   And never won. Dream after dream ensues;
+   And still they dream, that they shall still succeed
+   And still are disappointed."
+
+[Footnote 14: Cowper.]
+
+Thus after having wasted a considerable portion of his time, he is
+driven at last by positive experience into the truth of those maxims,
+which philosophy and religion have established, and in the pursuit of
+which alone he now sees that true happiness is to be found. Thus, in
+consequence of his education, he looses two thirds of his time in tedious
+and unprofitable, if not in baneful pursuits. The young Quaker, on the
+other hand, comes, by means of his education, to the same maxims of
+philosophy and religion, as the foundation of his happiness, at a very
+early period of life, and therefore saves the time, and preserves the
+constitution which the other has been wasting for want of this early
+knowledge. I know of no fact more striking, or more true in the
+Quaker-history, than this, namely, that the young Quaker, who is educated
+as a Quaker, gets such a knowledge of human nature, and of the paths to
+wisdom and happiness, at an early age, that, though he is known to be a
+young mariner by the youth displayed in his countenance, he is enabled to
+conduct his bark through the dangerous rocks and shoals of life, with
+greater safety than many others, who have been longer on the ocean of this
+probationary world.
+
+I may observe again, as the second fact, that it is not unusual to hear
+persons say, that you seldom see a disorderly Quaker, or, that a
+Quaker-prostitute or a Quaker criminal is unknown. These declarations,
+frequently and openly made, shew at least that there is an opinion among
+the world at large, that the Quakers are a moral people.
+
+The mention of this last fact leads me to the notice, and the
+correction, of an error, which I have found to have been taken up by
+individuals. It is said by these that the Quakers are very wary with
+respect to their disorderly members, for that when any of them behave
+ill, they are expelled the society in order to rescue it from the
+disgrace of a bad character. Thus if a Quaker woman were discovered to
+be a prostitute, or a Quaker man to be taken up for a criminal offence,
+no disgrace could attach to this society as it would to others; for if,
+in the course of a week, after a discovery had been made of their
+several offences, any person were to state that two Quaker members had
+become infamous, it would be retorted upon him, that they were not
+members of the society.
+
+It will be proper to observe upon the subject of this error, that it is
+not so probable that the Quakers would disown these, after the discovery
+of their infamy, to get rid of any stain upon the character of the
+society, as it is that these persons, long before the facts could be
+known, had been both admonished and disowned. For there is great truth
+in the old maxim "Nemo fecit repente 'turpissimus;" or "no man was ever
+all at once a rogue."
+
+So in the case of these persons, as of all others, they must have been
+vicious by degrees: they must have shewn symptoms of some deviations
+from rectitude, before the measure of their iniquity could have been
+completed. But by the constitution of Quakerism, as will appear soon, no
+person of the society can be found erring even for the first time,
+without being liable to be privately admonished. These admonitions may
+be repeated for weeks, or for months, or even for years, before the
+subjects of them are pronounced so incorrigible as to be disowned. There
+is great reason therefore to presume, in the case before us, though the
+offenders in question would have undoubtedly been disowned by the
+Quakers, after they were known to be such, yet that they had been
+disowned long before their offences had been made public.
+
+Upon the whole it may be allowed, that young Quakers arrive at the
+knowledge of just sentiments, or at the true wisdom of life earlier than
+those, who are inured to the fashions of the world; and it may be
+allowed also that the Quakers, as a body, are a moral people. Now these
+effects will generally be considered as the result of education; and
+though the prohibitions of the Quakers may not be considered as the only
+instruments of producing these effects, yet they must be allowed to be
+component parts of the system, which produces them.
+
+
+
+
+DISCIPLINE OF THE QUAKERS.
+
+
+CHAP. I.... SECT. I.
+
+_Discipline of two kinds--as it relates to the regulation of the
+internal affairs of the society--or to the cognizance of immoral
+conduct--difficulty of procuring obedience to moral precepts--this
+attempted to be obviated by George Fox--outlines of his system for this
+purpose--additions made to his system since his time--objections to the
+system considered--this system, or the discipline of the Quakers, as far
+as this branch of it is concerned, the great foundation-stone on which
+their moral education is supported._
+
+
+The discipline of the Quakers is divisible into two parts. The first may
+comprehend the regulation of the internal affairs of the society, such
+as the management of the poor belonging to it, the granting of
+certificates of removal to its members, the hearing of their appeals
+upon various occasions, the taking cognizance of their proposals of
+marriage, and the like. The second may comprehend the notice or
+observance of the moral conduct of individuals, with a view of
+preserving the rules, which the Quakers have thought it their duty to
+make, and the testimonies which they have thought it their duty to bear,
+as a Christian people. It is to the latter part of the discipline that I
+shall principally confine myself in the ensuing part of my work.
+
+Nothing is more true than that, when men err in their moral practice, it
+is not for want of good precepts or of wholesome advice. There are few
+books from which we cannot collect some moral truths; and few men so
+blind, as not to be able to point out to us the boundaries of moral
+good. The pages of revelation have been long unfolded to our view, and
+diffusively spread among us. We have had the advantage too of having
+their contents frequently and publicly repeated into our ears. And yet,
+knowing what is right, we cannot pursue it. We go off, on the other
+hand, against our better knowledge, into the road to evil. Now, it was
+the opinion of George Fox, that something might be done to counteract
+this infirmity of human nature, or to make a man keep up to the precepts
+which he believed to have been divinely inspired, or, in other words,
+that a system of Discipline might be devised, for regulating, exciting,
+and preserving the conduct of a Christian.
+
+This system he at length completed, and, as he believed, with the divine
+aid, and introduced it into the society with the approbation of those
+who belonged to it.
+
+The great principle, upon which he founded it, was, that every christian
+was bound to watch over another for his good. This principle included
+two ideas. First, that vigilance over the moral conduct of individuals
+was a christian duty. Secondly, that any interference with persons, who
+might err, was solely for their good. Their reformation was to be the
+only object in view. Hence religious advice was necessary. Hence it was
+to be administered with tenderness and patience. Hence nothing was to be
+left undone, while there was a hope that any thing could be done, for
+their spiritual welfare.
+
+From this view of the subject he enjoined it to all the members of his
+newly formed society, to be watchful over the conduct of one another,
+and not to hesitate to step in for the recovery of those, whom they
+might discover to be overtaken with a fault.
+
+He enjoined it to them again, that they should follow the order
+recommended by Jesus Christ upon such occasions.[15] "If thy brother
+shall trespass against thee, go and tell him his fault between thee and
+him alone. If he shall hear thee, thou hast gained thy brother. But if
+he will not hear thee, then take with thee one or two more, that in the
+mouth of two or three witnesses every word may be established. And if he
+shall neglect to hear them, tell it unto the church; but, if he neglect
+to hear the church, let him be unto thee as a Heathen-man or a
+Publican."
+
+[Footnote 15: Matt. 18. 15, 16, 17.]
+
+For the carrying of this system into execution in the order thus
+recommended, he appointed Courts, or meetings for dicipline, as the
+Quakers call them, with the approbation of the society, where the case
+of the disorderly should be considered, if it should be brought to the
+cognizance of the church; and where a record should be kept of the
+proceedings of the society respecting it. In these courts or meetings
+the poor were to have an equal voice with the rich.--There was to be no
+distinction but in favour of religious worth; And here it is to be
+remarked, that he was so desirous, that the most righteous judgment
+should be pronounced upon any offender, that he abandoned the usual mode
+of decision, in general so highly valued, by a majority, of voices, and
+recommended the decision to be made according to the apparent will of
+the virtuous, who might be present.--And as expulsion from membership
+with the church was to be considered as the heaviest punishment, which
+the Quakers, as a religious body, could inflict, he gave the offender an
+opportunity of appealing to meetings, different from those in which the
+sentence had been pronounced against him, and where the decisive voices
+were again to be collected from the preponderant weight of religious
+character.
+
+He introduced also into his system of dicipline privileges in favour of
+women, which marked his sense of justice, and the strength and
+liberality of his mind. The men he considered undoubtedly as the heads
+of the church, and from whom all laws concerning it ought to issue. But
+he did not deny women on that account any power, which he thought it
+would be proper for them to hold. He believed them to be capable of
+great usefulness, and therefore admitted them to the honour of being, in
+his own society, of nearly equal importance with the men.--In the
+general duty, imposed upon members, of watching over one another, he
+laid it upon the women, to be particularly careful in observing the
+morals of those of then own sex. He gave them also meetings for
+dicipline of their own, with the power, of recording their own
+transactions, so that women were to act among courts or meetings of
+women, as men among those of men. There was also to be no office in the
+society belonging to the men, but he advised there should be a
+corresponding one belonging to the women. By this new and impartial step
+he raised the women of his own community beyond the level of women in
+others, and laid the foundation of that improved strength of intellect,
+dignity of mind, capability of business, and habit of humane offices,
+which are so conspicuous among Female-Quakers at the present day.
+
+With respect to the numerous offices, belonging to the discipline, he
+laid it down as a principle, that the persons, who were to fill them,
+were to have no other emolument or reward, than that, which a faithful
+discharge of them would bring to their own consciences.
+
+These are the general outlines of the system of discipline, as
+introduced by George Fox. This system was carried into execution, as he
+himself had formed it, in his own time. Additions, however, have been
+made to it since, as it seemed proper, by the society at large. In the
+time of George Fox, it was laid upon every member, as we have seen, to
+watch over his neighbour for his spiritual welfare. But in 1698, the
+society conceiving, that what was the business of every one might
+eventually become the business of no one, appointed officers, whose
+particular duty it should be to be overseers of the morals of
+individuals; thus hoping, that by the general vigilance enjoined by
+George Fox, which was still to continue, and by the particular vigilance
+then appointed, sufficient care would be taken of the morals of the
+whole body. In the time, again, of George Fox, women had, only their
+monthly and quarterly meetings for discipline, but it has since been
+determined, that they should have their yearly meetings equally with the
+men. In the time, again, of George Fox, none but the grave members were
+admitted into the meetings for discipline, but it has been since agreed,
+that young persons should have the privilege of attending them, and
+this, I believe, upon the notion, that. While these meetings would
+quality them for transacting the business of the society, they might
+operate as schools far virtue.
+
+This system of discipline, as thus introduced by George Fox, and as thus
+enlarged by the society afterwards, has not escaped, notwithstanding the
+loveliness of its theory, the censure of the world.
+
+It has been considered in the first place, as a system of espionage, by
+which one member is made a spy upon, or becomes an informer against
+another. But against this charge it would be observed by the Quakers,
+that vigilance over morals is unquestionably a Christian duty. It would
+be observed again that the vigilance which is exercised in this case, is
+not with the intention of mischief, as in the case of spies and
+informers, but with the intention of good. It is not to obtain money,
+but to preserve reputation and virtue. It is not to persecute but to
+reclaim. It is not to make a man odious, but to make him more
+respectable. It is never an interference with innocence. The
+watchfulness begins to be offensive only, where delinquency is begun.
+
+The discipline, again, has been considered as too great an
+infringement, of the liberty of those, who are brought under it. Against
+this the Quakers would contend, that all persona who live in civil
+society, must give up a portion of their freedom, that more happiness
+and security may be enjoyed. So, when men enter into Christian
+societies, they must part with a little of their liberty for their moral
+good.
+
+But whatever may be the light in which persons, not of the society, may
+view this institution, the Quakers submit to, and respect it. It is
+possible there may be some, who may feel it a restraint upon their
+conduct. And there is no doubt, that it is a restraint upon those, who
+have irregular desires to gratify, or destructive pleasures to pursue.
+But generally speaking, the youth of the society, who receive a
+consistent education, approve of it. Genuine Quaker parents, as I have
+had occasion to observe, insist upon the subjugation of the will. It is
+their object to make their children lowly, patient and submissive. Those
+therefore, who are born in the society, are born under the system, and
+are in general educated for it. Those who become converted to the
+religion of the society, know beforehand the terms of their admission.
+And it will appear to all to be at least an equitable institution,
+because in the administration of it, there is no exception of persons.
+The officers themselves, who are appointed to watch over, fall under the
+inspection of the discipline. The poor may admonish the rich, and the
+rich the poor. There, is no exception, in short, either for age, or sex,
+or station.
+
+It is not necessary, at least in the present place, that I should go
+farther, and rake up all the objections, that may be urged upon this
+subject. I shall therefore only observe here, that the discipline of the
+Quakers, notwithstanding all its supposed imperfections, whatever, they
+may be, is the grand foundation-stone, upon which their moral education
+is supported. It is the grand partition wall between them and vice. If
+this part of the fabric were ever allowed to, be undermined, the
+building would fall to pieces; though the Quakers might still be known
+by their apparel and their language, they would no longer be so
+remarkable as they are now generally confessed to, be, for their moral
+character.
+
+
+SECT. II.
+
+_Manner of the administration of the discipline of the
+Quakers--Overseers appointed to every particular meeting--Manner of
+reclaiming an individual--first by admonition--this sometimes
+successful--secondly by dealing--this sometimes successful--but if
+unsuccessful, the offender is disowned--but he may appeal afterwards to
+two different courts or meetings for redress.--_
+
+
+Having now given the general outlines of the discipline of the Quakers, I
+shall proceed to explain the particular manner of the administration of
+it.
+
+To administer it effectually all individuals of the society, as I have
+just stated, whether men or women, are allowed the power of watching
+over the conduct of one another for their good, and of interfering if
+they should see occasion.
+
+But besides this general care two or more persons of age and experience,
+and of moral lives and character, and two or more women of a similar
+description, are directed to be appointed, to have the oversight of
+every congregation or particular meeting in the kingdom. These persons
+are called overseers, because it is their duty to oversee their
+respective flocks.
+
+If any of the members should violate the prohibitions mentioned in the
+former part of the work, or should become chargeable with injustice,
+drunkenness, or profane swearing, or neglect of their public worship, or
+should act in any way inconsistently with his character as a christian,
+it becomes the particular duty of these overseers, though it is also the
+duty of the members at large, to visit him in private, to set before
+him the error and consequences of his conduct, and to endeavour by all
+the means in their power to reclaim him. This act on the part of the
+overseer is termed by the society admonishing. The circumstances of
+admonishing and of being admonished are known only to the parties,
+except the case should have become of itself notorious; for secrecy is
+held sacred on the part of the persons who admonish. Hence it may
+happen, that several of the society may admonish the same person, though
+no one of them knows that any other has been visiting him at all. The
+offender may be thus admonished by overseers and other individuals for
+weeks and months together, for no time is fixed by the society, and no
+pains are supposed to be spared for his reformation. It is expected,
+however, in all such admonitions, that no austerity of language or
+manner should be used, but that he should be admonished in tenderness
+and love.
+
+If an overseer, or any other individual, after having thus laboured to
+reclaim another for a considerable length of time, finds that he has not
+succeeded in his work, and feels also that he despairs of succeeding by
+his own efforts, he opens the matter to some other overseer, or to one
+or more serious members, and requests their aid. These persons now wait
+upon the offender together, and unite their efforts in endeavouring to
+persuade him to amend his life. This act, which now becomes more public
+by the junction of two or three in the work of his reformation, is still
+kept a secret from other individuals of the society, and still retains
+the name of admonishing.
+
+It frequently happens that, during these different admonitions, the
+offender sees his error, and corrects his conduct. The visitations of
+course cease, and he goes on in the estimation of the society as a
+regular or unoffending member, no one knowing but the admonishing
+persons, that he has been under the discipline of the society. I may
+observe here, that what is done by men to men is done by women to women,
+the women admonishing and trying to reclaim those of their own sex, in
+the same manner.
+
+Should, however, the overseers, and other persons before mentioned, find
+after a proper length of time that all their united efforts have been
+ineffectual, and that they have no hope of success with respect to his
+amendment, they lay the case, if it should be of a serious nature,
+before a [16]court, which has the name of the monthly meeting. This
+court, or meeting, make a minute of the case, and appoint a committee to
+visit him. The committee in consequence, of their appointment wait upon
+him. This act is now considered as a public act, or as an act of the
+church. It is not now termed admonishing, but changes its name to
+[17]dealing. The offender too, while the committee are dealing with
+him, though he may attend the meetings of the society for worship, does
+not attend those of their discipline.
+
+[Footnote 16: Certain acts of delinquency are reported to the monthly
+meeting, as soon as the truth of the facts can be ascertained, such as a
+violation of the rules of the society, with respect to marriage, payment
+of tythes, etc.]
+
+[Footnote 17: Women, though they may admonish, cannot deal with women,
+this being an act of the church, till they have consulted the meetings
+of the men. Men are generally joined with women in the commission for
+this purpose.]
+
+If the committee, after having dealt with the offender according to
+their appointment, should be satisfied that he is sensible of his error,
+they make a report to the monthly court or meeting concerning him. A
+minute is then drawn up, in which it is stated, that he has made
+satisfaction for the offence. It sometimes happens, that he himself
+sends to the same meeting a written acknowledgement of his error. From
+this time he attends the meetings for discipline again, and is continued
+in the society, as if nothing improper had taken place. Nor is any one
+allowed to reproach him for his former faults.
+
+Should, however, all endeavours prove ineffectual, and should the
+committee, after having duly laboured with the offender, consider him at
+last as incorrigible, they report their proceedings to the monthly
+meeting. He is then publicly excluded from membership, or, as it is
+called, [18]disowned. This is done by a distinct document, called a
+testimony of disownment, in which the nature of the offence, and the
+means that have been used to reclaim him, are described. A wish is also
+generally expressed in this document, that he may repent, and be taken
+into membership again. A copy of this minute is always required to be
+given to him.
+
+[Footnote 18: Women cannot disown, the power of disowning, is an act of
+the church, being vested in the meetings of the men.]
+
+If the offender should consider this act of disowning him as an unjust
+proceeding, he may appeal to a higher tribunal, or to the quarterly
+court, or meeting. This quarterly court or meeting, then appoint a
+committee, of which no one of the monthly meeting that condemned him can
+be a member, to reconsider his ease. Should this committee report, and
+the quarterly meeting in consequence decide against him, he may appeal
+to the yearly. This latter meeting is held in London, and consists of
+deputies and others from all parts of the kingdom. The yearly meeting
+then appoint a committee of twelve deputies, taken from twelve quarterly
+meetings, none of whom can be from the quarterly meeting that passed
+sentence against him, to examine his case again. If this committee
+should confirm the former decisions, he may appeal to the yearly meeting
+at large; but beyond this there is no appeal. But if he should even be
+disowned by the voice of the yearly meeting at large, he may, if he
+lives to give satisfactory proof of his amendment, and sues for
+readmission into the society, be received into membership again; but he
+can only be received through the medium of the monthly meeting, by which
+he was first disowned.
+
+
+SECT. III
+
+_Two charges usually brought against this administration of the
+discipline--that it is managed with an authoritative spirit--and that it
+is managed partially--these charges are considered._
+
+
+As two charges are usually brought against the administration of that
+part of the discipline, which has been just explained, I shall consider
+them in this place.
+
+The first usually is, that, though the Quakers abhor what they call the
+authority of priest craft, yet some overseers possess a portion of the
+spirit of ecclesiastical dominion; that they are austere, authoritative,
+and over bearing in the course of the exercise of their office, and
+that, though the institution may be of Christian origin, it is not
+always conducted by these with a Christian spirit. To this first charge
+I shall make the following reply.
+
+That there may be individual instances, where this charge may be
+founded, I am neither disposed, nor qualified, to deny. Overseers have
+their different tempers, like other people; and the exercise of dominion
+has unquestionably a tendency to spoil the heart. So far there is an
+opening for the admission of this charge. But it must be observed, on
+the other hand, that the persons, to be chosen overseers, are to be by
+the laws of the society[19] "as upright and unblameable in their
+conversation, as they can be found, in order that the advice, which they
+shall occasionally administer to other friends, may be the better
+received, and carry with it the greater weight and force on the minds of
+those, whom they shall be concerned to admonish." It must be observed
+again that it is expressly enjoined them, that "they are to exercise
+their functions in a meek, calm, and peaceable spirit, in order that
+the admonished may see that their interference with their conduct
+proceeds from a principle of love and a regard for their good, and
+preservation in the truth."
+
+[Footnote 19: Book of extracts.]
+
+And it must be observed again, that any violation of this injunction
+would render them liable to be admonished by others, and to come under
+the discipline themselves.
+
+The second charge is, that the discipline is administered partially; or
+that more favour is shewn to the rich than to the poor, and that the
+latter are sooner disowned than the former for the same faults.
+
+This latter charge has probably arisen from a vulgar notion, that, as
+the poor are supported by the society, there is a general wish to get
+rid of them.--But this notion is not true. There is more than ordinary
+caution in disowning those who are objects of support, add to which,
+that, as some of the most orderly members of the body are to be found
+among the poor, an expulsion of these, in a hasty manner, would be a
+diminution of the quantum of respectability, or of the quantum of moral
+character, of the society at large.
+
+In examining this charge, it must certainly be allowed, that though the
+principle "of no respect of persons" is no where carried to a greater
+length than in the Quaker Society, yet we may reasonably expect to find
+a drawback from the full operation of it in a variety of causes. We are
+all of us too apt, in the first place, to look up to the rich, but to
+look down upon the poor. We are apt to court the good will of the
+former, when we seem to care very little even whether we offend the
+latter. The rich themselves and the middle classes of men respect the
+rich more than the poor; and the poor show more respect to the rich than
+to one another. Hence it is possible; that a poor man may find more
+reluctance in entering the doors of a rich man to admonish him, than one
+who is rich to enter the doors of the poor for the same purpose, men,
+again, though they may be equally good, may not have all the same
+strength of character. Some overseers may be more timid than others, and
+this timidity may operate upon them more in the execution of their duty
+upon one class of individuals, than upon another. Hence a rich man may
+escape for a longer time without admonition, than a poorer member. But
+when the ice is once broken; when admonition is once begun; when
+respectable persons have been called in by overseers or others, those
+causes, which might be preventive of justice, will decrease; and, if the
+matter should be carried to a monthly or a quarterly meeting, they will
+wholly vanish. For in these courts it is a truth, that those, who are
+the most irreproachable for their lives, and the most likely of course
+to decide justly on any occasion, are the most attended to, or carry the
+most weight, when they speak publicly. Now these are to be found
+principally in the low and middle classes, and these, in all societies,
+contain the greatest number of individuals. As to the very rich, these
+are few indeed compared with the rest, and these may be subdivided into
+two classes for the farther elucidation of the point. The first will
+consist of men, who rigidly follow the rules of the society, and are as
+exemplary as the very best of the members. The second will consist of
+those, who we members according to the letter, but not according to the
+spirit, and who are content with walking in the shadow, that follows the
+substance of the body. Those of the first class will do justice, and
+they will have on equal influence with any. Those of the second,
+whatever may be their riches, or whatever they may say, are seldom if
+ever attended to in the administration of the discipline.
+
+From hence it will appear, that if there be any partiality in the
+administration of this institution, it will consist principally in this,
+that a rich man may be suffered in particular cases, to go longer
+without admonition than a poorer member; but that after admonition has
+been begun, justice will be impartially administered; and that the
+charges of a preference, where disowning is concerned, has no solid
+foundation for its support.
+
+
+SECT. IV.
+
+_Three great principles discoverable in the discipline, as hitherto
+explained--these applicable to the discipline of larger societies, or to
+the criminal codes of states--lamentable, that as Christian principles,
+they have not been admitted into our own--Quakers, as far as they have
+had influence in legislation, have adopted them--exertions of William
+Penn--Legislature of Pennsylvania as example to other countries in this
+particular._
+
+
+I find it almost impossible to proceed to the great courts or meetings
+of the Quakers, which I had allotted for my next subject, without
+stopping a while to make a few observations on the principles of that
+part of the discipline, which I have now explained.
+
+It may be observed, first, that the great object of this part of the
+discipline is the reformation of the offending person: secondly, that
+the means of effecting this object consists of religious instruction or
+advice: and thirdly, that no pains are to be spared, and no time to be
+limited, for the trial of these means, or, in other words, that nothing
+is to be left undone, while there is a hope that the offender may be
+reclaimed. Now these principles the Quakers adopt in the exercise of
+their discipline, because, as a Christian community, they believe they
+ought to be guided only by Christian principles, and they know of no
+other, which the letter, or the spirit of Christianity, can warrant.
+
+I shall trespass upon the patience of the reader in this place, only
+till I have made an application of these principles, or till I have
+shewn him how far these might be extended, and extended with advantage
+to morals, beyond the limits of the Quaker-society, by being received as
+the basis, upon which a system, of penal laws might be founded, among
+larger societies, or states.
+
+It is much to be lamented, that nations, professing Christianity, should
+have lost sight, in their various acts of legislation, of Christian
+principles: or that they should not have interwoven some such beautiful
+principles as those, which we have seen adopted by the Quakers, into the
+system of their penal laws. But if this negligence or omission would
+appear worthy of regret, if reported of any Christian nation, it would
+appear most so, if reported of our own, where one would have supposed,
+that the advantages of civil and religious liberty, and those of a
+reformed religion, would have had their influence is the correction of
+our judgments, and in the benevolent dispositions of our will. And yet
+nothing is more true, than that these good influences have either never
+been produced, or, if produced, that they have never been attended to,
+upon this subject. There seems to be no provision for religions
+instruction in our numerous prisons. We seem to make no patient trials
+of those, who are confined in them, for their reformation. But, on the
+other hand, we seem to hurry them off the stage of life, by means of a
+code, which annexes death to two hundred different offences, as if we
+had allowed our laws to be written by the bloody pen of the pagan Draco.
+And it seems remarkable, that this system should be persevered in, when
+we consider that death, as far as the experiment has been made in our
+own country, has little or no effect as a punishment for crimes.
+Forgery, and the circulation of forged paper, and the counterfeiting of
+the money of the realm, are capital offences, and are never pardoned.
+And yet no offences are more frequently committed than these. And it
+seems still more remarkable, when we consider, in addition to this, that
+in consequence of the experiments, made in other countries, it seems to
+be approaching fast to an axiom, that crimes are less frequent, in
+proportion as mercy takes place of severity, or as there are judicious
+substitutes for the punishment of death.
+
+I shall not inquire, in this place, how far the right of taking away
+life on many occasions, which is sanctioned by the law of the land, can
+be supported on the ground of justice, or how for a greater injury is
+done by it, than the injury the criminal has himself done. As
+Christians, it seems that we should be influenced by Christian
+principles. Now nothing can be more true, than that Christianity
+commands us to be tender hearted one to another, to have a tender
+forbearance one with another, and to regard one another as brethren. We
+are taught also that men, independently of their accountableness to
+their own governments, are accountable for their actions in a future
+state, and that punishments are unquestionably to follow. But where are
+our forbearance and our love, where is our regard for the temporal and
+eternal interests of man, where is our respect for the principles of the
+gospel, if we make the reformation of a criminal a less object than his
+punishment, or if we consign him to death, in the midst of his sins,
+without having tried all the means in our power for his recovery?
+
+Had the Quakers been the legislators of the world, they had long ago
+interwoven the principles of their discipline into their penal codes,
+and death had been long ago abolished as a punishment for crimes. As far
+as they have had any power with legislatures, they have procured an
+attention to these principles. George Fox remonstrated with the judges
+in his time on the subject of capital punishments. But the Quakers
+having been few in number, compared with the rest of their countrymen,
+and having had no seats in the legislature, and no predominant interest
+with the members of it, they have been unable to effect any change in
+England on this subject. In Pennsylvania, however, where they were the
+original colonists, they have had influence with their own government,
+and they have contributed to set up a model of jurisprudence, worthy of
+the imitation of the world.
+
+William Penn, on his arrival in America, formed a code of laws chiefly
+on Quaker principles, in which, however, death was inscribed as a
+punishment, but it was confined to murder. Queen Anne set this code
+aside, and substituted the statute and common law of the mother country.
+It was, however, resumed in time, and acted upon for some years, when it
+was set aside by the mother country again. From this time it continued
+dormant till the separation of America from England. But no sooner had
+this event taken place, which rendered the American states their own
+legislators, than the Pennsylvanian Quakers began to aim at obtaining an
+alteration of the penal laws. In this they were joined by worthy
+individuals of other denominations; and these, acting in union, procured
+from the legislature of Pennsylvania, in the year 1786, a reform of the
+criminal code. This reform, however, was not carried, in the opinion of
+the Quakers, to a sufficient length. Accordingly, they took the lead
+again, and exerted themselves afresh upon this subject. Many of them
+formed themselves into a society "for alleviating the miseries of public
+prisons." Other persons co-operated with them in this undertaking also.
+At length, after great perseverance, they prevailed upon the same
+legislature, in the year 1790, to try an ameliorated system. This trial
+answered so well, that the same legislature again, in the year 1794,
+established an act, in which several Quaker principles were
+incorporated, and in which only the crime of premeditated murder was
+punishable with death.
+
+As there is now but one capital offence in Pennsylvania, punishments for
+other offences are made up of fine, imprisonment, and labour; and these
+are awarded separately or conjointly, according to the magnitude of the
+crime.
+
+When criminals have been convicted, and sent to the great gaol of
+Philadelphia to undergo their punishment, it is expected of them that
+they should maintain themselves out of their daily labour; that they
+should pay for their board and washing, and also for the use of their
+different implements of labour; and that they should defray the expences
+of their commitment, and of their prosecutions and their trials. An
+account therefore is regularly kept against them, and if at the
+expiration of the term of their punishment, there should be a surplus of
+money in their favour, arising out of the produce of their work, it is
+given to them on their discharge.
+
+An agreement is usually made about the price of prison-labour between
+the inspector of the gaol and the employers of the criminals.
+
+As reformation is now the great object in Pennsylvania, where offences
+have been committed, it is of the first importance that the gaoler and
+the different inspectors should be persons of moral character. Good
+example, religious advice, and humane treatment on the part of these,
+will have a tendency to produce attention, respect, and love on the part
+of the prisoners, and to influence their moral conduct. Hence it is a
+rule never to be departed from, that none are to be chosen as successors
+to these different officers, but such, as shall be found on inquiry to
+have been exemplary in their lives.
+
+As reformation, again, is now the great object, no corporal punishment
+is allowed in the prison. No keeper can strike a criminal. Nor can any
+criminal be put into irons. All such punishments are considered as doing
+harm. They tend to extirpate a sense of shame. They tend to degrade a
+man and to make him consider himself as degraded in his own eyes;
+whereas it is the design of this change in the penal system, that he
+should be constantly looking up to the restoration of his dignity as a
+man, and to the recovery of his moral character.
+
+As reformation, again, is now the great object, the following[20] system
+is adopted. No intercourse is allowed between the males and the females,
+nor any between the untried and the convicted prisoners. While they are
+engaged in their labour, they are allowed to talk only upon the subject,
+which immediately relates to their work. All unnecessary conversation
+is forbidden. Profane swearing is never overlooked. A strict watch is
+kept, that no spirituous liquors may be introduced. Care is taken that
+all the prisoners have the benefit of religious instruction. The prison
+is accordingly open, at stated times, to the pastors of the different
+religious denominations of the place. And as the mind of man may be
+worked upon by rewards as well as by punishments, a hope is held out to
+the prisoners, that the time of their confinement may be shortened by
+their good behaviour. For the inspectors, if they have reason to believe
+that a solid reformation has taken place in any individual, have a power
+of interceding for his enlargement, and the executive government of
+granting it, if they think it proper. In the case, where the prisoners
+are refractory, they are usually put into solitary confinement, and
+deprived of the opportunity of working. During this time the expences of
+their board and washing are going on, so that they are glad to get into
+employment again, that they may liquidate the debt, which, since the
+suspension of their labour, has been accruing to the gaol.
+
+[Footnote 20: As cleanliness is connected with health, and health with
+morals, the prisoner are obliged to wash and clean themselves every
+morning before their work, and to bathe in the summer-season, in a large
+reservoir of water, which is provided in the court yard of the prison
+for this purpose.]
+
+In consequence of these regulations, those who visit the criminals in
+Philadelphia in the hours of their labour, have more the idea of a
+large manufactory, than of a prison. They see nail-makers, sawyers,
+carpenters, joiners, weavers, and others, all busily employed. They see
+regularity and order among these. And as no chains are to be seen in the
+prison, they seem to forget their situation as criminals, and to look
+upon them as the free and honest labourers of a community following
+their respective trades.
+
+In consequence of these regulations, great advantages have arisen both
+to the criminals, and to the state. The state has experienced a
+diminution of crimes to the amount of one half since the change of the
+penal system, and the criminals have been restored, in a great
+proportion, from the gaol to the community, as reformed persons. For few
+have been known to stay the whole term of their confinement. But no
+person could have had any of his time remitted him, except he had been
+considered both by the inspectors and the executive government as
+deserving it. This circumstance of permission to leave the prison before
+the time expressed in the sentence, is of great importance to the
+prisoners. For it operates as a certificate for them of their amendment
+to the world at large. Hence no stigma is attached to them for having
+been the inhabitants of a prison. It may be observed also, that some of
+the most orderly and industrious, and such as have worked at the most
+profitable trades, have had sums of money to take on their discharge,
+by which they have been able to maintain themselves honestly, till they
+could get into employ.
+
+Such is the state, and such the manner of the execution of the penal
+laws of Pennsylvania, as founded upon Quaker-principles, so happy have
+the effects of this new system already been, that it is supposed it will
+be adopted by the other American States.
+
+May the example be universally followed! May it be universally received
+as a truth, that true policy is inseparable from virtue; that in
+proportion as principles become lovely on account of their morality,
+they will become beneficial, when acted upon, both to individual and to
+States; or that legislators cannot raise a constitution upon so fair and
+firm a foundation, as upon the gospel of Jesus Christ!
+
+
+
+
+CHAP. II.
+
+_Monthly court or meeting--constitution of this meeting--each county is
+usually divided into parts--in each of these parts or divisions are
+several meeting-houses, which have their several congregations attached
+to them--one meeting-house in each division is fixed upon for
+transacting the business of all the congregations in that
+division--deputies appointed from every particular meeting or
+congregation in each division to the place fixed upon for transacting
+the business within it--nature of the business to be transacted--women
+become deputies, and transact business, equally with the men._
+
+I come, after this long digression, to the courts of the Quakers. And
+here I shall immediately premise, that I profess to do little more than
+to give a general outline of these. I do not intend to explain the
+proceedings, preparatory to the meetings there, or to state all the
+exceptions from general rules, or to trouble the memory of the reader
+with more circumstances than will be sufficient to enable him to have a
+general idea of this part of the discipline of the Quakers.
+
+The Quakers manage their discipline by means of monthly, quarterly, and
+yearly courts, to which, however they themselves uniformly give the name
+of meetings.
+
+To explain the nature and business of the monthly or first of these
+meetings, I shall fix upon some county in my own mind, and describe the
+business, that is usually done in this in the course of the month. For
+as the business, which is usually transacted in any one county, is done
+by the Quakers in the same manner and in the same month in another, the
+reader, by supposing an aggregate of counties, may easily imagine, how
+the whole business of the society is done for the whole kingdom.
+
+The Quakers[21] usually divide a county into a number of parts,
+according to the Quaker-population of it. In each of these divisions
+there are usually several meeting-houses, and these have their several
+congregations attached to them. One meeting-house, however, in each
+division, is usually fixed upon for transacting the business of all the
+congregations that are within it, or for the holding of these monthly
+courts. The different congregations of the Quakers, or the members of
+the different particular meetings, which are settled in the northern
+part of the county, are attached of course to the meeting-house, which
+has been fixed upon in the northern division of it because it gives them
+the least trouble to repair to it on this occasion. The numbers of those
+again, which are settled in the southern, or central, or other parts of
+the county, are attached to that, which has been fixed upon in the
+southern, or central, or other divisions of it, for the same reason. The
+different congregations in the northern division of the county appoint,
+each of them, a set of deputies once a month, which deputies are of both
+sexes, to repair to the meeting-house, which has been thus assigned
+them. The different congregations in the southern, central, or other
+divisions, appoint also, each of them, others, to repair to that, which
+has been assigned them in like manner. These deputies are all of them
+previously instructed in the matters, belonging to the congregations,
+which they respectively represent.
+
+[Footnote 21: This was the ancient method, when the society was numerous
+in every county of the kingdom, and the principle is still followed
+according to existing circumstances.]
+
+At length the day arrives for the monthly meeting. The deputies make
+ready to execute the duties committed to their trust. They repair, each
+sett of them, to their respective places of meeting. Here a number of
+Quakers, of different ages and of both sexes, from their different
+divisions, repair also. It is expected that[22] all, who can
+conveniently attend, should be present on this occasion.
+
+[Footnote 22: There may be persons, who on account of immoral conduct
+cannot attend.]
+
+When they are collected at the meeting-house, which was said to have
+been fixed upon in each division, a meeting for worship takes place. All
+persons, both men and women, attend together. But when this meeting is
+over, they separate into different apartments for the purposes of the
+discipline; the men to transact by themselves the business of the men,
+and of their own district, the women to transact that, which is more
+limited, namely such as belongs to their own sex.
+
+In the men's meeting, and it is the same in the women's, the names of
+the deputies beforementioned, are first entered in a book, for, until
+this act takes place, the meeting for discipline is not considered to be
+constituted.
+
+The minutes of the last monthly meeting are then generally read, by
+which it is seen if any business of the society was left unfinished.
+Should any thing occur of this sort, it becomes the [23]first object to
+be considered and dispatched.
+
+[Footnote 23: The London monthly meetings begin differently from those
+in the country.]
+
+The new business, in which the deputies were said to have been
+previously instructed by the congregations which they represented comes
+on. This business may be of various sorts. One part of it uniformly
+relates to the poor. The wants of these are provided for, and the
+education of their children taken care of, at this meeting.
+Presentations of marriages are received, and births, marriages, and
+funerals are registered. If disorderly members, after long and repeated
+admonitions, should have given no hopes of amendment, their case is
+first publicly cognizable in this court. Committees are appointed to
+visit, advise, and try to reclaim them. Persons, reclaimed by these
+visitations, are restored to membership, after having been well reported
+of by the parties deputed to visit them. The fitness of persons,
+applying for membership, from other societies, is examined here. Answers
+also are prepared to the [24]queries at the proper time. Instructions
+also are given, if necessary, to particular meetings, suited to the
+exigencies of their cases; and certificates are granted to members on
+various occasions.
+
+[Footnote 24: These queries will be explained in the next chapter.]
+
+In transacting this, and other business of the society, all members
+present we allowed to speak. The poorest man in the meeting-house,
+though he may be receiving charitable contributions at the time, is
+entitled to deliver his sentiments upon any point. He may bring forward
+new matter. He may approve or object to what others have proposed before
+him. No person may interrupt him, while he speaks. The youth, who are
+sitting by, are gaining a knowledge of the affairs and discipline of the
+society, and are gradually acquiring sentiments and habits, that are to
+mark their character in life. They learn, in the first place, the duty
+of a benevolent and respectful consideration for the poor. In hearing
+the different cases argued and discussed, they learn, in some measure,
+the rudiments of justice, and imbibe opinions of the necessity of moral
+conduct. In these courts they learn to reason. They learn also to hear
+others patiently, and without interruption, and to transact business,
+that may come before them in maturer years with regularity and order.
+
+I cannot omit to mention here the orderly manner in which, the Quakers,
+conduct their business on these occasions. When a subject is brought
+before them, it is canvassed to the exclusion of all extraneous matter,
+till some conclusion results. The clerk of the monthly meeting then
+draws up a minute, containing, as nearly as he can collect, the
+substance of this conclusion. This minute is then read aloud to the
+auditory, and either stands or undergoes an alteration, as appears, by
+the silence or discussion upon it, to be the sense of the meeting. When
+fully agreed upon, it stands ready to be recorded. When a second subject
+comes on, it is canvassed, and a minute is made of it, to be recorded in
+the same manner, before a third is allowed to be introduced. Thus each
+point is settled, till the whole business of the meeting is concluded.
+
+I may now mention that in the same manner as the men proceed in their
+apartment on this occasion, the women proceed in their own apartment or
+meeting also. There are women-deputies, and women-clerks. They enter
+down the names of these deputies, read the minutes, of the last monthly
+meeting, bring forward the new matter, and deliberate and argue on the
+affairs of their own sex. They record their proceedings equally. The
+young females also, are present, and have similar opportunities of
+gaining knowledge, and of improving their judgments, and of acquiring
+useful and moral habits, as the young men.
+
+It is usual, when the women have finished the business of their own
+meeting, to send one of their members to the apartments of the men, to
+know if they have any thing to communicate. This messenger having
+returned, and every thing having been settled and recorded in both
+meetings, the monthly meeting is over, and men, women, and youth of both
+sexes, return to their respective homes.
+
+In the same manner as the different congregations, or members of the
+different meetings, in any one division of the county, meet together,
+and transact their monthly business, so other different congregations,
+belonging to other divisions of the same county, meet at other appointed
+places, and dispatch their business also. And in the same manner as the
+business is thus done in one county, it is done in every other county
+of the kingdom once a month.
+
+
+
+
+CHAP. III.
+
+_Quarterly court or meeting--constitution of this meeting--one place in
+each county is now fixed upon for the transaction of business-this place
+may be different in the different quarters of the year--deputies from
+the various monthly meetings are appointed to repair to this
+place--nature of the business to be transacted--certain queries
+proposed--written answers carried to these by the deputies just
+mentioned--Queries proposed in the womens meeting also, and answered in
+the same manner_.--
+
+
+The quarterly meeting of the Quakers, which comes next in order, is much
+more numerously attended than the monthly. The monthly, as we have just
+seen, superintend the concerns of a few congregations or particular
+meetings which were contained in a small division of the county. The
+quarterly meeting, on the other hand, superintends the concerns of all
+the monthly meetings in the county at large. It takes cognizance of
+course of the concerns of a greater portion of population, and, as the
+name implies, for a greater extent of time. The Quaker population of a
+[25] whole county is now to assemble in one place. This place, however,
+is not always the same. It may be different, to accommodate the members
+in their turn, in the different quarters of the year.
+
+[Footnote 25: I still adhere, to give the reader a clearer idea of the
+discipline, and to prevent confusion, to the division by county, though
+the district in question may not always comprehend a complete county.]
+
+In the same manner as the different congregations in a small division of
+a county have been shewn to have sent deputies to the respective monthly
+meetings within it, so the different monthly meetings in the same county
+send each of them, deputies to the quarterly. Two or more of each sex
+are generally deputed from each monthly meeting. These deputies are
+supposed to have understood, at the monthly meeting, where they were
+chosen, all the matters which the discipline required them to know
+relative to the state and condition of their constituents. Furnished
+with this knowledge, and instructed moreover by written documents on a
+variety of subjects, they repair at a proper time to the place of
+meeting. All the Quakers in the district in question, who are expected
+to go, bend their direction hither. Any person travelling in the county
+at this time, would see an unusual number of Quakers upon the road
+directing their journey to the same point. Those who live farthest from
+the place where the meeting is held, have often a long journey to
+perform. The Quakers are frequently out two or three whole days, and
+sometimes longer upon this occasion. But as this sort of meeting takes
+place but once in the quarter, the loss of their time, and the fatigue
+of their journey, and the expences attending it, are borne cheerfully.
+
+When all of them are assembled, nearly the same custom obtains at the
+quarterly, as has been described at the monthly meeting. A meeting for
+worship is first held. The men and women, when this is over, separate
+into their different apartments, after which the meeting for discipline
+begins in each.
+
+I shall not detail the different kinds of business, which come on at
+this meeting. I shall explain the principal subject only.
+
+The society at large have agreed upon a number of questions, or queries
+as they call them, which they have committed to print, and which they
+expect to be read and answered in the course of these quarterly meetings
+The following is a list of them.
+
+I. Are meetings for worship and discipline kept up, and do Friends
+attend them duly, and at the time appointed; and do they avoid all
+unbecoming behavieur therein?
+
+II. Is there among you any growth in the truth; and hath any
+convincement appeared since last year?
+
+III. Are Friends preserved in love towards each other; if differences
+arise, is due care taken speedily to end them; and are Friends careful
+to avoid and discourage tale-bearing and detraction?
+
+IV. Do Friends endeavour by example and precept to train up their
+children, servants, and all under their core, in a religions life and
+conversation, consistent with our Christian profession, in the frequent
+reading of the holy scriptures, and in plainness of speech, behaviour
+and apparel?
+
+V. Are Friends just in their dealings and punctual in fulfilling their
+engagements; and are they annually advised carefully to inspect the
+state of their affairs once in the year?
+
+VI. Are Friends careful to avoid all vain sports and places of
+diversion, gaming, all unnecessary frequenting of taverns, and other
+public houses, excess in drinking, and other intemperance?
+
+VII. Do Friends bear a faithful and Christian testimony against
+receiving and paying tythes, priests demands, and those called
+church-rates?
+
+VIII. Are Friends faithful in our testimony against bearing arms, and
+being in any manner concerned in the militia, in privateers, letters of
+marque, or armed vessels, or dealing in prize-goods?
+
+IX. Are Friends clear of defrauding the king of his customs, duties and
+excise, and of using, or dealing in goods suspected to be run?
+
+X. Are the necessities of the poor among you properly inspected and
+relieved; and is good care taken of the education of their offspring?
+
+XI. Have any meetings been settled, discontinued, or united since last
+year?
+
+XII. Are there any Friends prisoners for our testimonies; and if any one
+hath died a prisoner, or been discharged since last year, when and how?
+
+XIII. Is early care taken to admonish such as appear inclinable to marry
+in a manner contrary to the rules of our society; and to deal with such
+as persist in refusing to take counsel?
+
+XIV. Have you two or more faithful friends, appointed by the monthly
+meeting, as overseers in each particular meeting; are the rules
+respecting removals duly observed; and is due care taken, when any thing
+appears amiss, that the rules of our discipline be timely and
+impartially put in practice?
+
+XV. Do you keep a record of the prosecutions and sufferings of your
+members; is due care taken to register all marriages, births, and
+burials; are the titles of your meeting houses, burial grounds, &c. duly
+preserved and recorded; and are all legacies and donations properly
+secured, and recorded, and duly applied?
+
+These are the Questions, which the society expect should be publicly
+asked and answered in their quarterly courts or meetings. Some of these
+are to be answered in one quarterly meeting, and [26] others in another;
+and all of them in the course of the year.
+
+[Footnote 26: The Quakers consider the punctual attendance of their
+religious meetings, the preservation of love among them, and the care of
+the poor, of such particular importance, that they require the first,
+third, and tenth to be answered every quarter.]
+
+The clerk of the quarterly meeting, when they come to this part of the
+business, reads the first of the appointed queries to the members
+present, and is then silent. Soon after this a deputy from one of the
+monthly meetings comes forward, and producing the written documents, or
+answers to the queries, all of which were prepared at the meeting where
+he was chosen, reads that document, which contains a reply to the first
+query in behalf of the meeting he represents. A deputy from a second
+monthly meeting then comes forward, and produces his written documents
+also, and answers the same query in behalf of his own meeting in the
+same manner. A deputy from a third where there are more than two
+meetings then produces his documents in his turn, and replies to it
+also, and this mode is observed, till all the deputies from each of the
+monthly meetings in the county have answered the first query.
+
+When the first query has been thus fully answered, silence is observed
+through the whole court. Members present have now an opportunity of
+making any observations they may think proper. If it should appear by
+any of the answers to the first query, that there is any departure from
+principles on the subject it contains in any of the monthly meetings
+which the deputies represent, it is noticed by any one present. The
+observations made by one frequently give rise to observations from
+another. Advice is sometimes ordered to be given, adapted to the nature
+of this departure from principles; and this advice is occasionally
+circulated, through the medium of the different monthly meetings, to the
+particular congregation, where the deviation has taken place.
+
+When the first query has been thus read by the clerk, and answered by
+the deputies, and when observations have been made upon it, and
+instructions given as now described, a second query is read audibly, and
+the same process takes place, and similar observations are sometimes
+made, and instructions given.
+
+In the same manner a third query is read by the clerk, and answered by
+all the deputies, and observed upon by the meeting at large; and so on a
+fourth, and a fifth, till all the queries, set apart for the day are
+answered.
+
+It may be proper now to observe, that while the men in their own
+meeting-house are thus transacting the quarterly business for
+themselves, the women, in a different apartment or meeting-house, are
+conducting it also for their own sex. They read, answer, and observe
+upon, the queries in the same manner. When they nave settled their own
+business, they send one or two of their members, as they did in the case
+of the monthly meeting, to the apartment of the men, to know if they
+have any thing to communicate to them. When the business is finished in
+both meetings, they break up, and prepare for their respective homes.
+
+
+
+
+CHAP. IV.
+
+_Great yearly court or meeting--constitution of this meeting--one place
+only of meeting fixed upon for the whole kingdom--this the
+metropolis--deputies appointed to it from the quarterly
+meetings--business transacted at this meeting--matters decided, not by
+the influence of numbers, but by the weight of religious character--no
+head or chairman of this meeting--character of this discipline or
+government of the Quakers--the laws, relating to it better obeyed than
+those under any other discipline or government--reasons of this
+obedience_.
+
+
+In the order, in which I have hitherto mentioned the meetings for the
+discipline of the Quakers, we have seen them rising by regular ascent,
+both in importance and power. We have seen each in due progression
+comprizing the actions of a greater population than the foregoing, and
+for a greater period of time. I come now to the yearly meeting, which is
+possessed of a higher and wider jurisdiction than any that have been yet
+described. This meeting does not take cognizance of the conduct of
+particular or of monthly meetings, but, at one general view, of the
+state and conduct of the members of each quarterly meeting, in order to
+form a judgment of the general state of the society for the whole
+kingdom.
+
+We have seen, on a former occasion, the Quakers with their several
+deputies repairing to different places in a county; and we have seen
+them lately with their deputies again repairing to one great town in the
+different counties at large. We are now to see them repairing to the
+metropolis of the kingdom.
+
+As deputies were chosen by each monthly meeting to represent it in the
+quarterly meeting, so the quarterly meetings choose deputies to
+represent them in the yearly meeting. These deputies are commissioned to
+be the bearers of certain documents to London, which contain answers in
+writing to a [27]number of the queries mentioned in the last chapter.
+These answers are made up from the answers received by the several
+quarterly meetings from their respective monthly meetings. Besides these
+they are to carry with them other documents, among which are accounts of
+sufferings in consequence of a refusal of military service, and of the
+payment of the demands of the church.
+
+[Footnote 27: Viz. numbers 1,2,3,4,7,8,9,10,11,12]
+
+The deputies who are now generally four in number for each quarterly
+meeting, that is, four of each sex (except for the quarterly meetings of
+York and London, the former of which generally sends eight men and the
+[28] latter twelve, and each of them the like number of females) having
+received their different documents, set forward on their journey.
+Besides these many members of the society repair to the metropolis. The
+distance of three or four hundred miles forms no impediment to the
+journey. A man cannot travel at this time, but he sees the Quakers in
+motion from all parts, shaping their course to London, there to
+exercise, as will appear shortly, the power of deputies, judges, and
+legislators in turn, and to investigate and settle the affairs of the
+society for the preceding year.
+
+[Footnote 28: The quarterly meeting of London includes Middlesex.]
+
+It may not be amiss to mention a circumstance, which has not
+unfrequently occurred upon these occasions. A Quaker in low
+circumstances, but of unblemished life, has been occasionally chosen as
+one of the deputies to the metropolis even for a county, where the
+Quaker-population has been considered to be rich. This deputy has
+scarcely been able, on account of the low state of his finances, to
+accomplish his journey, and has been known to travel on foot from
+distant parts. I mention this circumstance to shew that the society in
+its choice of representatives, shews no respect to persons, but that it
+pays, even in the persons of the poor, the respect that is due to
+virtue.
+
+The day of the yearly meeting at length arrives. Whole days are now
+devoted to business, for which various committees are obliged to be
+appointed. The men, as before, retire to a meeting-house allotted to
+them, to settle the business for the men and the society at large, and
+the women retire to another, to settle that, which belongs to their own
+sex. There are nevertheless, at intervals, meetings for worship at the
+several meeting houses in the metropolis.
+
+One great part of the business of the yearly meeting is to know the
+state of the society in all its branches of discipline for the preceding
+year. This is known by hearing the answers brought to the queries from
+the several quarterly meetings, which are audibly read by the clerk or
+his assistant, and are taken in rotation alphabetically. If any
+deficiency in the discipline should appear by means of these documents,
+in any of the quarterly meetings, remarks follow on the part of the
+auditory, and written advices are ordered to be sent, if it should
+appear necessary, which are either of a general nature, or particularly
+directed to those where the deficiency has been observed.
+
+Another part of the business of the yearly meeting is to ascertain the
+amount of the money, called "FRIENDS SUFFERINGS," that is of the money,
+or the value of the goods, that have been taken from the Quakers for
+[29] tithes and church dues; for the society are principled against the
+maintenance of any religious ministry, and of course cannot
+conscientiously pay toward the support of the established church. In
+consequence of their refusal of payment in the latter case, their goods
+are seized by a law-process, and sold to the best bidder. Those, who
+have the charge of these executions, behave differently. Some wantonly
+take such goods, as will not sell for a quarter of their value, and
+others much more than is necessary, and others again kindly select
+those, which in the sale will be attended with the least loss. This
+amount, arising from this confiscation of their property, is easily
+ascertained from the written answers of the deputies. The sum for each
+county is observed, and noted down. The different sums are then added
+together, and the amount for the whole kingdom within the year is
+discovered.
+
+[Footnote 29: Distraints or imprisonment for refusing to serve in the
+militia are included also under the head "sufferings."]
+
+In speaking of tithes and church-dues I must correct an error, that is
+prevalent. It is usually understood, when Quakers suffer on these
+accounts, that their losses are made up by the society at large. Nothing
+can be more false than this idea. Were their losses made up on such
+occasions, there would be no suffering. The fact is, that whatever a
+person loses in this way is his own total loss; nor is it ever refunded,
+though, in consequence of expensive prosecutions at law, it has amounted
+to the whole of the property of those, who have refused the payment of
+these demands. If a man were to come to poverty on this account, he
+would undoubtedly be supported, but he would only be supported as
+belonging to the poor of the society.
+
+Among the subjects, introduced at this meeting, may be that of any new
+regulations for the government of the society. The Quakers are not so
+blindly attached to antiquity, as to keep to customs, merely because
+they are of an ancient date. But they are ready, on conviction, to
+change, alter, and improve. When, however, such regulations or
+alterations are proposed, they must come not through the medium of an
+individual, but through the medium of one of the quarterly meetings.
+
+There is also a variety of other business at the yearly meeting. Reports
+are received and considered on the subject of Ackworth school, which was
+mentioned in a former part of the work as a public seminary of the
+society.
+
+Letters are also read from the branches of the society in foreign parts,
+and answers prepared to them.
+
+Appeals also are heard in various instances, and determined in this
+court.
+
+I may mention here two circumstances, that are worthy of notice on these
+occasions.
+
+It may be observed that whether such business as that, which I have just
+detailed or any of any other sort comes before the yearly meeting at
+large, it is decided, not by the influence of numbers, but by the weight
+of religious character. As most subjects afford cause for a difference
+of opinion, so the Quakers at this meeting are found taking their
+different sides of the argument, as they believe it right. Those
+however, who are in opposition to any measure, if they perceive by the
+turn the debate takes, either that they are going against the general
+will, or that they are opposing the sentiments of members of high moral
+reputation in the society, give way. And so far do the Quakers carry
+their condescension on these occasions, that if a few ancient and
+respectable individuals seem to be dissatisfied with any measure that
+may have been proposed, though otherwise respectably supported, the
+measure is frequently postponed, out of tenderness to the feelings of
+such members, and from a desire of gaining them in time by forbearance.
+But, in whatever way the question before them is settled, no division is
+ever called for. No counting of numbers is allowed. No protest is
+suffered to be entered. In such a case there can be no ostensible leader
+of any party; no ostensible minority or majority. The Quakers are of
+opinion that such things, if allowed, would be inconsistent with their
+profession. They would lead also to broils and divisions, and ultimately
+to the detriment of the society. Every measure therefore is settled by
+the Quakers at this meeting in the way I have mentioned, in brotherly
+love, and as the name of the society signifies, as Friends.
+
+The other remarkable circumstance is, that there is no ostensible
+president or [30] head of this great assembly, nor any ostensible
+president or head of any one of its committees; and yet the business of
+the society is conducted in as orderly a manner, as it is possible to be
+among any body of men, where the number is so great, and where every
+individual has a right to speak.
+
+[Footnote 30: Christ is supposed by the Quakers to be the head, under
+whose guidance all their deliberations ought to take place.]
+
+The state of the society having, by this time been ascertained, both in
+the meetings of the women and of the men, from the written answers of
+the different deputies, and from the reports of different committees,
+and the [31]other business of the meeting having been nearly finished, a
+committee, which had been previously chosen, meet to draw up a public
+letter.
+
+[Footnote 31: This may relate to the printing of books, to testimonies
+concerning deceased ministers, addresses to the king, if thought
+necessary, and the like.]
+
+This letter usually comprehends three subjects: first, the state of the
+society, in which the sufferings for tithes and other demands of the
+church are included. This state, in all its different branches, the
+committee ascertain by inspecting the answers, as brought by the
+deputies before mentioned.
+
+A second subject, comprehended in the letter, is advice to the society
+for the regulation of their moral and civil conduct. This advice is
+suggested partly from the same written answers, and partly by the
+circumstances of the times. Are there, for instance, any vicious customs
+creeping into the society, or any new dispositions among its members
+contrary to the Quaker principles? The answers brought by the deputies
+shew it, and advice is contained in the letter adapted to the case. Are
+the times, seasons of difficulty and embarrassment in the commercial
+world? Is the aspect of the political horizon gloomy, and does it appear
+big with convulsions? New admonition and, advices follow.
+
+
+A third subject, comprehended in the letter, and which I believe since
+the year 1787 has frequently formed a standing article in it, is the
+slave-trade. The Quakers consider this trade as so extensively big with
+misery to their fellow creatures, that their members ought to have a
+deep and awful feeling, and a religious care and concern about it. This
+and occasionally other subjects having been duly weighed by the
+committee, they begin to compose the letter.
+
+When the letter is ready, it is brought into the public meeting, and the
+whole of it, without interruption, is first read audibly. It is then
+read over again, and canvassed, sentence by sentence. Every sentence,
+nay every word, is liable to alteration; for any one may make his
+remarks, and nothing can stand but by the sense of the meeting. When
+finally settled and approved, it is printed and dispersed among the
+members throughout the nation. This letter may be considered as
+informing the society of certain matters, that occurred in the preceding
+year, and as conveying to them admonitions on various subjects. This
+letter is emphatically stiled "the General Epistle." The yearly
+meeting, having now lasted about ten days, is dissolved after a solemn
+pause, and the different deputies are at liberty to return home.
+
+This important institution of the yearly meeting brings with it, on
+every return, its pains and pleasures. To persons of maturer years, who
+sit at this time on committee after committee, and have various offices
+to perform, it is certainly an aniversary of care and anxiety, fatigue
+and trouble. But it affords them, on the other hand, occasions of
+innocent delight. Some, educated in the same school, and others, united
+by the ties of blood and youthful friendship, but separated from one
+another by following in distant situations the various concerns of life,
+meet together in the intervals of the disciplinary business, and feel,
+in the warm recognition of their ancient intercourse, a pleasure, which
+might have been delayed for years, but for the intervention of this
+occasion. To the youth it affords an opportunity, amidst this concourse
+of members, of seeing those who are reputed to be of the most exemplary
+character in the society, and whom they would not have had the same
+chance of seeing at any other time. They are introduced also at this
+season to their relations and family friends. They visit about, and form
+new connections in the society, and are permitted the enjoyment of other
+reasonable pleasures.
+
+Such is the organization of the discipline or government of the
+Quakers. Nor may it improperly be called a government, when we consider
+that, besides all matters relating to the church, it takes cognizance of
+the actions of Quakers to Quakers, and of these to their
+fellow-citizens, and of these again to the state; in fact of all actions
+of Quakers, if immoral in the eye of the society, us soon at they we
+known. It gives out its prohibitions. It marks its crimes. It imposes
+offices on its subjects. It culls them to disciplinary duties.[32]This
+government however, notwithstanding its power, has, as I observed
+before, no president or head, either permanent or temporary. There is no
+first man through the whole society. Neither has it any badge of office,
+or mace, or constables staff or sword. It may be observed also, that it
+has no office of emolument, by which its hands can be strengthened,
+neither minister, elder, [33]clerk, overseer, nor deputy, being paid;
+and yet its administration is firmly conducted, and its laws better
+obeyed, than laws by persons, under any other denomination or
+government. The constant assemblage of the Quakers at their places of
+worship, and their unwearied attendances at the monthly and quarterly
+meetings, which they must often frequent at a great distance, to their
+own personal inconvenience, and to the hindrance of their worldly
+concerns, must be admitted, in part, as proofs of the last remark. But
+when we consider them as a distinct people, differing in their manner of
+speech and in their dress and customs from others, rebelling against
+fashion and the fashionable world, and likely therefore to become rather
+the objects of ridicule than of praise; when we consider these things,
+and their steady and rigid perseverance in the peculiar rules and
+customs of the society, we cannot but consider their obedience to their
+own discipline, which makes a point of the observance of these
+singularities, as extraordinary.
+
+[Footnote 32: The government or discipline is considered as a
+theocracy.]
+
+[Footnote 33: The clerk, who keeps the records of the society in London,
+is the only person who has a salary.]
+
+This singular obedience, however, to the laws of the society may be
+accounted for on three principles. In the first place in no society is
+there so much vigilance over the conduct of its members, as in that of
+the Quakers, as this history of their discipline must have already
+manifested. This vigilance of course, cannot miss of its effect. But a
+second cause is the following. The Quaker-laws and regulations are not
+made by any one person, nor by any number even of deputies. They are
+made by themselves, that is by the society in yearly meeting assembled.
+If a bad law, or the repeal of a good one, be proposed, every one
+present, without distinction, has a right to speak against the motion.
+The proposition cannot pass against the sense of the meeting. If persons
+are not present, it is their own fault. Thus it happens that every law,
+passed at the yearly meeting, may be considered, in some measure, as the
+law of every Quaker's own will, and people are much more likely to
+follow regulations made by their own consent, than those which are made
+against it. This therefore has unquestionably an operation as a second
+cause. A third may be traced in the peculiar sentiments, which the
+Quakers hold as a religious body. They believe that many of their
+members, when they deliver themselves publicly on any subject at the
+yearly meeting, are influenced by the dictates of the pure principle, or
+by the spirit of truth. Hence the laws of the society, which are
+considered to be the result of such influences, have with them the
+sanction of spiritual authority. They pay them therefore a greater
+deference on this account, than they would to laws, which they conceive
+to have been the production of the mere imagination, or will, of man.
+
+
+
+
+CHAP. V.
+
+_Disowning--foundation of the right of disowning--disowning no slight
+punishment--wherein the hardship or suffering consists_.
+
+
+I shall conclude the discipline of the Quakers by making a few remarks
+on the subject of disowning.
+
+The Quakers conceive they have a right to excommunicate or disown;
+because persons, entering into any society, have a right to make their
+own reasonable rules of membership, and so early as the year 1663, this
+practice had been adopted by George Fox, and those who were in religious
+union with him. Those, who are born in the society, are bound of course,
+to abide by these rules, while they continue to be the rules of the
+general will, or to leave it. Those who come into it by convincement,
+are bound to follow them, or not to sue for admission into membership.
+This right of disowning, which arises from the reasonableness of the
+thing, the Quakers consider to have been pointed out and established by
+the author of the christian religion, who determined that [34]if a
+disorderly person, after having received repeated admonitions, should still
+continue disorderly, he should be considered as an alien by the church.
+
+[Footnote 34: Matt. 18.v. 17.]
+
+The observations, which I shall make on the subject of disowning, will
+be wholly confined to it as it must operate as a source of suffering to
+those, who are sentenced to undergo it. People are apt to say, "where is
+the hardship of being disowned? a man, though disowned by the Quakers,
+may still go to their meetings for worship, or he may worship if he
+chooses, with other dissenters, or with those of the church of England,
+for the doors of all places of worship are open to those, who desire to
+enter them." I shall state therefore in what this hardship consists, and
+I should have done it sooner, but that I could never have made it so
+well understood as after an explanation had been given of the discipline
+of the Quakers, or as in the present place.
+
+There is no doubt that a person, who is disowned, will be differently
+affected by different considerations. Something will depend upon the
+circumstance, whether he considers himself as disowned for a moral or a
+political offence. Something, again, whether he has been in the habit of
+attending the meetings for discipline, and what estimation he may put
+upon these.
+
+But whether he has been regular or not in these attendances, it is
+certain that he has a power and a consequence, while he remains in his
+own society, which he loses when he leaves it, or when he becomes a
+member of the world. The reader will have already observed, that in no
+society is a man, if I may use the expression, so much of a man, as in
+that of the Quakers, or in no society is there such an equality of rank
+and privileges. A Quaker is called, as we have seen, to the exercise of
+important and honourable functions.
+
+He sits in his monthly meeting, as it were in council, with the rest of
+the members. He sees all equal but he sees none superior, to himself. He
+may give his advice on any question. He may propose new matter. He may
+argue and reply. In the quarterly meetings he is called to the exercise
+of the same privileges, but on a larger scale. And at the yearly meeting
+he may, if he pleases, unite in his own person the offices of council,
+judge, and legislator. But when he leaves the society, and goes out into
+the world, he has no such station or power. He sees there every body
+equal to himself in privileges, and thousands above him. It is in this
+loss of his former consequence that he must feel a punishment in having
+been disowned. For he can never be to his own feelings what he was
+before. It is almost impossible that he should not feel a diminution of
+his dignity and importance as a man.
+
+Neither can he restore himself to these privileges by going to a distant
+part of the kingdom and residing among quakers there, on a supposition
+that his disownment may be concealed. For a Quaker, going to a new abode
+among Quakers, must carry with him a certificate of his conduct from the
+last monthly meeting which he left, or he cannot be received as a
+member.
+
+But besides losing these privileges, which confer consequence upon him,
+he looses others of another kind. He cannot marry in the society. His
+affirmation will be no longer taken instead of his oath. If a poor man,
+he is no longer exempt from the militia, if drawn by submitting to three
+months imprisonment; nor is he entitled to that comfortable maintenance,
+in case of necessity, which the society provide for their own poor.
+
+To these considerations it may not perhaps be superfluous to add, that
+if he continues to mix with the members of his own society, he will
+occasionally find circumstances arising, which will remind him of his
+former state: and if he transfers his friendship to others, he will feel
+awkward and uneasy, and out of his element, till he has made his temper,
+his opinions, and his manners, harmonize with those of his new
+associates of the world.
+
+
+
+
+PECULIAR CUSTOMS OF THE QUAKERS.
+
+
+
+
+CHAP. I. SECT. I.
+
+_Dress--Quakers distinguished by their dress from others--great
+extravagance in dress in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries--this
+extravagance had reached the clergy--but religious individuals kept to
+their antient dresses--the dress which the men of this description wore
+in those days--dress of the women of this description also--George Fox
+and the Quakers springing out of these, carried their plain habits with
+them into their new society._
+
+
+I have now explained, in a very ample manner, the moral education and
+discipline of the Quakers. I shall proceed to the explanation of such
+customs, as seem peculiar to them as a society of christians.
+
+The dress of the Quakers is the first custom of this nature, that I
+purpose to notice. They stand distinguished be means of it from all
+other religious bodies The men wear neither lace, frills, ruffles,
+swords, nor any of the ornaments used by the fashionable world. The
+women wear neither lace, flounces, lappets, rings, bracelets, necklaces,
+ear-rings, nor any thing belonging to this class. Both sexes are also
+particular in the choice of the colour of their clothes. All gay colours
+such as red, blue, green, and yellow, are exploded. Dressing in this
+manner, a Quaker is known by his apparel through the whole kingdom. This
+is not the case with any other individuals of the island, except the
+clergy; and these, in consequence of the black garments worn by persons
+on account of the death of their relations, are not always distinguished
+from others.
+
+I know of no custom among the Quakers, which has more excited the
+curiosity of the world, than this of their dress, and none, in which
+they have been more mistaken in their conjectures concerning it.
+
+[35]In the early times of the English History, dress had been frequently
+restricted by the government.--Persons of a certain rank and fortune
+were permitted to wear only cloathing of a certain kind. But these
+restrictions and distinctions were gradually broken down, and people, as
+they were able and willing, launched out into unlimited extravagance in
+their dress. The fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, and down from thence
+to the time when the Quakers first appeared, were periods, particularly
+noticed for prodigality in the use of apparel, there was nothing too
+expensive or too preposterous to be worn. Our ancestors also, to use an
+ancient quotation, "were never constant to one colour or fashion two
+months to an end." We can have no idea by the present generation, of the
+folly in such respects, of these early ages. But these follies were not
+confined to the laiety. Affectation of parade, and gaudy cloathing, were
+admitted among many of the clergy, who incurred the severest invectives
+of the poets on that account. The ploughman, in Chaucer's Canterbury
+Tales, is full upon this point. He gives us the following description of
+a Priest
+
+   "That hye on horse wylleth to ride,
+   In glytter ande gold of great araye,
+   'I painted and pertred all in pryde,
+   No common Knyght may go so gaye;
+   Chaunge of clothyng every daye,
+   With golden gyrdles great and small,
+   As boysterous as is here at baye;
+   All suche falshed mote nede fell."
+
+[Footnote 35: See Strut's Antiquities.]
+
+To this he adds, that many of them had more than one or two mitres,
+embellished with pearls, like the head of a queen, and a staff of gold
+set with jewels, as heavy as lead. He then speaks of their appearing out
+of doors with broad bucklers and long swords, or with baldrics about
+their necks, instead of stoles, to which their basellards were attached.
+
+   "Bucklers brode and sweardes longe,
+   Baudryke with baselards kene."
+
+He then accuses them with wearing gay gowns of scarlet and green
+colours, ornamented with cut-work, and for the long pykes upon their
+shoes.
+
+But so late as the year 1652 we have the following anecdote of the
+whimsical dress of a clergyman. John Owen, Dean of Christ church, and
+Vice-Chancellor of Oxford, is represented an wearing a lawn-band, as
+having his hair powdered and his hat curiously cocked. He is described
+also as wearing Spanish leather-boots with lawn-tops, and snake-bone
+band-strings with large tassels, and a large set of ribbands pointed at
+his knees with points or tags at the end. And much about the same time,
+when Charles the second was at Newmarket, Nathaniel Vincent, doctor of
+divinity, fellow of Clare-hall, and chaplain in ordinary to his majesty,
+preached before him. But the king was so displeased with the foppery of
+this preacher's, dress, that he commanded the duke of Monmouth, then
+chancellor of the university, to cause the statutes concerning decency
+of apparel among the clergy to be put into execution, which was
+accordingly done. These instances are sufficient to shew, that the taste
+for preposterous and extravagant dress must have operated like a
+contagion in those times, or the clergy would scarcely have dressed
+themselves in this ridiculous and censurable manner.
+
+But although this extravagance was found among many orders of society at
+the time of the appearance of George Fox, yet many individuals had set
+their faces against the fashions of the world. These consisted
+principally of religious people of different denominations, most of whom
+were in the middle classes of life. Such persons were found in plain and
+simple habits notwithstanding the contagion of the example of their
+superiors in rank. The men of this description generally wore plain
+round hats with common crowns. They had discarded the sugar-loaf hat,
+and the hat turned up with a silver clasp on one side, as well as all
+ornaments belonging to it, such as pictures, feathers, and bands of
+various colours. They had adopted a plain suit of clothes. They wore
+cloaks, when necessary, over these. But both the clothes and the cloaks
+were of the same colour. The colour of each of them was either drab or
+grey. Other people who followed the fashions, wore white, red, green,
+yellow, violet, scarlet, and other colours, which were expensive,
+because they were principally dyed in foreign parts. The drab consisted
+of the white wool undyed, and the grey of the white wool mixed with the
+black, which was undyed also. These colours were then the colours of the
+clothes, because they were the least expensive, of the peasants of
+England, as they are now of those of Portugal and Spain. They had
+discarded also, all ornaments, such as of lace, or bunches of ribbands
+at the knees, and their buttons were generally of alchymy, as this
+composition was then termed, or of the same colour as their clothes.
+
+The grave and religious women also, like the men, had avoided the
+fashions of their times. These had adopted the cap, and the black hood
+for their headdress. The black hood had been long the distinguishing
+mark of a grave matron. All prostitutes, so early as Edward the third,
+had been forbidden to wear it. In after-times it was celebrated by the
+epithet of venerable by the poets, and had been introduced by painters
+as the representative of virtue. When fashionable women had discarded
+it, which was the case in George Fox's time, the more sober, on account
+of these ancient marks of its sanctity, had retained it, and it was then
+common among them. With respect to the hair of grave and sober women In
+those days, it was worn plain, and covered occasionally by a plain hat
+or bonnet. They had avoided by this choice those preposterous
+head-dresses and bonnets, which none but those, who have seen paintings
+of them, could believe ever to have been worn. They admitted none of the
+large ruffs, that were then in use, but chose the plain handkerchief for
+their necks, differing from those of others, which had rich point, and
+curious lace. They rejected the crimson sattin doublet with black velvet
+skirts, and contented themselves with a plain gown, generally of stuff,
+and of a drab, or grey, or buff, or buffin colour, as it was called, and
+faced with buckram. These colours, as I observed before, were the
+colours worn by country people; and were not expensive, because they
+were not dyed. To this gown was added a green apron. Green aprons had
+been long worn in England, yet, at the time I allude to, they were out
+of fashion, so as to be ridiculed by the gay. But old fashioned people
+still retained them. Thus an idea of gravity was connected with them;
+and therefore religious and steady women adopted them, as the grave and
+sober garments of ancient times.
+
+It may now be observed that from these religious persons, habited in
+this manner, in opposition to the fashions of the world, the primitive
+Quakers generally sprung. George Fox himself wore the plain grey coat
+that has been noticed, with alchymy buttons, and a plain leather girdle
+about his waist. When the Quakers therefore first met in religious
+union, they met in these simple clothes. They made no alteration in
+their dress on account of their new religion. They prescribed no form or
+colour as distinguishing marks of their sect, but they carried with them
+the plain habits of their ancestors into the new society, as the habits
+of the grave and sober people of their own times.
+
+
+SECT. II.
+
+_But though George Fox introduced no new dress into the society, he was
+not indifferent on the subject--he recommended simplicity and
+plainness--and declaimed against the fashions of the times--supported by
+Barclay and Penn--these explained the objects of dress--the influence of
+these explanations--dress at length incorporated into the
+discipline--but no standard fixed either of shape or colour--the
+objects of dress only recognized, and simplicity recommended--a new
+Era--great variety allowable by the discipline--Quakers have deviated
+less from the dress of their ancestors than other people._
+
+
+Though George Fox never introduced any new or particular garments, when
+he formed the society, as models worthy of the imitation of those who
+joined him, yet, as a religious man, he was not indifferent upon the
+subject of dress. Nor could he, as a reformer, see those extravagant
+fashions, which I have shewn to have existed in his time, without
+publicly noticing them. We find him accordingly recommending to his
+followers simplicity and plainness of apparel, and bearing his testimony
+against the preposterous and fluctuating apparel of the world.
+
+In the various papers, which he wrote or gave forth upon this subject,
+he bid it down as a position, that all ornaments, superfluities, and
+unreasonable changes in dress, manifested an earthly or worldly spirit.
+He laid it down again, that such things, being adopted principally for
+the lust of the eye, were productive of vanity and pride, and that, in
+proportion as men paid attention to these outward decorations and
+changes, they suffered some loss in the value and dignity of their
+minds. He considered also all such decorations and changes, as contrary
+both to the letter and the spirit of the scriptures. Isaiah, one of the
+greatest prophets under the law, had severely reproved the daughters of
+Israel on account of their tinkling ornaments, cauls, round tires,
+chains, bracelets, rings, and ear-rings. St. Paul also and St. Peter had
+both of them cautioned the women of their own times, to adorn themselves
+in modest apparel, and not with broidered hair, or gold, or pearls, or
+costly array. And the former had spoken to both sexes indiscriminately
+not to conform to the world, in which latter expression he evidently
+included all those customs of the world, of whatsoever nature, that were
+in any manner injurious to the morality of the minds of those who
+followed them.
+
+By the publication of these sentiments, George Fox shewed to the world,
+that it was his opinion, that religion, though it prescribed no
+particular form of apparel, was not indifferent as to the general
+subject of dress. These sentiments became the sentiments of his
+followers. But the society was coming fast into a new situation. When
+the members of it first met in union, they consisted of grown up
+persons; of such, as had had their minds spiritually exercised, and
+their judgments convinced in religious matters; of such in fact as had
+been Quakers in spirit, before they had become Quakers by name. All
+admonitions therefore on the subject of dress were unnecessary for such
+persons. But many of those, who had joined the society, had brought with
+them children into it, and from the marriages of others, children were
+daily springing up. To the latter, in a profligate age, where the
+fashions were still raging from without, and making an inroad upon the
+minds and morals of individuals, some cautions were necessary for the
+preservation of their innocence in such a storm. For these were the
+reverse of their parents. Young, in point of age, they were Quakers by
+name, before they could become Quakers in spirit. Robert Barclay
+therefore, and William Penn, kept alive the subject of dress, which
+George Fox had been the first to notice in the society. They followed
+him on his scriptural ground. They repeated the arguments, that
+extravagant dress manifested an earthly spirit, and that it was
+productive of vanity and pride. But they strengthened the case by adding
+arguments of their own. Among these I may notice, that they considered
+what were the objects of dress. They reduced these to two, to decency,
+and comfort, in which latter idea was included protection from the
+varied inclemencies of the weather. Every thing therefore beyond these
+they considered as superfluous. Of course all ornaments would become
+censurable, and all unreasonable changes indefensible, upon such a
+system.
+
+These discussions, however, on this subject never occasioned the more
+ancient Quakers to make any alteration in their dress, for they
+continued as when they had come into the society, to be a plain people.
+But they occasioned parents to be more vigilant over their children in
+this respect, and they taught the society to look upon dress, as a
+subject connected with the christian religion, in any case, where it
+could become injurious to the morality of the mind. In process of time
+therefore as the fashions continued to spread, and the youth of the
+society began to come under their dominion, the Quakers incorporated
+dress among other subjects of their discipline. Hence no member, after
+this period, could dress himself preposterously, or follow the fleeting
+fashions of the world, without coming under the authority of friendly
+and wholesome admonition. Hence an annual inquiry began to be made, if
+parents brought up their children to dress consistently with their
+christian profession. The society, however, recommended only simplicity
+and plainness to be attended to on this occasion. They prescribed no
+standard, no form, no colour, for the apparel of their members. They
+acknowledged the two great objects of decency and comfort, and left
+their members to clothe themselves consistently with these, as it was
+agreeable to their convenience or their disposition.
+
+A new æra commenced from this period. Persons already in the society,
+continued of course in their ancient dresses: if others had come into it
+by convincement, who had led gay lives, they laid aside their gaudy
+garments, and took those that were more plain. And the children of both,
+from this time, began to be habited from their youth as their parents
+were.
+
+But though the Quakers had thus brought apparel under the disciplinary
+cognizance of the society, yet the dress of individuals was not always
+alike, nor did it continue always one and the same even with the
+primitive Quakers. Nor has it continued one and the same with their
+descendants. For decency and comfort having been declared to be the true
+and only objects of dress, such a latitude was given, as to admit of
+great variety in apparel. Hence if we were to see a groupe of modern
+Quakers before us, we should probably not find any two of them dressed
+alike. Health, we all know, may require alteration in dress. Simplicity
+may suggest others. Convenience again may point out others; and yet all
+these various alterations may be consistent with the objects before
+specified. And here it may be observed that the society, during its
+existence for a century and a half, has without doubt, in some degree,
+imperceptibly followed the world, though not in its fashions, yet in its
+improvements of cloathing.
+
+It must be obvious again, that some people are of a grave, and that
+others are of a lively disposition, and that these will probably never
+dress alike. Other members again, but particularly the rich, have a
+larger intercourse than the rest of them, or mix more with the world.
+These again will probably dress a little differently from others, and
+yet, regarding the two great objects of dress, their cloathing may come
+within the limits which these allow. Indeed if there be any, whose
+apparel would be thought exceptionable by the society, these would be
+found among the rich. Money, in all societies, generally takes the
+liberty of introducing exceptions. Nothing, however is more true, than
+that, even among the richest of the Quakers, there is frequently as much
+plainness and simplicity in their outward dress, as among the poor; and
+where the exceptions exist, they are seldom carried to an extravagant,
+and never to a preposterous extent.
+
+From this account it will be seen, that the ideas of the world are
+erroneous on the subject of the dress of the Quakers; for it has always
+been imagined, that, when the early Quakers first met in religious
+union, they met to deliberate and fix upon some standard, which should
+operate as a political institution, by which the members should be
+distinguished by their apparel from the rest of the world. The whole
+history, however, of the shape and colour of the garments of the Quakers
+is, as has been related, namely, that the primitive Quakers dressed like
+the sober, steady, and religious people of the age, in which the society
+sprung up, and that their descendants have departed less in a course of
+time, than others, from the dress of their ancestors. The mens hats are
+nearly the same now, except that they have stays and loops, and many of
+their clothes are nearly of the same shape and colour, as in the days of
+George Fox. The dress of the women also is nearly similar. The black
+hoods indeed have gone, in a certain degree, out of use. But many of
+such women, as are ministers and elders, and indeed many others of age
+and gravity of manners, still retain them. The green apron also has been
+nearly, if not wholly laid aside. There was here and there an ancient
+woman, who used it within the last ten years, but I am told that the
+last of these died lately. No other reasons can be given, than those
+which have been assigned, why Quaker-women should have been found in the
+use of a colour, which is so unlike any other which they now use in
+their dress. Upon the whole, if the females were still to retain the use
+of the black hood and the green apron, and the men were to discard the
+stays and loops for their hats, we should find that persons of both
+sexes in the society, but particularly such as are antiquated, or as may
+be deemed old fashioned in it, would approach very near to the first or
+primitive Quakers in their appearance, both as to the sort and to the
+shape, and to the colour of their clothes. Thus has George Fox, by means
+of the advice he gave upon this subject, and the general discipline
+which he introduced into the society, kept up for a hundred and fifty
+years, against the powerful attacks of the varying fashions of the
+world, one steady, and uniform, external appearance among his
+descendants; an event, which neither the clergy by means of their
+sermons, nor other writers, whether grave or gay, were able to
+accomplish during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, and which none
+of their successors have been able to accomplish from that time to the
+present.
+
+
+SECT III.
+
+_The world usually make objections to the Quaker-dress--the charge is
+that there is a preciseness in it which is equivalent to the worshipping
+of forms--the truth of this charge not to be ascertained but by a
+knowledge of the heart--but outward facts mate against it-such as the
+origin of the Quaker-dress--and the Quaker-doctrine on dress--doctrine
+of christianity on this subject--opinion of the early christians upon
+it--reputed advantages of the Quaker-dress._
+
+
+I should have been glad to have dismissed the subject of the
+Quaker-dress in the last section, but so many objections are usually
+made against it, that I thought it right to stop for a while to consider
+them in the present place. Indeed, if I were to choose a subject, upon
+which the world had been more than ordinarily severe on the Quakers, I
+should select that of their dress. Almost every body has something to
+say upon this point. And as in almost all cases, where arguments are
+numerous, many of them are generally frivolous, so it has happened in
+this also. There is one, however, which it is impossible not to notice
+upon this subject.
+
+The Quakers, it is confessed by their adversaries, are not chargeable
+with the same sort of pride and vanity, which attach to the characters
+of other people, who dress in a gay manner, and who follow the fashions
+of the world, but it is contended, on the other hand, that they are
+justly chargeable with a preciseness, that is disgusting, in the little
+particularities of their cloathing. This precise attention to
+particularities is considered as little better than the worshipping of
+lifeless forms, and is usually called by the world the idolatry of the
+Quaker-dress.
+
+This charge, if it were true, would be serious indeed. It would be
+serious, because it would take away from the religion of the Quakers one
+of its greatest and best characters. For how could any people be
+spiritually minded, who were the worshippers of lifeless forms? It would
+be serious again, because it would shew their religion, like the box of
+Pandora, to be pregnant with evils within itself. For people, who place
+religion in particular forms, must unavoidably become superstitious. It
+would be serious again, because if parents were to carry such notions
+into their families, they would produce mischief. The young would be
+dissatisfied, if forced to cultivate particularities, for which they see
+no just or substantial reason. Dissentions would arise among them. Their
+morality too would be confounded, if they were to see these minutiae
+idolized at home, but disregarded by persons of known religious
+character in the world. Add to which, that they might adopt erroneous
+notions of religion. For they might be induced to lay too much stress
+upon the payment of the anise and cummin, and too little upon the
+observance of the weightier matters of the law.
+
+As the charge therefore is unquestionably a serious one, I shall not
+allow it to pass without some comments. And in the first place it maybe
+observed that, whether this preciseness, which has been imputed to some
+Quakers, amounts to an idolizing of forms, can never be positively
+determined, except we had the power of looking into the hearts of those,
+who have incurred the charge. We may form, however, a reasonable
+conjecture, whether it does or not by presumptive evidence, taken from
+incontrovertible outward facts.
+
+The first outward fact that presents itself to us, is the fact of the
+origin of the Quaker-dress, if the early Quakers, when they met in
+religious union, had met to deliberate and fix upon a form or standard
+of apparel for the society, in vain could any person have expected to
+repel this charge. But no such standard was ever fixed. The dress of the
+Quakers has descended from father to son in the way that has been
+described. There is reason therefore to suppose, that the Quakers as a
+religious body, have deviated less than others front the primitive
+habits of their ancestors, rather from a fear of the effects of
+unreasonable changes of dress upon the mind, than from an attachment to
+lifeless forms.
+
+The second outward fact, which may be resorted to as furnishing a ground
+for reasonable conjecture, is the doctrine of the Quakers upon this
+subject. The Quakers profess to follow christianity in all cases, where
+its doctrines can be clearly ascertained. I shall state therefore what
+christianity says upon this point. I shall shew that what Quakerism says
+is in unison with it. And I shall explain more at large the principle,
+that has given birth to the discipline of the Quakers relative to their
+dress.
+
+Had christianity approved of the make or colour of any particular
+garment, it would have approved of those of its founder and of his
+apostles. We do not, however, know, what any of these illustrious
+personages wore. They were probably dressed in the habits of Judean
+peasants, and not with any marked difference from those of the same rank
+in life. And that they were dressed plainly, we have every reason to
+believe, from the censures, which some of them passed on the
+superfluities of apparel. But christianity has no where recorded these
+habits as a pattern, nor has it prescribed to any man any form or colour
+for his clothes.
+
+But christianity, though it no where places religion in particular
+forms, is yet not indifferent on the general subject of dress. For in
+the first place it discards all ornaments, as appears by the testimonies
+of St. Paul and St. Peter before quoted, and this it does evidently on
+the ground of morality, lest these, by puffing up the creature, should
+be made to give birth to the censurable passions of vanity and lust. In
+the second place it forbids all unreasonable changes on the plea of
+conformity with the fashions of the world: and it sets its face against
+these also upon moral grounds; because the following of the fashions of
+the world begets a worldly spirit, and because, in proportion as men
+indulge this spirit, they are found to follow the loose and changeable
+morality of the world, instead of the strict and steady morality of the
+gospel.
+
+That the early christians understood these to be the doctrines of
+christianity, there can be no doubt. The Presbyters and the Asceticks,
+I believe, changed the Palluim for the Toga in the infancy of the
+christian world; but all other christians were left undistinguished by
+their dress. These were generally clad in the sober manner of their own
+times. They observed a medium between costliness and sordidness. That
+they had no particular form for their dress beyond that of other grave
+people, we team from Justin Martyr. "They affected nothing fantastic,
+says he, but, living among Greeks and barbarians, they followed the
+customs of the country, and in clothes, and in diet, and in all other
+affairs of outward life, they shewed the excellent and admirable
+constitution of their discipline and conversation." That they discarded
+superfluities and ornaments we may collect from various authors of those
+times. Basil reduced the objects of cloathing to two, namely, "Honesty
+and necessity," that is, to decency and protection. Tertullian laid it
+down as a doctrine that a Christian should not only be chaste, but that
+he should appear so outwardly. "The garments which we should wear, says
+Clemens of Alexandria, should be modest and frugal, and not wrought of
+divers colours, but plain." Crysastum commends Olympias, a lady of birth
+and fortune, for having in her garment nothing that was wrought or
+gaudy. Jerome praises Paula, another lady of quality, for the same
+reason. We find also that an unreasonable change of cloathing, or a
+change to please the eye of the world, was held improper. Cyril says,
+"we should not strive for variety, having clothes for home, and others
+for ostentation abroad." In short the ancient fathers frequently
+complained of the abuse of apparel in the ways described.
+
+Exactly in the same manner, and in no other, have the Quakers considered
+the doctrines of Christianity on the subject of dress. They have never
+adopted any particular model either as to form or colour for their
+clothes. They have regarded the two objects of decency and comfort. But
+they have allowed of various deviations consistently with these. They
+have in fact fluctuated in their dress. The English Quaker wore formerly
+a round hat. He wears it now with stays and loops. But even this fashion
+is not universal, and seems rather now on the decline. The American
+Quaker, on the other hand, has generally kept to the round hat. Black
+hoods were uniformly worn by the Quaker-women, but the use of these is
+much less than it was, and is still decreasing. The Green aprons also
+were worn by the females, but they are now wholly out of use. But these
+changes could never have taken place, had there been any fixed standard
+for the Quaker dress.
+
+But though the Quakers have no particular model for their clothing, yet
+they are not indifferent to dress where it may be morally injurious.
+They have discarded all superfluities and ornaments, because they may
+be hurtful to the mind. They have set their faces also against all
+unreasonable changes of forms for the same reasons. They have allowed
+other reasons to weigh with them in the latter case. They have received
+from, their ancestors a plain suit of apparel, which has in some little
+degree followed the improvements of the world, and they see no good
+reason why they should change it; at least they see in the fashions of
+the world none but a censurable reason for a change. And here it may be
+observed, that it is not an attachment to forms, but an unreasonable
+change or deviation from them, that the Quakers regard. Upon the latter
+idea it is, that their discipline is in a great measure founded, or, in
+other words, the Quakers, as a religious body, think it right to watch
+in their youth any unreasonable deviation from the plain apparel of the
+society.
+
+This they do first, because any change beyond usefulness must be made
+upon the plea of conformity to the fashions of the world.
+
+Secondly, because any such deviation in their youth is considered to
+shew, in some measure, a deviation from simplicity of heart. It bespeaks
+the beginning of an unstable mind. It shews there must have been some
+improper motive for the change. Hence it argues a weakness in the
+deviating persons, and points them out as objects to be strengthened by
+wholesome admonition.
+
+Thirdly, because changes, made without reasonable motives, would lead,
+if not watched and checked, to other still greater changes, and because
+an uninterrupted succession of such changes would bring the minds of
+their youth under the most imperious despotisms, the despotism of
+fashion; in consequence of which they would cleave to the morality of
+the world instead of the morality of the gospel.
+
+And fourthly, because in proportion as young persons deviate from the
+plainness and simplicity of the apparel as worn by the society, they
+approach in appearance to the world; they mix with it, and imbibe its
+spirit and admit its customs, and come into a situation which subjects
+them to be disowned. And this is so generally true, that of those
+persons, whom the society has been obliged to disown, the commencement
+of a long progress in irregularity may often be traced to a deviation
+from the simplicity of their dress. And here it may be observed, that an
+effect has been produced by this care concerning dress, so beneficial to
+the moral interests of the society, that they have found in it a new
+reason for new vigilance on this subject. The effect produced is a
+general similarity of outward appearance, in all the members, though
+there is a difference both in the form and colour of their clothing;
+and this general appearance is such, as to make a Quaker still known to
+the world. The dress therefore of the Quakers, by distinguishing the
+members of the society, and making them known as such to the world,
+makes the world overseers as it were of their moral conduct. And that it
+operates in this way, or that it becomes a partial check in favour of
+morality, there can be no question. For a Quaker could not be seen
+either at public races, or at cock fightings, or at assemblies, or in
+public houses, but the fact would be noticed as singular, and probably
+soon known among his friends. His clothes would betray him. Neither
+could be, if at a great distance from home, and if quite out of the eye
+and observation of persons of the same religious persuasion, do what
+many others do. For a Quaker knows, that many of the customs of the
+society are known to the world at large, and that a certain conduct is
+expected from a person in a Quakers habit. The fear therefore of being
+detected, and at any rate of bringing infamy on his cloth, if I may use
+the expression, would operate so as to keep him out of many of the
+vicious customs of the world.
+
+From hence it will be obvious that there cannot be any solid foundation
+for the charge, which has been made against the Quakers on the subject
+of dress. They are found in their present dress, not on the principle
+of an attachment to any particular form, or because any one form is more
+sacred than another, but on the principle, that an unreasonable
+deviation from any simple and useful clothing is both censurable and
+hurtful, if made in conformity with the fashions of the world. These two
+principles, though they may produce, if acted upon, a similar outward
+appearance in persons, are yet widely distinct as to their foundation,
+from one another. The former is the principle of idolatry. The latter
+that of religion. If therefore there are persons in the society, who
+adopt the former, they will come within the reach of the charge
+described. But the latter only can be adopted by true Quakers.
+
+
+
+
+CHAP. II.
+
+_Quakers are in the use of plain furniture--this usage founded on
+principles, similar to those on dress--this usage general--Quakers have
+seldom paintings, prints, or portraits in their houses, as, articles of
+furniture--reasons for their disuse of such articles._
+
+
+As the Quakers are found in the use of garments, differing from those
+of others in their shape and fashion, and in the graveness of their
+colour, and in the general plainness of their appearance, so they are
+found in the use of plain and frugal furniture in their houses.
+
+The custom of using plain furniture has not arisen from the
+circumstance, that any particular persons in the society, estimable for
+their lives and characters, have set the example in their families, but
+from the, principles of the Quaker-constitution itself. It has arisen
+from principles similar to those, which dictated the continuance of the
+ancient Quaker-dress. The choice of furniture, like the choice of
+clothes, is left to be adjudged by the rules of decency and usefulness,
+but never by the suggestions of shew. The adoption of taste, instead of
+utility, in this case, would be considered as a conscious conformity
+with the fashions of the world. Splendid furniture also would be
+considered as pernicious as splendid clothes. It would be classed with
+external ornaments, and would be reckoned equally productive of pride,
+with these. The custom therefore of plainness in the articles of
+domestic use is pressed upon all Quakers: and that the subject may not
+be forgotten, it is incorporated in their religious discipline; in
+consequence of which, it is held forth to their notice, in a public
+manner, in all the monthly and quarterly meetings of the kingdom, and in
+all the preparative meetings, at least once in the year.
+
+It may be admitted as a truth, that the society practice, with few
+exceptions, what is considered to be the proper usage on such occasions.
+The poor, we know, cannot use any but homely-furniture. The middle
+clashes are universally in such habits. As to the rich, there is a
+difference in the practice of these. Some, and indeed many of them, use
+as plain and frugal furniture, as those in moderate circumstances.
+Others again step beyond the practice of the middle classes, and buy
+what is more costly, not with a view of shew, so much as to accommodate
+their furniture to the size and goodness of their houses. In the houses
+of others again, who have more than ordinary intercourse with the world,
+we now and then see what is elegant, but seldom what would be considered
+to be extravagant furniture. We see no chairs with satin bottoms and
+gilded frames, no magnificent pier-glasses, no superb chandeliers, no
+curtains with extravagant trimmings. At least, in all my intercourse
+with the Quakers, I have never observed such things. If there are
+persons in the society, who use them, they must be few in number, and
+these must be conscious that, by the introduction of such finery[36]
+into their houses, they are going against the advices annually given
+them in their meetings on this subject, and that they are therefore
+violating the written law, as well as departing from the spirit of
+Quakerism.
+
+[Footnote 36: Turkey carpets are in use, though generally gaudy, on
+account of their wearing better than others.]
+
+But if these or similar principles are adopted by the society on this
+subject, it must be obvious, that in walking through the rooms of the
+Quakers, we shall look in vain for some articles that are classed among
+the furniture of other people. We shall often be disappointed, for
+instance, if we expect to find either paintings or prints in frame. I
+seldom remember to have seen above three or four articles of this
+description in all my intercourse with the Quakers. Some families had
+one of these, others a second, and others a third, but none had them
+all. And in many families neither the one nor the other was to be seen.
+
+One of the prints, to which I allude, contained a representation of the
+conclusion of the famous treaty between William Penn and the Indians of
+America. This transaction every body knows, afforded, in all its
+circumstances, a proof to the world, of the singular honour and
+uprightness of those ancestors of the Quakers who were concerned in it.
+The Indians too entertained an opinion no less favourable of their
+character, for they handed down the memory of the event under such
+[37]impressive circumstances, that their descendants have a particular
+love for the character, and a particular reliance on the word, of a
+Quaker at the present day. The print alluded to was therefore probably
+hung up as the pleasing record of a transaction, so highly honourable to
+the principles of the society; where knowledge took no advantage of
+ignorance, but where she associated herself with justice, that she might
+preserve the balance equal. "This is the only treaty," says a celebrated
+writer, "between the Indians and the Christians, that was never ratified
+by an oath, and was never broken."
+
+[Footnote 37: The Indians denominated Penn, brother Onas, which means
+in their language a pen, and respect the Quakers as his descendants.]
+
+The second was a print of a slave-ship, published a few years ago, when
+the circumstances of the slave-trade became a subject of national
+inquiry. In this the oppressed Africans are represented, as stowed in
+different parts according to the number transported and to the scale of
+the dimensions of the vessel. This subject could not be indifferent to
+those, who had exerted themselves as a body for the annihilation of this
+inhuman traffic. The print, however, was not hung up by the Quakers,
+either as a monument of what they had done themselves, or as a stimulus
+to farther exertion on the same subject, but, I believe, from the pure
+motive of exciting benevolence; of exciting the attention of those, who
+should come into their houses, to the case of the injured Africans, and
+of procuring sympathy in their favour.
+
+The third contained a plan of the building of Ackworth-school. This was
+hung up as a descriptive view of a public seminary, instituted and kept
+up by the subscription and care of the society at large.
+
+But though all the prints, that have been mentioned, were hung up in
+frames on the motives severally assigned to them, no others were to be
+seen as their companions. It is in short not the practice[38] of the
+society to decorate their houses in this manner.
+
+[Footnote 38: There are still individual exceptions. Some Quakers have
+come accidentally into possession of printings and engravings in frame,
+which, being innocent in their subject and their lesson, they would have
+thought it superstitious to discard.]
+
+Prints in frames, if hung up promiscuously in a room, would be
+considered as ornamental furniture, or as furniture for shew. They would
+therefore come under the denomination of superfluities; and the
+admission of such, in the way that other people admit them would be
+considered as an adoption of the empty customs or fashions of the world.
+
+But though the Quakers are not in the practice of hanging up prints in
+frames, yet there are amateurs among them, who have a number and variety
+of prints in their possession. But these appear chiefly in collections,
+bound together in books, or preserved in book covers, and not in frames
+as ornamental furniture for their rooms. These amateurs, however, are
+but few in number. The Quakers have in general only a plain and useful
+education. They are not brought up to admire such things, and they have
+therefore in general but little taste for the fine and masterly
+productions of the painters' art.
+
+Neither would a person, in going through the houses of the Quakers, find
+any portraits either of themselves, or of any of their families, or
+ancestors, except, to the latter case, they had been taken before they
+became Quakers. The first Quakers never had their portraits taken with
+their own knowledge and consent. Considering themselves as poor and
+helpless creatures, and little better than dust and ashes, they had but
+a mean idea of their own images. They were of opinion also, that pride
+and self-conceit would be likely to arise to men from the view, and
+ostentatious parade, of their own persons. They considered also, that it
+became them, as the founders of the society, to bear their testimony
+against the vain and superfluous fashions of the world. They believed
+also, if there were those whom they loved, that the best method of
+shewing their regard to these would be not by having their fleshly
+images before their eyes, but by preserving their best actions in their
+thoughts, as worthy of imitation; and that their own memory, in the same
+manner, should be perpetuated rather in the loving hearts, and kept
+alive in the edifying conversation of their descendants, than in the
+perishing tablets of canvas, fixed upon the walls of their habitations.
+Hence no portraits are to be seen of many of those great and eminent men
+in the society, who are now mingled with the dust.
+
+These ideas, which thus actuated the first Quakers on this subject, are
+those of the Quakers as a body at the present day. There may be here and
+there an individual, who has had a portrait of some of his family taken.
+But such instances may be considered as rare exceptions from the general
+rule. In no society is it possible to establish maxims, which shall
+influence an universal practice.
+
+
+
+
+CHAP. III.....SECT. I.
+
+_Language--Quakers differ in their language from others--the first
+alteration made by George Fox of thou for you--this change had been
+suggested by Erasmus and Luther--sufferings of the Quakers in
+consequence of adapting this change--a work published in their
+defence--this presented to King Charles and others--other works on the
+subject by Barclay and Penn--in these the word thou shewn to be proper
+in all languages--you to be a mark of flattery--the latter idea
+corroborated by Harwell, Maresius, Godeau, Erasmus._
+
+
+As the Quakers are distinguishable from their fellow-citizens by their
+dress, as was amply shewn in a former chapter, so they are no less
+distinguishable from them by the peculiarities of their language.
+
+George Fox seemed to look at every custom with the eye of a reformer.
+The language of the country, as used in his own times, struck him as
+having many censurable defects. Many of the expressions, then in use,
+appeared to him to contain gross flattery, others to be idolatrous,
+others to be false representatives of the ideas they were intended to
+convey. Now he considered that christianity required truth, and he
+believed therefore that he and his followers, who professed to be
+christians in word and deed, and to follow the christian pattern in all
+things, as far as it could be found, were called upon to depart from all
+the censurable modes of speech, as much as they were from any of the
+customs of the world, which Christianity had deemed objectionable. And
+so weightily did these improprieties in his own language lie upon his
+mind, that he conceived himself to have had an especial commission to
+correct them.
+
+The first alteration, which he adopted, was in the use of the pronoun
+thou. The pronoun you, which grammarians had fixed to be of the plural
+number, was then occasionally used, but less than it is now, in
+addressing an individual. George Fox therefore adopted thou in its place
+on this occasion, leaving the word you to be used only where two or more
+individuals were addressed.
+
+George Fox however was not the first of the religious writers, who had
+noticed the improper use of the pronoun you. Erasmus employed a treatise
+in shewing the propriety of thou when addressed to a single person, and
+in ridiculing the use of you on the same occasion. Martin Luther also
+took great pains to expunge the word you from the station which it
+occupied, and to put thou in its place. In his Ludus, he ridicules the
+use of the former by the, following invented sentence, "Magister,
+Vosestis iratus?" This is as absurd, as if he had said in English
+"gentlemen art thou angry"?
+
+But though George Fox was not the first to recommend the substitution of
+thou for you, he was the first to reduce this amended use of it to
+practice. This he did in his own person, wherever he went, and in all
+the works which he published. All his followers did the same. And, from
+his time to the present, the pronoun thou has come down so prominent in
+the speech of the society, that a Quaker is generally known by it at the
+present day.
+
+The reader would hardly believe, if historical facts did not prove it,
+how much noise the introduction or rather the amended use of this little
+particle, as reduced to practice by George Fox, made in the world, and
+how much ill usage it occasioned the early Quakers. Many magistrates,
+before whom they were carried in the early times of their institution
+occasioned their sufferings to be greater merely on this account. They
+were often abused and beaten by others, and sometimes put in danger of
+their lives. It was a common question put to a Quaker in those days,
+who addressed a great man in this new and simple manner, "why you ill
+bred clown do you thou me?" The rich and mighty of those times thought
+themselves degraded by this mode of address, as reducing them from a
+plural magnitude to a singular, or individual, or simple station in
+life. "The use of thou, says George Fox, was a sore cut to proud flesh,
+and those who sought self-honour."
+
+George Fox, finding that both he and his followers were thus subject to
+much persecution on this account, thought it right the world should
+know, that, in using this little particle which had given so much
+offence, the Quakers were only doing what every grammarian ought to do,
+if he followed his own rules. Accordingly a Quaker-work was produced,
+which was written to shew that in all languages thou was the proper and
+usual form of speech to a single person, and you to more than one. This
+was exemplified by instances, taken out of the scriptures, and out of
+books of teaching in about thirty languages. Two Quakers of the names of
+John Stubbs and Benjamin Furley, took great pains in compiling it: and
+some additions were made to it by George Fox himself, who was then a
+prisoner in Lancaster castle.
+
+This work, as soon as it was published, was presented to King Charles
+the second, and to his council. Copies of it were also sent to the
+Archbishop of Canterbury, the Bishop of London, and to each of the
+universities. The King delivered his sentiments upon it so far as to
+say, that thou was undoubtedly the proper language of all nations. The
+Archbishop of Canterbury, when he was asked what he thought of it, is
+described to have been so much at a stand, that he could not tell what
+to say. The book was afterwards bought by many. It is said to have
+spread conviction, wherever it went. Hence it had the effect of
+lessening the prejudices of some, so that the Quakers were never
+afterwards treated, on this account, in the same rugged manner as they
+had been before.
+
+But though this book procured the Quakers an amelioration of treatment
+on the amended use of the expression thou, there were individuals in the
+society, who thought they ought to put their defence on a better
+foundation, by stating all the reasons, for there were many besides
+those in this book, which had induced them to differ from their fellow
+citizens on this subject. This was done both by Robert Barclay and
+William Penn in works, which defended other principles of the Quakers,
+and other peculiarities in their language.
+
+One of the arguments, by which the use of the pronoun thou was defended,
+was the same as that, on which it had been defended by Stubbs and
+Furley, that is, its strict conformity with grammar. The translators of
+the Bible had invariably used it. The liturgy had been compiled on the
+same principle. All addresses made by English Christians in their
+private prayers to the Supreme Being, were made in the language of thou,
+and not of you. And this was done, because the rules of the English
+grammar warranted the expression, and because any other mode of
+expression would have been a violation of these rules.
+
+But the great argument (to omit all others) which Penn and Barclay
+insisted upon for the change of you, was that the pronoun thou, in
+addressing an individual, had been anciently in use, but that it had
+been deserted for you for no other purpose, than that of flattery to
+men; and that this dereliction of it was growing greater and greater,
+upon the same principle, in their own times. Hence as christians, who
+were not to puff up the fleshly creature, it became them to return to
+the ancient and grammatical use of the pronoun thou, and to reject this
+growing fashion of the world. "The word you, says William Penn, was
+first ascribed in the way of flattery, to proud Popes and Emperors,
+imitating the heathens vain homage to their gods, thereby ascribing a
+plural honour to a single person; as if one Pope had been made up of
+many gods, and one Emperor of many men; for which reason you, only to be
+addressed to many, became first spoken to one. It seemed the word thou
+looked like too lean and thin a respect; and therefore some, bigger than
+they should be, would have a style suitable to their own ambition."
+
+It will be difficult for those, who now use the word you constantly to a
+single person, and who, in such use of it, never attach any idea of
+flattery to it, to conceive how it ever could have had the origin
+ascribed to it, or, what is more extraordinary, how men could believe
+themselves to be exalted, when others applied to them the word you
+instead of thou. But history affords abundant evidence of the fact.
+
+It is well known that Caligula ordered himself to be worshipped as a
+god. Domitian, after him, gave similar orders with respect to himself.
+In process of time the very statues of the emperors began to be
+worshipped. One blasphemous innovation prepared the way for another. The
+title of Pontifex Maximus gave way at length for those of Eternity,
+Divinity, and the like. Coeval with these appellations was the change of
+the word thou for you, and upon the same principles. These changes,
+however, were not so disagreeable, as they might be expected to have
+been, to the proud Romans; for while they gratified the pride of their
+emperors by these appellations, they made their despotism, in their own
+conceit, more tolerable to themselves. That one man should be lord ever
+many thousand Romans, who were the masters of the world was in itself a
+degrading thought. But they consoled themselves by the haughty
+consideration, that they were yielding obedience, not to man, but to an
+incarnate demon or good genius, or especial envoy from heaven. They
+considered also the emperor as an office, and as an office, including
+and representing many other offices, and hence considering him as a man
+in the plural number, they had less objection to address him in a plural
+manner.
+
+The Quakers, in behalf of their assertions on this subject, quote the
+opinions of several learned men, and of those in particular, who, from
+the nature of their respective writings, had occasion to look into the
+origin and construction of the words and expressions of language.
+
+Howell, in his epistle to the nobility of England before his French and
+English Dictionary, takes notice, "that both in France, and in other
+nations, the word thou was used in speaking of one, but by succession of
+time, when the Roman commonwealth grew into an empire, the courtiers
+began to magnify the emperor, as being furnished with power to confer
+dignities and offices, using the word you, yea, and deifying him with
+more remarkable titles, concerning which matter we read in the epistles
+of Symmachus to the emperors Theodosius and Valentinian, where he useth
+these forms of speaking, Vestra Æternitas, vestrum numen, vestra
+serenitas, vestra Clementia, that is, your, and not thy eternity,
+godhead, serenity, clemency. So that the word you in the plural number,
+together with the other titles and compellations of honour, seem to have
+taken their rise from despotic government, which afterwards, by degrees,
+came to be derived to private persons." He says also in his History of
+France, that "in ancient times, the peasants addressed their kings by
+the appellation of thou, but that pride and flattery first put inferiors
+upon paying a plural respect to the single person of every superior, and
+superiors upon receiving it."
+
+John Maresius, of the French Academy, in the preface to his Clovis,
+speaks much to the same effect. "Let none wonder, says he, that the word
+thou is used in this work to princes and princesses, for we use the same
+to God, and of old the same was used to Alexanders, Caesars, queens, and
+empresses. The use of the word you, when only base flatteries of men of
+later ages, to whom it seemed good to use the plural number to one
+person, that he may imagine himself alone to be equal to many others in
+dignity and worth, from whence it came at last to persons of lower
+quality."
+
+Godeau, in his preface to the translation of the New Testament, makes an
+apology for differing from the customs of the times in the use of thou,
+and intimates that you was substituted for it, as a word of superior
+respect. "I had rather, says he, faithfully keep to the express words of
+Paul, than exactly follow the polished style of our tongue. Therefore I
+always use that form of calling God in the singular number not in the
+plural, and therefore I say rather thou than you. I confess indeed, that
+the civility and custom of this word, requires him to be honored after
+that manner. But it is likewise on the contrary true, that the original
+tongue of the New Testament hath nothing common with such manners and
+civility, so that not one of these many old versions we have doth
+observe it. Let not men believe, that we give not respect enough to God,
+in that we call him by the word thou, which is nevertheless far
+otherwise. For I seem to myself (may be by the effect of custom) more to
+honor his divine majesty, in calling him after this manner, than if I
+should call him after the manner of men, who are so delicate in their
+forms of speech."
+
+Erasmus also in the treatise, which he wrote on the impropriety of
+substituting you for thou, when a person addresses an individual, states
+that this strange substitution originated wholly in the flattery of men.
+
+
+SECT. II.
+
+_Other alterations in the language of the Quakers--they address one
+another by the title of friends--and others by the title of friends and
+neigbours, or by their common names--the use of sir and madam
+abolished--also of master or mister--and of humble servant--also of
+titles of honor--reasons of this abolition--example of Jesus Christ._
+
+
+Another alteration, that took place in the language of the Quakers, was
+the expunging of all expressions from their vocabulary, which were
+either superfluous, or of the same flattering tendency as the former.
+
+In addressing one another, either personally or by letter, they made use
+of the word friend, to signify the bond of their own union, and the
+character, which man, under the christian dispensation, was bound to
+exhibit in his dealings with his fellow-man. They addressed each other
+also, and spoke of each other, by their real names. If a man's name was
+John, they called him John; they talked to him as John, and added only
+his sir-name to distinguish him from others.
+
+In their intercourse with the world they adopted the same mode of
+speech: for they addressed individuals either by their plain names, or
+they made use of the appellations of friends or neighbours.
+
+They rejected the words sir or madam, as then in use. This they did,
+because they considered them like the word you, as remnants of ancient
+flattery, derived from the papal and anti-christian ages; and because
+these words still continued to be considered as tides of flattery, that
+puffed up people in their own times. Howell, who was before quoted on
+the pronoun thou, is usually quoted by the Quakers on this occasion
+also. He states in his history, that "sir and madam were originally
+names given to none, but the king, his brother, and their wives, both in
+France and England. Yet now the ploughman in France is called sir and
+his wife madam; and men of ordinary trades in England sir, and their
+wives dame, which is the legal title of a lady, and is the same as madam
+in French. So prevalent hath pride and flattery been in all ages, the
+one to give, and the other to receive respect"
+
+The Quakers banished also the word master, or mister as it is now
+pronounced, from their language, either when they spoke concerning any
+one, or addressed any one by letter. To have used the word master to a
+person, who was no master over them, would have been, they considered,
+to have indicated a needless servility, and to have given a false
+picture of their own situation, as well as of those addressed.
+
+Upon the same or similar principles they hesitated to subscribe
+themselves as the humble or obedient servants of any one, as is now
+usual, at the bottom of their letters. "Horrid apostacy, says Barclay,
+for it is notorious that the use of these compliments implies not any
+design of service." This expression in particular they reprobated for
+another reason. It was one of those, which had followed the last degree
+of impious services and expressions, which had poured in after the
+statues of the emperors had been worshipped, after the titles of
+eternity and divinity had been ushered in, and after thou had been
+exchanged for you, and it had taken a certain station, and flourished
+among these. Good christians, however, had endeavoured to keep
+themselves clear of such inconsistencies Casaubon has preserved a letter
+of Paulinus, Bishop of Nola, in which he rebukes Sulpicius Severus for
+having subscribed himself "his humble servant." A part of the letter
+runs thus.[39] "Take heed hereafter, how thou, being from a servant
+called unto liberty, dost subscribe thyself servant to one, who is thy
+brother and fellow servant: for it is a sinful flattery, not a testament
+of humility, to pay those honours to a man and to a sinner, which are
+due to the one Lord, one Master, and one God."
+
+[Footnote 39: Paulinus flourished in the year 460. He is reported by
+Paulus Diacenus to have been an exemplary christian. Among other acts he
+is stated to have expended all his revenues in the redemption of
+christian captives; and, at last, when he had nothing left in his purse,
+to have pawned his own person in favour of a widow's son. The
+barbarians, says the same author, struck with this act of unparralleled
+devotion to the cause of the unfortunate, released him, and many
+prisoners with him without ransom.]
+
+The Quakers also banished from the use of their society all those modes
+of expression, which were considered as marks or designations of honour
+among men. Hence, in addressing any peer of the realm, they never used
+the common formula of "my lord," for though the peer in question might
+justly be the lord over many possessions, and tenants, and servants, yet
+he was no lord over their heritages or persons. Neither did they ever
+use the terms excellency, or grace, or honour, upon similar occasions.
+They considered that the bestowing of these titles might bring them
+under the necessity of uttering what might be occasionally false. "For
+the persons, says Barclay, obtaining these titles, either by election or
+hereditarily, may frequently be found to have nothing really in them
+deserving them, or answering to them, as some, to whom it is said your
+excellency may have nothing of excellency in them, and he, who is called
+your grace, may be an enemy to grace, and he, who is called your honour,
+may be base and ignoble." They considered also, that they might be
+setting up the creature, by giving him the titles of the creator, so
+that he might think more highly of himself than he ought, and more
+degradingly than he ought, of the rest of the human race.
+
+But, independently of these moral considerations, they rejected these
+titles, because they believed, that Jesus Christ had set them an example
+by his own declarations and conduct on a certain occasion. When a person
+addressed him by the name of good master, he was rebuked as having done
+an improper thing. [40] "Why, says our Saviour, callest thou me good?
+There is none good but one, that is God." This censure they believe to
+have been passed upon him, because Jesus Christ knew, that when he
+addressed him by this title, he addressed him, not in his divine nature
+or capacity, but only as a man.
+
+[Footnote 40: Matt. xix. 17.]
+
+But Jesus Christ not only refused to receive such titles of distinction
+himself in his human nature, but on another occasion exhorted his
+followers to shun them also. They were not to be like the Scribes and
+Pharisees, who wished for high and eminent distinctions, that is, to be
+called Rabbi Rabbi of men; but says he, "be[41] ye not called Rabbi, for
+one is your master, even Christ, and all ye are brethren;" and he makes
+the desire which he discovered in the Jews, of seeking after worldly
+instead of heavenly honours, to be one cause of their infidelity towards
+Christ,[42] for that such could not believe, as received honour from one
+another, and sought not the honour, which cometh from God only; that is,
+that those persons, who courted earthly honours, could not have that
+humility of mind, that spirit that was to be of no reputation in the
+world, which was essential to those, who wished to become the followers
+of Christ.
+
+[Footnote 41: Matt xxiii. 8.]
+
+[Footnote 42: John. v. 44.]
+
+These considerations, both those of a moral nature, and those of the
+example of Jesus Christ, weighed so much with the early Quakers, that
+they made no exceptions even in favour of those of royal dignity, or of
+the rulers of their own land. George Fox wrote several letters to great
+men. He wrote twice to the king of Poland, three or four tunes to Oliver
+Cromwell, and several times to Charles the second; but he addressed them
+in no other manner man by their plain names, or by simple titles,
+expressive of their situations as rulers or kings.[43]
+
+[Footnote 43: The Quakers never refuse the legal titles in the
+superscription or direction of their letter. They would direct to the
+king, as king: to a peer according to his rank, either as a duke,
+marquis, earl, viscount, or baron: to a clergyman, not as reverend, but
+as clerk.]
+
+These several alterations, which took place in the language of the early
+Quakers, were adopted by their several successors, and are in force in
+the society at the present day.
+
+
+SECT. III.
+
+_Other alterations in the language--the names of the days and months
+altered--reasons for this change--the word saint disused--various new
+phrases introduced_.
+
+
+Another alteration, which took place in the language of the Quakers was
+the disuse of the common names of the days of the week, and of those of
+the months of the year.
+
+The names of the days were considered to be of heathen origin. Sunday
+had been so called by the Saxons, because it was the day, on which they
+sacrificed to the sun. Monday on which they sacrificed to the moon.
+Tuesday to the god Tuisco. Wednesday to the god Woden. Thursday to the
+god Thor, and so on. Now when the Quakers considered that Jehovah had
+forbidden the Israelites to make mention even of the names of other
+gods, they thought it inconsistent in Christians to continue to use the
+names of heathen idols for the common divisions of their time, so that
+these names must be almost always in their mouths. They thought too,
+that they were paying a homage, in continuing the use of them, that
+bordered on idolatry. They considered also as neither Monday, nor
+Tuesday, nor any other of these days, were days, in which these
+sacrifices were now offered, they were using words, which conveyed false
+notions of things. Hence they determined upon the disuse of these words,
+and to put other names in their stead. The numerical way of naming the
+days seemed to them to be the most rational, and the most innocent. They
+called therefore Sunday the first day, Monday the second, Tuesday the
+third, and soon to Saturday, which was of course the seventh. They used
+no other names but these, either in their conversation, or in their
+letters.
+
+Upon the same principles they altered the names of the months also.
+These, such as March and June, which had been so named by the ancient
+Romans, because they were sacred to Mars and Juno, were exploded,
+because they seemed in the use of them to be expressive of a kind of
+idolatrous homage. Others again were exploded, because they were not the
+representatives of the truth. September, for example, means the
+[44]seventh month from the storms. It took this seventh station in the
+kalendar of Romulus, and it designated there its own station as well as
+the reason of its name. But when it[45] lost its place in the kalendar
+by the alteration of the style in England, it lost its meaning. It
+became no representative of its station, nor any representative of the
+truth. For it still continues to signify the seventh month, whereas it
+is made to represent, or to stand in the place of, the ninth. The
+Quakers therefore banished from their language the ancient names of the
+months, and as they thought they could not do better than they had done
+in the case of the days, they placed numerical in their stead. They
+called January the first month, February the second, March the third,
+and so on to December, which they called the twelfth. Thus the Quaker
+kalendar was made up by numerical distinctions, which have continued to
+the present day.
+
+[Footnote 44: Septem ab imbribus.]
+
+[Footnote 45: This was in the year 1752, prior to this time the year
+began on the 25th of March: and therefore September stood in the English
+as in the Roman kalendar. The early Quakers, however, as we find by a
+minute in 1697, had then made these alterations; but when the new style
+was introduced, they published their reasons for having done so.]
+
+Another alteration, which took place very generally in the language of
+the Quakers, was the rejection of the word saint, when they spoke either
+of the apostles, or of the primitive fathers. The papal authority had
+canonized these. This they considered to be an act of idolatry, and they
+thought they should be giving a sanction to superstition, if they
+continued the use of such a title, either in their speech or writings.
+After this various other alterations took place according as individuals
+among them thought it right to expunge old expressions, and to
+substitute new; and these alterations were adopted by the rest, as they
+had an opinion of those who used them, or as they felt the propriety of
+doing it. Hence new phrases came into use, different from those which
+were used by the world on the same occasions; and these were gradually
+spread, till they became incorporated into the language of the society.
+Of these the following examples may suffice.
+
+It is not usual with Quakers to use the words lucky or fortunate, in the
+way in which many others do. If a Quaker had been out on a journey, and
+had experienced a number of fine days, he would never say that he had
+been lucky in his weather. In the same manner if a Quaker had recovered
+from an indisposition, he would never say, in speaking of the
+circumstance, that he had fortunately recovered, but he would say, that
+he had recovered, and "that it was a favour." Luck, chance, or fortune,
+are allowed by the Quakers to have no power in the settlement of human
+affairs.
+
+It is not usual with Quakers to beg ten thousand pardons, as some of the
+world do, for any little mistake. A Quaker generally on such an occasion
+asks a persons excuse.
+
+The Quakers never make use of the expression "christian name." This name
+is called christian by the world, because it is the name given to
+children in baptism, or in other words, when they are christened, or
+when they are initiated as christians. But the Quakers are never
+baptised. They have no belief that water-baptism can make a christian,
+or that it is any true mark of membership with the christian church.
+Hence a man's christian name is called by them his first name, because
+it is the first of the two, or of any other number of names, that may
+belong to him.
+
+The Quakers, on meeting a person, never say "good morrow," because all
+days are equally good. Nor in parting with a person at night, do they
+say "good evening," for a similar reason, but they make use of the
+expression of "farewell."
+
+I might proceed, till I made a little vocabulary of Quaker-expressions;
+but this is not necessary, and it is not at all consistent with my
+design. I shall therefore only observe, that it is expected of Quakers,
+that they should use the language of the society; that they should
+substitute thou for you; that they should discard all flattering titles
+and expressions; and that they should adopt the numerical, instead of
+the heathen names, of the days and months. George Fox gave the example
+himself in all these instances. Those of the society, who depart from
+this usage, are said by the Quakers to depart from "the plain language."
+
+
+SECT. IV.
+
+_Great objections by the world against the preceding alterations by the
+Quakers--first against the use of thou for you--you said to be no longer
+a mark of flattery--the use of it is said to be connected often with
+false Grammar--Custom said to give it, like a noun of number, a singular
+as well as plural Meaning--Consideration of these objections._
+
+
+There will be no difficulty in imagining, if the Quakers have found
+fault with the words and expressions adopted by others, and these the
+great majority of the world, that the world will scrutinize, and find
+fault with, those of the Quakers in return. This in fact has turned out
+to be the case.--And I know of no subject, except that of dress, where
+the world have been more lavish of their censures, than in that before
+us.
+
+When the Quakers first appeared as a religious community, many
+objections were thrown but against the peculiarities of their language.
+These were noticed by Robert Barclay and William Penn. But, since that
+time, other objections have been started. But as these have not been
+published (for they remain where they have usually been, in the mouths
+of living persons) Quaker writers have not felt themselves called upon
+to attempt to answer them. These objections, however, of both
+descriptions, I shall notice in the present place.
+
+As the change of the pronoun thou for you was the first article, that I
+brought forward on the subject of the language of the Quakers, I shall
+begin with the objections, that are usually started against it.
+
+"Singularity, it is said, should always be avoided, if it can be done
+with a clear conscience. The Quakers might have had honest scruples
+against you for thou, when you was a mark of flattery. But they can have
+no reasonable scruples now, and therefore they should cease to be
+singular, for the word you is clearly no mark of flattery at the present
+day. However improper it might once have been, it is now an innocent
+synonime."
+
+"The use again of the word thou for you, as insisted upon by the
+Quakers, leads them frequently into false grammar. 'Thee knowest,' and
+terms like these, are not unusual in Quaker mouths. Now the Quakers,
+though they defended the word thou for you on the notion, that they
+ought not to accustom their lips to flattery, defended it also
+strenuously on the notion, that they were strictly adhering to
+grammar-rules. But all such terms as 'thee knowest,' and others of a
+similar kind, must recoil upon themselves as incorrect, and as
+censurable, even upon their own ground."
+
+"The word you again may be considered as a singular, as well as a plural
+expression. The world use it in this manner. And who are the makers of
+language, but the world? Words change their meaning, as the leaves their
+colour in autumn, and custom has always been found powerful enough to
+give authority for a change."
+
+With respect to these objections, it may be observed, that the word you
+has certainly so far lost its meaning, as to be no longer a mark of
+flattery. The Quakers also are occasionally found in the use of the
+ungrammatical expressions, that have been brought against them. And
+unquestionably, except they mean to give up the grammatical part of the
+defence by Penn and Barclay, these ought to be done away. That you,
+however, is of the singular number, is not quite so clear. For while
+thou is used in the singular number in the Bible, and in the liturgy,
+and in the prayers of individuals, and while it is the language, as it
+is, of a great portion of the inhabitants of the northern part of the
+kingdom, it will be a standing monument against the usurpation and
+mutilated dominion of you.
+
+
+SECT. V.
+
+_Secondly against the words friend and neighbour, as used by the
+Quakers--Quakers also said to be wrong in their disuse of titles--for
+the use of these is sanctioned by St. Luke and St. Paul--answer of
+Barclay to the latter assertion--this answer not generally deemed
+satisfactory--observations upon the subject in dispute._
+
+
+The subject, that comes next in order, will be that of the objections,
+that are usually made against certain terms used by the Quakers, and
+against their disuse of titles of honour, as sanctioned by the world.
+
+On the use of the words "friend, and neighbour," it is usually observed,
+that these are too limited in their meaning, to be always, if used
+promiscuously, representatives of the truth. If the Quakers are so nice,
+that they will use no expression, that is not precisely true, they
+should invent additional terms, which should express the relative
+condition of those, with whom they converse. The word "friend" denotes
+esteem, and the word "neighbour" proximity of dwelling. But all the
+persons, to whom the Quakers address themselves, are not persons, whom
+they love and respect, or who are the inhabitants of the same
+neighbourhood with themselves. There is, it is said, as much untruth in
+calling a man friend, or neighbour, who is not so, as excellency, in
+whom there may be nothing that is excellent.
+
+The Quakers, in reply to this, would observe, that they use the word
+friend, as significative of their own union, and, when they speak to
+others, as significative of their Christian relation to one another. In
+the same sense they use the word neighbour. Jesus Christ, when the
+lawyer asked him who was his neighbour, gave him a short[46] history of
+the Samaritan, who fell among thieves; from which he suggested on
+inference, that the term neighbour was not confined to those, who lived
+near one another, or belonged to the same sect, but that it might extend
+to those, who lived at a distance, and to the Samaritan equally with the
+Jew. In the same manner he considered all men as[47] brethren. That is,
+they were thus scripturally related to one another.
+
+[Footnote 46: Luke x. 39.]
+
+[Footnote 47: Matt, xxiii. 8.]
+
+Another objection which has been raised against the Quakers on this
+part of the subject, is levelled against their disuse of the titles of
+honour of the world. St. Luke, it has been said, makes use of the terms
+most excellent, when he addresses Theophilus, and St. Paul of the words
+most noble, when he addresses Festus. Now the teachers and promulgators
+of christianity would never have given these titles, if they had not
+been allowable by the gospel.
+
+As this last argument was used in the time of Barclay, he has noticed it
+in his celebrated apology.--"Since Luke, says he, wrote by the dictates
+of the infallible spirit of God, I think it will not be doubted but
+Theophilus did deserve it, as being really endued with that virtue; in
+which case we shall not condemn those, who do it by the same rule. But
+it is not proved, that Luke gave Theophilus this title, as that which
+was inherent to him, either by his father, or by any patent Theophilus
+had obtained from any of the princes of the earth, or that he would have
+given it to him, in case he had not been truly excellent; and without
+this be proved, which never can, there can nothing hence be deduced
+against us. The like may be said of that of Paul to Festus, whom he
+would not have called such, if he had not been truly noble; as indeed he
+was, in that he suffered him to be heard in his own cause, and would not
+give way to the fury of the Jews against him. It was not because of any
+outward title bestowed upon Festus, that he so called him, else he would
+have given the same compilation to his predecessor Felix, who had the
+same office, but being a covetous man we find he gives him no such
+title."
+
+This is the answer of Barclay. It has not however been deemed quite
+satisfactory by the world. It has been observed that one good action
+will never give a man a right to a general title. This is undoubtedly an
+observation of some weight. But it must be contended on the other hand,
+that both Luke and Paul must have been apprised that the religion, they
+were so strenuous in propagating, required every man to speak the truth.
+They must have been apprised also, that it inculcated humility of mind.
+And it is probable therefore that they would never have bestowed titles
+upon men, which should have been false in their application, or
+productive of vanity and pride. St. Luke could not be otherwise than
+aware of the answer of Jesus Christ, when he rebuked the person for
+giving him the title of good, because he was one of the evangelists,
+who[48] recorded it, and St. Paul could not have been otherwise than
+aware of it also, on account of his intimacy with St. Luke, as well as
+from other causes.
+
+[Footnote 48: Luke xviii, 18.]
+
+Neither has this answer been considered as satisfactory for another
+reason. It has been presumed that the expressions of excellent and of
+noble were established titles of rank, and if an evangelist and an
+apostle used them, they could not be objectionable if used by others.
+But let us admit for a moment, that they were titles of rank. How
+happens it that St. Paul, when he was before Festus, and not in a
+judicial capacity (for he had been reserved for Caesar's tribunal)
+should have given him this epithet of noble; and that, when summoned
+before Felix, and this in a judicial capacity, he should have omitted
+it? This application of it to the one and not to the other, either
+implies that it was no title, or, if it was a title as we have supposed,
+that St. Paul had some reason for this partial use of it. And in this
+case, no better reason can be given, than that suggested by Barclay. St.
+Paul knew that Festus had done his duty. He knew, on the other hand, the
+abandoned character of Felix. The latter was then living, as Josephus
+relates, in open adultery with Drusilla, who had been married to Azis,
+and brought away from her husband by the help of Simon a Magician; and
+this circumstance probably gave occasion to Paul to dwell upon
+temperance, or continence as the word might be rendered, among other
+subjects, when he made Felix tremble. But, besides this, he must have
+known the general character of a man, of whom Tacitus complained, that
+"his government was distinguished by[49] servility and every species of
+cruelty and lust."--
+
+[Footnote 49: "Per omnem Saevitiam et Libidinem jus regium servili
+ingenio exercuit."]
+
+If therefore the epithet of noble was an established title for those
+Romans, who held the government of Judea, the giving of it to one, and
+the omission of it to the other, would probably shew the discrimination
+of St. Paul as a Christian, that he had no objection to give it, where
+it could be applied with truth, but that he refused it, when it was not
+applicable to the living character.
+
+But that the expression of excellent or of noble was any title at all,
+there is no evidence to shew. And first, let us examine the word, which
+was used upon this occasion. The [50]original Greek word has no meaning
+as a title in any Lexicon that I have seen. It relates both to personal
+and civil power, and in a secondary sense, to the strength and
+disposition of the mind. It occurs but in four places in the New
+Testament. In two of these it is translated excellent and in the others
+noble. But Gilbert Wakefield, one of our best scholars has expunged the
+word noble, and substituted excellent throughout. Indeed of all the
+meanings of this word noble is the least proper. No judgment therefore
+can be pronounced in favour of a title by any analysis of the word.
+
+[Footnote 50: [Greek: kralistos]]
+
+Let us now examine it as used by St. Luke. And here almost every
+consideration makes against it, as an established title. In the first
+place, the wisest commentators do not know who Theophilus was. It has
+been supposed by many learned fathers, such as Epephanius, Salvian, and
+others, that St. Luke, in addressing his gospel to Theophilus, addressed
+it as the words, "excellent Theophilus" import, to every "firm lover of
+God," or, if St. Luke uses the style of [51]Athanasius, to "every good
+Christian." But on a supposition that Theophilus had been a living
+character, and a man in power, the use of the epithet is against it as a
+title of rank; because St. Luke gives it to Theophilus in the beginning
+of his gospel, and does not give it to him, when he addresses him in the
+acts. If therefore he had addressed him in this manner, because
+excellent was his proper title, on one occasion, it would have been a
+kind of legal, and at any rate a disrespectful omission, not to have
+given it to him on the other. With respect to the term noble as used by
+St. Paul to Festus, the sense of it must be determined by general as
+well as by particular considerations. There are two circumstances, which
+at the first sight make in favour of it as a title,[52]Lysias addresses
+his letter to the "most excellent Felix," and the orator [53]Tertullus
+says, "we except it always and in all places most noble Felix!" But
+there must be some drawback from the latter circumstance, as an argument
+of weight. There is reason to suppose that this expression was used by
+Tertullus, as a piece of flattery, to compass the death of Paul; for it
+is of a piece with the other expressions which he used, when he talked
+of the worthy deeds done by the providence of so detestable a wretch,
+as Felix. And it will always be an objection to noble as a legal title,
+that St. Paul gave it to one governor, and omitted it to another, except
+he did it for the reasons, that have been before described. To this it
+may be added, that legal titles of eminence were not then, as at this
+time of day, in use. Agrippa had no other, or at least Paul gave him no
+other title, than that of king. If Porcius Festus had been descended
+from a Patrician, or had had the statues of his ancestors, he might, on
+these accounts, be said to have been of a noble family. But we know,
+that nobody on this account, would have addressed him as noble in those
+days, either by speech or letter. The first Roman, who was ever honoured
+with a legal title, as a title of distinction, was Octavius, upon whom
+the senate, but a few years before the birth of Paul, had conferred the
+name of Augustus. But no procurator of a province took this title.
+Neither does it appear that the circumstance gave birth to inferior
+titles to those in inferior offices in the government. And indeed on the
+title "Augustus" it may be observed, that though it followed the
+successors of Octavius, it was but sparingly used, being mostly used on
+medals, monumental pillars, and in public acts of the state. Pliny, in
+his letters to Trajan, though reputed an excellent prince, addressed him
+as only sir or master, and he wrote many years after the death of Paul.
+Athenagoras, in addressing his book, in times posterior to these, to the
+emperors M. Aurelius Antoninus, and L. Aurelius Commodus, addresses
+them only by the title of "great princes." In short titles were not in
+use. They did not creep in, so as to be commonly used, till after the
+statues of the emperors had begun to be worshipped by the military as a
+legal and accustomary homage. The terms "eternity and divinity" with
+others were then ushered in, but these were confined wholly to the
+emperors themselves. In the time of Constantine we find the title of
+illustrious. This was given to those princes, who had distinguished
+themselves in war, but it was not continued to their descendants. In
+process of time, however, it became more common, and the son of every
+prince began to be called illustrious.
+
+[Footnote 51: [Greek: makarios] and [Greek: philochrisos] are
+substituted by Athanasius for the word christian.]
+
+[Footnote 52: Acts, xxiii, 26.]
+
+[Footnote 53: Acts, xxiv. 3.]
+
+
+SECT. VI.
+
+_Thirdly against the alteration of the names of the days and
+months--people, it is said do not necessarily pay homage to Idols, who
+continue in the use of the ancient names--if the Quaker principles also
+were generally adopted on this subject, language would be thrown into
+confusion--Quakers also, by attempting to steer clear of Idolatry, fall
+into it--replies of the Quakers to these objections._
+
+
+The next objections for consideration, which are made against the
+language of the Quakers, are those which relate to their alteration of
+the names of the days and the months. These objections are commonly
+made, when the language of the Quakers becomes a subject of conversation
+with the world.
+
+"There is great absurdity, it is said, in supposing, that persons pay
+any respect to heathen idols, who retain the use of the ancient names of
+the divisions of time. How many thousands are there, who know nothing of
+their origin? The common people of the country know none of the reasons,
+why the months, and the days are called as they are. The middle classes
+are mostly ignorant of the same. Those, who are well informed on the
+subject, never once think, when they mention the months and days, on the
+reason of the rise of their names. Indeed the almost hourly use of
+those names secures the oblivion of their origin. Who, when he speaks of
+Wednesday and Thursday, thinks that these were the days sacred to Woden
+and Thor? but there can be no idolatry, where there is no intention to
+idolize."
+
+"Great weakness, it is said again, is manifested by the Quakers, in
+quarrelling with a few words in the language, and in living at peace
+with others, which are equally objectionable. Every reason, it is said,
+must be a weak one, which is not universal. But if some of the reasons,
+given by the Quakers, were universally applied, they would throw
+language into as much confusion as the builders of Babel. The word Smith
+for example, which is the common name of many families, ought to be
+objected to by this rule, if the person, to whom it belongs, happens to
+be a carpenter. And the word carpenter which is likewise a family-name,
+ought to be objected to, if the person so called should happen to be a
+smith. And, in this case, men would be obliged to draw lots for numbers,
+and to be called by the numerical ticket, which they should draw."
+
+"It is objected again to the Quakers, that, by attempting to steer clear
+of idolatry, they fall into it. The Quakers are considered to be genuine
+idolaters, in this case. The blind pagan imagined a moral being, either
+heavenly or infernal, to inhere in a log of wood or a block of stone.
+The Quakers, in like manner, imagine a moral being, truth or falsehood,
+to exist in a lifeless word, and this independently of the sense in
+which it is spoken, and in which it is known that it will be understood.
+What is this, it is said, but a species of idolatry and a degrading
+superstition?"
+
+The Quakers would reply to these observations, first, that they do not
+charge others with idolatry, in the use of these names, who know nothing
+of their origin, or who feel no impropriety in their use.
+
+Secondly, that if the principle, upon which they found their alterations
+in language, cannot, on account of existing circumstances, be followed
+in all cases, there is no reason, why it should not be followed, where
+it can. In the names of men it would be impossible to adopt it. Old
+people are going off, and young people are coming up, and people of all
+descriptions are themselves changing, and a change of names to suit
+every persons condition, and qualification, would be impossible.
+
+Thirdly, that they pay no more homage or obeisance to words, than the
+obeisance of truth. There is always a propriety in truth, and an
+impropriety in falsehood. And in proportion as the names of things
+accord with their essences, qualities, properties, character, and the
+like, they are more or less proper. September, for example, is not an
+appropriate name, if its meaning be enquired into, for the month which
+it represents: but the ninth month is, and the latter appellation will
+stand the test of the strictest enquiry.
+
+They would say again that this, as well as the other alterations in
+their language has had a moral influence on the society, and has been
+productive of moral good. In the same manner as the dress, which they
+received from their ancestors has operated as a guardian, or
+preservative of virtue, so has the language which they received from
+them also. The language has made the world overseers of the conduct of
+the society. A Quaker is known by his language as much as by his dress.
+It operates, by discovering him, as a check upon his actions. It keeps
+him also, like the dress distinct from others. And the Quakers believe,
+that they can never keep up their Christian discipline, except they keep
+clear of the spirit of the world. Hence it has been considered as of
+great importance to keep up the plain language; and this importance has
+been further manifested by circumstances, that have taken place within
+the pale of the society. For in the same manner as those, who begin to
+depart from the simplicity of dress, are generally in the way to go off
+among the world, so are those who depart from the simplicity of the
+language. Each deviation is a sign of a temper for desertion. Each
+deviation brings them in appearance nearer to the world. But the nearer
+they resemble the world in this respect, the more they are found to mix
+with it. They are of course the more likely to be seduced from the
+wholesome prohibitions of the society. The language therefore of the
+Quakers has grown up insensibly as a wall of partition, which could not
+now, it is contended, be taken away without endangering the innocence of
+their youth.
+
+
+SECT. VII.
+
+_Advantages and disadvantages of the system of the Quaker,
+language--disadvantages are that it may lead to superstition--and
+hypocrisy--advantages are that it excludes flattery--is founded upon
+truth--promotes truth, and correctness in the expression of
+ideas--observation of Hobbes--would be the most perfect model for a
+universal calendar--the use or disuse of this system may either of them
+be made useful to morality._
+
+
+I have now given to the reader the objections, that are usually made to
+the alterations, which the Quakers have introduced into the language of
+the country, as well as the replies, which the Quakers would make to
+these objections. I shall solicit the continuance of his patience a
+little longer, or till I have made a few remarks of my own upon this
+subject.
+
+It certainly becomes people, who introduce great peculiarities into
+their system, to be careful, that they are well founded, and to consider
+how far they may bring their minds into bondage, or what moral effects
+they may produce on their diameter in a course of time.
+
+On the reformed language of the Quakers it may be observed, that both
+advantages and disadvantages may follow according to the due or undue
+estimation in which individuals may hold it.
+
+If individuals should lay too great a stress upon language, that is, if
+they should carry their prejudices so far against outward and lifeless
+words, that they should not dare to pronounce them, and this as a matter
+of religion, they are certainly in the way of becoming superstitious,
+and of losing the dignified independence of their minds.
+
+If again they should put an undue estimate upon language, so as to
+consider it as a criterion of religious purity, they may be encouraging
+the growth of hypocrisy within their own precincts. For if the use of
+this reformed language be considered as an essential of religion, that
+is, if men are highly thought of in proportion as they conform to it
+rigidly, it may be a covering to many to neglect the weightier matters
+of righteousness; at least the fulfilling of such minor duties may
+shield them from the suspicion of neglecting the greater: and if they
+should be reported as erring in the latter case, their crime would be
+less credited under their observance of these minutiae of the law.
+
+These effects are likely to result to the society, if the peculiarities
+of their language be insisted on beyond their due bounds. But, on the
+other hand, it must be confessed, that advantages are likely to follow
+from the same system, which are of great importance in themselves, and
+which may be set off as a counterbalance to the disadvantages described.
+
+The Quakers may say, and this with the greatest truth, "we have never
+cringed or stooped below the dignity of men. We have never been guilty
+of base flattery; we have never been instrumental in raising the
+creature, with whom we have conversed, above his condition, so that in
+the imagination of his own consequence, he should lose sight of his
+dependence on the Supreme Being, or treat his fellow-men, because they
+should happen to be below him, as worms or reptiles of the earth."
+
+They may say also that the system of their language originated in the
+purest motives, and that it is founded on the sacred basis of truth.
+
+It may be said also, that the habits of caution which the different
+peculiarities in their language have introduced and interwoven into
+their constitution, have taught them particularly to respect the truth,
+and to aim at it in all their expressions whether in speech or letters,
+and that it has given them a peculiar correctness in the expression of
+their ideas, which they would scarcely have had by means of the ordinary
+education of the world. Hobbes says[54] "animadverte, quam sit ab
+improprietate verborum pronum hominibus prolabi in errores circa res,"
+or "how prone men are to fall into errors about things, when they use
+improper expressions." The converse of this proposition may be observed
+to be true with respect to the Quakers, or it may be observed, that the
+study of proper expressions has given them correct conceptions of
+things, and has had an influence in favor of truth. There are no people,
+though the common notion may be otherwise, who speak so accurately as
+the Quakers, or whose letters, if examined on any subject, would be so
+free from any double meaning, so little liable to be mistaken, and so
+easy to be understood.
+
+[Footnote 54: Hobbesii Examen. et Emend. Hod. Math. P. 55. Edit.
+Amstel.]
+
+It may be observed also on the language of the Quakers, that is, on that
+part of it, which relates to the alteration of the names of the months
+and days, that this alteration would form the most perfect model for an
+universal calendar of any that has yet appeared in the world. The French
+nation chose to alter their calendar, and, to make it useful to
+husbandry, they designated their months, so that they should be
+representatives of the different seasons of the year. They called them
+snowy, and windy, and harvest, and vintage-months, and the like. But in
+so large a territory, as that of France, these new designations were not
+the representatives of the truth. The northern and southern parts were
+not alike in their climate. Much less could these designations speak
+the truth for other parts of the world: whereas numerical appellations
+might be adopted with truth, and be attended with usefulness to all the
+nations of the world, who divided their time in the same manner.
+
+On the latter subject of the names of the days and months, the
+alteration of which is considered as the most objectionable by the
+world, I shall only observe, that, if the Quakers have religious
+scruples concerning them, it is their duty to persevere in the disuse of
+them. Those of the world, on the other hand, who have no such scruples,
+are under no obligation to follow their example. And in the same manner
+as the Quakers convert the disuse of these ancient terms to the
+improvement of their moral character, so those of the world may convert
+the use of them to a moral purpose. Man is a reasonable, and moral
+being, and capable of moral improvement; and this improvement may be
+made to proceed from apparently worthless causes. If we were to find
+crosses or other Roman-Catholic relics fixed in the walls of our places
+of worship, why should we displace them? Why should we not rather suffer
+them to remain, to put us in mind of the necessity of thankfulness for
+the reformation in our religion? If again we were to find an altar,
+which had been sacred to Moloc, but which had been turned into a
+stepping stone, to help the aged and infirm upon their horses, why
+should we destroy it? Might it not be made useful to our morality, as
+far as it could be made to excite sorrow for the past and gratitude for
+the present? And in the same manner might it not be edifying to retain
+the use of the ancient names of the days and months? Might not thankful
+feelings be excited in our hearts, that the crime of idolatry had ceased
+among us, and that the only remnant of it was a useful signature of the
+times? In fact, if it be the tendency of the corrupt part of our nature
+to render innocent things vicious, it is, on the other hand, in the
+essence of our nature, to render vicious things in process of time
+innocent; so that the remnants of idolatry and superstition may be made
+subservient to the moral improvement of mankind.
+
+
+
+
+CHAP. IV.
+
+_Address--all nations have used ceremonies of address--George Fox bears
+his testimony against those in use in his own times--sufferings of the
+Quakers on this account--makes no exception in favor of royalty--his
+dispute with Judge Glynn--modern Quakers follow his example--use no
+ceremonies even to majesty--various reasons for their disuse of them._
+
+
+All nations have been in the habit of using outward gestures or
+ceremonies, as marks of affection, obeisance or respect. And these
+outward ceremonies have been different from one another, so much so,
+that those, which have been adjudged to be suitable emblems of certain
+affections or dispositions of the mind among one people, would have been
+considered as very improper emblems of the same, and would have been
+even thought ridiculous by another, yet all nations have supposed, that
+they employed the most rational modes for these purposes. And indeed,
+there were probably none of these outward gestures and ceremonies,
+which, in their beginning, would not have admitted of a reasonable
+defence while they continued to convey to the minds of those, who
+adopted them, the objects, for which they were intended, or while those,
+who used them, persevered with sincerity in their use, little or no
+objection could be made to them by the moralist. But as soon as the ends
+of their institution were lost, or they were used without any
+appropriate feeling of the heart, they became empty civilities, and
+little better than mockery or grimace.
+
+The customs of this sort, which obtained in the time of George Fox, were
+similar to those, which are now in use on similar occasions. People
+pulled off their hats, and bowed, and scraped with their feet. And these
+things they did, as marks of civility, friendship, or respect to one
+another.
+
+George Fox was greatly grieved about these idle ceremonies. He lamented
+that men should degrade themselves by the use of them, and that they
+should encourage habits, that were abhorrent of the truth. His feelings
+were so strong upon this subject, that he felt himself called upon to
+bear his testimony against them. Accordingly he never submitted to them
+himself, and those, who received his religious doctrines, followed his
+example.
+
+The omission of these ceremonies, however, procured both for him and his
+followers, as had been the case in the change of thou for you, much
+ill-will, and harsh treatment. The Quakers were derided and abused.
+Their hats were taken forcibly from their heads, and thrown away. They
+were beaten and imprisoned on this sole account. And so far did the
+world carry their resentment towards them for the omission of these
+little ceremonies, that they refused for some time to deal with them as
+tradesmen, or to buy things at their shops, so that some Quakers could
+hardly get money enough to buy themselves bread.
+
+George Fox, however, and his associates, persevered, notwithstanding
+this ill usage, in the disuse of all honours, either by the moving of
+the hat, or the usual bendings of the body; and as that, which was a
+right custom for one, was a right one for another, they made no
+exception even in favour of the chief magistrate of the land. George
+Fox, when he visited Oliver Cromwell as protector, never pulled off his
+hat; and it is remarkable that the protector was not angry with him for
+it.
+
+Neither did he pull off his hat to the judges at any time,
+notwithstanding he was so often brought before them. Controversies
+sometimes took place between him and them in the public court, upon
+these occasions, one of which I shall notice, as it marks the manner of
+conducting the jurisprudence of those times.
+
+When George Fox, and two other friends, were brought out of Launceston
+gaol, to be tried before judge Glynn, who was then chief justice of
+England, they came into court with their hats on. The judge asked them
+the reason of this, but they said nothing. He then told them, that the
+court commanded them to pull off their hats. Upon this George Fox
+addressed them in the following manner. "Where, says he, did ever any
+magistrate, king or judge, from Moses to Daniel, command any to put off
+their hats, when they came before them in their courts, either amongst
+the Jews, who were God's people, or among the heathen? And if the law of
+England doth command any such thing, shew me that law, either written or
+printed." Judge Glynn upon this grew angry, and replied, that "he did
+not carry his law-books upon his back." But says George Fox, "tell me
+where it is printed in any statute-book, that I may read it" The judge,
+in a vulgar manner, ordered him away, and he was accordingly taken away,
+and put among thieves. The judge, however, in a short time afterwards
+ordered him up again, and, on his return put to him the following
+question, "Come, says he, where had they hats from Moses to Daniel?
+Come, answer me. I have you fast now." George. Fox replied, that "he
+might read in the third chapter of Daniel, that the three children were
+cast into the fiery furnace by Nebuchadnezzar's command, with their
+coats, their hose, and their hats on." The repetition of this apposite
+text stopped the judge from any farther comments on the custom, and he
+ordered him and his companions to be taken away again. And they were
+accordingly taken away and they were thrust again among thieves. In
+process of time, however, this custom of the Quakers began to be known
+among the judges, who so far respected their scruples, as to take care
+that their hats should be taken off in future in the courts.
+
+These omissions of the ceremonies of the world, as begun by the
+primitive Quakers, are continued by the modern. They neither bow nor
+scrape, nor pull off their hats to any, by way of civility or respect,
+and they carry their principles, like their predecessors, so far, that
+they observe none of these exterior parts of politeness even in the
+presence of royalty. The Quakers are in the habit on particular
+occasions of sending deputies to the king. And it is remarkable that his
+present majesty always sees them himself, if he be well, and not by
+proxy. Notwithstanding this, no one in the deputation ever pulls off his
+hat. Those, however, who are in waiting in the anti-chamber, knowing
+this custom of the Quakers, take their hats from their heads, before
+they enter the room, where the king is. On entering the room, they
+neither bow nor scrape, nor kneel, and as this ceremony cannot be
+performed for them by others, they go into the royal presence in a less
+servile, or more dignified manner, than either the representatives of
+sovereigns, or those, who have humbled nations by the achievement of
+great victories.
+
+The ground, upon which the Quakers decline the use of the ordinary
+ceremonies just mentioned, is, the honours are the honours of the world.
+Now, as that these of the world, they consider them as objectionable on
+several accounts.
+
+First, they are no more the criterions of obeisance and respect, than
+mourning garments are the criterions of sorrow. But Christianity is
+never satisfied but with the truth. It forbids all false appearances. It
+allows no image to be held out, that is not a faithful picture of its
+original, or no action to be resorted to, that is not correspondent with
+the feelings of the heart.
+
+In the second place the Quakers presume, that, as honours of the world,
+all such ceremonies are generally of a complimentary nature. No one bows
+to a poor man. But almost every one to the rich, and the rich to one
+another. Hence bowing is as much a species of flattery through the
+medium of the body, as the giving of undeserved titles through the
+medium of the tongue.
+
+As honours of the world again the Quakers think them censurable, because
+all such honours were censured by Jesus Christ. On the occasion, on
+which he exhorted his followers not to be like the Scribes and
+Pharisees, and to seek flattering titles, so as to be called Rabbi Rabbi
+of man, he exhorted them to avoid all ceremonious salutations, such as
+greetings in the market-places. He couples the two different customs of
+flattering titles and salutations in the same sentence, and mentions
+them in the same breath. And though the word "greetings" does not
+perhaps precisely mean those bowings and scrapings, which are used at
+the present day, yet it means, both according to its derivation and the
+nature of the Jewish customs, those outward personal actions or
+gestures, which were used as complimentary to the Jewish world.
+
+With respect to the pulling off the hat the Quakers have an additional
+objection to this custom, quite distinct from the objections, that have
+been mentioned above. Every minister in the Quaker society takes off his
+hat, either when he preaches, or when he prays. St Paul[55] enjoins this
+custom. But if they take off their hats, that is, uncover their heads,
+as an outward act enjoined in the service of God, they cannot with any
+propriety take them off, or uncover their heads to men, because they
+would be giving to the creature the same outward honour which they give
+to the creator. And in this custom they conceive the world to be
+peculiarly inconsistent. For men go into their churches, and into their
+meetings, and pull off their hats, or uncover their heads, for the same
+reason as the Quaker-ministers when they pray (for no other reason can
+be assigned) and, when they come out of their respective places of
+worship, they uncover them again on every trivial occasion, to those
+whom they meet, using to man the same outward mark of homage, as they
+had just given to God.
+
+[Footnote 55: 1 Cor. Chap. xi.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAP. V.
+
+_Manners and conversation--Quakers esteemed reserved--this an
+appearance owing to their education--their hospitality in their own
+houses--the freedom allowed and taken--their conversation
+limited--politics generally excluded--subjects of conversation examined
+in our towns--also in the metropolis--no such subjects among the
+Quakers--their conversation more dignified--extraordinary circumstance
+that takes place occasionally in the company of the Quakers._
+
+
+The Quakers are generally supposed to be a stiff and reserved people,
+and to be a people of severe and uncourteous manners. I confess there is
+something in their appearance that will justify the supposition in the
+eyes of strangers, and of such as do not know them: I mean of such, as
+just see them occasionally out of doors, but do not mix with them in
+their own houses.
+
+It cannot be expected that persons, educated like the Quakers, should
+assimilate much in their manners to other people. The very dress they
+wear, which is so different from that of others, would give them a stiff
+appearance in the eyes of the world, if nothing else could be found to
+contribute towards it. Excluded also from much intercourse with the
+world, and separated at a vast distance from it by the singularity of
+many of their customs, they would naturally appear to others to be close
+and reserved. Neither is it to be expected that those, whose spirits
+are never animated by music, or enlivened by the exhibitions of the
+theatre, or the diversions which others follow, would have other than
+countenances that were grave. Their discipline also, which calls them so
+frequently to important duties, and the dispatch of serious business,
+would produce the same feature. I may observe also, that a peculiarity
+of gait, which might be mistaken for awkwardness, might not unreasonably
+be expected in those, who had neither learned to walk under the guidance
+of a dancing, master, nor to bow under the direction of the dominion of
+fashion. If those and those only are to be esteemed really polished and
+courteous, who bow and scrape, and salute each other by certain
+prescribed gestures, then the Quakers will appear to have contracted
+much rust, and to have an indisputable right to the title of a clownish
+and inflexible people.
+
+I must observe however that these appearances, though they may be
+substantial in the estimation of those who do not know them, gradually
+vanish with those, who do. Their hospitality in their own houses, and
+their great attention and kindness, soon force out of sight all ideas of
+uncourteousness. Their freedom also soon annihilates those of stiffness
+and reserve. Their manners, though they have not the polished surface of
+those which are usually attached to fashionable life, are agreeable,
+when known.
+
+There is one trait in the Quaker-manners, which runs through the whole
+society, as far as I have seen in their houses, and which is worthy of
+mention. The Quakers appear to be particularly gratified, when those,
+who visit them, ask for what they want. Instead of considering this as
+rudeness or intrusion, they esteem it as a favour done them. The
+circumstance of asking, on such an occasion, is to them a proof, that
+there visitors feel themselves at home. Indeed they almost always desire
+a stranger who has been introduced to them "to be free." This is their
+usual expression. And if he assures them that he will, and if they find
+him asking for what he wishes to have, you may perceive in their
+countenances the pleasure, which his conduct has given them. They
+consider him, when he has used this freedom, to have acted as they
+express it "kindly." Nothing can be more truly polite than that conduct
+to another, by which he shall be induced to feel himself as comfortably
+situated, as if he were in his own house.
+
+As the Quakers desire their visitors to be free, and to do as they
+please, so they do not fail to do the same themselves, never regarding
+such visitors as impediments in the way of their concerns. If they have
+any business or engagement out of doors, they say so and go, using no
+ceremony, and but few words as an apology. Their visitors, I mean such
+as stay for a time in their houses, are left in the interim to amuse
+themselves as they please. This is peculiarly agreeable, because their
+friends know, when they visit them, that they neither restrain, nor
+shackle, nor put them to inconvenience. In fact it may be truly said
+that if satisfaction in visiting depends upon a man's own freedom to do
+as he likes, to ask and to call for what he wants, to go out and come in
+as he pleases; and if it depends also on the knowledge he has, that, in
+doing all these things, he puts no person out of his way, there are no
+houses, where people will be better pleased with their treatment, than
+in those of the Quakers.
+
+This trait in the character of the Quakers is very general. I would not
+pretend, however, to call it universal. But it is quite general enough
+to be pronounced a feature in their domestic character. I do not mean by
+the mention of it, to apologize, in any manner for the ruggedness of
+manners of some Quakers. There are undoubtedly solitary families, which
+having lived in places, where there have been scarcely any of their own
+society with whom to associate, and which, having scarcely mixed with
+others of other denominations except in the way of trade, have an
+uncourteousness, ingrafted in them as it were by these circumstances,
+which no change of situation afterwards has been able to obliterate.
+
+The subjects of conversation among the Quakers differ, like those of
+others, but they are not so numerous, neither are they of the same kind,
+as those of other people.
+
+The Quaker conversation is cramped or fettered for two reasons, first by
+the caution, that prevails among the members of the society relative to
+the use of idle words, and secondly by the caution, that prevails among
+them, relative to the adapting of their expressions to the truth. Hence
+the primitive Quakers were persons of few words.
+
+The subjects also of the Quaker conversation are limited for several
+reasons. The Quakers have not the same classical or philosophical
+education, as those of other denominations in an equal situation in
+life. This circumstance will of course exclude many topics from their
+discourse.
+
+Religious considerations also exclude others. Politics, which generally
+engross a good deal of attention, and which afford an inexhaustible fund
+of matter for conversation to a great part of the inhabitants of the
+island, are seldom introduced, and, if introduced, very tenderly
+handled in general among the Quaker-society. I have seen aged Quakers
+gently reprove others of tenderer years, with whom they happened to be
+in company, for having started them. It is not that the Quakers have not
+the same feelings as other men, or that they are not equally interested
+about humanity, or that they are incapable of opinions on the changeable
+political events, that are passing over the face of the globe, that this
+subject is so little agitated among them. They are usually silent upon
+it for particular reasons. They consider first, that, as they are not
+allowed to have any direction, and in many cases could not
+conscientiously interfere, in government-matters, it would be folly to
+disquiet their minds with vain and fruitless speculations. They consider
+again, that political subjects frequently irritate people, and make them
+warm. Now this is a temper, which they consider to be peculiarly
+detrimental to their religion. They consider themselves also in this
+life as but upon a journey to another, and that they should get through
+it as quietly and as inoffensively as they can. They believe again with
+George Fox, that, "in these lower regions, or in this airy life, all
+news is uncertain. There is nothing stable. But in the higher regions,
+or in the kingdom of Christ, all things are stable: and the news is
+always good and certain." [56]
+
+[Footnote 56: There is always an exception in favour of conversation on
+politics, which is, when the government are agitating any question,
+their interests or their religious freedom is involved.]
+
+As politics do not afford matter for much conversation in the
+Quaker-society, so neither do some other subjects, that may be
+mentioned.
+
+In a country town, where people daily visit, it is not uncommon to
+observe, whether at the card, or at the tea-table, that what is usually
+called scandal forms a part of the pleasures of conversation. The
+hatching up of suspicions on the accidental occurrence of trivial
+circumstances, the blowing up of these suspicions into substances and
+forms, animadversions on character, these, and such like themes, wear
+out a great part of the time of an afternoon or an evening visit. Such
+subjects, however, cannot enter where Quakers converse with one another.
+To avoid tale-bearing and detraction is a lesson inculcated into them in
+early youth. The maxim is incorporated into their religion, and of
+course follows them through life. It is contained in one of their
+queries. This query is read to them in their meetings, and the subject
+of it is therefore repeatedly brought to their notice and recollection.
+Add to which, that, if a Quaker were to repeat any unfounded scandal,
+that operated to the injury of another's character, and were not to give
+up the author, or make satisfaction for the same, he would be liable,
+by the rules of the society, to be disowned.
+
+I do not mean to assert here, that a Quaker never says a harsh thing of
+another man. All, who profess to be, are not Quakers. Subjects of a
+scandalous nature may be in introduced by others of another
+denomination, in which, if Quakers are present, they may unguardedly
+join. But it is certainly true, that Quakers are more upon their guard,
+with respect to scandalizing others, than many other people. Nor is this
+unlikely to be the case, when we consider that caution in this
+particular is required of them by the laws of their religion. It is
+certainly true also, that such subjects are never introduced by them,
+like those at country tea-tables, for the sole purpose of producing
+conversation. And I believe I may add with truth, that it would even be
+deemed extraordinary by the society, if such subjects were introduced by
+them at all.
+
+In companies also in the metropolis, as well as in country towns, a
+variety of subjects affords food for conversation which never enter into
+the discourse of the Quakers.
+
+If we were to go into the company of persons of a certain class in the
+metropolis, we should find them deriving the enjoyments of conversation
+from some such subjects as the following. One of the company would
+probably talk of the exquisitely fine manner, in which an actress
+performed her part on a certain night. This, would immediately give
+birth to a variety of remarks. The name of one actress would bring up
+that of another, and the name of one play that of another, till at
+length the stage would become the source of supplying a subject for a
+considerable time. Another would probably ask, as soon as this
+theatrical discussion was over, the opinion of the company on the
+subject of the duel, which the morning papers had reported to have taken
+place. This new subject would give new fuel to the fire, and new
+discussions would take place, and new observations fly about from all
+quarters. Some would applaud the courage of the person, who had been
+killed. Others would pity his hard fate. But none would censure his
+wickedness for having resorted to such dreadful means for the
+determination of his dispute. From this time the laws of honour would be
+canvassed, and disquisitions about punctilio, and etiquette, and honour,
+would arrest the attention of the company, and supply them with
+materials for a time. These subjects would be followed by observations
+on fashionable head-dresses, by the relation of elopements, by the
+reports of affairs of gallantry. Each subject would occupy its own
+portion of time. Thus each would help to swell up the measure of
+conversation, and to make up the enjoyment of the visit.
+
+If we were to go among persons of another class in the metropolis, we
+should probably find them collecting their entertainment from other
+topics. One would talk on the subject of some splendid route. He would
+expatiate on the number of rooms that were opened, on the superb manner,
+in which they were fitted up, and on the sum of money that was expended
+in procuring every delicacy that was out of season. A second would
+probably ask, if it were really known, how much one of their female
+acquaintance had lost at faro. A third would make observations on the
+dresses at the last drawing room. A fourth would particularize the
+liveries brought out by individuals on the birth-day. A fifth would ask,
+who was to have the vacant red ribbon. Another would tell, how the
+minister had given a certain place to a certain nobleman's third son,
+and would observe, that the whole family were now provided for by
+government. Each of these topics would be enlarged upon, as successively
+started, and thus conversation would be kept going during the time of
+the visit.
+
+These and other subjects generally constitute the pleasures of
+conversation among certain classes of persons. But among the Quakers,
+they can hardly ever intrude themselves at all. Places and pensions they
+neither do, nor can, hold. Levees and drawing rooms they neither do, nor
+would consent to, attend, on pleasure. Red ribbons they would not wear
+if given to them. Indeed, very few of the society know what these
+insignia mean. As to splendid liveries, these would never occupy their
+attention. Liveries for servants, though not expressly forbidden, are
+not congenial with the Quaker-system; and as to gaming, plays, or
+fashionable amusements, these are forbidden, as I have amply stated
+before, by the laws of the society.
+
+It is obvious then, that these topics cannot easily enter into
+conversation, where Quakers are. Indeed, nothing so trifling,
+ridiculous, or disgusting, occupies their minds. The subjects, that
+take up their attention, are of a more solid and useful kind. There is a
+dignity, in general, in the Quaker-conversation, arising from the nature
+of these subjects, and from the gravity and decorum with which it is
+always conducted. It is not to be inferred from hence, that their
+conversation is dull and gloomy. There is often no want of
+sprightliness, wit, and humour. But then this sprightliness, never
+borders upon folly, for all foolish jesting is to be avoided, and it is
+always decorous. When vivacity makes its appearance among the Quakers;
+it is sensible, and it is uniformly in an innocent and decent dress.
+
+In the company of the Quakers a circumstance sometimes occurs, of so
+peculiar a nature, that it cannot be well omitted in this place. It
+sometimes happens, that you observe a pause in the conversation. This
+pause continues. Surprized at the universal silence now prevailing, you
+look round, and find all the Quakers in the room apparently thoughtful.
+The history of the circumstance is this. In the course of the
+conversation the mind of some one of the persons present has been so
+overcome with the weight or importance of it, or so overcome by inward
+suggestions or other subjects, as to have given himself up to
+meditation, or to passive obedience to the impressions upon his mind.
+This person is soon discovered by the rest on account of his particular
+silence and gravity. From this moment the Quakers in company cease to
+converse. They become habitually silent, and continue so, both old and
+young, to give the apparently meditating person an opportunity of
+pursuing uninterruptedly the train of his own thoughts. Perhaps, in the
+course of his meditations, the subject, that impressed his mind,
+gradually dies away, and expires in silence. In this case you find him
+resuming his natural position, and returning to conversation with the
+company as before. It sometimes happens, however, that, in the midst of
+his meditations, he feels an impulse to communicate to those present the
+subject of his thoughts, and breaks forth, seriously explaining,
+exhorting, and advising, as the nature of it permits and suggests. When
+he has finished his observations, the company remain silent for a short
+time, after which they converse again as before.
+
+Such a pause, whenever it occurs in the company of the Quakers, may be
+considered as a devotional act. For the subject, which occasions it, is
+always of a serious or religious nature. The workings in the mind of the
+meditating person are considered either as the offspring of a solemn
+reflection upon that subject, suddenly and almost involuntarily as it
+were produced by duty, or as the immediate offspring of the agency of
+the spirit. And an habitual silence is as much the consequence, as if
+the person present had been at a place of worship.
+
+It may be observed, however, that such pauses seldom or never occur in
+ordinary companies, or where Quakers ordinarily visit one another. When
+they take place, it is mostly when a minister is present, and when such
+a minister is upon a religious visit to families of a certain district.
+In such a case such religious pauses and exhortations are not
+unfrequent. A man however may be a hundred times in the company of the
+Quakers, and never be present at one of them, and never know indeed that
+they exist at all.
+
+
+
+
+CHAP. VI.
+
+_Custom before meals--ancients formerly made an oblation to Vesta before
+their meals--Christians have substituted grace--Quakers agree with
+others in the necessity of grace or thankfulness-but do not adopt it as
+a devotional act, unless it comes from the heart--allow a silent pause
+for religious impressions on these occasions--observations on a Scotch
+grace._
+
+
+There was a time in the early ages of Greece, when men apparently little
+better than beasts of prey, could not meet at entertainments, without
+quarrelling about the victuals before them. The memory of this
+circumstance is well preserved in the expressions of early writers. In
+process of time however, regulations began to be introduced, and
+quarrels to be prevented, by the institution of the office of a divider
+or distributer of the feast, who should carve the food into equal
+portions, and help every individual to his proper share. Hence the terms
+[Greek: Aatfrn] or equal feast, which so frequently occur in Homer, and
+which were in use in consequence of the division just mentioned, were
+made use of to shew, that the feasts, then spoken of by him, were
+different from those of former times. When Homer wishes to describe
+persons as more civilized than others, he describes them as having this
+equal feast. That is, men did not appear at these feasts, like dogs and
+wolves, and instantly devour whatever they could come at, and tear each
+other to pieces in the end; but they waited till their different
+portions of meat had been assigned them, and then ate them in amity and
+peace.
+
+At the time when we find the custom of one man carving for all his
+guests to have been in use, we find also that another had been
+introduced among the same people. The Greeks, in the heroic ages,
+thought it unlawful to eat, till they had first offered a part of their
+provision to the gods. Hence oblations to Vesta, and afterwards to
+others, whom their superstition had defied, came into general use, so
+that these were always made, before the victuals on the table were
+allowed to be tasted by any of the guests.
+
+These two customs, since that time, have come regularly down to the
+present day. Every person helps his family and his friends at his own
+table. But as Christians can make no sacrifices to heathen deities, we
+usually find them substituting thanksgiving for oblation, and giving to
+the Creator of the universe instead of an offering of the first fruits
+from their tables, an offering of gratitude from their hearts.
+
+This oblation, which is now usually denominated grace, consists of a
+form of words, which, being expressive either of praise or thankfulness
+to God for the blessings of food, with which he continues to supply
+them, is repeated by the master of the family, or by a minister of the
+gospel if present, before any one partakes of the victuals, that are set
+before him. These forms, however, differ, as used by Christians. They
+differ in length, in ideas, in expression. One Christian uses one form,
+another uses another. It may however be observed, that the same
+Christian generally uses the same form of words, or the same grace, on
+the same occasion.
+
+The Quakers, as a religious body, agree in the propriety of grace before
+their meals, that is in the propriety of giving thanks to the author of
+every good gift for this particular bounty of his providence as to the
+articles of their daily subsistence, but they differ as to the manner
+and seasonableness of it on such occasions. They think that people who
+are in the habit of repeating a determined form of words, may cease to
+feel, as they pronounce them, in which case the grace becomes an
+oblation from the tongue, but not from the heart. They think also that,
+if grace is to be repeated regularly, just as the victuals come, or as
+regularly and as often as they come upon the table, it may be repeated
+unseasonably, that is unseasonably with the state of the heart of him,
+who is to pronounce it; that the heart of man is not to-day as it was
+yesterday, nor at this hour what it was at a former, nor on any given
+hour alike disposed; and that if this grace is to be said when the heart
+is gay, or light, or volatile, it ceases to be a devotional act, and
+becomes at least a superflous and unmeaning, if not a censurable form.
+
+The Quakers then to avoid the unprofitableness of such artificial
+graces on the one hand, and, on the other, to give an opportunity to the
+heart to accord with the tongue, whenever it is used in praise of the
+Creator, observe the following custom. When they are all seated at
+table, they sit in solemn silence, and in a thoughtful position, for
+some time. If the master of the family, during this silence, should feel
+any religious impression on his mind, whether of praise or thankfulness
+on the occasion, he gives utterance to his feelings. Such praise or
+thanksgiving in him is considered as a devotional act, and as the Quaker
+grace. But if, after having waited in silence for some time, he feels no
+such religious disposition, he utters no religious expression. The
+Quakers hold it better to say no grace, than to say that, which is not
+accompanied by the devotion of the heart. In this case he resumes his
+natural position, breaks the silence by means of natural discourse, and
+begins to carve for his family or his friends.
+
+This is the ordinary way of proceeding in Quaker families, when alone,
+or in ordinary company. But if a minister happens to be at the table,
+the master of the family, conceiving such a man to be more in the habit
+of religious impressions than himself, or any ordinary person, looks up
+as it were to him, as to a channel, from whence it is possible, that
+such religious exercise may come. If the minister, during the solemn,
+silent pause, is impressed, he gives utterance as before: if not, he
+relieves himself from his grave and thoughtful position, and breaks the
+silence of the company by engaging in natural discourse. After this the
+company proceed to their meals.
+
+If I were to be asked whether the graces of the Quakers were frequent, I
+should reply in the negative. I never heard any delivered, but when a
+minister was present. The ordinary grace therefore of private families
+consists in a solemn, silent, pause, between the time of sitting down to
+the table and the note of carving the victuals, during which an
+opportunity is given for the excitement of religious feelings. A person
+may dine fifty times at the tables of the Quakers, and see no other
+substitution for grace than this temporary silent pause.
+
+Indeed no other grace than this can be consistent with
+Quaker-principles. It was coeval with the institution of the society,
+and must continue while it lasts. For thanksgiving is an act of
+devotion. Now no act, in the opinion of the Quakers, can be devotional
+or spiritual, except it originate from above. Men, in religious matters
+can do nothing of themselves, or without the divine aid. And they must
+therefore wait in silence for this spiritual help, as well in the case
+of grace, as in the case of any other kind of devotion, if they mean
+their praise or thanksgiving on such occasions to be an act of religion.
+
+There is in the Quaker-grace, and its accompaniments, whenever it is
+uttered, an apparent beauty and an apparent solemnity, which are seldom
+conspicuous in those of others. How few are there, who repeat the common
+artificial graces feelingly, and with minds intent upon the subject!
+Grace is usually said as a mere ceremony or custom. The Supreme Being is
+just thanked in so many words, while the thoughts are often rambling to
+other subjects. The Quaker-grace, on the other hand, whenever it is
+uttered; does not come out in any mechanical form of words which men
+have used before, but in expressions adapted to the feelings. It comes
+forth also warm from the heart. It comes after a solemn, silent, pause,
+and it becomes therefore, under all these circumstances, an act of real
+solemnity and genuine devotion.
+
+It is astonishing how little even men of acknowledged piety seem to have
+their minds fixed upon the ideas contained in the mechanical graces they
+repeat. I was one afternoon at a friends house, where there happened to
+be a clergyman of the Scottish church. He was a man deservedly esteemed
+for his piety. The company was large. Politics had been discussed some
+time, when the tea-things were introduced. While the bread and butter
+were bringing in, the clergyman, who had taken an active part in the
+discussion, put a question to a gentleman, who was sitting in a corner
+of the room. The gentleman began to reply, and was proceeding in his
+answer, when of a sudden I heard a solemn voice. Being surprised, I
+looked round, and found it was the clergyman, who had suddenly started
+up, and was saying grace. The solemnity, with which he spoke, occasioned
+his voice to differ so much from its ordinary tone, that I did not, till
+I had looked about me, discover who the speaker was. I think he might be
+engaged from three or four minutes in the delivery of this grace. I
+could not help thinking, during the delivery of it, that I never knew
+any person say grace like this man. Nor was I ever so much moved with
+any grace, or thought I ever saw so dearly the propriety of saying
+grace, as on this occasion. But when I found that on the very instant
+the grace was over politics were resumed; when I found that, no sooner
+had the last word in the grace been pronounced, than the next, which
+came from the clergyman himself, began by desiring the gentleman before
+mentioned to go on with his reply to his own political question, I was
+so struck with the inconsistency of the thing, that the beauty and
+solemnity of his grace all vanished. This sudden transition from
+politics to grace, and from grace to politics, afforded a proof that
+artificial sentences might be so frequently repeated, as to fail to
+re-excite their first impressions, or that certain expressions, which
+might have constituted devotional acts under devotional feeling, might
+relapse into heartless forms.
+
+I should not wish, by the relation of this anecdote, to be understood as
+reflecting in the slightest manner on the practice of the Scottish
+church. I know well the general sobriety, diligence, piety and religious
+example of its ministers. I mentioned it merely to shew, that even where
+the religious character of a person was high, his mind, by the frequent
+repetition of the same forms of expression on the same occasions, might
+frequently lose sight of the meaning and force of the words as they were
+uttered, so that he might pronounce them without that spiritual feeling,
+which can alone constitute a religious exercise.
+
+
+
+
+CHAP. VII.
+
+_Customs at and after meals--Quakers never drink healths at dinner--nor
+toasts after dinner--the drinking of toasts a heathen custom--interrupts
+often the innocence--and leads to the intoxication of the company--anecdote
+of Judge Hale--Quakers sometimes in embarrassing situations on account of
+this omission--Quaker-women seldom retire after dinner, and leave the men
+drinking--Quakers a sober people._
+
+
+The Quakers though they are occasionally found in the custom of saying
+grace, do not, as I have stated, either use it as regularly, or in the
+same manner as other christians.
+
+Neither do they at their meals, or after their meals, use the same
+ceremonies as others. They have exploded the unmeaning and troublesome
+custom of drinking healths at their dinners.
+
+This custom the Quakers have rejected upon the principle, that it has no
+connection with true civility. They consider it as officious,
+troublesome, and even embarrassing, on some occasions. To drink to a
+man, when he is lifting his victuals to his mouth, and by calling off
+his attention, to make him drop them, or to interrupt two people, who
+are eating and talking together, and to break the thread of their
+discourse, seems to be an action, as rude in its principle, as
+disagreeable in its effects, nor is the custom often less troublesome to
+the person drinking the health, than to the person whose health is
+drank. If a man finds two people engaged in conversation he must wait
+till he catches their eyes, before he can drink himself. A man may also
+often be put into a delicate and difficult situation, to know whom to
+drink to first, and whom second, and may be troubled, lest, by drinking
+improperly to one before another, he may either be reputed awkward, or
+may become the occasion of offence. They consider also the custom of
+drinking healths at dinner as unnecessary, and as tending to no useful
+end. It must be obvious that a man may wish another his health, full as
+much without drinking it, as by drinking it with his glass in his hand.
+And it must be equally obvious that wishes, expressed in this manner,
+can have no medicinal effect.
+
+With respect to the custom of drinking healths at dinner, I may observe
+that the innovation, which the Quakers seem to have been the first to
+have made upon the practice of it, has been adopted by many, not out of
+compliance with their example, but on account of the trouble and
+inconveniences attending it; that the custom is not now so general as it
+was; that in the higher and more fashionable circles it has nearly been
+exploded; and that, among some of the other classes of society, it is
+gradually declining.
+
+With respect to the custom of drinking toasts after dinner, the Quakers
+have rejected it for various reasons.
+
+They have rejected it first, because, however desirable it may be that
+Christians should follow the best customs of the heathens, it would be a
+reproach to them to follow the worst. Or, in other words, it would be
+improper for men, whose religion required spirituality of thought and
+feeling, to imitate the heathens in the manner of their enjoyment of
+sensual pleasures. The laws and customs of drinking, the Quakers
+observe, are all of heathen origin. The similitude between these and
+those of modern tunes is too remarkable to be overlooked; and too
+striking not to warrant them in concluding, that christens have taken
+their model on this subject from Pagan practice.
+
+In every Grecian family, where company was invited, the master of it was
+considered to be the king or president of the feast, in his own house.
+He was usually denominated the eye of the company. It was one of his
+offices to look about and to see that his guests drank their proper
+portions of the wine. It was another to keep peace and harmony among
+them. For these purposes his word was law. At entertainments at the
+public expence the same office existed, but the person, then appointed
+to it, was nominated either by lot, or by the votes of the persons
+present.--This custom obtains among the moderns. The master of every
+family at the present day presides at his own table for the same
+purposes. And at great and public dinners at taverns, a similar officer
+is appointed, who is generally chosen by the committee, who first meet
+for the proposal of the feast.
+
+One of the first toasts, that were usually drank among the ancient
+Greeks, was to the "gods." This entirely corresponds with the modern
+idea of church; and if the government had been only coupled with the
+gods in these ancient times, it would have precisely answered to the
+modern toast of church and state.
+
+It was also usual at the entertainments, given by Grecian families, to
+drink the prosperity of those persons, for whom they entertained a
+friendship, but who happened to be absent. No toast can better coincide
+than this, with that, which is so frequently given, of our absent
+friends.
+
+It was also a Grecian practice for each of the guests to name his
+particular friend, and sometimes also his particular mistress. The
+moderns have also a parallel for this. Every person gives (to use the
+common phrase) his gentleman, and his lady, in his turn.
+
+It is well known to have been the usage of the ancient Greeks, at their
+entertainments, either to fill or to have had their cups filled for them
+to the brim. The moderns do precisely the same thing. Glasses so
+filled, have the particular name of bumpers: and however vigilantly an
+ancient Greek might have looked after his guests, and made them drink
+their glasses filled in this manner, the presidents of modern times are
+equally vigilant in enforcing adherence to the same custom.
+
+It was an ancient practice also with the same people to drink three
+glasses when the graces, and nine when the muses were named: and three
+and three times three were drank on particular occasions. This barbarous
+practice has fortunately not come down to the moderns to its full
+extent, but they have retained the remembrance of it, and celebrated it
+in part, by following up their toasts, on any extraordinary occasion,
+not with three or nine glasses of wine, but with three or nine cheers.
+
+Among the ancients beforementioned, if any of the persons present were
+found deficient in drinking their proper portions, they were ordered by
+the president either to drink them or to leave the room. This usage has
+been a little altered by the moderns. They do not order those persons to
+leave the company, who do not comply with the same rules of drinking as
+the rest, but they subject them to be fined, as it is termed, that is,
+they oblige them to drink double portions for their deficiency, or
+punish them in some other manner.
+
+From hence it will be obvious that the laws of drinking are of heathen
+origin; that is, the custom of drinking toasts originated, as the
+Quakers contend, with men of heathen minds and affections for a sensual
+purpose; and it is therefore a custom, they believe; which men of
+christian minds and affections should never follow.
+
+The Quakers have rejected the custom again, because they consider it to
+be inconsistent with their christian character in other respects. They
+consider it as morally injurious; for toasts frequently excite and
+promote indelicate ideas, and thus sometimes interrupt the innocence of
+conversation.
+
+They consider it as morally injurious again, because the drinking of
+toasts has a direct tendency to promote drunkenness.
+
+They, who have been much in company, must have had repeated
+opportunities of witnessing, that this idea of the Quakers is founded in
+truth, men are undoubtedly stimulated to drink more than they like, and
+to become intoxicated in consequence of the use of toasts. If a man has
+no objection to drink toasts at all, he must drink that which the master
+of the house proposes, and it is usual in this case to fill a bumper.
+Respect to his host is considered as demanding this. Thus one full glass
+is secured to him at the outset. He must also drink a bumper to the
+king, another to church and state, and another to the army and navy. He
+would, in many companies, be thought hostile to government, if, in the
+habit of drinking toasts, he were to refuse to drink these, or to honour
+these in the same manner. Thus three additional glasses are entailed
+upon him. He must also drink a bumper to his own toast. He would be
+thought to dishonour the person, whose health he had given, if he were
+to fail in this. Thus a fifth glass is added to his share. He must fill
+a little besides to every other toast, or he is considered as deficient
+in respect to the person, who has proposed it. Thus many additional
+glasses are forced upon him. By this time the wine begins to act, when
+new toasts, of a new nature assail his ear, and he is stimulated to new
+potions. There are many toasts of so patriotic, and others of so
+generous and convivial a nature that a man is looked upon as
+disaffected, or as devoid of sentiment, who refuses them. Add to this,
+that there is a sort of shame, which the young and generous in
+particular feel in being outdone, and in not keeping pace with the rest,
+on such occasions. Thus toast being urged after toast, and shame acting
+upon shame, a variety of causes conspires at the same moment to drive
+him on, till the liquor at length overcomes him and he falls eventually
+a victim to its power.
+
+It will be manifest from this account that the laws of drinking, by
+which the necessity of drinking a certain number of toasts is enjoined,
+by which bumpers are attached to certain classes of toasts, by which a
+stigma is affixed to a non-compliance with the terms, by which in fact a
+regular system of etiquette is established, cannot but lead, except a
+man is uncommonly resolute or particularly on his guard, to
+intoxication. We see indeed instances of men drinking glass after glass,
+because stimulated in this manner, even against their own inclination,
+nay even against the determination they had made before they went into
+company, till they have made themselves quite drunk. But had there been
+no laws of drinking, or no toasts, we cannot see any reason why the same
+persons should not have returned sober to their respective homes.
+
+It is recorded of the great Sir Matthew Hale, who is deservedly placed
+among the great men of our country, that in his early youth he had been
+in company, where the party had drunk to such excess, that one of them
+fell down apparently dead. Quitting the room, he implored forgiveness of
+the Almighty for this excessive intemperance in himself and his
+companions, and made a vow, that he would never drink another health
+while he lived. This vow he kept to his dying day. It is hardly
+necessary for me to remark that he would never have come to such a
+resolution, if he had not believed, either that the drinking of toasts
+had produced the excesses of that day, or that the custom led so
+naturally to intoxication, that it became his duty to suppress it.
+
+The Quakers having rejected the use of toasts upon the principles
+assigned, are sometimes placed in a difficult situation, in which there
+is an occasion for the trial of their courage, in consequence of mixing
+with others, by whom the custom is still followed.
+
+In companies, to which they are invited in regular families, they are
+seldom put to any disagreeable dilemma in this respect. The master of
+the house, if in the habit of giving toasts, generally knowing the
+custom of the Quakers in this instance, passes over any Quaker who may
+be present, and calls upon his next neighbour for a toast. Good breeding
+and hospitality demand that such indulgence and exception should be
+given.
+
+There are situations, however, in which their courage is often tried.
+One of the worst in which a a Quaker can be placed, and in which he is
+frequently placed, is that of being at a common room in an inn, where a
+number of other travellers dine and sup together. In such companies
+things are seldom conducted so much to his satisfaction in this respect,
+as in those described. In general as the bottle passes, some jocose hint
+is conveyed to him about the toast; and though this is perhaps done with
+good humour, his feelings are wounded by it. At other times when the
+company are of a less liberal complexion, there is a determination, soon
+understood among one another, to hunt him down, as if he were fair game.
+A toast is pressed upon him, though all know that it is not his custom
+to drink it. On refusing, they begin to teaze him. One jokes with him.
+Another banters him. Toasts both illiberal and indelicate, are at length
+introduced; and he has no alternative but that of bearing the banter, or
+quitting the room. I have seen a Quaker in such a company (and at such a
+distance from home, that the transaction in all probability never could
+have been known, had he, in order to free himself from their attacks,
+conformed to their custom) bearing all their raillery with astonishing
+firmness, and courageously struggling against the stream. It is
+certainly an awkward thing for a solitary Quaker to fall in such
+companies, and it requires considerable courage to preserve singularity
+in the midst of the prejudices of ignorant and illiberal men.
+
+This custom, however, of drinking toasts after dinner, is, like the
+former of drinking healths at dinner, happily declining. It is much to
+the credit of those, who move in the higher circles, that they have
+generally exploded both. It may be probably owing to this circumstance,
+that though we find persons of this description labouring under the
+imputation of levity and dissipation, we yet find them respectable for
+the sobriety of their lives. Drunkenness indeed forms no part of their
+character, nor, generally speaking, is it a vice of the present age as
+it has been of former ages; and there seems to be little doubt, that in
+proportion as the custom of drinking healths and toasts, but more
+particularly the latter, is suppressed, this vice will become less a
+trait in the national character.
+
+There are one or two customs of the Quakers, which I shall notice before
+I conclude this chapter.
+
+It is one of the fashions of the world, where people meet in company,
+for men and women, when the dinner is over, to drink their wine
+together, and for the women, having done this for a short time, to
+retire. This custom of the females withdrawing after dinner was probably
+first insisted upon from an idea, that their presence would be a
+restraint upon the circulation of the bottle, as well as upon the
+conversation of the men. The Quakers, however, seldom submit to this
+practice. Men and women generally sit together and converse as before
+dinner. I do not mean by this that women may not retire if they please,
+because there is no restraint upon any one in the company of the
+Quakers; nor do I mean to say, that women do not occasionally retire,
+and leave the men at their wine. There are a few rich families, which,
+having mixed more than usual with the world, allow of this separation.
+But where one allows it, there are ninety-nine, who give wine to their
+company after dinner, who do not. It is not a Quaker-custom, that in a
+given time after dinner, the one should be separated from the other sex.
+
+It is a pity that the practice of the Quakers should not have been
+adopted by others of our own country in this particular. Many advantages
+would result to those, who were to follow the example. For if women were
+allowed to remain, chastity of expression and decorum of behaviour would
+be more likely to be insured. There presence also would operate as a
+check upon drunkenness. Nor can there be a doubt, that women would
+enliven and give a variety to conversation; and, as they have had a
+different education from men, that an opportunity of mutual improvement
+might be afforded by the continuance of the two in the society of one
+another.
+
+It is also usual with the world in such companies, that the men, when
+the females have retired, should continue drinking till tea-time. This
+custom is unknown to the Quakers, even to those few Quakers, who allow
+of a separation of the sexes. It is not unusual with them to propose a
+walk before tea, if the weather permit. But even in the case where they
+remain at the table, their time is spent rather in conversing than in
+drinking. They have no toasts, as I have observed, which should induce
+them to put the bottle round in a given time, or which should oblige
+them to take a certain number of glasses. The bottle, however, is
+usually put round, and each helps himself as he pleases. At length one
+of the guests, having had sufficient, declines filling his glass.
+Another, in a little time, declines also for the same cause. A third,
+after having taken what he thinks sufficient, follows the example. The
+wine is soon afterwards taken away, and this mostly long before the hour
+of drinking tea. Neither drunkenness, nor any situation approaching to
+drunkenness, is known in the Quaker companies. Excess in drinking is
+strictly forbidden by the laws of the society. It is a subject of one of
+their queries. It is of course a subject that is often brought to their
+recollection. Whatever may be the faults of the Quakers, they must be
+acknowledged to be a SOBER PEOPLE.
+
+END OF THE FIRST VOLUME.
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A PORTRAITURE OF QUAKERISM, VOLUME I
+(OF 3)***
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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, A Portraiture of Quakerism, Volume I (of 3),
+by Thomas Clarkson
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: A Portraiture of Quakerism, Volume I (of 3)
+
+Author: Thomas Clarkson
+
+Release Date: March 4, 2005  [eBook #15260]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII)
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A PORTRAITURE OF QUAKERISM, VOLUME
+I (OF 3)***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Carlo Traverso, Graeme Mackreth, and the Project
+Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team from images generously made
+available by the Bibliothèque nationale de France (BnF/Gallica) at
+http://gallica.bnf.fr.
+
+
+
+A PORTRAITURE OF QUAKERISM, VOLUME I
+
+Taken from a View of the Education and Discipline, Social Manners,
+Civil and Political Economy, Religious Principles and Character, of
+the Society of Friends
+
+by
+
+THOMAS CLARKSON, M.A.
+
+1806.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: THOMAS CLARKSON, A.M.]
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS OF THE FIRST VOLUME.
+
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+PREFATORY ARRANGEMENTS AND REMARKS
+
+
+
+MORAL EDUCATION.
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+_Amusements distinguishable into useful and hurtful--the latter
+specified and forbidden_.
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+SECT. I.--_Games of chance forbidden--history of the origin of some of
+these_.
+
+SECT. II.--_Forbidden as below the dignity of the intellect of man, and
+of his christian character_.
+
+SECT. III.--_As producing an excitement of the passions, unfavourable to
+religious impressions--historical anecdotes of this excitement_.
+
+SECT. IV.--_As tending to produce, by the introduction of habits of
+gaming, an alteration in the moral character_.
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+SECT. I.--_Music forbidden--instrumental innocent in itself, but greatly
+abused--the use of it almost inseparable from its abuse at the present
+day_.
+
+SECT. II.--_Quakers cannot learn instrumental on the usual motives of
+the world--nor consider it as a source of moral improvement, or of
+solid comfort to the mind--but are fearful that, if indulged in, it
+would interfere with the Christian duty of religious retirement_.
+
+SECT III.--_Quakers cannot learn vocal, because, on account of its
+articulative powers, it is capable of becoming detrimental to
+morals--its tendency to this, as discoverable by an analysis of
+different classes of songs_.
+
+SECT IV.--_The preceding the arguments of the early Quaker--but the new
+state of music has produced others--these explained_.
+
+SECT V.--_An objection stated to the different arguments of the Quakers
+on this subject--their reply_.
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+SECT I.--_The Theatre forbidden--short history of its origin--and of its
+state and progress_.
+
+SECT II.--_Manner of the drama objected to by the Quakers--as it
+personates the characters of others--and it professes to reform vice_.
+
+SECT III.--_Contents of the drama objected to--as they hold our false
+sentiments--and weaken the sinews of morality_.
+
+SECT IV.--_Theater considered by the Quakers to be injurious to the
+happiness of man, as it disqualifies him for the pleasure of religion_.
+
+SECT V.--_To be injurious to the happiness of man, as it disqualifies
+him for domestic enjoyments_.
+
+SECT VI.--_Opinions of the early Christians on this subject_.
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+SECT. I.--_Dancing forbidden--light in which this subject has been
+viewed both by the ancients and the moderns--Quakers principally object
+to it, where it is connected with public assemblies--they conceive it
+productive, in this case, of a frivolous levity, and of an excitement of
+many of the evil passions_.
+
+SECT. II--_These arguments of the Quakers, on dancing, examined in
+three supposed cases put to a moral philosopher_.
+
+SECT. III.--_These arguments further elucidated by a display of the
+Ball-room_.
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+_Novels forbidden--considered by the Quakers as producing an affectation
+of knowledge--a romantic spirit--and a perverted morality_.
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+SECT. I--_Diversions of the field forbidden--general thoughtlessness
+upon this subject--sentiments of some of our best poets--law of the
+Quakers concerning it_.
+
+SECT. II.--_Consistency of this law examined by the morality, which is
+inculcated by the Old Testament_.
+
+SECT. III.--_Examined by the morality of the New--these employments, if
+resorted to as diversions, pronounced, in both cases, to be a breach of
+a moral law_.
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+_Objections to the preceding system, which includes these different
+prohibitions, as a system of moral education_.
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+SECT. I.--_Reply of the Quakers to these objections_.
+
+SECT. II.--_Further reply of the Quakers on the same subject_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+DISCIPLINE.
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+SECT. I.--_Outlines of the discipline of the Quakers_.
+
+SECT. II.--_Manner of the administration of this discipline_.
+
+SECT. III.--_Charges usually brought against the administration of
+it--observations in answer in these charges_.
+
+SECT. IV.--_The principles of this discipline applicable to the
+discipline of larger societies, or to the criminal codes of
+states--beautiful example in Pennsylvania_.
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+_Monthly court or meeting of the Quakers for the purposes of their
+discipline--nature and manner of the business transacted there_.
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+_Quarterly court or meeting for the same purposes--nature and manner of
+the business there_.
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+_Annual court or meeting for the same purposes--nature and manner of the
+business there--striking peculiarities in this manner--character of this
+discipline or government_.
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+_Excommunication or disowning--nature of disowning as a punishment_.
+
+
+
+PECULIAR CUSTOMS.
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+SECT. I.--_Dress--extravagance of the dress of the fifteenth and
+sixteenth centuries--plain manner in which the grave and religious were
+then habited--the Quakers sprang out of these_.
+
+SECT. II.--_Quakers carried with them their plain dresses into their new
+society--extravagance of the world continuing, they defined the objects
+of dress as a Christian people--at length incorporated it into their
+discipline--hence their present dress is only a less deviation from that
+of their ancestors, than that of other people_.
+
+SECT. III.--_Objections of the world to the Quaker dress--those
+examined--a comparison between the language of Quakerism and of
+Christianity on this subject--opinion of the early Christians upon it._
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+_Furniture--the Quakers use plain furniture--reasons for their
+singularities in this respect._
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+SECT. I.--_Language--Quakers have altered the common
+language--substitution of Thou for You--reasons for this
+change--opinions of many learned men concerning it._
+
+SECT. II.--_Various other alterations made--as in titled of address--and
+of honour--reasons for these changes._
+
+SECT. III.--_Another alteration--as in the names of the days and the
+months--reasons for this change--various new phrases also introduced._
+
+SECT. IV.--_Objections by the world against the alteration of Thou for
+You._
+
+SECT. V.--_Against that of titles of address and honour._
+
+SECT. VI.--_Against that of the names of the days and months._
+
+SECT. VIII.--_Advantages and disadvantages of these alterations by the
+Quaker language._
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+_Address--common personal gestures or worldly ceremonies of address
+forbidden--no exception in favour of royalty--reasons against the disuse
+of these._
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+_Manners and conversation--hospitality and freedom in Quakers'
+houses--their conversation more limited than that of others--subjects of
+conversation examined in our towns--and in the metropolis--extraordinary
+circumstance that takes place occasionally in the company of the
+Quakers._
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+_Customs before meals--ancients made an oblation to Vesta--moderns have
+substituted grace--account of a Quaker-grace._
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+_Customs at and after meals--Quakers never drink healths or
+toasts--various reasons for their disuse of these customs--and seldom
+allow women to retire after dinner and leave the men drinking--Quakers a
+sober people._
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+
+MOTIVES FOR THE UNDERTAKING--ORIGIN OF THE NAME OF QUAKERS--GEORGE FOX,
+THE FOUNDER OF THE SOCIETY-SHORT HISTORY OF HIS LIFE.
+
+From the year 1787, when I began to devote my labours to the abolition
+of the slave trade, I was thrown frequently into the company of the
+people, called Quakers, these people had been then long unanimous upon
+this subject. Indeed they had placed it among the articles of their
+religious discipline. Their houses were of course open to me in all
+parts of the kingdom. Hence I came to a knowledge of their living
+manners, which no other person, who was not a Quaker, could have easily
+obtained.
+
+As soon as I became possessed of this knowledge, or at least of so much
+of it, as to feel that it was considerable, I conceived a desire of
+writing their moral history. I believed I should be able to exhibit to
+the rest of the world many excellent customs, of which they were
+ignorant, but which it might be useful to them to know. I believed too,
+that I should be affording to the Quakers themselves, some lessons of
+utility, by letting them see, as it were in a glass, the reflection of
+their own images. I felt also a great desire, amidst these
+considerations, to do them justice; for ignorance and prejudice had
+invented many expressions concerning them, to the detriment of their
+character, which their conduct never gave me reason to suppose, during
+all my intercourse with them, to be true.
+
+Nor was I without the belief, that such a history might afford
+entertainment to many. The Quakers, as every body knows, differ more
+than even many foreigners do, from their own countrymen. They adopt a
+singular mode of language. Their domestic customs are peculiar. They
+have renounced religious ceremonies, which all other christians, in some
+form or other, have retained. They are distinguished from all the other
+islanders by their dress. These differences are great and striking. And
+I thought therefore that those, who were curious in the development of
+character, might be gratified in knowing the principles, which produced
+such numerous exceptions from the general practices of the world.
+
+But though I had conceived from the operation of these sentiments upon
+my mind, as long ago as I have stated, a strong desire to write the
+moral history of the Quakers, yet my incessant occupations on the
+subject of the slave-trade, and indisposition of body afterwards, in
+consequence of the great mental exertions necessary in such a cause,
+prevented me from attempting my design. At length these causes of
+prevention ceased. But when, after this, the subject recurred, I did not
+seem to have the industry and perseverance, though I had still the
+inclination left, for the undertaking. Time, however, continued to steal
+on, till at length I began to be apprehensive, but more particularly
+within the last two years, that, if I were to delay my work much longer,
+I might not live to begin it at all. This consideration operated upon
+me. But I was forcibly struck by another, namely, that, if I were not to
+put my hand to the task, the Quakers would probably continue to be as
+little known to their fellow-citizens, as they are at present. For I did
+not see who was ever to give a full and satisfactory account of them. It
+is true indeed, that there are works, written by Quakers, from which a
+certain portion of their history, and an abstract of their religious
+principles, might be collected; but none, from whence their living
+manners could be taken. It is true also that others, of other religious
+denominations, have written concerning them; but of those authors, who
+have mentioned them in the course of their respective writings, not one,
+to my knowledge, has given a correct account of them. It would be
+tedious to dwell on the errors of Mosheim, or of Formey, or of Hume, or
+on those to be found in many of the modern periodical[1] publications.
+It seemed, therefore, from the circumstance of my familiar intercourse
+with the Quakers, that it devolved upon me particularly to write their
+history. And I was the more confirmed in my opinion, because, in looking
+forward, I was never able to foresee the time when any other cause would
+equally, with that of the slave-trade, bring any other person, who was
+not of the society, into such habits of friendship with the Quakers, as
+that he should obtain an equal degree of knowledge concerning them with
+myself. By this new consideration I was more than ordinarily stimulated,
+and I began my work.
+
+[Footnote 1: I must except Dr. Toulmin's revision of Neal's history of
+the Puritans. One or two publications have appeared since, written, in a
+liberal spirit, but they are confined principally to the religious
+principles of the Quakers.]
+
+It is not improbable but some may imagine from the account already
+given, that this work will be a partial one, or that it will lean, more
+than it ought to do, in favour of the Quakers. I do not pretend to say,
+that I shall be utterly able to divest myself of all undue influence,
+which their attention towards me may have produced, or that I shall be
+utterly unbiased, when I consider them as fellow-labourers in the work
+of the abolition of the slave-trade; for if others had put their
+shoulders to the wheel equally with them on the occasion, one of the
+greatest causes of human misery, and moral evil, that was ever known in
+the world, had been long ago annihilated, nor can I conceal, that I have
+a regard for men, of whom it is a just feature in their character, that,
+whenever they can be brought to argue upon political subjects, they
+reason upon principle, and not upon consequences; for if this mode of
+reasoning had been adopted by others, but particularly by men in exalted
+stations, policy had given way to moral justice, and there had been but
+little public wickedness in the world. But though I am confessedly
+partial to the Quakers on account of their hospitality to me, and on
+account of the good traits in their moral character, I am not so much
+so, as to be blind to their imperfections. Quakerism is of itself a pure
+system, and, if followed closely, will lead towards purity and
+perfection; but I know well that all, who profess it, are not Quakers.
+The deviation therefore of their practice from their profession, and
+their frailties and imperfections, I shall uniformly lay open to them,
+wherever I believe them to exist. And this I shall do, not because I
+wish to avoid the charge of partiality, but from a belief, that it is my
+duty to do it.
+
+The society, of which I am to speak, are called[2] Quakers by the world,
+but are known to each other by the name of friends, a beautiful
+appellation, and characteristic of the relation, which man, under the
+christian dispensation, ought uniformly to bear to man.
+
+[Footnote 2: Justice Bennet of Derby gave the society the name of
+Quakers in the year 1650, because the founder of it ordered him, and
+those present with him, to tremble at the word of the Lord.]
+
+The Founder of the society was George Fox He was born of "honest and
+sufficient parents," at Drayton in Leicestershire, in the year 1624. He
+was put out, when young, according to his own account, to a man, who was
+a shoe-maker by trade, and who dealt in wool, and followed grazing, and
+sold cattle. But it appears from William Penn, who became a member of
+the society, and was acquainted with him that he principally followed
+the country-part of his master's business. He took a great delight in
+sheep, "an employment," says Penn, "that very well suited his mind in
+some respects, both for its innocency and its solitude, and was a just
+figure of his after ministry and service."
+
+In his youth he manifested a seriousness of spirit, not usual in persons
+of his age. This seriousness grew upon him, and as it encreased he
+encouraged it, so that in the year 1643, or in the twentieth year of
+his age, he conceived himself, in consequence of the awful impression
+he had received, to be called upon to separate himself from the world,
+and to devote himself to religion.
+
+At this time the Church of England, as a Protestant church, had been
+established; and many, who were not satisfied with the settlement of it,
+had formed themselves into different religious sects. There was a great
+number of persons also in the kingdom, who approving neither of the
+religion of the establishment, nor of that of the different
+denominations alluded to, withdrew from the communion of every visible
+church. These were ready to follow any teacher, who might inculcate
+doctrines that coincided with their own apprehensions. Thus for a way
+lay open among many for a cordial reception of George Fox. But of those,
+who had formed different visible churches of their own, it may be
+observed, that though they were prejudiced, the reformation had not
+taken place so long, but that they were still alive to religious
+advancement. Nor had it taken place so long, but that thousands were
+still very ignorant, and stood in need of light and information on that
+subject.
+
+It does not appear, however, that George Fox, for the first three years
+from the time, when he conceived it to be his duty to withdraw from the
+world, had done any thing as a public minister of the gospel. He had
+travelled from the year 1643 to 1646, through the counties of Warwick,
+Leicester, Northampton, and Bedford, and as far as London. In this
+interval he appears to have given himself up to solemn impressions, and
+to have endeavoured to find out as many serious people as he could, with
+a view of conversing with them on the subject of religion.
+
+In 1647 he extended his travels to Derbyshire, and from thence into
+Lancashire, but returned to his native county. He met with many friendly
+people in the course of this journey, and had many serious conversations
+with them, but he never joined in profession with any. At Duckenfield,
+however, and at Manchester, he went among those, whom he termed "the
+professors of religion," and according to his own expressions, "he staid
+a while and declared truth among them." Of these some were convinced but
+others were enraged, being startled at his doctrine of perfection. At
+Broughton in Leicestershire, we find him attending a meeting of the
+Baptists, at which many of other denominations were present. Here he
+spoke publicly, and convinced many. After this he went back to the
+county of Nottingham. And here a report having gone abroad, that he was
+an extraordinary young man, many, both priests and people, came far and
+near to see him.
+
+In 1648 he confined his movements to a few counties. In this year we
+find him becoming a public character. In Nottinghamshire he delivered
+himself in public at three different meetings, consisting either of
+priests and professors, as he calls them, or professors and people. In
+Warwickshire he met with a great company of professors, who were praying
+and expounding the scriptures, in the fields. Here he discoursed
+largely, and the hearers fell into contention, and so parted. In
+Leicestershire he attended another meeting, consisting of Church people,
+Presbyterians, Independents, and Baptists, where he spoke publicly
+again. This meeting was held in a church. The persons present discoursed
+and reasoned. Questions were propounded, and answers followed. An answer
+given by George Fox, in which he stated that "the church was the pillar
+and ground of truth, and that it did not consist of a mixed multitude,
+or of an old house, made up of lime, stones, and wood, but of living
+stones, living members, and a spiritual household, of which Christ was
+the head," set them all on fire. The clergyman left the pulpit, the
+people their pews, and the meeting separated. George Fox, however, went
+afterwards to an Inn, where he argued with priests and professors of all
+sorts. Departing from thence, he took up his abode for some time in the
+vale of Beevor, where he preached Repentance, and convinced many. He
+then returned into Nottinghamshire, and passed from thence into
+Derbyshire, in both which counties his doctrines spread. And, after
+this, warning Justices of the Peace, as he travelled along, to do
+justice, and notoriously wicked men to amend their lives, he came into
+the vale of Beevor again. In this vale it was that he received,
+according to his own account, his commission from divine authority, by
+means of impressions on his mind, in consequence of which he conceived
+it to be discovered to him, among other things, that he was "to turn the
+people from darkness to the light." By this time he had converted many
+hundreds to his opinions, and divers meetings of Friends, to use his own
+expression, "had been then gathered."
+
+The year 1649 was ushered in by new labours. He was employed
+occasionally in writing to judges and justices to do justice, and in
+warning persons to fulfil the duties of their respective stations in
+life.
+
+This year was the first of all his years of suffering. For it happened
+on a Sunday morning, that, coming in sight of the town of Nottingham,
+and seeing the great church, he felt an impression on his mind to go
+there. On hearing a part of the sermon, he was so struck with what he
+supposed to be the erroneous doctrine it contained, that he could not
+help publicly contradicting it. For this interruption of the service he
+was seized, and afterwards confined in prison. At Mansfield again, as he
+was declaring his own religious opinions in the church, the people fell
+upon him and beat and bruised him, and put him afterwards in the stocks.
+At Market Bosworth he was stoned and driven out of the place. At
+Chesterfield he addressed both the clergyman and the people, but they
+carried him before the mayor, who detained him till late at night, at
+which unseasonable time the officers and watchmen put him out of the
+town.
+
+And here I would observe, before I proceed to the occurrences of another
+year, that there is reason to believe that George Fox disapproved of his
+own conduct in having interrupted the service of the church at
+Nottingham, which I have stated to have been the first occasion of his
+imprisonment. For if he believed any one of his actions, with which the
+world had been offended, to have been right, he repeated it, as
+circumstances called it forth, though he was sure of suffering for it
+either from the magistrates or the people. But he never repeated this,
+but he always afterwards, when any occasion of religious controversy
+occurred in any of the churches, where his travels lay, uniformly
+suspended his observations, till the service was over.
+
+George Fox spent almost the whole of the next year, that is, of the year
+1650, in confinement in Derby Prison.
+
+In 1651, when he was set at liberty, he seems not to have been in the
+least disheartened by the treatment he had received there, or at the
+different places before mentioned, but to have resumed his travels, and
+to have held religious meetings, as he went along. He had even the
+boldness to go into Litchfield, because he imagined it to be his duty,
+and, with his shoes off to pronounce with an audible voice in the
+streets, and this on the market-day, a woe against that city. He
+continued also to visit the churches, as he journeyed, in the time of
+divine service, and to address the priests and the people publicly, as
+he saw occasion, but not, as I observed before, till he believed the
+service to be over. It does not appear, however, that he suffered any
+interruption upon these occasions, in the course of the present year,
+except at York-Minster; where, as he was beginning to preach after the
+sermon, he was hurried out of it, and thrown down the steps by the
+congregation, which was then breaking up. It appears that he had been
+generally well received in the county of York, and that he had convinced
+many.
+
+In the year 1652, after having passed through the shires of Nottingham
+and Lincoln, he came again into Yorkshire. Here, in the course of his
+journey, he ascended Pendle-Hill. At the top of this he apprehended it
+was opened to him, whither he was to direct his future steps, and that
+he saw a great host of people, who were to be converted by him in the
+course of his ministry. From this time we may consider him as having
+received his commission full and complete in his own mind. For in the
+vale of Beevor he conceived himself to have been informed of the various
+doctrines, which it became his duty to teach, and, on this occasion, to
+have had an insight of the places where he was to spread them.
+
+To go over his life, even in the concise way, in which I have hitherto
+attempted it, would be to swell this introduction into a volume. I shall
+therefore, from this great period of his ministry, make only the
+following simple statement concerning it.
+
+He continued his labours, as a minister of the gospel, and even
+preached, within two days of his death.
+
+During this time he had settled meetings in most parts of the kingdom,
+and had given to these the foundation of that beautiful system of
+discipline, which I shall explain in this volume, and which exists among
+the Quakers at the present day.
+
+He had travelled over England, Scotland, and Wales. He had been in
+Ireland. He had visited the British West-Indies, and America. He had
+extended his travels to Holland, and part of Germany.
+
+He had written, in this interval, several religious books, and had
+addressed letters to kings, princes, magistrates, and people, as he felt
+impressions on his mind, which convinced him, that it become his duty to
+do it.
+
+He had experienced also, during this interval, great bodily sufferings.
+He had been long and repeatedly confined in different gaols of the
+kingdom. The state of the gaols, in these times, is not easily to be
+conceived. That of Doomsdale at Launceston in Cornwall, has never been
+exceeded for filth and pestilential noisomeness, nor those of Lancaster
+and Scarborough-castles for exposure to the inclemency of the elements.
+In the two latter he was scarcely ever dry for two years; for the rain
+used to beat into them, and to run down upon the floor. This exposure to
+the severity of the weather occasioned his body and limbs to be
+benumbed, and to swell to a painful size, and laid the foundation, by
+injuring his health, for future occasional sufferings during the
+remainder of his life.
+
+With respect to the religious doctrines, which George Fox inculcated
+during his ministry, it is not necessary to speak of them here, as they
+will be detailed in their proper places. I must observe, however, that
+he laid a stress upon many things, which the world considered to be of
+little moment, but which his followers thought to be entirely worthy of
+his spiritual calling. He forbade all the modes and gestures, which are
+used as tokens of obeisance, or flattery, or honour, among men. He
+insisted on the necessity of plain speech or language. He declaimed
+against all sorts of music. He protested against the exhibitions of the
+theatre, and many of the accustomary diversions of the times. The early
+Quakers, who followed him in all these points, were considered by some
+as turning the world upside down; but they contended in reply, that they
+were only restoring it to its pure and primitive state; and that they
+had more weighty arguments for acting up to their principles in these
+respects, than others had for condemning them for so doing.
+
+But whatever were the doctrines, whether civil, or moral, or religious,
+which George Fox promulgated, he believed that he had a divine
+commission for teaching them, and that he was to be the RESTORER of
+Christianity; that is, that he was to bring people from Jewish
+ceremonies and Pagan-fables, with which it had been intermixed, and also
+from worldly customs, to a religion which was to consist of spiritual
+feeling. I know not how the world will receive the idea, that he
+conceived himself to have had a revelation for these purposes. But
+nothing is more usual than for pious people, who have succeeded in any
+ordinary work of goodness, to say, that they were providentially led to
+it, and this expression is usually considered among Christians to be
+accurate. But I cannot always find the difference between a man being
+providentially led into a course of virtues and successful action, and
+his having an internal revelation for it. For if we admit that men may
+be providentially led upon such occasions, they must be led by the
+impressions upon their minds. But what are these internal impressions,
+but the dictates of an internal voice to those who follow them? But if
+pious men would believe themselves to have been thus providentially led,
+or acted upon, in any ordinary case of virtue, if it had been crowned
+with success, George Fox would have had equal reason to believe, from
+the success that attended his own particular undertaking, that he had
+been called upon to engage in it. For at a very early age he had
+confuted many of the professors of religion in public disputations. He
+had converted magistrates, priests, and people. Of the clergymen of
+those times some had left valuable livings, and followed him. In his
+thirtieth year he had seen no less than sixty persons, spreading, as
+ministers, his own doctrines. These, and other circumstances which might
+be related, would doubtless operate powerfully upon him to make him
+believe, that he was a chosen vessel. Now, if to these considerations it
+be added, that George Fox was not engaged in any particular or partial
+cause of benevolence, or mercy, or justice, but wholly and exclusively
+in a religious and spiritual work, and that it was the first of all his
+religious doctrines, that the spirit of God, _where men were obedient to
+it, guided them in their spiritual concerns_, he must have believed
+himself, on the consideration of his unparalleled success, to have been
+_providentially led_, or to have had an internal or spiritual commission
+for the cause, which he had undertaken.
+
+But this belief was not confined to himself. His followers believed in
+his commission also. They had seen, like himself, the extraordinary
+success of his ministry. They acknowledged the same internal
+admonitions, or revelations of the same spirit, in spiritual concerns.
+They had been witnesses of his innocent and blameless life. There were
+individuals in the kingdom, who had publicly professed sights and
+prophecies concerning him. At an early age he had been reported, in some
+parts of the country, as a youth, who had a _discerning spirit_. It had
+gone abroad, that he had healed many persons, who had been sick of
+various diseases. Some of his prophecies had come true in the lifetime
+of those, who had heard them delivered. His followers too had seen many,
+who had come purposely to molest and apprehend him, depart quietly, as
+if their anger and their power had been providentially broken. They had
+seen others, who had been his chief persecutors, either falling into
+misfortunes, or dying a miserable or an untimely death. They had seen
+him frequently cast into prison, but always getting out again by means
+of his innocence. From these causes the belief was universal among them,
+that his commission was of divine authority; and they looked upon him
+therefore in no other light, than that of a teacher, who had been sent
+to them from heaven.
+
+George Fox was in his person above the ordinary size. He is described by
+William Penn as a "lusty person." He was graceful in his countenance.
+His eye was particularly piercing, so that some of those, who were
+disputing with him, were unable to bear it. He was, in short, manly,
+dignified, and commanding in his aspect and appearance.
+
+In his manner of living he was temperate. He ate sparingly. He avoided,
+except medicinally, all strong drink.
+
+Notwithstanding the great exercise he was accustomed to take, he allowed
+himself but little sleep.
+
+In his outward demeanour he was modest, and without affectation. He
+possessed a certain gravity of manners, but he was nevertheless affable,
+and courteous, and civil beyond the usual forms of breeding.
+
+In his disposition he was meek, and tender, and compassionate. He was
+kind to the poor, without any exception, and, in his own society, laid
+the foundation of that attention towards them, which the world remarks
+as an honour to the Quaker-character at the present day. But the poor
+were not the only persons, for whom, he manifested an affectionate
+concern. He felt and sympathized wherever humanity could be interested.
+He wrote to the judges on the subject of capital punishments, warning
+them not to take away the lives of persons for theft. On the coast of
+Cornwall he was deeply distressed at finding the inhabitants, more
+intent upon plundering the wrecks of vessels that were driven upon their
+shores, than upon saving the poor and miserable mariners, who were
+clinging to them; and he bore his public testimony against this
+practice, by sending letters to all the clergymen and magistrates in the
+parishes, bordering upon the sea, and reproving them for their
+unchristian conduct In the West-Indies also he exhorted those, who
+attended his meetings to be merciful to their slaves, and to give them
+their freedom in due time. He considered these as belonging to their
+families, and that religious instruction was due to these, as the
+branches of them, for whom one day or other they would be required to
+give a solemn account. Happy had it been, if these christian
+exhortations had been attended to, or if those families only, whom he
+thus seriously addressed, had continued to be true Quakers; for they
+would have set an example, which would have proved to the rest of the
+islanders, and the world at large, that the impolicy is not less than
+the wickedness of oppression. Thus was George Fox probably the first
+person, who publicly declared against this species of slavery. Nothing
+in short, that could be deplored by humanity, seems to have escaped his
+eye; and his benevolence, when excited, appears to have suffered no
+interruption in its progress by the obstacles, which bigotry would have
+thrown in the way of many, on account of the difference of a persons
+country, or of his colour, or of his sect.
+
+He was patient under his own sufferings. To those, who smote his right
+cheek, he offered his left; and, in the true spirit of christianity, he
+indulged no rancour against the worst of his oppressors. He made use
+occasionally of a rough expression towards them; but he would never have
+hurt any of them, if he had had them in his power.
+
+He possessed the most undaunted courage; for he was afraid of no earthly
+power. He was never deterred from going to meetings for worship, though
+he knew the officers would be there, who were to seize his person. In
+his personal conversations with Oliver Cromwell, or in his letters to
+him as protector, or in his letters to the parliament, or to king
+Charles the second, or to any other personage, he discovered his usual
+boldness of character, and never lost, by means of any degrading
+flattery, his dignity as a man.
+
+But his perseverance was equal to his courage; for he was no sooner out
+of gaol, than he repeated the very acts, believing them to be right, for
+which he had been confined. When he was forced also out of the
+meeting-houses by the officers of justice, he preached at the very
+doors. In short, he was never hindered but by sickness, or
+imprisonments, from persevering in his religious pursuits.
+
+With respect to his word, he was known to have held it so sacred, that
+the judges frequently dismissed him without bail, on his bare promise
+that he would be forth coming on a given day. On these occasions, he
+used always to qualify his promise by the expression, _"if the Lord
+permit."_
+
+Of the integrity of his own character, as a christian, he was so
+scrupulously tenacious, that, when he might have been sometimes set at
+liberty by making trifling acknowledgements, he would make none, least
+it should imply a conviction, that he had been confined for that which
+was wrong; and, at one time in particular, king Charles the second was
+so touched with the hardship of his case, that he offered to discharge
+him from prison by a pardon. But George Fox declined it on the idea,
+that, as pardon implied guilt, his innocence would be called in question
+by his acceptance of it. The king, however, replied, that "he need not
+scruple being released by a pardon, for many a man who was as innocent
+as a child, had had a pardon granted him." But still he chose to decline
+it. And he lay in gaol, till, upon a trial of the errors in his
+indictment, he was discharged in an honourable way.
+
+As a minister of the gospel, he was singularly eminent. He had a
+wonderful gift in expounding the scriptures. He was particularly
+impressive in his preaching; but he excelled most in prayer.
+
+Here it was, that he is described by William Penn, as possessing the
+most awful and reverend frame he ever beheld. His presence, says the
+same author, expressed "a religious majesty." That there must have been
+something more than usually striking either in his manner, or in his
+language, or in his arguments, or in all of them combined, or that he
+spoke "in the _demonstration_ of the spirit and with power," we are
+warranted in pronouncing from the general and powerful effects produced.
+In the year 1648, when he had but once before spoken in public, it was
+observed of him at Mansfield, at the end of his prayer, _"that it was
+then, as in the days of the apostles, when the house was shaken where
+they were."_ In the same manner he appears to have gone on, making a
+deep impression upon his hearers, whenever he was fully and fairly
+heard. Many clergymen, as I observed before, in consequence of his
+powerful preaching, gave up their livings; and constables, who attended
+the meetings, in order to apprehend him, felt themselves disarmed, so
+that they went away without attempting to secure his person.
+
+As to his life, it was innocent. It is true indeed, that there were
+persons, high in civil offices, who, because he addressed the people in
+public, considered him as a disturber of the peace. But none of these
+ever pretended to cast a stain on his moral character. He was considered
+both by friends and enemies, as irreproachable in his life.
+
+Such was the character of the founder of Quakerism, He was born in July
+1624, and died on the thirteenth of November 1690, in the sixty-seventh
+year of his age. He had separated himself from the word in order to
+attend to serious things, as I observed before, at the age of nineteen,
+so that he had devoted himself to the exercises and services of religion
+for no less a period than forty-eight years. A few hours before his
+death, upon some friends asking him how he found himself, he replied
+"never heed. All is well. The seed or power of God reigns over all, and
+over death itself, blessed be the Lord." This answer was full of
+courage, and corresponded with that courage, which had been conspicuous
+in him during life. It contained on evidence, as manifested in his own
+feelings, of the tranquillity and happiness of his mind, and that the
+power and terrors of death had been vanquished in himself. It shewed
+also the ground of his courage and of his confidence. "He was full of
+assurance," says William Penn, "that he had triumphed over death, and so
+much so, even to the last, that death appeared to him hardly worth
+notice or mention." Thus he departed this life, affording an instance of
+the truth of those words of the psalmist, "Behold the upright, for the
+end of that man is peace."
+
+
+
+
+PREFATORY ARRANGEMENTS
+
+AND
+
+REMARKS.
+
+
+
+
+PREFATORY ARRANGEMENTS AND REMARKS.
+
+
+QUAKERISM, A HIGH PROFESSION--QUAKERS GENERALLY ALLOWED TO BE A MORAL
+PEOPLE--VARIOUS CAUSES OF THIS MORALITY OF CHARACTER--THEIR MORAL
+EDUCATION, WHICH IS ONE OF THEM, THE FIRST SUBJECT FOR CONSIDERATION
+--THIS EDUCATION UNIVERSAL AMONG THEM--ITS ORIGIN--THE PROHIBITIONS
+BELONGING TO IT CHIEFLY TO BE CONSIDERED.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+George Fox never gave, while living, nor left after his death, any
+definition of Quakerism. He left, however, his journal behind him, and
+he left what is of equal importance, his example. Combining these with
+the sentiments and practice of the early Quakers, I may state, in a few
+words, what Quakerism is, or at least what we may suppose George Fox
+intended it to be.
+
+Quakerism may be defined to be an attempt, under the divine influence,
+at practical christianity as far as it can be carried. Those, who
+profess it, consider themselves bound to regulate their opinions, words,
+actions, and even outward demeanour, by christianity, and by
+christianity alone. They consider themselves bound to give up such of
+the customs, or fashions of men, however general, or generally approved,
+as militate, in any manner, against the letter or the spirit of the
+gospel. Hence they mix but little with the world, that they may be less
+liable to imbibe its spirit. Hence George Fox made a distinction between
+the members of his own society and others, by the different appellations
+of _Friends_, and _People of the world_. They consider themselves also
+under an obligation to follow virtue, not ordinarily, _but even to the
+death_. For they profess never to make a sacrifice of conscience, and
+therefore, if any ordinances of man are enjoined them, which they think
+to be contrary to the divine will, they believe right not to submit to
+them, but rather, after the example of the apostles and primitive
+christians, to suffer any loss, penalty, or inconvenience, which may
+result to them for so doing.
+
+This then, in a few words, is a general definition of [3]Quakerism. It
+is, as we see, a most strict profession of practical virtue under the
+direction of christianity, and such as, when we consider the infirmities
+of human nature, and the temptations that daily surround it, it must be
+exceedingly difficult to fulfil. But, whatever difficulties may have
+lain in the way, or however, on account of the necessary weakness of
+human nature, the best individuals among the Quakers may have fallen
+below the pattern of excellence, which they have copied, nothing is more
+true, than that the result has been, that the whole society, as a body,
+have obtained from their countrymen, the character of a moral people.
+
+[Footnote 3: I wish to be understood, in writing this work, that I can
+give no account that will be applicable to all under the name of
+Quakers. My account will comprehend the general practice, or that which
+ought to be the practice of those, who profess Quakerism.]
+
+If the reader be a lover of virtue, and anxious for the moral
+improvement of mankind, he will be desirous of knowing what means the
+Quakers have used to have preserved, for a hundred and fifty years, this
+desirable reputation in the world.
+
+If we were to put the question to the Quakers themselves for their own
+opinion upon it, I believe I can anticipate their reply. They would
+attribute any morality, they might be supposed to have, _to the Supreme
+Being_, whose will having been discovered by means of the scriptures,
+and of religious impressions upon the mind, when it has been calm, and
+still, and abstracted from the world, they have endeavoured to obey. But
+there is no doubt, that we may add, _auxiliary causes_ of this morality,
+and such as the Quakers themselves would allow to have had their share
+in producing it, under the same influence. The first of these may be
+called their moral education. The second their discipline. The third may
+be said to consist of those domestic, or other customs, which are
+peculiar to them, as a society of christians. The fourth of their
+_peculiar tenets of religion_. In fact, there are many circumstances
+interwoven into the constitution of the society of the Quakers, each of
+which has a separate effect, and all of which have a combined tendency,
+towards the production of moral character.
+
+These auxiliary causes I shall consider and explain in their turn. In
+the course of this explanation the reader will see, that, if other
+people were to resort to the same means as the Quakers, they would
+obtain the same reputation, or that human nature is not so stubborn, but
+that it will yield to a given force. But as it is usual, in examining
+the life of an individual, to begin with his youth, or, if it has been
+eminent, to begin with the education he has received, so I shall fix
+upon the first of the auxiliary causes I have mentioned, or the _moral
+education_ of the Quakers, as the subject for the first division of my
+work.
+
+Of this moral education I may observe here, that it is universal among
+the society, or that it obtains where the individuals are considered to
+be true Quakers. It matters not, how various the tempers of young
+persons may be, who come under it, they must submit to it. Nor does it
+signify what may be the disposition, or the whim, and caprice of their
+parents, they must submit to it alike. The Quakers believe that they
+have discovered that system of morality, which christianity prescribes;
+and therefore that they can give no dispensation to their members, under
+any circumstances whatever, to deviate from it. The origin of this
+system, as a standard of education in the society, is as follows.
+
+When the first Quakers met in union, they consisted of religious or
+spiritually minded men. From that time to the present, there has always
+been, as we may imagine, a succession of such in the society. Many of
+these, at their great meetings, which have been annual since those days,
+have delivered their sentiments on various interesting points. These
+sentiments were regularly printed, in the form of yearly epistles, and
+distributed among Quaker families. Extracts, in process of time, were
+made from them, and arranged under different heads, and published in one
+book, under the name of [4]Advices. Now these advices comprehend
+important subjects. They relate to customs, manners, fashions,
+conversation, conduct. They contain of course _recommendations_, and
+suggest _prohibitions_, to the society, as _rules of guidance:_ and as
+they came from spiritually _minded_ men on _solemn occasions_, they are
+supposed to have had a _spiritual origin_. Hence Quaker parents manage
+their youth according to these _recommendations_ and _prohibitions_, and
+hence this book of extracts (for so it is usually called) from which I
+have obtained a considerable portion of my knowledge on this subject,
+forms the basis of the moral Education of the Society.
+
+[Footnote 4: The Book is intitled "Extracts from the minutes made, and
+from the advices given, at the yearly Meeting of the Quakers in London,
+since its first Institution."]
+
+Of the contents of this book, I shall notice, while I am treating upon
+this subject, not those rules which are of a recommendatory, but those,
+which are of a _prohibitory nature_. Education is regulated either by
+recommendations, or by prohibitions, or by both conjoined. The former
+relate to things, where there is a wish that youth should conform to
+them, but where a trifling deviation from them would not be considered
+as an act of delinquency publicly reprehensible. The latter to things,
+where any compliance with them becomes a positive offence. The Quakers,
+in consequence of the vast power they have over their members by means
+of their discipline, lay a great stress upon the latter. They consider
+their prohibitions, when duly watched and enforced, as so many _barriers
+against vice_ or _preservatives of virtue_. Hence they are the grand
+component parts of their moral education, and hence I shall chiefly
+consider them in the chapters, which are now to follow upon this
+subject.
+
+
+
+
+MORAL EDUCATION OF THE QUAKERS.
+
+
+
+
+CHAP.I.
+
+
+_Moral Education of the Quakers--amusements necessary for youth--Quakers
+distinguish between the useful and the hurtful--the latter specified and
+forbidden._
+
+When the blooming spring sheds abroad its benign influence, man feels it
+equally with the rest of created nature. The blood circulates more
+freely, and a new current of life seems to be diffused, in his veins.
+The aged man is enlivened, and the sick man feels himself refreshed.
+Good spirits and cheerful countenances succeed. But as the year changes
+in its seasons, and rolls round to its end, the tide seems to slacken,
+and the current of feeling to return to its former level.
+
+But this is not the case with the young. The whole year to them is a
+kind of perpetual spring. Their blood runs briskly throughout. Their
+spirits are kept almost constantly alive; and as the cares of the world
+occasion no drawback, they feel a perpetual disposition to cheerfulness
+and to mirth. This disposition seems to be universal in them. It seems
+too to be felt by us all; that is, the spring, enjoyed by youth, seems
+to operate as spring to maturer age. The sprightly and smiling looks of
+children, their shrill, lively, and cheerful voices, their varied and
+exhilarating sports, all these are interwoven with the other objects of
+our senses, and have an imperceptible, though an undoubted influence, in
+adding to the cheerfulness of our minds. Take away the beautiful
+choristers from the woods, and those, who live in the country, would but
+half enjoy the spring. So, if by means of any unparalleled pestilence,
+the children of a certain growth were to be swept away, and we were to
+lose this infantile link in the chain of age, those, who were left
+behind, would find the creation dull, or experience an interruption in
+the cheerfulness of their feelings, till the former were successively
+restored.
+
+The bodies, as well as the minds of children, require exercise for their
+growth: and as their disposition is thus lively and sportive, such
+exercises, as are amusing, are necessary, and such amusements, on
+account of the length of the spring which they enjoy, must be expected
+to be long.
+
+The Quakers, though they are esteemed an austere people, are sensible of
+these wants or necessities of youth. They allow their children most of
+the sports or exercises of the body, and most of the amusements or
+exercises of the mind, which other children of the island enjoy; but as
+children are to become _men_, and men are to become _moral characters_,
+they believe that bounds should be drawn, or that an unlimited
+permission to follow every recreation would be hurtful.
+
+The Quakers therefore have thought it proper to interfere on this
+subject, and to draw the line between those amusements, which they
+consider to be salutary, and those, which they consider to be hurtful.
+They have accordingly struck out of the general list of these such, and
+such only, as, by being likely to endanger their morality, would be
+likely to interrupt the usefulness, and the happiness, of their lives.
+Among the bodily exercises, _dancing_, and the _diversions of the
+field_, have been proscribed; among the mental, _music_, _novels_, the
+_theatre_, and all games of _chance_, of every description, have been
+forbidden. These are the principal prohibitions, which the Quakers have
+made on the subject of their moral education. They were suggested, most
+of them, by George Fox, but were brought into the discipline, at
+different times, by his successors.
+
+I shall now consider each of these prohibitions separately, and I shall
+give all the reasons, which the Quakers themselves give, why, as a
+society of Christians, they have, thought it right to issue and enforce
+them.
+
+
+
+
+CHAP. II ...SECT. I.
+
+_Games of chance--Quakers forbid cards, dice, and other similar
+amusements--also, concerns in lotteries--and certain transactions in the
+stocks--they forbid also all wagers, and speculations by a monied
+stake--the peculiar wisdom of the latter prohibition, as collected from
+the history of the origin of some of the amusements of the times_.
+
+
+When we consider the depravity of heart, and the misery and ruin, that
+are frequently connected with gaming, it would be strange indeed, if the
+Quakers, as highly professing Christians, had not endeavoured to
+extirpate it from their own body.
+
+No people, in fact, have taken more or more effectual measures for its
+suppression. They have proscribed the use of all games of chance, and of
+all games of skill, that are connected with chance in any manner. Hence
+_cards_, _dice_, _horse-racing_, _cock-fighting_, and all the
+amusements, which come under this definition, are forbidden.
+
+But as there are certain transactions, independently of these
+amusements, which are equally connected with hazard, and which
+individuals might convert into the means of moral depravity and temporal
+ruin, they have forbidden these also, by including them under the
+appellation of gaming.
+
+Of this description are concerns in the lottery, from which all Quakers
+are advised to refrain. These include the purchase of tickets, and all
+insurance upon the same.
+
+In transactions of this kind there is always a monied stake, and the
+issue is dependent upon chance. There is of course the same fascinating
+stimulus as in cards, or dice, arising from the hope of gain. The mind
+also must be equally agitated between hope and fear; and the same state
+of desperation may be produced, with other fatal consequences, in the
+event of loss.
+
+Buying and selling in the public stocks of the kingdom is, under
+particular circumstances, discouraged also. Where any of the members of
+the society buy into the stocks, under the idea, that they are likely to
+obtain better security, or more permanent advantages, such a transfer of
+their property is allowable. But if any were to make a practice of
+buying or selling, week after week, upon speculation only, such a
+practice would come under the denomination of gaming. In this case, like
+the preceding, it is evident, that money would be the object in view;
+that the issue would be hazardous; and, if the stake or deposit were of
+great importance, the tranquillity of the mind might be equally
+disturbed, and many temporal sufferings might follow.
+
+The Quakers have thought it right, upon the same principle, to forbid
+the custom of laying wagers upon any occasion whatever, or of reaping
+advantage from any doubtful event, by a previous agreement upon a monied
+stake. This prohibition, however, is not on record, like the former, but
+is observed as a traditional law. No Quaker-parent would suffer his
+child, nor Quaker-schoolmaster the children entrusted to his care, nor
+any member another, to be concerned in amusements of this kind, without
+a suitable reproof.
+
+By means of these prohibitions, which are enforced, in a great measure,
+by the discipline, the Quakers have put a stop to gaming more
+effectually than others, but particularly by means of the latter. For
+history has shewn us, that we cannot always place a reliance on a mere
+prohibition of any particular amusement or employment, as a cure for
+gaming, because any pastime or employment, however innocent in itself,
+may be made an instrument for its designs. There are few customs,
+however harmless, which avarice cannot convert into the means of rapine
+on the one hand, and of distress on the other.
+
+Many of the games, which are now in use with such pernicious effects to
+individuals, were not formerly the instruments of private ruin.
+Horse-racing was originally instituted with a view of promoting a better
+breed of horses for the services of man. Upon this principle it was
+continued. It afforded no private emolument to any individual. The
+by-standers were only spectators. They were not interested in the
+victory. The victor himself was remunerated not with money, but with
+crowns and garlands, the testimonies of public applause. But the spirit
+of gaming got hold of the custom, and turned it into a private
+diversion, which was to afford the opportunity of a private prize.
+
+Cock-fighting, as we learn from AElian, was instituted by the Athenians,
+immediately after their victory over the Persians, to perpetuate the
+memory of the event, and to stimulate the courage of the youth of Greece
+in the defence of their own freedom; and it was continued upon the same
+principle, or as a public institution for a public good. But the spirit
+of avarice seized it, as it has done the custom of horse-racing, and
+continued it for a private gain.
+
+Cards, that is, European cards, were, as all are agreed, of an harmless
+origin. Charles the sixth, of France, was particularly afflicted with
+the hypochondriasis. While in this disordered state, one of his subjects
+invented them, to give variety of amusement to his mind. From the court
+they passed into private families. And here the same avaricious spirit
+fastened upon them, and, with its cruel talons, clawed them, as it were,
+to its own purposes, not caring how much these little instruments of
+cheerfulness in human disease were converted into instruments for the
+extension of human pain.
+
+In the same manner as the spirit of gaming has seized upon these
+different institutions and amusements of antiquity, and turned them from
+their original to new and destructive uses, so there is no certainty,
+that it will not seize upon others, which may have been innocently
+resorted to, and prostitute them equally with the former. The mere
+prohibition of particular amusements, even if it could be enforced,
+would be no cure for the evil. The brain of man is fertile enough, as
+fast as one custom is prohibited, to fix upon another. And if all the
+games, now in use, were forbidden, it would be still fertile enough to
+invent others for the same purposes. The bird that flies in the air, and
+the snail, that crawls upon the ground, have not escaped the notice of
+the gamester, but have been made, each of them, subservient to his
+pursuits. The wisdom, therefore, of the Quakers, in making it to be
+considered as a law of the society, that no member is to lay wagers, or
+reap advantage from any doubtful event, by a previous agreement upon a
+monied stake, is particularly conspicuous. For, whenever it can be
+enforced, it must be an effectual cure for gaming. For we have no idea,
+how a man can gratify his desire of gain by means of any of the
+amusements of chance, if he can make no monied arrangements about their
+issue.
+
+
+SECT. II.
+
+_The first argument for the prohibition of cards, and of similar
+amusements, by the Quakers, is--that they are below the dignity of the
+intellect of man, and of his moral and christian character--sentiments
+of Addison on this subject_.
+
+
+The reasons, which the Quakers give for the prohibition of cards, and of
+amusements of a similar nature, to the members of their own society, are
+generally such as are given by other Christians, though they make use of
+one, which is peculiar to themselves.
+
+It has been often observed, that the word amusement is proper to
+characterize the employments of children, but that the word utility is
+the only one proper to characterize the employment of men.
+
+The first argument of the Quakers, on this subject, is of a complexion,
+similar to that of the observation just mentioned. For when they
+consider man, as a reasonable being, they are of opinion, that his
+occupations should be rational. And when they consider him as making a
+profession of the Christian religion, they expect that his conduct
+should be manly, serious, and dignified. But all such amusements, as
+those in question, if resorted to for the filling up of his vacant
+hours, they conceive to be unworthy of his intellect, and to be below
+the dignity of his Christian character.
+
+They believe also, when they consider man as a moral being, that it is
+his duty, as it is unquestionably his interest, to aim at the
+improvement of his moral character. Now one of the foundations, on which
+this improvement must be raised, is knowledge. But knowledge is only
+slowly acquired. And human life, or the time for the acquisition of it,
+is but short. It does not appear, therefore, in the judgment of the
+Quakers, that a person can have much time for amusements of this sort,
+if he be bent upon obtaining that object, which will be most conducive
+to his true happiness, or to the end of his existence here.
+
+Upon this first argument of the Quakers I shall only observe, lest it
+should be thought singular, that sentiments of a similar import are to
+be found in authors, of a different religious denomination, and of
+acknowledged judgment and merit. Addison, in one of his excellent
+chapters on the proper employment of life, has the following
+observation: "The next method, says he, that I would propose to fill up
+our time should be innocent and useful diversions. I must confess I
+think it is below reasonable creatures, to be altogether conversant in
+such diversions, as are merely innocent, and have nothing else to
+recommend them, but that there is no hurt in them. Whether any kind of
+gaming has even thus much to say for itself I shall not determine: but I
+think it is very wonderful to see persons of the best sense passing a
+dozen hours together in shuffling and dividing a pack of cards, with no
+other conversation, but what is made up of a few game-phrases, and no
+other ideas, but those of red or black spots ranged together in
+different figures. Would not a man laugh to hear any one of this species
+complaining that life is short?"
+
+
+SECT. III.
+
+_Cards on account of the manner in which they are generally used,
+produce an excitement of the passions--historical anecdotes of this
+excitement--this excitement another cause of their prohibition by the
+Quakers, because it unfits the mind, according to their notions, for the
+reception of religious impressions_.
+
+
+The Quakers are not so superstitious as to imagine that there can be any
+evil in cards, considered abstractedly as cards, or in some of the other
+amusements, that have been mentioned. The red or the black images on
+their surfaces can neither pollute the fingers, nor the minds, of those
+who handle them. They may be moved about, and dealt in various ways, and
+no objectionable consequences may follow. They nay be used, and this
+innocently, to construct the similitudes of things. They may be
+arranged, so as to exhibit devices, which may be productive of harmless
+mirth. The evil, connected with them, will depend solely upon the manner
+of their use. If they are used for a trial of skill, and for this
+purpose only, they will be less dangerous, than where they are used for
+a similar trial, with a monied stake. In the former case, however, they
+may be made to ruffle the temper, for, in the very midst of victory, the
+combatant may experience defeat. In the latter case, the loss of
+victory will be accompanied by a pecuniary loss, and two causes, instead
+of one, of the excitement of the passions, will operate at once upon the
+mind.
+
+It seldom happens, and it is much to be lamented, either that children,
+or that more mature persons, are satisfied with amusements of this kind,
+so as to use them simply as trials of skill. A monied stake is usually
+proposed, as the object to be obtained. This general attachment of a
+monied victory to cards is productive frequently of evil. It generates
+often improper feelings. It gives birth to uneasiness and impatience,
+while the contest is in doubt, and not unfrequently to anger and
+resentment, when it is over.
+
+But the passions, which are thus excited among youth, are excited also,
+but worked up to greater mischief, where grown up persons follow these
+amusements imprudently, than where children are concerned. For though
+avarice, and impatience, and anger, are called forth among children,
+they subside sooner. A boy, though he loses his all when he loses his
+stake, suffers nothing from the idea of having impaired the means of his
+future comfort, and independence. His next week's allowance, or the next
+little gift, will set him right again. But when a grown up person, who
+is settled in the world, is led on by these fascinating amusements, so
+as to lose that which would be of importance to his present comfort,
+but more particularly to the happiness of his future life, the case is
+materially altered. The same passions, which harass the one, will harass
+the other, but the effects will be widely different. I have been told
+that persons have been so agitated before the playing of the card, that
+was to decide their destiny, that large drops of sweat have fallen from
+their faces, though they were under no bodily exertions. Now, what must
+have been the state of their minds, when the card in question proved
+decisive of their loss? Reason must unquestionably have fled. And it
+must have been succeeded instantly either by fury or despair. It would
+not have been at all wonderful, if persons in such a state were to have
+lost their senses, or, if unable to contain themselves, they were
+immediately to have vented their enraged feelings either upon
+themselves, or upon others, who were the authors, or the spectators, of
+their loss.
+
+It is not necessary to have recourse to the theory of the human mind, to
+anticipate the consequences, that would be likely to result to grown up
+persons from such an extreme excitement of the passions. History has
+given a melancholy picture of these, as they have been observable among
+different nations of the world.
+
+The ancient Germans, according to Tacitus, played to such desperation,
+that, when they had lost every thing else, they staked their personal
+liberty, and, in the event of bad fortune, became the slaves of the
+winners.
+
+D'Israeli, in his curiosities of literature, has given us the following
+account. "Dice, says he, and that little pugnacious animal, the cock,
+are the chief instruments employed by the numerous nations of the east,
+to agitate their minds, and ruin their fortunes, to which the Chinese,
+who are desperate gamesters, add the use of cards. When all other
+property is played away, the Asiatic gambler does not scruple to stake
+his wife, or his child, on the cast of a dye, or on the strength and
+courage of a martial bird. If still unsuccessful, the last venture is
+himself."
+
+"In the island of Ceylon, cock-fighting is carried to a great height.
+The Sumatrans are addicted to the use of dice. A strong spirit of play
+characterizes the Malayan. After having resigned every thing to the good
+fortune of the winner, he is reduced to a horrid state of desperation.
+He then loosens a certain lock of hair, which indicates war and
+destruction to all he meets. He intoxicates himself with opium, and
+working himself to a fit of frenzy, he bites and kills every one, who
+comes in his way. But as soon as ever this lock is seen flowing, it is
+lawful to fire at the person, and to destroy him as soon as possible."
+
+"To discharge their gambling debts, the Siamese sell their possessions,
+their families, and at length themselves. The Chinese play night and
+day, till they have lost all they are worth, and then they usually go
+and hang themselves. In the newly discovered islands of the Pacific
+Ocean, they venture even their hatchets, which they hold as invaluable
+acquisitions, on running matches. We saw a man, says Cooke, in his last
+voyage, beating his breast and tearing his hair in the violence of rage,
+for having lost three hatchets at one of these races, and which he had
+purchased with nearly half of his property."
+
+But it is not necessary to go beyond our own country for a confirmation
+of these evils. Civilized as we are beyond all the people who have been
+mentioned, and living where the Christian religion is professed, we have
+the misfortune to see our own countrymen engaged in similar pursuits,
+and equally to the disturbance of the tranquillity of their minds, and
+equally to their own ruin. They cannot, it is true, stake their personal
+liberty, because they can neither sell themselves, nor be held as
+slaves. But we see them staking their comfort, and all their prospects
+in life. We see them driven into a multitude of crimes. We see them
+suffering in a variety of ways. How often has duelling, with all its
+horrible effects, been the legitimate offspring of gaming! How many
+suicides have proceeded from the same source! How many persons in
+consequence of a violation of the laws, occasioned solely by gaming,
+have come to ignominious and untimely ends!
+
+Thus it appears that gaming, wherever it has been practised to excess,
+whether by cards, or by dice, or by other instruments, or whether among
+nations civilized or barbarous, or whether in ancient or modern times,
+has been accompanied with the most violent excitement of the passions,
+so as to have driven its votaries to desperation, and to have ruined
+their morality and their happiness.
+
+It is upon the excitement of the passions, which must have risen to a
+furious height, before such desperate actions as those, which have been
+specified, could have commenced, that the Quakers have founded their
+second argument for the prohibition of games of chance, or of any
+amusements or transactions, connected with a monied stake. It is one of
+their principal tenets, as will be diffusively shewn in a future volume,
+that the supreme Creator of the universe affords a certain portion of
+his own spirit, or a certain emanation of the pure principle, to all his
+rational creatures, for the regulation of their spiritual concerns. They
+believe, therefore, that stillness and quietness, both of spirit and of
+body, are necessary for them, as far as these can be obtained. For how
+can a man, whose earthly passions are uppermost, be in a fit state to
+receive, or a man of noisy and turbulent habits be in a fit state to
+attend to, the spiritual admonitions of this pure influence? Hence one
+of the first points in the education of the Quakers is to attend to the
+subjugation of the will; to take care that every perverse passion be
+checked; and that the creature be rendered calm and passive. Hence
+Quaker children are rebuked for all expressions of anger, as tending to
+raise those feelings, which ought to be suppressed. A raising even of
+their voices beyond due bounds is discouraged, as leading to the
+disturbance of their minds. They are taught to rise in the morning in
+quietness, to go about their ordinary occupations with quietness, and to
+retire in quietness to their beds. Educated in this manner, we seldom
+see a noisy or an irascible Quaker. This kind of education is universal
+among the Quakers. It is adopted at home. It is adopted in their
+schools. The great and practical philanthropist, John Howard, when he
+was at Ackworth, which is the great public school of the Quakers, was so
+struck with the quiet deportment of the children there, that he
+mentioned it with approbation in his work on Lazarettos, and gave to the
+public some of its rules, as models for imitation in other seminaries.
+
+But if the Quakers believe that this pure principle, when attended to,
+is an infallible guide to them in their religious or spiritual concerns;
+if they believe that its influences are best discovered in the quietness
+and silence of their senses; if, moreover, they educate with a view of
+producing such a calm and tranquil state; it must be obvious, that they
+can never allow either to their children, or to those of maturer years,
+the use of any of the games of chance, because these, on account of
+their peculiar nature, are so productive of sudden fluctuations of hope,
+and fear, and joy, and disappointment, that they are calculated, more
+than any other, to promote a turbulence of the human passions.
+
+
+SECT. IV.
+
+_Another cause of their prohibition is, that, if indulged in, they may
+produce habits of gaming--these habits after the moral character-they
+occasion men to become avaricious--dishonest--cruel--and disturbers of
+the order of nature--observations by Hartley from his essay on man._
+
+
+Another reason, why the Quakers do not allow their members the use of
+cards, and of similar amusements, is, that, if indulged in, they may
+produce habits of gaming, which, if once formed, generally ruin the
+moral character.
+
+It is in the nature of cards, that chance should have the greatest share
+in the production of victory, and there is, as I have observed before,
+usually a monied stake. But where chance is concerned, neither victory
+nor defeat can be equally distributed among the combatants. If a person
+wins, he feels himself urged to proceed. The amusement also points out
+to him the possibility of a sudden acquisition of fortune without the
+application of industry. If he loses, he does not despair. He still
+perseveres in the contest, for the amusement points out to him the
+possibility of repairing his loss. In short, there is no end of hope
+upon these occasions. It is always hovering about during the contest.
+Cards, therefore, and amusements of the same nature, by holding up
+prospects of pecuniary acquisitions on the one hand, and of repairing
+losses, that may arise on any occasion, on the other, have a direct
+tendency to produce habits of gaming.
+
+Now the Quakers consider these habits as, of all others, the most
+pernicious; for they usually change the disposition of a man, and ruin
+his moral character.
+
+From generous-hearted they make him avaricious. The covetousness too,
+which they introduce as it were into his nature, is of a kind, that is
+more than ordinarily injurious. It brings disease upon the body, as it
+brings corruption upon the mind. Habitual gamesters regard neither their
+own health, nor their own personal convenience, but will sit up night
+after night, though under bodily indisposition, at play, if they can
+only grasp the object of their pursuit.
+
+From a just and equitable they often render him a dishonest person.
+Professed gamesters, it is well known, lie in wait for the young, the
+ignorant, and the unwary: and they do not hesitate to adopt fraudulent
+practices to secure them as their prey. In toxication has been also
+frequently resorted to for the same purpose.
+
+From humane and merciful they change him into hard hearted and
+barbarous. Habitual gamesters have compassion foe neither men nor
+brutes. The former they can ruin and leave destitute, without the
+sympathy of a tear. The latter they can oppress to death, calculating
+the various powers of their declining strength, and their capability of
+enduring pain.
+
+They convert him from an orderly to a disorderly being, and to a
+disturber of the order of the universe. Professed gamesters sacrifice
+every thing, without distinction, to their wants, not caring if the
+order of nature, or if the very ends of creation, be reversed. They turn
+day into night, and night into day. They force animated nature into
+situations for which it was never destined. They lay their hands upon
+things innocent and useful, and make them noxious. They by hold of
+things barbarous, and render them still more barbarous by their
+pollutions.
+
+Hartley, in his essay upon man, has the following observation upon
+gaming.
+
+"The practice of playing at games of chance and skill is one of the
+principal amusements of life. And it may be thought hard to condemn it
+as absolutely unlawful, since there are particular cases of persons,
+infirm in body and mind, where it seems requisite to draw them out of
+themselves by a variety of ideas and ends in view, which gently engage
+the attention.--But the reason takes place in very few instances.--The
+general motives to play are avarice, joined with a fraudulent intention
+explicit or implicit, ostentation of skill, and spleen, through the
+want of some serious, useful occupation. And as this practice arises
+from such corrupt sources, so it has a tendency to increase them; and
+indeed may be considered as an express method of begetting and
+inculcating self-interest, ill will, envy, and the like. For by gaming a
+man learns to pursue his own interest solely and explicitly, and to
+rejoice at the loss of others, as his own gain, grieve at their gain, as
+his own loss, thus entirely reversing the order established by
+providence for social creatures."
+
+
+
+
+CHAP. III.....SECT. I.
+
+_Music forbidden--general apology for the Quakers on account of their
+prohibition of so delightful a science--music particularly abused at the
+present day--wherein this abuse consists--present use of it almost
+inseparable from the abuse._
+
+
+Plato, when he formed what he called his pure republic, would not allow
+music to have any place in it. George Fox and his followers were of
+opinion, that it could not be admitted in a system of pure Christianity.
+The modern Quakers have not differed from their predecessors on this
+subject; and therefore music is understood to be prohibited throughout
+the society at the present day.
+
+It will doubtless appear strange that there should be found people, to
+object to an art, which is capable of being made productive of so much
+pleasurable feeling, and which, if it be estimated either by the extent
+or the rapidity of its progress, is gaining in the reputation of the
+world. But it may be observed that "all that glitters is not gold." So
+neither is all, that pleases the ear, perfectly salubrious to the mind.
+There are few customs, against which some argument or other may not be
+advanced: few in short, which man has not perverted, and where the use
+has not become, in an undue measure, connected with the abuse.
+
+Providence gave originally to man a beautiful and a perfect world. He
+filled it with things necessary and things delightful. And yet man has
+often turned these from their true and original design. The very wood on
+the surface of the earth he has cut down, and the very stone and metal
+in its bowels he has hewn and cast, and converted into a graven image,
+and worshipped in the place of his beneficent Creator. The food, which
+has been given him for his nourishment, he has frequently converted by
+his intemperance into the means of injuring his health. The wine that
+was designed to make his heart glad on reasonable and necessary
+occasions, he has used often to the stupefaction of his senses, and the
+degradation of his moral character. The very raiment, which has been
+afforded him for his body, he has abused also, so that it has frequently
+become a source for the excitement of his pride.
+
+Just so it has been, and so it is, with music at the present day.
+
+Music acts upon our senses, and may be made productive of a kind of
+natural delight, for in the same manner as we receive, through the organ
+of the eye, a kind of involuntary pleasure, when we look at beautiful
+arrangements, or combinations, or proportions, in nature, and the
+pleasure may be said to be natural, so the pleasure is neither less, nor
+less involuntary, nor less natural, which we receive, through the organ
+of the ear, from a combination of sounds flowing in musical progression.
+
+The latter pleasure, as it seems natural, so, under certain limitations,
+it seems innocent. The first tendency of music, I mean of instrumental,
+is to calm and tranquillize the passions. The ideas, which it excites,
+are of the social, benevolent, and pleasant kind. It leads occasionally
+to joy, to grief, to tenderness, to sympathy, but never to malevolence,
+ingratitude, anger, cruelty, or revenge. For no combination of musical
+sounds can be invented, by which the latter passions can be excited in
+the mind, without the intervention of the human voice.
+
+But notwithstanding that music may be thus made the means both of
+innocent and pleasurable feeling, yet it has been the misfortune of man,
+as mother cases, to abuse it, and never probably more than in the
+present age. For the use of it, as it is at present taught, is almost
+inseparable from its abuse. Music has been so generally cultivated, and
+to such perfection, that it now ceases to delight the ear, unless it
+comes from the fingers of the proficient. But great proficiency cannot
+be obtained in this science, without great sacrifices of time. If young
+females are to be brought up to it, rather as to a profession, than
+introduced to it as a source of occasional innocent recreation, or if
+their education is thought most perfect, where their musical attainments
+are the highest, not only hours, but even years, must be devoted to the
+pursuit. Such a devotion to this one object must, it is obvious, leave
+less time than is proper for others, that are more important. The
+knowledge of domestic occupations, and the various sorts of knowledge,
+that are acquired by reading, must be abridged, in proportion as this
+science is cultivated to professional precision. And hence,
+independently of any arguments, which the Quakers may advance against
+it, it must be acknowledged by the sober world to be chargeable with a
+criminal waste of time. And this waste of time is the more to be
+deprecated, because it frequently happens, that, when young females
+marry, music is thrown aside, after all the years that have been spent
+in its acquisition, as an employment, either then unnecessary, or as an
+employment, which, amidst the new cares of a family, they have not
+leisure to follow.
+
+Another serious charge may be advanced against music, as it is practised
+at the present day. Great proficiency, without which music now ceases to
+be delightful, cannot, as I have just observed, be made without great
+application, or the application of some years. Now all this long
+application is of a sedentary nature. But all occupations of a sedentary
+nature are injurious to the human constitution, and weaken and disorder
+it in time. But in proportion as the body is thus weakened by the
+sedentary nature of the employment, it is weakened again by the
+enervating powers of the art. Thus the nervous system is acted upon by
+two enemies at once, and in the course of the long education necessary
+for this science, the different disorders of hysteria are produced.
+Hence the females of the present age, amongst whom this art has been
+cultivated to excess, are generally found to have a weak and languid
+constitution, and to be disqualified, more than others, from becoming
+healthy wives, or healthy mothers, or the parents of a healthy progeny.
+
+
+SECT. II.
+
+_Instrumental forbidden--Quakers cannot learn it on the motives of the
+world--it is not conducive to the improvement of the moral
+character--affords no solid ground of comfort--nor of true elevation of
+mind--a sensual gratification--remarks of Cowper--and, if encouraged,
+would interfere with the duty recommended by the Quakers, of frequent
+religious retirement._
+
+
+The reader must always bear it in his mind, if the Quakers should differ
+from him on any particular subject, that they set themselves apart as a
+christian community, aiming at christian perfection: that it is their
+wish to educate their children, not as moralists or as philosophers, but
+as christians; and that therefore, in determining the propriety of a
+practice, they will frequently judge of it by an estimate, very
+different from that of the world.
+
+The Quakers do not deny that instrumental music is capable of exciting
+delight. They are not insensible either of its power or of its charms.
+They throw no imputation on its innocence, when viewed abstractly by
+itself; but they do not see anything in it sufficiently useful, to make
+it an object of education, or so useful, as to counterbalance other
+considerations, which make for its disuse.
+
+The Quakers would think it wrong to indulge in their families the usual
+motives for the acquisition of this science. Self-gratification, which
+is one of them, and reputation in the world, which is the other, are not
+allowable in the Christian system. Add to which that where there is a
+desire for such reputation, an emulative disposition is generally
+cherished, and envy and vain glory are often excited in the pursuit.
+
+They are of opinion also, that the learning of this art does not tend to
+promote the most important object of education, the improvement of the
+mind. When a person is taught the use of letters, he is put into the way
+of acquiring natural, historical, religious, and other branches of
+knowledge, and of course of improving his intellectual and moral
+character. But music has no pretensions, in the opinion of the Quakers,
+to the production of such an end. Polybius, indeed relates, that he
+could give no solid reason, why one tribe of the Arcadians should have
+been so civilized, and the others so barbarous, but that the former were
+fond, and the latter were ignorant of music. But the Quakers would
+argue, that if music had any effect in the civilization, this effect
+would be seen in the manners, and not in the morals of mankind. Musical
+Italians are esteemed a soft and effeminate, but they are generally
+reputed a depraved people. Music, in short, though it breathes soft
+influences, cannot yet breathe morality into the mind. It may do to
+soften savages, but a christian community, in the opinion of the
+Quakers, can admit of no better civilization, than that which the spirit
+of the supreme being, and an observance of the pure precepts of
+christianity, can produce.
+
+Music, again, does not appear to the Quakers to be the foundation of any
+solid comfort in life. It may give spirits for the moment as strong
+liquor does, but when the effect of the liquor is over, the spirits
+flag, and the mind is again torpid. It can give no solid encouragement
+nor hope, nor prospects. It can afford no anchorage ground, which shall
+hold the mind in a storm. The early christians, imprisoned, beaten and
+persecuted even to death, would have had but poor consolation, if they
+had not had a better friend than music to have relied upon in the hour
+of their distress. And here I think the Quakers would particularly
+condemn music, if they thought it could be resorted to in the hour of
+affliction, in as much as it would then have a tendency to divert the
+mind from its true and only support.
+
+Music, again, does not appear to them to be productive of elevated
+thoughts, that is, of such thoughts as raise the mind to sublime and
+spiritual things, abstracted from the inclinations, the temper, and the
+prejudices of the world. The most melodious sounds that human
+instruments can make, are from the earth earthly. But nothing can rise
+higher than its own origin. All true elevation therefore can only come,
+in the opinion of the Quakers, from the divine source.
+
+The Quakers therefore, seeing no moral utility in music, cannot make it
+a part of their education. But there are other considerations, of a
+different nature, which influence them in the same way.
+
+Music, in the first place, is a sensual gratification. Even those who
+run after sacred music, never consider themselves as going to a place of
+devotion, but where, in full concert, they may hear the performance of
+the master pieces of the art. This attention to religious compositions,
+for the sake of the music, has been noticed by one of our best poets.
+
+   "and ten thousand sit,
+   Patiently present at a sacred song,
+   Commemoration-mad, content to hear,
+   O wonderful effect of music's power,
+   Messiah's eulogy for Handal's sake!"
+   COWPER.
+
+But the Quakers believe, that all sensual desires should be held in due
+subordination to the pure principle, or that sensual pleasures should be
+discouraged, to much as possible, as being opposed to those spiritual
+feeling, which constitute the only perfect enjoyment of a christian.
+
+Music, again, if it were encouraged in the society, would be considered
+as depriving those of maturer years of hours of comfort, which they now
+frequently enjoy, in the service of religion. Retirement is considered
+by the Quakers as a christian duty. The members therefore of this
+society are expected to wait in silence, not only in their places of
+worship, but occasionally in their families, or in their private
+chambers, in the intervals of their daily occupations, that, in
+stillness of heart, and in freedom from the active contrivance of their
+own wills, they may acquire both directions and strength for the
+performance of the duties of life. The Quakers therefore are of opinion,
+that, if instrumental music were admitted as a gratification in leisure
+hours, it would take the place of many of these serious retirements, and
+become very injurious to their interests and their character as
+christians.
+
+
+SECT. III
+
+_Vocal music forbidden--singing in itself no more immoral than reading
+--but as vocal music articulates ideas, it may convey poison to the mind
+--some ideas in songs contrary to Quaker notions of morality--as
+in hunting songs--or in baccanalian--or in martial--youth make no selection
+--but learn off that fall in their way._
+
+
+It is an observation of Lactantius, that the "pleasures we receive
+through the organ of the ears, may be as injurious as those we receive,
+through the organ of the eyes." He does not, however, consider the
+effect of instrumental music as much to be regarded, "because sounds,
+which proceed from air, are soon gone, and they give birth to no
+sentiments that can be recorded. Songs, on the other hand, or sounds
+from the voice, may have an injurious influence on the mind."
+
+The Quakers, in their view of this subject, make the same distinction as
+this ancient father of the church. They have a stronger objection, if it
+be possible, to vocal, than to instrumental music. Instrumental music,
+though it is considered to be productive of sensual delight, is yet
+considered as incapable, on account of its inability to articulate, or
+its inability to express complex ideas, of conveying either unjust or
+impure sentiments to the mind. Vocal, on the other hand, is capable of
+conveying to it poison of this sort. For vocal music consists of songs,
+or of words musically expressed by the human voice. But words are the
+representatives of ideas, and, as for as these ideas are pure or
+otherwise, so far may vocal music be rendered innocent or immoral.
+
+The mere singing, it must be obvious, can be no more immoral than the
+reading, of the same song, singing is but another mode of expressing it.
+The morality of the action will depend upon the words which it may
+contain. If the words in a song are pure, if the sentiments in it are
+just, and if it be the tendency of these to awaken generous and virtuous
+sympathies, the song will operate no otherwise than a lesson of
+morality. And will a lesson of morality be less serviceable to us,
+because it is dressed up in poetry and musically expressed by the human
+voice, than when it is conveyed to us in prose? But if, on the other
+hand, the words in a song are in themselves unchaste, if they inculcate
+false honour, if they lead to false opinions, if they suggest
+sentiments, that have a tendency to produce depraved feelings, then
+vocal music, by which these are conveyed in pleasing accents to the ear,
+becomes a destroyer of morals, and cannot therefore be encouraged by
+any, who consider parity of heart, as required by the christian
+religion. Now the Quakers are of opinion, that the songs of the world
+contain a great deal of objectionable matter in these respects; and that
+if they were to be promiscuously taken up by children, who have no
+powers of discriminating between the good and the bad, and who generally
+lay hold of all that fall in their way, they would form a system of
+sentimental maxims, very injurious in their tendency to their moral
+character.
+
+If we were to take a collection of songs as published in books, and were
+to examine these, we should find that such a system might easily be
+formed. And if, again, we were to examine the sentiments contained in
+many of these, by the known sentiments of the Quakers on the several
+subjects of each, we should find that, as a highly professing people,
+more objections would arise against vocal music among them, than among
+other people.
+
+Let us, for example, just glance at that class of songs, which in the
+collection would be called hunting songs. In these men are invited to
+the pleasures of the chase, as to pleasures of a superior kind. The
+triumphs over the timid hare are celebrated in these with a kind of
+enthusiastic joy, and celebrated too as triumphs, worthy of the
+character of men. Glory Is even attached to these pursuits. But the
+Quakers, as it will appear in a future chapter, endeavour to prevent
+their youth from following any of the diversions of the field. They
+consider pleasures as placed on a false foundation, and triumphs as
+unmanly and inglorious, which are founded on circumstances, connected
+with the sufferings of the brute creation. They cannot therefore approve
+of songs of this order, because they consider them as disseminating
+sentiments that are both unreasonable and cruel.
+
+Let us now go to another class, which may be found in the same
+collection; I mean the bacchanalian. Men are invited here to sacrifice
+frequently at the shrine of Bacchus. Joy, good humour, and fine spirits,
+are promised to those, who pour out their libations in a liberal manner.
+An excessive use of wine, which injures the constitution, and stupifies
+the faculties, instead of being censured in these songs is sometimes
+recommended in them, as giving to nature that occasional stimulus, which
+is deemed necessary to health. Poets too, in their songs, have
+considered the day as made only for vulgar souls, but the night for the
+better sort of people, that they may the better pursue the pleasures of
+the bottle. Others have gone so far in their songs, as to promise long
+life as a consequence of drinking; while others, who confess that human
+life may be shortened by such means, take care to throw out, that, as a
+man's life thus becomes proportionably abridged, it is rendered
+proportionably a merry one. Now the Quakers are so particularly careful
+with respect to the use of wine and spirituous liquors, that the society
+are annually and publicly admonished to beware of excess. Quakers are
+discouraged from going even to inns but for the purposes of business and
+refreshment, and are admonished to take care, that they stay there no
+longer than is necessary for such purposes. The Quakers therefore,
+cannot be supposed to approve of any of the songs of this class, as far
+as they recommend or promote drunkenness. And they cannot but consider
+them as containing sentiments injurious to the morals of their children.
+
+But let us examine another class of songs, that may be found in the same
+collection. These may be denominated martial. Now what is generally the
+tenor of these songs? The authors celebrate victories. They endeavour,
+regardless of the question, whether their own cause be a right or a
+wrong one, to excite joy at the events, it is their aim frequently to
+rouse the soul to the performance of martial exploits, as to exploits
+the fullest of human glory. They frequently threaten enemies with new
+chastisements, and new victories, and breathe the spirit of revenge. But
+the Quakers consider all wars, whether offensive or defensive, as
+against the spirit of the christian religion. They cannot contemplate
+scenes of victory but with the eye of pity, and the tear of compassion,
+for the sufferings of their fellow-creatures, whether countrymen or
+enemies, and for the devastation of the human race. They allow no glory
+to attach, nor do they give any thing like an honourable reputation, to
+the Alexanders, the Caesars, or the heroes either of ancient or modern
+date. They cannot therefore approve of songs of this class, because they
+conceive them to inculcate sentiments, totally contrary to the mild and
+peaceful spirit of the christian religion.
+
+If we were to examine the collection farther, we might pick out other
+songs, which might be reckoned of the class of the impure. Among these
+will be found ideas, so indelicate, that notwithstanding the gloss,
+which wit and humour had put over them, the chaste ear could not but be
+offended by their recital. It must be obvious, in this case also, that
+not only the Quakers, but all persons filling the stations of parents,
+would be sorry if their children were to come to the knowledge of some
+of these.
+
+It is unnecessary to proceed farther upon this subject. For the reader
+must be aware that, while the Quakers hold such sentiments, they can
+never patronise such songs; and that if those who are taught or allowed
+to sing, generally lay hold of all the songs that come into their way,
+that is, promiscuously and without selection. The Quakers will have a
+strong ground as a Christian society, or as a society, who hold it
+necessary to be watchful over their words as well as their actions, for
+the rejection of vocal music.
+
+
+SECT. IV.
+
+_The preceding are the arguments of the early Quakers--new state of
+music has produced new ones--instrumental now censurable for a waste of
+time--for leading into company--for its connection with vocal_.
+
+
+The arguments which have hitherto appeared against the admission of
+music into education, are those which were nearly coeval with the
+society itself. The incapability of music to answer moral ends, the
+sensuality of the gratification, the impediments it might throw in the
+way of religious retirement, the impurity it might convey to the mind,
+were in the mouths of the early Quakers. Music at that time was
+principally in the hands of those, who made a livelihood of the art.
+Those who followed it as an accomplishment, or a recreation, were few
+and these followed it with moderation. But since those days, its
+progress has been immense. It has traversed the whole kingdom. It has
+got into almost all the families of rank and fortune. Many of the middle
+classes, in imitation of the higher, have received it; and, as it has
+undergone a revolution in the extent, so it has undergone another in the
+object of its practice. It is learned now, not as a source of occasional
+recreation, but as a complicated science, where perfection is insisted
+upon to make it worthy of pursuit. In this new state therefore of music
+new arguments have arisen on the part of the Quakers, which I shall now
+concisely detail.
+
+The Quakers, in the first place, are of opinion, that the learning of
+music, as it is now learned, cannot be admitted by them as a christian
+society, because, proficiency being now the object of it, as has been
+before observed, it would keep them longer employed, than is consistent
+with people, who are commanded to redeem their time.
+
+They believe also that music in its present state, has an immediate
+tendency to leading into the company of the world. In former tunes, when
+music was followed with moderation, it was esteemed as a companion, or
+as a friend: it afforded relaxation after fatigue, and amusement in
+solitary hours. It drew a young person to his home, and hindered him
+from following many of the idle diversions of the times. But now, or
+since it has been practised with a new object, it produces a different
+effect. It leads into company. It leads to trials of skill. It leads to
+the making up of festive parties. It leads, for its own gratification,
+to the various places of public resort. Now this tendency of leading
+into public is considered by the Quakers as a tendency big with the
+dissolution of their society. For they have many customs to keep up,
+which are quite at variance with those of the world. The former appear
+to be steep and difficult as common paths. Those of the world to be
+smooth and easy. The natural inclination of youth, more prone to
+self-gratification than to self-denial, would prefer to walk in the
+latter. And the influence of fashion would point to the same choice. The
+liberty too, which is allowed in the one case, seems more agreeable than
+the discipline imposed in the other. Hence it has been found, that in
+proportion as young Quakers mix with the world, they generally imbibe
+its spirit, and weaken themselves as members of their own body.
+
+The Quakers again, have an objection to the learning of instrumental
+music on account of its almost inseparable connection with vocal, in
+consequence of which, it leads often to the impurity, which the latter
+has been shewn to be capable of conveying to the mind.
+
+This connection does not arise so much from the circumstance, that
+those, who learn to play, generally learn to sing, as from another
+consideration. Musical people, who have acquired skill and taste, are
+desirous of obtaining every new musical publication, as it comes out.
+This desire is produced where there is an aim at perfection in this
+science. The professed novel reader, we know, waits with impatience for
+a new novel. The politician discovers anxiety for his morning paper.
+Just so it is with the musical amateur with respect to a new tune. Now,
+though many of the new compositions come out for instrumental music
+only, yet others come out entirely as vocal. These consist of songs sung
+at our theatres, or at our public gardens, or at our other places of
+public resort, and are afterwards printed with their music, and exposed
+to sale. The words therefore, of these songs, as well as the music that
+is attached to them, fall into the hands of the young amateur. Now as
+such songs are not always chaste, or delicate, and as they frequently
+contain such sentiments, as I have shewn the Quakers to disapprove, the
+young musician, if a Quaker, might have his modestey frequently put to
+the blush, or his delicacy frequently wounded, or his morality often
+broken in upon, by their perusal. Hence, though instrumental music might
+have no immoral tendency in itself, the Quakers have rejected it, among
+other reasons, on account of its almost inseparable connection with
+vocal.
+
+
+SECT. V.
+
+_Objection anticipated, that though the arguments, used by the Quakers
+in the preceding chapters, are generally fair and positive, yet an
+exceptionable one seems to have been introduced, by which it appears to
+be inculcated, that the use of a thing ought to be abandoned on account
+of its abuse--explanation of the distinction, made by the Quakers, in
+the use of this argument_.
+
+
+I purpose to stop for a while, and to make a distinction, which may now
+become necessary, with respect to the use of what may appear to be a
+Quaker principle of argument, before I proceed to a new subject.
+
+It may have been observed by some of my readers, that though the Quakers
+have adduced arguments, which may be considered as fair and positive on
+the subjects, which have come before us, yet they appear to have adduced
+one, which is no other, than that of condemning the use of a thing on
+account of its abuse. Now this mode of reasoning, it will be said has
+been exploded by logicians, and for this, among other reasons, that if
+we were bound to relinquish customs in consequence of it, we should be
+obliged to give up many things that are connected with the comforts, and
+even with the existence of our lives.
+
+To this observation I must reply, that the Quakers never recommend an
+abstinence from any custom, merely because the use of it may lead to its
+abuse.
+
+Where a custom is simply liable to abuse, they satisfy themselves with
+recommending moderation in the use of it.
+
+But where the abuse of a custom is either, in the first place,
+necessarily, or, in the second very generally connected with the use of
+it, they generally consider the omission of it as morally wise and
+prudent. It is in these two cases only that they apply, or that they lay
+any stress upon the species of argument described.
+
+This species of argument, under these two limitations, they believe to
+be tenable in christian morals, and they entertain this belief upon the
+following grounds.
+
+It may be laid down as a position, that the abuse of any custom which is
+innocent in itself, is an evil, and that it may become a moral evil. And
+they conceive it to become a moral evil in the eye of christianity, when
+it occasions either the destruction of the health of individuals, or
+the misapplication of their time, or the excitement of their worst
+passions, or the loss of their moral character.
+
+If therefore the use of any custom be necessarily (which is the first of
+the two cases) connected with its abuse, and the abuse of it be the
+moral evil described, the user or practiser cannot but incur a certain
+degree of guilt. This first case will comprehend all those uses of
+things, which go under the denomination of gaming.
+
+If again, the use of a custom be either through the influence of
+fashion, or its own seductive nature, or any other cause, very generally
+(which is the second case) connected with its abuse, and the abuse be
+also of the nature supposed, then the user or practiser, if the custom
+be unnecessary, throws himself wantonly into danger of evil, contrary to
+the watchfulness which christianity enjoins in morals; and, if he falls,
+falls by his own fault. This watchfulness against moral danger the
+Quakers conceive to be equally incumbent upon Christians, as
+watchfulness upon persons against the common dangers of life. If two
+thirds of all the children, who had ever gone to the edge of a precipice
+to play, had fallen down and been injured, it would be a necessary
+prudence in parents to prohibit all such goings in future. So they
+conceive it to be only a necessary prudence in morals, to prohibit
+customs, where the use of them is very generally connected with a
+censurable abuse. This case will comprehend music, as practised at the
+present day, because they believe it to be injurious to health, to
+occasion a waste of time, to create an emulative disposition, and to
+give an undue indulgence to sensual feeling.
+
+And as the Quakers conceive this species of argument to be tenable in
+Christian morals, so they hold it to be absolutely necessary to be
+adopted in the education of youth. For grown up persons may have
+sufficient judgment to distinguish between the use of a thing and its
+abuse. They may discern the boundaries of each, and enjoy the one, while
+they avoid the other. But youth have no such power of discrimination.
+Like inexperienced mariners, they know not where to look for the deep
+and the shallow water, and, allured by enchanting circumstances, they
+may, like those who are reported to have been enticed by the voices of
+the fabulous Syrens, easily overlook the danger, that assuredly awaits
+them in their course.
+
+
+
+
+CHAP. IV. SECT. I.
+
+_The theatre--the theatre as well as music abused--plays respectable in
+their origin--but degenerated--Solon, Plato, and the ancient moralists
+against them--particularly immoral in England in the time of Charles
+the second--forbidden by George Fox--sentiments of Archbishop
+Tillotson--of William Law--English plays better than formerly, but still
+objectionable--prohibition of George Fox continued by the Quakers._
+
+
+It is much to be lamented that customs, which originated in respectable
+motives, and which might have been made productive of innocent pleasure,
+should have been so perverted in time, that the continuation of them
+should be considered as a grievance by moral men. As we have seen this
+to be the case, in some measure, with respect to music, so it is the
+care with respect to plays.
+
+Dramatic compositions appear to have had no reprehensible origin. It
+certainly was an object with the authors of some of the earliest plays
+to combine the entertainment with the moral improvement of the mind.
+Tragedy was at first simply a monody to Bacohus. But the tragedy of the
+ancients, from which the modern is derived, did not arise in the world,
+till the dialogue and the chorus were introduced. Now the chorus, as
+every scholar knows, was a moral office. They who filled it, were loud
+in their recommendations of justice and temperance. They inculcated a
+religious observance of the laws. They implored punishment on the
+abandoned. They were strenuous in their discouragement of vice, and in
+the promotion of virtue. This office therefore, being coeval with
+tragedy itself, preserves it from the charge of an immoral origin.
+
+Nor was comedy, which took its rise afterwards, the result of corrupt
+motives. In the most ancient comedies, we find it to have been the great
+object of the writers to attack vice. If a chief citizen had acted
+inconsistently with his character, he was ridiculed upon the stage. His
+very name was not concealed on the occasion. In the course of time
+however, the writers of dramatic pieces were forbidden to use the names
+of the persons, whom they proposed to censure. But we find them still
+adhering to the same great object, the exposure of vice; and they
+painted the vicious character frequently so well, that the person was
+soon discovered by the audience, though disguised by a fictitious name.
+When new restrictions, were afterwards imposed upon the writers of such
+pieces, they produced a new species of comedy. This is that which
+obtains at the present day. It consisted of an imitation of the manners
+of common life. The subject, the names, and the characters, belonging
+to it, were now all of them feigned. Writers, however, retained their
+old object of laughing at folly and of exposing vice.
+
+Thus it appears that the theatre, as far as tragedy was employed,
+inculcated frequently as good lessons of morality, as heathenism could
+produce, and as far as comedy was concerned, that it became often the
+next remedy, after the more grave and moral lectures of the ancient
+philosophers, against the prevailing excesses of the times.
+
+But though the theatre professed to encourage virtue, and to censure
+vice, yet such a combination of injurious effects was interwoven with
+the representations there, arising either from the influence of fiction
+upon morals, or from the sight of the degradation of the rational
+character by buffoonery, or from the tendency of such representations to
+produce levity and dissipation, or from various other causes, that they,
+who were the greatest lovers of virtue in those days, and the most
+solicitous of improving the moral condition of man, began to consider
+them as productive of much more evil than of good. Solon forewarned
+Thespis, that the effects of such plays, as he saw him act, would become
+in time injurious to the morals of mankind, and he forbade him to act
+again. The Athenians, though such performances were afterwards allowed,
+would never permit any of their judges to compose a comedy. The
+Spartans under Lycurgus, who were the most virtuous of all the people of
+Greece, would not suffer either tragedies or comedies to be acted at
+all. Plato, as he had banished music, so he banished theatrical
+exhibitions from his pure republic. Seneca considered, that vice made
+insensible approaches by means of the stage, and that it stole on the
+people in the disguise of pleasure. The Romans, in their purer times,
+considered the stage to be so disgraceful, that every Roman was to be
+degraded, who became an actor, and so pernicious to morals, that they
+put it under the power of a censor, to control its effects.
+
+But the stage, in the time of Charles the second, when the Quakers first
+appeared in the world, was in a worse state than even in the Grecian or
+Roman times. If there was ever a period in any country, when it was
+noted as the school of profligate and corrupt morals, it was in this
+reign. George Fox therefore, as a christian reformer, could not be
+supposed to be behind the heathen philosophers, in a case where morality
+was concerned. Accordingly we find him protesting publicly against all
+such spectacles. In this protest, he was joined by Robert Barclay and
+William Penn, two of the greatest men of those times, who in their
+respective publications attacked them with great spirit. These
+publications shewed the sentiments of the Quakers, as a religious body,
+upon this subject. It was understood that no Quaker could be present at
+amusements of this sort. And this idea was confirmed by the sentiments
+and advices of several of the most religious members, which were
+delivered on public occasions. By means of these publications and
+advices the subject was kept alive, till it became at length
+incorporated into the religious discipline of the Quakers. The theatre
+was then specifically forbidden; and an inquiry was annually to be made
+from thenceforward, whether any of the members of the society had been
+found violating the prohibition.
+
+Since the time of Charles the second, when George Fox entered his
+protest against exhibitions of this sort, it must certainly be
+confessed, that an alteration has taken place for the better in the
+constitution of our plays, and that poison is not diffused into morals,
+by means of them, to an equal extent, as at that period. The mischief
+has been considerably circumscribed by legal inspection, and, it is to
+be hoped, by the improved civilization of the times. But it does not
+appear by any historical testimony we have, that a change has been made,
+which is at all proportioned to the quantity of moral light, which has
+been diffused among us since that reign. Archbishop Tillotson was of
+opinion, "that plays might be so framed, and they might be governed by
+such rules, as not only to be innocently diverting, but instructive and
+useful to put some follies and vices out of countenance, which could not
+perhaps be so decently reproved, nor so effectually exposed or corrected
+any other way." And yet he confesses, that, "they were so full of
+profaneness, and that they instilled such bad principles into the mind,
+in his own day, that they ought not to have been tolerated in any
+civilized, and much less in a Christian nation." William Law, an eminent
+divine of the establishment, who lived after Tillitson, declared in one
+of his publications on the subject of the stage, that "you could not
+then see a play in either house, but what abounded with thoughts,
+passages, and language contrary to the Christian religion." From the
+time of William Law to the present about forty years have elapsed, and
+we do not see, if we consult the controversial writers on the subject,
+who live among us, that the theatre has become much less objectionable
+since those days. Indeed if the names only of our modern plays were to
+be collected and published, they would teach us to augur very
+unfavourably as to the morality of their contents. The Quakers
+therefore, as a religions body, have seen no reason, why they should
+differ in opinion from their ancestors on this subject: and hence the
+prohibition which began in former times with respect to the theatre, is
+continued by them at the present day.
+
+
+SECT. II.
+
+_Theatre forbidden by the Quakers on account of the manner of the
+drama--first, as it personates the character of others--secondly, as it
+professes to reform vice_.
+
+
+The Quakers have many reasons to give, why, as a society of christians
+they cannot encourage the theatre, by being present at any of its
+exhibitions. I shall not detail all of them for the reader, but shall
+select such only, as I think most material to the point.
+
+The first class of arguments comprehends such as relate, to what may be
+called the manner of the drama. The Quakers object to the manner of the
+drama, or to its fictitious nature, in consequence of which men
+personate characters, that are not their own. This personification they
+hold to be injurious to the man, who is compelled to practise it. Not
+that he will partake of the bad passions, which he personates, but that
+the trick and trade of representing what he does not feel, must make him
+at all times an actor; and his looks, and words, and actions, will be
+all sophisticated. And this evil will be likely to continue with him in
+the various changes of his life.
+
+They hold it also to be contrary to the spirit of Christianity. For men
+who personate characters in this way, express joy and grief, when in
+reality there may be none of these feelings in their hearts. They
+express noble sentiments, when their whole lives may have been
+remarkable for their meanness, and go often afterwards and wallow in
+sensual delights. They personate the virtuous character to day, and
+perhaps to-morrow that of the rake, and, in the latter case, they utter
+his profligate sentiments, and speak his profane language. Now
+Christianity requires simplicity and truth. It allows no man to pretend
+to be what he is not. And it requires great circumspection of its
+followers with respect to what they may utter, because it makes every
+man accountable for his idle words.
+
+The Quakers therefore are of opinion, that they cannot as men, either
+professing christian tenets, or christian love, encourage others to
+assume false characters, or to [5] personate those which are not their
+own.
+
+[Footnote 5: Rousseau condemns the stage upon the same principle. "It
+is, says he, the art of dissimulation--of assuming a foreign character,
+and of appearing differently from what a man really is--of flying into a
+passion without a cause, and of saying what he does not think, as
+naturally as if he really did--in a word of forgetting himself to
+personate others."]
+
+They object also to the manner of the drama, even where it professes to
+be a school for morals. For where it teaches morality, it inculcates
+rather the refined virtue of heathenism, than the strict, though mild
+discipline of the gospel. And where it attempts to extirpate vice, it
+does it rather by making it ridiculous, than by making men shun it for
+the love of virtue. It no where fixes the deep christian principle, by
+which men are bound to avoid it as sin, but places the propriety of the
+dereliction of it rather upon the loss of reputation among the world,
+than upon any sense of religious duty.
+
+
+SECT. III.
+
+_Theatre forbidden an account of the internal contents of the
+drama--both of those of tragedy--and of comedy--these contents hold out
+false morals and prospects--and weaken the sinews of morality
+--observations of Lord Kaimes upon the subject._
+
+
+The next class of arguments is taken from the internal contents of the
+drama.
+
+The Quakers mean that dramatic compositions generally contain false
+sentiments, that is, such as christianity would disapprove; that, of
+course they hold out false prospects; that they inculcate false morals;
+and that they have a tendency from these, and other of their internal
+contents, to promote dissipation, and to weaken the sinews of morality
+in those who see them represented upon the stage.
+
+Tragedy is considered by the Quakers, as a part of the drama, where the
+hero is generally a warrior, and where a portion of human happiness is
+made to consist of martial glory. Hence it is considered as frequently
+inculcating proud and lofty sentiments, as cherishing a fierce and
+romantic spirit, as encouraging rival enmities, as holding of no
+importance the bond of love and union between man and man. Now as
+christianity enjoins humility, peace, quietness, brotherly affection,
+and charity, which latter is not to be bounded by the limits of any
+country, the Quakers hold as a christian body, that they cannot admit
+their children to spectacles, which have a tendency to engender a
+disposition opposite to these.
+
+Comedy is considered as holding out prospects, and inculcating morals,
+equally false and hurtful. In such compositions, for example, a bad
+impression is not uniformly given of a bad character. Knavery frequently
+accomplishes its ends without the merited punishment. Indeed treachery
+and intrigue are often considered but as jocose occurrences. The laws of
+modern honour are frequently held out to the spectator, as laws that are
+to influence in life. Vulgar expressions, and even swearing are admitted
+upon the stage. Neither is chastity nor delicacy always consulted there.
+Impure allusions are frequently interwoven into the dialogue, so that
+innocence cannot but often blush. Incidents not very favourable to
+morals, are sometimes introduced. New dissipated characters are produced
+to view, by the knowledge of which, the novice in dissipation is not
+diverted from his new and baneful career, but finds only his scope of
+dissipation enlarged, and a wider field to range in. To these hurtful
+views of things, as arising from the internal structure, are to be added
+those, which arise from the extravagant love-tales, the ridiculous
+intrigues, and the silly buffoonery of the compositions of the stage.
+
+Now it is impossible, the Quakers contend, that these ingredients, which
+are the component parts of comic amusements, should not have an
+injurious influence upon the mind that is young and tender and
+susceptible of impressions. If the blush which first started upon the
+cheek of a young person on the first hearing of an indecorous or profane
+sentiment, and continued for some time to be excited at repetitions of
+the same, should at length be so effectually laid asleep, that the
+impudent language of ribaldry can awaken it no more, it is clear, that a
+victory will have been gained over his moral feelings: and if he should
+remember (and what is to hinder him, when the occurrences of the stage
+are marked with strong action, and accompanied with impressive scenery)
+the language, the sentiments, the incidents, the prospects, which
+dramatic pieces have brought before him, he may combine these, as they
+rise to memory, with his own feelings, and incorporate them
+imperceptibly into the habits and manners of his own life. Thus, if vice
+be not represented as odious, he may lose his love of virtue. If
+buffoonery should be made to please him, he may lose the dignity of his
+mind. Love-tales may produce in him a romantic imagination. Low
+characters may teach him low cunning. If the laws of honour strike him
+as the laws of refined life, he may become a fashionable moralist. If
+modes of dissipation strike him us modes of pleasure in the estimation
+of the world, he may abandon himself to these, and become a rake. Thus
+may such representations, in a variety of ways, act upon the moral
+principle, and make an innovation there, detrimental to his moral
+character.
+
+Lord Kaimes, in his elements of criticism, has the following
+observations.
+
+"The licentious court of Charles the second, among its many disorders,
+engendered a pest, the virulence of which subsists to this day. The
+English comedy, copying the manners of the court, became abominably
+licentious; and continues so with very little softening. It is there an
+established rule to deck out the chief characters with every vice in
+fashion however gross; but as such characters, if viewed in a true
+light, would be disgustful, care is taken to disguise their deformity
+under the embellishments of wit, sprightliness and good humour, which,
+in mixed company makes a capital figure. It requires not much thought to
+discover the poisonous influence of such plays. A young man of figure,
+emancipated at last from the severity and restraint of a college
+education, repairs to the capital disposed to every sort of excess. The
+play-house becomes his favourite amusement, and he is enchanted with the
+gaiety and splendour of the chief personages. The disgust which vice
+gives him at first, soon wears off to make way for new notions, more
+liberal in his opinion, by which a sovereign contempt of religion, and a
+declared war upon the chastity of wives, maids and widows, are converted
+from being infamous vices to be fashionable virtues. The infection
+spreads gradually through all ranks and becomes universal. How gladly
+would I listen to any one, who should undertake to prove, that what I
+have been describing is chimerical! But the dissoluteness of our young
+men of birth will not suffer me to doubt its reality. Sir Harry Wildair
+has completed many a rake; and in the suspicious husband, Ranger, the
+humble imitator of Sir Harry, has had no slight influence in spreading
+that character. What woman, tinctured with the play-house morals, would
+not be the sprightly, the witty, though dissolute Lady Townley, rather
+than the cold, the sober, though virtuous Lady Grace? How odious ought
+writers to be who thus employ the talents they have from their maker
+most traitorously against himself, by endeavouring to corrupt and
+disfigure his creatures! If the comedies of Congreve did not rack him
+with remorse in his last moments, he must have been lost to all sense of
+virtue."
+
+
+SECT. IV.
+
+_The theatre forbidden--because injurious to the happiness of man by
+disqualifying him for the pleasures of religion--this effect arises
+from its tendency to accustom individuals to light thoughts--to injure
+their moral feelings--to occasion an extraordinary excitement of the
+mind--and from the very nature of the enjoyments which it produces._
+
+
+As the Quakers consider the theatre to have an injurious effect on the
+morality of man, so they consider it to have an injurious effect on his
+happiness. They believe that amusements of this sort, but particularly
+the comic, unfit the mind for the practical performance of the christian
+duties, and that as the most pure and substantial happiness, that man
+can experience, is derived from a fulfilment of these, so they deprive
+him of the highest enjoyment of which his nature is capable, that is, of
+the pleasures of religion.
+
+If a man were asked, on entering the door of the theatre, if he went
+there to learn the moral duties, he would laugh at the absurdity of the
+question; and if he would consent to give a fair and direct answer, he
+would either reply, that he went there for amusement, or to dissipate
+gloom, or to be made merry. Some one of these expressions would probably
+characterise his errand there. Now this answer would comprise the
+effect, which the Quakers attach to the comic performances of the stage.
+They consider them as drawing the mind from serious reflection, and
+disposing it to levity. But they believe that a mind, gradually
+accustomed to light thoughts, and placing its best gratification in
+light objects, must be disqualified in time for the gravity of religious
+exercise, and be thus hindered from partaking of the pleasures which
+such an exercise must produce.
+
+They are of opinion also, that such exhibitions, having, as was lately
+mentioned, a tendency to weaken the moral character, must have a
+similarly injurious effect. For what innovations can be made on the
+human heart, so as to seduce it from innocence, that will not
+successively wean it both from the love and the enjoyment of the
+Christian virtues?
+
+The Quakers also believe, that dramatic exhibitions have a power of vast
+excitement of the mind. If they have no such power, they are insipid. If
+they have, they are injurious. A person is all the evening at a play in
+an excited state. He goes home, and goes to bed with his imagination
+heated, and his passions roused. The next morning he rises. He remembers
+what he has seen and heard, the scenery, the language, the sentiments,
+the action. He continues in the same excited state for the remainder of
+the day. The extravagant passions of distracted lovers, the wanton
+addresses of actors, are still fresh upon his mind. Now it is contended
+by the Quakers, that a person in such an excited state, but particularly
+if the excitement pleases, must be in a very unfavourable state for the
+reception of the pure principle, or for the promotion of the practical
+duties of religion. It is supposed that if any religious book, or if any
+part of the sacred writings, were handed to him in these moments, he
+would be incapable of enjoying them; and of course, that religious
+retirement, which implies an abstraction from the tilings of the world,
+would be impracticable at such a season.
+
+The Quakers believe also, that the exhibitions of the drama must, from
+their own nature, without any other consideration, disqualify for the
+pleasures of religion. It was a frequent saying of George Fox, taken
+from the apostle Peter, that those who indulged in such pleasures were
+dead, while they were alive; that is, they were active in their bodies;
+they ran about briskly after their business or their pleasures; they
+shewed the life of their bodily powers; but they were extinct as to
+spiritual feeling. By this he meant that the pleasures of the theatre,
+and others of a similar nature, were in direct opposition to the
+pleasures of religion. The former were from the world worldly. They were
+invented according to the dispositions and appetites of men. But the
+latter were from the spirit spiritual. Hence there was no greater
+difference between life and death, than between these pleasures. Hence
+the human mind was made incapable of receiving both at the same time;
+and hence the deeper it were to get into the enjoyment of the former,
+the less qualified it must become of course for the enjoyment of the
+latter.
+
+
+SECT. V.
+
+_Theatre forbidden--because injurious to the happiness of man by
+disqualifying him for domestic enjoyments--Quakers value these next to
+the pleasures of religion--sentiments of Cowper--theatre has this
+tendency, by weaning gradually from a love of home--and has it in a
+greater degree than any other of the amusements of the world._
+
+
+The Quakers, ever since the institution of their society, have abandoned
+the diversions of the world. They have obtained their pleasures from
+other quarters. Some of these they have found in one species of
+enjoyment, and others in another. But those, which they particularly
+prize, they have found in the enjoyment of domestic happiness; and these
+pleasures they value next to the pleasures of religion.
+
+   [6] "Domestic happiness, thou only bliss
+   Of Paradise, that has survived the fall!
+   Thou art the nurse of virtue--In thine arms
+   She smiles, appearing, as in truth she is,
+   Heav'n-born, and destin'd to the skies again.
+   Thou art not known, where pleasure is ador'd,
+   That reeling goddess, with a zoneless waist
+   And wandering eyes, still leaning on the arm
+   Of Novelty, her fickle, frail support;
+   For thou art meek and constant, hating change,
+   And finding, in the calm of truth-tried love,
+   Joys, that her stormy raptures never yield.
+   Forsaking thee, what shipwreck have we made
+   Of honour, dignity, and fair renown!"
+
+[Footnote 6: COWPER.]
+
+But if the Quakers have been accustomed to place one of the sources of
+their pleasures in domestic happiness, they may be supposed to be
+jealous of every thing that appears to them to be likely to interrupt
+it. But they consider dramatic exhibitions, as having this tendency.
+These exhibitions, under the influence of plot, dialogue, dress, music,
+action, and scenery, particularly fascinate. They excite the person, who
+has once seen them, to desire them again. But in proportion as this
+desire is gratified, or in proportion as people leave their homes for
+the amusements of the stage, they lose their relish, and weaken their
+powers, of the enjoyment of domestic society: that is, the Quakers mean
+to say, that domestic enjoyments, and those of the theatre, may become,
+in time, incompatible in the same persons; and that the theatre ought,
+therefore, to be particularly avoided, as an enemy, that may steal them,
+and rob them of those pleasures, which experience has taught them to
+value, as I have observed before, next to the pleasures of religion.
+
+They are of opinion also, that dramatic exhibitions not only tend, of
+themselves, to make home less agreeable, but that they excite a craving
+for stimulants, and, above all, teach a dependence upon external objects
+for amusement. Hence the attention of people is taken off again to new
+objects of pleasure, which lie out of their own families, and out of the
+circle of their friends.
+
+It will not take much time to shew, that the Quakers have not been
+mistaken in this point. It is not unusual in fashionable circles, where
+the theatre is regularly brought into the rounds of pleasure, for the
+father and the mother of a family to go to a play once, or occasionally
+twice, a week. But it seldom happens, that they either go to the same
+theatre, or that they sit together. Their children are at this time left
+at home, under, what is considered to be, proper care, but they are
+probably never seen again by them till the next noon; and perhaps once
+afterwards in the same day, when it is more than an even chance, that
+they must be again left for the gratification of some new pleasure. Now
+this separation of fathers from mothers, and of parents from children,
+does not augur well of domestic enjoyments or of a love of home.
+
+But we will trace the conduct of the parents still farther. We will get
+into their company at their own houses; and here we shall very soon
+discover, how wearisome they consider every hour, that is spent in the
+bosom of their families, when deprived of their accustomed amusements;
+and with what anxiety they count the time, when they are to be restored
+to their favourite rounds of pleasure. We shall find no difficulty in
+judging also from their conversation, the measure of their thought or
+their solicitude about their children. A new play is sure to claim the
+earliest attention or discussion. The capital style, in which an actor
+performed his part on a certain night, furnishes conversation for an
+hour. Observations on a new actress perhaps follow. Such subjects appear
+more interesting to such persons, than the innocent conversation, or
+playful pranks, of their children. If the latter are noisy, they are
+often sent out of the room as troublesome, though the same parents can
+bear the stunning plaudits, or the discordant groans and hissings of the
+audience at the theatre. In the mean time their children grow up, and in
+their turn, are introduced by their parents to these amusements, as to
+places, proper for the dissipation of vacant hours; till, by frequent
+attendances, they themselves lose an affection for home and the domestic
+duties, and have in time as little regard for their parents, as their
+parents appear to have had for them. Marrying at length, not for the
+enjoyment of domestic society, they and their children perpetuate the
+same rounds of pleasure, and the same sentiments and notions.
+
+To these instances many indeed might be added, by looking into the
+family-histories of those, who are in the habit of frequenting theatres
+in search of pleasure, by which it would appear, that such amusements
+are not friendly to the cherishing of the domestic duties and
+affections, but that, on the other hand, in proportion as they are
+followed, they tend to sap the enjoyments of domestic life. And here it
+may be observed, that of all the amusements, which go to the making up
+of the round of pleasures, the theatre has the greatest share in
+diverting from the pleasures of home. For it particularly attracts and
+fascinates, both from the nature, and the diversity, of the amusements
+it contains. It is also always open, in the season, for resort. So that
+if private invitations to pleasure should not come in sufficiently
+numerous, or should be broken off by the indisposition of the parties,
+who give them, the theatre is always ready to supply any vacancy, that
+may be occasioned in the round.
+
+
+SECT. VI.
+
+_Quakers conceive they can sanction no amusements, but such as could
+have originated in christian minds--exhibitions of the drama could have
+had, they believe, no such origin--early christians abandoned them in
+their conversion--arguments of the latter on this subject, as taken
+from Tertullian, Minucius Felix, Cyprian, Lactantius and others._
+
+
+The Quakers conceive, as a christian society, that they ought to have
+nothing to do with any amusements, but such as christians could have
+invented themselves, or such as christians could have sanctioned, by
+becoming partakers of them. But they believe that dramatic exhibitions
+are of such a nature as men of a christian spirit could never have
+invented or encouraged, and that, if the world were to begin again, and
+were to be peopled by pure christians, these exhibitions could never be
+called into existence there.
+
+This inference, the Quakers judge to be deducible from the nature of a
+christian mind. A man, who is in the habit, at his leisure hours, of
+looking into the vast and stupendous works of creation, of contemplating
+the wisdom, goodness, and power of the creator, of trying to fathom the
+great and magnificent plans of his providence, who is in the habit of
+surveying all mankind with the philosophy of revealed religion, of
+tracing, through the same unerring channel, the uses and objects of
+their existence, the design of their different ranks and situations,
+the nature of their relative duties and the like, could never, in the
+opinion of the Quakers, have either any enjoyment, or be concerned in
+the invention, of dramatic exhibitions. To a mind, in the habit of
+taking such an elevated flight, it is supposed that every thing on the
+stage must look little, and childish, and out of place. How could a
+person of such a mind be delighted with the musical note of a fiddler,
+the attitude of a dancer, the impassioned grimace of an actor? How could
+the intrigue, or the love-sick tale of the composition please him? or
+how could he have imagined, that these could be the component parts of a
+christian's joys?
+
+But this inference is considered by the Quakers to be confirmed by the
+practice of the early christians. These generally had been Pagans. They
+had of course Pagan dispositions. They followed Pagan amusements, and,
+among these, the exhibitions of the stage. But soon after their
+conversion, that is, when they had received new minds, and when they had
+exercised these on new and sublime subjects, or, on subjects similar to
+those described, or, in other words, when they had received the
+regenerated spirit of christians, they left the amusements of the stage,
+notwithstanding that, by this act of singularity in a sensual age, they
+were likely to bring upon themselves the odium and the reproaches of
+the world.
+
+But when the early christians abandoned the theatre, they abandoned it,
+as the Quakers contend, not because, leaving Paganism they were to
+relinquish all customs that were Pagan, but because they saw in their
+new religion, or because they saw in this newness of their minds,
+reasons, which held out such amusements to be inadmissible, while they
+considered themselves in the light of christians. These reasons are
+sufficiently displayed by the writers of the second, third, and fourth
+centuries; and as they are alluded to by the Quakers, though never
+quoted, I shall give them to the reader. He will judge by these, how far
+the ancient coincide with the modern christians upon this subject; and
+how for these arguments of antiquity are applicable to modern times.
+
+The early christians, according to Tertullian, Menucius Felix, Cyprian,
+Lactantius, and others, believed, that the "motives for going to these
+amusements were not of the purest sort. People went to them without any
+view of the improvement of their minds. The motive was either to see or
+to be seen."
+
+They considered the manner of the drama as objectionable. They believed
+"that he who was the author of truth, could never approve of that which
+was false, and that he, who condemned hypocrisy, could never approve of
+him, who personated the character of others; and that those therefore,
+who pretended to be in love, or to be angry, or to grieve, when none of
+those passions existed in their minds, were guilty of a kind of adultery
+in the eyes of the Supreme Being."
+
+They considered their contents to be noxious. They "looked upon them as
+consistories of immorality. They affirmed that things were spoken there
+which it did not become christians to hear, and that things were shewn
+there, which it did not become christians to see; and that, while these
+things polluted those from whom they come, they polluted those in time,
+in whose sight and hearing they were shewn or spoken."
+
+They believed also, "that these things not only polluted the spectators,
+but that the representations of certain characters upon the stage
+pointed out to them the various roads to vice, and inclined them to
+become the persons, whom they had seen represented, or to be actors in
+reality of what they had seen feigned upon the stage."
+
+They believed again, "that dramatic exhibitions produced a frame of mind
+contrary to that, which should exist in a christian's breast; that there
+was nothing to be seen upon the stage, that could lead or encourage him
+to devotion; but, on the other hand, that the noise and fury of the
+play-house, and the representations there, produced a state of
+excitement, that disturbed the internal man. Whereas the spirit of a
+christian ought to be calm, and quiet, and composed, to fit it for the
+duties of religion."
+
+They believed also, "that such promiscuous assemblages of men and women
+were not favourable to virtue; for that the sparks of the passions were
+there blown into a flame."
+
+Tertullian, from whom some of the above opinions are taken, gives an
+invitation to those who were fond of public spectacles, in nearly the
+following terms.
+
+Are you fond, says he, of the scenic doctrine, or of theatrical sights
+and compositions? We have plenty of books for you to read. We can give
+you works in prose and in verse. We can give you apothegms and hymns. We
+cannot to besure, give you fictitious plots or fables, but we can give
+you truths. We cannot give you strophies, or the winding dances of the
+chorus, but we can give you simplicities, or plain and straightforward
+paths. Are you fond of seeing contests or trials for victory? You shall
+see these also, and such as are not trivial, but important. You may see,
+in our christian example, chastity overcoming immodesty. You may see
+faithfulness giving a death-wound to perfidy. You may see mercy getting
+the better of cruelty. You may see modesty and delicacy of sentiment
+overcoming impurity and impudence. These are the contests in which it
+becomes us christians to be concerned, and where we ought to endeavour
+to receive the prize.
+
+
+
+
+CHAP. V.... SECT. I.
+
+_Dancing forbidden--Greeks and Romans differed on this subject--motive
+on which the Greeks encouraged dancing--motive on which the moderns
+encouraged it--way in which the Quakers view it--the arguments which
+they use against it._
+
+
+As the Quakers have thought it right to prohibit music, and
+stage-entertainments, to the society, so they have thought it proper to
+prohibit dancing, none of their children being allowed any instruction
+in the latter art.
+
+It is remarkable that two of the most civilized nations, as well as two
+of the wisest men of antiquity, should have differed in their opinions
+with respect to dancing. The Greeks considered it as a wise and an
+honourable employment; and most of the nations therefore under that
+appellation inserted it into their system of education. The name of
+dancer was so honourable, as to be given to some of their gods. Statues
+are recorded to have been erected to good dancers. Socrates is said to
+have admired dancing so much, as to have learnt it in his old age.
+Dancing, on the other hand, was but little regarded at Rome. It was not
+admitted even within the pale of accomplishments. It was considered at
+best as a sorry and trivial employment. Cicero says,
+
+"Nemo, fere saltat sobrius, nisi forte insanit, neque in solitudine,
+neque in convivio honesto." That is, "No man dances, in private, or at
+any respectable entertainment, except he be drunk or mad."
+
+We collect at least from the above statement, that people of old, who
+were celebrated for their wisdom, came to very different conclusions
+with respect to the propriety of the encouragement of this art.
+
+Those nations among the ancients, which encouraged dancing, did it upon
+the principle, that it led to an agility of body, and a quickness of
+motion, that would be useful in military evolutions and exploits. Hence
+swiftness of foot was considered to be an epithet, as honourable as any
+that could be given to a warrior.
+
+The moderns, on the other hand, encourage dancing, or at least defend it
+upon different principles. They consider it as producing a handsome
+carriage of the body; as leading to a graceful and harmonious use of
+the limbs; and as begetting an erectness of position, not more
+favourable to the look of a person than to his health.
+
+That dancing produces dispositions of this sort cannot be denied, though
+certainly not to the extent which many have imagined. Painters, who
+study nature the most, and are the best judges of the appearance of the
+human frame, are of opinion, that modern dancing does not produce
+natural figures or at least such as they would choose for their
+respective compositions. The military exercise has quite as great a
+share as dancing in the production of these dispositions. And there are
+certainly men, who were never taught either the military exercise or
+dancing, whose deportment is harmonious and graceful.
+
+The Quakers think it unnecessary to teach their children dancing, as an
+accomplishment, because they can walk, and carry their persons with
+sufficient ease and propriety without it.
+
+They think it unnecessary also, because, however the practice of it may
+be consistent with the sprightliness of youth, they could never sanction
+it in maturer age. They expect of the members of their society, that
+they should abandon amusements, and substitute useful and dignified
+pursuits, when they become men. But they cannot consider dancing but as
+an employment that is useless, and below the dignity of the
+christian-character in persons, who have come to years of discretion. To
+initiate therefore a youth of twelve or thirteen years of age into
+dancing, when he must relinquish it at twenty, would, in their opinion,
+be a culpable waste of his time.
+
+The Quakers, again, cannot view dancing abstractedly, for no person
+teaches or practises it abstractedly; but they are obliged to view it,
+in connection with other things. If they view it with its usual
+accompaniment of music, it would be inconsistent, they think, to
+encourage it, when they have banished music from their republic. If they
+view it as connected with an assemblage of persons, they must, they
+conceive, equally condemn it. And here it is in fact, that they
+principally level their arguments against it. They prohibit all members
+of their society from being present at balls, and assemblies; and they
+think, if their youth are brought up in ignorance of the art of dancing,
+that this ignorance will operate as one preventative at least against
+attendances at amusements of this nature.
+
+The Quakers are as strict in their inquiry with respect to the
+attendances of any of their members at balls, as at theatrical
+amusements. They consider balls and assemblies among the vain amusements
+of the world. They use arguments against these nearly similar to those
+which have been enumerated on the preceding subjects.
+
+They consider them in the first place, as productive of a kind of
+frivolous levity, and of thoughtlessness with respect to the important
+duties of life. They consider them, in the second place, as giving birth
+to vanity and pride. They consider them, again, as powerful in the
+excitement of some of the malevolent passions. Hence they believe them
+to be injurious to the religious interests of man; for, by depriving him
+of complacency of mind, and by increasing the growth of his bad
+feelings, they become impediments in the way of his improvement as a
+moral being.
+
+
+SECT. II.
+
+_Arguments of the Quakers examined--three cases made out for the
+determination of a moral philosopher--case the first--case the
+second--case the third._
+
+
+I purpose to look into these arguments of the Quakers, and to see how far
+they can be supported. I will suppose therefore a few cases to be made
+out, and to be handed, one by one, to some moral philosopher for his
+decision. I will suppose this philosopher (that all prejudice of
+education may be excluded) to have been ignorant of the nature of
+dancing, but that he had been made acquainted with it, in order that he
+might be enabled to decide the point in question.
+
+Suppose then it was reported to this philosopher that, on a certain day,
+a number of young persons of both sexes, who had casually met at a
+friends house, instead of confining themselves to the room on a summers
+afternoon, had walked out upon the green; that a person present had
+invited them suddenly to dance; that they had danced to the sound of
+musical vibrations for an hour, and that after this they had returned to
+the room, or that they had returned home. Would the philosopher be able
+to say in this case, that there was any thing in it, that incurred any
+of the culpable imputations, fixed upon dancing by the Quakers?
+
+He could hardly; I think, make it out, that there could have been, in
+any part of the business, any opening for the charges in question.
+There appears to have been no previous preparations of extravagant
+dressing; no premeditated design of setting off the person; no previous
+methods of procuring admiration; no circumstance, in short, by which he
+could reasonably suppose, that either pride or vanity could have been
+called into existence. The time also would appear to him to have been
+too short, and the circumstances too limited, to have given birth to
+improper feelings. He would certainly see that a sort of levity would
+have unavoidably arisen on the occasion, but his impartiality and
+justice would oblige him to make a distraction between the levity, that
+only exhilarates, and the levity that corrupts, the heart. Nor could he
+conceive that the dancing for an hour only, and this totally unlooked
+for, could stand much in the way of serious reflection for the future.
+If he were desired to class this sudden dancing for an hour upon the
+green with any of the known pleasures of life, he would probably class
+it with an hours exercise in the fields, or with an hours game at play,
+or with an hours employment in some innocent recreation.
+
+But suppose now, that a new case were opened to the philosopher. Suppose
+it were told him, that the same party had been so delighted with their
+dance upon the green, that they had resolved to meet once a month for
+the purpose of dancing, and that they might not be prevented by bad
+weather, to meet in a public room; that they had met according to their
+resolution; that they had danced at their first meeting but for a short
+time; but that at their meetings after, wards, they had got into the
+habit of dancing from eight or nine at night till twelve or one in the
+morning; that many of them now began to be unduly heated in the course
+of this long exercise; that some of them in consequence of the heat in
+this crowded room, were now occasionally ready to faint; that it was now
+usual for some of them to complain the next morning of colds, others of
+head-achs, others of relaxed nerves, and almost all of them of a general
+lassitude or weariness--what could the philosopher say in the present
+case?
+
+The philosopher would now probably think, that they acted unreasonably
+as human beings; that they turned night into day; and that, as if the
+evils of life were not sufficient in number, they converted hours, which
+might have been spent calmly and comfortably at home, into hours of
+indisposition and of unpleasant feelings to themselves. But this is not
+to the point. Would he or would he not say, that the arguments of the
+Quakers applied in the present case? It certainly does not appear, from
+any thing that has yet transpired on this subject, that he could, with
+any shadow of reason, accuse the persons, meeting on this occasion, of
+vanity or pride, or that he could see from any of the occurrences, that
+have been mentioned, how these evils could be produced. Neither has any
+thing yet come out, from which he could even imagine the sources of any
+improper passions. He might think perhaps, that they might be vexed for
+having brought fatigue and lassitude upon themselves, but he could see
+no opening for serious anger to others, or for any of the feelings of
+malevolence. Neither could he tell what occurrence to fix upon for the
+production of a frivolous levity. He would almost question, judging only
+from what has appeared in the last case, whether there might not be upon
+the whole more pain than pleasure from these meetings, and whether
+those, who on the day subsequent to these meetings felt themselves
+indisposed, and their whole nervous system unbraced, were not so near
+the door of repentance, that serious thoughts would be more natural to
+them than those of a lighter kind.
+
+But let us suppose one other case to be opened to the philosopher. Let
+us now suppose it to be stated to him, that those who frequented these
+monthly meetings, but particularly the females, had become habituated to
+talk, for a day or two beforehand, of nothing but of how they should
+dress themselves, or of what they should wear on the occasion: that some
+time had been spent in examining and canvassing the fashions; that the
+milliner had been called in for this purpose; that the imagination had
+been racked in the study of the decoration of the person; that both on
+the morning and the afternoon of the evening, on which they had publicly
+met to dance, they had been solely employed in preparations for decking
+themselves out; that they had been nearly two hours under one dresser
+only, namely the hair-dresser; that frequently at intervals they had
+looked at their own persons in the glass; that they had walked up and
+down parading before it in admiration of their own appearance, and the
+critical detection of any little fold in their dress, which might appear
+to be out of place, and in the adjustment of the same--what would the
+philosopher say in this new case?
+
+He certainly could not view the case with the same complacent
+countenance as before. He would feel some symptoms of alarm. He would
+begin to think that the truth of the Quaker-arguments was unfolding
+itself, and that what appeared to him to have been an innocent
+amusement, at the first, might possibly be capable of being carried out
+of the bounds of innocence by such and similar accompaniments. He could
+not conceive, if he had any accurate knowledge of the human heart, that
+such an extraordinary attention to dress and the decoration of the
+person, or such a critical examination of these with a view of
+procuring admiration, could produce any other fruits than conceit and
+affectation, or vanity and pride. Nor could he conceive that all these
+preparations, all this previous talk, all this previous consultation,
+about the fashions, added to the employment itself of the decoration of
+the person, could tend to any thing else than to degrade the mind, and
+to render it light and frivolous. He would be obliged to acknowledge
+also, that minds, accustomed to take so deep an interest in the fashions
+and vanities of the world, would not only loath, but be disqualified for
+serious reflection. But if he were to acknowledge, that these
+preparations and accompaniments had on any one occasion a natural
+tendency to produce these effects, he could not but consider these
+preparations, if made once a month, as likely to become in time
+systematic nurseries for frivolous and affected characters.
+
+Having traced the subject up to a point, where it appears, that some of
+the Quaker-arguments begin to bear, let us take leave of our
+philosopher, and as we have advanced nearly to the ball-room door, let
+us enter into the room itself, and see if any circumstances occur there,
+which shall enable us to form a better judgment upon it.
+
+
+SECT. III.
+
+_Arguments of the Quakers still further examined--interior of the
+ball-room displayed--view of the rise of many of the malevolent
+passions--these rise higher and are more painful, than they are
+generally imagined--hence it is probable that the spectators are better
+pleased than those interested in these dances--conclusion of the
+arguments of the Quakers on this subject._
+
+
+I am afraid I shall be thought more cynical than just, more prejudiced
+than impartial, more given to censure than to praise, if in temples,
+apparently dedicated to good humour, cheerfulness and mirth, I should
+say that sources were to be found, from whence we could trace the rise
+of immoral passions. But human nature is alike in all places, and, if
+circumstances should arise in the ball-room, which touch as it were the
+strings of the passions, they will as naturally throw out their tone
+there as in other places. Why should envy, jealousy, pride, malice,
+anger, or revenge, shut themselves out exclusively from these resorts,
+as if these were more than ordinarily sacred, or more than ordinary
+repositories of human worth.
+
+In examining the interior of a ball-room it must be confessed, that we
+shall certainly find circumstances occasionally arising, that give birth
+to feelings neither of a pleasant nor of a moral nature. It is not
+unusual, for instance, to discover among the females one that excels in
+the beauty of her person, and another that excels in the elegance of her
+dress. The eyes of all are more than proportionally turned upon these
+for the whole night. This little circumstance soon generates a variety
+of improper passions. It calls up vanity and conceit in the breasts of
+these objects of admiration. It raises up envy and jealousy, and even
+anger in some of the rest. These become envious of the beauty of the
+former, envious of their taste, envious of their cloathing, and, above
+all, jealous of the admiration bestowed upon them. In this evil state of
+mind one passion begets another; and instances have occurred, where some
+of these have felt displeased at the apparent coldness and indifference
+of their own partners, because they have appeared to turn their eyes
+more upon the favourites of the night, than upon themselves.
+
+In the same room, when the parties begin to take their places to dance;
+other little circumstances not infrequently occur, which give rise to
+other passions. Many aiming to be as near the top of the dance as
+possible, are disappointed of their places by others, who have just
+slept into them, dissatisfaction, and sometimes murmurs, follow. Each in
+his own mind, supposes his claims and pretensions to the higher place to
+be stronger on account of his money, his connections, his profession, or
+his rank. Thus his own dispositions to pride are only the more nursed
+and fostered. Malice too is often engendered on the occasion; and though
+the parties would not be allowed by the master of the ceremonies to
+disturb the tranquillity of the room, animosities have sometimes sprung
+up between them, which have not been healed in a little time. I am aware
+that in some large towns of the kingdom regulations are made with a view
+to the prevention of these evils, but it is in some only; and even where
+they are made, though they prevent outward rude behaviour, they do not
+prevent inward dissatisfaction. Monied influence still feels itself
+often debased by a lower place.
+
+If we were to examine the ball-room further, we should find new
+circumstances arising to call out new and degrading passions. We should
+find disappointment and discontent often throwing irritable matter upon
+the mind. Men, fond of dancing, frequently find an over proportion of
+men, and but few females in the room, and women, wishing to dance,
+sometimes find an over proportion of women, and but few men; so that
+partners are not to be had for all, and a number of each class must make
+up their minds to sit quietly, and to loose their diversion for the
+night. Partners too are frequently dissatisfied with each other. One
+thinks his partner too old, another too ugly, another below him. Matched
+often in this unequal manner, they go down the dance in a sort of
+dudgeon, having no cordial disposition towards each other, and having
+persons before their eyes in the same room with whom they could have
+cordially danced. Nor are instances wanting where the pride of some has
+fixed upon the mediocrity of others, as a reason, why they should
+reluctantly lend them their hands, when falling in with them in the
+dance. The slight is soon perceived, and disgust arises in both parties.
+
+Various other instances might be mentioned, where very improper passions
+are excited. I shall only observe, however, that these passions are
+generally stronger and give more uneasiness, and are called up to a
+greater height, than might generally be imagined from such apparently
+slight causes. In many instances indeed they have led to such serious
+misunderstandings, that they were only terminated by the duel.
+
+From this statement I may remark here, though my observation be not
+immediately to the point, that there is not probably that portion of
+entertainment, or that substantial pleasure, winch people expected to
+find at these monthly meetings. The little jealousies arising about
+precedency, or about the admiration of one more than of another; the
+falling in occasionally with disagreeable partners; the slights and
+omissions that are often thought to be purposely made; the head-achs,
+colds, sicknesses, and lassitude afterwards, must all of them operate as
+so many drawbacks from this pleasure: and it is not unusual to hear
+persons, fond of such amusements, complaining afterwards that they had
+not answered. There is therefore probably more pleasure in the
+preparations for such amusements, and in the previous talk about them,
+than in the amusements themselves.
+
+It is also probable that the greatest pleasure felt in the ball-room, is
+felt by those, who get into it as spectators only. These receive
+pleasure from the music, from the beat of the steps in unison with it,
+but particularly from the idea that all, who join in the dance, are
+happy. These considerations produce in the spectator cheerfulness and
+mirth; and these are continued to him more pure and unalloyed than in
+the former case, because he can have no drawbacks from the admission
+into his own breast of any of those uneasy, immoral passions, above
+described.
+
+But to return to the point in question. The reader has now had the
+different cases laid before him as determined by the moral philosopher.
+He has been conducted also through the interior of the ball-room. He
+will have perceived therefore that the arguments of the Quakers have
+gradually unfolded themselves, and that they are more or less
+conspicuous, or more or less true, as dancing is viewed abstractedly, or
+in connection with the preparations and accompaniments, that may be
+interwoven with it. If it be viewed in connection with these
+preparations and accompaniments, and if these should be found to be so
+inseparably connected with it, that they must invariably go together,
+which is supposed to be the case where it is introduced into the
+ball-room, he will have no difficulty in pronouncing that, in this case,
+it is objectionable as a christian recreation. For it cannot be doubted
+that it has an immediate tendency, in this case, to produce a frivolous
+levity, to generate vanity and pride, and to call up passions of the
+malevolent kind. Now in this point of view it is, that the Quakers
+generally consider dancing. They never view it, as I observed before,
+abstractedly, or solely by itself. They have therefore forbidden it to
+their society, believing it to be the duty of a Christian to be serious
+in his conversation and deportment; to afford an example of humility;
+and to be watchful and diligent in the subjugation of his evil
+passions.
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAP. VI.
+
+_Novels--novels forbidden--their fictitious nature no argument against
+them--arguments of the Quakers are, that they produce an affectation
+knowledge--a romantic spirit--and a perverted morality--and that by
+creating an indisposition towards other kinds of reading, they prevent
+moral improvement and real delight of mind--hence novel-reading more
+pernicious than many other amusements_.
+
+
+Among the prohibitions, which the Quakers have adopted in their moral
+education, as barriers against vice, or as preservatives of virtue, I
+shall consider that next, which relates to the perusal of improper
+books. George Fox seems to have forgotten nothing, that was connected
+with the morals of the society. He was anxious for the purity of its
+character, he seemed afraid of every wind that blew, lest it should
+bring some noxious vapour to defile it. And as those things which were
+spoken or represented, might corrupt the mind, so those which were
+written and printed, might equally corrupt it also. He recommended
+therefore, that the youth of his newly formed society should abstain
+from the reading of romances. William Penn and others, expressed the
+same sentiments on this subject. And the same opinion has been held by
+the Quakers, as a body of christians, down to the present day. Hence
+novels, as a particular species of romance, and as that which is
+considered as of the worst tendency, have been particularly marked for
+prohibition.
+
+Some Quakers have been inclined to think, that novels ought to be
+rejected on account of the fictitious nature of their contents. But this
+consideration is, by no means, generally adopted by the society, as an
+argument against them. Nor would it be a sound argument, if it were. If
+novels contain no evil within themselves, or have no evil tendency, the
+mere circumstance of the subject, names or characters being feigned,
+will not stamp them as censurable. Such fiction will not be like the
+fiction of the drama, where men act and personate characters that are
+not their own. Different men, in different ages of the world, have had
+recourse to different modes of writing, for the promotion of virtue.
+Some have had recourse to allegories, others to fables. The fables of
+Aesop, though a fiction from the beginning to the end, have been useful
+to many. But we have a peculiar instance of the use and innocence of
+fictitious descriptions in the sacred writings. For the author of the
+christian religion made use of parables on many and weighty occasions.
+We cannot therefore condemn fictitious biography, unless it condemn
+itself by becoming a destroyer of morals.
+
+The arguments against novels, in which the Quakers agree as a body, are
+taken from the pernicious influence they have upon the minds of those,
+who read them.
+
+The Quakers do not say, that all novels have this influence, but that
+they have it generally. The great demand for novels, inconsequence of
+the taste, which the world has shewn for this species of writing, has
+induced persons of all descriptions, and of course many who have been
+but ill qualified to write them. Hence, though some novels have appeared
+of considerable merit, the worthless have been greatly preponderant. The
+demand also has occasioned foreign novels, of a complexion by no means
+suited to the good sense and character of our country, to be translated
+into our language. Hence a fresh weight has only been thrown into the
+preponderating scale. From these two causes it has happened, that the
+contents of a great majority of our novels have been unfavourable to the
+improvement of the moral character. Now when we consider this
+circumstance, and when we consider likewise, that professed
+novel-readers generally read all the compositions of this sort that come
+into their way, that they wait for no selection, but that they devour
+the good, the bad, and the indifferent alike, we shall see the reasons,
+which have induced the Quakers to believe, that the effect of this
+species of writing upon the mind has been generally pernicious.
+
+One of the effects, which the Quakers consider to be produced by novels
+upon those who read them, is an affectation of knowledge, which leads
+them to become forward and presumptuous. This effect is highly
+injurious, for while it raises them unduly in their own estimation, it
+lowers them in that of the world. Nothing can be more disgusting, in the
+opinion of the Quakers, than to see persons assuming the authoritative
+appearance of men and women before their age or their talents can have
+given them any pretensions to do it.
+
+Another effect is the following. The Quakers conceive that there is
+among professed novel readers a peculiar cast of mind. They observe in
+them a romantic spirit, a sort of wonder-loving imagination, and a
+disposition towards enthusiastic flights of the fancy, which to sober
+persons has the appearance of a temporary derangement. As the former
+effect must become injurious by producing forwardness, so this must
+become so by producing unsteadiness, of character.
+
+A third effect, which the Quakers find to be produced among this
+description of readers, is conspicuous in a perverted morality. They
+place almost every value in feeling, and in the affectation of
+benevolence. They consider these as the true and only sources of good.
+They make these equivalent, to moral principle. And actions flowing from
+feeling, though feeling itself is not always well founded, and
+sometimes runs into compassion even against justice, they class as moral
+duties arising from moral principles. They consider also too frequently
+the laws of religion as barbarous restraints, and which their new
+notions of civilized refinement may relax at will. And they do not
+hesitate, in consequence, to give a colour to some fashionable vices,
+which no christian painter would admit into any composition, which was
+his own.
+
+To this it may be added, that, believing their own knowledge to be
+supreme, and their own system of morality to be the only enlightened
+one, they fall often into scepticism, and pass easily from thence to
+infidelity. Foreign novels, however, more than our own, have probably
+contributed to the production of this latter effect.
+
+These then are frequently the evils, and those which the Quakers insist
+upon, where persons devote their spare-time to the reading of novels,
+but more particularly among females, who, on account of the greater
+delicacy of their constitutions, are the more susceptible of such
+impressions. These effects the Quakers consider as particularly
+frightful, when they fall upon this sex. For an affectation of
+knowledge, or a forwardness of character, seems to be much more
+disgusting among women than among men. It may be observed also, that an
+unsteady or romantic spirit or a wonder-loving or flighty imagination,
+can never qualify a woman for domestic duties, or make her a sedate and
+prudent wife. Nor can a relaxed morality qualify her for the discharge
+of her duty as a parent in the religious education of her children.
+
+But, independently of these, there is another evil, which the Quakers
+attach to novel-reading, of a nature too serious to be omitted in this
+account. It is that those who are attached to this species of reading,
+become indisposed towards any other.
+
+This indisposition arises from the peculiar construction of novels.
+Their structure is similar to that of dramatic compositions. They
+exhibit characters to view. They have their heroes and heroines in the
+same manner. They lay open the checkered incidents in the lives of
+these. They interweave into their histories the powerful passion of
+love. By animated language, and descriptions which glow with sympathy,
+they rouse the sensibility of the reader, and fill his soul with
+interest in the tale. They fascinate therefore in the same manner as
+plays. They produce also the same kind of [7] mental stimulus, or the
+same powerful excitement of the mind. Hence it is that this
+indisposition is generated. For if other books contain neither
+characters, nor incidents, nor any of the high seasoning, or gross
+stimulants, which belong to novels they become insipid.
+
+[Footnote 7: I have been told by a physician of the first eminence, that
+music and novels have done more to produce the sickly countenances and
+nervous habits of our highly educated females, than any other causes
+that can be assigned. The excess of stimulus on the mind from the
+interesting and melting tales, that are peculiar to novels, affects the
+organs of the body, and relaxes the tone of the nerves, in the same
+manner as the melting tones of music have been described to act upon the
+constitution, after the sedentary employment, necessary for skill in
+that science, has injured it.]
+
+It is difficult to estimate the injury which is done to persons, by this
+last mentioned effect of novel-reading upon the mind. For the contents
+of our best books consist usually of plain and sober narrative. Works of
+this description give no extravagant representations of things, because
+their object is truth. They are found often without characters or
+catastrophies, because these would be often unsuitable to the nature of
+the subject of which they treat. They contain repellants rather than
+stimulants, because their design is the promotion of virtue. The
+novel-reader therefore, by becoming indisposed towards these, excludes
+himself from moral improvement, and deprives himself of the most
+substantial pleasure, which reading can produce. In vain do books on the
+study of nature unfold to him the treasures of the mineral or the
+vegetable world. He foregoes this addition to his knowledge, and this
+innocent food for his mind. In vain do books on science lay open to him
+the constitution and the laws of the motion of bodies. This constitution
+and these laws are still mysteries to him. In vain do books on religion
+discover to him the true path to happiness. He has still this path to
+seek. Neither, if he were to dip into works like these, but particularly
+into those of the latter discription, could he enjoy them. This latter
+consideration makes the reading of novels a more pernicious employment
+than many others. For though there may be amusements, which may
+sometimes produce injurious effects to those, who partake of them, yet
+these may be counteracted by the perusal of works of a moral tendency.
+The effects, on the other hand, which are produced by the reading of
+novels, seem to admit of no corrective or cure; for how, for instance,
+shall a perverted morality, which is considered to be one of them, be
+rectified, if the book which is to contain the advice for this purpose,
+be so uninteresting, or insipid, that the persons in question have no
+disposition to peruse it?
+
+
+
+
+CHAP. VII-SECT. I.
+
+_Diversions of the field--diversions of the field forbidden--general
+thoughtlessness on this subject--sentiments of Thomson--sentiments of
+George Fox--of Edward Burroughs--similar sentiments of Cowper--law of
+the society on the subject._
+
+
+ The diversions of the field are usually followed by people, without any
+consideration, whether they are justifiable, either in the eye of
+morality or of reason. Men receive them as the customs of their
+ancestors, and they are therefore not likely to entertain doubts
+concerning their propriety. The laws of the country also sanction them;
+for we find regulations and qualifications on the subject. Those also
+who attend these diversions, are so numerous, and their rank, and
+station, and character, are often such, that they sanction them again by
+their example, so that few people think of making any inquiry, how far
+they are allowable as pursuits.
+
+But though this general thoughtlessness prevails upon this subject, and
+though many have fallen into these diversions as into the common customs
+of the world, yet benevolent and religious individuals have not allowed
+them to pass unnoticed, nor been backward in their censures and
+reproofs.
+
+It has been matter of astonishment to some, how men, who have the powers
+of reason, can waste their time in galloping after dogs, in a wild and
+tumultuous manner, to the detriment often of their neighbours, and to
+the hazard of their own lives; or how men, who are capable of high
+intellectual enjoyments, can derive pleasure, so as to join in shouts of
+triumph, on account of the death of an harmless animal; or how men, who
+have organic feelings, and who know that other living creatures have the
+same, can make an amusement of that, which puts brute-animals to pain.
+
+Good poets have spoken the language of enlightened nature upon this
+subject. Thomson in his Seasons, introduces the diversions of the field
+in the following manner.
+
+   "Here the rude clamour of the sportsman's joy,
+   The gun fast-thund'ring, and the winded horn,
+   Would tempt the muse to sing the rural game."
+
+But further on he observes,
+
+   "These are not subjects for the peaceful muse;
+   Nor will she stain with such her spotless song;
+   Then most delighted, when she social sees
+   The whole mix'd animal-creation round.
+   Alive and happy; 'Tis not joy to her
+   This falsely cheerful barbarous game of death."
+
+Cowper, in his task, in speaking in praise of the country, takes
+occasion to express his disapprobation of one of the diversions in
+question.
+
+   "They love the country, and none else, who seek
+   For their own sake its silence and its shade,
+   Delights, which who would leave, that has a heart
+   Susceptible of pity, or a mind,
+   Cultur'd, and capable of sober thought,
+   For all the savage din of the swift pack
+   And clamours of the field? Detested sport
+   That owes its pleasures to another's pain,
+   That feeds upon the sobs and dying shrieks
+   Of harmless nature, dumb, but yet endued
+   With eloquence, that agonies inspire
+   Of silent tears, and heart-distending sighs!
+   Vain tears alas! and sighs, that never find
+   A corresponding tone in jovial souls!"
+
+In these sentiments of the poets the Quakers, as a religious body, have
+long joined. George Fox specifically reprobated hunting and hawking,
+which were the field diversions of his own time. He had always shewn, as
+I stated in the introduction, a tender disposition to brute-animals, by
+reproving those, who had treated them improperly in his presence. He
+considered these diversions, as unworthy of the time and attention of
+men, who ought to have much higher objects of pursuit. He believed also,
+that real christians could never follow them; for a christian was a
+renovated man, and a renovated man could not but know the works of
+creation better, than to subject them to his abuse.
+
+Edward Burroughs, who lived at the same time, and was an able minister
+of the society, joined George Fox in his sentiments with respect to the
+treatment of animals. He considered that man in the fall, or the
+apostate man, had a vision so indistinct and vitiated that he could not
+see the animals of the creation, as he ought, but that the man, who was
+restored, or the spiritual christian, had a new and clear discernment
+concerning them, which would oblige him to consider and treat them in a
+proper manner.
+
+This idea of George Fox and of Edward Burroughs seems to have been
+adopted or patronized by the Poet Cowper.
+
+   "Thus harmony, and family accord,
+   Were driven from Paradise; and in that hour
+   The seeds of cruelty, that since have swell'd
+   To such gigantic and enormous growth,
+   Were sown in human natures fruitful soil.
+   Hence date the persecution and the pain,
+   That man inflicts on all inferior kinds,
+   Regardless of their plaints. To make him sport,
+   To gratify the frenzy of his wrath,
+   Or his base gluttony, are causes good,
+   And just, in his account, why bird and beast
+   Should suffer torture--"
+
+Thus the Quakers censured these diversions from the first formation of
+their society, and laid down such moral principles with respect to the
+treatment of animals, as were subversive of their continuance. These
+principles continued to actuate all true Quakers, who were their
+successors; and they gave a proof, in their own conduct, that they were
+influenced by them, not only in treating the different animals under
+their care with tenderness, but in abstaining from all diversions in
+which their feelings could be hurt. The diversions however, of the
+field, notwithstanding that this principle of the brute-creation had
+been long recognized, and that no person of approved character in the
+society followed them, began in time to be resorted to occasionally by
+the young and thoughtless members, either out of curiosity, or with a
+view of trying them, as means of producing pleasure. These deviations,
+however from the true spirit of Quakerism became at length known. And
+the Quakers, that no excuse might be left to any for engaging in such
+pursuits again, came to a resolution in one of their yearly meetings,
+giving advice upon the subject in the following words.
+
+[8]"We clearly rank the practice of hunting and shooting for diversion
+with vain sports; and we believe the awakened mind may see, that even
+the leisure of those whom providence hath permitted to have a competence
+of worldly goods, is but ill filled up with these amusements. Therefore,
+being not only accountable for our substance, but also for our time, let
+our leisure be employed in serving our neighbour, and not in
+distressing the creatures of God for our amusement."
+
+[Footnote 8: Book of Extracts.]
+
+I shall not take upon me to examine the different reasons upon which we
+find the foundation of this law. I shall not enquire how far a man's
+substance, or rather his talent, is wasted or misapplied, in feeding a
+number of dogs in a costly manner, while the poor of the neighbourhood
+may be starving, or how far the galloping after these is in the eye of
+christianity a misapplication of a person's time. I shall adhere only to
+that part of the argument, how far a person has a right to make a
+[9]pleasure of that, which occasions pain and death to the
+animal-creation: and I shall shew in what manner the Quakers argue upon
+this subject, and how they persuade themselves, that they have no right
+to pursue such diversions, but particularly when they consider
+themselves as a body of professing christians.
+
+[Footnote 9: The Quakers and the poet Cowper likewise, in their laudable
+zeal for the happiness of the brute-creation, have given an improper
+description of the nature of the crime of these diversions. They have
+made it to consist in a man's deriving pleasure from the sufferings of the
+animals in question, whereas it should have been made to consist in his
+making a pleasure of a pursuit which puts them to pain. The most
+abandoned sportsman, it is to be presumed, never hunts them because
+he enjoys their sufferings. His pleasure arises from considerations of
+another nature.]
+
+
+
+SECT. II.
+
+_Diversions of the field judged first by the morality of the Old
+Testament--original charter to kill animals--condition annexed to
+it--sentiments of Cowper--rights and duties springing from this
+charter--violation of it the violation of a moral law--diversions in
+question not allowable by this standard._
+
+
+The Quakers usually try the lawfulness of field-diversions, which
+include hunting and shooting, by two standards, and first by the
+morality of the old Testament.
+
+They believe in common with other christians, that men have a right to
+take away the lives of animals for their food. The great creator of the
+universe, to whom every thing that is in it belongs, gave to Noah and
+his descendants a grant or charter for this purpose. In this charter no
+exception is made. Hence wild animals are included in it equally with
+the tame. And hence a hare may as well be killed, if people have
+occasion for food, as a chicken or a lamb.
+
+They believe also that, when the creator of the universe gave men
+dominion over the whole brute-creation, or delivered this creation into
+their hands, he intended them the right of destroying such animals, as
+circumstances warranted them in supposing would become injurious to
+themselves. The preservation of themselves, which is the first law of
+nature, and the preservation of other animals under their care, created
+this new privilege.
+
+But though men have the power given them over the lives of animals,
+there is a condition in the same charter, that they shall take them with
+as little pain as possible to the creatures. If the death of animals is
+to be made serviceable to men, the least they can do in return is to
+mitigate their sufferings, while they expire. This obligation the
+Supreme Being imposed upon those, to whom he originally gave the
+charter, by the command of not eating their flesh, while the life's
+blood was in it. The Jews obliged all their converts to religion, even
+the proselytes of the gate, who were not considered to be so religious
+as the proselytes of the covenant, to observe what they called the
+seventh commandment of Noah, or that "they should[10] not eat the member
+of any beast that was taken from it, while it was alive." This law
+therefore of blood, whatever other objects it might have in view,
+enjoined that, while men were engaged in the distresing task of taking
+away the life of an animal, they should respect its feelings, by
+abstaining from torture, or all unnecessary pain.
+
+[Footnote 10: It seems almost impossible, that men could be so depraved,
+as to take flesh to eat from a poor animal, while alive, and yet from
+the law enjoined to proselytes of the gate it is probable, that it was
+the case. Bruce, whose travels into Abyssynia are gaining in credit,
+asserts that such customs obtained there. And the Harleian Miscellany,
+vol. 6. P. 126, in which is a modern account of Scotland, written in
+1670, states the same practice as having existed in our own island.]
+
+   [11]On Noah, and in him on all mankind
+   The Charter was conferr'd, by which we hold
+   The flesh of animals in fee, and claim
+   O'er all we feed on pow'r of life and death.
+   But read the instrument, and mark it well.
+   The oppression of a tyrannous control
+   Can find no warrant there. Feed then, and yield
+   Thanks for thy food. Carnivorous, through sin,
+   Feed on the slain; but spare the living brute.
+
+[Footnote 11: Cowper.]
+
+From this charter, and from the great condition annexed to it, the
+Quakers are of opinion that rights and duties have sprung up; rights on
+behalf of animals, and duties on the part of men; and that a breach of
+these duties, however often, or however thoughtlessly it may take place,
+is a breach of a moral law. For this charter did not relate to those
+animals only, which lived in the particular country of the Jews, but to
+those in all countries wherever Jews might exist. Nor was the observance
+of it confined to the Jews only, but it was to extend to the Proselytes
+of the covenant and the gate. Nor was the observance of it confined to
+these Proselytes, but it was to extend to all nations; because all
+animals of the same species are in all countries organized alike, and
+have all similar feelings; and because all animals of every kind are
+susceptible of pain.
+
+In trying the lawfulness of the diversions of the field, as the Quakers
+do by this charter, and the great condition that is annexed to it, I
+purpose, in order to save time, to confine myself to hunting, for this
+will appear to be the most objectionable, if examined in this manner.
+
+It must be obvious then, that hunting, even in the case of hares, is
+seldom followed for the purposes of food. It is uncertain in the first
+place, whether in the course of the chase they can be preserved whole
+when they are taken, so as to be fit to be eaten. And, in the second, it
+may be observed, that we may see fifty horsemen after a pack of hounds,
+no one of whom has any property in the pack, nor of course any right to
+the prey. These cannot even pretend, that their object is food, either
+for themselves or others.
+
+Neither is hunting, where foxes are the objects in view, pursued upon
+the principle of the destruction of noxious animals. For it may be
+observed, that rewards are frequently offered to those, who will procure
+them for the chase: that large woods or covers are frequently allotted
+them, that they may breed, and perpetuate their species for the same
+purposes, and that a poor man in the neighbourhood of a foxhunter, would
+be sure to experience his displeasure, if he were caught in the
+destruction of any of these animals.
+
+With respect to the mode of destroying them in either of these cases, it
+is not as expeditious, as it might be made by other means. It is on the
+other hand, peculiarly cruel. A poor animal is followed, not for
+minutes, but frequently for an hour, and sometimes for hours, in pain
+and agony. Its sufferings begin with its first fear. Under this fear,
+perpetually accompanying it, it flies from the noise of horses, and
+horsemen, and the cries of dogs. It pants for breath, till the panting
+becomes difficult and painful. It becomes wearied even to misery, yet
+dares not rest. And under a complication of these sufferings, it is at
+length overtaken, and often literally torn to pieces by its pursuers.
+
+Hunting therefore does not appear, in the opinion of the Quakers, to be
+followed for any of those purposes, which alone, according to the
+original charter, give mankind a right over the lives of brutes. It is
+neither followed for food, nor for prevention of injury to man, or to
+the creatures belonging to him. Neither is life taken away by means of
+it, as mercifully as it ought to be, according to the meaning of the[12]
+great condition. But if hunting be not justifiable, when examined upon
+these principles, it can never be justifiable in the opinion of the
+Quakers, when it is followed on the principle of pleasure, all
+destruction of animal-life upon this last principle, must come within
+the charge of wanton cruelty, and be considered as a violation of a
+moral law.
+
+[Footnote 12: The netting of animals for food, is perfectly
+unobjectionable upon these principles.]
+
+
+SECT. III.
+
+_Diversions of the field judged by the morality of the
+New-Testament--the renovated man or christian has a clearer knowledge of
+creation and of its uses--he views animals as the creatures of
+God--hence he finds animals to have rights independently of any written
+law--he collects again new rights from the benevolence of his new
+feelings--and new rights again from the written word of revelation._
+
+
+The Quakers try the lawfulness of these diversions again by the morality
+of the New-Testament They adopt, in the first place, upon this occasion,
+the idea of George Fox and of Edward Burroughs, which has been already
+stated; and they follow it up in the manner which I shall now explain.
+
+They believe that a man under the new covenant, or one who is really a
+christian, is a renovated man. As long as Adam preserved his primeval
+innocence, or continued in the image of his Maker, his spiritual vision
+was clear. When he lost this image, it became dim, short, and confused.
+This is the case, the Quakers believe, with every apostate or wicked
+man. He sees through a vitiated medium. He sees of course nothing of the
+harmony of the creation. He has but a confused knowledge of the natures
+and ends of things. These natures and these ends he never examines as he
+ought, but in the confusion of his moral vision, he abuses and perverts
+them. Hence it generally happens, that an apostate man is cruel to his
+brute. But in proportion as he is restored to the divine image, or
+becomes as Adam was before he fell, or in proportion as he exchanges
+earthly for spiritual views, he sees all things through a clearer
+medium. It is then, the Quakers believe, that the creation is open to
+him, and that he finds his creator has made nothing in vain. It is then
+that he knows the natures of things; that he estimates their uses and
+their ends, and that he will never stretch these beyond their proper
+bounds. Beholding animals in this sublime light, he will appreciate
+their strength, their capacities, and their feelings; and he will never
+use them but for the purposes intended by providence. It is then that
+the creation will delight him. It is then that he will find a growing
+love to the animated objects of it. And this knowledge of their natures,
+and this love of them, will oblige him to treat them with tenderness and
+respect. Hence all animals will have a security in the breast of every
+christian or renovated man against oppression or abuse. He will never
+destroy them wantonly, nor put them to unnecessary pain. Now the Quakers
+are of opinion, that every person, who professes christianity, ought to
+view things as the man, who is renovated, would view them, and that it
+becomes them therefore in particular, as a body of highly professing
+christians, to view them in the same manner. Hence they uniformly look
+upon animals, not as brute-machines, to be used at discretion, but as
+the creatures of God, of whose existence the use and intention ought
+always to be considered, and to whom duties arise out of this spiritual
+feeling, independently of any written law in the Old-Testament, or any
+grant or charter, by which their happiness might be secured.
+
+The Quakers therefore, viewing animals in this light, believe that they
+are bound to treat them accordingly. Hence the instigation of two horses
+by whips and spurs for a trial of speed, in consequence of a monied
+stake, is considered by the Quakers to be criminal. The horse was made
+for the use of man, to carry his body and to transport his burdens; but
+he was never made to engage in painful conflicts with other horses on
+account of the avarice of his owner. Hence the pitting together of two
+cocks for a trial of victory is considered as equally criminal. For the
+cock, whatever may be his destined object among the winged creation, has
+been long useful to man in awakening him from unseasonable slumber, and
+in sounding to him the approach of day. But it was never intended, that
+he should be employed to the injury and destruction of himself, or to
+the injury and destruction of his own species. In the same manner the
+Quakers condemn the hunting of animals, except on the plea of necessity,
+or that they cannot be destroyed, if their death be required, in any
+other way. For whatever may be their several uses, or the several ends
+of their existence in creation, they were never created to be so used by
+man, that they should suffer, and this entirely for his sport. Whoever
+puts animals to cruel and unnatural uses, disturbs, in the opinion of
+the Quakers, the harmony of the creation, and offends God.
+
+The Quakers in the second place, are of opinion that the renovated man
+must have, in his own benevolent spirit, such an exalted sense of the
+benevolent spirit of the Creator, as to believe, that he never
+constituted any part of animated nature, without assigning it its proper
+share of happiness during the natural time of its existence, or that it
+was to have its moment, its hour, its day, or its year of pleasure. And,
+if this be the case, he must believe also, that any interruption of its
+tranquillity, without the plea of necessity, must be an innovation of
+its rights as a living being.
+
+The Quakers believe also, that the renovated man, who loves all the
+works of the creator, will carry every divine law, which has been
+revealed to him, as far as it is possible to be carried on account of a
+similarity of natures through all animated creation, and particularly
+that law, which forbids him to do to another, what he would dislike to
+be done unto himself. Now this law is founded on the sense of bodily,
+and on the sense of the mental feelings. The mental feelings of men and
+brutes, or the reason of man and the instinct of animals, are different.
+But their bodily feelings are alike; and they are in their due
+proportions, susceptible of pain. The nature therefore of man and of
+animals is alike in this particular. He can anticipate and know their
+feelings by his own. He cannot therefore subject them to any action
+unnecessarily, if on account of a similar construction of his own
+organs, such an action would produce pain to himself. His own power of
+feeling strongly commands sympathy to all that can feel: and that
+general sympathy, which arises to a man, when he sees pain inflicted on
+the person of any individual of his own species, will arise, in the
+opinion of the Quakers, to the renovated man, when he sees it inflicted
+on the body of a brute.
+
+
+
+
+CHAP. VIII.
+
+_Objections started by philosophical moralists to the preceding system
+of education--this system a prohibitory one--prohibitions sometimes the
+cause of greater evil than they prevent--they may confuse morality--and
+break the spirit--they render the vicious more vicious--and are not to
+be relied upon as effectual, because built on a fake foundation--ignorance
+no guardian of virtue--causes, not sub-causes, are to be contended against
+--no certain security but in knowledge and a love of virtue--prohibitions,
+where effectual, produce but a sluggish virtue._
+
+
+I have now stated the principal prohibitions, that are to be found in
+the moral education of the Quakers, and I have annexed to these the
+various reasons, which the Quakers themselves give, why they were
+introduced into their society. I have therefore finished this part of my
+task, and the reader will expect me to proceed to the next subject. But
+as I am certain that many objections will be started here, I shall stop
+for a few minutes to state, and to consider them.
+
+The Quakers differ on the subject of moral education, very materially
+from the world, and indeed from those of the world, who having had a
+more than ordinarily liberal education, may be supposed to have, in most
+cases, a more than ordinarily correct judgment. The Quaker system, as we
+have seen, consists principally of specific prohibitions. These
+prohibitions again, are extended occasionally to things, which are not
+in themselves vicious. They are extended, again, to these, because it is
+possible that they may be made productive, of evil. And they are
+founded apparently on the principle, that ignorance of such things
+secures innocence, or that ignorance, in such cases, has the operation
+of a preventive of vice, or a preservative of virtue.
+
+Philosophical moralists on the other hand, are friends to occasional
+indulgences. They see nothing inherently or necessarily mischievous,
+either in the theatre or in the concert-room, or in the ball-room, or in
+the circulating library, or in many other places of resort. If a young
+female, say they, situated in a provincial town, were to see a play
+annually, would it not give her animation, and afford a spring to her
+heart? or if a youth were to see a play two or three times in the year,
+might not his parents, if they were to accompany him, make it each time,
+by their judicious and moral remarks, subservient to the improvement of
+his morals? neither do these moralists anticipate any danger by looking
+to distant prospects, where the things are innocent in themselves. And
+they are of opinion, that all danger may be counteracted effectually,
+not by prohibitory checks and guards, but by storing the mind with
+knowledge, and filling it with a love of virtue. The arguments
+therefore, which these will advance against the system of the moral
+education of the Quakers, may be seen in the following words.
+
+"All prohibitions, they contend, should be avoided, as much as
+possible, in moral education; for prohibitions may often become the
+cause of greater immorality, than they were intended to prevent. The
+fable of the hen, whose very prohibition led her chickens to the fatal
+well, has often been realized in life, there is a certain curiosity in
+human nature to look into things forbidden. If Quaker youth should have
+the same desires in this respect as others, they cannot gratify them but
+at the expence of their virtue. If they wish for novels, for example,
+they must get them clandestinely. If to go to the theatre, they must go
+in secret. But they must do more than this in the latter case, for as
+they would be known by their dress, they must change it for that of
+another person. Hence they may be made capable of intrigue, hypocrisy,
+and deceit."
+
+"Prohibitions, again, they believe, except they be well founded, may
+confound the notions of children on the subject of morality; for if they
+are forbidden to do what they see worthy and enlightened persons do,
+they may never know where to fix the boundaries between vice and
+virtue."
+
+"Prohibitions, again, they consider, if made without an allowance of
+exceptions, as having a tendency to break the spirit of youth. Break a
+horse in the usual way, and teach him to stop with the check of the
+reins, and you break him, and preserve his courage. But put him in a
+mill to break him, and you break his life and animation. Prohibitions
+therefore may hinder elevated feeling, and may lead to poverty and
+sordidness of spirit."
+
+"Prohibitions, again, they believe, if youth once depart from the right
+way, render them more vicious characters than common. This arises from
+the abruptness or suddenness of transition. For having been shut up
+within narrow boundaries for a part of their lives, they go greater
+lengths, when once let loose, than others, who have not been equally
+curbed and confined."
+
+"But while they are of opinion, that prohibitions are likely to be thus
+injurious to Quaker-youth, they are of opinion, that they are never to
+be relied upon as effectual guardians of morality, because they consider
+them as built upon false principles."
+
+"They are founded, they conceive, on the principle, that ignorance is a
+security for innocence, or that vice is so attractive, that we cannot
+resist it but by being kept out of the way. In the first case, they
+contend that the position is false; for ignorant persons are of all
+others the most likely, when they fall into temptations, to be seduced,
+and in the second, they contend that there is a distrust of divine
+providence in his moral government of the world."
+
+"They are founded, again, they conceive, on false principles, inasmuch
+as the Quakers confound causes with sub-causes, or causes with
+occasions. If a person, for example, were to get over a hedge, and
+receive a thorn in his hand, and die of the wound, this thorn would be
+only the occasion, and not the cause of his death. The bad state in
+which his body must have been, to have made this wound fatal, would have
+been the original cause. In like manner neither the theatre, nor the
+ball-room are the causes of the bad passions, that are to be found
+there. All these passions must have existed in persons previously to
+their entrance into these places. Plays therefore, or novels, or public
+dances, are only the sub-causes, or the occasions of calling forth the
+passions in question. The real cause is in the infected state of the
+mind, or in the want of knowledge, or in the want of a love of virtue."
+
+"Prohibitions therefore, though they may become partial checks of vice,
+can never, they believe, be relied upon as effectual guardians of
+virtue. Bars and bolts seldom prevent thieves from robbing a house. But
+if armed men should be in it, who would venture to enter in? In the same
+manner the mind of man should be armed or prepared. It should be so
+furnished, that men should be able to wander through a vicious world,
+amidst all its foibles and its follies, and pass uncontaminated by them.
+It should have that tone given to it, which should hinder all
+circumstances from becoming occasions. But this can never be done by
+locking up the heart to keep vice out of it, but by filling it with
+knowledge and with a love of virtue."
+
+"That this is the only method to be relied upon in moral education, they
+conceive may be shewn by considering upon whom the pernicious effects of
+the theatre, or of the ball-room, or of the circulating library,
+principally fall. Do they not fall principally upon those, who have
+never had a dignified education. 'Empty noddles, it is said, are fond of
+playhouses,' and the converse, is true, that persons, whose
+understandings have been enriched, and whose tastes have been corrected,
+find all such recreations tiresome. At least they find so much to
+disgust them, that what they approve does not make them adequate amends.
+This is the case also with respect to novels. These do harm principally
+to barren minds. They do harm to those who have no proper employment for
+their time, or to those, who in the manners, conversation, and conduct,
+of their parents, or others with whom they associate, have no examples
+of pure thinking, or of pure living, or of a pure taste. Those, on the
+other hand, who have been taught to love good books, will never run
+after, or be affected by, bad ones. And the same mode of reasoning, they
+conceive, is applicable to other cases. For if people are taught to
+love virtue for virtue's sake, and, in like manner, to hate what is
+unworthy, because they have a genuine and living knowledge of its
+unworthiness, neither the ball, nor concert-room, nor the theatre, nor
+the circulating library, nor the diversions of the field, will have
+charms enough to seduce them, or to injure the morality of their minds."
+
+To sum up the whole. The prohibitions of the Quakers, in the first
+place, may become injurious, in the opinion of these philosophical
+moralists, by occasioning greater evils, than they were intended to
+prevent. They can never, in the second place, be relied upon as
+effectual guardians of virtue, because they consider them to be founded
+on false principles. And if at any time they can believe them to be
+effectual in the office assigned them, they believe them to to be
+productive only of a cold or a sluggish virtue.
+
+
+
+
+MORAL EDUCATION.
+
+CHAP. IX.... SECT. I.
+
+_Reply of the Quakers to these objections--they say first, that they are
+to be guided by revelation in the education of their children--and that
+the education, which they adopt, is sanctioned by revelation, and by the
+practice of the early Christians--they maintain again, that the
+objections are not applicable to them, for they pre-suppose
+circumstances concerning them, which are not true--they allow the system
+of filling the mind with virtue to be the most desirable--but they
+maintain that it cannot be acted upon abstractedly--and, that if it
+could, it would be as dangerous, as the philosophical moralists make
+their system of the prohibitions._
+
+
+To these objections the Quakers would make the following reply.
+
+They do not look up either to their own imaginations, or to the
+imaginations of others, for any rule in the education of their children.
+As a christian society, they conceive themselves bound to be guided by
+revelation, and by revelation only, while it has any injunctions to
+offer, which relate to this subject.
+
+In adverting to the Old Testament, they find that no less than nine, out
+of the ten commandments of Moses, are of a prohibitory nature, and, in
+adverting to the new, that many of the doctrines of Jesus Christ and the
+apostles are delivered in the form of prohibitions. They believe that
+revealed religion prohibits them from following all those pursuits,
+which the objections notice; for though there is no specific prohibition
+of each, yet there is an implied one in the spirit of christianity,
+Violent excitements of the passions on sensual subjects must be
+unfavourable to religious advancement. Worldly pleasures must hinder
+those, which are spiritual. Impure words and spectacles must affect
+morals. Not only evil is to be avoided, but even the appearance of evil.
+While therefore these sentiments are acknowledged by christianity, it is
+to be presumed that the customs, which the objections notice, are to be
+avoided in christian education. And as the Quakers consider these to be
+forbidden to themselves, they feel themselves obliged to forbid them to
+others. And, in these parcticular prohibitions, they consider themselves
+as sanctioned both by the writings and the practice of the early
+christians.
+
+In looking at the objections, which have been made with a view of
+replying to them, they would observe first, that these objections do not
+seem to apply to them as a society, because they presuppose
+circumstances concerning them, which are not true. They presuppose
+first, that their moral education is founded on prohibitions solely,
+whereas they endeavour both by the communication of positive precepts,
+and by their example, to fill the minds of their children with a love of
+virtue. They presuppose again, that they are to mix with the world, and
+to follow the fashions of the world, in which case a moderate knowledge
+of the latter, with suitable advice when they are followed, is
+considered as enabling them to pass through life with less danger than
+the prohibition of the same, whereas they mix but little with others of
+other denominations. They abjure the world, that they may not imbibe its
+spirit. And here they would observe, that the knowledge, which is
+recommended to be obtained, by going through perilous customs is not
+necessary for them as a society. For living much at home, and mixing
+almost solely with one another, they consider their education as
+sufficient for their wants.
+
+If the Quakers could view the two different systems abstractedly, that
+of filling the heart with virtue, and that of shutting it out from a
+knowledge of vice, so that they could be acted upon separately, and so
+that the first of the two were practicable, and practicable without
+having to go through scenes that were dangerous to virtue, they would
+have no hesitation in giving the preference to the former; because if
+men could be taught to love virtue for virtue's sake, all the trouble of
+prohibitions would be unnecessary.
+
+But the Quakers would conceive that the system of filling the mind with
+virtue, if acted upon abstractedly, or by itself, would be impracticable
+with respect to youth. To make it practicable children must be born with
+the full grown intellect and experience of men. They must have an innate
+knowledge of all the tendencies, the bearings, the relations, and the
+effects of virtue and vice. They must be also strong enough to look
+temptation in the face; whereas youth have no such knowledge, or
+experience, or strength, or power.
+
+They would consider also the system of filling the mind with virtue, as
+impossible, if attempted abstractedly or alone, because it is not in
+human wisdom to devise a method of inspiring it with this essence,
+without first teaching it to abstain from vice. It is impossible, they
+would say, for a man to be virtuous, or to be in love with virtue,
+except he were to lay aside his vicious practices. The first step to
+virtue, according both to the Heathen and the Christian philosophy, is
+to abstain from vice. We are to cease to do evil, and to learn to do
+well. This is the process recommended. Hence prohibitions are necessary.
+Hence sub-causes as well as causes are to be attacked. Hence abstinence
+from vice is a Christian, though it may be a sluggish, virtue. Hence
+innocence is to be aimed at by an ignorance of vice. And hence we must
+prohibit all evil, if we wish for the assistance of the moral governor
+of the world.
+
+But if the system of filling the heart with virtue were ever practicable
+of itself, that is, without the aid of prohibitions, yet if it be to be
+followed by allowing young persons to pass through the various
+amusements of the world which the Quakers prohibit, and by giving them
+moral advice at the same time, they would be of opinion, that more
+danger would accrue to their morality, than any, which the prohibitions
+could produce. The prohibitions, as far as they have a tendency to curb
+the spirit, would not be injurious, in the opinion of the Quakers,
+because it is their plan in education to produce humble, and passive,
+and obedient characters; and because spirit, or highmindedness, or high
+feeling, is no trait in the Christian character. As far as the
+curiosity, which is natural to man, would instigate him to look into
+things forbidden, which he could not always do in the particular
+situation of the Quakers, without the admission of intrigue, or
+hypocrisy, or deceit, prohibitions would be to be considered as evils,
+though they would always be necessary evils. But the Quakers would
+apprehend that the same number of youth would not be lost by passing
+through the ordeal of prohibitory education, as through the ordeal of
+the system, which attempts to fill the mind with virtue, by inuring it
+to scenes, which may be dangerous to its morality; for if tastes are to
+be cultivated, and knowledge to be had, by adopting the amusements
+prohibited by the Quakers, many would be lost, though some might be
+advanced to virtue. For parents cannot always accompany their children
+to such places, nor, if they could, can they prevent these from
+fascinating. If these should fascinate, they will suggest repetitions.
+But frequent repetitions, where you accustom youth to see, to hear, and
+to think, what ought never to be heard, seen, or thought of by
+Christians, cannot but have the effect of tinging the character in time.
+This mode of education would be considered by the Quakers as answering
+to that of "dear bought experience." A person may come to see the beauty
+of virtue, when his constitution has been shattered by vice. But many
+will perish in the midst of so hazardous a trial.[13]
+
+[Footnote 13: Though no attempt is to be made to obtain knowledge,
+according to the Christian system, through the medium of customs which
+may be of immoral tendency, yet it does not follow that knowledge,
+properly obtained, is not a powerful guardian of virtue. This important
+subject may probably be resumed in a future volume.]
+
+
+SECT. II.
+
+_Quakers contend, by may of farther reply to the objections, that their
+education has been practically or experimentally beneficial--two facts
+in behalf of this assertion--the first is that young Quakers get earlier
+into the wisdom of life than many others--the second, that there are few
+disorderly persons in the society--error corrected, that the Quakers
+turn persons out of the society, as soon as they begin to be vicious,
+that it may be rescued from the disgrace of a bad character._
+
+
+The answers, which have hitherto been given to the reader, may be
+considered as the statement of theory against theory. But the Quakers,
+would say farther upon this subject, that they have educated upon these
+principles for a hundred and fifty years, and that, where they have been
+attended to, their effects have been uniformly beneficial. They would be
+fearful therefore of departing from a path, which they conceive their
+own experience and that of their ancestors has shewn them to be safe,
+and which after all their inquiries, they believe to be that which is
+pointed out to them by the Christian religion.
+
+I shall not attempt to follow up this practical argument by any history
+of the lives of the Quakers, but shall content myself with one or two
+simple facts, which appear to me to be materially to the point.
+
+In the first place I may observe that it is an old saying, that it is
+difficult to put old heads on young shoulders. The Quakers, however, do
+this more effectually than any other people. It has often been observed
+that a Quaker boy has an unnatural appearance. This idea has arisen from
+his dress and his sedateness, which together have produced an
+appearance of age above the youth in his countenance, or the stature of
+his person. This, however, is confessing, in some degree, in the case
+before us, that the discretion of age has appeared upon youthful
+shoulders. It is certainly an undeniable fact, that the youth of this
+society, generally speaking, get earlier into a knowledge of just
+sentiments, or into a knowledge of human nature, or into a knowledge of
+the true wisdom of life, than those of the world at large. I have often
+been surprised to hear young Quakers talk of the folly and vanity of
+pursuits, in which persons older than themselves were then embarking for
+the purposes of pleasure, and which the same persons have afterwards
+found to have been the pursuits of uneasiness and pain.
+
+Let us stop for a while, just to look at the situation of some of those
+young persons, who, in consequence of a different education, are
+introduced to the pleasures of the world, as to those, which are to
+constitute their happiness. We see them running eagerly first after this
+object, then after that. One man says to himself "this will constitute
+my pleasure." He follows it. He finds it vanity and vexation of spirit.
+He says again "I have found my self deceived. I now see my happiness in
+other pleasures, and not in those where I fancied it." He follows these.
+He becomes sickened. He finds the result different from his
+expectations. He pursues pleasure, but pleasure is not there.
+
+   [14]"They are lost
+   In chase of fancied happiness, still woo'd,
+   And never won. Dream after dream ensues;
+   And still they dream, that they shall still succeed
+   And still are disappointed."
+
+[Footnote 14: Cowper.]
+
+Thus after having wasted a considerable portion of his time, he is
+driven at last by positive experience into the truth of those maxims,
+which philosophy and religion have established, and in the pursuit of
+which alone he now sees that true happiness is to be found. Thus, in
+consequence of his education, he looses two thirds of his time in tedious
+and unprofitable, if not in baneful pursuits. The young Quaker, on the
+other hand, comes, by means of his education, to the same maxims of
+philosophy and religion, as the foundation of his happiness, at a very
+early period of life, and therefore saves the time, and preserves the
+constitution which the other has been wasting for want of this early
+knowledge. I know of no fact more striking, or more true in the
+Quaker-history, than this, namely, that the young Quaker, who is educated
+as a Quaker, gets such a knowledge of human nature, and of the paths to
+wisdom and happiness, at an early age, that, though he is known to be a
+young mariner by the youth displayed in his countenance, he is enabled to
+conduct his bark through the dangerous rocks and shoals of life, with
+greater safety than many others, who have been longer on the ocean of this
+probationary world.
+
+I may observe again, as the second fact, that it is not unusual to hear
+persons say, that you seldom see a disorderly Quaker, or, that a
+Quaker-prostitute or a Quaker criminal is unknown. These declarations,
+frequently and openly made, shew at least that there is an opinion among
+the world at large, that the Quakers are a moral people.
+
+The mention of this last fact leads me to the notice, and the
+correction, of an error, which I have found to have been taken up by
+individuals. It is said by these that the Quakers are very wary with
+respect to their disorderly members, for that when any of them behave
+ill, they are expelled the society in order to rescue it from the
+disgrace of a bad character. Thus if a Quaker woman were discovered to
+be a prostitute, or a Quaker man to be taken up for a criminal offence,
+no disgrace could attach to this society as it would to others; for if,
+in the course of a week, after a discovery had been made of their
+several offences, any person were to state that two Quaker members had
+become infamous, it would be retorted upon him, that they were not
+members of the society.
+
+It will be proper to observe upon the subject of this error, that it is
+not so probable that the Quakers would disown these, after the discovery
+of their infamy, to get rid of any stain upon the character of the
+society, as it is that these persons, long before the facts could be
+known, had been both admonished and disowned. For there is great truth
+in the old maxim "Nemo fecit repente 'turpissimus;" or "no man was ever
+all at once a rogue."
+
+So in the case of these persons, as of all others, they must have been
+vicious by degrees: they must have shewn symptoms of some deviations
+from rectitude, before the measure of their iniquity could have been
+completed. But by the constitution of Quakerism, as will appear soon, no
+person of the society can be found erring even for the first time,
+without being liable to be privately admonished. These admonitions may
+be repeated for weeks, or for months, or even for years, before the
+subjects of them are pronounced so incorrigible as to be disowned. There
+is great reason therefore to presume, in the case before us, though the
+offenders in question would have undoubtedly been disowned by the
+Quakers, after they were known to be such, yet that they had been
+disowned long before their offences had been made public.
+
+Upon the whole it may be allowed, that young Quakers arrive at the
+knowledge of just sentiments, or at the true wisdom of life earlier than
+those, who are inured to the fashions of the world; and it may be
+allowed also that the Quakers, as a body, are a moral people. Now these
+effects will generally be considered as the result of education; and
+though the prohibitions of the Quakers may not be considered as the only
+instruments of producing these effects, yet they must be allowed to be
+component parts of the system, which produces them.
+
+
+
+
+DISCIPLINE OF THE QUAKERS.
+
+
+CHAP. I.... SECT. I.
+
+_Discipline of two kinds--as it relates to the regulation of the
+internal affairs of the society--or to the cognizance of immoral
+conduct--difficulty of procuring obedience to moral precepts--this
+attempted to be obviated by George Fox--outlines of his system for this
+purpose--additions made to his system since his time--objections to the
+system considered--this system, or the discipline of the Quakers, as far
+as this branch of it is concerned, the great foundation-stone on which
+their moral education is supported._
+
+
+The discipline of the Quakers is divisible into two parts. The first may
+comprehend the regulation of the internal affairs of the society, such
+as the management of the poor belonging to it, the granting of
+certificates of removal to its members, the hearing of their appeals
+upon various occasions, the taking cognizance of their proposals of
+marriage, and the like. The second may comprehend the notice or
+observance of the moral conduct of individuals, with a view of
+preserving the rules, which the Quakers have thought it their duty to
+make, and the testimonies which they have thought it their duty to bear,
+as a Christian people. It is to the latter part of the discipline that I
+shall principally confine myself in the ensuing part of my work.
+
+Nothing is more true than that, when men err in their moral practice, it
+is not for want of good precepts or of wholesome advice. There are few
+books from which we cannot collect some moral truths; and few men so
+blind, as not to be able to point out to us the boundaries of moral
+good. The pages of revelation have been long unfolded to our view, and
+diffusively spread among us. We have had the advantage too of having
+their contents frequently and publicly repeated into our ears. And yet,
+knowing what is right, we cannot pursue it. We go off, on the other
+hand, against our better knowledge, into the road to evil. Now, it was
+the opinion of George Fox, that something might be done to counteract
+this infirmity of human nature, or to make a man keep up to the precepts
+which he believed to have been divinely inspired, or, in other words,
+that a system of Discipline might be devised, for regulating, exciting,
+and preserving the conduct of a Christian.
+
+This system he at length completed, and, as he believed, with the divine
+aid, and introduced it into the society with the approbation of those
+who belonged to it.
+
+The great principle, upon which he founded it, was, that every christian
+was bound to watch over another for his good. This principle included
+two ideas. First, that vigilance over the moral conduct of individuals
+was a christian duty. Secondly, that any interference with persons, who
+might err, was solely for their good. Their reformation was to be the
+only object in view. Hence religious advice was necessary. Hence it was
+to be administered with tenderness and patience. Hence nothing was to be
+left undone, while there was a hope that any thing could be done, for
+their spiritual welfare.
+
+From this view of the subject he enjoined it to all the members of his
+newly formed society, to be watchful over the conduct of one another,
+and not to hesitate to step in for the recovery of those, whom they
+might discover to be overtaken with a fault.
+
+He enjoined it to them again, that they should follow the order
+recommended by Jesus Christ upon such occasions.[15] "If thy brother
+shall trespass against thee, go and tell him his fault between thee and
+him alone. If he shall hear thee, thou hast gained thy brother. But if
+he will not hear thee, then take with thee one or two more, that in the
+mouth of two or three witnesses every word may be established. And if he
+shall neglect to hear them, tell it unto the church; but, if he neglect
+to hear the church, let him be unto thee as a Heathen-man or a
+Publican."
+
+[Footnote 15: Matt. 18. 15, 16, 17.]
+
+For the carrying of this system into execution in the order thus
+recommended, he appointed Courts, or meetings for dicipline, as the
+Quakers call them, with the approbation of the society, where the case
+of the disorderly should be considered, if it should be brought to the
+cognizance of the church; and where a record should be kept of the
+proceedings of the society respecting it. In these courts or meetings
+the poor were to have an equal voice with the rich.--There was to be no
+distinction but in favour of religious worth; And here it is to be
+remarked, that he was so desirous, that the most righteous judgment
+should be pronounced upon any offender, that he abandoned the usual mode
+of decision, in general so highly valued, by a majority, of voices, and
+recommended the decision to be made according to the apparent will of
+the virtuous, who might be present.--And as expulsion from membership
+with the church was to be considered as the heaviest punishment, which
+the Quakers, as a religious body, could inflict, he gave the offender an
+opportunity of appealing to meetings, different from those in which the
+sentence had been pronounced against him, and where the decisive voices
+were again to be collected from the preponderant weight of religious
+character.
+
+He introduced also into his system of dicipline privileges in favour of
+women, which marked his sense of justice, and the strength and
+liberality of his mind. The men he considered undoubtedly as the heads
+of the church, and from whom all laws concerning it ought to issue. But
+he did not deny women on that account any power, which he thought it
+would be proper for them to hold. He believed them to be capable of
+great usefulness, and therefore admitted them to the honour of being, in
+his own society, of nearly equal importance with the men.--In the
+general duty, imposed upon members, of watching over one another, he
+laid it upon the women, to be particularly careful in observing the
+morals of those of then own sex. He gave them also meetings for
+dicipline of their own, with the power, of recording their own
+transactions, so that women were to act among courts or meetings of
+women, as men among those of men. There was also to be no office in the
+society belonging to the men, but he advised there should be a
+corresponding one belonging to the women. By this new and impartial step
+he raised the women of his own community beyond the level of women in
+others, and laid the foundation of that improved strength of intellect,
+dignity of mind, capability of business, and habit of humane offices,
+which are so conspicuous among Female-Quakers at the present day.
+
+With respect to the numerous offices, belonging to the discipline, he
+laid it down as a principle, that the persons, who were to fill them,
+were to have no other emolument or reward, than that, which a faithful
+discharge of them would bring to their own consciences.
+
+These are the general outlines of the system of discipline, as
+introduced by George Fox. This system was carried into execution, as he
+himself had formed it, in his own time. Additions, however, have been
+made to it since, as it seemed proper, by the society at large. In the
+time of George Fox, it was laid upon every member, as we have seen, to
+watch over his neighbour for his spiritual welfare. But in 1698, the
+society conceiving, that what was the business of every one might
+eventually become the business of no one, appointed officers, whose
+particular duty it should be to be overseers of the morals of
+individuals; thus hoping, that by the general vigilance enjoined by
+George Fox, which was still to continue, and by the particular vigilance
+then appointed, sufficient care would be taken of the morals of the
+whole body. In the time, again, of George Fox, women had, only their
+monthly and quarterly meetings for discipline, but it has since been
+determined, that they should have their yearly meetings equally with the
+men. In the time, again, of George Fox, none but the grave members were
+admitted into the meetings for discipline, but it has been since agreed,
+that young persons should have the privilege of attending them, and
+this, I believe, upon the notion, that. While these meetings would
+quality them for transacting the business of the society, they might
+operate as schools far virtue.
+
+This system of discipline, as thus introduced by George Fox, and as thus
+enlarged by the society afterwards, has not escaped, notwithstanding the
+loveliness of its theory, the censure of the world.
+
+It has been considered in the first place, as a system of espionage, by
+which one member is made a spy upon, or becomes an informer against
+another. But against this charge it would be observed by the Quakers,
+that vigilance over morals is unquestionably a Christian duty. It would
+be observed again that the vigilance which is exercised in this case, is
+not with the intention of mischief, as in the case of spies and
+informers, but with the intention of good. It is not to obtain money,
+but to preserve reputation and virtue. It is not to persecute but to
+reclaim. It is not to make a man odious, but to make him more
+respectable. It is never an interference with innocence. The
+watchfulness begins to be offensive only, where delinquency is begun.
+
+The discipline, again, has been considered as too great an
+infringement, of the liberty of those, who are brought under it. Against
+this the Quakers would contend, that all persona who live in civil
+society, must give up a portion of their freedom, that more happiness
+and security may be enjoyed. So, when men enter into Christian
+societies, they must part with a little of their liberty for their moral
+good.
+
+But whatever may be the light in which persons, not of the society, may
+view this institution, the Quakers submit to, and respect it. It is
+possible there may be some, who may feel it a restraint upon their
+conduct. And there is no doubt, that it is a restraint upon those, who
+have irregular desires to gratify, or destructive pleasures to pursue.
+But generally speaking, the youth of the society, who receive a
+consistent education, approve of it. Genuine Quaker parents, as I have
+had occasion to observe, insist upon the subjugation of the will. It is
+their object to make their children lowly, patient and submissive. Those
+therefore, who are born in the society, are born under the system, and
+are in general educated for it. Those who become converted to the
+religion of the society, know beforehand the terms of their admission.
+And it will appear to all to be at least an equitable institution,
+because in the administration of it, there is no exception of persons.
+The officers themselves, who are appointed to watch over, fall under the
+inspection of the discipline. The poor may admonish the rich, and the
+rich the poor. There, is no exception, in short, either for age, or sex,
+or station.
+
+It is not necessary, at least in the present place, that I should go
+farther, and rake up all the objections, that may be urged upon this
+subject. I shall therefore only observe here, that the discipline of the
+Quakers, notwithstanding all its supposed imperfections, whatever, they
+may be, is the grand foundation-stone, upon which their moral education
+is supported. It is the grand partition wall between them and vice. If
+this part of the fabric were ever allowed to, be undermined, the
+building would fall to pieces; though the Quakers might still be known
+by their apparel and their language, they would no longer be so
+remarkable as they are now generally confessed to, be, for their moral
+character.
+
+
+SECT. II.
+
+_Manner of the administration of the discipline of the
+Quakers--Overseers appointed to every particular meeting--Manner of
+reclaiming an individual--first by admonition--this sometimes
+successful--secondly by dealing--this sometimes successful--but if
+unsuccessful, the offender is disowned--but he may appeal afterwards to
+two different courts or meetings for redress.--_
+
+
+Having now given the general outlines of the discipline of the Quakers, I
+shall proceed to explain the particular manner of the administration of
+it.
+
+To administer it effectually all individuals of the society, as I have
+just stated, whether men or women, are allowed the power of watching
+over the conduct of one another for their good, and of interfering if
+they should see occasion.
+
+But besides this general care two or more persons of age and experience,
+and of moral lives and character, and two or more women of a similar
+description, are directed to be appointed, to have the oversight of
+every congregation or particular meeting in the kingdom. These persons
+are called overseers, because it is their duty to oversee their
+respective flocks.
+
+If any of the members should violate the prohibitions mentioned in the
+former part of the work, or should become chargeable with injustice,
+drunkenness, or profane swearing, or neglect of their public worship, or
+should act in any way inconsistently with his character as a christian,
+it becomes the particular duty of these overseers, though it is also the
+duty of the members at large, to visit him in private, to set before
+him the error and consequences of his conduct, and to endeavour by all
+the means in their power to reclaim him. This act on the part of the
+overseer is termed by the society admonishing. The circumstances of
+admonishing and of being admonished are known only to the parties,
+except the case should have become of itself notorious; for secrecy is
+held sacred on the part of the persons who admonish. Hence it may
+happen, that several of the society may admonish the same person, though
+no one of them knows that any other has been visiting him at all. The
+offender may be thus admonished by overseers and other individuals for
+weeks and months together, for no time is fixed by the society, and no
+pains are supposed to be spared for his reformation. It is expected,
+however, in all such admonitions, that no austerity of language or
+manner should be used, but that he should be admonished in tenderness
+and love.
+
+If an overseer, or any other individual, after having thus laboured to
+reclaim another for a considerable length of time, finds that he has not
+succeeded in his work, and feels also that he despairs of succeeding by
+his own efforts, he opens the matter to some other overseer, or to one
+or more serious members, and requests their aid. These persons now wait
+upon the offender together, and unite their efforts in endeavouring to
+persuade him to amend his life. This act, which now becomes more public
+by the junction of two or three in the work of his reformation, is still
+kept a secret from other individuals of the society, and still retains
+the name of admonishing.
+
+It frequently happens that, during these different admonitions, the
+offender sees his error, and corrects his conduct. The visitations of
+course cease, and he goes on in the estimation of the society as a
+regular or unoffending member, no one knowing but the admonishing
+persons, that he has been under the discipline of the society. I may
+observe here, that what is done by men to men is done by women to women,
+the women admonishing and trying to reclaim those of their own sex, in
+the same manner.
+
+Should, however, the overseers, and other persons before mentioned, find
+after a proper length of time that all their united efforts have been
+ineffectual, and that they have no hope of success with respect to his
+amendment, they lay the case, if it should be of a serious nature,
+before a [16]court, which has the name of the monthly meeting. This
+court, or meeting, make a minute of the case, and appoint a committee to
+visit him. The committee in consequence, of their appointment wait upon
+him. This act is now considered as a public act, or as an act of the
+church. It is not now termed admonishing, but changes its name to
+[17]dealing. The offender too, while the committee are dealing with
+him, though he may attend the meetings of the society for worship, does
+not attend those of their discipline.
+
+[Footnote 16: Certain acts of delinquency are reported to the monthly
+meeting, as soon as the truth of the facts can be ascertained, such as a
+violation of the rules of the society, with respect to marriage, payment
+of tythes, etc.]
+
+[Footnote 17: Women, though they may admonish, cannot deal with women,
+this being an act of the church, till they have consulted the meetings
+of the men. Men are generally joined with women in the commission for
+this purpose.]
+
+If the committee, after having dealt with the offender according to
+their appointment, should be satisfied that he is sensible of his error,
+they make a report to the monthly court or meeting concerning him. A
+minute is then drawn up, in which it is stated, that he has made
+satisfaction for the offence. It sometimes happens, that he himself
+sends to the same meeting a written acknowledgement of his error. From
+this time he attends the meetings for discipline again, and is continued
+in the society, as if nothing improper had taken place. Nor is any one
+allowed to reproach him for his former faults.
+
+Should, however, all endeavours prove ineffectual, and should the
+committee, after having duly laboured with the offender, consider him at
+last as incorrigible, they report their proceedings to the monthly
+meeting. He is then publicly excluded from membership, or, as it is
+called, [18]disowned. This is done by a distinct document, called a
+testimony of disownment, in which the nature of the offence, and the
+means that have been used to reclaim him, are described. A wish is also
+generally expressed in this document, that he may repent, and be taken
+into membership again. A copy of this minute is always required to be
+given to him.
+
+[Footnote 18: Women cannot disown, the power of disowning, is an act of
+the church, being vested in the meetings of the men.]
+
+If the offender should consider this act of disowning him as an unjust
+proceeding, he may appeal to a higher tribunal, or to the quarterly
+court, or meeting. This quarterly court or meeting, then appoint a
+committee, of which no one of the monthly meeting that condemned him can
+be a member, to reconsider his ease. Should this committee report, and
+the quarterly meeting in consequence decide against him, he may appeal
+to the yearly. This latter meeting is held in London, and consists of
+deputies and others from all parts of the kingdom. The yearly meeting
+then appoint a committee of twelve deputies, taken from twelve quarterly
+meetings, none of whom can be from the quarterly meeting that passed
+sentence against him, to examine his case again. If this committee
+should confirm the former decisions, he may appeal to the yearly meeting
+at large; but beyond this there is no appeal. But if he should even be
+disowned by the voice of the yearly meeting at large, he may, if he
+lives to give satisfactory proof of his amendment, and sues for
+readmission into the society, be received into membership again; but he
+can only be received through the medium of the monthly meeting, by which
+he was first disowned.
+
+
+SECT. III
+
+_Two charges usually brought against this administration of the
+discipline--that it is managed with an authoritative spirit--and that it
+is managed partially--these charges are considered._
+
+
+As two charges are usually brought against the administration of that
+part of the discipline, which has been just explained, I shall consider
+them in this place.
+
+The first usually is, that, though the Quakers abhor what they call the
+authority of priest craft, yet some overseers possess a portion of the
+spirit of ecclesiastical dominion; that they are austere, authoritative,
+and over bearing in the course of the exercise of their office, and
+that, though the institution may be of Christian origin, it is not
+always conducted by these with a Christian spirit. To this first charge
+I shall make the following reply.
+
+That there may be individual instances, where this charge may be
+founded, I am neither disposed, nor qualified, to deny. Overseers have
+their different tempers, like other people; and the exercise of dominion
+has unquestionably a tendency to spoil the heart. So far there is an
+opening for the admission of this charge. But it must be observed, on
+the other hand, that the persons, to be chosen overseers, are to be by
+the laws of the society[19] "as upright and unblameable in their
+conversation, as they can be found, in order that the advice, which they
+shall occasionally administer to other friends, may be the better
+received, and carry with it the greater weight and force on the minds of
+those, whom they shall be concerned to admonish." It must be observed
+again that it is expressly enjoined them, that "they are to exercise
+their functions in a meek, calm, and peaceable spirit, in order that
+the admonished may see that their interference with their conduct
+proceeds from a principle of love and a regard for their good, and
+preservation in the truth."
+
+[Footnote 19: Book of extracts.]
+
+And it must be observed again, that any violation of this injunction
+would render them liable to be admonished by others, and to come under
+the discipline themselves.
+
+The second charge is, that the discipline is administered partially; or
+that more favour is shewn to the rich than to the poor, and that the
+latter are sooner disowned than the former for the same faults.
+
+This latter charge has probably arisen from a vulgar notion, that, as
+the poor are supported by the society, there is a general wish to get
+rid of them.--But this notion is not true. There is more than ordinary
+caution in disowning those who are objects of support, add to which,
+that, as some of the most orderly members of the body are to be found
+among the poor, an expulsion of these, in a hasty manner, would be a
+diminution of the quantum of respectability, or of the quantum of moral
+character, of the society at large.
+
+In examining this charge, it must certainly be allowed, that though the
+principle "of no respect of persons" is no where carried to a greater
+length than in the Quaker Society, yet we may reasonably expect to find
+a drawback from the full operation of it in a variety of causes. We are
+all of us too apt, in the first place, to look up to the rich, but to
+look down upon the poor. We are apt to court the good will of the
+former, when we seem to care very little even whether we offend the
+latter. The rich themselves and the middle classes of men respect the
+rich more than the poor; and the poor show more respect to the rich than
+to one another. Hence it is possible; that a poor man may find more
+reluctance in entering the doors of a rich man to admonish him, than one
+who is rich to enter the doors of the poor for the same purpose, men,
+again, though they may be equally good, may not have all the same
+strength of character. Some overseers may be more timid than others, and
+this timidity may operate upon them more in the execution of their duty
+upon one class of individuals, than upon another. Hence a rich man may
+escape for a longer time without admonition, than a poorer member. But
+when the ice is once broken; when admonition is once begun; when
+respectable persons have been called in by overseers or others, those
+causes, which might be preventive of justice, will decrease; and, if the
+matter should be carried to a monthly or a quarterly meeting, they will
+wholly vanish. For in these courts it is a truth, that those, who are
+the most irreproachable for their lives, and the most likely of course
+to decide justly on any occasion, are the most attended to, or carry the
+most weight, when they speak publicly. Now these are to be found
+principally in the low and middle classes, and these, in all societies,
+contain the greatest number of individuals. As to the very rich, these
+are few indeed compared with the rest, and these may be subdivided into
+two classes for the farther elucidation of the point. The first will
+consist of men, who rigidly follow the rules of the society, and are as
+exemplary as the very best of the members. The second will consist of
+those, who we members according to the letter, but not according to the
+spirit, and who are content with walking in the shadow, that follows the
+substance of the body. Those of the first class will do justice, and
+they will have on equal influence with any. Those of the second,
+whatever may be their riches, or whatever they may say, are seldom if
+ever attended to in the administration of the discipline.
+
+From hence it will appear, that if there be any partiality in the
+administration of this institution, it will consist principally in this,
+that a rich man may be suffered in particular cases, to go longer
+without admonition than a poorer member; but that after admonition has
+been begun, justice will be impartially administered; and that the
+charges of a preference, where disowning is concerned, has no solid
+foundation for its support.
+
+
+SECT. IV.
+
+_Three great principles discoverable in the discipline, as hitherto
+explained--these applicable to the discipline of larger societies, or to
+the criminal codes of states--lamentable, that as Christian principles,
+they have not been admitted into our own--Quakers, as far as they have
+had influence in legislation, have adopted them--exertions of William
+Penn--Legislature of Pennsylvania as example to other countries in this
+particular._
+
+
+I find it almost impossible to proceed to the great courts or meetings
+of the Quakers, which I had allotted for my next subject, without
+stopping a while to make a few observations on the principles of that
+part of the discipline, which I have now explained.
+
+It may be observed, first, that the great object of this part of the
+discipline is the reformation of the offending person: secondly, that
+the means of effecting this object consists of religious instruction or
+advice: and thirdly, that no pains are to be spared, and no time to be
+limited, for the trial of these means, or, in other words, that nothing
+is to be left undone, while there is a hope that the offender may be
+reclaimed. Now these principles the Quakers adopt in the exercise of
+their discipline, because, as a Christian community, they believe they
+ought to be guided only by Christian principles, and they know of no
+other, which the letter, or the spirit of Christianity, can warrant.
+
+I shall trespass upon the patience of the reader in this place, only
+till I have made an application of these principles, or till I have
+shewn him how far these might be extended, and extended with advantage
+to morals, beyond the limits of the Quaker-society, by being received as
+the basis, upon which a system, of penal laws might be founded, among
+larger societies, or states.
+
+It is much to be lamented, that nations, professing Christianity, should
+have lost sight, in their various acts of legislation, of Christian
+principles: or that they should not have interwoven some such beautiful
+principles as those, which we have seen adopted by the Quakers, into the
+system of their penal laws. But if this negligence or omission would
+appear worthy of regret, if reported of any Christian nation, it would
+appear most so, if reported of our own, where one would have supposed,
+that the advantages of civil and religious liberty, and those of a
+reformed religion, would have had their influence is the correction of
+our judgments, and in the benevolent dispositions of our will. And yet
+nothing is more true, than that these good influences have either never
+been produced, or, if produced, that they have never been attended to,
+upon this subject. There seems to be no provision for religions
+instruction in our numerous prisons. We seem to make no patient trials
+of those, who are confined in them, for their reformation. But, on the
+other hand, we seem to hurry them off the stage of life, by means of a
+code, which annexes death to two hundred different offences, as if we
+had allowed our laws to be written by the bloody pen of the pagan Draco.
+And it seems remarkable, that this system should be persevered in, when
+we consider that death, as far as the experiment has been made in our
+own country, has little or no effect as a punishment for crimes.
+Forgery, and the circulation of forged paper, and the counterfeiting of
+the money of the realm, are capital offences, and are never pardoned.
+And yet no offences are more frequently committed than these. And it
+seems still more remarkable, when we consider, in addition to this, that
+in consequence of the experiments, made in other countries, it seems to
+be approaching fast to an axiom, that crimes are less frequent, in
+proportion as mercy takes place of severity, or as there are judicious
+substitutes for the punishment of death.
+
+I shall not inquire, in this place, how far the right of taking away
+life on many occasions, which is sanctioned by the law of the land, can
+be supported on the ground of justice, or how for a greater injury is
+done by it, than the injury the criminal has himself done. As
+Christians, it seems that we should be influenced by Christian
+principles. Now nothing can be more true, than that Christianity
+commands us to be tender hearted one to another, to have a tender
+forbearance one with another, and to regard one another as brethren. We
+are taught also that men, independently of their accountableness to
+their own governments, are accountable for their actions in a future
+state, and that punishments are unquestionably to follow. But where are
+our forbearance and our love, where is our regard for the temporal and
+eternal interests of man, where is our respect for the principles of the
+gospel, if we make the reformation of a criminal a less object than his
+punishment, or if we consign him to death, in the midst of his sins,
+without having tried all the means in our power for his recovery?
+
+Had the Quakers been the legislators of the world, they had long ago
+interwoven the principles of their discipline into their penal codes,
+and death had been long ago abolished as a punishment for crimes. As far
+as they have had any power with legislatures, they have procured an
+attention to these principles. George Fox remonstrated with the judges
+in his time on the subject of capital punishments. But the Quakers
+having been few in number, compared with the rest of their countrymen,
+and having had no seats in the legislature, and no predominant interest
+with the members of it, they have been unable to effect any change in
+England on this subject. In Pennsylvania, however, where they were the
+original colonists, they have had influence with their own government,
+and they have contributed to set up a model of jurisprudence, worthy of
+the imitation of the world.
+
+William Penn, on his arrival in America, formed a code of laws chiefly
+on Quaker principles, in which, however, death was inscribed as a
+punishment, but it was confined to murder. Queen Anne set this code
+aside, and substituted the statute and common law of the mother country.
+It was, however, resumed in time, and acted upon for some years, when it
+was set aside by the mother country again. From this time it continued
+dormant till the separation of America from England. But no sooner had
+this event taken place, which rendered the American states their own
+legislators, than the Pennsylvanian Quakers began to aim at obtaining an
+alteration of the penal laws. In this they were joined by worthy
+individuals of other denominations; and these, acting in union, procured
+from the legislature of Pennsylvania, in the year 1786, a reform of the
+criminal code. This reform, however, was not carried, in the opinion of
+the Quakers, to a sufficient length. Accordingly, they took the lead
+again, and exerted themselves afresh upon this subject. Many of them
+formed themselves into a society "for alleviating the miseries of public
+prisons." Other persons co-operated with them in this undertaking also.
+At length, after great perseverance, they prevailed upon the same
+legislature, in the year 1790, to try an ameliorated system. This trial
+answered so well, that the same legislature again, in the year 1794,
+established an act, in which several Quaker principles were
+incorporated, and in which only the crime of premeditated murder was
+punishable with death.
+
+As there is now but one capital offence in Pennsylvania, punishments for
+other offences are made up of fine, imprisonment, and labour; and these
+are awarded separately or conjointly, according to the magnitude of the
+crime.
+
+When criminals have been convicted, and sent to the great gaol of
+Philadelphia to undergo their punishment, it is expected of them that
+they should maintain themselves out of their daily labour; that they
+should pay for their board and washing, and also for the use of their
+different implements of labour; and that they should defray the expences
+of their commitment, and of their prosecutions and their trials. An
+account therefore is regularly kept against them, and if at the
+expiration of the term of their punishment, there should be a surplus of
+money in their favour, arising out of the produce of their work, it is
+given to them on their discharge.
+
+An agreement is usually made about the price of prison-labour between
+the inspector of the gaol and the employers of the criminals.
+
+As reformation is now the great object in Pennsylvania, where offences
+have been committed, it is of the first importance that the gaoler and
+the different inspectors should be persons of moral character. Good
+example, religious advice, and humane treatment on the part of these,
+will have a tendency to produce attention, respect, and love on the part
+of the prisoners, and to influence their moral conduct. Hence it is a
+rule never to be departed from, that none are to be chosen as successors
+to these different officers, but such, as shall be found on inquiry to
+have been exemplary in their lives.
+
+As reformation, again, is now the great object, no corporal punishment
+is allowed in the prison. No keeper can strike a criminal. Nor can any
+criminal be put into irons. All such punishments are considered as doing
+harm. They tend to extirpate a sense of shame. They tend to degrade a
+man and to make him consider himself as degraded in his own eyes;
+whereas it is the design of this change in the penal system, that he
+should be constantly looking up to the restoration of his dignity as a
+man, and to the recovery of his moral character.
+
+As reformation, again, is now the great object, the following[20] system
+is adopted. No intercourse is allowed between the males and the females,
+nor any between the untried and the convicted prisoners. While they are
+engaged in their labour, they are allowed to talk only upon the subject,
+which immediately relates to their work. All unnecessary conversation
+is forbidden. Profane swearing is never overlooked. A strict watch is
+kept, that no spirituous liquors may be introduced. Care is taken that
+all the prisoners have the benefit of religious instruction. The prison
+is accordingly open, at stated times, to the pastors of the different
+religious denominations of the place. And as the mind of man may be
+worked upon by rewards as well as by punishments, a hope is held out to
+the prisoners, that the time of their confinement may be shortened by
+their good behaviour. For the inspectors, if they have reason to believe
+that a solid reformation has taken place in any individual, have a power
+of interceding for his enlargement, and the executive government of
+granting it, if they think it proper. In the case, where the prisoners
+are refractory, they are usually put into solitary confinement, and
+deprived of the opportunity of working. During this time the expences of
+their board and washing are going on, so that they are glad to get into
+employment again, that they may liquidate the debt, which, since the
+suspension of their labour, has been accruing to the gaol.
+
+[Footnote 20: As cleanliness is connected with health, and health with
+morals, the prisoner are obliged to wash and clean themselves every
+morning before their work, and to bathe in the summer-season, in a large
+reservoir of water, which is provided in the court yard of the prison
+for this purpose.]
+
+In consequence of these regulations, those who visit the criminals in
+Philadelphia in the hours of their labour, have more the idea of a
+large manufactory, than of a prison. They see nail-makers, sawyers,
+carpenters, joiners, weavers, and others, all busily employed. They see
+regularity and order among these. And as no chains are to be seen in the
+prison, they seem to forget their situation as criminals, and to look
+upon them as the free and honest labourers of a community following
+their respective trades.
+
+In consequence of these regulations, great advantages have arisen both
+to the criminals, and to the state. The state has experienced a
+diminution of crimes to the amount of one half since the change of the
+penal system, and the criminals have been restored, in a great
+proportion, from the gaol to the community, as reformed persons. For few
+have been known to stay the whole term of their confinement. But no
+person could have had any of his time remitted him, except he had been
+considered both by the inspectors and the executive government as
+deserving it. This circumstance of permission to leave the prison before
+the time expressed in the sentence, is of great importance to the
+prisoners. For it operates as a certificate for them of their amendment
+to the world at large. Hence no stigma is attached to them for having
+been the inhabitants of a prison. It may be observed also, that some of
+the most orderly and industrious, and such as have worked at the most
+profitable trades, have had sums of money to take on their discharge,
+by which they have been able to maintain themselves honestly, till they
+could get into employ.
+
+Such is the state, and such the manner of the execution of the penal
+laws of Pennsylvania, as founded upon Quaker-principles, so happy have
+the effects of this new system already been, that it is supposed it will
+be adopted by the other American States.
+
+May the example be universally followed! May it be universally received
+as a truth, that true policy is inseparable from virtue; that in
+proportion as principles become lovely on account of their morality,
+they will become beneficial, when acted upon, both to individual and to
+States; or that legislators cannot raise a constitution upon so fair and
+firm a foundation, as upon the gospel of Jesus Christ!
+
+
+
+
+CHAP. II.
+
+_Monthly court or meeting--constitution of this meeting--each county is
+usually divided into parts--in each of these parts or divisions are
+several meeting-houses, which have their several congregations attached
+to them--one meeting-house in each division is fixed upon for
+transacting the business of all the congregations in that
+division--deputies appointed from every particular meeting or
+congregation in each division to the place fixed upon for transacting
+the business within it--nature of the business to be transacted--women
+become deputies, and transact business, equally with the men._
+
+I come, after this long digression, to the courts of the Quakers. And
+here I shall immediately premise, that I profess to do little more than
+to give a general outline of these. I do not intend to explain the
+proceedings, preparatory to the meetings there, or to state all the
+exceptions from general rules, or to trouble the memory of the reader
+with more circumstances than will be sufficient to enable him to have a
+general idea of this part of the discipline of the Quakers.
+
+The Quakers manage their discipline by means of monthly, quarterly, and
+yearly courts, to which, however they themselves uniformly give the name
+of meetings.
+
+To explain the nature and business of the monthly or first of these
+meetings, I shall fix upon some county in my own mind, and describe the
+business, that is usually done in this in the course of the month. For
+as the business, which is usually transacted in any one county, is done
+by the Quakers in the same manner and in the same month in another, the
+reader, by supposing an aggregate of counties, may easily imagine, how
+the whole business of the society is done for the whole kingdom.
+
+The Quakers[21] usually divide a county into a number of parts,
+according to the Quaker-population of it. In each of these divisions
+there are usually several meeting-houses, and these have their several
+congregations attached to them. One meeting-house, however, in each
+division, is usually fixed upon for transacting the business of all the
+congregations that are within it, or for the holding of these monthly
+courts. The different congregations of the Quakers, or the members of
+the different particular meetings, which are settled in the northern
+part of the county, are attached of course to the meeting-house, which
+has been fixed upon in the northern division of it because it gives them
+the least trouble to repair to it on this occasion. The numbers of those
+again, which are settled in the southern, or central, or other parts of
+the county, are attached to that, which has been fixed upon in the
+southern, or central, or other divisions of it, for the same reason. The
+different congregations in the northern division of the county appoint,
+each of them, a set of deputies once a month, which deputies are of both
+sexes, to repair to the meeting-house, which has been thus assigned
+them. The different congregations in the southern, central, or other
+divisions, appoint also, each of them, others, to repair to that, which
+has been assigned them in like manner. These deputies are all of them
+previously instructed in the matters, belonging to the congregations,
+which they respectively represent.
+
+[Footnote 21: This was the ancient method, when the society was numerous
+in every county of the kingdom, and the principle is still followed
+according to existing circumstances.]
+
+At length the day arrives for the monthly meeting. The deputies make
+ready to execute the duties committed to their trust. They repair, each
+sett of them, to their respective places of meeting. Here a number of
+Quakers, of different ages and of both sexes, from their different
+divisions, repair also. It is expected that[22] all, who can
+conveniently attend, should be present on this occasion.
+
+[Footnote 22: There may be persons, who on account of immoral conduct
+cannot attend.]
+
+When they are collected at the meeting-house, which was said to have
+been fixed upon in each division, a meeting for worship takes place. All
+persons, both men and women, attend together. But when this meeting is
+over, they separate into different apartments for the purposes of the
+discipline; the men to transact by themselves the business of the men,
+and of their own district, the women to transact that, which is more
+limited, namely such as belongs to their own sex.
+
+In the men's meeting, and it is the same in the women's, the names of
+the deputies beforementioned, are first entered in a book, for, until
+this act takes place, the meeting for discipline is not considered to be
+constituted.
+
+The minutes of the last monthly meeting are then generally read, by
+which it is seen if any business of the society was left unfinished.
+Should any thing occur of this sort, it becomes the [23]first object to
+be considered and dispatched.
+
+[Footnote 23: The London monthly meetings begin differently from those
+in the country.]
+
+The new business, in which the deputies were said to have been
+previously instructed by the congregations which they represented comes
+on. This business may be of various sorts. One part of it uniformly
+relates to the poor. The wants of these are provided for, and the
+education of their children taken care of, at this meeting.
+Presentations of marriages are received, and births, marriages, and
+funerals are registered. If disorderly members, after long and repeated
+admonitions, should have given no hopes of amendment, their case is
+first publicly cognizable in this court. Committees are appointed to
+visit, advise, and try to reclaim them. Persons, reclaimed by these
+visitations, are restored to membership, after having been well reported
+of by the parties deputed to visit them. The fitness of persons,
+applying for membership, from other societies, is examined here. Answers
+also are prepared to the [24]queries at the proper time. Instructions
+also are given, if necessary, to particular meetings, suited to the
+exigencies of their cases; and certificates are granted to members on
+various occasions.
+
+[Footnote 24: These queries will be explained in the next chapter.]
+
+In transacting this, and other business of the society, all members
+present we allowed to speak. The poorest man in the meeting-house,
+though he may be receiving charitable contributions at the time, is
+entitled to deliver his sentiments upon any point. He may bring forward
+new matter. He may approve or object to what others have proposed before
+him. No person may interrupt him, while he speaks. The youth, who are
+sitting by, are gaining a knowledge of the affairs and discipline of the
+society, and are gradually acquiring sentiments and habits, that are to
+mark their character in life. They learn, in the first place, the duty
+of a benevolent and respectful consideration for the poor. In hearing
+the different cases argued and discussed, they learn, in some measure,
+the rudiments of justice, and imbibe opinions of the necessity of moral
+conduct. In these courts they learn to reason. They learn also to hear
+others patiently, and without interruption, and to transact business,
+that may come before them in maturer years with regularity and order.
+
+I cannot omit to mention here the orderly manner in which, the Quakers,
+conduct their business on these occasions. When a subject is brought
+before them, it is canvassed to the exclusion of all extraneous matter,
+till some conclusion results. The clerk of the monthly meeting then
+draws up a minute, containing, as nearly as he can collect, the
+substance of this conclusion. This minute is then read aloud to the
+auditory, and either stands or undergoes an alteration, as appears, by
+the silence or discussion upon it, to be the sense of the meeting. When
+fully agreed upon, it stands ready to be recorded. When a second subject
+comes on, it is canvassed, and a minute is made of it, to be recorded in
+the same manner, before a third is allowed to be introduced. Thus each
+point is settled, till the whole business of the meeting is concluded.
+
+I may now mention that in the same manner as the men proceed in their
+apartment on this occasion, the women proceed in their own apartment or
+meeting also. There are women-deputies, and women-clerks. They enter
+down the names of these deputies, read the minutes, of the last monthly
+meeting, bring forward the new matter, and deliberate and argue on the
+affairs of their own sex. They record their proceedings equally. The
+young females also, are present, and have similar opportunities of
+gaining knowledge, and of improving their judgments, and of acquiring
+useful and moral habits, as the young men.
+
+It is usual, when the women have finished the business of their own
+meeting, to send one of their members to the apartments of the men, to
+know if they have any thing to communicate. This messenger having
+returned, and every thing having been settled and recorded in both
+meetings, the monthly meeting is over, and men, women, and youth of both
+sexes, return to their respective homes.
+
+In the same manner as the different congregations, or members of the
+different meetings, in any one division of the county, meet together,
+and transact their monthly business, so other different congregations,
+belonging to other divisions of the same county, meet at other appointed
+places, and dispatch their business also. And in the same manner as the
+business is thus done in one county, it is done in every other county
+of the kingdom once a month.
+
+
+
+
+CHAP. III.
+
+_Quarterly court or meeting--constitution of this meeting--one place in
+each county is now fixed upon for the transaction of business-this place
+may be different in the different quarters of the year--deputies from
+the various monthly meetings are appointed to repair to this
+place--nature of the business to be transacted--certain queries
+proposed--written answers carried to these by the deputies just
+mentioned--Queries proposed in the womens meeting also, and answered in
+the same manner_.--
+
+
+The quarterly meeting of the Quakers, which comes next in order, is much
+more numerously attended than the monthly. The monthly, as we have just
+seen, superintend the concerns of a few congregations or particular
+meetings which were contained in a small division of the county. The
+quarterly meeting, on the other hand, superintends the concerns of all
+the monthly meetings in the county at large. It takes cognizance of
+course of the concerns of a greater portion of population, and, as the
+name implies, for a greater extent of time. The Quaker population of a
+[25] whole county is now to assemble in one place. This place, however,
+is not always the same. It may be different, to accommodate the members
+in their turn, in the different quarters of the year.
+
+[Footnote 25: I still adhere, to give the reader a clearer idea of the
+discipline, and to prevent confusion, to the division by county, though
+the district in question may not always comprehend a complete county.]
+
+In the same manner as the different congregations in a small division of
+a county have been shewn to have sent deputies to the respective monthly
+meetings within it, so the different monthly meetings in the same county
+send each of them, deputies to the quarterly. Two or more of each sex
+are generally deputed from each monthly meeting. These deputies are
+supposed to have understood, at the monthly meeting, where they were
+chosen, all the matters which the discipline required them to know
+relative to the state and condition of their constituents. Furnished
+with this knowledge, and instructed moreover by written documents on a
+variety of subjects, they repair at a proper time to the place of
+meeting. All the Quakers in the district in question, who are expected
+to go, bend their direction hither. Any person travelling in the county
+at this time, would see an unusual number of Quakers upon the road
+directing their journey to the same point. Those who live farthest from
+the place where the meeting is held, have often a long journey to
+perform. The Quakers are frequently out two or three whole days, and
+sometimes longer upon this occasion. But as this sort of meeting takes
+place but once in the quarter, the loss of their time, and the fatigue
+of their journey, and the expences attending it, are borne cheerfully.
+
+When all of them are assembled, nearly the same custom obtains at the
+quarterly, as has been described at the monthly meeting. A meeting for
+worship is first held. The men and women, when this is over, separate
+into their different apartments, after which the meeting for discipline
+begins in each.
+
+I shall not detail the different kinds of business, which come on at
+this meeting. I shall explain the principal subject only.
+
+The society at large have agreed upon a number of questions, or queries
+as they call them, which they have committed to print, and which they
+expect to be read and answered in the course of these quarterly meetings
+The following is a list of them.
+
+I. Are meetings for worship and discipline kept up, and do Friends
+attend them duly, and at the time appointed; and do they avoid all
+unbecoming behavieur therein?
+
+II. Is there among you any growth in the truth; and hath any
+convincement appeared since last year?
+
+III. Are Friends preserved in love towards each other; if differences
+arise, is due care taken speedily to end them; and are Friends careful
+to avoid and discourage tale-bearing and detraction?
+
+IV. Do Friends endeavour by example and precept to train up their
+children, servants, and all under their core, in a religions life and
+conversation, consistent with our Christian profession, in the frequent
+reading of the holy scriptures, and in plainness of speech, behaviour
+and apparel?
+
+V. Are Friends just in their dealings and punctual in fulfilling their
+engagements; and are they annually advised carefully to inspect the
+state of their affairs once in the year?
+
+VI. Are Friends careful to avoid all vain sports and places of
+diversion, gaming, all unnecessary frequenting of taverns, and other
+public houses, excess in drinking, and other intemperance?
+
+VII. Do Friends bear a faithful and Christian testimony against
+receiving and paying tythes, priests demands, and those called
+church-rates?
+
+VIII. Are Friends faithful in our testimony against bearing arms, and
+being in any manner concerned in the militia, in privateers, letters of
+marque, or armed vessels, or dealing in prize-goods?
+
+IX. Are Friends clear of defrauding the king of his customs, duties and
+excise, and of using, or dealing in goods suspected to be run?
+
+X. Are the necessities of the poor among you properly inspected and
+relieved; and is good care taken of the education of their offspring?
+
+XI. Have any meetings been settled, discontinued, or united since last
+year?
+
+XII. Are there any Friends prisoners for our testimonies; and if any one
+hath died a prisoner, or been discharged since last year, when and how?
+
+XIII. Is early care taken to admonish such as appear inclinable to marry
+in a manner contrary to the rules of our society; and to deal with such
+as persist in refusing to take counsel?
+
+XIV. Have you two or more faithful friends, appointed by the monthly
+meeting, as overseers in each particular meeting; are the rules
+respecting removals duly observed; and is due care taken, when any thing
+appears amiss, that the rules of our discipline be timely and
+impartially put in practice?
+
+XV. Do you keep a record of the prosecutions and sufferings of your
+members; is due care taken to register all marriages, births, and
+burials; are the titles of your meeting houses, burial grounds, &c. duly
+preserved and recorded; and are all legacies and donations properly
+secured, and recorded, and duly applied?
+
+These are the Questions, which the society expect should be publicly
+asked and answered in their quarterly courts or meetings. Some of these
+are to be answered in one quarterly meeting, and [26] others in another;
+and all of them in the course of the year.
+
+[Footnote 26: The Quakers consider the punctual attendance of their
+religious meetings, the preservation of love among them, and the care of
+the poor, of such particular importance, that they require the first,
+third, and tenth to be answered every quarter.]
+
+The clerk of the quarterly meeting, when they come to this part of the
+business, reads the first of the appointed queries to the members
+present, and is then silent. Soon after this a deputy from one of the
+monthly meetings comes forward, and producing the written documents, or
+answers to the queries, all of which were prepared at the meeting where
+he was chosen, reads that document, which contains a reply to the first
+query in behalf of the meeting he represents. A deputy from a second
+monthly meeting then comes forward, and produces his written documents
+also, and answers the same query in behalf of his own meeting in the
+same manner. A deputy from a third where there are more than two
+meetings then produces his documents in his turn, and replies to it
+also, and this mode is observed, till all the deputies from each of the
+monthly meetings in the county have answered the first query.
+
+When the first query has been thus fully answered, silence is observed
+through the whole court. Members present have now an opportunity of
+making any observations they may think proper. If it should appear by
+any of the answers to the first query, that there is any departure from
+principles on the subject it contains in any of the monthly meetings
+which the deputies represent, it is noticed by any one present. The
+observations made by one frequently give rise to observations from
+another. Advice is sometimes ordered to be given, adapted to the nature
+of this departure from principles; and this advice is occasionally
+circulated, through the medium of the different monthly meetings, to the
+particular congregation, where the deviation has taken place.
+
+When the first query has been thus read by the clerk, and answered by
+the deputies, and when observations have been made upon it, and
+instructions given as now described, a second query is read audibly, and
+the same process takes place, and similar observations are sometimes
+made, and instructions given.
+
+In the same manner a third query is read by the clerk, and answered by
+all the deputies, and observed upon by the meeting at large; and so on a
+fourth, and a fifth, till all the queries, set apart for the day are
+answered.
+
+It may be proper now to observe, that while the men in their own
+meeting-house are thus transacting the quarterly business for
+themselves, the women, in a different apartment or meeting-house, are
+conducting it also for their own sex. They read, answer, and observe
+upon, the queries in the same manner. When they nave settled their own
+business, they send one or two of their members, as they did in the case
+of the monthly meeting, to the apartment of the men, to know if they
+have any thing to communicate to them. When the business is finished in
+both meetings, they break up, and prepare for their respective homes.
+
+
+
+
+CHAP. IV.
+
+_Great yearly court or meeting--constitution of this meeting--one place
+only of meeting fixed upon for the whole kingdom--this the
+metropolis--deputies appointed to it from the quarterly
+meetings--business transacted at this meeting--matters decided, not by
+the influence of numbers, but by the weight of religious character--no
+head or chairman of this meeting--character of this discipline or
+government of the Quakers--the laws, relating to it better obeyed than
+those under any other discipline or government--reasons of this
+obedience_.
+
+
+In the order, in which I have hitherto mentioned the meetings for the
+discipline of the Quakers, we have seen them rising by regular ascent,
+both in importance and power. We have seen each in due progression
+comprizing the actions of a greater population than the foregoing, and
+for a greater period of time. I come now to the yearly meeting, which is
+possessed of a higher and wider jurisdiction than any that have been yet
+described. This meeting does not take cognizance of the conduct of
+particular or of monthly meetings, but, at one general view, of the
+state and conduct of the members of each quarterly meeting, in order to
+form a judgment of the general state of the society for the whole
+kingdom.
+
+We have seen, on a former occasion, the Quakers with their several
+deputies repairing to different places in a county; and we have seen
+them lately with their deputies again repairing to one great town in the
+different counties at large. We are now to see them repairing to the
+metropolis of the kingdom.
+
+As deputies were chosen by each monthly meeting to represent it in the
+quarterly meeting, so the quarterly meetings choose deputies to
+represent them in the yearly meeting. These deputies are commissioned to
+be the bearers of certain documents to London, which contain answers in
+writing to a [27]number of the queries mentioned in the last chapter.
+These answers are made up from the answers received by the several
+quarterly meetings from their respective monthly meetings. Besides these
+they are to carry with them other documents, among which are accounts of
+sufferings in consequence of a refusal of military service, and of the
+payment of the demands of the church.
+
+[Footnote 27: Viz. numbers 1,2,3,4,7,8,9,10,11,12]
+
+The deputies who are now generally four in number for each quarterly
+meeting, that is, four of each sex (except for the quarterly meetings of
+York and London, the former of which generally sends eight men and the
+[28] latter twelve, and each of them the like number of females) having
+received their different documents, set forward on their journey.
+Besides these many members of the society repair to the metropolis. The
+distance of three or four hundred miles forms no impediment to the
+journey. A man cannot travel at this time, but he sees the Quakers in
+motion from all parts, shaping their course to London, there to
+exercise, as will appear shortly, the power of deputies, judges, and
+legislators in turn, and to investigate and settle the affairs of the
+society for the preceding year.
+
+[Footnote 28: The quarterly meeting of London includes Middlesex.]
+
+It may not be amiss to mention a circumstance, which has not
+unfrequently occurred upon these occasions. A Quaker in low
+circumstances, but of unblemished life, has been occasionally chosen as
+one of the deputies to the metropolis even for a county, where the
+Quaker-population has been considered to be rich. This deputy has
+scarcely been able, on account of the low state of his finances, to
+accomplish his journey, and has been known to travel on foot from
+distant parts. I mention this circumstance to shew that the society in
+its choice of representatives, shews no respect to persons, but that it
+pays, even in the persons of the poor, the respect that is due to
+virtue.
+
+The day of the yearly meeting at length arrives. Whole days are now
+devoted to business, for which various committees are obliged to be
+appointed. The men, as before, retire to a meeting-house allotted to
+them, to settle the business for the men and the society at large, and
+the women retire to another, to settle that, which belongs to their own
+sex. There are nevertheless, at intervals, meetings for worship at the
+several meeting houses in the metropolis.
+
+One great part of the business of the yearly meeting is to know the
+state of the society in all its branches of discipline for the preceding
+year. This is known by hearing the answers brought to the queries from
+the several quarterly meetings, which are audibly read by the clerk or
+his assistant, and are taken in rotation alphabetically. If any
+deficiency in the discipline should appear by means of these documents,
+in any of the quarterly meetings, remarks follow on the part of the
+auditory, and written advices are ordered to be sent, if it should
+appear necessary, which are either of a general nature, or particularly
+directed to those where the deficiency has been observed.
+
+Another part of the business of the yearly meeting is to ascertain the
+amount of the money, called "FRIENDS SUFFERINGS," that is of the money,
+or the value of the goods, that have been taken from the Quakers for
+[29] tithes and church dues; for the society are principled against the
+maintenance of any religious ministry, and of course cannot
+conscientiously pay toward the support of the established church. In
+consequence of their refusal of payment in the latter case, their goods
+are seized by a law-process, and sold to the best bidder. Those, who
+have the charge of these executions, behave differently. Some wantonly
+take such goods, as will not sell for a quarter of their value, and
+others much more than is necessary, and others again kindly select
+those, which in the sale will be attended with the least loss. This
+amount, arising from this confiscation of their property, is easily
+ascertained from the written answers of the deputies. The sum for each
+county is observed, and noted down. The different sums are then added
+together, and the amount for the whole kingdom within the year is
+discovered.
+
+[Footnote 29: Distraints or imprisonment for refusing to serve in the
+militia are included also under the head "sufferings."]
+
+In speaking of tithes and church-dues I must correct an error, that is
+prevalent. It is usually understood, when Quakers suffer on these
+accounts, that their losses are made up by the society at large. Nothing
+can be more false than this idea. Were their losses made up on such
+occasions, there would be no suffering. The fact is, that whatever a
+person loses in this way is his own total loss; nor is it ever refunded,
+though, in consequence of expensive prosecutions at law, it has amounted
+to the whole of the property of those, who have refused the payment of
+these demands. If a man were to come to poverty on this account, he
+would undoubtedly be supported, but he would only be supported as
+belonging to the poor of the society.
+
+Among the subjects, introduced at this meeting, may be that of any new
+regulations for the government of the society. The Quakers are not so
+blindly attached to antiquity, as to keep to customs, merely because
+they are of an ancient date. But they are ready, on conviction, to
+change, alter, and improve. When, however, such regulations or
+alterations are proposed, they must come not through the medium of an
+individual, but through the medium of one of the quarterly meetings.
+
+There is also a variety of other business at the yearly meeting. Reports
+are received and considered on the subject of Ackworth school, which was
+mentioned in a former part of the work as a public seminary of the
+society.
+
+Letters are also read from the branches of the society in foreign parts,
+and answers prepared to them.
+
+Appeals also are heard in various instances, and determined in this
+court.
+
+I may mention here two circumstances, that are worthy of notice on these
+occasions.
+
+It may be observed that whether such business as that, which I have just
+detailed or any of any other sort comes before the yearly meeting at
+large, it is decided, not by the influence of numbers, but by the weight
+of religious character. As most subjects afford cause for a difference
+of opinion, so the Quakers at this meeting are found taking their
+different sides of the argument, as they believe it right. Those
+however, who are in opposition to any measure, if they perceive by the
+turn the debate takes, either that they are going against the general
+will, or that they are opposing the sentiments of members of high moral
+reputation in the society, give way. And so far do the Quakers carry
+their condescension on these occasions, that if a few ancient and
+respectable individuals seem to be dissatisfied with any measure that
+may have been proposed, though otherwise respectably supported, the
+measure is frequently postponed, out of tenderness to the feelings of
+such members, and from a desire of gaining them in time by forbearance.
+But, in whatever way the question before them is settled, no division is
+ever called for. No counting of numbers is allowed. No protest is
+suffered to be entered. In such a case there can be no ostensible leader
+of any party; no ostensible minority or majority. The Quakers are of
+opinion that such things, if allowed, would be inconsistent with their
+profession. They would lead also to broils and divisions, and ultimately
+to the detriment of the society. Every measure therefore is settled by
+the Quakers at this meeting in the way I have mentioned, in brotherly
+love, and as the name of the society signifies, as Friends.
+
+The other remarkable circumstance is, that there is no ostensible
+president or [30] head of this great assembly, nor any ostensible
+president or head of any one of its committees; and yet the business of
+the society is conducted in as orderly a manner, as it is possible to be
+among any body of men, where the number is so great, and where every
+individual has a right to speak.
+
+[Footnote 30: Christ is supposed by the Quakers to be the head, under
+whose guidance all their deliberations ought to take place.]
+
+The state of the society having, by this time been ascertained, both in
+the meetings of the women and of the men, from the written answers of
+the different deputies, and from the reports of different committees,
+and the [31]other business of the meeting having been nearly finished, a
+committee, which had been previously chosen, meet to draw up a public
+letter.
+
+[Footnote 31: This may relate to the printing of books, to testimonies
+concerning deceased ministers, addresses to the king, if thought
+necessary, and the like.]
+
+This letter usually comprehends three subjects: first, the state of the
+society, in which the sufferings for tithes and other demands of the
+church are included. This state, in all its different branches, the
+committee ascertain by inspecting the answers, as brought by the
+deputies before mentioned.
+
+A second subject, comprehended in the letter, is advice to the society
+for the regulation of their moral and civil conduct. This advice is
+suggested partly from the same written answers, and partly by the
+circumstances of the times. Are there, for instance, any vicious customs
+creeping into the society, or any new dispositions among its members
+contrary to the Quaker principles? The answers brought by the deputies
+shew it, and advice is contained in the letter adapted to the case. Are
+the times, seasons of difficulty and embarrassment in the commercial
+world? Is the aspect of the political horizon gloomy, and does it appear
+big with convulsions? New admonition and, advices follow.
+
+
+A third subject, comprehended in the letter, and which I believe since
+the year 1787 has frequently formed a standing article in it, is the
+slave-trade. The Quakers consider this trade as so extensively big with
+misery to their fellow creatures, that their members ought to have a
+deep and awful feeling, and a religious care and concern about it. This
+and occasionally other subjects having been duly weighed by the
+committee, they begin to compose the letter.
+
+When the letter is ready, it is brought into the public meeting, and the
+whole of it, without interruption, is first read audibly. It is then
+read over again, and canvassed, sentence by sentence. Every sentence,
+nay every word, is liable to alteration; for any one may make his
+remarks, and nothing can stand but by the sense of the meeting. When
+finally settled and approved, it is printed and dispersed among the
+members throughout the nation. This letter may be considered as
+informing the society of certain matters, that occurred in the preceding
+year, and as conveying to them admonitions on various subjects. This
+letter is emphatically stiled "the General Epistle." The yearly
+meeting, having now lasted about ten days, is dissolved after a solemn
+pause, and the different deputies are at liberty to return home.
+
+This important institution of the yearly meeting brings with it, on
+every return, its pains and pleasures. To persons of maturer years, who
+sit at this time on committee after committee, and have various offices
+to perform, it is certainly an aniversary of care and anxiety, fatigue
+and trouble. But it affords them, on the other hand, occasions of
+innocent delight. Some, educated in the same school, and others, united
+by the ties of blood and youthful friendship, but separated from one
+another by following in distant situations the various concerns of life,
+meet together in the intervals of the disciplinary business, and feel,
+in the warm recognition of their ancient intercourse, a pleasure, which
+might have been delayed for years, but for the intervention of this
+occasion. To the youth it affords an opportunity, amidst this concourse
+of members, of seeing those who are reputed to be of the most exemplary
+character in the society, and whom they would not have had the same
+chance of seeing at any other time. They are introduced also at this
+season to their relations and family friends. They visit about, and form
+new connections in the society, and are permitted the enjoyment of other
+reasonable pleasures.
+
+Such is the organization of the discipline or government of the
+Quakers. Nor may it improperly be called a government, when we consider
+that, besides all matters relating to the church, it takes cognizance of
+the actions of Quakers to Quakers, and of these to their
+fellow-citizens, and of these again to the state; in fact of all actions
+of Quakers, if immoral in the eye of the society, us soon at they we
+known. It gives out its prohibitions. It marks its crimes. It imposes
+offices on its subjects. It culls them to disciplinary duties.[32]This
+government however, notwithstanding its power, has, as I observed
+before, no president or head, either permanent or temporary. There is no
+first man through the whole society. Neither has it any badge of office,
+or mace, or constables staff or sword. It may be observed also, that it
+has no office of emolument, by which its hands can be strengthened,
+neither minister, elder, [33]clerk, overseer, nor deputy, being paid;
+and yet its administration is firmly conducted, and its laws better
+obeyed, than laws by persons, under any other denomination or
+government. The constant assemblage of the Quakers at their places of
+worship, and their unwearied attendances at the monthly and quarterly
+meetings, which they must often frequent at a great distance, to their
+own personal inconvenience, and to the hindrance of their worldly
+concerns, must be admitted, in part, as proofs of the last remark. But
+when we consider them as a distinct people, differing in their manner of
+speech and in their dress and customs from others, rebelling against
+fashion and the fashionable world, and likely therefore to become rather
+the objects of ridicule than of praise; when we consider these things,
+and their steady and rigid perseverance in the peculiar rules and
+customs of the society, we cannot but consider their obedience to their
+own discipline, which makes a point of the observance of these
+singularities, as extraordinary.
+
+[Footnote 32: The government or discipline is considered as a
+theocracy.]
+
+[Footnote 33: The clerk, who keeps the records of the society in London,
+is the only person who has a salary.]
+
+This singular obedience, however, to the laws of the society may be
+accounted for on three principles. In the first place in no society is
+there so much vigilance over the conduct of its members, as in that of
+the Quakers, as this history of their discipline must have already
+manifested. This vigilance of course, cannot miss of its effect. But a
+second cause is the following. The Quaker-laws and regulations are not
+made by any one person, nor by any number even of deputies. They are
+made by themselves, that is by the society in yearly meeting assembled.
+If a bad law, or the repeal of a good one, be proposed, every one
+present, without distinction, has a right to speak against the motion.
+The proposition cannot pass against the sense of the meeting. If persons
+are not present, it is their own fault. Thus it happens that every law,
+passed at the yearly meeting, may be considered, in some measure, as the
+law of every Quaker's own will, and people are much more likely to
+follow regulations made by their own consent, than those which are made
+against it. This therefore has unquestionably an operation as a second
+cause. A third may be traced in the peculiar sentiments, which the
+Quakers hold as a religious body. They believe that many of their
+members, when they deliver themselves publicly on any subject at the
+yearly meeting, are influenced by the dictates of the pure principle, or
+by the spirit of truth. Hence the laws of the society, which are
+considered to be the result of such influences, have with them the
+sanction of spiritual authority. They pay them therefore a greater
+deference on this account, than they would to laws, which they conceive
+to have been the production of the mere imagination, or will, of man.
+
+
+
+
+CHAP. V.
+
+_Disowning--foundation of the right of disowning--disowning no slight
+punishment--wherein the hardship or suffering consists_.
+
+
+I shall conclude the discipline of the Quakers by making a few remarks
+on the subject of disowning.
+
+The Quakers conceive they have a right to excommunicate or disown;
+because persons, entering into any society, have a right to make their
+own reasonable rules of membership, and so early as the year 1663, this
+practice had been adopted by George Fox, and those who were in religious
+union with him. Those, who are born in the society, are bound of course,
+to abide by these rules, while they continue to be the rules of the
+general will, or to leave it. Those who come into it by convincement,
+are bound to follow them, or not to sue for admission into membership.
+This right of disowning, which arises from the reasonableness of the
+thing, the Quakers consider to have been pointed out and established by
+the author of the christian religion, who determined that [34]if a
+disorderly person, after having received repeated admonitions, should still
+continue disorderly, he should be considered as an alien by the church.
+
+[Footnote 34: Matt. 18.v. 17.]
+
+The observations, which I shall make on the subject of disowning, will
+be wholly confined to it as it must operate as a source of suffering to
+those, who are sentenced to undergo it. People are apt to say, "where is
+the hardship of being disowned? a man, though disowned by the Quakers,
+may still go to their meetings for worship, or he may worship if he
+chooses, with other dissenters, or with those of the church of England,
+for the doors of all places of worship are open to those, who desire to
+enter them." I shall state therefore in what this hardship consists, and
+I should have done it sooner, but that I could never have made it so
+well understood as after an explanation had been given of the discipline
+of the Quakers, or as in the present place.
+
+There is no doubt that a person, who is disowned, will be differently
+affected by different considerations. Something will depend upon the
+circumstance, whether he considers himself as disowned for a moral or a
+political offence. Something, again, whether he has been in the habit of
+attending the meetings for discipline, and what estimation he may put
+upon these.
+
+But whether he has been regular or not in these attendances, it is
+certain that he has a power and a consequence, while he remains in his
+own society, which he loses when he leaves it, or when he becomes a
+member of the world. The reader will have already observed, that in no
+society is a man, if I may use the expression, so much of a man, as in
+that of the Quakers, or in no society is there such an equality of rank
+and privileges. A Quaker is called, as we have seen, to the exercise of
+important and honourable functions.
+
+He sits in his monthly meeting, as it were in council, with the rest of
+the members. He sees all equal but he sees none superior, to himself. He
+may give his advice on any question. He may propose new matter. He may
+argue and reply. In the quarterly meetings he is called to the exercise
+of the same privileges, but on a larger scale. And at the yearly meeting
+he may, if he pleases, unite in his own person the offices of council,
+judge, and legislator. But when he leaves the society, and goes out into
+the world, he has no such station or power. He sees there every body
+equal to himself in privileges, and thousands above him. It is in this
+loss of his former consequence that he must feel a punishment in having
+been disowned. For he can never be to his own feelings what he was
+before. It is almost impossible that he should not feel a diminution of
+his dignity and importance as a man.
+
+Neither can he restore himself to these privileges by going to a distant
+part of the kingdom and residing among quakers there, on a supposition
+that his disownment may be concealed. For a Quaker, going to a new abode
+among Quakers, must carry with him a certificate of his conduct from the
+last monthly meeting which he left, or he cannot be received as a
+member.
+
+But besides losing these privileges, which confer consequence upon him,
+he looses others of another kind. He cannot marry in the society. His
+affirmation will be no longer taken instead of his oath. If a poor man,
+he is no longer exempt from the militia, if drawn by submitting to three
+months imprisonment; nor is he entitled to that comfortable maintenance,
+in case of necessity, which the society provide for their own poor.
+
+To these considerations it may not perhaps be superfluous to add, that
+if he continues to mix with the members of his own society, he will
+occasionally find circumstances arising, which will remind him of his
+former state: and if he transfers his friendship to others, he will feel
+awkward and uneasy, and out of his element, till he has made his temper,
+his opinions, and his manners, harmonize with those of his new
+associates of the world.
+
+
+
+
+PECULIAR CUSTOMS OF THE QUAKERS.
+
+
+
+
+CHAP. I. SECT. I.
+
+_Dress--Quakers distinguished by their dress from others--great
+extravagance in dress in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries--this
+extravagance had reached the clergy--but religious individuals kept to
+their antient dresses--the dress which the men of this description wore
+in those days--dress of the women of this description also--George Fox
+and the Quakers springing out of these, carried their plain habits with
+them into their new society._
+
+
+I have now explained, in a very ample manner, the moral education and
+discipline of the Quakers. I shall proceed to the explanation of such
+customs, as seem peculiar to them as a society of christians.
+
+The dress of the Quakers is the first custom of this nature, that I
+purpose to notice. They stand distinguished be means of it from all
+other religious bodies The men wear neither lace, frills, ruffles,
+swords, nor any of the ornaments used by the fashionable world. The
+women wear neither lace, flounces, lappets, rings, bracelets, necklaces,
+ear-rings, nor any thing belonging to this class. Both sexes are also
+particular in the choice of the colour of their clothes. All gay colours
+such as red, blue, green, and yellow, are exploded. Dressing in this
+manner, a Quaker is known by his apparel through the whole kingdom. This
+is not the case with any other individuals of the island, except the
+clergy; and these, in consequence of the black garments worn by persons
+on account of the death of their relations, are not always distinguished
+from others.
+
+I know of no custom among the Quakers, which has more excited the
+curiosity of the world, than this of their dress, and none, in which
+they have been more mistaken in their conjectures concerning it.
+
+[35]In the early times of the English History, dress had been frequently
+restricted by the government.--Persons of a certain rank and fortune
+were permitted to wear only cloathing of a certain kind. But these
+restrictions and distinctions were gradually broken down, and people, as
+they were able and willing, launched out into unlimited extravagance in
+their dress. The fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, and down from thence
+to the time when the Quakers first appeared, were periods, particularly
+noticed for prodigality in the use of apparel, there was nothing too
+expensive or too preposterous to be worn. Our ancestors also, to use an
+ancient quotation, "were never constant to one colour or fashion two
+months to an end." We can have no idea by the present generation, of the
+folly in such respects, of these early ages. But these follies were not
+confined to the laiety. Affectation of parade, and gaudy cloathing, were
+admitted among many of the clergy, who incurred the severest invectives
+of the poets on that account. The ploughman, in Chaucer's Canterbury
+Tales, is full upon this point. He gives us the following description of
+a Priest
+
+   "That hye on horse wylleth to ride,
+   In glytter ande gold of great araye,
+   'I painted and pertred all in pryde,
+   No common Knyght may go so gaye;
+   Chaunge of clothyng every daye,
+   With golden gyrdles great and small,
+   As boysterous as is here at baye;
+   All suche falshed mote nede fell."
+
+[Footnote 35: See Strut's Antiquities.]
+
+To this he adds, that many of them had more than one or two mitres,
+embellished with pearls, like the head of a queen, and a staff of gold
+set with jewels, as heavy as lead. He then speaks of their appearing out
+of doors with broad bucklers and long swords, or with baldrics about
+their necks, instead of stoles, to which their basellards were attached.
+
+   "Bucklers brode and sweardes longe,
+   Baudryke with baselards kene."
+
+He then accuses them with wearing gay gowns of scarlet and green
+colours, ornamented with cut-work, and for the long pykes upon their
+shoes.
+
+But so late as the year 1652 we have the following anecdote of the
+whimsical dress of a clergyman. John Owen, Dean of Christ church, and
+Vice-Chancellor of Oxford, is represented an wearing a lawn-band, as
+having his hair powdered and his hat curiously cocked. He is described
+also as wearing Spanish leather-boots with lawn-tops, and snake-bone
+band-strings with large tassels, and a large set of ribbands pointed at
+his knees with points or tags at the end. And much about the same time,
+when Charles the second was at Newmarket, Nathaniel Vincent, doctor of
+divinity, fellow of Clare-hall, and chaplain in ordinary to his majesty,
+preached before him. But the king was so displeased with the foppery of
+this preacher's, dress, that he commanded the duke of Monmouth, then
+chancellor of the university, to cause the statutes concerning decency
+of apparel among the clergy to be put into execution, which was
+accordingly done. These instances are sufficient to shew, that the taste
+for preposterous and extravagant dress must have operated like a
+contagion in those times, or the clergy would scarcely have dressed
+themselves in this ridiculous and censurable manner.
+
+But although this extravagance was found among many orders of society at
+the time of the appearance of George Fox, yet many individuals had set
+their faces against the fashions of the world. These consisted
+principally of religious people of different denominations, most of whom
+were in the middle classes of life. Such persons were found in plain and
+simple habits notwithstanding the contagion of the example of their
+superiors in rank. The men of this description generally wore plain
+round hats with common crowns. They had discarded the sugar-loaf hat,
+and the hat turned up with a silver clasp on one side, as well as all
+ornaments belonging to it, such as pictures, feathers, and bands of
+various colours. They had adopted a plain suit of clothes. They wore
+cloaks, when necessary, over these. But both the clothes and the cloaks
+were of the same colour. The colour of each of them was either drab or
+grey. Other people who followed the fashions, wore white, red, green,
+yellow, violet, scarlet, and other colours, which were expensive,
+because they were principally dyed in foreign parts. The drab consisted
+of the white wool undyed, and the grey of the white wool mixed with the
+black, which was undyed also. These colours were then the colours of the
+clothes, because they were the least expensive, of the peasants of
+England, as they are now of those of Portugal and Spain. They had
+discarded also, all ornaments, such as of lace, or bunches of ribbands
+at the knees, and their buttons were generally of alchymy, as this
+composition was then termed, or of the same colour as their clothes.
+
+The grave and religious women also, like the men, had avoided the
+fashions of their times. These had adopted the cap, and the black hood
+for their headdress. The black hood had been long the distinguishing
+mark of a grave matron. All prostitutes, so early as Edward the third,
+had been forbidden to wear it. In after-times it was celebrated by the
+epithet of venerable by the poets, and had been introduced by painters
+as the representative of virtue. When fashionable women had discarded
+it, which was the case in George Fox's time, the more sober, on account
+of these ancient marks of its sanctity, had retained it, and it was then
+common among them. With respect to the hair of grave and sober women In
+those days, it was worn plain, and covered occasionally by a plain hat
+or bonnet. They had avoided by this choice those preposterous
+head-dresses and bonnets, which none but those, who have seen paintings
+of them, could believe ever to have been worn. They admitted none of the
+large ruffs, that were then in use, but chose the plain handkerchief for
+their necks, differing from those of others, which had rich point, and
+curious lace. They rejected the crimson sattin doublet with black velvet
+skirts, and contented themselves with a plain gown, generally of stuff,
+and of a drab, or grey, or buff, or buffin colour, as it was called, and
+faced with buckram. These colours, as I observed before, were the
+colours worn by country people; and were not expensive, because they
+were not dyed. To this gown was added a green apron. Green aprons had
+been long worn in England, yet, at the time I allude to, they were out
+of fashion, so as to be ridiculed by the gay. But old fashioned people
+still retained them. Thus an idea of gravity was connected with them;
+and therefore religious and steady women adopted them, as the grave and
+sober garments of ancient times.
+
+It may now be observed that from these religious persons, habited in
+this manner, in opposition to the fashions of the world, the primitive
+Quakers generally sprung. George Fox himself wore the plain grey coat
+that has been noticed, with alchymy buttons, and a plain leather girdle
+about his waist. When the Quakers therefore first met in religious
+union, they met in these simple clothes. They made no alteration in
+their dress on account of their new religion. They prescribed no form or
+colour as distinguishing marks of their sect, but they carried with them
+the plain habits of their ancestors into the new society, as the habits
+of the grave and sober people of their own times.
+
+
+SECT. II.
+
+_But though George Fox introduced no new dress into the society, he was
+not indifferent on the subject--he recommended simplicity and
+plainness--and declaimed against the fashions of the times--supported by
+Barclay and Penn--these explained the objects of dress--the influence of
+these explanations--dress at length incorporated into the
+discipline--but no standard fixed either of shape or colour--the
+objects of dress only recognized, and simplicity recommended--a new
+Era--great variety allowable by the discipline--Quakers have deviated
+less from the dress of their ancestors than other people._
+
+
+Though George Fox never introduced any new or particular garments, when
+he formed the society, as models worthy of the imitation of those who
+joined him, yet, as a religious man, he was not indifferent upon the
+subject of dress. Nor could he, as a reformer, see those extravagant
+fashions, which I have shewn to have existed in his time, without
+publicly noticing them. We find him accordingly recommending to his
+followers simplicity and plainness of apparel, and bearing his testimony
+against the preposterous and fluctuating apparel of the world.
+
+In the various papers, which he wrote or gave forth upon this subject,
+he bid it down as a position, that all ornaments, superfluities, and
+unreasonable changes in dress, manifested an earthly or worldly spirit.
+He laid it down again, that such things, being adopted principally for
+the lust of the eye, were productive of vanity and pride, and that, in
+proportion as men paid attention to these outward decorations and
+changes, they suffered some loss in the value and dignity of their
+minds. He considered also all such decorations and changes, as contrary
+both to the letter and the spirit of the scriptures. Isaiah, one of the
+greatest prophets under the law, had severely reproved the daughters of
+Israel on account of their tinkling ornaments, cauls, round tires,
+chains, bracelets, rings, and ear-rings. St. Paul also and St. Peter had
+both of them cautioned the women of their own times, to adorn themselves
+in modest apparel, and not with broidered hair, or gold, or pearls, or
+costly array. And the former had spoken to both sexes indiscriminately
+not to conform to the world, in which latter expression he evidently
+included all those customs of the world, of whatsoever nature, that were
+in any manner injurious to the morality of the minds of those who
+followed them.
+
+By the publication of these sentiments, George Fox shewed to the world,
+that it was his opinion, that religion, though it prescribed no
+particular form of apparel, was not indifferent as to the general
+subject of dress. These sentiments became the sentiments of his
+followers. But the society was coming fast into a new situation. When
+the members of it first met in union, they consisted of grown up
+persons; of such, as had had their minds spiritually exercised, and
+their judgments convinced in religious matters; of such in fact as had
+been Quakers in spirit, before they had become Quakers by name. All
+admonitions therefore on the subject of dress were unnecessary for such
+persons. But many of those, who had joined the society, had brought with
+them children into it, and from the marriages of others, children were
+daily springing up. To the latter, in a profligate age, where the
+fashions were still raging from without, and making an inroad upon the
+minds and morals of individuals, some cautions were necessary for the
+preservation of their innocence in such a storm. For these were the
+reverse of their parents. Young, in point of age, they were Quakers by
+name, before they could become Quakers in spirit. Robert Barclay
+therefore, and William Penn, kept alive the subject of dress, which
+George Fox had been the first to notice in the society. They followed
+him on his scriptural ground. They repeated the arguments, that
+extravagant dress manifested an earthly spirit, and that it was
+productive of vanity and pride. But they strengthened the case by adding
+arguments of their own. Among these I may notice, that they considered
+what were the objects of dress. They reduced these to two, to decency,
+and comfort, in which latter idea was included protection from the
+varied inclemencies of the weather. Every thing therefore beyond these
+they considered as superfluous. Of course all ornaments would become
+censurable, and all unreasonable changes indefensible, upon such a
+system.
+
+These discussions, however, on this subject never occasioned the more
+ancient Quakers to make any alteration in their dress, for they
+continued as when they had come into the society, to be a plain people.
+But they occasioned parents to be more vigilant over their children in
+this respect, and they taught the society to look upon dress, as a
+subject connected with the christian religion, in any case, where it
+could become injurious to the morality of the mind. In process of time
+therefore as the fashions continued to spread, and the youth of the
+society began to come under their dominion, the Quakers incorporated
+dress among other subjects of their discipline. Hence no member, after
+this period, could dress himself preposterously, or follow the fleeting
+fashions of the world, without coming under the authority of friendly
+and wholesome admonition. Hence an annual inquiry began to be made, if
+parents brought up their children to dress consistently with their
+christian profession. The society, however, recommended only simplicity
+and plainness to be attended to on this occasion. They prescribed no
+standard, no form, no colour, for the apparel of their members. They
+acknowledged the two great objects of decency and comfort, and left
+their members to clothe themselves consistently with these, as it was
+agreeable to their convenience or their disposition.
+
+A new aera commenced from this period. Persons already in the society,
+continued of course in their ancient dresses: if others had come into it
+by convincement, who had led gay lives, they laid aside their gaudy
+garments, and took those that were more plain. And the children of both,
+from this time, began to be habited from their youth as their parents
+were.
+
+But though the Quakers had thus brought apparel under the disciplinary
+cognizance of the society, yet the dress of individuals was not always
+alike, nor did it continue always one and the same even with the
+primitive Quakers. Nor has it continued one and the same with their
+descendants. For decency and comfort having been declared to be the true
+and only objects of dress, such a latitude was given, as to admit of
+great variety in apparel. Hence if we were to see a groupe of modern
+Quakers before us, we should probably not find any two of them dressed
+alike. Health, we all know, may require alteration in dress. Simplicity
+may suggest others. Convenience again may point out others; and yet all
+these various alterations may be consistent with the objects before
+specified. And here it may be observed that the society, during its
+existence for a century and a half, has without doubt, in some degree,
+imperceptibly followed the world, though not in its fashions, yet in its
+improvements of cloathing.
+
+It must be obvious again, that some people are of a grave, and that
+others are of a lively disposition, and that these will probably never
+dress alike. Other members again, but particularly the rich, have a
+larger intercourse than the rest of them, or mix more with the world.
+These again will probably dress a little differently from others, and
+yet, regarding the two great objects of dress, their cloathing may come
+within the limits which these allow. Indeed if there be any, whose
+apparel would be thought exceptionable by the society, these would be
+found among the rich. Money, in all societies, generally takes the
+liberty of introducing exceptions. Nothing, however is more true, than
+that, even among the richest of the Quakers, there is frequently as much
+plainness and simplicity in their outward dress, as among the poor; and
+where the exceptions exist, they are seldom carried to an extravagant,
+and never to a preposterous extent.
+
+From this account it will be seen, that the ideas of the world are
+erroneous on the subject of the dress of the Quakers; for it has always
+been imagined, that, when the early Quakers first met in religious
+union, they met to deliberate and fix upon some standard, which should
+operate as a political institution, by which the members should be
+distinguished by their apparel from the rest of the world. The whole
+history, however, of the shape and colour of the garments of the Quakers
+is, as has been related, namely, that the primitive Quakers dressed like
+the sober, steady, and religious people of the age, in which the society
+sprung up, and that their descendants have departed less in a course of
+time, than others, from the dress of their ancestors. The mens hats are
+nearly the same now, except that they have stays and loops, and many of
+their clothes are nearly of the same shape and colour, as in the days of
+George Fox. The dress of the women also is nearly similar. The black
+hoods indeed have gone, in a certain degree, out of use. But many of
+such women, as are ministers and elders, and indeed many others of age
+and gravity of manners, still retain them. The green apron also has been
+nearly, if not wholly laid aside. There was here and there an ancient
+woman, who used it within the last ten years, but I am told that the
+last of these died lately. No other reasons can be given, than those
+which have been assigned, why Quaker-women should have been found in the
+use of a colour, which is so unlike any other which they now use in
+their dress. Upon the whole, if the females were still to retain the use
+of the black hood and the green apron, and the men were to discard the
+stays and loops for their hats, we should find that persons of both
+sexes in the society, but particularly such as are antiquated, or as may
+be deemed old fashioned in it, would approach very near to the first or
+primitive Quakers in their appearance, both as to the sort and to the
+shape, and to the colour of their clothes. Thus has George Fox, by means
+of the advice he gave upon this subject, and the general discipline
+which he introduced into the society, kept up for a hundred and fifty
+years, against the powerful attacks of the varying fashions of the
+world, one steady, and uniform, external appearance among his
+descendants; an event, which neither the clergy by means of their
+sermons, nor other writers, whether grave or gay, were able to
+accomplish during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, and which none
+of their successors have been able to accomplish from that time to the
+present.
+
+
+SECT III.
+
+_The world usually make objections to the Quaker-dress--the charge is
+that there is a preciseness in it which is equivalent to the worshipping
+of forms--the truth of this charge not to be ascertained but by a
+knowledge of the heart--but outward facts mate against it-such as the
+origin of the Quaker-dress--and the Quaker-doctrine on dress--doctrine
+of christianity on this subject--opinion of the early christians upon
+it--reputed advantages of the Quaker-dress._
+
+
+I should have been glad to have dismissed the subject of the
+Quaker-dress in the last section, but so many objections are usually
+made against it, that I thought it right to stop for a while to consider
+them in the present place. Indeed, if I were to choose a subject, upon
+which the world had been more than ordinarily severe on the Quakers, I
+should select that of their dress. Almost every body has something to
+say upon this point. And as in almost all cases, where arguments are
+numerous, many of them are generally frivolous, so it has happened in
+this also. There is one, however, which it is impossible not to notice
+upon this subject.
+
+The Quakers, it is confessed by their adversaries, are not chargeable
+with the same sort of pride and vanity, which attach to the characters
+of other people, who dress in a gay manner, and who follow the fashions
+of the world, but it is contended, on the other hand, that they are
+justly chargeable with a preciseness, that is disgusting, in the little
+particularities of their cloathing. This precise attention to
+particularities is considered as little better than the worshipping of
+lifeless forms, and is usually called by the world the idolatry of the
+Quaker-dress.
+
+This charge, if it were true, would be serious indeed. It would be
+serious, because it would take away from the religion of the Quakers one
+of its greatest and best characters. For how could any people be
+spiritually minded, who were the worshippers of lifeless forms? It would
+be serious again, because it would shew their religion, like the box of
+Pandora, to be pregnant with evils within itself. For people, who place
+religion in particular forms, must unavoidably become superstitious. It
+would be serious again, because if parents were to carry such notions
+into their families, they would produce mischief. The young would be
+dissatisfied, if forced to cultivate particularities, for which they see
+no just or substantial reason. Dissentions would arise among them. Their
+morality too would be confounded, if they were to see these minutiae
+idolized at home, but disregarded by persons of known religious
+character in the world. Add to which, that they might adopt erroneous
+notions of religion. For they might be induced to lay too much stress
+upon the payment of the anise and cummin, and too little upon the
+observance of the weightier matters of the law.
+
+As the charge therefore is unquestionably a serious one, I shall not
+allow it to pass without some comments. And in the first place it maybe
+observed that, whether this preciseness, which has been imputed to some
+Quakers, amounts to an idolizing of forms, can never be positively
+determined, except we had the power of looking into the hearts of those,
+who have incurred the charge. We may form, however, a reasonable
+conjecture, whether it does or not by presumptive evidence, taken from
+incontrovertible outward facts.
+
+The first outward fact that presents itself to us, is the fact of the
+origin of the Quaker-dress, if the early Quakers, when they met in
+religious union, had met to deliberate and fix upon a form or standard
+of apparel for the society, in vain could any person have expected to
+repel this charge. But no such standard was ever fixed. The dress of the
+Quakers has descended from father to son in the way that has been
+described. There is reason therefore to suppose, that the Quakers as a
+religious body, have deviated less than others front the primitive
+habits of their ancestors, rather from a fear of the effects of
+unreasonable changes of dress upon the mind, than from an attachment to
+lifeless forms.
+
+The second outward fact, which may be resorted to as furnishing a ground
+for reasonable conjecture, is the doctrine of the Quakers upon this
+subject. The Quakers profess to follow christianity in all cases, where
+its doctrines can be clearly ascertained. I shall state therefore what
+christianity says upon this point. I shall shew that what Quakerism says
+is in unison with it. And I shall explain more at large the principle,
+that has given birth to the discipline of the Quakers relative to their
+dress.
+
+Had christianity approved of the make or colour of any particular
+garment, it would have approved of those of its founder and of his
+apostles. We do not, however, know, what any of these illustrious
+personages wore. They were probably dressed in the habits of Judean
+peasants, and not with any marked difference from those of the same rank
+in life. And that they were dressed plainly, we have every reason to
+believe, from the censures, which some of them passed on the
+superfluities of apparel. But christianity has no where recorded these
+habits as a pattern, nor has it prescribed to any man any form or colour
+for his clothes.
+
+But christianity, though it no where places religion in particular
+forms, is yet not indifferent on the general subject of dress. For in
+the first place it discards all ornaments, as appears by the testimonies
+of St. Paul and St. Peter before quoted, and this it does evidently on
+the ground of morality, lest these, by puffing up the creature, should
+be made to give birth to the censurable passions of vanity and lust. In
+the second place it forbids all unreasonable changes on the plea of
+conformity with the fashions of the world: and it sets its face against
+these also upon moral grounds; because the following of the fashions of
+the world begets a worldly spirit, and because, in proportion as men
+indulge this spirit, they are found to follow the loose and changeable
+morality of the world, instead of the strict and steady morality of the
+gospel.
+
+That the early christians understood these to be the doctrines of
+christianity, there can be no doubt. The Presbyters and the Asceticks,
+I believe, changed the Palluim for the Toga in the infancy of the
+christian world; but all other christians were left undistinguished by
+their dress. These were generally clad in the sober manner of their own
+times. They observed a medium between costliness and sordidness. That
+they had no particular form for their dress beyond that of other grave
+people, we team from Justin Martyr. "They affected nothing fantastic,
+says he, but, living among Greeks and barbarians, they followed the
+customs of the country, and in clothes, and in diet, and in all other
+affairs of outward life, they shewed the excellent and admirable
+constitution of their discipline and conversation." That they discarded
+superfluities and ornaments we may collect from various authors of those
+times. Basil reduced the objects of cloathing to two, namely, "Honesty
+and necessity," that is, to decency and protection. Tertullian laid it
+down as a doctrine that a Christian should not only be chaste, but that
+he should appear so outwardly. "The garments which we should wear, says
+Clemens of Alexandria, should be modest and frugal, and not wrought of
+divers colours, but plain." Crysastum commends Olympias, a lady of birth
+and fortune, for having in her garment nothing that was wrought or
+gaudy. Jerome praises Paula, another lady of quality, for the same
+reason. We find also that an unreasonable change of cloathing, or a
+change to please the eye of the world, was held improper. Cyril says,
+"we should not strive for variety, having clothes for home, and others
+for ostentation abroad." In short the ancient fathers frequently
+complained of the abuse of apparel in the ways described.
+
+Exactly in the same manner, and in no other, have the Quakers considered
+the doctrines of Christianity on the subject of dress. They have never
+adopted any particular model either as to form or colour for their
+clothes. They have regarded the two objects of decency and comfort. But
+they have allowed of various deviations consistently with these. They
+have in fact fluctuated in their dress. The English Quaker wore formerly
+a round hat. He wears it now with stays and loops. But even this fashion
+is not universal, and seems rather now on the decline. The American
+Quaker, on the other hand, has generally kept to the round hat. Black
+hoods were uniformly worn by the Quaker-women, but the use of these is
+much less than it was, and is still decreasing. The Green aprons also
+were worn by the females, but they are now wholly out of use. But these
+changes could never have taken place, had there been any fixed standard
+for the Quaker dress.
+
+But though the Quakers have no particular model for their clothing, yet
+they are not indifferent to dress where it may be morally injurious.
+They have discarded all superfluities and ornaments, because they may
+be hurtful to the mind. They have set their faces also against all
+unreasonable changes of forms for the same reasons. They have allowed
+other reasons to weigh with them in the latter case. They have received
+from, their ancestors a plain suit of apparel, which has in some little
+degree followed the improvements of the world, and they see no good
+reason why they should change it; at least they see in the fashions of
+the world none but a censurable reason for a change. And here it may be
+observed, that it is not an attachment to forms, but an unreasonable
+change or deviation from them, that the Quakers regard. Upon the latter
+idea it is, that their discipline is in a great measure founded, or, in
+other words, the Quakers, as a religious body, think it right to watch
+in their youth any unreasonable deviation from the plain apparel of the
+society.
+
+This they do first, because any change beyond usefulness must be made
+upon the plea of conformity to the fashions of the world.
+
+Secondly, because any such deviation in their youth is considered to
+shew, in some measure, a deviation from simplicity of heart. It bespeaks
+the beginning of an unstable mind. It shews there must have been some
+improper motive for the change. Hence it argues a weakness in the
+deviating persons, and points them out as objects to be strengthened by
+wholesome admonition.
+
+Thirdly, because changes, made without reasonable motives, would lead,
+if not watched and checked, to other still greater changes, and because
+an uninterrupted succession of such changes would bring the minds of
+their youth under the most imperious despotisms, the despotism of
+fashion; in consequence of which they would cleave to the morality of
+the world instead of the morality of the gospel.
+
+And fourthly, because in proportion as young persons deviate from the
+plainness and simplicity of the apparel as worn by the society, they
+approach in appearance to the world; they mix with it, and imbibe its
+spirit and admit its customs, and come into a situation which subjects
+them to be disowned. And this is so generally true, that of those
+persons, whom the society has been obliged to disown, the commencement
+of a long progress in irregularity may often be traced to a deviation
+from the simplicity of their dress. And here it may be observed, that an
+effect has been produced by this care concerning dress, so beneficial to
+the moral interests of the society, that they have found in it a new
+reason for new vigilance on this subject. The effect produced is a
+general similarity of outward appearance, in all the members, though
+there is a difference both in the form and colour of their clothing;
+and this general appearance is such, as to make a Quaker still known to
+the world. The dress therefore of the Quakers, by distinguishing the
+members of the society, and making them known as such to the world,
+makes the world overseers as it were of their moral conduct. And that it
+operates in this way, or that it becomes a partial check in favour of
+morality, there can be no question. For a Quaker could not be seen
+either at public races, or at cock fightings, or at assemblies, or in
+public houses, but the fact would be noticed as singular, and probably
+soon known among his friends. His clothes would betray him. Neither
+could be, if at a great distance from home, and if quite out of the eye
+and observation of persons of the same religious persuasion, do what
+many others do. For a Quaker knows, that many of the customs of the
+society are known to the world at large, and that a certain conduct is
+expected from a person in a Quakers habit. The fear therefore of being
+detected, and at any rate of bringing infamy on his cloth, if I may use
+the expression, would operate so as to keep him out of many of the
+vicious customs of the world.
+
+From hence it will be obvious that there cannot be any solid foundation
+for the charge, which has been made against the Quakers on the subject
+of dress. They are found in their present dress, not on the principle
+of an attachment to any particular form, or because any one form is more
+sacred than another, but on the principle, that an unreasonable
+deviation from any simple and useful clothing is both censurable and
+hurtful, if made in conformity with the fashions of the world. These two
+principles, though they may produce, if acted upon, a similar outward
+appearance in persons, are yet widely distinct as to their foundation,
+from one another. The former is the principle of idolatry. The latter
+that of religion. If therefore there are persons in the society, who
+adopt the former, they will come within the reach of the charge
+described. But the latter only can be adopted by true Quakers.
+
+
+
+
+CHAP. II.
+
+_Quakers are in the use of plain furniture--this usage founded on
+principles, similar to those on dress--this usage general--Quakers have
+seldom paintings, prints, or portraits in their houses, as, articles of
+furniture--reasons for their disuse of such articles._
+
+
+As the Quakers are found in the use of garments, differing from those
+of others in their shape and fashion, and in the graveness of their
+colour, and in the general plainness of their appearance, so they are
+found in the use of plain and frugal furniture in their houses.
+
+The custom of using plain furniture has not arisen from the
+circumstance, that any particular persons in the society, estimable for
+their lives and characters, have set the example in their families, but
+from the, principles of the Quaker-constitution itself. It has arisen
+from principles similar to those, which dictated the continuance of the
+ancient Quaker-dress. The choice of furniture, like the choice of
+clothes, is left to be adjudged by the rules of decency and usefulness,
+but never by the suggestions of shew. The adoption of taste, instead of
+utility, in this case, would be considered as a conscious conformity
+with the fashions of the world. Splendid furniture also would be
+considered as pernicious as splendid clothes. It would be classed with
+external ornaments, and would be reckoned equally productive of pride,
+with these. The custom therefore of plainness in the articles of
+domestic use is pressed upon all Quakers: and that the subject may not
+be forgotten, it is incorporated in their religious discipline; in
+consequence of which, it is held forth to their notice, in a public
+manner, in all the monthly and quarterly meetings of the kingdom, and in
+all the preparative meetings, at least once in the year.
+
+It may be admitted as a truth, that the society practice, with few
+exceptions, what is considered to be the proper usage on such occasions.
+The poor, we know, cannot use any but homely-furniture. The middle
+clashes are universally in such habits. As to the rich, there is a
+difference in the practice of these. Some, and indeed many of them, use
+as plain and frugal furniture, as those in moderate circumstances.
+Others again step beyond the practice of the middle classes, and buy
+what is more costly, not with a view of shew, so much as to accommodate
+their furniture to the size and goodness of their houses. In the houses
+of others again, who have more than ordinary intercourse with the world,
+we now and then see what is elegant, but seldom what would be considered
+to be extravagant furniture. We see no chairs with satin bottoms and
+gilded frames, no magnificent pier-glasses, no superb chandeliers, no
+curtains with extravagant trimmings. At least, in all my intercourse
+with the Quakers, I have never observed such things. If there are
+persons in the society, who use them, they must be few in number, and
+these must be conscious that, by the introduction of such finery[36]
+into their houses, they are going against the advices annually given
+them in their meetings on this subject, and that they are therefore
+violating the written law, as well as departing from the spirit of
+Quakerism.
+
+[Footnote 36: Turkey carpets are in use, though generally gaudy, on
+account of their wearing better than others.]
+
+But if these or similar principles are adopted by the society on this
+subject, it must be obvious, that in walking through the rooms of the
+Quakers, we shall look in vain for some articles that are classed among
+the furniture of other people. We shall often be disappointed, for
+instance, if we expect to find either paintings or prints in frame. I
+seldom remember to have seen above three or four articles of this
+description in all my intercourse with the Quakers. Some families had
+one of these, others a second, and others a third, but none had them
+all. And in many families neither the one nor the other was to be seen.
+
+One of the prints, to which I allude, contained a representation of the
+conclusion of the famous treaty between William Penn and the Indians of
+America. This transaction every body knows, afforded, in all its
+circumstances, a proof to the world, of the singular honour and
+uprightness of those ancestors of the Quakers who were concerned in it.
+The Indians too entertained an opinion no less favourable of their
+character, for they handed down the memory of the event under such
+[37]impressive circumstances, that their descendants have a particular
+love for the character, and a particular reliance on the word, of a
+Quaker at the present day. The print alluded to was therefore probably
+hung up as the pleasing record of a transaction, so highly honourable to
+the principles of the society; where knowledge took no advantage of
+ignorance, but where she associated herself with justice, that she might
+preserve the balance equal. "This is the only treaty," says a celebrated
+writer, "between the Indians and the Christians, that was never ratified
+by an oath, and was never broken."
+
+[Footnote 37: The Indians denominated Penn, brother Onas, which means
+in their language a pen, and respect the Quakers as his descendants.]
+
+The second was a print of a slave-ship, published a few years ago, when
+the circumstances of the slave-trade became a subject of national
+inquiry. In this the oppressed Africans are represented, as stowed in
+different parts according to the number transported and to the scale of
+the dimensions of the vessel. This subject could not be indifferent to
+those, who had exerted themselves as a body for the annihilation of this
+inhuman traffic. The print, however, was not hung up by the Quakers,
+either as a monument of what they had done themselves, or as a stimulus
+to farther exertion on the same subject, but, I believe, from the pure
+motive of exciting benevolence; of exciting the attention of those, who
+should come into their houses, to the case of the injured Africans, and
+of procuring sympathy in their favour.
+
+The third contained a plan of the building of Ackworth-school. This was
+hung up as a descriptive view of a public seminary, instituted and kept
+up by the subscription and care of the society at large.
+
+But though all the prints, that have been mentioned, were hung up in
+frames on the motives severally assigned to them, no others were to be
+seen as their companions. It is in short not the practice[38] of the
+society to decorate their houses in this manner.
+
+[Footnote 38: There are still individual exceptions. Some Quakers have
+come accidentally into possession of printings and engravings in frame,
+which, being innocent in their subject and their lesson, they would have
+thought it superstitious to discard.]
+
+Prints in frames, if hung up promiscuously in a room, would be
+considered as ornamental furniture, or as furniture for shew. They would
+therefore come under the denomination of superfluities; and the
+admission of such, in the way that other people admit them would be
+considered as an adoption of the empty customs or fashions of the world.
+
+But though the Quakers are not in the practice of hanging up prints in
+frames, yet there are amateurs among them, who have a number and variety
+of prints in their possession. But these appear chiefly in collections,
+bound together in books, or preserved in book covers, and not in frames
+as ornamental furniture for their rooms. These amateurs, however, are
+but few in number. The Quakers have in general only a plain and useful
+education. They are not brought up to admire such things, and they have
+therefore in general but little taste for the fine and masterly
+productions of the painters' art.
+
+Neither would a person, in going through the houses of the Quakers, find
+any portraits either of themselves, or of any of their families, or
+ancestors, except, to the latter case, they had been taken before they
+became Quakers. The first Quakers never had their portraits taken with
+their own knowledge and consent. Considering themselves as poor and
+helpless creatures, and little better than dust and ashes, they had but
+a mean idea of their own images. They were of opinion also, that pride
+and self-conceit would be likely to arise to men from the view, and
+ostentatious parade, of their own persons. They considered also, that it
+became them, as the founders of the society, to bear their testimony
+against the vain and superfluous fashions of the world. They believed
+also, if there were those whom they loved, that the best method of
+shewing their regard to these would be not by having their fleshly
+images before their eyes, but by preserving their best actions in their
+thoughts, as worthy of imitation; and that their own memory, in the same
+manner, should be perpetuated rather in the loving hearts, and kept
+alive in the edifying conversation of their descendants, than in the
+perishing tablets of canvas, fixed upon the walls of their habitations.
+Hence no portraits are to be seen of many of those great and eminent men
+in the society, who are now mingled with the dust.
+
+These ideas, which thus actuated the first Quakers on this subject, are
+those of the Quakers as a body at the present day. There may be here and
+there an individual, who has had a portrait of some of his family taken.
+But such instances may be considered as rare exceptions from the general
+rule. In no society is it possible to establish maxims, which shall
+influence an universal practice.
+
+
+
+
+CHAP. III.....SECT. I.
+
+_Language--Quakers differ in their language from others--the first
+alteration made by George Fox of thou for you--this change had been
+suggested by Erasmus and Luther--sufferings of the Quakers in
+consequence of adapting this change--a work published in their
+defence--this presented to King Charles and others--other works on the
+subject by Barclay and Penn--in these the word thou shewn to be proper
+in all languages--you to be a mark of flattery--the latter idea
+corroborated by Harwell, Maresius, Godeau, Erasmus._
+
+
+As the Quakers are distinguishable from their fellow-citizens by their
+dress, as was amply shewn in a former chapter, so they are no less
+distinguishable from them by the peculiarities of their language.
+
+George Fox seemed to look at every custom with the eye of a reformer.
+The language of the country, as used in his own times, struck him as
+having many censurable defects. Many of the expressions, then in use,
+appeared to him to contain gross flattery, others to be idolatrous,
+others to be false representatives of the ideas they were intended to
+convey. Now he considered that christianity required truth, and he
+believed therefore that he and his followers, who professed to be
+christians in word and deed, and to follow the christian pattern in all
+things, as far as it could be found, were called upon to depart from all
+the censurable modes of speech, as much as they were from any of the
+customs of the world, which Christianity had deemed objectionable. And
+so weightily did these improprieties in his own language lie upon his
+mind, that he conceived himself to have had an especial commission to
+correct them.
+
+The first alteration, which he adopted, was in the use of the pronoun
+thou. The pronoun you, which grammarians had fixed to be of the plural
+number, was then occasionally used, but less than it is now, in
+addressing an individual. George Fox therefore adopted thou in its place
+on this occasion, leaving the word you to be used only where two or more
+individuals were addressed.
+
+George Fox however was not the first of the religious writers, who had
+noticed the improper use of the pronoun you. Erasmus employed a treatise
+in shewing the propriety of thou when addressed to a single person, and
+in ridiculing the use of you on the same occasion. Martin Luther also
+took great pains to expunge the word you from the station which it
+occupied, and to put thou in its place. In his Ludus, he ridicules the
+use of the former by the, following invented sentence, "Magister,
+Vosestis iratus?" This is as absurd, as if he had said in English
+"gentlemen art thou angry"?
+
+But though George Fox was not the first to recommend the substitution of
+thou for you, he was the first to reduce this amended use of it to
+practice. This he did in his own person, wherever he went, and in all
+the works which he published. All his followers did the same. And, from
+his time to the present, the pronoun thou has come down so prominent in
+the speech of the society, that a Quaker is generally known by it at the
+present day.
+
+The reader would hardly believe, if historical facts did not prove it,
+how much noise the introduction or rather the amended use of this little
+particle, as reduced to practice by George Fox, made in the world, and
+how much ill usage it occasioned the early Quakers. Many magistrates,
+before whom they were carried in the early times of their institution
+occasioned their sufferings to be greater merely on this account. They
+were often abused and beaten by others, and sometimes put in danger of
+their lives. It was a common question put to a Quaker in those days,
+who addressed a great man in this new and simple manner, "why you ill
+bred clown do you thou me?" The rich and mighty of those times thought
+themselves degraded by this mode of address, as reducing them from a
+plural magnitude to a singular, or individual, or simple station in
+life. "The use of thou, says George Fox, was a sore cut to proud flesh,
+and those who sought self-honour."
+
+George Fox, finding that both he and his followers were thus subject to
+much persecution on this account, thought it right the world should
+know, that, in using this little particle which had given so much
+offence, the Quakers were only doing what every grammarian ought to do,
+if he followed his own rules. Accordingly a Quaker-work was produced,
+which was written to shew that in all languages thou was the proper and
+usual form of speech to a single person, and you to more than one. This
+was exemplified by instances, taken out of the scriptures, and out of
+books of teaching in about thirty languages. Two Quakers of the names of
+John Stubbs and Benjamin Furley, took great pains in compiling it: and
+some additions were made to it by George Fox himself, who was then a
+prisoner in Lancaster castle.
+
+This work, as soon as it was published, was presented to King Charles
+the second, and to his council. Copies of it were also sent to the
+Archbishop of Canterbury, the Bishop of London, and to each of the
+universities. The King delivered his sentiments upon it so far as to
+say, that thou was undoubtedly the proper language of all nations. The
+Archbishop of Canterbury, when he was asked what he thought of it, is
+described to have been so much at a stand, that he could not tell what
+to say. The book was afterwards bought by many. It is said to have
+spread conviction, wherever it went. Hence it had the effect of
+lessening the prejudices of some, so that the Quakers were never
+afterwards treated, on this account, in the same rugged manner as they
+had been before.
+
+But though this book procured the Quakers an amelioration of treatment
+on the amended use of the expression thou, there were individuals in the
+society, who thought they ought to put their defence on a better
+foundation, by stating all the reasons, for there were many besides
+those in this book, which had induced them to differ from their fellow
+citizens on this subject. This was done both by Robert Barclay and
+William Penn in works, which defended other principles of the Quakers,
+and other peculiarities in their language.
+
+One of the arguments, by which the use of the pronoun thou was defended,
+was the same as that, on which it had been defended by Stubbs and
+Furley, that is, its strict conformity with grammar. The translators of
+the Bible had invariably used it. The liturgy had been compiled on the
+same principle. All addresses made by English Christians in their
+private prayers to the Supreme Being, were made in the language of thou,
+and not of you. And this was done, because the rules of the English
+grammar warranted the expression, and because any other mode of
+expression would have been a violation of these rules.
+
+But the great argument (to omit all others) which Penn and Barclay
+insisted upon for the change of you, was that the pronoun thou, in
+addressing an individual, had been anciently in use, but that it had
+been deserted for you for no other purpose, than that of flattery to
+men; and that this dereliction of it was growing greater and greater,
+upon the same principle, in their own times. Hence as christians, who
+were not to puff up the fleshly creature, it became them to return to
+the ancient and grammatical use of the pronoun thou, and to reject this
+growing fashion of the world. "The word you, says William Penn, was
+first ascribed in the way of flattery, to proud Popes and Emperors,
+imitating the heathens vain homage to their gods, thereby ascribing a
+plural honour to a single person; as if one Pope had been made up of
+many gods, and one Emperor of many men; for which reason you, only to be
+addressed to many, became first spoken to one. It seemed the word thou
+looked like too lean and thin a respect; and therefore some, bigger than
+they should be, would have a style suitable to their own ambition."
+
+It will be difficult for those, who now use the word you constantly to a
+single person, and who, in such use of it, never attach any idea of
+flattery to it, to conceive how it ever could have had the origin
+ascribed to it, or, what is more extraordinary, how men could believe
+themselves to be exalted, when others applied to them the word you
+instead of thou. But history affords abundant evidence of the fact.
+
+It is well known that Caligula ordered himself to be worshipped as a
+god. Domitian, after him, gave similar orders with respect to himself.
+In process of time the very statues of the emperors began to be
+worshipped. One blasphemous innovation prepared the way for another. The
+title of Pontifex Maximus gave way at length for those of Eternity,
+Divinity, and the like. Coeval with these appellations was the change of
+the word thou for you, and upon the same principles. These changes,
+however, were not so disagreeable, as they might be expected to have
+been, to the proud Romans; for while they gratified the pride of their
+emperors by these appellations, they made their despotism, in their own
+conceit, more tolerable to themselves. That one man should be lord ever
+many thousand Romans, who were the masters of the world was in itself a
+degrading thought. But they consoled themselves by the haughty
+consideration, that they were yielding obedience, not to man, but to an
+incarnate demon or good genius, or especial envoy from heaven. They
+considered also the emperor as an office, and as an office, including
+and representing many other offices, and hence considering him as a man
+in the plural number, they had less objection to address him in a plural
+manner.
+
+The Quakers, in behalf of their assertions on this subject, quote the
+opinions of several learned men, and of those in particular, who, from
+the nature of their respective writings, had occasion to look into the
+origin and construction of the words and expressions of language.
+
+Howell, in his epistle to the nobility of England before his French and
+English Dictionary, takes notice, "that both in France, and in other
+nations, the word thou was used in speaking of one, but by succession of
+time, when the Roman commonwealth grew into an empire, the courtiers
+began to magnify the emperor, as being furnished with power to confer
+dignities and offices, using the word you, yea, and deifying him with
+more remarkable titles, concerning which matter we read in the epistles
+of Symmachus to the emperors Theodosius and Valentinian, where he useth
+these forms of speaking, Vestra AEternitas, vestrum numen, vestra
+serenitas, vestra Clementia, that is, your, and not thy eternity,
+godhead, serenity, clemency. So that the word you in the plural number,
+together with the other titles and compellations of honour, seem to have
+taken their rise from despotic government, which afterwards, by degrees,
+came to be derived to private persons." He says also in his History of
+France, that "in ancient times, the peasants addressed their kings by
+the appellation of thou, but that pride and flattery first put inferiors
+upon paying a plural respect to the single person of every superior, and
+superiors upon receiving it."
+
+John Maresius, of the French Academy, in the preface to his Clovis,
+speaks much to the same effect. "Let none wonder, says he, that the word
+thou is used in this work to princes and princesses, for we use the same
+to God, and of old the same was used to Alexanders, Caesars, queens, and
+empresses. The use of the word you, when only base flatteries of men of
+later ages, to whom it seemed good to use the plural number to one
+person, that he may imagine himself alone to be equal to many others in
+dignity and worth, from whence it came at last to persons of lower
+quality."
+
+Godeau, in his preface to the translation of the New Testament, makes an
+apology for differing from the customs of the times in the use of thou,
+and intimates that you was substituted for it, as a word of superior
+respect. "I had rather, says he, faithfully keep to the express words of
+Paul, than exactly follow the polished style of our tongue. Therefore I
+always use that form of calling God in the singular number not in the
+plural, and therefore I say rather thou than you. I confess indeed, that
+the civility and custom of this word, requires him to be honored after
+that manner. But it is likewise on the contrary true, that the original
+tongue of the New Testament hath nothing common with such manners and
+civility, so that not one of these many old versions we have doth
+observe it. Let not men believe, that we give not respect enough to God,
+in that we call him by the word thou, which is nevertheless far
+otherwise. For I seem to myself (may be by the effect of custom) more to
+honor his divine majesty, in calling him after this manner, than if I
+should call him after the manner of men, who are so delicate in their
+forms of speech."
+
+Erasmus also in the treatise, which he wrote on the impropriety of
+substituting you for thou, when a person addresses an individual, states
+that this strange substitution originated wholly in the flattery of men.
+
+
+SECT. II.
+
+_Other alterations in the language of the Quakers--they address one
+another by the title of friends--and others by the title of friends and
+neigbours, or by their common names--the use of sir and madam
+abolished--also of master or mister--and of humble servant--also of
+titles of honor--reasons of this abolition--example of Jesus Christ._
+
+
+Another alteration, that took place in the language of the Quakers, was
+the expunging of all expressions from their vocabulary, which were
+either superfluous, or of the same flattering tendency as the former.
+
+In addressing one another, either personally or by letter, they made use
+of the word friend, to signify the bond of their own union, and the
+character, which man, under the christian dispensation, was bound to
+exhibit in his dealings with his fellow-man. They addressed each other
+also, and spoke of each other, by their real names. If a man's name was
+John, they called him John; they talked to him as John, and added only
+his sir-name to distinguish him from others.
+
+In their intercourse with the world they adopted the same mode of
+speech: for they addressed individuals either by their plain names, or
+they made use of the appellations of friends or neighbours.
+
+They rejected the words sir or madam, as then in use. This they did,
+because they considered them like the word you, as remnants of ancient
+flattery, derived from the papal and anti-christian ages; and because
+these words still continued to be considered as tides of flattery, that
+puffed up people in their own times. Howell, who was before quoted on
+the pronoun thou, is usually quoted by the Quakers on this occasion
+also. He states in his history, that "sir and madam were originally
+names given to none, but the king, his brother, and their wives, both in
+France and England. Yet now the ploughman in France is called sir and
+his wife madam; and men of ordinary trades in England sir, and their
+wives dame, which is the legal title of a lady, and is the same as madam
+in French. So prevalent hath pride and flattery been in all ages, the
+one to give, and the other to receive respect"
+
+The Quakers banished also the word master, or mister as it is now
+pronounced, from their language, either when they spoke concerning any
+one, or addressed any one by letter. To have used the word master to a
+person, who was no master over them, would have been, they considered,
+to have indicated a needless servility, and to have given a false
+picture of their own situation, as well as of those addressed.
+
+Upon the same or similar principles they hesitated to subscribe
+themselves as the humble or obedient servants of any one, as is now
+usual, at the bottom of their letters. "Horrid apostacy, says Barclay,
+for it is notorious that the use of these compliments implies not any
+design of service." This expression in particular they reprobated for
+another reason. It was one of those, which had followed the last degree
+of impious services and expressions, which had poured in after the
+statues of the emperors had been worshipped, after the titles of
+eternity and divinity had been ushered in, and after thou had been
+exchanged for you, and it had taken a certain station, and flourished
+among these. Good christians, however, had endeavoured to keep
+themselves clear of such inconsistencies Casaubon has preserved a letter
+of Paulinus, Bishop of Nola, in which he rebukes Sulpicius Severus for
+having subscribed himself "his humble servant." A part of the letter
+runs thus.[39] "Take heed hereafter, how thou, being from a servant
+called unto liberty, dost subscribe thyself servant to one, who is thy
+brother and fellow servant: for it is a sinful flattery, not a testament
+of humility, to pay those honours to a man and to a sinner, which are
+due to the one Lord, one Master, and one God."
+
+[Footnote 39: Paulinus flourished in the year 460. He is reported by
+Paulus Diacenus to have been an exemplary christian. Among other acts he
+is stated to have expended all his revenues in the redemption of
+christian captives; and, at last, when he had nothing left in his purse,
+to have pawned his own person in favour of a widow's son. The
+barbarians, says the same author, struck with this act of unparralleled
+devotion to the cause of the unfortunate, released him, and many
+prisoners with him without ransom.]
+
+The Quakers also banished from the use of their society all those modes
+of expression, which were considered as marks or designations of honour
+among men. Hence, in addressing any peer of the realm, they never used
+the common formula of "my lord," for though the peer in question might
+justly be the lord over many possessions, and tenants, and servants, yet
+he was no lord over their heritages or persons. Neither did they ever
+use the terms excellency, or grace, or honour, upon similar occasions.
+They considered that the bestowing of these titles might bring them
+under the necessity of uttering what might be occasionally false. "For
+the persons, says Barclay, obtaining these titles, either by election or
+hereditarily, may frequently be found to have nothing really in them
+deserving them, or answering to them, as some, to whom it is said your
+excellency may have nothing of excellency in them, and he, who is called
+your grace, may be an enemy to grace, and he, who is called your honour,
+may be base and ignoble." They considered also, that they might be
+setting up the creature, by giving him the titles of the creator, so
+that he might think more highly of himself than he ought, and more
+degradingly than he ought, of the rest of the human race.
+
+But, independently of these moral considerations, they rejected these
+titles, because they believed, that Jesus Christ had set them an example
+by his own declarations and conduct on a certain occasion. When a person
+addressed him by the name of good master, he was rebuked as having done
+an improper thing. [40] "Why, says our Saviour, callest thou me good?
+There is none good but one, that is God." This censure they believe to
+have been passed upon him, because Jesus Christ knew, that when he
+addressed him by this title, he addressed him, not in his divine nature
+or capacity, but only as a man.
+
+[Footnote 40: Matt. xix. 17.]
+
+But Jesus Christ not only refused to receive such titles of distinction
+himself in his human nature, but on another occasion exhorted his
+followers to shun them also. They were not to be like the Scribes and
+Pharisees, who wished for high and eminent distinctions, that is, to be
+called Rabbi Rabbi of men; but says he, "be[41] ye not called Rabbi, for
+one is your master, even Christ, and all ye are brethren;" and he makes
+the desire which he discovered in the Jews, of seeking after worldly
+instead of heavenly honours, to be one cause of their infidelity towards
+Christ,[42] for that such could not believe, as received honour from one
+another, and sought not the honour, which cometh from God only; that is,
+that those persons, who courted earthly honours, could not have that
+humility of mind, that spirit that was to be of no reputation in the
+world, which was essential to those, who wished to become the followers
+of Christ.
+
+[Footnote 41: Matt xxiii. 8.]
+
+[Footnote 42: John. v. 44.]
+
+These considerations, both those of a moral nature, and those of the
+example of Jesus Christ, weighed so much with the early Quakers, that
+they made no exceptions even in favour of those of royal dignity, or of
+the rulers of their own land. George Fox wrote several letters to great
+men. He wrote twice to the king of Poland, three or four tunes to Oliver
+Cromwell, and several times to Charles the second; but he addressed them
+in no other manner man by their plain names, or by simple titles,
+expressive of their situations as rulers or kings.[43]
+
+[Footnote 43: The Quakers never refuse the legal titles in the
+superscription or direction of their letter. They would direct to the
+king, as king: to a peer according to his rank, either as a duke,
+marquis, earl, viscount, or baron: to a clergyman, not as reverend, but
+as clerk.]
+
+These several alterations, which took place in the language of the early
+Quakers, were adopted by their several successors, and are in force in
+the society at the present day.
+
+
+SECT. III.
+
+_Other alterations in the language--the names of the days and months
+altered--reasons for this change--the word saint disused--various new
+phrases introduced_.
+
+
+Another alteration, which took place in the language of the Quakers was
+the disuse of the common names of the days of the week, and of those of
+the months of the year.
+
+The names of the days were considered to be of heathen origin. Sunday
+had been so called by the Saxons, because it was the day, on which they
+sacrificed to the sun. Monday on which they sacrificed to the moon.
+Tuesday to the god Tuisco. Wednesday to the god Woden. Thursday to the
+god Thor, and so on. Now when the Quakers considered that Jehovah had
+forbidden the Israelites to make mention even of the names of other
+gods, they thought it inconsistent in Christians to continue to use the
+names of heathen idols for the common divisions of their time, so that
+these names must be almost always in their mouths. They thought too,
+that they were paying a homage, in continuing the use of them, that
+bordered on idolatry. They considered also as neither Monday, nor
+Tuesday, nor any other of these days, were days, in which these
+sacrifices were now offered, they were using words, which conveyed false
+notions of things. Hence they determined upon the disuse of these words,
+and to put other names in their stead. The numerical way of naming the
+days seemed to them to be the most rational, and the most innocent. They
+called therefore Sunday the first day, Monday the second, Tuesday the
+third, and soon to Saturday, which was of course the seventh. They used
+no other names but these, either in their conversation, or in their
+letters.
+
+Upon the same principles they altered the names of the months also.
+These, such as March and June, which had been so named by the ancient
+Romans, because they were sacred to Mars and Juno, were exploded,
+because they seemed in the use of them to be expressive of a kind of
+idolatrous homage. Others again were exploded, because they were not the
+representatives of the truth. September, for example, means the
+[44]seventh month from the storms. It took this seventh station in the
+kalendar of Romulus, and it designated there its own station as well as
+the reason of its name. But when it[45] lost its place in the kalendar
+by the alteration of the style in England, it lost its meaning. It
+became no representative of its station, nor any representative of the
+truth. For it still continues to signify the seventh month, whereas it
+is made to represent, or to stand in the place of, the ninth. The
+Quakers therefore banished from their language the ancient names of the
+months, and as they thought they could not do better than they had done
+in the case of the days, they placed numerical in their stead. They
+called January the first month, February the second, March the third,
+and so on to December, which they called the twelfth. Thus the Quaker
+kalendar was made up by numerical distinctions, which have continued to
+the present day.
+
+[Footnote 44: Septem ab imbribus.]
+
+[Footnote 45: This was in the year 1752, prior to this time the year
+began on the 25th of March: and therefore September stood in the English
+as in the Roman kalendar. The early Quakers, however, as we find by a
+minute in 1697, had then made these alterations; but when the new style
+was introduced, they published their reasons for having done so.]
+
+Another alteration, which took place very generally in the language of
+the Quakers, was the rejection of the word saint, when they spoke either
+of the apostles, or of the primitive fathers. The papal authority had
+canonized these. This they considered to be an act of idolatry, and they
+thought they should be giving a sanction to superstition, if they
+continued the use of such a title, either in their speech or writings.
+After this various other alterations took place according as individuals
+among them thought it right to expunge old expressions, and to
+substitute new; and these alterations were adopted by the rest, as they
+had an opinion of those who used them, or as they felt the propriety of
+doing it. Hence new phrases came into use, different from those which
+were used by the world on the same occasions; and these were gradually
+spread, till they became incorporated into the language of the society.
+Of these the following examples may suffice.
+
+It is not usual with Quakers to use the words lucky or fortunate, in the
+way in which many others do. If a Quaker had been out on a journey, and
+had experienced a number of fine days, he would never say that he had
+been lucky in his weather. In the same manner if a Quaker had recovered
+from an indisposition, he would never say, in speaking of the
+circumstance, that he had fortunately recovered, but he would say, that
+he had recovered, and "that it was a favour." Luck, chance, or fortune,
+are allowed by the Quakers to have no power in the settlement of human
+affairs.
+
+It is not usual with Quakers to beg ten thousand pardons, as some of the
+world do, for any little mistake. A Quaker generally on such an occasion
+asks a persons excuse.
+
+The Quakers never make use of the expression "christian name." This name
+is called christian by the world, because it is the name given to
+children in baptism, or in other words, when they are christened, or
+when they are initiated as christians. But the Quakers are never
+baptised. They have no belief that water-baptism can make a christian,
+or that it is any true mark of membership with the christian church.
+Hence a man's christian name is called by them his first name, because
+it is the first of the two, or of any other number of names, that may
+belong to him.
+
+The Quakers, on meeting a person, never say "good morrow," because all
+days are equally good. Nor in parting with a person at night, do they
+say "good evening," for a similar reason, but they make use of the
+expression of "farewell."
+
+I might proceed, till I made a little vocabulary of Quaker-expressions;
+but this is not necessary, and it is not at all consistent with my
+design. I shall therefore only observe, that it is expected of Quakers,
+that they should use the language of the society; that they should
+substitute thou for you; that they should discard all flattering titles
+and expressions; and that they should adopt the numerical, instead of
+the heathen names, of the days and months. George Fox gave the example
+himself in all these instances. Those of the society, who depart from
+this usage, are said by the Quakers to depart from "the plain language."
+
+
+SECT. IV.
+
+_Great objections by the world against the preceding alterations by the
+Quakers--first against the use of thou for you--you said to be no longer
+a mark of flattery--the use of it is said to be connected often with
+false Grammar--Custom said to give it, like a noun of number, a singular
+as well as plural Meaning--Consideration of these objections._
+
+
+There will be no difficulty in imagining, if the Quakers have found
+fault with the words and expressions adopted by others, and these the
+great majority of the world, that the world will scrutinize, and find
+fault with, those of the Quakers in return. This in fact has turned out
+to be the case.--And I know of no subject, except that of dress, where
+the world have been more lavish of their censures, than in that before
+us.
+
+When the Quakers first appeared as a religious community, many
+objections were thrown but against the peculiarities of their language.
+These were noticed by Robert Barclay and William Penn. But, since that
+time, other objections have been started. But as these have not been
+published (for they remain where they have usually been, in the mouths
+of living persons) Quaker writers have not felt themselves called upon
+to attempt to answer them. These objections, however, of both
+descriptions, I shall notice in the present place.
+
+As the change of the pronoun thou for you was the first article, that I
+brought forward on the subject of the language of the Quakers, I shall
+begin with the objections, that are usually started against it.
+
+"Singularity, it is said, should always be avoided, if it can be done
+with a clear conscience. The Quakers might have had honest scruples
+against you for thou, when you was a mark of flattery. But they can have
+no reasonable scruples now, and therefore they should cease to be
+singular, for the word you is clearly no mark of flattery at the present
+day. However improper it might once have been, it is now an innocent
+synonime."
+
+"The use again of the word thou for you, as insisted upon by the
+Quakers, leads them frequently into false grammar. 'Thee knowest,' and
+terms like these, are not unusual in Quaker mouths. Now the Quakers,
+though they defended the word thou for you on the notion, that they
+ought not to accustom their lips to flattery, defended it also
+strenuously on the notion, that they were strictly adhering to
+grammar-rules. But all such terms as 'thee knowest,' and others of a
+similar kind, must recoil upon themselves as incorrect, and as
+censurable, even upon their own ground."
+
+"The word you again may be considered as a singular, as well as a plural
+expression. The world use it in this manner. And who are the makers of
+language, but the world? Words change their meaning, as the leaves their
+colour in autumn, and custom has always been found powerful enough to
+give authority for a change."
+
+With respect to these objections, it may be observed, that the word you
+has certainly so far lost its meaning, as to be no longer a mark of
+flattery. The Quakers also are occasionally found in the use of the
+ungrammatical expressions, that have been brought against them. And
+unquestionably, except they mean to give up the grammatical part of the
+defence by Penn and Barclay, these ought to be done away. That you,
+however, is of the singular number, is not quite so clear. For while
+thou is used in the singular number in the Bible, and in the liturgy,
+and in the prayers of individuals, and while it is the language, as it
+is, of a great portion of the inhabitants of the northern part of the
+kingdom, it will be a standing monument against the usurpation and
+mutilated dominion of you.
+
+
+SECT. V.
+
+_Secondly against the words friend and neighbour, as used by the
+Quakers--Quakers also said to be wrong in their disuse of titles--for
+the use of these is sanctioned by St. Luke and St. Paul--answer of
+Barclay to the latter assertion--this answer not generally deemed
+satisfactory--observations upon the subject in dispute._
+
+
+The subject, that comes next in order, will be that of the objections,
+that are usually made against certain terms used by the Quakers, and
+against their disuse of titles of honour, as sanctioned by the world.
+
+On the use of the words "friend, and neighbour," it is usually observed,
+that these are too limited in their meaning, to be always, if used
+promiscuously, representatives of the truth. If the Quakers are so nice,
+that they will use no expression, that is not precisely true, they
+should invent additional terms, which should express the relative
+condition of those, with whom they converse. The word "friend" denotes
+esteem, and the word "neighbour" proximity of dwelling. But all the
+persons, to whom the Quakers address themselves, are not persons, whom
+they love and respect, or who are the inhabitants of the same
+neighbourhood with themselves. There is, it is said, as much untruth in
+calling a man friend, or neighbour, who is not so, as excellency, in
+whom there may be nothing that is excellent.
+
+The Quakers, in reply to this, would observe, that they use the word
+friend, as significative of their own union, and, when they speak to
+others, as significative of their Christian relation to one another. In
+the same sense they use the word neighbour. Jesus Christ, when the
+lawyer asked him who was his neighbour, gave him a short[46] history of
+the Samaritan, who fell among thieves; from which he suggested on
+inference, that the term neighbour was not confined to those, who lived
+near one another, or belonged to the same sect, but that it might extend
+to those, who lived at a distance, and to the Samaritan equally with the
+Jew. In the same manner he considered all men as[47] brethren. That is,
+they were thus scripturally related to one another.
+
+[Footnote 46: Luke x. 39.]
+
+[Footnote 47: Matt, xxiii. 8.]
+
+Another objection which has been raised against the Quakers on this
+part of the subject, is levelled against their disuse of the titles of
+honour of the world. St. Luke, it has been said, makes use of the terms
+most excellent, when he addresses Theophilus, and St. Paul of the words
+most noble, when he addresses Festus. Now the teachers and promulgators
+of christianity would never have given these titles, if they had not
+been allowable by the gospel.
+
+As this last argument was used in the time of Barclay, he has noticed it
+in his celebrated apology.--"Since Luke, says he, wrote by the dictates
+of the infallible spirit of God, I think it will not be doubted but
+Theophilus did deserve it, as being really endued with that virtue; in
+which case we shall not condemn those, who do it by the same rule. But
+it is not proved, that Luke gave Theophilus this title, as that which
+was inherent to him, either by his father, or by any patent Theophilus
+had obtained from any of the princes of the earth, or that he would have
+given it to him, in case he had not been truly excellent; and without
+this be proved, which never can, there can nothing hence be deduced
+against us. The like may be said of that of Paul to Festus, whom he
+would not have called such, if he had not been truly noble; as indeed he
+was, in that he suffered him to be heard in his own cause, and would not
+give way to the fury of the Jews against him. It was not because of any
+outward title bestowed upon Festus, that he so called him, else he would
+have given the same compilation to his predecessor Felix, who had the
+same office, but being a covetous man we find he gives him no such
+title."
+
+This is the answer of Barclay. It has not however been deemed quite
+satisfactory by the world. It has been observed that one good action
+will never give a man a right to a general title. This is undoubtedly an
+observation of some weight. But it must be contended on the other hand,
+that both Luke and Paul must have been apprised that the religion, they
+were so strenuous in propagating, required every man to speak the truth.
+They must have been apprised also, that it inculcated humility of mind.
+And it is probable therefore that they would never have bestowed titles
+upon men, which should have been false in their application, or
+productive of vanity and pride. St. Luke could not be otherwise than
+aware of the answer of Jesus Christ, when he rebuked the person for
+giving him the title of good, because he was one of the evangelists,
+who[48] recorded it, and St. Paul could not have been otherwise than
+aware of it also, on account of his intimacy with St. Luke, as well as
+from other causes.
+
+[Footnote 48: Luke xviii, 18.]
+
+Neither has this answer been considered as satisfactory for another
+reason. It has been presumed that the expressions of excellent and of
+noble were established titles of rank, and if an evangelist and an
+apostle used them, they could not be objectionable if used by others.
+But let us admit for a moment, that they were titles of rank. How
+happens it that St. Paul, when he was before Festus, and not in a
+judicial capacity (for he had been reserved for Caesar's tribunal)
+should have given him this epithet of noble; and that, when summoned
+before Felix, and this in a judicial capacity, he should have omitted
+it? This application of it to the one and not to the other, either
+implies that it was no title, or, if it was a title as we have supposed,
+that St. Paul had some reason for this partial use of it. And in this
+case, no better reason can be given, than that suggested by Barclay. St.
+Paul knew that Festus had done his duty. He knew, on the other hand, the
+abandoned character of Felix. The latter was then living, as Josephus
+relates, in open adultery with Drusilla, who had been married to Azis,
+and brought away from her husband by the help of Simon a Magician; and
+this circumstance probably gave occasion to Paul to dwell upon
+temperance, or continence as the word might be rendered, among other
+subjects, when he made Felix tremble. But, besides this, he must have
+known the general character of a man, of whom Tacitus complained, that
+"his government was distinguished by[49] servility and every species of
+cruelty and lust."--
+
+[Footnote 49: "Per omnem Saevitiam et Libidinem jus regium servili
+ingenio exercuit."]
+
+If therefore the epithet of noble was an established title for those
+Romans, who held the government of Judea, the giving of it to one, and
+the omission of it to the other, would probably shew the discrimination
+of St. Paul as a Christian, that he had no objection to give it, where
+it could be applied with truth, but that he refused it, when it was not
+applicable to the living character.
+
+But that the expression of excellent or of noble was any title at all,
+there is no evidence to shew. And first, let us examine the word, which
+was used upon this occasion. The [50]original Greek word has no meaning
+as a title in any Lexicon that I have seen. It relates both to personal
+and civil power, and in a secondary sense, to the strength and
+disposition of the mind. It occurs but in four places in the New
+Testament. In two of these it is translated excellent and in the others
+noble. But Gilbert Wakefield, one of our best scholars has expunged the
+word noble, and substituted excellent throughout. Indeed of all the
+meanings of this word noble is the least proper. No judgment therefore
+can be pronounced in favour of a title by any analysis of the word.
+
+[Footnote 50: [Greek: kralistos]]
+
+Let us now examine it as used by St. Luke. And here almost every
+consideration makes against it, as an established title. In the first
+place, the wisest commentators do not know who Theophilus was. It has
+been supposed by many learned fathers, such as Epephanius, Salvian, and
+others, that St. Luke, in addressing his gospel to Theophilus, addressed
+it as the words, "excellent Theophilus" import, to every "firm lover of
+God," or, if St. Luke uses the style of [51]Athanasius, to "every good
+Christian." But on a supposition that Theophilus had been a living
+character, and a man in power, the use of the epithet is against it as a
+title of rank; because St. Luke gives it to Theophilus in the beginning
+of his gospel, and does not give it to him, when he addresses him in the
+acts. If therefore he had addressed him in this manner, because
+excellent was his proper title, on one occasion, it would have been a
+kind of legal, and at any rate a disrespectful omission, not to have
+given it to him on the other. With respect to the term noble as used by
+St. Paul to Festus, the sense of it must be determined by general as
+well as by particular considerations. There are two circumstances, which
+at the first sight make in favour of it as a title,[52]Lysias addresses
+his letter to the "most excellent Felix," and the orator [53]Tertullus
+says, "we except it always and in all places most noble Felix!" But
+there must be some drawback from the latter circumstance, as an argument
+of weight. There is reason to suppose that this expression was used by
+Tertullus, as a piece of flattery, to compass the death of Paul; for it
+is of a piece with the other expressions which he used, when he talked
+of the worthy deeds done by the providence of so detestable a wretch,
+as Felix. And it will always be an objection to noble as a legal title,
+that St. Paul gave it to one governor, and omitted it to another, except
+he did it for the reasons, that have been before described. To this it
+may be added, that legal titles of eminence were not then, as at this
+time of day, in use. Agrippa had no other, or at least Paul gave him no
+other title, than that of king. If Porcius Festus had been descended
+from a Patrician, or had had the statues of his ancestors, he might, on
+these accounts, be said to have been of a noble family. But we know,
+that nobody on this account, would have addressed him as noble in those
+days, either by speech or letter. The first Roman, who was ever honoured
+with a legal title, as a title of distinction, was Octavius, upon whom
+the senate, but a few years before the birth of Paul, had conferred the
+name of Augustus. But no procurator of a province took this title.
+Neither does it appear that the circumstance gave birth to inferior
+titles to those in inferior offices in the government. And indeed on the
+title "Augustus" it may be observed, that though it followed the
+successors of Octavius, it was but sparingly used, being mostly used on
+medals, monumental pillars, and in public acts of the state. Pliny, in
+his letters to Trajan, though reputed an excellent prince, addressed him
+as only sir or master, and he wrote many years after the death of Paul.
+Athenagoras, in addressing his book, in times posterior to these, to the
+emperors M. Aurelius Antoninus, and L. Aurelius Commodus, addresses
+them only by the title of "great princes." In short titles were not in
+use. They did not creep in, so as to be commonly used, till after the
+statues of the emperors had begun to be worshipped by the military as a
+legal and accustomary homage. The terms "eternity and divinity" with
+others were then ushered in, but these were confined wholly to the
+emperors themselves. In the time of Constantine we find the title of
+illustrious. This was given to those princes, who had distinguished
+themselves in war, but it was not continued to their descendants. In
+process of time, however, it became more common, and the son of every
+prince began to be called illustrious.
+
+[Footnote 51: [Greek: makarios] and [Greek: philochrisos] are
+substituted by Athanasius for the word christian.]
+
+[Footnote 52: Acts, xxiii, 26.]
+
+[Footnote 53: Acts, xxiv. 3.]
+
+
+SECT. VI.
+
+_Thirdly against the alteration of the names of the days and
+months--people, it is said do not necessarily pay homage to Idols, who
+continue in the use of the ancient names--if the Quaker principles also
+were generally adopted on this subject, language would be thrown into
+confusion--Quakers also, by attempting to steer clear of Idolatry, fall
+into it--replies of the Quakers to these objections._
+
+
+The next objections for consideration, which are made against the
+language of the Quakers, are those which relate to their alteration of
+the names of the days and the months. These objections are commonly
+made, when the language of the Quakers becomes a subject of conversation
+with the world.
+
+"There is great absurdity, it is said, in supposing, that persons pay
+any respect to heathen idols, who retain the use of the ancient names of
+the divisions of time. How many thousands are there, who know nothing of
+their origin? The common people of the country know none of the reasons,
+why the months, and the days are called as they are. The middle classes
+are mostly ignorant of the same. Those, who are well informed on the
+subject, never once think, when they mention the months and days, on the
+reason of the rise of their names. Indeed the almost hourly use of
+those names secures the oblivion of their origin. Who, when he speaks of
+Wednesday and Thursday, thinks that these were the days sacred to Woden
+and Thor? but there can be no idolatry, where there is no intention to
+idolize."
+
+"Great weakness, it is said again, is manifested by the Quakers, in
+quarrelling with a few words in the language, and in living at peace
+with others, which are equally objectionable. Every reason, it is said,
+must be a weak one, which is not universal. But if some of the reasons,
+given by the Quakers, were universally applied, they would throw
+language into as much confusion as the builders of Babel. The word Smith
+for example, which is the common name of many families, ought to be
+objected to by this rule, if the person, to whom it belongs, happens to
+be a carpenter. And the word carpenter which is likewise a family-name,
+ought to be objected to, if the person so called should happen to be a
+smith. And, in this case, men would be obliged to draw lots for numbers,
+and to be called by the numerical ticket, which they should draw."
+
+"It is objected again to the Quakers, that, by attempting to steer clear
+of idolatry, they fall into it. The Quakers are considered to be genuine
+idolaters, in this case. The blind pagan imagined a moral being, either
+heavenly or infernal, to inhere in a log of wood or a block of stone.
+The Quakers, in like manner, imagine a moral being, truth or falsehood,
+to exist in a lifeless word, and this independently of the sense in
+which it is spoken, and in which it is known that it will be understood.
+What is this, it is said, but a species of idolatry and a degrading
+superstition?"
+
+The Quakers would reply to these observations, first, that they do not
+charge others with idolatry, in the use of these names, who know nothing
+of their origin, or who feel no impropriety in their use.
+
+Secondly, that if the principle, upon which they found their alterations
+in language, cannot, on account of existing circumstances, be followed
+in all cases, there is no reason, why it should not be followed, where
+it can. In the names of men it would be impossible to adopt it. Old
+people are going off, and young people are coming up, and people of all
+descriptions are themselves changing, and a change of names to suit
+every persons condition, and qualification, would be impossible.
+
+Thirdly, that they pay no more homage or obeisance to words, than the
+obeisance of truth. There is always a propriety in truth, and an
+impropriety in falsehood. And in proportion as the names of things
+accord with their essences, qualities, properties, character, and the
+like, they are more or less proper. September, for example, is not an
+appropriate name, if its meaning be enquired into, for the month which
+it represents: but the ninth month is, and the latter appellation will
+stand the test of the strictest enquiry.
+
+They would say again that this, as well as the other alterations in
+their language has had a moral influence on the society, and has been
+productive of moral good. In the same manner as the dress, which they
+received from their ancestors has operated as a guardian, or
+preservative of virtue, so has the language which they received from
+them also. The language has made the world overseers of the conduct of
+the society. A Quaker is known by his language as much as by his dress.
+It operates, by discovering him, as a check upon his actions. It keeps
+him also, like the dress distinct from others. And the Quakers believe,
+that they can never keep up their Christian discipline, except they keep
+clear of the spirit of the world. Hence it has been considered as of
+great importance to keep up the plain language; and this importance has
+been further manifested by circumstances, that have taken place within
+the pale of the society. For in the same manner as those, who begin to
+depart from the simplicity of dress, are generally in the way to go off
+among the world, so are those who depart from the simplicity of the
+language. Each deviation is a sign of a temper for desertion. Each
+deviation brings them in appearance nearer to the world. But the nearer
+they resemble the world in this respect, the more they are found to mix
+with it. They are of course the more likely to be seduced from the
+wholesome prohibitions of the society. The language therefore of the
+Quakers has grown up insensibly as a wall of partition, which could not
+now, it is contended, be taken away without endangering the innocence of
+their youth.
+
+
+SECT. VII.
+
+_Advantages and disadvantages of the system of the Quaker,
+language--disadvantages are that it may lead to superstition--and
+hypocrisy--advantages are that it excludes flattery--is founded upon
+truth--promotes truth, and correctness in the expression of
+ideas--observation of Hobbes--would be the most perfect model for a
+universal calendar--the use or disuse of this system may either of them
+be made useful to morality._
+
+
+I have now given to the reader the objections, that are usually made to
+the alterations, which the Quakers have introduced into the language of
+the country, as well as the replies, which the Quakers would make to
+these objections. I shall solicit the continuance of his patience a
+little longer, or till I have made a few remarks of my own upon this
+subject.
+
+It certainly becomes people, who introduce great peculiarities into
+their system, to be careful, that they are well founded, and to consider
+how far they may bring their minds into bondage, or what moral effects
+they may produce on their diameter in a course of time.
+
+On the reformed language of the Quakers it may be observed, that both
+advantages and disadvantages may follow according to the due or undue
+estimation in which individuals may hold it.
+
+If individuals should lay too great a stress upon language, that is, if
+they should carry their prejudices so far against outward and lifeless
+words, that they should not dare to pronounce them, and this as a matter
+of religion, they are certainly in the way of becoming superstitious,
+and of losing the dignified independence of their minds.
+
+If again they should put an undue estimate upon language, so as to
+consider it as a criterion of religious purity, they may be encouraging
+the growth of hypocrisy within their own precincts. For if the use of
+this reformed language be considered as an essential of religion, that
+is, if men are highly thought of in proportion as they conform to it
+rigidly, it may be a covering to many to neglect the weightier matters
+of righteousness; at least the fulfilling of such minor duties may
+shield them from the suspicion of neglecting the greater: and if they
+should be reported as erring in the latter case, their crime would be
+less credited under their observance of these minutiae of the law.
+
+These effects are likely to result to the society, if the peculiarities
+of their language be insisted on beyond their due bounds. But, on the
+other hand, it must be confessed, that advantages are likely to follow
+from the same system, which are of great importance in themselves, and
+which may be set off as a counterbalance to the disadvantages described.
+
+The Quakers may say, and this with the greatest truth, "we have never
+cringed or stooped below the dignity of men. We have never been guilty
+of base flattery; we have never been instrumental in raising the
+creature, with whom we have conversed, above his condition, so that in
+the imagination of his own consequence, he should lose sight of his
+dependence on the Supreme Being, or treat his fellow-men, because they
+should happen to be below him, as worms or reptiles of the earth."
+
+They may say also that the system of their language originated in the
+purest motives, and that it is founded on the sacred basis of truth.
+
+It may be said also, that the habits of caution which the different
+peculiarities in their language have introduced and interwoven into
+their constitution, have taught them particularly to respect the truth,
+and to aim at it in all their expressions whether in speech or letters,
+and that it has given them a peculiar correctness in the expression of
+their ideas, which they would scarcely have had by means of the ordinary
+education of the world. Hobbes says[54] "animadverte, quam sit ab
+improprietate verborum pronum hominibus prolabi in errores circa res,"
+or "how prone men are to fall into errors about things, when they use
+improper expressions." The converse of this proposition may be observed
+to be true with respect to the Quakers, or it may be observed, that the
+study of proper expressions has given them correct conceptions of
+things, and has had an influence in favor of truth. There are no people,
+though the common notion may be otherwise, who speak so accurately as
+the Quakers, or whose letters, if examined on any subject, would be so
+free from any double meaning, so little liable to be mistaken, and so
+easy to be understood.
+
+[Footnote 54: Hobbesii Examen. et Emend. Hod. Math. P. 55. Edit.
+Amstel.]
+
+It may be observed also on the language of the Quakers, that is, on that
+part of it, which relates to the alteration of the names of the months
+and days, that this alteration would form the most perfect model for an
+universal calendar of any that has yet appeared in the world. The French
+nation chose to alter their calendar, and, to make it useful to
+husbandry, they designated their months, so that they should be
+representatives of the different seasons of the year. They called them
+snowy, and windy, and harvest, and vintage-months, and the like. But in
+so large a territory, as that of France, these new designations were not
+the representatives of the truth. The northern and southern parts were
+not alike in their climate. Much less could these designations speak
+the truth for other parts of the world: whereas numerical appellations
+might be adopted with truth, and be attended with usefulness to all the
+nations of the world, who divided their time in the same manner.
+
+On the latter subject of the names of the days and months, the
+alteration of which is considered as the most objectionable by the
+world, I shall only observe, that, if the Quakers have religious
+scruples concerning them, it is their duty to persevere in the disuse of
+them. Those of the world, on the other hand, who have no such scruples,
+are under no obligation to follow their example. And in the same manner
+as the Quakers convert the disuse of these ancient terms to the
+improvement of their moral character, so those of the world may convert
+the use of them to a moral purpose. Man is a reasonable, and moral
+being, and capable of moral improvement; and this improvement may be
+made to proceed from apparently worthless causes. If we were to find
+crosses or other Roman-Catholic relics fixed in the walls of our places
+of worship, why should we displace them? Why should we not rather suffer
+them to remain, to put us in mind of the necessity of thankfulness for
+the reformation in our religion? If again we were to find an altar,
+which had been sacred to Moloc, but which had been turned into a
+stepping stone, to help the aged and infirm upon their horses, why
+should we destroy it? Might it not be made useful to our morality, as
+far as it could be made to excite sorrow for the past and gratitude for
+the present? And in the same manner might it not be edifying to retain
+the use of the ancient names of the days and months? Might not thankful
+feelings be excited in our hearts, that the crime of idolatry had ceased
+among us, and that the only remnant of it was a useful signature of the
+times? In fact, if it be the tendency of the corrupt part of our nature
+to render innocent things vicious, it is, on the other hand, in the
+essence of our nature, to render vicious things in process of time
+innocent; so that the remnants of idolatry and superstition may be made
+subservient to the moral improvement of mankind.
+
+
+
+
+CHAP. IV.
+
+_Address--all nations have used ceremonies of address--George Fox bears
+his testimony against those in use in his own times--sufferings of the
+Quakers on this account--makes no exception in favor of royalty--his
+dispute with Judge Glynn--modern Quakers follow his example--use no
+ceremonies even to majesty--various reasons for their disuse of them._
+
+
+All nations have been in the habit of using outward gestures or
+ceremonies, as marks of affection, obeisance or respect. And these
+outward ceremonies have been different from one another, so much so,
+that those, which have been adjudged to be suitable emblems of certain
+affections or dispositions of the mind among one people, would have been
+considered as very improper emblems of the same, and would have been
+even thought ridiculous by another, yet all nations have supposed, that
+they employed the most rational modes for these purposes. And indeed,
+there were probably none of these outward gestures and ceremonies,
+which, in their beginning, would not have admitted of a reasonable
+defence while they continued to convey to the minds of those, who
+adopted them, the objects, for which they were intended, or while those,
+who used them, persevered with sincerity in their use, little or no
+objection could be made to them by the moralist. But as soon as the ends
+of their institution were lost, or they were used without any
+appropriate feeling of the heart, they became empty civilities, and
+little better than mockery or grimace.
+
+The customs of this sort, which obtained in the time of George Fox, were
+similar to those, which are now in use on similar occasions. People
+pulled off their hats, and bowed, and scraped with their feet. And these
+things they did, as marks of civility, friendship, or respect to one
+another.
+
+George Fox was greatly grieved about these idle ceremonies. He lamented
+that men should degrade themselves by the use of them, and that they
+should encourage habits, that were abhorrent of the truth. His feelings
+were so strong upon this subject, that he felt himself called upon to
+bear his testimony against them. Accordingly he never submitted to them
+himself, and those, who received his religious doctrines, followed his
+example.
+
+The omission of these ceremonies, however, procured both for him and his
+followers, as had been the case in the change of thou for you, much
+ill-will, and harsh treatment. The Quakers were derided and abused.
+Their hats were taken forcibly from their heads, and thrown away. They
+were beaten and imprisoned on this sole account. And so far did the
+world carry their resentment towards them for the omission of these
+little ceremonies, that they refused for some time to deal with them as
+tradesmen, or to buy things at their shops, so that some Quakers could
+hardly get money enough to buy themselves bread.
+
+George Fox, however, and his associates, persevered, notwithstanding
+this ill usage, in the disuse of all honours, either by the moving of
+the hat, or the usual bendings of the body; and as that, which was a
+right custom for one, was a right one for another, they made no
+exception even in favour of the chief magistrate of the land. George
+Fox, when he visited Oliver Cromwell as protector, never pulled off his
+hat; and it is remarkable that the protector was not angry with him for
+it.
+
+Neither did he pull off his hat to the judges at any time,
+notwithstanding he was so often brought before them. Controversies
+sometimes took place between him and them in the public court, upon
+these occasions, one of which I shall notice, as it marks the manner of
+conducting the jurisprudence of those times.
+
+When George Fox, and two other friends, were brought out of Launceston
+gaol, to be tried before judge Glynn, who was then chief justice of
+England, they came into court with their hats on. The judge asked them
+the reason of this, but they said nothing. He then told them, that the
+court commanded them to pull off their hats. Upon this George Fox
+addressed them in the following manner. "Where, says he, did ever any
+magistrate, king or judge, from Moses to Daniel, command any to put off
+their hats, when they came before them in their courts, either amongst
+the Jews, who were God's people, or among the heathen? And if the law of
+England doth command any such thing, shew me that law, either written or
+printed." Judge Glynn upon this grew angry, and replied, that "he did
+not carry his law-books upon his back." But says George Fox, "tell me
+where it is printed in any statute-book, that I may read it" The judge,
+in a vulgar manner, ordered him away, and he was accordingly taken away,
+and put among thieves. The judge, however, in a short time afterwards
+ordered him up again, and, on his return put to him the following
+question, "Come, says he, where had they hats from Moses to Daniel?
+Come, answer me. I have you fast now." George. Fox replied, that "he
+might read in the third chapter of Daniel, that the three children were
+cast into the fiery furnace by Nebuchadnezzar's command, with their
+coats, their hose, and their hats on." The repetition of this apposite
+text stopped the judge from any farther comments on the custom, and he
+ordered him and his companions to be taken away again. And they were
+accordingly taken away and they were thrust again among thieves. In
+process of time, however, this custom of the Quakers began to be known
+among the judges, who so far respected their scruples, as to take care
+that their hats should be taken off in future in the courts.
+
+These omissions of the ceremonies of the world, as begun by the
+primitive Quakers, are continued by the modern. They neither bow nor
+scrape, nor pull off their hats to any, by way of civility or respect,
+and they carry their principles, like their predecessors, so far, that
+they observe none of these exterior parts of politeness even in the
+presence of royalty. The Quakers are in the habit on particular
+occasions of sending deputies to the king. And it is remarkable that his
+present majesty always sees them himself, if he be well, and not by
+proxy. Notwithstanding this, no one in the deputation ever pulls off his
+hat. Those, however, who are in waiting in the anti-chamber, knowing
+this custom of the Quakers, take their hats from their heads, before
+they enter the room, where the king is. On entering the room, they
+neither bow nor scrape, nor kneel, and as this ceremony cannot be
+performed for them by others, they go into the royal presence in a less
+servile, or more dignified manner, than either the representatives of
+sovereigns, or those, who have humbled nations by the achievement of
+great victories.
+
+The ground, upon which the Quakers decline the use of the ordinary
+ceremonies just mentioned, is, the honours are the honours of the world.
+Now, as that these of the world, they consider them as objectionable on
+several accounts.
+
+First, they are no more the criterions of obeisance and respect, than
+mourning garments are the criterions of sorrow. But Christianity is
+never satisfied but with the truth. It forbids all false appearances. It
+allows no image to be held out, that is not a faithful picture of its
+original, or no action to be resorted to, that is not correspondent with
+the feelings of the heart.
+
+In the second place the Quakers presume, that, as honours of the world,
+all such ceremonies are generally of a complimentary nature. No one bows
+to a poor man. But almost every one to the rich, and the rich to one
+another. Hence bowing is as much a species of flattery through the
+medium of the body, as the giving of undeserved titles through the
+medium of the tongue.
+
+As honours of the world again the Quakers think them censurable, because
+all such honours were censured by Jesus Christ. On the occasion, on
+which he exhorted his followers not to be like the Scribes and
+Pharisees, and to seek flattering titles, so as to be called Rabbi Rabbi
+of man, he exhorted them to avoid all ceremonious salutations, such as
+greetings in the market-places. He couples the two different customs of
+flattering titles and salutations in the same sentence, and mentions
+them in the same breath. And though the word "greetings" does not
+perhaps precisely mean those bowings and scrapings, which are used at
+the present day, yet it means, both according to its derivation and the
+nature of the Jewish customs, those outward personal actions or
+gestures, which were used as complimentary to the Jewish world.
+
+With respect to the pulling off the hat the Quakers have an additional
+objection to this custom, quite distinct from the objections, that have
+been mentioned above. Every minister in the Quaker society takes off his
+hat, either when he preaches, or when he prays. St Paul[55] enjoins this
+custom. But if they take off their hats, that is, uncover their heads,
+as an outward act enjoined in the service of God, they cannot with any
+propriety take them off, or uncover their heads to men, because they
+would be giving to the creature the same outward honour which they give
+to the creator. And in this custom they conceive the world to be
+peculiarly inconsistent. For men go into their churches, and into their
+meetings, and pull off their hats, or uncover their heads, for the same
+reason as the Quaker-ministers when they pray (for no other reason can
+be assigned) and, when they come out of their respective places of
+worship, they uncover them again on every trivial occasion, to those
+whom they meet, using to man the same outward mark of homage, as they
+had just given to God.
+
+[Footnote 55: 1 Cor. Chap. xi.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAP. V.
+
+_Manners and conversation--Quakers esteemed reserved--this an
+appearance owing to their education--their hospitality in their own
+houses--the freedom allowed and taken--their conversation
+limited--politics generally excluded--subjects of conversation examined
+in our towns--also in the metropolis--no such subjects among the
+Quakers--their conversation more dignified--extraordinary circumstance
+that takes place occasionally in the company of the Quakers._
+
+
+The Quakers are generally supposed to be a stiff and reserved people,
+and to be a people of severe and uncourteous manners. I confess there is
+something in their appearance that will justify the supposition in the
+eyes of strangers, and of such as do not know them: I mean of such, as
+just see them occasionally out of doors, but do not mix with them in
+their own houses.
+
+It cannot be expected that persons, educated like the Quakers, should
+assimilate much in their manners to other people. The very dress they
+wear, which is so different from that of others, would give them a stiff
+appearance in the eyes of the world, if nothing else could be found to
+contribute towards it. Excluded also from much intercourse with the
+world, and separated at a vast distance from it by the singularity of
+many of their customs, they would naturally appear to others to be close
+and reserved. Neither is it to be expected that those, whose spirits
+are never animated by music, or enlivened by the exhibitions of the
+theatre, or the diversions which others follow, would have other than
+countenances that were grave. Their discipline also, which calls them so
+frequently to important duties, and the dispatch of serious business,
+would produce the same feature. I may observe also, that a peculiarity
+of gait, which might be mistaken for awkwardness, might not unreasonably
+be expected in those, who had neither learned to walk under the guidance
+of a dancing, master, nor to bow under the direction of the dominion of
+fashion. If those and those only are to be esteemed really polished and
+courteous, who bow and scrape, and salute each other by certain
+prescribed gestures, then the Quakers will appear to have contracted
+much rust, and to have an indisputable right to the title of a clownish
+and inflexible people.
+
+I must observe however that these appearances, though they may be
+substantial in the estimation of those who do not know them, gradually
+vanish with those, who do. Their hospitality in their own houses, and
+their great attention and kindness, soon force out of sight all ideas of
+uncourteousness. Their freedom also soon annihilates those of stiffness
+and reserve. Their manners, though they have not the polished surface of
+those which are usually attached to fashionable life, are agreeable,
+when known.
+
+There is one trait in the Quaker-manners, which runs through the whole
+society, as far as I have seen in their houses, and which is worthy of
+mention. The Quakers appear to be particularly gratified, when those,
+who visit them, ask for what they want. Instead of considering this as
+rudeness or intrusion, they esteem it as a favour done them. The
+circumstance of asking, on such an occasion, is to them a proof, that
+there visitors feel themselves at home. Indeed they almost always desire
+a stranger who has been introduced to them "to be free." This is their
+usual expression. And if he assures them that he will, and if they find
+him asking for what he wishes to have, you may perceive in their
+countenances the pleasure, which his conduct has given them. They
+consider him, when he has used this freedom, to have acted as they
+express it "kindly." Nothing can be more truly polite than that conduct
+to another, by which he shall be induced to feel himself as comfortably
+situated, as if he were in his own house.
+
+As the Quakers desire their visitors to be free, and to do as they
+please, so they do not fail to do the same themselves, never regarding
+such visitors as impediments in the way of their concerns. If they have
+any business or engagement out of doors, they say so and go, using no
+ceremony, and but few words as an apology. Their visitors, I mean such
+as stay for a time in their houses, are left in the interim to amuse
+themselves as they please. This is peculiarly agreeable, because their
+friends know, when they visit them, that they neither restrain, nor
+shackle, nor put them to inconvenience. In fact it may be truly said
+that if satisfaction in visiting depends upon a man's own freedom to do
+as he likes, to ask and to call for what he wants, to go out and come in
+as he pleases; and if it depends also on the knowledge he has, that, in
+doing all these things, he puts no person out of his way, there are no
+houses, where people will be better pleased with their treatment, than
+in those of the Quakers.
+
+This trait in the character of the Quakers is very general. I would not
+pretend, however, to call it universal. But it is quite general enough
+to be pronounced a feature in their domestic character. I do not mean by
+the mention of it, to apologize, in any manner for the ruggedness of
+manners of some Quakers. There are undoubtedly solitary families, which
+having lived in places, where there have been scarcely any of their own
+society with whom to associate, and which, having scarcely mixed with
+others of other denominations except in the way of trade, have an
+uncourteousness, ingrafted in them as it were by these circumstances,
+which no change of situation afterwards has been able to obliterate.
+
+The subjects of conversation among the Quakers differ, like those of
+others, but they are not so numerous, neither are they of the same kind,
+as those of other people.
+
+The Quaker conversation is cramped or fettered for two reasons, first by
+the caution, that prevails among the members of the society relative to
+the use of idle words, and secondly by the caution, that prevails among
+them, relative to the adapting of their expressions to the truth. Hence
+the primitive Quakers were persons of few words.
+
+The subjects also of the Quaker conversation are limited for several
+reasons. The Quakers have not the same classical or philosophical
+education, as those of other denominations in an equal situation in
+life. This circumstance will of course exclude many topics from their
+discourse.
+
+Religious considerations also exclude others. Politics, which generally
+engross a good deal of attention, and which afford an inexhaustible fund
+of matter for conversation to a great part of the inhabitants of the
+island, are seldom introduced, and, if introduced, very tenderly
+handled in general among the Quaker-society. I have seen aged Quakers
+gently reprove others of tenderer years, with whom they happened to be
+in company, for having started them. It is not that the Quakers have not
+the same feelings as other men, or that they are not equally interested
+about humanity, or that they are incapable of opinions on the changeable
+political events, that are passing over the face of the globe, that this
+subject is so little agitated among them. They are usually silent upon
+it for particular reasons. They consider first, that, as they are not
+allowed to have any direction, and in many cases could not
+conscientiously interfere, in government-matters, it would be folly to
+disquiet their minds with vain and fruitless speculations. They consider
+again, that political subjects frequently irritate people, and make them
+warm. Now this is a temper, which they consider to be peculiarly
+detrimental to their religion. They consider themselves also in this
+life as but upon a journey to another, and that they should get through
+it as quietly and as inoffensively as they can. They believe again with
+George Fox, that, "in these lower regions, or in this airy life, all
+news is uncertain. There is nothing stable. But in the higher regions,
+or in the kingdom of Christ, all things are stable: and the news is
+always good and certain." [56]
+
+[Footnote 56: There is always an exception in favour of conversation on
+politics, which is, when the government are agitating any question,
+their interests or their religious freedom is involved.]
+
+As politics do not afford matter for much conversation in the
+Quaker-society, so neither do some other subjects, that may be
+mentioned.
+
+In a country town, where people daily visit, it is not uncommon to
+observe, whether at the card, or at the tea-table, that what is usually
+called scandal forms a part of the pleasures of conversation. The
+hatching up of suspicions on the accidental occurrence of trivial
+circumstances, the blowing up of these suspicions into substances and
+forms, animadversions on character, these, and such like themes, wear
+out a great part of the time of an afternoon or an evening visit. Such
+subjects, however, cannot enter where Quakers converse with one another.
+To avoid tale-bearing and detraction is a lesson inculcated into them in
+early youth. The maxim is incorporated into their religion, and of
+course follows them through life. It is contained in one of their
+queries. This query is read to them in their meetings, and the subject
+of it is therefore repeatedly brought to their notice and recollection.
+Add to which, that, if a Quaker were to repeat any unfounded scandal,
+that operated to the injury of another's character, and were not to give
+up the author, or make satisfaction for the same, he would be liable,
+by the rules of the society, to be disowned.
+
+I do not mean to assert here, that a Quaker never says a harsh thing of
+another man. All, who profess to be, are not Quakers. Subjects of a
+scandalous nature may be in introduced by others of another
+denomination, in which, if Quakers are present, they may unguardedly
+join. But it is certainly true, that Quakers are more upon their guard,
+with respect to scandalizing others, than many other people. Nor is this
+unlikely to be the case, when we consider that caution in this
+particular is required of them by the laws of their religion. It is
+certainly true also, that such subjects are never introduced by them,
+like those at country tea-tables, for the sole purpose of producing
+conversation. And I believe I may add with truth, that it would even be
+deemed extraordinary by the society, if such subjects were introduced by
+them at all.
+
+In companies also in the metropolis, as well as in country towns, a
+variety of subjects affords food for conversation which never enter into
+the discourse of the Quakers.
+
+If we were to go into the company of persons of a certain class in the
+metropolis, we should find them deriving the enjoyments of conversation
+from some such subjects as the following. One of the company would
+probably talk of the exquisitely fine manner, in which an actress
+performed her part on a certain night. This, would immediately give
+birth to a variety of remarks. The name of one actress would bring up
+that of another, and the name of one play that of another, till at
+length the stage would become the source of supplying a subject for a
+considerable time. Another would probably ask, as soon as this
+theatrical discussion was over, the opinion of the company on the
+subject of the duel, which the morning papers had reported to have taken
+place. This new subject would give new fuel to the fire, and new
+discussions would take place, and new observations fly about from all
+quarters. Some would applaud the courage of the person, who had been
+killed. Others would pity his hard fate. But none would censure his
+wickedness for having resorted to such dreadful means for the
+determination of his dispute. From this time the laws of honour would be
+canvassed, and disquisitions about punctilio, and etiquette, and honour,
+would arrest the attention of the company, and supply them with
+materials for a time. These subjects would be followed by observations
+on fashionable head-dresses, by the relation of elopements, by the
+reports of affairs of gallantry. Each subject would occupy its own
+portion of time. Thus each would help to swell up the measure of
+conversation, and to make up the enjoyment of the visit.
+
+If we were to go among persons of another class in the metropolis, we
+should probably find them collecting their entertainment from other
+topics. One would talk on the subject of some splendid route. He would
+expatiate on the number of rooms that were opened, on the superb manner,
+in which they were fitted up, and on the sum of money that was expended
+in procuring every delicacy that was out of season. A second would
+probably ask, if it were really known, how much one of their female
+acquaintance had lost at faro. A third would make observations on the
+dresses at the last drawing room. A fourth would particularize the
+liveries brought out by individuals on the birth-day. A fifth would ask,
+who was to have the vacant red ribbon. Another would tell, how the
+minister had given a certain place to a certain nobleman's third son,
+and would observe, that the whole family were now provided for by
+government. Each of these topics would be enlarged upon, as successively
+started, and thus conversation would be kept going during the time of
+the visit.
+
+These and other subjects generally constitute the pleasures of
+conversation among certain classes of persons. But among the Quakers,
+they can hardly ever intrude themselves at all. Places and pensions they
+neither do, nor can, hold. Levees and drawing rooms they neither do, nor
+would consent to, attend, on pleasure. Red ribbons they would not wear
+if given to them. Indeed, very few of the society know what these
+insignia mean. As to splendid liveries, these would never occupy their
+attention. Liveries for servants, though not expressly forbidden, are
+not congenial with the Quaker-system; and as to gaming, plays, or
+fashionable amusements, these are forbidden, as I have amply stated
+before, by the laws of the society.
+
+It is obvious then, that these topics cannot easily enter into
+conversation, where Quakers are. Indeed, nothing so trifling,
+ridiculous, or disgusting, occupies their minds. The subjects, that
+take up their attention, are of a more solid and useful kind. There is a
+dignity, in general, in the Quaker-conversation, arising from the nature
+of these subjects, and from the gravity and decorum with which it is
+always conducted. It is not to be inferred from hence, that their
+conversation is dull and gloomy. There is often no want of
+sprightliness, wit, and humour. But then this sprightliness, never
+borders upon folly, for all foolish jesting is to be avoided, and it is
+always decorous. When vivacity makes its appearance among the Quakers;
+it is sensible, and it is uniformly in an innocent and decent dress.
+
+In the company of the Quakers a circumstance sometimes occurs, of so
+peculiar a nature, that it cannot be well omitted in this place. It
+sometimes happens, that you observe a pause in the conversation. This
+pause continues. Surprized at the universal silence now prevailing, you
+look round, and find all the Quakers in the room apparently thoughtful.
+The history of the circumstance is this. In the course of the
+conversation the mind of some one of the persons present has been so
+overcome with the weight or importance of it, or so overcome by inward
+suggestions or other subjects, as to have given himself up to
+meditation, or to passive obedience to the impressions upon his mind.
+This person is soon discovered by the rest on account of his particular
+silence and gravity. From this moment the Quakers in company cease to
+converse. They become habitually silent, and continue so, both old and
+young, to give the apparently meditating person an opportunity of
+pursuing uninterruptedly the train of his own thoughts. Perhaps, in the
+course of his meditations, the subject, that impressed his mind,
+gradually dies away, and expires in silence. In this case you find him
+resuming his natural position, and returning to conversation with the
+company as before. It sometimes happens, however, that, in the midst of
+his meditations, he feels an impulse to communicate to those present the
+subject of his thoughts, and breaks forth, seriously explaining,
+exhorting, and advising, as the nature of it permits and suggests. When
+he has finished his observations, the company remain silent for a short
+time, after which they converse again as before.
+
+Such a pause, whenever it occurs in the company of the Quakers, may be
+considered as a devotional act. For the subject, which occasions it, is
+always of a serious or religious nature. The workings in the mind of the
+meditating person are considered either as the offspring of a solemn
+reflection upon that subject, suddenly and almost involuntarily as it
+were produced by duty, or as the immediate offspring of the agency of
+the spirit. And an habitual silence is as much the consequence, as if
+the person present had been at a place of worship.
+
+It may be observed, however, that such pauses seldom or never occur in
+ordinary companies, or where Quakers ordinarily visit one another. When
+they take place, it is mostly when a minister is present, and when such
+a minister is upon a religious visit to families of a certain district.
+In such a case such religious pauses and exhortations are not
+unfrequent. A man however may be a hundred times in the company of the
+Quakers, and never be present at one of them, and never know indeed that
+they exist at all.
+
+
+
+
+CHAP. VI.
+
+_Custom before meals--ancients formerly made an oblation to Vesta before
+their meals--Christians have substituted grace--Quakers agree with
+others in the necessity of grace or thankfulness-but do not adopt it as
+a devotional act, unless it comes from the heart--allow a silent pause
+for religious impressions on these occasions--observations on a Scotch
+grace._
+
+
+There was a time in the early ages of Greece, when men apparently little
+better than beasts of prey, could not meet at entertainments, without
+quarrelling about the victuals before them. The memory of this
+circumstance is well preserved in the expressions of early writers. In
+process of time however, regulations began to be introduced, and
+quarrels to be prevented, by the institution of the office of a divider
+or distributer of the feast, who should carve the food into equal
+portions, and help every individual to his proper share. Hence the terms
+[Greek: Aatfrn] or equal feast, which so frequently occur in Homer, and
+which were in use in consequence of the division just mentioned, were
+made use of to shew, that the feasts, then spoken of by him, were
+different from those of former times. When Homer wishes to describe
+persons as more civilized than others, he describes them as having this
+equal feast. That is, men did not appear at these feasts, like dogs and
+wolves, and instantly devour whatever they could come at, and tear each
+other to pieces in the end; but they waited till their different
+portions of meat had been assigned them, and then ate them in amity and
+peace.
+
+At the time when we find the custom of one man carving for all his
+guests to have been in use, we find also that another had been
+introduced among the same people. The Greeks, in the heroic ages,
+thought it unlawful to eat, till they had first offered a part of their
+provision to the gods. Hence oblations to Vesta, and afterwards to
+others, whom their superstition had defied, came into general use, so
+that these were always made, before the victuals on the table were
+allowed to be tasted by any of the guests.
+
+These two customs, since that time, have come regularly down to the
+present day. Every person helps his family and his friends at his own
+table. But as Christians can make no sacrifices to heathen deities, we
+usually find them substituting thanksgiving for oblation, and giving to
+the Creator of the universe instead of an offering of the first fruits
+from their tables, an offering of gratitude from their hearts.
+
+This oblation, which is now usually denominated grace, consists of a
+form of words, which, being expressive either of praise or thankfulness
+to God for the blessings of food, with which he continues to supply
+them, is repeated by the master of the family, or by a minister of the
+gospel if present, before any one partakes of the victuals, that are set
+before him. These forms, however, differ, as used by Christians. They
+differ in length, in ideas, in expression. One Christian uses one form,
+another uses another. It may however be observed, that the same
+Christian generally uses the same form of words, or the same grace, on
+the same occasion.
+
+The Quakers, as a religious body, agree in the propriety of grace before
+their meals, that is in the propriety of giving thanks to the author of
+every good gift for this particular bounty of his providence as to the
+articles of their daily subsistence, but they differ as to the manner
+and seasonableness of it on such occasions. They think that people who
+are in the habit of repeating a determined form of words, may cease to
+feel, as they pronounce them, in which case the grace becomes an
+oblation from the tongue, but not from the heart. They think also that,
+if grace is to be repeated regularly, just as the victuals come, or as
+regularly and as often as they come upon the table, it may be repeated
+unseasonably, that is unseasonably with the state of the heart of him,
+who is to pronounce it; that the heart of man is not to-day as it was
+yesterday, nor at this hour what it was at a former, nor on any given
+hour alike disposed; and that if this grace is to be said when the heart
+is gay, or light, or volatile, it ceases to be a devotional act, and
+becomes at least a superflous and unmeaning, if not a censurable form.
+
+The Quakers then to avoid the unprofitableness of such artificial
+graces on the one hand, and, on the other, to give an opportunity to the
+heart to accord with the tongue, whenever it is used in praise of the
+Creator, observe the following custom. When they are all seated at
+table, they sit in solemn silence, and in a thoughtful position, for
+some time. If the master of the family, during this silence, should feel
+any religious impression on his mind, whether of praise or thankfulness
+on the occasion, he gives utterance to his feelings. Such praise or
+thanksgiving in him is considered as a devotional act, and as the Quaker
+grace. But if, after having waited in silence for some time, he feels no
+such religious disposition, he utters no religious expression. The
+Quakers hold it better to say no grace, than to say that, which is not
+accompanied by the devotion of the heart. In this case he resumes his
+natural position, breaks the silence by means of natural discourse, and
+begins to carve for his family or his friends.
+
+This is the ordinary way of proceeding in Quaker families, when alone,
+or in ordinary company. But if a minister happens to be at the table,
+the master of the family, conceiving such a man to be more in the habit
+of religious impressions than himself, or any ordinary person, looks up
+as it were to him, as to a channel, from whence it is possible, that
+such religious exercise may come. If the minister, during the solemn,
+silent pause, is impressed, he gives utterance as before: if not, he
+relieves himself from his grave and thoughtful position, and breaks the
+silence of the company by engaging in natural discourse. After this the
+company proceed to their meals.
+
+If I were to be asked whether the graces of the Quakers were frequent, I
+should reply in the negative. I never heard any delivered, but when a
+minister was present. The ordinary grace therefore of private families
+consists in a solemn, silent, pause, between the time of sitting down to
+the table and the note of carving the victuals, during which an
+opportunity is given for the excitement of religious feelings. A person
+may dine fifty times at the tables of the Quakers, and see no other
+substitution for grace than this temporary silent pause.
+
+Indeed no other grace than this can be consistent with
+Quaker-principles. It was coeval with the institution of the society,
+and must continue while it lasts. For thanksgiving is an act of
+devotion. Now no act, in the opinion of the Quakers, can be devotional
+or spiritual, except it originate from above. Men, in religious matters
+can do nothing of themselves, or without the divine aid. And they must
+therefore wait in silence for this spiritual help, as well in the case
+of grace, as in the case of any other kind of devotion, if they mean
+their praise or thanksgiving on such occasions to be an act of religion.
+
+There is in the Quaker-grace, and its accompaniments, whenever it is
+uttered, an apparent beauty and an apparent solemnity, which are seldom
+conspicuous in those of others. How few are there, who repeat the common
+artificial graces feelingly, and with minds intent upon the subject!
+Grace is usually said as a mere ceremony or custom. The Supreme Being is
+just thanked in so many words, while the thoughts are often rambling to
+other subjects. The Quaker-grace, on the other hand, whenever it is
+uttered; does not come out in any mechanical form of words which men
+have used before, but in expressions adapted to the feelings. It comes
+forth also warm from the heart. It comes after a solemn, silent, pause,
+and it becomes therefore, under all these circumstances, an act of real
+solemnity and genuine devotion.
+
+It is astonishing how little even men of acknowledged piety seem to have
+their minds fixed upon the ideas contained in the mechanical graces they
+repeat. I was one afternoon at a friends house, where there happened to
+be a clergyman of the Scottish church. He was a man deservedly esteemed
+for his piety. The company was large. Politics had been discussed some
+time, when the tea-things were introduced. While the bread and butter
+were bringing in, the clergyman, who had taken an active part in the
+discussion, put a question to a gentleman, who was sitting in a corner
+of the room. The gentleman began to reply, and was proceeding in his
+answer, when of a sudden I heard a solemn voice. Being surprised, I
+looked round, and found it was the clergyman, who had suddenly started
+up, and was saying grace. The solemnity, with which he spoke, occasioned
+his voice to differ so much from its ordinary tone, that I did not, till
+I had looked about me, discover who the speaker was. I think he might be
+engaged from three or four minutes in the delivery of this grace. I
+could not help thinking, during the delivery of it, that I never knew
+any person say grace like this man. Nor was I ever so much moved with
+any grace, or thought I ever saw so dearly the propriety of saying
+grace, as on this occasion. But when I found that on the very instant
+the grace was over politics were resumed; when I found that, no sooner
+had the last word in the grace been pronounced, than the next, which
+came from the clergyman himself, began by desiring the gentleman before
+mentioned to go on with his reply to his own political question, I was
+so struck with the inconsistency of the thing, that the beauty and
+solemnity of his grace all vanished. This sudden transition from
+politics to grace, and from grace to politics, afforded a proof that
+artificial sentences might be so frequently repeated, as to fail to
+re-excite their first impressions, or that certain expressions, which
+might have constituted devotional acts under devotional feeling, might
+relapse into heartless forms.
+
+I should not wish, by the relation of this anecdote, to be understood as
+reflecting in the slightest manner on the practice of the Scottish
+church. I know well the general sobriety, diligence, piety and religious
+example of its ministers. I mentioned it merely to shew, that even where
+the religious character of a person was high, his mind, by the frequent
+repetition of the same forms of expression on the same occasions, might
+frequently lose sight of the meaning and force of the words as they were
+uttered, so that he might pronounce them without that spiritual feeling,
+which can alone constitute a religious exercise.
+
+
+
+
+CHAP. VII.
+
+_Customs at and after meals--Quakers never drink healths at dinner--nor
+toasts after dinner--the drinking of toasts a heathen custom--interrupts
+often the innocence--and leads to the intoxication of the company--anecdote
+of Judge Hale--Quakers sometimes in embarrassing situations on account of
+this omission--Quaker-women seldom retire after dinner, and leave the men
+drinking--Quakers a sober people._
+
+
+The Quakers though they are occasionally found in the custom of saying
+grace, do not, as I have stated, either use it as regularly, or in the
+same manner as other christians.
+
+Neither do they at their meals, or after their meals, use the same
+ceremonies as others. They have exploded the unmeaning and troublesome
+custom of drinking healths at their dinners.
+
+This custom the Quakers have rejected upon the principle, that it has no
+connection with true civility. They consider it as officious,
+troublesome, and even embarrassing, on some occasions. To drink to a
+man, when he is lifting his victuals to his mouth, and by calling off
+his attention, to make him drop them, or to interrupt two people, who
+are eating and talking together, and to break the thread of their
+discourse, seems to be an action, as rude in its principle, as
+disagreeable in its effects, nor is the custom often less troublesome to
+the person drinking the health, than to the person whose health is
+drank. If a man finds two people engaged in conversation he must wait
+till he catches their eyes, before he can drink himself. A man may also
+often be put into a delicate and difficult situation, to know whom to
+drink to first, and whom second, and may be troubled, lest, by drinking
+improperly to one before another, he may either be reputed awkward, or
+may become the occasion of offence. They consider also the custom of
+drinking healths at dinner as unnecessary, and as tending to no useful
+end. It must be obvious that a man may wish another his health, full as
+much without drinking it, as by drinking it with his glass in his hand.
+And it must be equally obvious that wishes, expressed in this manner,
+can have no medicinal effect.
+
+With respect to the custom of drinking healths at dinner, I may observe
+that the innovation, which the Quakers seem to have been the first to
+have made upon the practice of it, has been adopted by many, not out of
+compliance with their example, but on account of the trouble and
+inconveniences attending it; that the custom is not now so general as it
+was; that in the higher and more fashionable circles it has nearly been
+exploded; and that, among some of the other classes of society, it is
+gradually declining.
+
+With respect to the custom of drinking toasts after dinner, the Quakers
+have rejected it for various reasons.
+
+They have rejected it first, because, however desirable it may be that
+Christians should follow the best customs of the heathens, it would be a
+reproach to them to follow the worst. Or, in other words, it would be
+improper for men, whose religion required spirituality of thought and
+feeling, to imitate the heathens in the manner of their enjoyment of
+sensual pleasures. The laws and customs of drinking, the Quakers
+observe, are all of heathen origin. The similitude between these and
+those of modern tunes is too remarkable to be overlooked; and too
+striking not to warrant them in concluding, that christens have taken
+their model on this subject from Pagan practice.
+
+In every Grecian family, where company was invited, the master of it was
+considered to be the king or president of the feast, in his own house.
+He was usually denominated the eye of the company. It was one of his
+offices to look about and to see that his guests drank their proper
+portions of the wine. It was another to keep peace and harmony among
+them. For these purposes his word was law. At entertainments at the
+public expence the same office existed, but the person, then appointed
+to it, was nominated either by lot, or by the votes of the persons
+present.--This custom obtains among the moderns. The master of every
+family at the present day presides at his own table for the same
+purposes. And at great and public dinners at taverns, a similar officer
+is appointed, who is generally chosen by the committee, who first meet
+for the proposal of the feast.
+
+One of the first toasts, that were usually drank among the ancient
+Greeks, was to the "gods." This entirely corresponds with the modern
+idea of church; and if the government had been only coupled with the
+gods in these ancient times, it would have precisely answered to the
+modern toast of church and state.
+
+It was also usual at the entertainments, given by Grecian families, to
+drink the prosperity of those persons, for whom they entertained a
+friendship, but who happened to be absent. No toast can better coincide
+than this, with that, which is so frequently given, of our absent
+friends.
+
+It was also a Grecian practice for each of the guests to name his
+particular friend, and sometimes also his particular mistress. The
+moderns have also a parallel for this. Every person gives (to use the
+common phrase) his gentleman, and his lady, in his turn.
+
+It is well known to have been the usage of the ancient Greeks, at their
+entertainments, either to fill or to have had their cups filled for them
+to the brim. The moderns do precisely the same thing. Glasses so
+filled, have the particular name of bumpers: and however vigilantly an
+ancient Greek might have looked after his guests, and made them drink
+their glasses filled in this manner, the presidents of modern times are
+equally vigilant in enforcing adherence to the same custom.
+
+It was an ancient practice also with the same people to drink three
+glasses when the graces, and nine when the muses were named: and three
+and three times three were drank on particular occasions. This barbarous
+practice has fortunately not come down to the moderns to its full
+extent, but they have retained the remembrance of it, and celebrated it
+in part, by following up their toasts, on any extraordinary occasion,
+not with three or nine glasses of wine, but with three or nine cheers.
+
+Among the ancients beforementioned, if any of the persons present were
+found deficient in drinking their proper portions, they were ordered by
+the president either to drink them or to leave the room. This usage has
+been a little altered by the moderns. They do not order those persons to
+leave the company, who do not comply with the same rules of drinking as
+the rest, but they subject them to be fined, as it is termed, that is,
+they oblige them to drink double portions for their deficiency, or
+punish them in some other manner.
+
+From hence it will be obvious that the laws of drinking are of heathen
+origin; that is, the custom of drinking toasts originated, as the
+Quakers contend, with men of heathen minds and affections for a sensual
+purpose; and it is therefore a custom, they believe; which men of
+christian minds and affections should never follow.
+
+The Quakers have rejected the custom again, because they consider it to
+be inconsistent with their christian character in other respects. They
+consider it as morally injurious; for toasts frequently excite and
+promote indelicate ideas, and thus sometimes interrupt the innocence of
+conversation.
+
+They consider it as morally injurious again, because the drinking of
+toasts has a direct tendency to promote drunkenness.
+
+They, who have been much in company, must have had repeated
+opportunities of witnessing, that this idea of the Quakers is founded in
+truth, men are undoubtedly stimulated to drink more than they like, and
+to become intoxicated in consequence of the use of toasts. If a man has
+no objection to drink toasts at all, he must drink that which the master
+of the house proposes, and it is usual in this case to fill a bumper.
+Respect to his host is considered as demanding this. Thus one full glass
+is secured to him at the outset. He must also drink a bumper to the
+king, another to church and state, and another to the army and navy. He
+would, in many companies, be thought hostile to government, if, in the
+habit of drinking toasts, he were to refuse to drink these, or to honour
+these in the same manner. Thus three additional glasses are entailed
+upon him. He must also drink a bumper to his own toast. He would be
+thought to dishonour the person, whose health he had given, if he were
+to fail in this. Thus a fifth glass is added to his share. He must fill
+a little besides to every other toast, or he is considered as deficient
+in respect to the person, who has proposed it. Thus many additional
+glasses are forced upon him. By this time the wine begins to act, when
+new toasts, of a new nature assail his ear, and he is stimulated to new
+potions. There are many toasts of so patriotic, and others of so
+generous and convivial a nature that a man is looked upon as
+disaffected, or as devoid of sentiment, who refuses them. Add to this,
+that there is a sort of shame, which the young and generous in
+particular feel in being outdone, and in not keeping pace with the rest,
+on such occasions. Thus toast being urged after toast, and shame acting
+upon shame, a variety of causes conspires at the same moment to drive
+him on, till the liquor at length overcomes him and he falls eventually
+a victim to its power.
+
+It will be manifest from this account that the laws of drinking, by
+which the necessity of drinking a certain number of toasts is enjoined,
+by which bumpers are attached to certain classes of toasts, by which a
+stigma is affixed to a non-compliance with the terms, by which in fact a
+regular system of etiquette is established, cannot but lead, except a
+man is uncommonly resolute or particularly on his guard, to
+intoxication. We see indeed instances of men drinking glass after glass,
+because stimulated in this manner, even against their own inclination,
+nay even against the determination they had made before they went into
+company, till they have made themselves quite drunk. But had there been
+no laws of drinking, or no toasts, we cannot see any reason why the same
+persons should not have returned sober to their respective homes.
+
+It is recorded of the great Sir Matthew Hale, who is deservedly placed
+among the great men of our country, that in his early youth he had been
+in company, where the party had drunk to such excess, that one of them
+fell down apparently dead. Quitting the room, he implored forgiveness of
+the Almighty for this excessive intemperance in himself and his
+companions, and made a vow, that he would never drink another health
+while he lived. This vow he kept to his dying day. It is hardly
+necessary for me to remark that he would never have come to such a
+resolution, if he had not believed, either that the drinking of toasts
+had produced the excesses of that day, or that the custom led so
+naturally to intoxication, that it became his duty to suppress it.
+
+The Quakers having rejected the use of toasts upon the principles
+assigned, are sometimes placed in a difficult situation, in which there
+is an occasion for the trial of their courage, in consequence of mixing
+with others, by whom the custom is still followed.
+
+In companies, to which they are invited in regular families, they are
+seldom put to any disagreeable dilemma in this respect. The master of
+the house, if in the habit of giving toasts, generally knowing the
+custom of the Quakers in this instance, passes over any Quaker who may
+be present, and calls upon his next neighbour for a toast. Good breeding
+and hospitality demand that such indulgence and exception should be
+given.
+
+There are situations, however, in which their courage is often tried.
+One of the worst in which a a Quaker can be placed, and in which he is
+frequently placed, is that of being at a common room in an inn, where a
+number of other travellers dine and sup together. In such companies
+things are seldom conducted so much to his satisfaction in this respect,
+as in those described. In general as the bottle passes, some jocose hint
+is conveyed to him about the toast; and though this is perhaps done with
+good humour, his feelings are wounded by it. At other times when the
+company are of a less liberal complexion, there is a determination, soon
+understood among one another, to hunt him down, as if he were fair game.
+A toast is pressed upon him, though all know that it is not his custom
+to drink it. On refusing, they begin to teaze him. One jokes with him.
+Another banters him. Toasts both illiberal and indelicate, are at length
+introduced; and he has no alternative but that of bearing the banter, or
+quitting the room. I have seen a Quaker in such a company (and at such a
+distance from home, that the transaction in all probability never could
+have been known, had he, in order to free himself from their attacks,
+conformed to their custom) bearing all their raillery with astonishing
+firmness, and courageously struggling against the stream. It is
+certainly an awkward thing for a solitary Quaker to fall in such
+companies, and it requires considerable courage to preserve singularity
+in the midst of the prejudices of ignorant and illiberal men.
+
+This custom, however, of drinking toasts after dinner, is, like the
+former of drinking healths at dinner, happily declining. It is much to
+the credit of those, who move in the higher circles, that they have
+generally exploded both. It may be probably owing to this circumstance,
+that though we find persons of this description labouring under the
+imputation of levity and dissipation, we yet find them respectable for
+the sobriety of their lives. Drunkenness indeed forms no part of their
+character, nor, generally speaking, is it a vice of the present age as
+it has been of former ages; and there seems to be little doubt, that in
+proportion as the custom of drinking healths and toasts, but more
+particularly the latter, is suppressed, this vice will become less a
+trait in the national character.
+
+There are one or two customs of the Quakers, which I shall notice before
+I conclude this chapter.
+
+It is one of the fashions of the world, where people meet in company,
+for men and women, when the dinner is over, to drink their wine
+together, and for the women, having done this for a short time, to
+retire. This custom of the females withdrawing after dinner was probably
+first insisted upon from an idea, that their presence would be a
+restraint upon the circulation of the bottle, as well as upon the
+conversation of the men. The Quakers, however, seldom submit to this
+practice. Men and women generally sit together and converse as before
+dinner. I do not mean by this that women may not retire if they please,
+because there is no restraint upon any one in the company of the
+Quakers; nor do I mean to say, that women do not occasionally retire,
+and leave the men at their wine. There are a few rich families, which,
+having mixed more than usual with the world, allow of this separation.
+But where one allows it, there are ninety-nine, who give wine to their
+company after dinner, who do not. It is not a Quaker-custom, that in a
+given time after dinner, the one should be separated from the other sex.
+
+It is a pity that the practice of the Quakers should not have been
+adopted by others of our own country in this particular. Many advantages
+would result to those, who were to follow the example. For if women were
+allowed to remain, chastity of expression and decorum of behaviour would
+be more likely to be insured. There presence also would operate as a
+check upon drunkenness. Nor can there be a doubt, that women would
+enliven and give a variety to conversation; and, as they have had a
+different education from men, that an opportunity of mutual improvement
+might be afforded by the continuance of the two in the society of one
+another.
+
+It is also usual with the world in such companies, that the men, when
+the females have retired, should continue drinking till tea-time. This
+custom is unknown to the Quakers, even to those few Quakers, who allow
+of a separation of the sexes. It is not unusual with them to propose a
+walk before tea, if the weather permit. But even in the case where they
+remain at the table, their time is spent rather in conversing than in
+drinking. They have no toasts, as I have observed, which should induce
+them to put the bottle round in a given time, or which should oblige
+them to take a certain number of glasses. The bottle, however, is
+usually put round, and each helps himself as he pleases. At length one
+of the guests, having had sufficient, declines filling his glass.
+Another, in a little time, declines also for the same cause. A third,
+after having taken what he thinks sufficient, follows the example. The
+wine is soon afterwards taken away, and this mostly long before the hour
+of drinking tea. Neither drunkenness, nor any situation approaching to
+drunkenness, is known in the Quaker companies. Excess in drinking is
+strictly forbidden by the laws of the society. It is a subject of one of
+their queries. It is of course a subject that is often brought to their
+recollection. Whatever may be the faults of the Quakers, they must be
+acknowledged to be a SOBER PEOPLE.
+
+END OF THE FIRST VOLUME.
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A PORTRAITURE OF QUAKERISM, VOLUME I
+(OF 3)***
+
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