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diff --git a/15250-8.txt b/15250-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..7b17f56 --- /dev/null +++ b/15250-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,13323 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Myths and Legends of China, by E. T. C. Werner + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Myths and Legends of China + +Author: E. T. C. Werner + +Release Date: March 4, 2005 [EBook #15250] +Last Updated: January 7, 2017 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MYTHS AND LEGENDS OF CHINA *** + + + + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Jeroen Hellingman and the PG Online +Distributed Proofreading Team. + + + + + + + Myths & Legends of China + + By + + E.T.C. Werner + + H.B.M. Consul Foochow (Retired) Barrister-at-law Middle Temple Late + Member of The Chinese Government Historiographical Bureau Peking + Author of "Descriptive Sociology: Chinese" "China of the Chinese" Etc. + + + George G. Harrap & Co. Ltd. + London Bombay Sydney + + + + +In Memoriam + +_Gladys Nina Chalmers Werner_ + + + +Preface + +The chief literary sources of Chinese myths are the _Li tai shên hsien +t'ung chien_, in thirty-two volumes, the _Shên hsien lieh chuan_, +in eight volumes, the _Fêng shên yen i_, in eight volumes, and the +_Sou shên chi_, in ten volumes. In writing the following pages I +have translated or paraphrased largely from these works. I have also +consulted and at times quoted from the excellent volumes on Chinese +Superstitions by Père Henri Doré, comprised in the valuable series +_Variétés Sinologiques_, published by the Catholic Mission Press +at Shanghai. The native works contained in the Ssu K'u Ch'üan Shu, +one of the few public libraries in Peking, have proved useful for +purposes of reference. My heartiest thanks are due to my good friend +Mr Mu Hsüeh-hsün, a scholar of wide learning and generous disposition, +for having kindly allowed me to use his very large and useful library +of Chinese books. The late Dr G.E. Morrison also, until he sold it +to a Japanese baron, was good enough to let me consult his extensive +collection of foreign works relating to China whenever I wished, but +owing to the fact that so very little work has been done in Chinese +mythology by Western writers I found it better in dealing with this +subject to go direct to the original Chinese texts. I am indebted to +Professor H.A. Giles, and to his publishers, Messrs Kelly and Walsh, +Shanghai, for permission to reprint from _Strange Stories from a +Chinese Studio_ the fox legends given in Chapter XV. + +This is, so far as I know, the only monograph on Chinese mythology +in any non-Chinese language. Nor do the native works include any +scientific analysis or philosophical treatment of their myths. + +My aim, after summarizing the sociology of the Chinese as a +prerequisite to the understanding of their ideas and sentiments, +and dealing as fully as possible, consistently with limitations of +space (limitations which have necessitated the presentation of a +very large and intricate topic in a highly compressed form), with +the philosophy of the subject, has been to set forth in English dress +those myths which may be regarded as the accredited representatives +of Chinese mythology--those which live in the minds of the people and +are referred to most frequently in their literature, not those which +are merely diverting without being typical or instructive--in short, +a true, not a distorted image. + +_Edward Theodore Chalmers Werner_ + +_Peking_ +_February_ 1922 + + + +Contents + + + +Chapter + +I. The Sociology of the Chinese +II. On Chinese Mythology +III. Cosmogony--P'an Ku and the Creation Myth +IV. The Gods of China +V. Myths of the Stars +VI. Myths of Thunder, Lightning, Wind, and Rain +VII. Myths of the Waters +VIII. Myths of Fire +IX. Myths of Epidemics, Medicine, Exorcism, Etc. +X. The Goddess of Mercy +XI. The Eight Immortals +XII. The Guardian of the Gate of Heaven +XIII. A Battle of the Gods +XIV. How the Monkey Became a God +XV. Fox Legends +XVI. Miscellaneous Legends + The Pronunciation of Chinese Words + + + + + +_Mais cet Orient, cette Asie, quelles en sont, enfin, les frontières +réelles?... Ces frontières sont d'une netteté qui ne permet aucune +erreur. L'Asie est là où cesse la vulgarité, où naît la dignité, +et où commence l'élégance intellectuelle. Et l'Orient est là où sont +les sources débordantes de poésie._ + +_Mardrus_, +_La Reine de Saba_ + + + + + +CHAPTER I + +The Sociology of the Chinese + + +Racial Origin + +In spite of much research and conjecture, the origin of the Chinese +people remains undetermined. We do not know who they were nor whence +they came. Such evidence as there is points to their immigration +from elsewhere; the Chinese themselves have a tradition of a Western +origin. The first picture we have of their actual history shows us, not +a people behaving as if long settled in a land which was their home and +that of their forefathers, but an alien race fighting with wild beasts, +clearing dense forests, and driving back the aboriginal inhabitants. + +Setting aside several theories (including the one that the Chinese +are autochthonous and their civilization indigenous) now regarded +by the best authorities as untenable, the researches of sinologists +seem to indicate an origin (1) in early Akkadia; or (2) in Khotan, +the Tarim valley (generally what is now known as Eastern Turkestan), +or the K'un-lun Mountains (concerning which more presently). The +second hypothesis may relate only to a sojourn of longer or shorter +duration on the way from Akkadia to the ultimate settlement in China, +especially since the Khotan civilization has been shown to have +been imported from the Punjab in the third century B.C. The fact +that serious mistakes have been made regarding the identifications +of early Chinese rulers with Babylonian kings, and of the Chinese +_po-hsing_ (Cantonese _bak-sing_) 'people' with the Bak Sing or Bak +tribes, does not exclude the possibility of an Akkadian origin. But +in either case the immigration into China was probably gradual, and +may have taken the route from Western or Central Asia direct to the +banks of the Yellow River, or may possibly have followed that to the +south-east through Burma and then to the north-east through what is +now China--the settlement of the latter country having thus spread +from south-west to north-east, or in a north-easterly direction along +the Yangtzu River, and so north, instead of, as is generally supposed, +from north to south. + + +Southern Origin Improbable + +But this latter route would present many difficulties; it would seem +to have been put forward merely as ancillary to the theory that the +Chinese originated in the Indo-Chinese peninsula. This theory is +based upon the assumptions that the ancient Chinese ideograms include +representations of tropical animals and plants; that the oldest and +purest forms of the language are found in the south; and that the +Chinese and the Indo-Chinese groups of languages are both tonal. But +all of these facts or alleged facts are as easily or better accounted +for by the supposition that the Chinese arrived from the north +or north-west in successive waves of migration, the later arrivals +pushing the earlier farther and farther toward the south, so that the +oldest and purest forms of Chinese would be found just where they are, +the tonal languages of the Indo-Chinese peninsula being in that case +regarded as the languages of the vanguard of the migration. Also, the +ideograms referred to represent animals and plants of the temperate +zone rather than of the tropics, but even if it could be shown, which +it cannot, that these animals and plants now belong exclusively to the +tropics, that would be no proof of the tropical origin of the Chinese, +for in the earliest times the climate of North China was much milder +than it is now, and animals such as tigers and elephants existed in the +dense jungles which are later found only in more southern latitudes. + + +Expansion of Races from North to South + +The theory of a southern origin (to which a further serious objection +will be stated presently) implies a gradual infiltration of Chinese +immigrants through South or Mid-China (as above indicated) toward +the north, but there is little doubt that the movement of the races +has been from north to south and not _vice versa_. In what are now +the provinces of Western Kansu and Ssuch'uan there lived a people +related to the Chinese (as proved by the study of Indo-Chinese +comparative philology) who moved into the present territory of Tibet +and are known as Tibetans; in what is now the province of Yünnan were +the Shan or Ai-lao (modern Laos), who, forced by Mongol invasions, +emigrated to the peninsula in the south and became the Siamese; and in +Indo-China, not related to the Chinese, were the Annamese, Khmer, Mon, +Khasi, Colarains (whose remnants are dispersed over the hill tracts +of Central India), and other tribes, extending in prehistoric times +into Southern China, but subsequently driven back by the expansion +of the Chinese in that direction. + + +Arrival of the Chinese in China + +Taking into consideration all the existing evidence, the objections to +all other theories of the origin of the Chinese seem to be greater +than any yet raised to the theory that immigrants from the Tarim +valley or beyond (_i.e._ from Elam or Akkadia, either direct or _via_ +Eastern Turkestan) struck the banks of the Yellow River in their +eastward journey and followed its course until they reached the +localities where we first find them settled, namely, in the region +covered by parts of the three modern provinces of Shansi, Shensi, +and Honan where their frontiers join. They were then (about 2500 or +3000 B.C.) in a relatively advanced state of civilization. The country +east and south of this district was inhabited by aboriginal tribes, +with whom the Chinese fought, as they did with the wild animals and the +dense vegetation, but with whom they also commingled and intermarried, +and among whom they planted colonies as centres from which to spread +their civilization. + + +The K'un-lun Mountains + +With reference to the K'un-lun Mountains, designated in Chinese +mythology as the abode of the gods--the ancestors of the Chinese +race--it should be noted that these are identified not with the range +dividing Tibet from Chinese Turkestan, but with the Hindu Kush. That +brings us somewhat nearer to Babylon, and the apparent convergence +of the two theories, the Central Asian and the Western Asian, would +seem to point to a possible solution of the problem. Nü Kua, one of +the alleged creators of human beings, and Nü and Kua, the first two +human beings (according to a variation of the legend), are placed +in the K'un-lun Mountains. That looks hopeful. Unfortunately, the +K'un-lun legend is proved to be of Taoist origin. K'un-lun is the +central mountain of the world, and 3000 miles in height. There is +the fountain of immortality, and thence flow the four great rivers +of the world. In other words, it is the Sumêru of Hindu mythology +transplanted into Chinese legend, and for our present purpose without +historical value. + +It would take up too much space to go into details of this interesting +problem of the origin of the Chinese and their civilization, the +cultural connexions or similarities of China and Western Asia in +pre-Babylonian times, the origin of the two distinct culture-areas +so marked throughout the greater part of Chinese history, etc., and +it will be sufficient for our present purpose to state the conclusion +to which the evidence points. + + +Provisional Conclusion + +Pending the discovery of decisive evidence, the following provisional +conclusion has much to recommend it--namely, that the ancestors +of the Chinese people came from the west, from Akkadia or Elam, +or from Khotan, or (more probably) from Akkadia or Elam _via_ +Khotan, as one nomad or pastoral tribe or group of nomad or pastoral +tribes, or as successive waves of immigrants, reached what is now +China Proper at its north-west corner, settled round the elbow of +the Yellow River, spread north-eastward, eastward, and southward, +conquering, absorbing, or pushing before them the aborigines into +what is now South and South-west China. These aboriginal races, who +represent a wave or waves of neolithic immigrants from Western Asia +earlier than the relatively high-headed immigrants into North China +(who arrived about the twenty-fifth or twenty-fourth century B.C.), +and who have left so deep an impress on the Japanese, mixed and +intermarried with the Chinese in the south, eventually producing the +pronounced differences, in physical, mental, and emotional traits, +in sentiments, ideas, languages, processes, and products, from the +Northern Chinese which are so conspicuous at the present day. + + + +Inorganic Environment + +At the beginning of their known history the country occupied by the +Chinese was the comparatively small region above mentioned. It was +then a tract of an irregular oblong shape, lying between latitude 34° +and 40° N. and longitude 107° and 114° E. This territory round the +elbow of the Yellow River had an area of about 50,000 square miles, +and was gradually extended to the sea-coast on the north-east as far as +longitude 119°, when its area was about doubled. It had a population of +perhaps a million, increasing with the expansion to two millions. This +may be called infant China. Its period (the Feudal Period) was in +the two thousand years between the twenty-fourth and third centuries +B.C. During the first centuries of the Monarchical Period, which lasted +from 221 B.C. to A.D. 1912, it had expanded to the south to such an +extent that it included all of the Eighteen Provinces constituting +what is known as China Proper of modern times, with the exception of +a portion of the west of Kansu and the greater portions of Ssuch'uan +and Yünnan. At the time of the Manchu conquest at the beginning of the +seventeenth century A.D. it embraced all the territory lying between +latitude 18° and 40° N. and longitude 98° and 122° E. (the Eighteen +Provinces or China Proper), with the addition of the vast outlying +territories of Manchuria, Mongolia, Ili, Koko-nor, Tibet, and Corea, +with suzerainty over Burma and Annam--an area of more than 5,000,000 +square miles, including the 2,000,000 square miles covered by the +Eighteen Provinces. Generally, this territory is mountainous in the +west, sloping gradually down toward the sea on the east. It contains +three chief ranges of mountains and large alluvial plains in the north, +east, and south. Three great and about thirty large rivers intersect +the country, their numerous tributaries reaching every part of it. + +As regards geological features, the great alluvial plains rest upon +granite, new red sandstone, or limestone. In the north is found the +peculiar loess formation, having its origin probably in the accumulated +dust of ages blown from the Mongolian plateau. The passage from north +to south is generally from the older to the newer rocks; from east to +west a similar series is found, with some volcanic features in the +west and south. Coal and iron are the chief minerals, gold, silver, +copper, lead, tin, jade, etc., being also mined. + +The climate of this vast area is not uniform. In the north the winter +is long and rigorous, the summer hot and dry, with a short rainy season +in July and August; in the south the summer is long, hot, and moist, +the winter short. The mean temperature is 50.3° F. and 70° F. in the +north and south respectively. Generally, the thermometer is low for +the latitude, though perhaps it is more correct to say that the Gulf +Stream raises the temperature of the west coast of Europe above the +average. The mean rainfall in the north is 16, in the south 70 inches, +with variations in other parts. Typhoons blow in the south between +July and October. + + +Organic Environment + +The vegetal productions are abundant and most varied. The rice-zone +(significant in relation to the cultural distinctions above noted) +embraces the southern half of the country. Tea, first cultivated +for its infusion in A.D. 350, is grown in the southern and central +provinces between the twenty-third and thirty-fifth degrees of +latitude, though it is also found as far north as Shantung, the chief +'tea district,' however, being the large area south of the Yangtzu +River, east of the Tungting Lake and great Siang River, and north of +the Kuangtung Province. The other chief vegetal products are wheat, +barley, maize, millet, the bean, yam, sweet and common potato, tomato, +eggplant, ginseng, cabbage, bamboo, indigo, pepper, tobacco, camphor, +tallow, ground-nut, poppy, water-melon, sugar, cotton, hemp, and +silk. Among the fruits grown are the date, mulberry, orange, lemon, +pumelo, persimmon, lichi, pomegranate, pineapple, fig, coconut, mango, +and banana, besides the usual kinds common in Western countries. + +The wild animals include the tiger, panther, leopard, bear, sable, +otter, monkey, wolf, fox, twenty-seven or more species of ruminants, +and numerous species of rodents. The rhinoceros, elephant, and tapir +still exist in Yünnan. The domestic animals include the camel and the +water-buffalo. There are about 700 species of birds, and innumerable +species of fishes and insects. + + +Sociological Environment + +On their arrival in what is now known as China the Chinese, as already +noted, fought with the aboriginal tribes. The latter were exterminated, +absorbed, or driven south with the spread of Chinese rule. The Chinese +"picked out the eyes of the land," and consequently the non-Chinese +tribes now live in the unhealthy forests or marshes of the south, +or in mountain regions difficult of access, some even in trees (a +voluntary, not compulsory promotion), though several, such as the Dog +Jung in Fukien, retain settlements like islands among the ruling race. + +In the third century B.C. began the hostile relations of the Chinese +with the northern nomads, which continued throughout the greater +part of their history. During the first six centuries A.D. there was +intercourse with Rome, Parthia, Turkey, Mesopotamia, Ceylon, India, +and Indo-China, and in the seventh century with the Arabs. Europe +was brought within the sociological environment by Christian +travellers. From the tenth to the thirteenth century the north +was occupied by Kitans and Nüchêns, and the whole Empire was under +Mongol sway for eighty-eight years in the thirteenth and fourteenth +centuries. Relations of a commercial and religious nature were held +with neighbours during the following four hundred years. Regular +diplomatic intercourse with Western nations was established as a result +of a series of wars in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Until +recently the nation held aloof from alliances and was generally averse +to foreign intercourse. From 1537 onward, as a sequel of war or treaty, +concessions, settlements, etc., were obtained by foreign Powers. China +has now lost some of her border countries and large adjacent islands, +the military and commercial pressure of Western nations and Japan +having taken the place of the military pressure of the Tartars already +referred to. The great problem for her, an agricultural nation, is +how to find means and the military spirit to maintain her integrity, +the further violation of which could not but be regarded by the student +of sociological history as a great tragedy and a world-wide calamity. + + +Physical, Emotional, and Intellectual Characters + +The physical characters of the Chinese are too well known to need +detailed recital. The original immigrants into North China all +belonged to blond races, but the modern Chinese have little left of +the immigrant stock. The oblique, almond-shaped eyes, with black iris +and the orbits far apart, have a vertical fold of skin over the inner +canthus, concealing a part of the iris, a peculiarity distinguishing +the eastern races of Asia from all other families of man. The stature +and weight of brain are generally below the average. The hair is black, +coarse, and cylindrical; the beard scanty or absent. The colour of +the skin is darker in the south than in the north. + +Emotionally the Chinese are sober, industrious, of remarkable +endurance, grateful, courteous, and ceremonious, with a high sense +of mercantile honour, but timorous, cruel, unsympathetic, mendacious, +and libidinous. + +Intellectually they were until recently, and to a large extent +still are, non-progressive, in bondage to uniformity and mechanism +in culture, imitative, unimaginative, torpid, indirect, suspicious, +and superstitious. + +The character is being modified by intercourse with other peoples +of the earth and by the strong force of physical, intellectual, +and moral education. + + +Marriage in Early Times + +Certain parts of the marriage ceremonial of China as now existing +indicate that the original form of marriage was by capture--of which, +indeed, there is evidence in the classical _Book of Odes_. But a +regular form of marriage (in reality a contract of sale) is shown +to have existed in the earliest historical times. The form was not +monogamous, though it seems soon to have assumed that of a qualified +monogamy consisting of one wife and one or more concubines, the +number of the latter being as a rule limited only by the means of the +husband. The higher the rank the larger was the number of concubines +and handmaids in addition to the wife proper, the palaces of the +kings and princes containing several hundreds of them. This form it +has retained to the present day, though associations now exist for +the abolition of concubinage. In early times, as well as throughout +the whole of Chinese history, concubinage was in fact universal, +and there is some evidence also of polyandry (which, however, cannot +have prevailed to any great extent). The age for marriage was twenty +for the man and fifteen for the girl, celibacy after thirty and twenty +respectively being officially discouraged. In the province of Shantung +it was usual for the wives to be older than their husbands. The +parents' consent to the betrothal was sought through the intervention +of a matchmaker, the proposal originating with the parents, and +the wishes of the future bride and bridegroom not being taken into +consideration. The conclusion of the marriage was the progress of the +bride from the house of her parents to that of the bridegroom, where +after various ceremonies she and he worshipped his ancestors together, +the worship amounting to little more than an announcement of the union +to the ancestral spirits. After a short sojourn with her husband the +bride revisited her parents, and the marriage was not considered as +finally consummated until after this visit had taken place. + +The status of women was low, and the power of the husband great--so +great that he could kill his wife with impunity. Divorce was common, +and all in favour of the husband, who, while he could not be +divorced by her, could put his wife away for disobedience or even +for loquaciousness. A widower remarried immediately, but refusal +to remarry by a widow was esteemed an act of chastity. She often +mutilated herself or even committed suicide to prevent remarriage, +and was posthumously honoured for doing so. Being her husband's as +much in the Otherworld as in this, remarriage would partake of the +character of unchastity and insubordination; the argument, of course, +not applying to the case of the husband, who by remarriage simply +adds another member to his clan without infringing on anyone's rights. + + +Marriage in Monarchical and Republican Periods + +The marital system of the early classical times, of which the above +were the essentials, changed but little during the long period of +monarchical rule lasting from 221 B.C. to A.D. 1912. The principal +object, as before, was to secure an heir to sacrifice to the spirits of +deceased progenitors. Marriage was not compulsory, but old bachelors +and old maids were very scarce. The concubines were subject to the +wife, who was considered to be the mother of their children as well +as her own. Her status, however, was not greatly superior. Implicit +obedience was exacted from her. She could not possess property, but +could not be hired out for prostitution. The latter vice was common, +in spite of the early age at which marriage took place and in spite +of the system of concubinage--which is after all but a legalized +transfer of prostitutional cohabitation to the domestic circle. + +Since the establishment of the Republic in 1912 the 'landslide' in the +direction of Western progress has had its effect also on the domestic +institutions. But while the essentials of the marriage contract remain +practically the same as before, the most conspicuous changes have been +in the accompanying ceremonial--now sometimes quite foreign, but in a +very large, perhaps the greatest, number of cases that odious thing, +half foreign, half Chinese; as, for instance, when the procession, +otherwise native, includes foreign glass-panelled carriages, or the +bridegroom wears a 'bowler' or top-hat with his Chinese dress--and +in the greater freedom allowed to women, who are seen out of doors +much more than formerly, sit at table with their husbands, attend +public functions and dinners, dress largely in foreign fashion, +and play tennis and other games, instead of being prisoners of the +'inner apartment' and household drudges little better than slaves. + +One unexpected result of this increased freedom is certainly +remarkable, and is one not likely to have been predicted by the most +far-sighted sociologist. Many of the 'progressive' Chinese, now that +it is the fashion for Chinese wives to be seen in public with their +husbands, finding the uneducated, _gauche_, small-footed household +drudge unable to compete with the smarter foreign-educated wives +of their neighbours, have actually repudiated them and taken unto +themselves spouses whom they can exhibit in public without 'loss +of face'! It is, however, only fair to add that the total number +of these cases, though by no means inconsiderable, appears to be +proportionately small. + + +Parents and Children + +As was the power of the husband over the wife, so was that of the +father over his children. Infanticide (due chiefly to poverty, +and varying with it) was frequent, especially in the case of female +children, who were but slightly esteemed; the practice prevailing +extensively in three or four provinces, less extensively in others, +and being practically absent in a large number. Beyond the fact that +some penalties were enacted against it by the Emperor Ch'ien Lung +(A.D. 1736-96), and that by statute it was a capital offence to murder +children in order to use parts of their bodies for medicine, it was +not legally prohibited. When the abuse became too scandalous in any +district proclamations condemning it would be issued by the local +officials. A man might, by purchase and contract, adopt a person +as son, daughter, or grandchild, such person acquiring thereby all +the rights of a son or daughter. Descent, both of real and personal +property, was to all the sons of wives and concubines as joint heirs, +irrespective of seniority. Bastards received half shares. Estates were +not divisible by the children during the lifetime of their parents +or grandparents. + +The head of the family being but the life-renter of the family +property, bound by fixed rules, wills were superfluous, and were used +only where the customary respect for the parents gave them a voice +in arranging the details of the succession. For this purpose verbal +or written instructions were commonly given. + +In the absence of the father, the male relatives of the same surname +assumed the guardianship of the young. The guardian exercised full +authority and enjoyed the surplus revenues of his ward's estate, +but might not alienate the property. + +There are many instances in Chinese history of extreme devotion of +children to parents taking the form of self-wounding and even of +suicide in the hope of curing parents' illnesses or saving their lives. + + +Political History + +The country inhabited by the Chinese on their arrival from the West +was, as we saw, the district where the modern provinces of Shansi, +Shensi, and Honan join. This they extended in an easterly direction +to the shores of the Gulf of Chihli--a stretch of territory about 600 +miles long by 300 broad. The population, as already stated, was between +one and two millions. During the first two thousand years of their +known history the boundaries of this region were not greatly enlarged, +but beyond the more or less undefined borderland to the south were +_chou_ or colonies, nuclei of Chinese population, which continually +increased in size through conquest of the neighbouring territory. In +221 B.C. all the feudal states into which this territory had been +parcelled out, and which fought with one another, were subjugated +and absorbed by the state of Ch'in, which in that year instituted the +monarchical form of government--the form which obtained in China for +the next twenty-one centuries. + +Though the origin of the name 'China' has not yet been finally decided, +the best authorities regard it as derived from the name of this feudal +state of Ch'in. + +Under this short-lived dynasty of Ch'in and the famous Han dynasty +(221 B.C. to A.D. 221) which followed it, the Empire expanded until +it embraced almost all the territory now known as China Proper +(the Eighteen Provinces of Manchu times). To these were added +in order between 194 B.C. and A.D. 1414: Corea, Sinkiang (the +New Territory or Eastern Turkestan), Manchuria, Formosa, Tibet, +and Mongolia--Formosa and Corea being annexed by Japan in 1895 and +1910 respectively. Numerous other extra-China countries and islands, +acquired and lost during the long course of Chinese history (at one +time, from 73 to 48 B.C., "all Asia from Japan to the Caspian Sea was +tributary to the Middle Kingdom," _i.e._ China), it is not necessary +to mention here. During the Southern Sung dynasty (1127-1280) the +Tartars owned the northern half of China, as far down as the Yangtzu +River, and in the Yüan dynasty (1280-1368) they conquered the whole +country. During the period 1644-1912 it was in the possession of +the Manchus. At present the five chief component peoples of China are +represented in the striped national flag (from the top downward) by red +(Manchus), yellow (Chinese), blue (Mongolians), white (Mohammedans), +and black (Tibetans). This flag was adopted on the establishment of the +Republic in 1912, and supplanted the triangular Dragon flag previously +in use. By this time the population--which had varied considerably at +different periods owing to war, famine, and pestilence--had increased +to about 400,000,000. + + +General Government + +The general division of the nation was into the King and the People, +The former was regarded as appointed by the will of Heaven and +as the parent of the latter. Besides being king, he was also +law-giver, commander-in-chief of the armies, high priest, and +master of ceremonies. The people were divided into four classes: (1) +_Shih_, Officers (later Scholars), consisting of _Ch'ên_, Officials +(a few of whom were ennobled), and _Shên Shih_, Gentry; (2) _Nung_, +Agriculturists; (3) _Kung_, Artisans; and (4) _Shang_, Merchants. + +For administrative purposes there were at the seat of central +government (which, first at P'ing-yang--in modern Shansi--was +moved eleven times during the Feudal Period, and was finally +at Yin) ministers, or ministers and a hierarchy of officials, +the country being divided into provinces, varying in number from +nine in the earliest times to thirty-six under the First Emperor, +221 B.C., and finally twenty-two at the present day. At first these +provinces contained states, which were models of the central state, +the ruler's 'Middle Kingdom.' The provincial administration was +in the hands of twelve Pastors or Lord-Lieutenants. They were the +chiefs of all the nobles in a province. Civil and military offices +were not differentiated. The feudal lords or princes of states often +resided at the king's court, officers of that court being also sent +forth as princes of states. The king was the source of legislation +and administered justice. The princes in their several states had +the power of rewards and punishments. Revenue was derived from a +tithe on the land, from the income of artisans, merchants, fishermen, +foresters, and from the tribute brought by savage tribes. + +The general structure and principles of this system of administration +remained the same, with few variations, down to the end of the +Monarchical Period in 1912. At the end of that period we find the +emperor still considered as of divine descent, still the head of +the civil, legislative, military, ecclesiastical, and ceremonial +administration, with the nation still divided into the same four +classes. The chief ministries at the capital, Peking, could in most +cases trace their descent from their prototypes of feudal times, and +the principal provincial administrative officials--the Governor-General +or Viceroy, governor, provincial treasurer, judge, etc.--had similarly +a pedigree running back to offices then existing--a continuous duration +of adherence to type which is probably unique. + +Appointment to office was at first by selection, followed by an +examination to test proficiency; later was introduced the system of +public competitive literary examinations for office, fully organized +in the seventeenth century, and abolished in 1903, when official +positions were thrown open to the graduates of colleges established +on a modern basis. + +In 1912, on the overthrow of the Manchu monarchy, China became a +republic, with an elected President, and a Parliament consisting +of a Senate and House of Representatives. The various government +departments were reorganized on Western lines, and a large number +of new offices instituted. Up to the present year the Law of the +Constitution, owing to political dissension between the North and +the South, has not been put into force. + + +Laws + +Chinese law, like primitive law generally, was not instituted +in order to ensure justice between man and man; its object was +to enforce subordination of the ruled to the ruler. The laws were +punitive and vindictive rather than reformatory or remedial, criminal +rather than civil. Punishments were cruel: branding, cutting off the +nose, the legs at the knees, castration, and death, the latter not +necessarily, or indeed ordinarily, for taking life. They included in +some cases punishment of the family, the clan, and the neighbours of +the offender. The _lex talionis_ was in full force. + +Nevertheless, in spite of the harsh nature of the punishments, possibly +adapted, more or less, to a harsh state of society, though the "proper +end of punishments"--to "make an end of punishing"--was missed, the +Chinese evolved a series of excellent legal codes. This series began +with the revision of King Mu's _Punishments_ in 950 B.C., the first +regular code being issued in 650 B.C., and ended with the well-known +_Ta Ch'ing lü li_ (_Laws and Statutes of the Great Ch'ing Dynasty_), +issued in A.D. 1647. Of these codes the great exemplar was the _Law +Classic_ drawn up by Li K'uei (_Li K'uei fa ching_), a statesman +in the service of the first ruler of the Wei State, in the fourth +century B.C. The _Ta Ch'ing lü li_ has been highly praised by competent +judges. Originally it sanctioned only two kinds of punishment, death +and flogging, but others were in use, and the barbarous _ling ch'ih_, +'lingering death' or 'slicing to pieces,' invented about A.D. 1000 +and abolished in 1905, was inflicted for high treason, parricide, +on women who killed their husbands, and murderers of three persons +of one family. In fact, until some first-hand knowledge of Western +systems and procedure was obtained, the vindictive as opposed to the +reformatory idea of punishments continued to obtain in China down to +quite recent years, and has not yet entirely disappeared. Though the +crueller forms of punishment had been legally abolished, they continued +to be used in many parts. Having been joint judge at Chinese trials +at which, in spite of my protests, prisoners were hung up by their +thumbs and made to kneel on chains in order to extort confession +(without which no accused person could be punished), I can testify +that the true meaning of the "proper end of punishments" had no more +entered into the Chinese mind at the close of the monarchical _régime_ +than it had 4000 years before. + +As a result of the reform movement into which China was forced as +an alternative to foreign domination toward the end of the Manchu +Period, but chiefly owing to the bait held out by Western Powers, +that extraterritoriality would be abolished when China had reformed +her judicial system, a new Provisional Criminal Code was published. It +substituted death by hanging or strangulation for decapitation, and +imprisonment for various lengths of time for bambooing. It was adopted +in large measure by the Republican _régime_, and is the chief legal +instrument in use at the present time. But close examination reveals +the fact that it is almost an exact copy of the Japanese penal code, +which in turn was modelled upon that of Germany. It is, in fact, a +Western code imitated, and as it stands is quite out of harmony with +present conditions in China. It will have to be modified and recast +to be a suitable, just, and practicable national legal instrument +for the Chinese people. Moreover, it is frequently overridden in a +high-handed manner by the police, who often keep a person acquitted +by the Courts of Justice in custody until they have 'squeezed' him +of all they can hope to get out of him. And it is noteworthy that, +though provision was made in the Draft Code for trial by jury, this +provision never went into effect; and the slavish imitation of alien +methods is shown by the curiously inconsistent reason given--that "the +fact that jury trials have been abolished in Japan is indicative of the +inadvisability of transplanting this Western institution into China!" + + +Local Government + +The central administration being a far-flung network of officialdom, +there was hardly any room for local government apart from it. We +find it only in the village elder and those associated with him, who +took up what government was necessary where the jurisdiction of the +unit of the central administration--the district magistracy--ceased, +or at least did not concern itself in meddling much. + + +Military System + +The peace-loving agricultural settlers in early China had at first +no army. When occasion arose, all the farmers exchanged their +ploughshares for swords and bows and arrows, and went forth to +fight. In the intervals between the harvests, when the fields were +clear, they held manoeuvres and practised the arts of warfare. The +king, who had his Six Armies, under the Six High Nobles, forming +the royal military force, led the troops in person, accompanied by +the spirit-tablets of his ancestors and of the gods of the land and +grain. Chariots, drawn by four horses and containing soldiers armed +with spears and javelins and archers, were much in use. A thousand +chariots was the regular force. Warriors wore buskins on their legs, +and were sometimes gagged in order to prevent the alarm being given to +the enemy. In action the chariots occupied the centre, the bowmen the +left, the spearmen the right flank. Elephants were sometimes used in +attack. Spy-kites, signal-flags, hook-ladders, horns, cymbals, drums, +and beacon-fires were in use. The ears of the vanquished were taken +to the king, quarter being rarely if ever given. + +After the establishment of absolute monarchical government standing +armies became the rule. Military science was taught, and soldiers +sometimes trained for seven years. Chariots with upper storeys or +spy-towers were used for fighting in narrow defiles, and hollow squares +were formed of mixed chariots, infantry, and dragoons. The weakness of +disunion of forces was well understood. In the sixth century A.D. the +massed troops numbered about a million and a quarter. In A.D. 627 +there was an efficient standing army of 900,000 men, the term of +service being from the ages of twenty to sixty. During the Mongol +dynasty (1280-1368) there was a navy of 5000 ships manned by 70,000 +trained fighters. The Mongols completely revolutionized tactics and +improved on all the military knowledge of the time. In 1614 the Manchu +'Eight Banners,' composed of Manchus, Mongolians, and Chinese, were +instituted. The provincial forces, designated the Army of the Green +Standard, were divided into land forces and marine forces, superseded +on active service by 'braves' (_yung_), or irregulars, enlisted and +discharged according to circumstances. After the war with Japan in +1894 reforms were seriously undertaken, with the result that the army +has now been modernized in dress, weapons, tactics, etc., and is by +no means a negligible quantity in the world's fighting forces. A +modern navy is also being acquired by building and purchase. For +many centuries the soldier, being, like the priest, unproductive, +was regarded with disdain, and now that his indispensableness for +defensive purposes is recognized he has to fight not only any actual +enemy who may attack him, but those far subtler forces from over the +sea which seem likely to obtain supremacy in his military councils, +if not actual control of his whole military system. It is, in my view, +the duty of Western nations to take steps before it is too late to +avert this great disaster. + + +Ecclesiastical Institutions + +The dancing and chanting exorcists called _wu_ were the first Chinese +priests, with temples containing gods worshipped and sacrificed +to, but there was no special sacerdotal class. Worship of Heaven +could only be performed by the king or emperor. Ecclesiastical and +political functions were not completely separated. The king was +_pontifex maximus_, the nobles, statesmen, and civil and military +officers acted as priests, the ranks being similar to those of the +political hierarchy. Worship took place in the 'Hall of Light,' +which was also a palace and audience and council chamber. Sacrifices +were offered to Heaven, the hills and rivers, ancestors, and all the +spirits. Dancing held a conspicuous place in worship. Idols are spoken +of in the earliest times. + +Of course, each religion, as it formed itself out of the original +ancestor-worship, had its own sacred places, functionaries, +observances, ceremonial. Thus, at the State worship of Heaven, Nature, +etc., there were the 'Great,' 'Medium,' and 'Inferior' sacrifices, +consisting of animals, silk, grain, jade, etc. Panegyrics were sung, +and robes of appropriate colour worn. In spring, summer, autumn, +and winter there were the seasonal sacrifices at the appropriate +altars. Taoism and Buddhism had their temples, monasteries, priests, +sacrifices, and ritual; and there were village and wayside temples +and shrines to ancestors, the gods of thunder, rain, wind, grain, +agriculture, and many others. Now encouraged, now tolerated, now +persecuted, the ecclesiastical _personnel_ and structure of Taoism and +Buddhism survived into modern times, when we find complete schemes +of ecclesiastical gradations of rank and authority grafted upon +these two priestly hierarchies, and their temples, priests, etc., +fulfilling generally, with worship of ancestors, State or official +(Confucianism) and private or unofficial, and the observance of various +annual festivals, such as 'All Souls' Day' for wandering and hungry +ghosts, the spiritual needs of the people as the 'Three Religions' +(_San Chiao_). The emperor, as high priest, took the responsibility +for calamities, etc., making confession to Heaven and praying that +as a punishment the evil be diverted from the people to his own +person. Statesmen, nobles, and officials discharged, as already noted, +priestly functions in connexion with the State religion in addition +to their ordinary duties. As a rule, priests proper, frowned upon as +non-producers, were recruited from the lower classes, were celibate, +unintellectual, idle, and immoral. There was nothing, even in the +elaborate ceremonies on special occasions in the Buddhist temples, +which could be likened to what is known as 'public worship' and +'common prayer' in the West. Worship had for its sole object either +the attainment of some good or the prevention of some evil. + +Generally this represents the state of things under the Republican +_régime_; the chief differences being greater neglect of ecclesiastical +matters and the conversion of a large number of temples into schools. + + +Professional Institutions + +We read of physicians, blind musicians, poets, teachers, prayer-makers, +architects, scribes, painters, diviners, ceremonialists, orators, +and others during the Feudal Period, These professions were of +ecclesiastical origin, not yet completely differentiated from the +'Church,' and both in earlier and later times not always or often +differentiated from each other. Thus the historiographers combined the +duties of statesmen, scholars, authors, and generals. The professions +of authors and teachers, musicians and poets, were united in one +person. And so it continued to the present day. Priests discharge +medical functions, poets still sing their verses. But experienced +medical specialists, though few, are to be found, as well as women +doctors; there are veterinary surgeons, musicians (chiefly belonging +to the poorest classes and often blind), actors, teachers, attorneys, +diviners, artists, letter-writers, and many others, men of letters +being perhaps the most prominent and most esteemed. + + + +Accessory Institutions + +A system of schools, academies, colleges, and universities obtained in +villages, districts, departments, and principalities. The instruction +was divided into 'Primary Learning' and 'Great Learning.' There were +special schools of dancing and music. Libraries and almshouses for +old men are mentioned. Associations of scholars for literary purposes +seem to have been numerous. + +Whatever form and direction education might have taken, it became +stereotyped at an early age by the road to office being made to +lead through a knowledge of the classical writings of the ancient +sages. It became not only 'the thing' to be well versed in the sayings +of Confucius, Mencius; etc., and to be able to compose good essays on +them containing not a single wrongly written character, but useless +for aspirants to office--who constituted practically the whole of the +literary class--to acquire any other knowledge. So obsessed was the +national mind by this literary mania that even infants' spines were +made to bend so as to produce when adult the 'scholarly stoop.' And +from the fact that besides the scholar class the rest of the community +consisted of agriculturists, artisans, and merchants, whose knowledge +was that of their fathers and grandfathers, inculcated in the sons +and grandsons as it had been in them, showing them how to carry on +in the same groove the calling to which Fate had assigned them, a +departure from which would have been considered 'unfilial'--unless, +of course (as it very rarely did), it went the length of attaining +through study of the classics a place in the official class, and thus +shedding eternal lustre on the family--it will readily be seen that +there was nothing to cause education to be concerned with any but one +or two of the subjects which are included by Western peoples under +that designation. It became at an early age, and remained for many +centuries, a rote-learning of the elementary text-books, followed by +a similar acquisition by heart of the texts of the works of Confucius +and other classical writers. And so it remained until the abolition, in +1905, of the old competitive examination system, and the substitution +of all that is included in the term 'modern education' at schools, +colleges, and universities all over the country, in which there is +rapidly growing up a force that is regenerating the Chinese people, +and will make itself felt throughout the whole world. + +It is this keen and shrewd appreciation of the learned, and this lust +for knowledge, which, barring the tragedy of foreign domination, will +make China, in the truest and best sense of the word, a great nation, +where, as in the United States of America, the rigid class status and +undervaluation, if not disdaining, of knowledge which are proving so +disastrous in England and other European countries will be avoided, +and the aristocracy of learning established in its place. + +Besides educational institutions, we find institutions for poor relief, +hospitals, foundling hospitals, orphan asylums, banking, insurance, +and loan associations, travellers' clubs, mercantile corporations, +anti-opium societies, co-operative burial societies, as well as many +others, some imitated from Western models. + + +Bodily Mutilations + +Compared with the practices found to exist among most primitive races, +the mutilations the Chinese were in the habit of inflicting were but +few. They flattened the skulls of their babies by means of stones, so +as to cause them to taper at the top, and we have already seen what +they did to their spines; also the mutilations in warfare, and the +punishments inflicted both within and without the law; and how filial +children and loyal wives mutilated themselves for the sake of their +parents and to prevent remarriage. Eunuchs, of course, existed in great +numbers. People bit, cut, or marked their arms to pledge oaths. But +the practices which are more peculiarly associated with the Chinese +are the compressing of women's feet and the wearing of the queue, +misnamed 'pigtail.' The former is known to have been in force about +A.D. 934, though it may have been introduced as early as 583. It did +not, however, become firmly established for more than a century. This +'extremely painful mutilation,' begun in infancy, illustrates the +tyranny of fashion, for it is supposed to have arisen in the imitation +by the women generally of the small feet of an imperial concubine +admired by one of the emperors from ten to fifteen centuries ago +(the books differ as to his identity). The second was a badge of +servitude inflicted by the Manchus on the Chinese when they conquered +China at the beginning of the seventeenth century. Discountenanced by +governmental edicts, both of these practices are now tending toward +extinction, though, of course, compressed feet and 'pigtails' are +still to be seen in every town and village. Legally, the queue was +abolished when the Chinese rid themselves of the Manchu yoke in 1912. + + +Funeral Rites + +Not understanding the real nature of death, the Chinese believed +it was merely a state of suspended animation, in which the soul +had failed to return to the body, though it might yet do so, +even after long intervals. Consequently they delayed burial, and +fed the corpse, and went on to the house-tops and called aloud +to the spirit to return. When at length they were convinced that +the absent spirit could not be induced to re-enter the body, they +placed the latter in a coffin and buried it--providing it, however, +with all that it had found necessary in this life (food, clothing, +wives, servants, etc.), which it would require also in the next (in +their view rather a continuation of the present existence than the +beginning of another)--and, having inducted or persuaded the spirit +to enter the 'soul-tablet' which accompanied the funeral procession +(which took place the moment the tablet was 'dotted,' _i.e._ when +the character _wang_, 'prince,' was changed into _chu_, 'lord'), +carried it back home again, set it up in a shrine in the main hall, +and fell down and worshipped it. Thus was the spirit propitiated, +and as long as occasional offerings were not overlooked the power +for evil possessed by it would not be exerted against the surviving +inmates of the house, whom it had so thoughtlessly deserted. + +The latter mourned by screaming, wailing, stamping their feet, +and beating their breasts, renouncing (in the earliest times) even +their clothes, dwelling, and belongings to the dead, removing to +mourning-sheds of clay, fasting, or eating only rice gruel, sleeping +on straw with a clod for a pillow, and speaking only on subjects of +death and burial. Office and public duties were resigned, and marriage, +music, and separation from the clan prohibited. + +During the lapse of the long ages of monarchical rule funeral rites +became more elaborate and magnificent, but, though less rigid and +ceremonious since the institution of the Republic, they have retained +their essential character down to the present day. + +Funeral ceremonial was more exacting than that connected with most +other observances, including those of marriage. Invitations or +notifications were sent to friends, and after receipt of these _fu_, +on the various days appointed therein, the guest was obliged to send +presents, such as money, paper horses, slaves, etc., and go and join +in the lamentations of the hired mourners and attend at the prayers +recited by the priests. Funeral etiquette could not be _pu'd, i.e._ +made good, if overlooked or neglected at the right time, as it could +in the case of the marriage ceremonial. + +Instead of symmetrical public graveyards, as in the West, the +Chinese cemeteries belong to the family or clan of the deceased, +and are generally beautiful and peaceful places planted with trees +and surrounded by artistic walls enclosing the grave-mounds and +monumental tablets. The cemeteries themselves are the metonyms of the +villages, and the graves of the houses. In the north especially the +grave is very often surmounted by a huge marble tortoise bearing the +inscribed tablet, or what we call the gravestone, on its back. The +tombs of the last two lines of emperors, the Ming and the Manchu, +are magnificent structures, spread over enormous areas, and always +artistically situated on hillsides facing natural or artificial lakes +or seas. Contrary to the practice in Egypt, with the two exceptions +above mentioned the conquering dynasties have always destroyed the +tombs of their predecessors. But for this savage vandalism, China +would probably possess the most magnificent assembly of imperial +tombs in the world's records. + + + +Laws of Intercourse + +Throughout the whole course of their existence as a social aggregate +the Chinese have pushed ceremonial observances to an extreme +limit. "Ceremonies," says the _Li chi_, the great classic of ceremonial +usages, "are the greatest of all things by which men live." Ranks were +distinguished by different headdresses, garments, badges, weapons, +writing-tablets, number of attendants, carriages, horses, height of +walls, etc. Daily as well as official life was regulated by minute +observances. There were written codes embracing almost every attitude +and act of inferiors toward superiors, of superiors toward inferiors, +and of equals toward equals. Visits, forms of address, and giving +of presents had each their set of formulae, known and observed by +every one as strictly and regularly as each child in China learned by +heart and repeated aloud the three-word sentences of the elementary +_Trimetrical Classic_. But while the school text-book was extremely +simple, ceremonial observances were extremely elaborate. A Chinese +was in this respect as much a slave to the living as in his funeral +rites he was a slave to the dead. Only now, in the rush of 'modern +progress,' is the doffing of the hat taking the place of the 'kowtow' +(_k'o-t'ou_). + +It is in this matter of ceremonial observances that the East +and the West have misunderstood each other perhaps more than in +all others. Where rules of etiquette are not only different, +but are diametrically opposed, there is every opportunity for +misunderstanding, if not estrangement. The points at issue in +such questions as 'kowtowing' to the emperor and the worshipping +of ancestors are generally known, but the Westerner, as a rule, is +ignorant of the fact that if he wishes to conform to Chinese etiquette +when in China (instead of to those Western customs which are in many +cases unfortunately taking their place) he should not, for instance, +take off his hat when entering a house or a temple, should not shake +hands with his host, nor, if he wishes to express approval, should he +clap his hands. Clapping of hands in China (_i.e._ non-Europeanized +China) is used to drive away the _sha ch'i_, or deathly influence of +evil spirits, and to clap the hands at the close of the remarks of a +Chinese host (as I have seen prominent, well-meaning, but ill-guided +men of the West do) is equivalent to disapproval, if not insult. Had +our diplomatists been sociologists instead of only commercial agents, +more than one war might have been avoided. + + +Habits and Customs + +At intervals during the year the Chinese make holiday. Their public +festivals begin with the celebration of the advent of the new +year. They let off innumerable firecrackers, and make much merriment +in their homes, drinking and feasting, and visiting their friends +for several days. Accounts are squared, houses cleaned, fresh paper +'door-gods' pasted on the front doors, strips of red paper with +characters implying happiness, wealth, good fortune, longevity, etc., +stuck on the doorposts or the lintel, tables, etc., covered with red +cloth, and flowers and decorations displayed everywhere. Business +is suspended, and the merriment, dressing in new clothes, feasting, +visiting, offerings to gods and ancestors, and idling continue pretty +consistently during the first half of the first moon, the vacation +ending with the Feast of Lanterns, which occupies the last three +days. It originated in the Han dynasty 2000 years ago. Innumerable +lanterns of all sizes, shapes, colours (except wholly white, or rather +undyed material, the colour of mourning), and designs are lit in front +of public and private buildings, but the use of these was an addition +about 800 years later, _i.e._ about 1200 years ago. Paper dragons, +hundreds of yards long, are moved along the streets at a slow pace, +supported on the heads of men whose legs only are visible, giving +the impression of huge serpents winding through the thoroughfares. + +Of the other chief festivals, about eight in number (not counting the +festivals of the four seasons with their equinoxes and solstices), four +are specially concerned with the propitiation of the spirits--namely, +the Earlier Spirit Festival (fifteenth day of second moon), the +Festival of the Tombs (about the third day of the third moon), when +graves are put in order and special offerings made to the dead, the +Middle Spirit Festival (fifteenth day of seventh moon), and the Later +Spirit Festival (fifteenth day of tenth moon). The Dragon-boat Festival +(fifth day of fifth moon) is said to have originated as a commemoration +of the death of the poet Ch'ü Yüan, who drowned himself in disgust +at the official intrigue and corruption of which he was the victim, +but the object is the procuring of sufficient rain to ensure a good +harvest. It is celebrated by racing with long narrow boats shaped to +represent dragons and propelled by scores of rowers, pasting of charms +on the doors of dwellings, and eating a special kind of rice-cake, +with a liquor as a beverage. + +The fifteenth day of the eighth moon is the Mid-autumn Festival, known +by foreigners as All Souls' Day. On this occasion the women worship the +moon, offering cakes, fruit, etc. The gates of Purgatory are opened, +and the hungry ghosts troop forth to enjoy themselves for a month on +the good things provided for them by the pious. The ninth day of the +ninth moon is the Chung Yang Festival, when every one who possibly +can ascends to a high place--a hill or temple-tower. This inaugurates +the kite-flying season, and is supposed to promote longevity. During +that season, which lasts several months, the Chinese people the sky +with dragons, centipedes, frogs, butterflies, and hundreds of other +cleverly devised creatures, which, by means of simple mechanisms worked +by the wind, roll their eyes, make appropriate sounds, and move their +paws, wings, tails, etc., in a most realistic manner. The festival +originated in a warning received by a scholar named Huan Ching from +his master Fei Ch'ang-fang, a native of Ju-nan in Honan, who lived +during the Han dynasty, that a terrible calamity was about to happen, +and enjoining him to escape with his family to a high place. On his +return he found all his domestic animals dead, and was told that +they had died instead of himself and his relatives. On New Year's Eve +(_Tuan Nien_ or _Chu Hsi_) the Kitchen-god ascends to Heaven to make +his annual report, the wise feasting him with honey and other sticky +food before his departure, so that his lips may be sealed and he be +unable to 'let on' too much to the powers that be in the regions above! + + +Sports and Games + +The first sports of the Chinese were festival gatherings for purposes +of archery, to which succeeded exercises partaking of a military +character. Hunting was a favourite amusement. They played games of +calculation, chess (or the 'game of war'), shuttlecock with the feet, +pitch-pot (throwing arrows from a distance into a narrow-necked jar), +and 'horn-goring' (fighting on the shoulders of others with horned +masks on their heads). Stilts, football, dice-throwing, boat-racing, +dog-racing, cock-fighting, kite-flying, as well as singing and dancing +marionettes, afforded recreation and amusement. + +Many of these games became obsolete in course of time, and new ones +were invented. At the end of the Monarchical Period, during the Manchu +dynasty, we find those most in use to be foot-shuttlecock, lifting of +beams headed with heavy stones--dumb-bells four feet long and weighing +thirty or forty pounds--kite-flying, quail-fighting, cricket-fighting, +sending birds after seeds thrown into the air, sauntering through +fields, playing chess or 'morra,' or gambling with cards, dice, or +over the cricket- and quail-fights or seed-catching birds. There were +numerous and varied children's games tending to develop strength, +skill, quickness of action, parental instinct, accuracy, and +sagacity. Theatricals were performed by strolling troupes on stages +erected opposite temples, though permanent theatres also existed, +female parts until recently being taken by male actors. Peep-shows, +conjurers, ventriloquists, acrobats, fortune-tellers, and story-tellers +kept crowds amused or interested. Generally, 'young China' of the +present day, identified with the party of progress, seems to have +adopted most of the outdoor but very few of the indoor games of +Western nations. + + +Domestic Life + +In domestic or private life, observances at birth, betrothal, and +marriage were elaborate, and retained superstitious elements. Early +rising was general. Shaving of the head and beard, as well as cleaning +of the ears and massage, was done by barbers. There were public +baths in all cities and towns. Shops were closed at nightfall, and, +the streets being until recent times ill-lit or unlit, passengers or +their attendants carried lanterns. Most houses, except the poorest, +had private watchmen. Generally two meals a day were taken. Dinners to +friends were served at inns or restaurants, accompanied or followed +by musical or theatrical performances. The place of honour is stated +in Western books on China to be on the left, but the fact is that the +place of honour is the one which shows the utmost solicitude for the +safety of the guest. It is therefore not necessarily one fixed place, +but would usually be the one facing the door, so that the guest might +be in a position to see an enemy enter, and take measures accordingly. + +Lap-dogs and cage-birds were kept as pets; 'wonks,' the _huang kou_, +or 'yellow dog,' were guards of houses and street scavengers. Aquaria +with goldfish were often to be seen in the houses of the upper and +middle classes, the gardens and courtyards of which usually contained +rockeries and artistic shrubs and flowers. + +Whiskers were never worn, and moustaches and beards only after forty, +before which age the hair grew, if at all, very scantily. Full, +thick beards, as in the West, were practically never seen, even on +the aged. Snuff-bottles, tobacco-pipes, and fans were carried by both +sexes. Nails were worn long by members of the literary and leisured +classes. Non-Manchu women and girls had cramped feet, and both Manchu +and Chinese women used cosmetics freely. + + +Industrial Institutions + +While the men attended to farm-work, women took care of the +mulberry-orchards and silkworms, and did spinning, weaving, and +embroidery. This, the primitive division of labour, held throughout, +though added to on both sides, so that eventually the men did most +of the agriculture, arts, production, distribution, fighting, etc., +and the women, besides the duties above named and some field-labour, +mended old clothes, drilled and sharpened needles, pasted tin-foil, +made shoes, and gathered and sorted the leaves of the tea-plant. In +course of time trades became highly specialized--their number being +legion--and localized, bankers, for instance, congregating in Shansi, +carpenters in Chi Chou, and porcelain-manufacturers in Jao Chou, +in Kiangsi. + +As to land, it became at an early age the property of the sovereign, +who farmed it out to his relatives or favourites. It was arranged on +the _ching_, or 'well' system--eight private squares round a ninth +public square cultivated by the eight farmer families in common for the +benefit of the State. From the beginning to the end of the Monarchical +Period tenure continued to be of the Crown, land being unallodial, and +mostly held in clans or families, and not entailed, the conditions +of tenure being payment of an annual tax, a fee for alienation, +and money compensation for personal services to the Government, +generally incorporated into the direct tax as scutage. Slavery, +unknown in the earliest times, existed as a recognized institution +during the whole of the Monarchical Period. + +Production was chiefly confined to human and animal labour, machinery +being only now in use on a large scale. Internal distribution +was carried on from numerous centres and at fairs, shops, markets, +etc. With few exceptions, the great trade-routes by land and sea have +remained the same during the last two thousand years. Foreign trade was +with Western Asia, Greece, Rome, Carthage, Arabia, etc., and from the +seventeenth century A.D. more generally with European countries. The +usual primitive means of conveyance, such as human beings, animals, +carts, boats, etc., were partly displaced by steam-vessels from +1861 onward. + +Exchange was effected by barter, cowries of different values being the +prototype of coins, which were cast in greater or less quantity under +each reign. But until within recent years there was only one coin, +the copper cash, in use, bullion and paper notes being the other +media of exchange. Silver Mexican dollars and subsidiary coins came +into use with the advent of foreign commerce. Weights and measures +(which generally decreased from north to south), officially arranged +partly on the decimal system, were discarded by the people in ordinary +commercial transactions for the more convenient duodecimal subdivision. + + +Arts + +Hunting, fishing, cooking, weaving, dyeing, carpentry, metallurgy, +glass-, brick-, and paper-making, printing, and book-binding were +in a more or less primitive stage, the mechanical arts showing much +servile imitation and simplicity in design; but pottery, carving, +and lacquer-work were in an exceptionally high state of development, +the articles produced being surpassed in quality and beauty by no +others in the world. + + +Agriculture and Rearing of Livestock + +From the earliest times the greater portion of the available land was +under cultivation. Except when the country has been devastated by war, +the Chinese have devoted close attention to the cultivation of the +soil continuously for forty centuries. Even the hills are terraced for +extra growing-room. But poverty and governmental inaction caused much +to lie idle. There were two annual crops in the north, and five in two +years in the south. Perhaps two-thirds of the population cultivated the +soil. The methods, however, remained primitive; but the great fertility +of the soil and the great industry of the farmer, with generous but +careful use of fertilizers, enabled the vast territory to support an +enormous population. Rice, wheat, barley, buckwheat, maize, kaoliang, +several millets, and oats were the chief grains cultivated. Beans, +peas, oil-bearing seeds (sesame, rape, etc.), fibre-plants (hemp, +ramie, jute, cotton, etc.), starch-roots (taros, yams, sweet potatoes, +etc.), tobacco, indigo, tea, sugar, fruits, were among the more +important crops produced. Fruit-growing, however, lacked scientific +method. The rotation of crops was not a usual practice, but grafting, +pruning, dwarfing, enlarging, selecting, and varying species were well +understood. Vegetable-culture had reached a high state of perfection, +the smallest patches of land being made to bring forth abundantly. This +is the more creditable inasmuch as most small farmers could not afford +to purchase expensive foreign machinery, which, in many cases, would +be too large or complicated for their purposes. + +The principal animals, birds, etc., reared were the pig, ass, horse, +mule, cow, sheep, goat, buffalo, yak, fowl, duck, goose, pigeon, +silkworm, and bee. + +The Ministry of Agriculture and Commerce, the successor to the Board +of Agriculture, Manufactures, and Commerce, instituted during recent +years, is now adapting Western methods to the cultivation of the +fertile soil of China, and even greater results than in the past may +be expected in the future. + + +Sentiments and Moral Ideas + +The Chinese have always shown a keen delight in the beautiful--in +flowers, music, poetry, literature, embroidery, paintings, +porcelain. They cultivated ornamental plants, almost every house, +as we saw, having its garden, large or small, and tables were often +decorated with flowers in vases or ornamental wire baskets or fruits or +sweetmeats. Confucius made music an instrument of government. Paper +bearing the written character was so respected that it might not +be thrown on the ground or trodden on. Delight was always shown in +beautiful scenery or tales of the marvellous. Commanding or agreeable +situations were chosen for temples. But until within the last few +years streets and houses were generally unclean, and decency in public +frequently absent. + +Morality was favoured by public opinion, but in spite of early +marriages and concubinage there was much laxity. Cruelty both +to human beings and animals has always been a marked trait in +the Chinese character. Savagery in warfare, cannibalism, luxury, +drunkenness, and corruption prevailed in the earliest times. The +attitude toward women was despotic. But moral principles pervaded the +classical writings, and formed the basis of law. In spite of these, +the inferior sentiment of revenge was, as we have seen, approved and +preached as a sacred duty. As a result of the universal _yin-yang_ +dualistic doctrines, immorality was leniently regarded. In modern +times, at least, mercantile honour was high, "a merchant's word +is as good as his bond" being truer in China than in many other +countries. Intemperance was rare. Opium-smoking was much indulged in +until the use of the drug was forcibly suppressed (1906-16). Even now +much is smuggled into the country, or its growth overlooked by bribed +officials. Clan quarrels and fights were common, vendettas sometimes +continuing for generations. Suicide under depressing circumstances +was approved and honoured; it was frequently resorted to under the +sting of great injustice. There was a deep reverence for parents +and superiors. Disregard of the truth, when useful, was universal, +and unattended by a sense of shame, even on detection. Thieving was +common. The illegal exactions of rulers were burdensome. In times +of prosperity pride and satisfaction in material matters was not +concealed, and was often short-sighted. Politeness was practically +universal, though said to be often superficial; but gratitude was a +marked characteristic, and was heartfelt. Mutual conjugal affection +was strong. The love of gambling was universal. + +But little has occurred in recent years to modify the above +characters. Nevertheless the inferior traits are certainly being +changed by education and by the formation of societies whose members +bind themselves against immorality, concubinage, gambling, drinking, +smoking, etc. + + +Religious Ideas + +Chinese religion is inherently an attitude toward the spirits or gods +with the object of obtaining a benefit or averting a calamity. We +shall deal with it more fully in another chapter. Suffice it to say +here that it originated in ancestor-worship, and that the greater +part of it remains ancestor-worship to the present day. The State +religion, which was Confucianism, was ancestor-worship. Taoism, +originally a philosophy, became a worship of spirits--of the souls of +dead men supposed to have taken up their abode in animals, reptiles, +insects, trees, stones, etc.--borrowed the cloak of religion from +Buddhism, which eventually outshone it, and degenerated into a system +of exorcism and magic. Buddhism, a religion originating in India, in +which Buddha, once a man, is worshipped, in which no beings are known +with greater power than can be attained to by man, and according to +which at death the soul migrates into anything from a deified human +being to an elephant, a bird, a plant, a wall, a broom, or any piece +of inorganic matter, was imported ready made into China and took the +side of popular superstition and Taoism against the orthodox belief, +finding that its power lay in the influence on the popular mind of its +doctrine respecting a future state, in contrast to the indifference +of Confucianism. Its pleading for compassion and preservation of life +met a crying need, and but for it the state of things in this respect +would be worse than it is. + +Religion, apart from ancestor-worship, does not enter largely +into Chinese life. There is none of the real 'love of God' found, +for example, in the fervent as distinguished from the conventional +Christian. And as ancestor-worship gradually loses its hold and dies +out agnosticism will take its place. + + +Superstitions + +An almost infinite variety of superstitious practices, due to the +belief in the good or evil influences of departed spirits, exists in +all parts of China. Days are lucky or unlucky. Eclipses are due to a +dragon trying to eat the sun or the moon. The rainbow is supposed to be +the result of a meeting between the impure vapours of the sun and the +earth. Amulets are worn, and charms hung up, sprigs of artemisia or +of peach-blossom are placed near beds and over lintels respectively, +children and adults are 'locked to life' by means of locks on chains +or cords worn round the neck, old brass mirrors are supposed to cure +insanity, figures of gourds, tigers' claws, or the unicorn are worn +to ensure good fortune or ward off sickness, fire, etc., spells of +many kinds, composed mostly of the written characters for happiness +and longevity, are worn, or written on paper, cloth, leaves, etc., +and burned, the ashes being made into a decoction and drunk by the +young or sick. + +Divination by means of the divining stalks (the divining plant, +milfoil or yarrow) and the tortoiseshell has been carried on from +time immemorial, but was not originally practised with the object of +ascertaining future events, but in order to decide doubts, much as +lots are drawn or a coin tossed in the West. _Fêng-shui_, "the art of +adapting the residence of the living and the dead so as to co-operate +and harmonize with the local currents of the cosmic breath" (the _yin_ +and the _yang_: see Chapter III), a doctrine which had its root in +ancestor-worship, has exercised an enormous influence on Chinese +thought and life from the earliest times, and especially from those +of Chu Hsi and other philosophers of the Sung dynasty. + + +Knowledge + +Having noted that Chinese education was mainly literary, and why it +was so, it is easy to see that there would be little or no demand +for the kind of knowledge classified in the West under the head of +science. In so far as any demand existed, it did so, at any rate at +first, only because it subserved vital needs. Thus, astronomy, or more +properly astrology, was studied in order that the calendar might be +regulated, and so the routine of agriculture correctly followed, for +on that depended the people's daily rice, or rather, in the beginning, +the various fruits and kinds of flesh which constituted their means of +sustentation before their now universal food was known. In philosophy +they have had two periods of great activity, the first beginning with +Lao Tzu and Confucius in the sixth century B.C. and ending with the +Burning of the Books by the First Emperor, Shih Huang Ti, in 213 B.C.; +the second beginning with Chou Tzu (A.D. 1017-73) and ending with Chu +Hsi (1130-1200). The department of philosophy in the imperial library +contained in 190 B.C. 2705 volumes by 137 authors. There can be no +doubt that this zeal for the orthodox learning, combined with the +literary test for office, was the reason why scientific knowledge was +prevented from developing; so much so, that after four thousand or more +years of national life we find, during the Manchu Period, which ended +the monarchical _régime_, few of the educated class, giants though they +were in knowledge of all departments of their literature and history +(the continuity of their traditions laid down in their twenty-four +Dynastic Annals has been described as one of the great wonders of the +world), with even the elementary scientific learning of a schoolboy +in the West. 'Crude,' 'primitive,' 'mediocre,' 'vague,' 'inaccurate,' +'want of analysis and generalization,' are terms we find applied to +their knowledge of such leading sciences as geography, mathematics, +chemistry, botany, and geology. Their medicine was much hampered +by superstition, and perhaps more so by such beliefs as that the +seat of the intellect is in the stomach, that thoughts proceed from +the heart, that the pit of the stomach is the seat of the breath, +that the soul resides in the liver, etc.--the result partly of the +idea that dissection of the body would maim it permanently during +its existence in the Otherworld. What progress was made was due to +European instruction; and this again is the _causa causans_ of the +great wave of progress in scientific and philosophical knowledge +which is rolling over the whole country and will have marked effects +on the history of the world during the coming century. + + +Language + +Originally polysyllabic, the Chinese language later assumed a +monosyllabic, isolating, uninflected form, grammatical relations +being indicated by position. From the earliest forms of speech several +subordinate vernacular languages arose in various districts, and from +these sprang local dialects, etc. Tone-distinctions arose--_i.e._ +the same words pronounced with a different intonation came to +mean different things. Development of these distinctions led to +carelessness of articulation, and multiplication of what would be +homonyms but for these tones. It is incorrect to assume that the tones +were invented to distinguish similar sounds. So that, at the present +day, anyone who says _ma_ will mean either an exclamation, hemp, +horse, or curse according to the quality he gives to the sound. The +language remains in a primitive state, without inflexion, declension, +or distinction of parts of speech. The order in a sentence is: subject, +verb, complement direct, complement indirect. Gender is formed by +distinctive particles; number by prefixing numerals, etc.; cases +by position or appropriate prepositions. Adjectives precede nouns; +position determines comparison; and absence of punctuation causes +ambiguity. The latter is now introduced into most newly published +works. The new education is bringing with it innumerable words and +phrases not found in the old literature or dictionaries. Japanese +idioms which are now being imported into the language are making it +less pure. + +The written language, too well known to need detailed description, a +thing of beauty and a joy for ever to those able to appreciate it, said +to have taken originally the form of knotted cords and then of notches +on wood (though this was more probably the origin of numeration than of +writing proper), took later that of rude outlines of natural objects, +and then went on to the phonetic system, under which each character is +composed of two parts, the radical, indicating the meaning, and the +phonetic, indicating the sound. They were symbols, non-agglutinative +and non-inflexional, and were written in vertical columns, probably +from having in early times been painted or cut on strips of bark. + + +Achievements of the Chinese + +As the result of all this fitful fever during so many centuries, +we find that the Chinese, after having lived in nests "in order to +avoid the animals," and then in caves, have built themselves houses +and palaces which are still made after the pattern of their prototype, +with a flat wall behind, the openings in front, the walls put in after +the pillars and roof-tree have been fixed, and out-buildings added on +as side extensions. The _k'ang_, or 'stove-bed' (now a platform made +of bricks), found all over the northern provinces, was a place scooped +out of the side of the cave, with an opening underneath in which (as +now) a fire was lit in winter. Windows and shutters opened upward, +being a survival of the mat or shade hung in front of the apertures +in the walls of the primitive cave-dwelling. Four of these buildings +facing each other round a square made the courtyard, and one or more +courtyards made the compound. They have fed themselves on almost +everything edible to be found on, under, or above land or water, +except milk, but live chiefly on rice, chicken, fish, vegetables, +including garlic, and tea, though at one time they ate flesh and +drank wine, sometimes to excess, before tea was cultivated. They +have clothed themselves in skins and feathers, and then in silks +and satins, but mostly in cotton, and hardly ever in wool. Under +the Manchu _régime_ the type of dress adopted was that of this +horse-riding race, showing the chief characteristics of that noble +animal, the broad sleeves representing the hoofs, the queue the mane, +etc. This queue was formed of the hair growing from the back part +of the scalp, the front of which was shaved. Unlike the Egyptians, +they did not wear wigs. They have nearly always had the decency to +wear their coats long, and have despised the Westerner for wearing +his too short. They are now paradoxical enough to make the mistake +of adopting the Westerner's costume. + +They have made to themselves great canals, bridges, aqueducts, and +the longest wall there has ever been on the face of the earth (which +could not be seen from the moon, as some sinologists have erroneously +supposed, any more than a hair, however long, could be seen at a +distance of a hundred yards). They have made long and wide roads, but +failed to keep them in repair during the last few centuries, though +much zeal, possibly due to commerce on oil- or electricity-driven +wheels, is now being shown in this direction. They have built honorary +portals to chaste widows, pagodas, and arched bridges of great beauty, +not forgetting to surround each city with a high and substantial wall +to keep out unfriendly people. They have made innumerable implements +and weapons, from pens and fans and chopsticks to ploughs and carts +and ships; from fiery darts, 'flame elephants,' bows and spears, +spiked chariots, battering-rams, and hurling-engines to mangonels, +trebuchets, matchlocks of wrought iron and plain bore with long +barrels resting on a stock, and gingals fourteen feet long resting on +a tripod, cuirasses of quilted cotton cloth covered with brass knobs, +and helmets of iron or polished steel, sometimes inlaid, with neck- +and ear-lappets. And they have been content not to improve upon these +to any appreciable extent; but have lately shown a tendency to make +the later patterns imported from the West in their own factories. + +They have produced one of the greatest and most remarkable +accumulations of literature the world has ever seen, and the finest +porcelain; some music, not very fine; and some magnificent painting, +though hardly any sculpture, and little architecture that will live. + + + +CHAPTER II + +On Chinese Mythology + + +Mythology and Intellectual Progress + +The Manichæst, _yin-yang_ (dualist), idea of existence, to which +further reference will be made in the next chapter, finds its +illustration in the dual life, real and imaginary, of all the +peoples of the earth. They have both real histories and mythological +histories. In the preceding chapter I have dealt briefly with the +first--the life of reality--in China from the earliest times to the +present day; the succeeding chapters are concerned with the second--the +life of imagination. A survey of the first was necessary for a complete +understanding of the second. The two react upon each other, affecting +the national character and through it the history of the world. + +Mythology is the science of the unscientific man's explanation +of what we call the Otherworld--itself and its denizens, their +mysterious habits and surprising actions both there and here, usually +including the creation of this world also. By the Otherworld he does +not necessarily mean anything distant or even invisible, though the +things he explains would mostly be included by us under those terms. In +some countries myths are abundant, in others scarce. Why should this +be? Why should some peoples tell many and marvellous tales about their +gods and others say little about them, though they may say a great deal +to them? We recall the 'great' myths of Greece and Scandinavia. Other +races are 'poor' in myths. The difference is to be explained by the +mental characters of the peoples as moulded by their surroundings and +hereditary tendencies. The problem is of course a psychological one, +for it is, as already noted, in imagination that myths have their +root. Now imagination grows with each stage of intellectual progress, +for intellectual progress implies increasing representativeness of +thought. In the lower stages of human development imagination is feeble +and unproductive; in the highest stages it is strong and constructive. + + +The Chinese Intellect + +The Chinese are not unimaginative, but their minds did not go on to the +construction of any myths which should be world-great and immortal; +and one reason why they did not construct such myths was that their +intellectual progress was arrested at a comparatively early stage. It +was arrested because there was not that contact and competition +with other peoples which demands brain-work of an active kind as the +alternative of subjugation, inferiority, or extinction, and because, +as we have already seen, the knowledge required of them was mainly +the parrot-like repetition of the old instead of the thinking-out of +the new [1]--a state of things rendered possible by the isolation +just referred to. Confucius discountenanced discussion about the +supernatural, and just as it is probable that the exhortations of Wên +Wang, the virtual founder of the Chou dynasty (1121-255 B.C.), against +drunkenness, in a time before tea was known to them, helped to make +the Chinese the sober people that they are, so it is probable--more +than probable--that this attitude of Confucius may have nipped in +the bud much that might have developed a vigorous mythology, though +for a reason to be stated later it may be doubted if he thereby +deprived the world of any beautiful and marvellous results of the +highest flights of poetical creativeness. There are times, such as +those of any great political upheaval, when human nature will assert +itself and break through its shackles in spite of all artificial +or conventional restraints. Considering the enormous influence of +Confucianism throughout the latter half of Chinese history--_i.e._ +the last two thousand years--it is surprising that the Chinese dared +to think about supernatural matters at all, except in the matter of +propitiating their dead ancestors. That they did so is evidence not +only of human nature's inherent tendency to tell stories, but also +of the irrepressible strength of feeling which breaks all laws and +commandments under great stimulus. On the opposing unæsthetic side +this may be compared to the feeling which prompts the unpremeditated +assassination of a man who is guilty of great injustice, even though +it be certain that in due course he would have met his deserts at +the hands of the public executioner. + + +The Influence of Religion + +Apart from this, the influence of Confucianism would have been even +greater than it was, but for the imperial partiality periodically +shown for rival doctrines, such as Buddhism and Taoism, which threw +their weight on the side of the supernatural, and which at times +were exalted to such great heights as to be officially recognized as +State religions. These, Buddhism especially, appealed to the popular +imagination and love of the marvellous. Buddhism spoke of the future +state and the nature of the gods in no uncertain tones. It showed +men how to reach the one and attain to the other. Its founder was +virtuous; his commandments pure and life-sustaining. It supplied in +great part what Confucianism lacked. And, as in the fifth and sixth +centuries A.D., when Buddhism and Taoism joined forces and a working +union existed between them, they practically excluded for the time +all the "chilly growth of Confucian classicism." + +Other opponents of myth, including a critical philosopher of great +ability, we shall have occasion to notice presently. + + +History and Myth + +The sobriety and accuracy of Chinese historians is proverbial. I +have dilated upon this in another work, and need add here only what +I inadvertently omitted there--a point hitherto unnoticed or at least +unremarked--that the very word for history in Chinese (_shih_) means +impartiality or an impartial annalist. It has been said that where +there is much myth there is little history, and _vice versa_, and +though this may not be universally true, undoubtedly the persistently +truthful recording of facts, events, and sayings, even at the risk +of loss, yea, and actual loss of life of the historian as the result +of his refusal to make false entries in his chronicle at the bidding +of the emperor (as in the case of the historiographers of Ch'i in +547 B.C.), indicates a type of mind which would require some very +strong stimulus to cause it to soar very far into the hazy realms of +fanciful imagination. + + +Chinese Rigidity + +A further cause, already hinted at above, for the arrest of +intellectual progress is to be found in the growth of the nation +in size during many centuries of isolation from the main stream +of world-civilization, without that increase in heterogeneity +which comes from the moulding by forces external to itself. "As +iron sharpeneth iron, so a man sharpeneth the countenance of his +friend." Consequently we find China what is known to sociology as an +'aggregate of the first order,' which during its evolution has parted +with its internal life-heat without absorbing enough from external +sources to enable it to retain the plastic condition necessary to +further, or at least rapid, development. It is in a state of rigidity, +a state recognized and understood by the sociologist in his study of +the evolution of nations. + + +The Prerequisites to Myth + +But the mere increase of constructive imagination is not sufficient +to produce myth. If it were, it would be reasonable to argue that +as intellectual progress goes on myths become more numerous, and the +greater the progress the greater the number of myths. This we do not +find. In fact, if constructive imagination went on increasing without +the intervention of any further factor, there need not necessarily be +any myth at all. We might almost say that the reverse is the case. We +connect myth with primitive folk, not with the greatest philosophers +or the most advanced nations--not, that is, with the most advanced +stages of national progress wherein constructive imagination makes +the nation great and strong. In these stages the philosopher studies +or criticizes myth, he does not make it. + +In order that there may be myth, three further conditions must be +fulfilled. There must, as we have seen, be constructive imagination, +but, nevertheless, there must not be too much of it. As stated above, +mythology, or rather myth, is the _unscientific_ man's explanation. If +the constructive imagination is so great that it becomes self-critical, +if the story-teller doubts his own story, if, in short, his mind is +scientific enough to see that his explanation is no explanation at all, +then there can be no myth properly so called. As in religion, unless +the myth-maker believes in his myth with all his heart and soul and +strength, and each new disciple, as it is cared for and grows under +his hands during the course of years, holds that he must put his shoes +from off his feet because the place whereon he treads is holy ground, +the faith will not be propagated, for it will lack the vital spark +which alone can make it a living thing. + + +Stimulus Necessary + +The next condition is that there must be a stimulus. It is not ideas, +but feelings, which govern the world, and in the history of mythology +where feeling is absent we find either weak imitation or repetition +of the myths of other peoples (though this must not be confused +with certain elements which seem to be common to the myths of all +races), or concoction, contamination, or "genealogical tree-making," +or myths originated by "leisurely, peaceful tradition" and lacking +the essential qualities which appeal to the human soul and make their +possessors very careful to preserve them among their most loved and +valued treasures. But, on the other hand, where feeling is stirred, +where the requisite stimulus exists, where the people are in great +danger, or allured by the prize of some breathless adventure, the +contact produces the spark of divine poetry, the myths are full of +artistic, philosophic, and religious suggestiveness, and have abiding +significance and charm. They are the children, the poetic fruit, of +great labour and serious struggles, revealing the most fundamental +forces, hopes, and cravings of the human soul. Nations highly strung, +undergoing strenuous emotion, intensely energized by constant conflict +with other nations, have their imagination stimulated to exceptional +poetic creativeness. The background of the Danaïds is Egyptian, +not Greek, but it was the danger in which the Greeks were placed in +their wars with the sons of the land of the Pharaohs that stimulated +the Greek imagination to the creation of that great myth. + +This explains why so many of the greatest myths have their staging, +not in the country itself whose treasured possessions they are, but +where that country is 'playing the great game,' is carrying on wars +decisive of far-reaching national events, which arouse to the greatest +pitch of excitement the feelings both of the combatants and of those +who are watching them from their homes. It is by such great events, +not by the romance-writer in his peaceful study, that mythology, like +literature, is "incisively determined." Imagination, we saw, goes +_pari passu_ with intellectual progress, and intellectual progress, +in early times, is furthered not so much by the mere contact as +by the actual conflict of nations. And we see also that myths may, +and very frequently do, have a character quite different from that +of the nation to which they appertain, for environment plays a most +important part both in their inception and subsequent growth--a truth +too obvious to need detailed elaboration. + + +Persistent Soul-expression + +A third condition is that the type of imagination must be persistent +through fairly long periods of time, otherwise not only will there +be an absence of sufficient feeling or momentum to cause the myths +to be repeated and kept alive and transmitted to posterity, but the +inducement to add to them and so enable them to mature and become +complete and finished off and sufficiently attractive to appeal to +the human mind in spite of the foreign character they often bear will +be lacking. In other words, myths and legends grow. They resemble not +so much the narrative of the story-teller or novelist as a gradually +developing art like music, or a body of ideas like philosophy. They +are human and natural, though they express the thought not of any one +individual mind, but of the folk-soul, exemplifying in poetical form +some great psychological or physiographical truth. + + +The Character of Chinese Myth + +The nature of the case thus forbids us to expect to find the Chinese +myths exhibiting the advanced state and brilliant heterogeneity of +those which have become part of the world's permanent literature. We +must expect them to be true to type and conditions, as we expect the +other ideas of the Chinese to be, and looking for them in the light +of this knowledge we shall find them just where we should expect to +find them. + +The great sagas and eddas exalted among the world's literary +masterpieces, and forming part of the very life of a large number of +its inhabitants, are absent in China. "The Chinese people," says one +well-known sinologist, "are not prone to mythological invention." "He +who expects to find in Tibet," says another writer, "the poetical +charm of Greek or Germanic mythology will be disappointed. There is +a striking poverty of imagination in all the myths and legends. A +great monotony pervades them all. Many of their stories, taken from +the sacred texts, are quite puerile and insipid. It may be noted +that the Chinese mythology labours under the same defect." And +then there comes the crushing judgment of an over-zealous Christian +missionary sinologist: "There is no hierarchy of gods brought in to +rule and inhabit the world they made, no conclave on Mount Olympus, +nor judgment of the mortal soul by Osiris, no transfer of human love +and hate, passions and hopes, to the powers above; all here is ascribed +to disembodied agencies or principles, and their works are represented +as moving on in quiet order. There is no religion [!], no imagination; +all is impassible, passionless, uninteresting.... It has not, as in +Greece and Egypt, been explained in sublime poetry, shadowed forth in +gorgeous ritual and magnificent festivals, represented in exquisite +sculptures, nor preserved in faultless, imposing fanes and temples, +filled with ideal creations." Besides being incorrect as to many +of its alleged facts, this view would certainly be shown by further +study to be greatly exaggerated. + + +Periods Fertile in Myth + +What we should expect, then, to find from our philosophical study of +the Chinese mind as affected by its surroundings would be barrenness of +constructive imagination, except when birth was given to myth through +the operation of some external agency. And this we do find. The period +of the overthrow of the Yin dynasty and the establishment of the +great house of Chou in 1122 B.C., or of the Wars of the Three States, +for example, in the third century after Christ, a time of terrible +anarchy, a medieval age of epic heroism, sung in a hundred forms of +prose and verse, which has entered as motive into a dozen dramas, +or the advent of Buddhism, which opened up a new world of thought and +life to the simple, sober, peace-loving agricultural folk of China, +were stimuli not by any means devoid of result. In China there are gods +many and heroes many, and the very fact of the existence of so great +a multitude of gods would logically imply a wealth of mythological +lore inseparable from their apotheosis. You cannot--and the Chinese +cannot--get behind reason. A man is not made a god without some +cause being assigned for so important and far-reaching a step; and +in matters of this sort the stated cause is apt to take the form of +a narrative more or less marvellous or miraculous. These resulting +myths may, of course, be born and grow at a later time than that +in which the circumstances giving rise to them took place, but, +if so, that merely proves the persistent power of the originating +stimulus. That in China these narratives always or often reach the +highest flights of constructive imagination is not maintained--the +maintenance of that argument would indeed be contradictory; but even +in those countries where the mythological garden has produced some of +the finest flowers millions of seeds must have been sown which either +did not spring up at all or at least failed to bring forth fruit. And +in the realm of mythology it is not only those gods who sit in the +highest seats--creators of the world or heads of great religions--who +dominate mankind; the humbler, though often no less powerful gods +or spirits--those even who run on all fours and live in holes in the +ground, or buzz through the air and have their thrones in the shadow +of a leaf--have often made a deeper impress on the minds and in the +hearts of the people, and through that impress, for good or evil, have, +in greater or less degree, modified the life of the visible universe. + + +Sources of Chinese Myth + +"So, if we ask whence comes the heroic and the romantic, which supplies +the story-teller's stock-in-trade, the answer is easy. The legends and +history of early China furnish abundance of material for them. To the +Chinese mind their ancient world was crowded with heroes, fairies, and +devils, who played their part in the mixed-up drama, and left a name +and fame both remarkable and piquant. Every one who is familiar with +the ways and the language of the people knows that the country is full +of common objects to which poetic names have been given, and with many +of them there is associated a legend or a myth. A deep river's gorge is +called 'the Blind Man's Pass,' because a peculiar bit of rock, looked +at from a certain angle, assumes the outline of the human form, and +there comes to be connected therewith a pleasing story which reaches +its climax in the petrifaction of the hero. A mountain's crest shaped +like a swooping eagle will from some one have received the name of +'Eagle Mountain,' whilst by its side another shaped like a couchant +lion will have a name to match. There is no lack of poetry among the +people, and most striking objects claim a poetic name, and not a few +of them are associated with curious legends. It is, however, to their +national history that the story-teller goes for his most interesting +subjects, and as the so-called history of China imperceptibly passes +into the legendary period, and this again fades into the mythical, +and as all this is assuredly believed by the masses of the people, +it is obvious that in the national life of China there is no dearth +of heroes whose deeds of prowess will command the rapt attention of +the crowds who listen." [2] + +The soul in China is everywhere in evidence, and if myths have "first +and foremost to do with the life of the soul" it would appear strange +that the Chinese, having spiritualized everything from a stone to the +sky, have not been creative of myth. Why they have not the foregoing +considerations show us clearly enough. We must take them and their +myths as we find them. Let us, then, note briefly the result of their +mental workings as reacted on by their environment. + + +Phases of Chinese Myth + +We cannot identify the earliest mythology of the Chinese with that of +any primitive race. The myths, if any, of their place of origin may +have faded and been forgotten in their slow migration eastward. We +cannot say that when they came from the West (which they probably +did) they brought their myths with them, for in spite of certain +conjectural derivations from Babylon we do not find them possessed +of any which we can identify as imported by them at that time. But +research seems to have gone at least as far as this--namely, that +while we cannot say that Chinese myth was derived from Indian myth, +there is good reason to believe that Chinese and Indian myth had a +common origin, which was of course outside of China. + +To set forth in detail the various phases through which Chinese myth +has passed would involve a technical description foreign to the purpose +of a popular work. It will sufficiently serve our present purpose to +outline its most prominent features. + +In the earliest times there was an 'age of magic' followed by an +'heroic age,' but myths were very rare before 800 B.C., and what is +known as primitive mythology is said to have been invented or imitated +from foreign sources after 820 B.C. In the eighth century B.C. myths +of an astrological character began to attract attention. In the age +of Lao Tzu (604 B.C.), the reputed founder of the Taoist religion, +fresh legends appear, though Lao Tzu himself, absorbed in the abstract, +records none. Neither did Confucius (551-479 B.C.) nor Mencius, who +lived two hundred years later, add any legends to history. But in the +Period of the Warring States (500-100 B.C.) fresh stimuli and great +emotion prompted to mythological creation. + + +Tso-ch'iu Ming and Lieh Tzu + +Tso-ch'iu Ming, commentator on Confucius's _Annals_, frequently +introduced legend into his history. Lieh Tzu (fifth and fourth +centuries B.C.), a metaphysician, is one of the earliest authors who +deal in myths. He is the first to mention the story of Hsi Wang Mu, the +Western Queen, and from his day onward the fabulists have vied with one +another in fantastic descriptions of the wonders of her fairyland. He +was the first to mention the islands of the immortals in the ocean, +the kingdoms of the dwarfs and giants, the fruit of immortality, the +repairing of the heavens by Nü Kua Shih with five-coloured stones, +and the great tortoise which supports the universe. + + +The T'ang and Sung Epochs + +Religious romance began at this time. The T'ang epoch (A.B. 618-907) +was one of the resurrection of the arts of peace after a long period of +dissension. A purer and more enduring form of intellect was gradually +overcoming the grosser but less solid superstition. Nevertheless the +intellectual movement which now manifested itself was not strong +enough to prevail against the powers of mythological darkness. It +was reserved for the scholars of the Sung Period (A.D. 960-1280) +to carry through to victory a strong and sustained offensive against +the spiritualistic obsessions which had weighed upon the Chinese mind +more or less persistently from the Han Period (206 B.C.-A.D. 221) +onward. The dogma of materialism was specially cultivated at this +time. The struggle of sober reason against superstition or imaginative +invention was largely a struggle of Confucianism against Taoism. Though +many centuries had elapsed since the great Master walked the earth, +the anti-myth movement of the T'ang and Sung Periods was in reality the +long arm and heavy fist of Confucius emphasizing a truer rationalism +than that of his opponents and denouncing the danger of leaving the +firm earth to soar into the unknown hazy regions of fantasy. It was +Sung scholarship that gave the death-blow to Chinese mythology. + +It is unnecessary to labour the point further, because after the Sung +epoch we do not meet with any period of new mythological creation, +and its absence can be ascribed to no other cause than its defeat at +the hands of the Sung philosophers. After their time the tender plant +was always in danger of being stunted or killed by the withering blast +of philosophical criticism. Anything in the nature of myth ascribable +to post-Sung times can at best be regarded only as a late blossom +born when summer days are past. + + +Myth and Doubt + +It will bear repetition to say that unless the myth-builder firmly +believes in his myth, be he the layer of the foundation-stone or one +of the raisers of the superstructure, he will hardly make it a living +thing. Once he believes in reincarnation and the suspension of natural +laws, the boundless vistas of space and the limitless æons of time are +opened to him. He can perform miracles which astound the world. But +if he allow his mind to inquire, for instance, why it should have been +necessary for Elijah to part the waters of the Jordan with his garment +in order that he and Elisha might pass over dryshod, or for Bodhidharma +to stand on a reed to cross the great Yangtzu River, or for innumerable +Immortals to sit on 'favourable clouds' to make their journeys through +space, he spoils myth--his child is stillborn or does not survive to +maturity. Though the growth of philosophy and decay of superstition +may be good for a nation, the process is certainly conducive to the +destruction of its myth and much of its poetry. The true mythologist +takes myth for myth, enters into its spirit, and enjoys it. + +We may thus expect to find in the realm of Chinese mythology a large +number of little hills rather than a few great mountains, but the +little hills are very good ones after their kind; and the object of +this work is to present Chinese myth as it is, not as it might have +been had the universe been differently constituted. Nevertheless, if, +as we may rightly do, we judge of myth by the sentiments pervading +it and the ideals upheld and taught by it, we shall find that Chinese +myth must be ranked among the greatest. + + +Myth and Legend + +The general principles considered above, while they explain the paucity +of myth in China, explain also the abundance of legend there. The six +hundred years during which the Mongols, Mings, and Manchus sat upon +the throne of China are barren of myth, but like all periods of the +Chinese national life are fertile in legend. And this chiefly for the +reason that myths are more general, national, divine, while legends are +more local, individual, human. And since, in China as elsewhere, the +lower classes are as a rule less educated and more superstitious than +the upper classes--have a certain amount of constructive imagination, +but not enough to be self-critical--legends, rejected or even ridiculed +by the scholarly class when their knowledge has become sufficiently +scientific, continue to be invented and believed in by the peasant and +the dweller in districts far from the madding crowd long after myth, +properly so called, has exhaled its last breath. + + + +CHAPTER III + +Cosmogony-p'an Ku and the Creation Myth + + +The Fashioner of the Universe + +The most conspicuous figure in Chinese cosmogony is P'an Ku. He it was +who chiselled the universe out of Chaos. According to Chinese ideas, +he was the offspring of the original dual powers of Nature, the _yin_ +and the _yang_ (to be considered presently), which, having in some +incomprehensible way produced him, set him the task of giving form +to Chaos and "making the heavens and the earth." + +Some accounts describe him as the actual creator of the universe--"the +ancestor of Heaven and earth and all that live and move and have their +being." 'P'an' means 'the shell of an egg,' and 'Ku' 'to secure,' +'solid,' referring to P'an Ku being hatched from out of Chaos and +to his settling the arrangement of the causes to which his origin +was due. The characters themselves may, however, mean nothing more +than 'Researches into antiquity,' though some bolder translators +have assigned to them the significance if not the literal sense of +'aboriginal abyss,' or the Babylonian Tiamat, 'the Deep.' + +P'an Ku is pictured as a man of dwarfish stature clothed in bearskin, +or merely in leaves or with an apron of leaves. He has two horns on +his head. In his right hand he holds a hammer and in his left a chisel +(sometimes these are reversed), the only implements he used in carrying +out his great task. Other pictures show him attended in his labours +by the four supernatural creatures--the unicorn, phoenix, tortoise, +and dragon; others again with the sun in one hand and the moon in the +other, some of the firstfruits of his stupendous labours. (The reason +for these being there will be apparent presently.) His task occupied +eighteen thousand years, during which he formed the sun, moon, and +stars, the heavens and the earth, himself increasing in stature day +by day, being daily six feet taller than the day before, until, his +labours ended, he died that his works might live. His head became the +mountains, his breath the wind and clouds, his voice the thunder, +his limbs the four quarters of the earth, his blood the rivers, +his flesh the soil, his beard the constellations, his skin and hair +the herbs and trees, his teeth, bones, and marrow the metals, rocks, +and precious stones, his sweat the rain, and the insects creeping +over his body human beings, who thus had a lowlier origin even than +the tears of Khepera in Egyptian cosmology. [3] + +This account of P'an Ku and his achievements is of Taoist origin. The +Buddhists have given a somewhat different account of him, which is +a late adaptation from the Taoist myth, and must not be mistaken for +Buddhist cosmogony proper. [4] + + +The Sun and the Moon + +In some of the pictures of P'an Ku he is represented, as already noted, +as holding the sun in one hand and the moon in the other. Sometimes +they are in the form of those bodies, sometimes in the classic +character. The legend says that when P'an Ku put things in order in +the lower world, he did not put these two luminaries in their proper +courses, so they retired into the Han Sea, and the people dwelt in +darkness. The Terrestrial Emperor sent an officer, Terrestrial Time, +with orders that they should come forth and take their places in +the heavens and give the world day and night. They refused to obey +the order. They were reported to Ju Lai; P'an Ku was called, and, +at the divine direction of Buddha, wrote the character for 'sun' +in his left hand, and that for 'moon' in his right hand; and went to +the Han Sea, and stretched forth his left hand and called the sun, +and then stretched forth his right hand and called the moon, at the +same time repeating a charm devoutly seven times; and they forthwith +ascended on high, and separated time into day and night. [5] + +Other legends recount that P'an Ku had the head of a dragon and +the body of a serpent; and that by breathing he caused the wind, +by opening his eyes he created day, his voice made the thunder, etc. + + +P'an Ku and Ymer + +Thus we have the heavens and the earth fashioned by this wonderful +being in eighteen thousand years. With regard to him we may adapt +the Scandinavian ballad: + + + It was Time's morning + When P'an Ku lived; + There was no sand, no sea, + Nor cooling billows; + + + + Earth there was none, + No lofty Heaven; + No spot of living green; + Only a deep profound. + + +And it is interesting to note, in passing, the similarity between this +Chinese artificer of the universe and Ymer, the giant, who discharges +the same functions in Scandinavian mythology. Though P'an Ku did not +have the same kind of birth nor meet with the violent death of the +latter, the results as regards the origin of the universe seem to +have been pretty much the same. [6] + + +P'an Ku a Late Creation + +But though the Chinese creation myth deals with primeval things it +does not itself belong to a primitive time. According to some writers +whose views are entitled to respect, it was invented during the fourth +century A.D. by the Taoist recluse, Magistrate Ko Hung, author of the +_Shên hsien chuan_ (_Biographies of the Gods_). The picturesque person +of P'an Ku is said to have been a concession to the popular dislike +of, or inability to comprehend, the abstract. He was conceived, some +Chinese writers say, because the philosophical explanations of the +Cosmos were too recondite for the ordinary mind to grasp. That he +did fulfil the purpose of furnishing the ordinary mind with a fairly +easily comprehensible picture of the creation may be admitted; but, +as will presently be seen, it is over-stating the case to say that he +was conceived with the set purpose of furnishing the ordinary mind with +a concrete solution or illustration of this great problem. There is +no evidence that P'an Ku had existed as a tradition before the time +when we meet with the written account of him; and, what is more, +there is no evidence that there existed any demand on the part of +the popular mind for any such solution or illustration. The ordinary +mind would seem to have been either indifferent to or satisfied +with the abstruse cosmogonical and cosmological theories of the +early sages for at least a thousand years. The cosmogonies of the _I +ching_, of Lao Tzu, Confucius (such as it was), Kuan Tzu, Mencius, +Chuang Tzu, were impersonal. P'an Ku and his myth must be regarded +rather as an accident than as a creation resulting from any sudden +flow of psychological forces or wind of discontent ruffling the +placid Chinese mind. If the Chinese brought with them from Babylon +or anywhere else the elements of a cosmogony, whether of a more or +less abstruse scientific nature or a personal mythological narrative, +it must have been subsequently forgotten or at least has not survived +in China. But for Ko Hung's eccentricity and his wish to experiment +with cinnabar from Cochin-China in order to find the elixir of life, +P'an Ku would probably never have been invented, and the Chinese mind +would have been content to go on ignoring the problem or would have +quietly acquiesced in the abstract philosophical explanations of the +learned which it did not understand. Chinese cosmogony would then +have consisted exclusively of the recondite impersonal metaphysics +which the Chinese mind had entertained or been fed on for the nine +hundred or more years preceding the invention of the P'an Ku myth. + + +Nü Kua Shih, the Repairer of the Heavens + +It is true that there exist one or two other explanations of the +origin of things which introduce a personal creator. There is, +for instance, the legend--first mentioned by Lieh Tzu (to whom we +shall revert later)--which represents Nü Kua Shih (also called Nü +Wa and Nü Hsi), said to have been the sister and successor of Fu +Hsi, the mythical sovereign whose reign is ascribed to the years +2953-2838 B.C., as having been the creator of human beings when +the earth first emerged from Chaos. She (or he, for the sex seems +uncertain), who had the "body of a serpent and head of an ox" (or a +human head and horns of an ox, according to some writers), "moulded +yellow earth and made man." Ssu-ma Chêng, of the eighth century A.D., +author of the _Historical Records_ and of another work on the three +great legendary emperors, Fu Hsi, Shên Nung, and Huang Ti, gives +the following account of her: "Fu Hsi was succeeded by Nü Kua, who +like him had the surname Fêng. Nü Kua had the body of a serpent and +a human head, with the virtuous endowments of a divine sage. Toward +the end of her reign there was among the feudatory princes Kung Kung, +whose functions were the administration of punishment. Violent and +ambitious, he became a rebel, and sought by the influence of water +to overcome that of wood [under which Nü Kua reigned]. He did battle +with Chu Jung [said to have been one of the ministers of Huang Ti, +and later the God of Fire], but was not victorious; whereupon he +struck his head against the Imperfect Mountain, Pu Chou Shan, and +brought it down. The pillars of Heaven were broken and the corners of +the earth gave way. Hereupon Nü Kua melted stones of the five colours +to repair the heavens, and cut off the feet of the tortoise to set +upright the four extremities of the earth. [7] Gathering the ashes +of reeds she stopped the flooding waters, and thus rescued the land +of Chi, Chi Chou [the early seat of the Chinese sovereignty]." + +Another account separates the name and makes Nü and Kua brother +and sister, describing them as the only two human beings in +existence. At the creation they were placed at the foot of the K'un-lun +Mountains. Then they prayed, saying, "If thou, O God, hast sent us to +be man and wife, the smoke of our sacrifice will stay in one place; +but if not, it will be scattered." The smoke remained stationary. + +But though Nü Kua is said to have moulded the first man (or the first +human beings) out of clay, it is to be noted that, being only the +successor of Fu Hsi, long lines of rulers had preceded her of whom no +account is given, and also that, as regards the heavens and the earth +at least, she is regarded as the repairer and not the creator of them. + +Heaven-deaf (T'ien-lung) and Earth-dumb (Ti-ya), the two attendants +of Wên Ch'ang, the God of Literature (see following chapter), have +also been drawn into the cosmogonical net. From their union came the +heavens and the earth, mankind, and all living things. + +These and other brief and unelaborated personal cosmogonies, even if +not to be regarded as spurious imitations, certainly have not become +established in the Chinese mind as the explanation of the way in which +the universe came to be: in this sphere the P'an Ku legend reigns +supreme; and, owing to its concrete, easily apprehensible nature, +has probably done so ever since the time of its invention. + + +Early Cosmogony Dualistic + +The period before the appearance of the P'an Ku myth may be divided +into two parts; that from some early unknown date up to about the +middle of the Confucian epoch, say 500 B.C., and that from 500 B.C. to +A.D. 400. We know that during the latter period the minds of Chinese +scholars were frequently occupied with speculations as to the origin +of the universe. Before 500 B.C. we have no documentary remains +telling us what the Chinese believed about the origin of things; +but it is exceedingly unlikely that no theories or speculations at +all concerning the origin of themselves and their surroundings were +formed by this intelligent people during the eighteen centuries or +more which preceded the date at which we find the views held by them +put into written form. It is safe to assume that the dualism which +later occupied their philosophical thoughts to so great an extent +as almost to seem inseparable from them, and exercised so powerful +an influence throughout the course of their history, was not only +formulating itself during that long period, but had gradually reached +an advanced stage. We may even go so far as to say that dualism, or +its beginnings, existed in the very earliest times, for the belief in +the second self or ghost or double of the dead is in reality nothing +else. And we find it operating with apparently undiminished energy +after the Chinese mind had reached its maturity in the Sung dynasty. + + + +The Canon of Changes + +The Bible of Chinese dualism is the _I ching_, the _Canon of Changes_ +(or _Permutations_). It is held in great veneration both on account +of its antiquity and also because of the "unfathomable wisdom which +is supposed to lie concealed under its mysterious symbols." It is +placed first in the list of the classics, or Sacred Books, though +it is not the oldest of them. When exactly the work itself on which +the subsequent elaborations were founded was composed is not now +known. Its origin is attributed to the legendary emperor Fu Hsi +(2953-2838 B.C.). It does not furnish a cosmogony proper, but merely +a dualistic system as an explanation, or attempted explanation, +or even perhaps only a record, of the constant changes (in modern +philosophical language the "redistribution of matter and motion") +going on everywhere. That explanation or record was used for purposes +of divination. This dualistic system, by a simple addition, became +a monism, and at the same time furnished the Chinese with a cosmogony. + + +The Five Elements + +The Five Elements or Forces (_wu hsing_)--which, according to +the Chinese, are metal, air, fire, water, and wood--are first +mentioned in Chinese literature in a chapter of the classic _Book +of History_. [8] They play a very important part in Chinese thought: +'elements' meaning generally not so much the actual substances as the +forces essential to human, life. They have to be noticed in passing, +because they were involved in the development of the cosmogonical +ideas which took place in the eleventh and twelfth centuries A.D. + + + +Monism + +As their imagination grew, it was natural that the Chinese should +begin to ask themselves what, if the _yang_ and the _yin_ by +their permutations produced, or gave shape to, all things, was it +that produced the _yang_ and the _yin_. When we see traces of this +inquisitive tendency we find ourselves on the borderland of dualism +where the transition is taking place into the realm of monism. But +though there may have been a tendency toward monism in early times, it +was only in the Sung dynasty that the philosophers definitely placed +behind the _yang_ and the _yin_ a First Cause--the Grand Origin, +Grand Extreme, Grand Terminus, or Ultimate Ground of Existence. [9] +They gave to it the name _t'ai chi_, and represented it by a concrete +sign, the symbol of a circle. The complete scheme shows the evolution +of the Sixty-four Diagrams (_kua_) from the _t'ai chi_ through the +_yang_ and the _yin_, the Four, Eight, Sixteen, and Thirty-two +Diagrams successively. This conception was the work of the Sung +philosopher Chou Tun-i (A.D. 1017-73), commonly known as Chou Tzu, +and his disciple Chu Hsi (A.D. 1130-1200), known as Chu Tzu or Chu +Fu Tzu, the famous historian and Confucian commentator--two of the +greatest names in Chinese philosophy. It was at this time that the +tide of constructive imagination in China, tinged though it always +was with classical Confucianism, rose to its greatest height. There +is the philosopher's seeking for causes. Yet in this matter of the +First Cause we detect, in the full flood of Confucianism, the potent +influence of Taoist and Buddhist speculations. It has even been said +that the Sung philosophy, which grew, not from the _I ching_ itself, +but from the appendixes to it, is more Taoistic than Confucian. As it +was with the P'an Ku legend, so was it with this more philosophical +cosmogony. The more fertile Taoist and Buddhist imaginations led to the +preservation of what the Confucianists, distrusting the marvellous, +would have allowed to die a natural death. It was, after all, the +mystical foreign elements which gave point to--we may rightly say +rounded off--the early dualism by converting it into monism, carrying +philosophical speculation from the Knowable to the Unknowable, and +furnishing the Chinese with their first scientific theory of the +origin, not of the changes going on in the universe (on which they +had already formed their opinions), but of the universe itself. + + +Chou Tzu's "T'ai Chi T'u" + +Chou Tun-i, appropriately apotheosized as 'Prince in the Empire of +Reason,' completed and systematized the philosophical world-conception +which had hitherto obtained in the Chinese mind. He did not ask his +fellow-countrymen to discard any part of what they had long held in +high esteem: he raised the old theories from the sphere of science to +that of philosophy by unifying them and bringing them to a focus. And +he made this unification intelligible to the Chinese mind by his famous +_T'ai chi t'u_, or Diagram of the Great Origin (or Grand Terminus), +showing that the Grand Original Cause, itself uncaused, produces the +_yang_ and the _yin_, these the Five Elements, and so on, through +the male and female norms (_tao_), to the production of all things. + + +Chu Hsi's Monistic Philosophy + +The writings of Chu Hsi, especially his treatise on _The Immaterial +Principle [li] and Primary Matter [ch'i]_, leave no doubt as to the +monism of his philosophy. In this work occurs the passage: "In the +universe there exists no primary matter devoid of the immaterial +principle; and no immaterial principle apart from primary matter"; +and although the two are never separated "the immaterial principle +[as Chou Tzu explains] is what is previous to form, while primary +matter is what is subsequent to form," the idea being that the two +are different manifestations of the same mysterious force from which +all things proceed. + +It is unnecessary to follow this philosophy along all the different +branches which grew out of it, for we are here concerned only with +the seed. We have observed how Chinese dualism became a monism, and +how while the monism was established the dualism was retained. It is +this mono-dualistic theory, combining the older and newer philosophy, +which in China, then as now, constitutes the accepted explanation of +the origin of things, of the universe itself and all that it contains. + + +Lao Tzu's "Tao" + +There are other cosmogonies in Chinese philosophy, but they need not +detain us long. Lao Tzu (sixth century B.C.), in his _Tao-tê ching, +The Canon of Reason and Virtue_ (at first entitled simply _Lao Tzu_), +gave to the then existing scattered sporadic conceptions of the +universe a literary form. His _tao_, or 'Way,' is the originator +of Heaven and earth, it is "the mother of all things." His Way, +which was "before God," is but a metaphorical expression for the +manner in which things came at first into being out of the primal +nothingness, and how the phenomena of nature continue to go on, +"in stillness and quietness, without striving or crying." Lao Tzu is +thus so far monistic, but he is also mystical, transcendental, even +pantheistic. The way that can be walked is not the Eternal Way; the +name that can be named is not the Eternal Name. The Unnameable is the +originator of Heaven and earth; manifesting itself as the Nameable, +it is "the mother of all things." "In Eternal Non-Being I see the +Spirituality of Things; in Eternal Being their limitation. Though +different under these two aspects, they are the same in origin; +it is when development takes place that different names have to be +used. It is while they are in the condition of sameness that the +mystery concerning them exists. This mystery is indeed the mystery +of mysteries. It is the door of all spirituality." + +This _tao_, indefinable and in its essence unknowable, is "the +fountain-head of all beings, and the norm of all actions. But it is +not only the formative principle of the universe; it also seems to be +primordial matter: chaotic in its composition, born prior to Heaven +and earth, noiseless, formless, standing alone in its solitude, and +not changing, universal in its activity, and unrelaxing, without being +exhausted, it is capable of becoming the mother of the universe." And +there we may leave it. There is no scheme of creation, properly so +called. The Unwalkable Way leads us to nothing further in the way of +a cosmogony. + + +Confucius's Agnosticism + +Confucius (551-479 B.C.) did not throw any light on the problem of +origin. He did not speculate on the creation of things nor the end +of them. He was not troubled to account for the origin of man, nor +did he seek to know about his hereafter. He meddled neither with +physics nor metaphysics. There might, he thought, be something on +the other side of life, for he admitted the existence of spiritual +beings. They had an influence on the living, because they caused +them to clothe themselves in ceremonious dress and attend to the +sacrificial ceremonies. But we should not trouble ourselves about +them, any more than about supernatural things, or physical prowess, +or monstrosities. How can we serve spiritual beings while we do not +know how to serve men? We feel the existence of something invisible +and mysterious, but its nature and meaning are too deep for the +human understanding to grasp. The safest, indeed the only reasonable, +course is that of the agnostic--to leave alone the unknowable, while +acknowledging its existence and its mystery, and to try to understand +knowable phenomena and guide our actions accordingly. + +Between the monism of Lao Tzu and the positivism of Confucius on +the one hand, and the landmark of the Taoistic transcendentalism of +Chuang Tzu (fourth and third centuries B.C.) on the other, we find +several "guesses at the riddle of existence" which must be briefly +noted as links in the chain of Chinese speculative thought on this +important subject. + + +Mo Tzu and Creation + +In the philosophy of Mo Ti (fifth and fourth centuries B.C.), +generally known as Mo Tzu or Mu Tzu, the philosopher of humanism and +utilitarianism, we find the idea of creation. It was, he says, Heaven +(which was anthropomorphically regarded by him as a personal Supreme +Being) who "created the sun, moon, and innumerable stars." His system +closely resembles Christianity, but the great power of Confucianism as +a weapon wielded against all opponents by its doughty defender Mencius +(372-289 B.C.) is shown by the complete suppression of the influence +of Mo Tzuism at his hands. He even went so far as to describe Mo Tzu +and those who thought with him as "wild animals." + + +Mencius and the First Cause + +Mencius himself regarded Heaven as the First Cause, or Cause of Causes, +but it was not the same personal Heaven as that of Mo Tzu. Nor does +he hang any cosmogony upon it. His chief concern was to eulogize the +doctrines of the great Confucius, and like him he preferred to let +the origin of the universe look after itself. + + +Lieh Tzu's Absolute + +Lieh Tzu (said to have lived in the fifth century B.C.), one +of the brightest stars in the Taoist constellation, considered +this nameable world as having evolved from an unnameable absolute +being. The evolution did not take place through the direction of +a personal will working out a plan of creation: "In the beginning +there was Chaos [_hun tun_]. It was a mingled potentiality of Form +[_hsing_], Pneuma [_ch'i_], and Substance [_chih_]. A Great Change +[_t'ai i_] took place in it, and there was a Great Starting [_t'ai +ch'u_] which is the beginning of Form. The Great Starting evolved a +Great Beginning [_t'ai shih_], which is the inception of Pneuma. The +Great Beginning was followed by the Great Blank [_t'ai su_], which +is the first formation of Substance. Substance, Pneuma, and Form +being all evolved out of the primordial chaotic mass, this material +world as it lies before us came into existence." And that which +made it possible for Chaos to evolve was the Solitary Indeterminate +(_i tu_ or the _tao_), which is not created, but is able to create +everlastingly. And being both Solitary and Indeterminate it tells us +nothing determinate about itself. + + +Chuang Tzu's Super-tao + +Chuang Chou (fourth and third centuries B.C.), generally known +as Chuang Tzu, the most brilliant Taoist of all, maintained with +Lao Tzu that the universe started from the Nameless, but it was if +possible a more absolute and transcendental Nameless than that of +Lao Tzu. He dwells on the relativity of knowledge; as when asleep he +did not know that he was a man dreaming that he was a butterfly, so +when awake he did not know that he was not a butterfly dreaming that +he was a man. [10] But "all is embraced in the obliterating unity of +the _tao_, and the wise man, passing into the realm of the Infinite, +finds rest therein." And this _tao_, of which we hear so much in +Chinese philosophy, was before the Great Ultimate or Grand Terminus +(_t'ai chi_), and "from it came the mysterious existence of God +[_ti_]. It produced Heaven, it produced earth." + + +Popular Cosmogony still Personal or Dualistic + +These and other cosmogonies which the Chinese have devised, though +it is necessary to note their existence in order to give a just idea +of their cosmological speculations, need not, as I said, detain us +long; and the reason why they need not do so is that, in the matter +of cosmogony, the P'an Ku legend and the _yin-yang_ system with its +monistic elaboration occupy virtually the whole field of the Chinese +mental vision. It is these two--the popular and the scientific--that +we mean when we speak of Chinese cosmogony. Though here and there a +stern sectarian might deny that the universe originated in one or the +other of these two ways, still, the general rule holds good. And I +have dealt with them in this order because, though the P'an Ku legend +belongs to the fourth century A.D., the _I ching_ dualism was not, +rightly speaking, a cosmogony until Chou Tun-i made it one by the +publication of his _T'ai chi t'u_ in the eleventh century A.D. Over +the unscientific and the scientific minds of the Chinese these two +are paramount. + +Applying the general principles stated in the preceding chapter, +we find the same cause which operated to restrict the growth of +mythology in general in China operated also in like manner in this +particular branch of it. With one exception Chinese cosmogony is +non-mythological. The careful and studiously accurate historians +(whose work aimed at being _ex veritate_, 'made of truth'), the +sober literature, the vast influence of agnostic, matter-of-fact +Confucianism, supported by the heavy Mencian artillery, are +indisputable indications of a constructive imagination which grew too +quickly and became too rapidly scientific to admit of much soaring +into the realms of fantasy. Unaroused by any strong stimulus in +their ponderings over the riddle of the universe, the sober, plodding +scientists and the calm, truth-loving philosophers gained a peaceful +victory over the mythologists. + + + +CHAPTER IV + +The Gods of China + + +The Birth of the Soul + +The dualism noted in the last chapter is well illustrated by the +Chinese pantheon. Whether as the result of the co-operation of the +_yin_ and the _yang_ or of the final dissolution of P'an Ku, human +beings came into existence. To the primitive mind the body and its +shadow, an object and its reflection in water, real life and dream +life, sensibility and insensibility (as in fainting, etc.), suggest the +idea of another life parallel with this life and of the doings of the +'other self' in it. This 'other self,' this spirit, which leaves the +body for longer or shorter intervals in dreams, swoons, death, may +return or be brought back, and the body revive. Spirits which do not +return or are not brought back may cause mischief, either alone, or by +entry into another human or animal body or even an inanimate object, +and should therefore be propitiated. Hence worship and deification. + + +The Populous Otherworld + +The Chinese pantheon has gradually become so multitudinous that there +is scarcely a being or thing which is not, or has not been at some time +or other, propitiated or worshipped. As there are good and evil people +in this world, so there are gods and demons in the Otherworld: we find +a polytheism limited only by a polydemonism. The dualistic hierarchy is +almost all-embracing. To get a clear idea of this populous Otherworld, +of the supernal and infernal hosts and their organizations, it needs +but to imagine the social structure in its main features as it existed +throughout the greater part of Chinese history, and to make certain +additions. The social structure consisted of the ruler, his court, +his civil, military, and ecclesiastical officials, and his subjects +(classed as Scholars--officials and gentry--Agriculturists, Artisans, +and Merchants, in that order). + + +Worship of Shang Ti + +When these died, their other selves continued to exist and to hold +the same rank in the spirit world as they did in this one. The _ti_, +emperor, became the _Shang Ti_, Emperor on High, who dwelt in _T'ien_, +Heaven (originally the great dome). [11] And Shang Ti, the Emperor +on High, was worshipped by _ti_, the emperor here below, in order to +pacify or please him--to ensure a continuance of his benevolence on +his behalf in the world of spirits. Confusion of ideas and paucity +of primitive language lead to personification and worship of a thing +or being in which a spirit has taken up its abode in place of or in +addition to worship of the spirit itself. Thus Heaven (T'ien) itself +came to be personified and worshipped in addition to Shang Ti, the +Emperor who had gone to Heaven, and who was considered as the chief +ruler in the spiritual world. The worship of Shang Ti was in existence +before that of T'ien was introduced. Shang Ti was worshipped by the +emperor and his family as their ancestor, or the head of the hierarchy +of their ancestors. The people could not worship Shang Ti, for to do so +would imply a familiarity or a claim of relationship punishable with +death. The emperor worshipped his ancestors, the officials theirs, +the people theirs. But, in the same way and sense that the people +worshipped the emperor on earth, as the 'father' of the nation, +namely, by adoration and obeisance, so also could they in this way +and this sense worship Shang Ti. An Englishman may take off his hat +as the king passes in the street to his coronation without taking any +part in the official service in Westminster Abbey. So the 'worship' +of Shang Ti by the people was not done officially or with any special +ceremonial or on fixed State occasions, as in the case of the worship +of Shang Ti by the emperor. This, subject to a qualification to be +mentioned later, is really all that is meant (or should be meant) +when it is said that the Chinese worship Shang Ti. + +As regards sacrifices to Shang Ti, these could be offered officially +only by the emperor, as High Priest on earth, who was attended or +assisted in the ceremonies by members of his own family or clan or +the proper State officials (often, even in comparatively modern times, +members of the imperial family or clan). In these official sacrifices, +which formed part of the State worship, the people could not take part; +nor did they at first offer sacrifices to Shang Ti in their own homes +or elsewhere. In what way and to what extent they did so later will +be shown presently. + + +Worship of T'ien + +Owing to T'ien, Heaven, the abode of the spirits, becoming personified, +it came to be worshipped not only by the emperor, but by the people +also. But there was a difference between these two worships, because +the emperor performed his worship of Heaven officially at the great +altar of the Temple of Heaven at Peking (in early times at the altar +in the suburb of the capital), whereas the people (continuing always +to worship their ancestors) worshipped Heaven, when they did so +at all--the custom being observed by some and not by others, just +as in Western countries some people go to church, while others stay +away--usually at the time of the New Year, in a simple, unceremonious +way, by lighting some incense-sticks and waving them toward the sky +in the courtyards of their own houses or in the street just outside +their doors. + + +Confusion of Shang Ti and T'ien + +The qualification necessary to the above description is that, as +time went on and especially since the Sung dynasty (A.D. 960-1280), +much confusion arose regarding Shang Ti and T'ien, and thus it came +about that the terms became mixed and their definitions obscure. This +confusion of ideas has prevailed down to the present time. One result +of this is that the people may sometimes state, when they wave their +incense-sticks or light their candles, that their humble sacrifice +is made to Shang Ti, whom in reality they have no right either to +worship or to offer sacrifice to, but whom they may unofficially pay +respect and make obeisance to, as they might and did to the emperor +behind the high boards on the roadsides which shielded him from their +view as he was borne along in his elaborate procession on the few +occasions when he came forth from the imperial city. + +Thus we find that, while only the emperor could worship and sacrifice +to Shang Ti, and only he could officially worship and sacrifice to +T'ien, the people who early personified and worshipped T'ien, as +already shown, came, owing to confusion of the meanings of Shang Ti +and T'ien, unofficially to 'worship' both, but only in the sense and to +the extent indicated, and to offer 'sacrifices' to both, also only in +the sense and to the extent indicated. But for these qualifications, +the statement that the Chinese worship and sacrifice to Shang Ti and +T'ien would be apt to convey an incorrect idea. + +From this it will be apparent that Shang Ti, the Supreme Ruler on High, +and T'ien, Heaven (later personified), do not mean 'God' in the sense +that the word is used in the Christian religion. To state that they +do, as so many writers on China have done, without pointing out the +essential differences, is misleading. That Chinese religion was or is +"a monotheistic worship of God" is further disproved by the fact that +Shang Ti and T'ien do not appear in the list of the popular pantheon at +all, though all the other gods are there represented. Neither Shang Ti +nor T'ien mean the God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, or the Father, +Son, and Holy Ghost of the New Testament. Did they mean this, the +efforts of the Christian missionaries to convert the Chinese would be +largely superfluous. The Christian religion, even the Holy Trinity, +is a monotheism. That the Chinese religion (even though a summary +of extracts from the majority of foreign books on China might point +to its being so) is not a monotheism, but a polytheism or even a +pantheism (as long as that term is taken in the sense of universal +deification and not in that of one spiritual being immanent in all +things), the rest of this chapter will abundantly prove. + +There have been three periods in which gods have been created in +unusually large numbers: that of the mythical emperor Hsien Yüan +(2698-2598 B.C.), that of Chiang Tzu-ya (in the twelfth century B.C.), +and that of the first emperor of the Ming dynasty (in the fourteenth +century A.D.). + + +The Otherworld Similar to this World + +The similarity of the Otherworld to this world above alluded to is +well shown by Du Bose in his _Dragon, Image, and, Demon_, from which +I quote the following passages: + +"The world of spirits is an exact counterpart of the Chinese Empire, +or, as has been remarked, it is 'China ploughed under'; this is the +world of light; put out the lights and you have Tartarus. China has +eighteen [now twenty-two] provinces, so has Hades; each province has +eight or nine prefects, or departments; so each province in Hades +has eight or nine departments; every prefect or department averages +ten counties, so every department in Hades has ten counties. In +Soochow the Governor, the provincial Treasurer, the Criminal Judge, +the Intendant of Circuit, the Prefect or Departmental Governor, and +the three District Magistrates or County Governors each have temples +with their apotheoses in the other world. Not only these, but every +_yamên_ secretary, runner, executioner, policeman, and constable +has his counterpart in the land of darkness. The market-towns have +also mandarins of lesser rank in charge, besides a host of revenue +collectors, the bureau of government works and other departments, +with several hundred thousand officials, who all rank as gods beyond +the grave. These deities are civilians; the military having a similar +gradation for the armies of Hades, whose captains are gods, and whose +battalions are devils. + +"The framers of this wonderful scheme for the spirits of the dead, +having no higher standard, transferred to the authorities of +that world the etiquette, tastes, and venality of their correlate +officials in the Chinese Government, thus making it necessary to +use similar means to appease the one which are found necessary to +move the other. All the State gods have their assistants, attendants, +door-keepers, runners, horses, horsemen, detectives, and executioners, +corresponding in every particular to those of Chinese officials of +the same rank." (Pp. 358-359.) + +This likeness explains also why the hierarchy of beings in the +Otherworld concerns itself not only with the affairs of the Otherworld, +but with those of this world as well. So faithful is the likeness +that we find the gods (the term is used in this chapter to include +goddesses, who are, however, relatively few) subjected to many of +the rules and conditions existing on this earth. Not only do they, as +already shown, differ in rank, but they hold _levées_ and audiences +and may be promoted for distinguished services, just as the Chinese +officials are. They "may rise from an humble position to one near the +Pearly Emperor, who gives them the reward of merit for ruling well the +affairs of men. The correlative deities of the mandarins are only of +equal rank, yet the fact that they have been apotheosized makes them +their superiors and fit objects of worship. Chinese mandarins rotate in +office, generally every three years, and then there is a corresponding +change in Hades. The image in the temple remains the same, but the +spirit which dwells in the clay tabernacle changes, so the idol has +a different name, birthday, and tenant. The priests are informed by +the Great Wizard of the Dragon Tiger Mountain, but how can the people +know gods which are not the same to-day as yesterday?" (Pp. 360-361.) + +The gods also indulge in amusements, marry, sin, are punished, die, +are resurrected, or die and are transformed, or die finally. [12] + + +The Three Religions + +We have in China the universal worship of ancestors, which constitutes +(or did until A.D. 1912) the State religion, usually known as +Confucianism, and in addition we have the gods of the specific +religions (which also originally took their rise in ancestor-worship), +namely, Buddhism and Taoism. (Other religions, though tolerated, +are not recognized as Chinese religions.) It is with a brief account +of this great hierarchy and its mythology that we will now concern +ourselves. + +Besides the ordinary ancestor-worship (as distinct from the State +worship) the people took to Buddhism and Taoism, which became +the popular religions, and the _literati_ also honoured the gods +of these two sects. Buddhist deities gradually became installed in +Taoist temples, and the Taoist immortals were given seats beside the +Buddhas in their sanctuaries. Every one patronized the god who seemed +to him the most popular and the most lucrative. There even came to +be united in the same temple and worshipped at the same altar the +three religious founders or figure-heads, Confucius, Buddha, and Lao +Tzu. The three religions were even regarded as forming one whole, +or at least, though different, as having one and the same object: +_san êrh i yeh_, or _han san wei i_, "the three are one," or "the +three unite to form one" (a quotation from the phrase _T'ai chi han +san wei i_ of Fang Yü-lu: "When they reach the extreme the three are +seen to be one"). In the popular pictorial representations of the +pantheon this impartiality is clearly shown. + + +The Super-triad + +The toleration, fraternity, or co-mixture of the three +religions--ancestor-worship or Confucianism, Chinese Buddhism, +and Taoism--explains the compound nature of the triune head of +the Chinese pantheon. The numerous deities of Buddhism and Taoism +culminate each in a triad of gods (the Three Precious Ones and the +Three Pure Ones respectively), but the three religions jointly have +also a triad compounded of one representative member of each. This +general or super-triad is, of course, composed of Confucius, Lao Tzu, +and Buddha. This is the officially decreed order, though it is varied +occasionally by Buddha being placed in the centre (the place of honour) +as an act of ceremonial deference shown to a 'stranger' or 'guest' +from another country. + + +Worship of the Living + +Before proceeding to consider the gods of China in detail, it is +necessary to note that ancestor-worship, which, as before stated, +is worship of the ghosts of deceased persons, who are usually but +not invariably relatives of the worshipper, has at times a sort of +preliminary stage in this world consisting of the worship of living +beings. Emperors, viceroys, popular officials, or people beloved for +their good deeds have had altars, temples, and images erected to them, +where they are worshipped in the same way as those who have already +"shuffled off this mortal coil." The most usual cases are perhaps those +of the worship of living emperors and those in which some high official +who has gained the gratitude of the people is transferred to another +post. The explanation is simple. The second self which exists after +death is identical with the second self inhabiting the body during +life. Therefore it may be propitiated or gratified by sacrifices +of food, drink, etc., or theatricals performed in its honour, and +continue its protection and good offices even though now far away. + + + +Confucianism + +Confucianism (_Ju Chiao_) is said to be the religion of the learned, +and the learned were the officials and the _literati_ or lettered +class, which includes scholars waiting for posts, those who have failed +to get posts (or, though qualified, prefer to live in retirement), and +those who have retired from posts. Of this 'religion' it has been said: + +"The name embraces education, letters, ethics, and political +philosophy. Its head was not a religious man, practised few religious +rites, and taught nothing about religion. In its usual acceptation the +term Confucianist means 'a gentleman and a scholar'; he may worship +only once a year, yet he belongs to the Church. Unlike its two sisters, +it has no priesthood, and fundamentally is not a religion at all; +yet with the many rites grafted on the original tree it becomes a +religion, and the one most difficult to deal with. Considered as a +Church, the classics are its scriptures, the schools its churches, the +teachers its priests, ethics its theology, and the written character, +so sacred, its symbol." [13] + + +Confucius not a God + +It should be noted that Confucius himself is not a god, though he +has been and is worshipped (66,000 animals used to be offered to him +every year; probably the number is about the same now). Suggestions +have been made to make him the God of China and Confucianism the +religion of China, so that he and his religion would hold the same +relative positions that Christ and Christianity do in the West. I +was present at the lengthy debate which took place on this subject +in the Chinese Parliament in February 1917, but in spite of many +long, learned, and eloquent speeches, chiefly by scholars of the +old school, the motion was not carried. Nevertheless, the worship +accorded to Confucius was and is (except by 'new' or 'young' China) +of so extreme a nature that he may almost be described as the great +unapotheosized god of China. [14] Some of his portraits even ascribe to +him superhuman attributes. But in spite of all this the fact remains +that Confucius has not been appointed a god and holds no _exequatur_ +entitling him to that rank. + +If we inquire into the reason of this we find that, astonishing +though it may seem, Confucius is classed by the Chinese not as a god +(_shên_), but as a demon (_kuei_). A short historical statement will +make the matter clear. + +In the classical _Li chi, Book of Ceremonial_, we find the categorical +assignment of the worship of certain objects to certain subjective +beings: the emperor worshipped Heaven and earth, the feudal princes the +mountains and rivers, the officials the hearth, and the _literati_ +their ancestors. Heaven, earth, mountains, rivers, and hearth +were called _shên_ (gods), and ancestors _kuei_ (demons). This +distinction is due to Heaven being regarded as the god and the +people as demons--the upper is the god, the lower the evil spirit or +demon. Though _kuei_ were usually bad, the term in Chinese includes +both good and evil spirits. In ancient times those who had by their +meritorious virtue while in the world averted calamities from the +people were posthumously worshipped and called gods, but those who were +worshipped by their descendants only were called spirits or demons. + +In the worship of Confucius by emperors of various dynasties (details +of which need not be given here) the highest titles conferred on him +were _Hsien Shêng_, 'Former or Ancestral Saint,' and even _Win Hsüan +Wang_, 'Accomplished and Illustrious Prince,' and others containing +like epithets. When for his image or idol there was (in the eleventh +year--A.D. 1307--of the reign-period Ta Tê of the Emperor Ch'êng +Tsung of the Yüan dynasty) substituted the tablet now seen in the +Confucian temples, these were the inscriptions engraved on it. In the +inscriptions authoritatively placed on the tablets the word _shên_ +does not occur; in those cases where it does occur it has been +placed there (as by the Taoists) illegally and without authority +by too ardent devotees. Confucius may not be called a _shên_, since +there is no record showing that the great ethical teacher was ever +apotheosized, or that any order was given that the character _shên_ +was to be applied to him. + + +The God of Literature + +In addition to the ancestors of whose worship it really consists, +Confucianism has in its pantheon the specialized gods worshipped by +the _literati_. Naturally the chief of these is Wên Ch'ang, the God of +Literature. The account of him (which varies in several particulars +in different Chinese works) relates that he was a man of the name +of Chang Ya, who was born during the T'ang dynasty in the kingdom of +Yüeh (modern Chêkiang), and went to live at Tzu T'ung in Ssuch'uan, +where his intelligence raised him to the position of President of the +Board of Ceremonies. Another account refers to him as Chang Ya Tzu, +the Soul or Spirit of Tzu T'ung, and states that he held office in the +Chin dynasty (A.D. 265-316), and was killed in a fight. Another again +states that under the Sung dynasty (A.D. 960-1280), in the third year +(A.D. 1000) of the reign-period Hsien P'ing of the Emperor Chên Tsung, +he repressed the revolt of Wang Chün at Ch'êng Tu in Ssuch'uan. General +Lei Yu-chung caused to be shot into the besieged town arrows to which +notices were attached inviting the inhabitants to surrender. Suddenly +a man mounted a ladder, and pointing to the rebels cried in a loud +voice: "The Spirit of Tzu T'ung has sent me to inform you that the +town will fall into the hands of the enemy on the twentieth day of +the ninth moon, and not a single person will escape death." Attempts +to strike down this prophet of evil were in vain, for he had already +disappeared. The town was captured on the day indicated. The general, +as a reward, caused the temple of Tzu T'ung's Spirit to be repaired, +and sacrifices offered to it. + +The object of worship nowadays in the temples dedicated to Wên Ch'ang +is Tzu T'ung Ti Chün, the God of Tzu T'ung. The convenient elasticity +of dualism enabled Chang to have as many as seventeen reincarnations, +which ranged over a period of some three thousand years. + +Various emperors at various times bestowed upon Wên Ch'ang honorific +titles, until ultimately, in the Yüan, or Mongol, dynasty, in the reign +Yen Yu, in A.D. 1314, the title was conferred on him of Supporter of +the Yüan Dynasty, Diffuser of Renovating Influences, Ssu-lu of Wên +Ch'ang, God and Lord. He was thus apotheosized, and took his place +among the gods of China. By steps few or many a man in China has +often become a god. + + +Wên Ch'ang and the Great Bear + +Thus we have the God of Literature, Wên Ch'ang Ti Chün, duly installed +in the Chinese pantheon, and sacrifices were offered to him in the +schools. + +But scholars, especially those about to enter for the public +competitive examinations, worshipped as the God of Literature, or as +his palace or abode (Wên Ch'ang), the star K'uei in the Great Bear, +or Dipper, or Bushel--the latter name derived from its resemblance in +shape to the measure used by the Chinese and called _tou_. The term +K'uei was more generally applied to the four stars forming the body +or square part of the Dipper, the three forming the tail or handle +being called Shao or Piao. How all this came about is another story. + +A scholar, as famous for his literary skill as his facial deformities, +had been admitted as first academician at the metropolitan +examinations. It was the custom that the Emperor should give with +his own hand a rose of gold to the fortunate candidate. This scholar, +whose name was Chung K'uei, presented himself according to custom to +receive the reward which by right was due to him. At the sight of +his repulsive face the Emperor refused the golden rose. In despair +the miserable rejected one went and threw himself into the sea. At +the moment when he was being choked by the waters a mysterious fish +or monster called _ao_ raised him on its back and brought him to the +surface. K'uei ascended to Heaven and became arbiter of the destinies +of men of letters. His abode was said to be the star K'uei, a name +given by the Chinese to the sixteen stars of the constellation or +'mansion' of Andromeda and Pisces. The scholars quite soon began +to worship K'uei as the God of Literature, and to represent it on a +column in the temples. Then sacrifices were offered to it. This star +or constellation was regarded as the palace of the god. The legend +gave rise to an expression frequently used in Chinese of one who +comes out first in an examination, namely, _tu chan ao t'ou_, "to +stand alone on the sea-monster's head." It is especially to be noted +that though the two K'ueis have the same sound they are represented +by different characters, and that the two constellations are not the +same, but are situated in widely different parts of the heavens. + +How then did it come about that scholars worshipped the K'uei in +the Great Bear as the abode of the God of Literature? (It may be +remarked in passing that a literary people could not have chosen +a more appropriate palace for this god, since the Great Bear, +the 'Chariot of Heaven,' is regarded as the centre and governor +of the whole universe.) The worship, we saw, was at first that of +the star K'uei, the apotheosized 'homely,' successful, but rejected +candidate. As time went on, there was a general demand for a sensible, +concrete representation of this star-god: a simple character did not +satisfy the popular taste. But it was no easy matter to comply with the +demand. Eventually, guided doubtless by the community of pronunciation, +they substituted for the star or group of stars K'uei (1), +venerated in ancient times, a new star or group of stars K'uei (2), +forming the square part of the Bushel, Dipper, or Great Bear. But for +this again no bodily image could be found, so the form of the written +character itself was taken, and so drawn as to represent a _kuei_ +(3) (disembodied spirit, or ghost) with its foot raised, and bearing +aloft a _tou_ (4) (bushel-measure). The adoration was thus misplaced, +for the constellation K'uei (2) was mistaken for K'uei (1), the proper +object of worship. It was due to this confusion by the scholars that +the Northern Bushel came to be worshipped as the God of Literature. + + +Wên Ch'ang and Tzu T'ung + +This worship had nothing whatever to do with the Spirit of Tzu T'ung, +but the Taoists have connected Chang Ya with the constellation in +another way by saying that Shang Ti, the Supreme Ruler, entrusted Chang +Ya's son with the management of the palace of Wên Ch'ang. And scholars +gradually acquired the habit of saying that they owed their success +to the Spirit of Tzu T'ung, which they falsely represented as being an +incarnation of the star Wên Ch'ang. This is how Chang Ya came to have +the honorific title of Wên Ch'ang, but, as a Chinese author points +out, Chang belonged properly to Ssuch'uan, and his worship should +be confined to that province. The _literati_ there venerated him as +their master, and as a mark of affection and gratitude built a temple +to him; but in doing so they had no intention of making him the God of +Literature. "There being no real connexion between Chang Ya and K'uei, +the worship should be stopped." The device of combining the personality +of the patron of literature enthroned among the stars with that of the +deified mortal canonized as the Spirit of Tzu T'ung was essentially a +Taoist trick. "The thaumaturgic reputation assigned to the Spirit of +Chang Ya Tzu was confined for centuries to the valleys of Ssuch'uan, +until at some period antecedent to the reign Yen Yu, in A.D. 1314, +a combination was arranged between the functions of the local god +and those of the stellar patron of literature. Imperial sanction +was obtained for this stroke of priestly cunning; and notwithstanding +protests continually repeated by orthodox sticklers for accuracy in the +religious canon, the composite deity has maintained his claims intact, +and an inseparable connexion between the God of Literature created by +imperial patent and the spirit lodged among the stars of Ursa Major is +fully recognized in the State ceremonial of the present day." A temple +dedicated to this divinity by the State exists in every city of China, +besides others erected as private benefactions or speculations. + +Wherever Wên Ch'ang is worshipped there will also be found a separate +representation of K'uei Hsing, showing that while the official deity +has been allowed to 'borrow glory' from the popular god, and even +to assume his personality, the independent existence of the stellar +spirit is nevertheless sedulously maintained. The place of the latter +in the heavens above is invariably symbolized by the lodgment of his +idol in an upper storey or tower, known as the K'uei Hsing Ko or K'uei +Hsing Lou. Here students worship the patron of their profession with +incense and prayers. Thus the ancient stellar divinity still largely +monopolizes the popular idea of a guardian of literature and study, +notwithstanding that the deified recluse of Tzu T'ung has been added in +this capacity to the State pantheon for more than five hundred years. + + +Heaven-deaf and Earth-dumb + +The popular representations of Wên Ch'ang depict the god himself and +four other figures. The central and largest is the demure portrait of +the god, clothed in blue and holding a sceptre in his left hand. Behind +him stand two youthful attendants. They are the servant and groom +who always accompany him on his journeys (on which he rides a white +horse). Their names are respectively Hsüan T'ung-tzu and Ti-mu, 'Sombre +Youth' and 'Earth-mother'; more commonly they are called T'ien-lung, +'Deaf Celestial,' and Ti-ya, 'Mute Terrestrial,' or 'Deaf as Heaven' +and 'Mute as Earth.' Thus they cannot divulge the secrets of their +master's administration as he distributes intellectual gifts, literary +skill, etc. Their cosmogonical connexion has already been referred +to in a previous chapter. + + +Image of K'uei Hsing + +In front of Wên Ch'ang, on his left, stands K'uei Hsing. He is +represented as of diminutive stature, with the visage of a demon, +holding a writing-brush in his right hand and a _tou_ in his left, +one of his legs kicking up behind--the figure being obviously intended +as an impersonation of the character _k'uei_ (2). [16] He is regarded +as the distributor of literary degrees, and was invoked above all +in order to obtain success at the competitive examinations. His +images and temples are found in all towns. In the temples dedicated +to Wên Ch'ang there are always two secondary altars, one of which is +consecrated to his worship. + + +Mr Redcoat + +The other is dedicated to Chu I, 'Mr Redcoat.' He and K'uei Hsing +are represented as the two inseparable companions of the God of +Literature. The legend related of Chu I is as follows: + +During the T'ang dynasty, in the reign-period Chien Chung (A.D. 780-4) +of the Emperor Tê Tsung, the Princess T'ai Yin noticed that Lu Ch'i, +a native of Hua Chou, had the bones of an Immortal, and wished to +marry him. + +Ma P'o, her neighbour, introduced him one day into the Crystal +Palace for an interview with his future wife. The Princess gave him +the choice of three careers: to live in the Dragon Prince's Palace, +with the guarantee of immortal life, to enjoy immortality among the +people on the earth, or to have the honour of becoming a minister of +the Empire. Lu Ch'i first answered that he would like to live in the +Crystal Palace. The young lady, overjoyed, said to him: "I am Princess +T'ai Yin. I will at once inform Shang Ti, the Supreme Ruler." A moment +later the arrival of a celestial messenger was announced. Two officers +bearing flags preceded him and conducted him to the foot of the flight +of steps. He then presented himself as Chu I, the envoy of Shang Ti. + +Addressing himself to Lu Ch'i, he asked: "Do you wish to live in the +Crystal Palace?" The latter did not reply. T'ai Yin urged him to give +his answer, but he persisted in keeping silent. The Princess in despair +retired to her apartment, and brought out five pieces of precious +cloth, which she presented to the divine envoy, begging him to have +patience a little longer and wait for the answer. After some time, +Chu I repeated his question. Then Lu Ch'i in a firm voice answered: +"I have consecrated my life to the hard labour of study, and wish to +attain to the dignity of minister on this earth." + +T'ai Yin ordered Ma P'o to conduct Lu Ch'i from the palace. From that +day his face became transformed: he acquired the lips of a dragon, +the head of a panther, the green face of an Immortal, etc. He took +his degree, and was promoted to be Director of the Censorate. The +Emperor, appreciating the good sense shown in his advice, appointed +him a minister of the Empire. + +From this legend it would seem that Chu I is the purveyor of official +posts; however, in practice, he is more generally regarded as the +protector of weak candidates, as the God of Good Luck for those who +present themselves at the examinations with a somewhat light equipment +of literary knowledge. The special legend relating to this _rôle_ +is known everywhere in China. It is as follows: + + +Mr Redcoat nods his Head + +An examiner, engaged in correcting the essays of the candidates, +after a superficial scrutiny of one of the essays, put it on one +side as manifestly inferior, being quite determined not to pass the +candidate who had composed it. The essay, moved by some mysterious +power, was replaced in front of his eyes, as if to invite him to +examine it more attentively. At the same time a reverend old man, +clothed in a red garment, suddenly appeared before him, and by a nod +of his head gave him to understand that he should pass the essay. The +examiner, surprised at the novelty of the incident, and fortified by +the approval of his supernatural visitor, admitted the author of the +essay to the literary degree. + +Chu I, like K'uei Hsing, is invoked by the _literati_ as a powerful +protector and aid to success. When anyone with but a poor chance of +passing presents himself at an examination, his friends encourage +him by the popular saying: "Who knows but that Mr Redcoat will nod +his head?" + + +Mr Golden Cuirass + +Chu I is sometimes accompanied by another personage, named Chin Chia, +'Mr Golden Cuirass.' Like K'uei Hsing and Chu I he has charge of the +interests of scholars, but differs from them in that he holds a flag, +which he has only to wave in front of a house for the family inhabiting +it to be assured that among their descendants will be some who will +win literary honours and be promoted to high offices under the State. + +Though Chin Chia is the protector of scholars, he is also the +redoubtable avenger of their evil actions: his flag is saluted as a +good omen, but his sword is the terror of the wicked. + + +The God of War + +Still another patron deity of literature is the God of War. "How," +it may be asked, "can so peaceful a people as the Chinese put so +peaceful an occupation as literature under the patronage of so warlike +a deity as the God of War?" But that question betrays ignorance of the +character of the Chinese Kuan Ti. He is not a cruel tyrant delighting +in battle and the slaying of enemies: he is the god who can _avert +war and protect the people from its horrors_. + +A youth, whose name was originally Chang-shêng, afterward changed to +Shou-chang, and then to Yün-chang, who was born near Chieh Liang, +in Ho Tung (now the town of Chieh Chou in Shansi), and was of an +intractable nature, having exasperated his parents, was shut up in a +room from which he escaped by breaking through the window. In one of +the neighbouring houses he heard a young lady and an old man weeping +and lamenting. Running to the foot of the wall of the compound, he +inquired the reason of their grief. The old man replied that though +his daughter was already engaged, the uncle of the local official, +smitten by her beauty, wished to make her his concubine. His petitions +to the official had only been rejected with curses. + +Beside himself with rage, the youth seized a sword and went and killed +both the official and his uncle. He escaped through the T'ung Kuan, the +pass to Shensi. Having with difficulty avoided capture by the barrier +officials, he knelt down at the side of a brook to wash his face; +when lo! his appearance was completely transformed. His complexion +had become reddish-grey, and he was absolutely unrecognizable. He +then presented himself with assurance before the officers, who asked +him his name. "My name is Kuan," he replied. It was by that name that +he was thereafter known. + + +The Meat-seller's Challenge + +One day he arrived at Chu-chou, a dependent sub-prefecture of Peking, +in Chihli. There Chang Fei, a butcher, who had been selling his meat +all the morning, at noon lowered what remained into a well, placed +over the mouth of the well a stone weighing twenty-five pounds, and +said with a sneer: "If anyone can lift that stone and take my meat, +I will make him a present of it!" Kuan Yü, going up to the edge of +the well, lifted the stone with the same ease as he would a tile, +took the meat, and made off. Chang Fei pursued him, and eventually +the two came to blows, but no one dared to separate them. Just then +Liu Pei, a hawker of straw shoes, arrived, interposed, and put a stop +to the fight. The community of ideas which they found they possessed +soon gave rise to a firm friendship between the three men. + + +The Oath in the Peach-orchard + +Another account represents Liu Pei and Chang Fei as having entered +a village inn to drink wine, when a man of gigantic stature pushing +a wheelbarrow stopped at the door to rest. As he seated himself, +he hailed the waiter, saying: "Bring me some wine quickly, because +I have to hasten to reach the town to enlist in the army." + +Liu Pei looked at this man, nine feet in height, with a beard two feet +long. His face was the colour of the fruit of the jujube-tree, and +his lips carmine. Eyebrows like sleeping silkworms shaded his phoenix +eyes, which were a scarlet red. Terrible indeed was his bearing. + +"What is your name?" asked Liu Pei. "My family name is Kuan, my own +name is Yü, my surname Yün Chang," he replied. "I am from the Ho Tung +country. For the last five or six years I have been wandering about +the world as a fugitive, to escape from my pursuers, because I killed +a powerful man of my country who was oppressing the poor people. I +hear that they are collecting a body of troops to crush the brigands, +and I should like to join the expedition." + +Chang Fêi, also named Chang I Tê, is described as eight feet in +height, with round shining eyes in a panther's head, and a pointed +chin bristling with a tiger's beard. His voice resembled the rumbling +of thunder. His ardour was like that of a fiery steed. He was a native +of Cho Chün, where he possessed some fertile farms, and was a butcher +and wine-merchant. + +Liu Pei, surnamed Hsüan Tê, otherwise Hsien Chu, was the third member +of the group. + +The three men went to Chang Fei's farm, and on the morrow met together +in his peach-orchard, and sealed their friendship with an oath. Having +procured a black ox and a white horse, with the various accessories +to a sacrifice, they immolated the victims, burnt the incense of +friendship, and after twice prostrating themselves took this oath: + +"We three, Liu Pei, Kuan Yû, and Chang Fei, already united by mutual +friendship, although belonging to different clans, now bind ourselves +by the union of our hearts, and join our forces in order to help each +other in times of danger. + +"We wish to pay to the State our debt of loyal citizens and give peace +to our black-haired compatriots. We do not inquire if we were born +in the same year, the same month, or on the same day, but we desire +only that the same year, the same month, and the same day may find us +united in death. May Heaven our King and Earth our Queen see clearly +our hearts! If any one of us violate justice or forget benefits, +may Heaven and Man unite to punish him!" + +The oath having been formally taken, Liu Pei was saluted as elder +brother, Kuan Yü as the second, and Chang Fei as the youngest. Their +sacrifice to Heaven and earth ended, they killed an ox and served +a feast, to which the soldiers of the district were invited to the +number of three hundred or more. They all drank copiously until they +were intoxicated. Liu Pei enrolled the peasants; Chang Fei procured +for them horses and arms; and then they set out to make war on the +Yellow Turbans (Huang Chin Tsei). Kuan Yü proved himself worthy +of the affection which Liu Pei showed him; brave and generous, he +never turned aside from danger. His fidelity was shown especially +on one occasion when, having been taken prisoner by Ts'ao Ts'ao, +together with two of Liu Pei's wives, and having been allotted a common +sleeping-apartment with his fellow-captives, he preserved the ladies' +reputation and his own trustworthiness by standing all night at the +door of the room with a lighted lantern in his hand. + +Into details of the various exploits of the three Brothers of the +Peach-orchard we need not enter here. They are written in full in the +book of the _Story of the Three Kingdoms_, a romance in which every +Chinese who can read takes keen delight. Kuan Yü remained faithful to +his oath, even though tempted with a marquisate by the great Ts'ao +Ts'ao, but he was at length captured by Sun Ch'üan and put to death +(A.D. 219). Long celebrated as the most renowned of China's military +heroes, he was ennobled in A.D. 1120 as Faithful and Loyal Duke. Eight +years later he had conferred on him by letters patent the still more +glorious title of Magnificent Prince and Pacificator. The Emperor Wên +(A.D. 1330-3) of the Yüan dynasty added the appellation Warrior Prince +and Civilizer, and, finally, the Emperor Wan Li of the Ming dynasty, +in 1594, conferred on him the title of Faithful and Loyal Great _Ti_, +Supporter of Heaven and Protector of the Kingdom. He thus became a god, +a _ti_, and has ever since received worship as Kuan Ti or Wu Ti, the +God of War. Temples (1600 State temples and thousands of smaller ones) +erected in his honour are to be seen in all parts of the country. He +is one of the most popular gods of China. During the last half-century +of the Manchu Period his fame greatly increased. In 1856 he is said +to have appeared in the heavens and successfully turned the tide of +battle in favour of the Imperialists. His portrait hangs in every tent, +but his worship is not confined to the officials and the army, for +many trades and professions have elected him as a patron saint. The +sword of the public executioner used to be kept within the precincts +of his temple, and after an execution the presiding magistrate would +stop there to worship for fear the ghost of the criminal might follow +him home. He knew that the spirit would not dare to enter Kuan Ti's +presence. + +Thus the Chinese have no fewer than three gods of literature--perhaps +not too many for so literary a people. A fourth, a Taoist god, will +be mentioned later. + + +Buddhism in China + +Buddhism and its mythology have formed an important part of Chinese +thought for nearly two thousand years. The religion was brought +to China about A.D. 65, ready-made in its Mahayanistic form, in +consequence of a dream of the Emperor Ming Ti (A.D. 58-76) of the +Eastern Han dynasty in or about the year 63; though some knowledge +of Buddha and his doctrines existed as early as 217 B.C. As Buddha, +the chief deity of Buddhism, was a man and became a god, the religion +originated, like the others, in ancestor-worship. When a man dies, says +this religion, his other self reappears in one form or another, "from a +clod to a divinity." The way for Buddhism in China was paved by Taoism, +and Buddhism reciprocally affected Taoism by helpful development of +its doctrines of sanctity and immortalization. Buddhism also, as it has +been well put by Dr De Groot, [17] "contributed much to the ceremonial +adornment of ancestor-worship. Its salvation work on behalf of the +dead saved its place in Confucian China; for of Confucianism itself, +piety and devotion towards parents and ancestors, and the promotion of +their happiness, were the core, and, consequently, their worship with +sacrifices and ceremonies was always a sacred duty." It was thus that +it was possible for the gods of Buddhism to be introduced into China +and to maintain their special characters and fulfil their special +functions without being absorbed into or submerged by the existing +native religions. The result was, as we have seen, in the end a +partnership rather than a relation of master and servant; and I say +'in the end' because, contrary to popular belief, the Chinese have +not been tolerant of foreign religious faiths, and at various times +have persecuted Buddhism as relentlessly as they have other rivals +to orthodox Confucianism. + + +Buddha, the Law, and the Priesthood + +At the head of the Buddhist gods in China we find the triad +known as Buddha, the Law, and the Church, or Priesthood, which are +personified as Shih-chia Fo (Shâkya), O-mi-t'o Fo (Amita), and Ju-lai +Fo (Tathagata); otherwise Fo Pao, Fa Pao, and Sêng Pao (the _San Pao_, +'Three Precious Ones')--that is, Buddha, the prophet who came into the +world to teach the Law, Dharma, the Law Everlasting, and Samgha, its +mystical body, Priesthood, or Church. Dharma is an entity underived, +containing the spiritual elements and material constituents of the +universe. From it the other two evolve: Buddha (Shâkyamuni), the +creative energy, Samgha, the totality of existence and of life. To the +people these are three personal Buddhas, whom they worship without +concerning themselves about their origin. To the priests they are +simply the Buddha, past, present, or future. There are also several +other of these groups or triads, ten or more, composed of different +deities, or sometimes containing one or two of the triad already +named. Shâkyamuni heads the list, having a place in at least six. + +The legend of the Buddha belongs rather to Indian than to Chinese +mythology, and is too long to be reproduced here. [18] + +The principal gods of Buddhism are Jan-têng Fo, the Light-lamp +Buddha, Mi-lo Fo (Maitrêya), the expected Messiah of the Buddhists, +O-mi-t'o Fo (Amitabha or Amita), the guide who conducts his devotees +to the Western Paradise, Yüeh-shih Fo, the Master-physician Buddha, +Ta-shih-chih P'u-sa (Mahastama), companion of Amitabha, P'i-lu Fo +(Vairotchana), the highest of the Threefold Embodiments, Kuan Yin, +the Goddess of Mercy, Ti-tsang Wang, the God of Hades, Wei-t'o +(Vihârapâla), the Dêva protector of the Law of Buddha and Buddhist +temples, the Four Diamond Kings of Heaven, and Bodhidharma, the first +of the six Patriarchs of Eastern or Chinese Buddhism. + + +Diamond Kings of Heaven + +On the right and left sides of the entrance hall of Buddhist temples, +two on each side, are the gigantic figures of the four great _Ssu Ta +Chin-kang_ or _T'ien-wang_, the Diamond Kings of Heaven, protectors +or governors of the continents lying in the direction of the four +cardinal points from Mount Sumêru, the centre of the world. They are +four brothers named respectively Mo-li Ch'ing (Pure), or Tsêng Chang, +Mo-li Hung (Vast), or Kuang Mu, Mo-li Hai (Sea), or To Wên, and Mo-li +Shou (Age), or Ch'ih Kuo. The _Chin kuang ming_ states that they bestow +all kinds of happiness on those who honour the Three Treasures, Buddha, +the Law, and the Priesthood. Kings and nations who neglect the Law +lose their protection. They are described and represented as follows: + +Mo-li Ch'ing, the eldest, is twenty-four feet in height, with a beard +the hairs of which are like copper wire. He carries a magnificent +jade ring and a spear, and always fights on foot. He has also a magic +sword, 'Blue Cloud,' on the blade of which are engraved the characters +_Ti, Shui, Huo, Fêng_ (Earth, Water, Fire, Wind). When brandished, +it causes a black wind, which produces tens of thousands of spears, +which pierce the bodies of men and turn them to dust. The wind is +followed by a fire, which fills the air with tens of thousands of +golden fiery serpents. A thick smoke also rises out of the ground, +which blinds and burns men, none being able to escape. + +Mo-li Hung carries in his hand an umbrella, called the Umbrella of +Chaos, formed of pearls possessed of spiritual properties. Opening +this marvellous implement causes the heavens and earth to be covered +with thick darkness, and turning it upside down produces violent +storms of wind and thunder and universal earthquakes. + +Mo-li Hai holds a four-stringed guitar, the twanging of which +supernaturally affects the earth, water, fire, or wind. When it is +played all the world listens, and the camps of the enemy take fire. + +Mo-li Shou has two whips and a panther-skin bag, the home of a creature +resembling a white rat, known as Hua-hu Tiao. When at large this +creature assumes the form of a white winged elephant, which devours +men. He sometimes has also a snake or other man-eating creature, +always ready to obey his behests. + + + +Legend of the Diamond Kings + +The legend of the Four Diamond Kings given in the _Fêng shên yen i_ +is as follows: At the time of the consolidation of the Chou dynasty +in the twelfth and eleventh centuries B.C., Chiang Tzu-ya, chief +counsellor to Wên Wang, and General Huang Fei-hu were defending +the town and mountain of Hsi-ch'i. The supporters of the house of +Shang appealed to the four genii Mo, who lived at Chia-mêng Kuan, +praying them to come to their aid. They agreed, raised an army +of 100,000 celestial soldiers, and traversing towns, fields, and +mountains arrived in less than a day at the north gate of Hsi-ch'i, +where Mo-li Ch'ing pitched his camp and entrenched his soldiers. + +Hearing of this, Huang Fei-hu hastened to warn Chiang Tzu-ya of the +danger which threatened him. "The four great generals who have just +arrived at the north gate," he said, "are marvellously powerful genii, +experts in all the mysteries of magic and use of wonderful charms. It +is much to be feared that we shall not be able to resist them." + +Many fierce battles ensued. At first these went in favour of the +_Chin-kang_, thanks to their magical weapons and especially to Mo-li +Shou's Hua-hu Tiao, who terrorized the enemy by devouring their +bravest warriors. + + +Hua-hu Tiao devours Yang Chien + +Unfortunately for the _Chin-kang_, the brute attacked and swallowed +Yang Chien, the nephew of Yü Huang. This genie, on entering the body +of the monster, rent his heart asunder and cut him in two. As he could +transform himself at will, he assumed the shape of Hua-hu Tiao, and +went off to Mo-li Shou, who unsuspectingly put him back into his bag. + +The Four Kings held a festival to celebrate their triumph, and having +drunk copiously gave themselves over to sleep. During the night Yang +Chien came out of the bag, with the intention of possessing himself of +the three magical weapons of the _Chin-kang_. But he succeeded only in +carrying off the umbrella of Mo-li Hung. In a subsequent engagement +No-cha, the son of Vadjrâ-pani, the God of Thunder, broke the jade +ring of Mo-li Ch'ing. Misfortune followed misfortune. The _Chin-kang_, +deprived of their magical weapons, began to lose heart. To complete +their discomfiture, Huang T'ien Hua brought to the attack a matchless +magical weapon. This was a spike 7 1/2 inches long, enclosed in a +silk sheath, and called 'Heart-piercer.' It projected so strong a +ray of light that eyes were blinded by it. + +Huang T'ien Hua, hard pressed by Mo-li Ch'ing, drew the mysterious +spike from its sheath, and hurled it at his adversary. It entered +his neck, and with a deep groan the giant fell dead. + +Mo-li Hung and Mo-li Hai hastened to avenge their brother, but ere +they could come within striking distance of Huang Ti'en Hua his +redoubtable spike reached their hearts, and they lay prone at his feet. + +The one remaining hope for the sole survivor was in Hua-hu Tiao. Mo-li +Shou, not knowing that the creature had been slain, put his hand into +the bag to pull him out, whereupon Yang Chien, who had re-entered the +bag, bit his hand off at the wrist, so that there remained nothing +but a stump of bone. + +In this moment of intense agony Mo-li Shou fell an easy prey to Huang +T'ien Hua, the magical spike pierced his heart, and he fell bathed +in his blood. Thus perished the last of the _Chin-kang_. + + + +The Three Pure Ones + +Turning to the gods of Taoism, we find that the triad or trinity, +already noted as forming the head of that hierarchy, consists of +three Supreme Gods, each in his own Heaven. These three Heavens, +the _San Ch'ing_, 'Three Pure Ones' (this name being also applied +to the sovereigns ruling in them), were formed from the three airs, +which are subdivisions of the one primordial air. + +The first Heaven is Yü Ch'ing. In it reigns the first member of +the Taoist triad. He inhabits the Jade Mountain. The entrance to +his palace is named the Golden Door. He is the source of all truth, +as the sun is the source of all light. + +Various authorities give his name differently--Yüan-shih T'ien-tsun, +or Lo Ching Hsin, and call him T'ien Pao, 'the Treasure of Heaven,' +Some state that the name of the ruler of this first Heaven is Yü +Huang, and in the popular mind he it is who occupies this supreme +position. The Three Pure Ones are above him in rank, but to him, the +Pearly Emperor, is entrusted the superintendence of the world. He has +all the power of Heaven and earth in his hands. He is the correlative +of Heaven, or rather Heaven itself. + +The second Heaven, Shang Ch'ing, is ruled by the second person of +the triad, named Ling-pao T'ien-tsun, or Tao Chün. No information is +given as to his origin. He is the custodian of the sacred books. He has +existed from the beginning of the world. He calculates time, dividing +it into different epochs. He occupies the upper pole of the world, and +determines the movements and interaction, or regulates the relations +of the _yin_ and the _yang_, the two great principles of nature. + +In the third Heaven, T'ai Ch'ing, the Taoists place Lao Tzu, the +promulgator of the true doctrine drawn up by Ling-pao T'ien-tsun. He +is alternatively called Shên Pao, 'the Treasure of the Spirits,' +and T'ai-shang Lao-chûn, 'the Most Eminent Aged Ruler.' Under various +assumed names he has appeared as the teacher of kings and emperors, +the reformer of successive generations. + +This three-storied Taoist Heaven, or three Heavens, is the result of +the wish of the Taoists not to be out-rivalled by the Buddhists. For +Buddha, the Law, and the Priesthood they substitute the _Tao_, or +Reason, the Classics, and the Priesthood. + +As regards the organization of the Taoist Heavens, Yü Huang has on his +register the name of eight hundred Taoist divinities and a multitude +of Immortals. These are all divided into three categories: Saints +(_Shêng-jên_), Heroes (_Chên-jên_), and Immortals (_Hsien-jên_), +occupying the three Heavens respectively in that order. + + +The Three Causes + +Connected with Taoism, but not exclusively associated with that +religion, is the worship of the Three Causes, the deities presiding +over three departments of physical nature, Heaven, earth, and +water. They are known by various designations: _San Kuan_, 'the Three +Agents'; _San Yüan_, 'the Three Origins'; _San Kuan Ta Ti_, 'the Three +Great Emperor Agents'; and _T'ai Shang San Kuan_, 'the Three Supreme +Agents.' This worship has passed through four chief phases, as follows: + +The first comprises Heaven, earth, and water, _T'ien, Ti, Shui_, +the sources of happiness, forgiveness of sins, and deliverance from +evil respectively. Each of these is called King-emperor. Their names, +written on labels and offered to Heaven (on a mountain), earth (by +burial), and water (by immersion), are supposed to cure sickness. This +idea dates from the Han dynasty, being first noted about A.D. 172. + +The second, _San Yüan_ dating from A.D. 407 under the Wei dynasty, +identified the Three Agents with three dates of which they were +respectively made the patrons. The year was divided into three unequal +parts: the first to the seventh moon; the seventh to the tenth; and +the tenth to the twelfth. Of these, the fifteenth day of the first, +seventh, and tenth moons respectively became the three principal dates +of these periods. Thus the Agent of Heaven became the principal patron +of the first division, honoured on the fifteenth day of the first moon, +and so on. + +The third phase, _San Kuan_, resulted from the first two being found +too complicated for popular favour. The _San Kuan_ were the three +sons of a man, Ch'ên Tzu-ch'un, who was so handsome and intelligent +that the three daughters of Lung Wang, the Dragon-king, fell in +love with him and went to live with him. The eldest girl was the +mother of the Superior Cause, the second of the Medium Cause, and the +third of the Inferior Cause. All these were gifted with supernatural +powers. Yüan-shih T'ien-tsun canonized them as the Three Great Emperor +Agents of Heaven, earth, and water, governors of all beings, devils +or gods, in the three regions of the universe. As in the first phase, +the _T'ien Kuan_ confers happiness, the _Ti Kuan_ grants remission +of sins, and the _Shui Kuan_ delivers from evil or misfortune. + +The fourth phase consisted simply in the substitution by the priests +for the abstract or time-principles of the three great sovereigns +of ancient times, Yao, Shun, and Yü. The _literati_, proud of the +apotheosis of their ancient rulers, hastened to offer incense to them, +and temples, _San Yüan Kung_, arose in very many parts of the Empire. + +A variation of this phase is the canonization, with the title of _San +Yüan_ or Three Causes, of _Wu-k'o San Chên Chün_, 'the Three True +Sovereigns, Guests of the Kingdom of Wu.' They were three Censors +who lived in the reign of King Li (Li Wang, 878-841 B.C.) of the Chou +dynasty. Leaving the service of the Chou on account of Li's dissolute +living, they went to live in Wu, and brought victory to that state in +its war with the Ch'u State, then returned to their own country, and +became pillars of the Chou State under Li's successor. They appeared +to protect the Emperor Chên Tsung when he was offering the _Fêng-shan_ +sacrifices on T'ai Shan in A.D. 1008, on which occasion they were +canonized with the titles of Superior, Medium, and Inferior Causes, +as before, conferring upon them the regencies of Heaven, earth, +and water respectively. + + +Yüan-shih T'ien-tsun + +Yüan-shih T'ien-tsun, or the First Cause, the Highest in Heaven, +generally placed at the head of the Taoist triad, is said never +to have existed but in the fertile imagination of the Lao Tzuist +sectarians. According to them Yüan-shih T'ien-tsun had neither origin +nor master, but is himself the cause of all beings, which is why he +is called the First Cause. + +As first member of the triad, and sovereign ruler of the First Heaven, +Yü Ch'ing, where reign the saints, he is raised in rank above all +the other gods. The name assigned to him is Lo Ching Hsin. He was +born before all beginnings; his substance is imperishable; it is +formed essentially of uncreated air, air _a se_, invisible and without +perceptible limits. No one has been able to penetrate to the beginnings +of his existence. The source of all truth, he at each renovation of +the worlds--that is, at each new _kalpa_--gives out the mysterious +doctrine which confers immortality. All who reach this knowledge +attain by degrees to life eternal, become refined like the spirits, +or instantly become Immortals, even while upon earth. + +Originally, Yüan-shih T'ien-tsun was not a member of the Taoist +triad. He resided above the Three Heavens, above the Three Pure +Ones, surviving the destructions and renovations of the universe, +as an immovable rock in the midst of a stormy sea. He set the stars +in motion, and caused the planets to revolve. The chief of his secret +police was Tsao Chün, the Kitchen-god, who rendered to him an account +of the good and evil deeds of each family. His executive agent was +Lei Tsu, the God of Thunder, and his subordinates. The seven stars +of the North Pole were the palace of his ministers, whose offices +were on the various sacred mountains. Nowadays, however, Yüan-shih +T'ien-tsun is generally neglected for Yü Huang. + + +An Avatar of P'an Ku + +According to the tradition of Chin Hung, the God of T'ai Shan +of the fifth generation from P'an Ku, this being, then called +Yüan-shih T'ien-wang, was an avatar of P'an Ku. It came about in +this wise. In remote ages there lived on the mountains an old man, +Yüan-shih T'ien-wang, who used to sit on a rock and preach to the +multitude. He spoke of the highest antiquity as if from personal +experience. When Chin Hung asked him where he lived, he just raised +his hand toward Heaven, iridescent clouds enveloped his body, and he +replied: "Whoso wishes to know where I dwell must rise to impenetrable +heights." "But how," said Chin Hung, "was he to be found in this +immense emptiness?" Two genii, Ch'ih Ching-tzu and Huang Lao, then +descended on the summit of T'ai Shan and said: "Let us go and visit +this Yüan-shih. To do so, we must cross the boundaries of the universe +and pass beyond the farthest stars." Chin Hung begged them to give +him their instructions, to which he listened attentively. They then +ascended the highest of the sacred peaks, and thence mounted into the +heavens, calling to him from the misty heights: "If you wish to know +the origin of Yüan-shih, you must pass beyond the confines of Heaven +and earth, because he lives beyond the limits of the worlds. You must +ascend and ascend until you reach the sphere of nothingness and of +being, in the plains of the luminous shadows." + +Having reached these ethereal heights, the two genii saw a bright +light, and Hsüan-hsüan Shang-jên appeared before them. The two +genii bowed to do him homage and to express their gratitude. "You +cannot better show your gratitude," he replied, "than by making my +doctrine known among men. You desire," he added, "to know the history +of Yüan-shih. I will tell it you. When P'an Ku had completed his +work in the primitive Chaos, his spirit left its mortal envelope +and found itself tossed about in empty space without any fixed +support. 'I must,' it said, 'get reborn in visible form; until I can +go through a new birth I shall remain empty and unsettled,' His soul, +carried on the wings of the wind, reached Fu-yü T'ai. There it saw +a saintly lady named T'ai Yüan, forty years of age, still a virgin, +and living alone on Mount Ts'u-o. Air and variegated clouds were +the sole nourishment of her vital spirits. An hermaphrodite, at +once both the active and the passive principle, she daily scaled the +highest peak of the mountain to gather there the flowery quintessence +of the sun and the moon. P'an Ku, captivated by her virgin purity, +took advantage of a moment when she was breathing to enter her mouth +in the form of a ray of light. She was _enceinte_ for twelve years, +at the end of which period the fruit of her womb came out through her +spinal column. From its first moment the child could walk and speak, +and its body was surrounded by a five-coloured cloud. The newly-born +took the name of Yüan-shih T'ien-wang, and his mother was generally +known as T'ai-yüan Shêng-mu, 'the Holy Mother of the First Cause.'" + + +Yü Huang + +Yü Huang means 'the Jade Emperor,' or 'the Pure August One,' jade +symbolizing purity. He is also known by the name Yü-huang Shang-ti, +'the Pure August Emperor on High.' + +The history of this deity, who later received many honorific titles +and became the most popular god, a very Chinese Jupiter, seems to be +somewhat as follows: The Emperor Ch'êng Tsung of the Sung dynasty +having been obliged in A.D. 1005 to sign a disgraceful peace with +the Tunguses or Kitans, the dynasty was in danger of losing the +support of the nation. In order to hoodwink the people the Emperor +constituted himself a seer, and announced with great pomp that he +was in direct communication with the gods of Heaven. In doing this +he was following the advice of his crafty and unreliable minister +Wang Ch'in-jo, who had often tried to persuade him that the pretended +revelations attributed to Fu Hsi, Yü Wang, and others were only pure +inventions to induce obedience. The Emperor, having studied his part +well, assembled his ministers in the tenth moon of the year 1012, +and made to them the following declaration: "In a dream I had a visit +from an Immortal, who brought me a letter from Yü Huang, the purport +of which was as follows: 'I have already sent you by your ancestor +Chao [T'ai Tsu] two celestial missives. Now I am going to send him in +person to visit you.'" A little while after his ancestor T'ai Tsu, +the founder of the dynasty, came according to Yü Huang's promise, +and Ch'êng Tsung hastened to inform his ministers of it. This is the +origin of Yü Huang. He was born of a fraud, and came ready-made from +the brain of an emperor. + + +The Cask of Pearls + +Fearing to be admonished for the fraud by another of his ministers, +the scholar Wang Tan, the Emperor resolved to put a golden gag in his +mouth. So one day, having invited him to a banquet, he overwhelmed +him with flattery and made him drunk with good wine. "I would like +the members of your family also to taste this wine," he added, "so I +am making you a present of a cask of it." When Wang Tan returned home, +he found the cask filled with precious pearls. Out of gratitude to the +Emperor he kept silent as to the fraud, and made no further opposition +to his plans, but when on his death-bed he asked that his head be +shaved like a priest's and that he be clothed in priestly robes so +that he might expiate his crime of feebleness before the Emperor. + +K'ang Hsi, the great Emperor of the Ch'ing dynasty, who had already +declared that if it is wrong to impute deceit to a man it is still +more reprehensible to impute a fraud to Heaven, stigmatized him as +follows: "Wang Tan committed two faults: the first was in showing +himself a vile flatterer of his Prince during his life; the second +was in becoming a worshipper of Buddha at his death." + + +The Legend of Yü Huang + +So much for historical record. The legend of Yü Huang relates that in +ancient times there existed a kingdom named Kuang Yen Miao Lo Kuo, +whose king was Ching Tê, his queen being called Pao Yüeh. Though +getting on in years, the latter had no son. The Taoist priests were +summoned by edict to the palace to perform their rites. They recited +prayers with the object of obtaining an heir to the throne. During +the ensuing night the Queen had a vision. Lao Chün appeared to her, +riding a dragon, and carrying a male child in his arms. He floated down +through the air in her direction. The Queen begged him to give her the +child as an heir to the throne. "I am quite willing," he said. "Here +it is." She fell on her knees and thanked him. On waking she found +herself _enceinte_. At the end of a year the Prince was born. From +an early age he showed himself compassionate and generous to the +poor. On the death of his father he ascended the throne, but after +reigning only a few days abdicated in favour of his chief minister, +and became a hermit at P'u-ming, in Shensi, and also on Mount Hsiu Yen, +in Yünnan. Having attained to perfection, he passed the rest of his +days in curing sickness and saving life; and it was in the exercise +of these charitable deeds that he died. The emperors Ch'êng Tsung +and Hui Tsung, of the Sung dynasty, loaded him with all the various +titles associated with his name at the present day. + +Both Buddhists and Taoists claim him as their own, the former +identifying him with Indra, in which case Yü Huang is a Buddhist deity +incorporated into the Taoist pantheon. He has also been taken to be +the subject of a 'nature myth.' The Emperor Ching Tê, his father, +is the sun, the Queen Pao Yüeh the moon, and the marriage symbolizes +the rebirth of the vivifying power which clothes nature with green +plants and beautiful flowers. + + +T'ung-t'ien Chiao-chu + +In modern Taoism T'ung-t'ien Chiao-chu is regarded as the first of +the Patriarchs and one of the most powerful genii of the sect. His +master was Hung-chün Lao-tsu. He wore a red robe embroidered with +white cranes, and rode a _k'uei niu_, a monster resembling a buffalo, +with one long horn like a unicorn. His palace, the Pi Yu Kung, was +situated on Mount Tzu Chih Yai. + +This genie took the part of Chou Wang and helped him to resist Wu +Wang's armies. First, he sent his disciple To-pao Tao-jên to Chieh-p'ai +Kuan. He gave him four precious swords and the plan of a fort which +he was to construct and to name Chu-hsien Chên, 'the Citadel of all +the Immortals.' + +To-pao Tao-jên carried out his orders, but he had to fight a battle +with Kuang Ch'êng-tzu, and the latter, armed with a celestial seal, +struck his adversary so hard that he fell to the ground and had to +take refuge in flight. + +T'ung-t'ien Chiao-chu came to the defence of his disciple and to +restore the morale of his forces. Unfortunately, a posse of gods +arrived to aid Wu Wang's powerful general, Chiang Tzu-ya. The first +who attacked T'ung-t'ien Chiao-chu was Lao Tzu, who struck him several +times with his stick. Then came Chun T'i, armed with his cane. The +buffalo of T'ung-t'ien Chiao-chu stamped him under foot, and Chun +T'i was thrown to the earth, and only just had time to rise quickly +and mount into the air amid a great cloud of dust. + +There could be no doubt that the fight was going against T'ung-t'ien +Chiao-chu; to complete his discomfiture Jan-têng Tao-jên cleft the air +and fell upon him unexpectedly. With a violent blow of his 'Fix-sea' +staff he cast him down and compelled him to give up the struggle. + +T'ung-t'ien Chiao-chu then prepared plans for a new fortified camp +beyond T'ung Kuan, and tried to take the offensive again, but again +Lao Tzu stopped him with a blow of his stick. Yüan-shih T'ien-tsun +wounded his shoulder with his precious stone Ju-i, and Chun-t'i +Tao-jên waved his 'Branch of the Seven Virtues.' Immediately the +magic sword of T'ung-t'ien Chiao-chu was reduced to splinters, and +he saved himself only by flight. + +Hung-chün Lao-tsu, the master of these three genii, seeing his three +beloved disciples in the _mêlée_, resolved to make peace between +them. He assembled all three in a tent in Chiang Tzu-ya's camp, made +them kneel before him, then reproached T'ung-t'ien Chiao-chu at length +for having taken the part of the tyrant Chou, and recommended them +in future to live in harmony. After finishing his speech, he produced +three pills, and ordered each of the genii to swallow one. When they +had done so, Hung-chün Lao-tsu said to them: "I have given you these +pills to ensure an inviolable truce among you. Know that the first +who entertains a thought of discord in his heart will find that the +pill will explode in his stomach and cause his instant death." + +Hung-chün Lao-tsu then took T'ung-t'ien Chiao-chu away with him on +his cloud to Heaven. + + + +Immortals, Heroes, Saints + +An Immortal, according to Taoist lore, is a solitary man of the +mountains. He appears to die, but does not. After 'death' his body +retains all the qualities of the living. The body or corpse is for +him only a means of transition, a phase of metamorphosis--a cocoon +or chrysalis, the temporary abode of the butterfly. + +To reach this state a hygienic regimen both of the body and mind must +be observed. All luxury, greed, and ambition must be avoided. But +negation is not enough. In the system of nourishment all the elements +which strengthen the essence of the constituent _yin_ and _yang_ +principles must be found by means of medicine, chemistry, gymnastic +exercises, etc. When the maximum vital force has been acquired the +means of preserving it and keeping it from the attacks of death +and disease must be discovered; in a word, he must spiritualize +himself--render himself completely independent of matter. All +the experiments have for their object the storing in the pills of +immortality the elements necessary for the development of the vital +force and for the constitution of a new spiritual and super-humanized +being. In this ascending perfection there are several grades: + +(1) The Immortal (_Hsien_). The first stage consists in bringing +about the birth of the superhuman in the ascetic's person, which +reaching perfection leaves the earthly body, like the grasshopper +its sheath. This first stage attained, the Immortal travels at will +throughout the universe, enjoys all the advantages of perfect health +without dreading disease or death, eats and drinks copiously--nothing +is wanting to complete his happiness. + +(2) The Perfect Man, or Hero (_Chên-jên_). The second stage is a higher +one. The whole body is spiritualized. It has become so subtile, so +spiritual, that it can fly in the air. Borne on the wings of the wind, +seated on the clouds of Heaven, it travels from one world to another +and fixes its habitation in the stars. It is freed from all laws of +matter, but is, however, not completely changed into pure spirit. + +(3) The Saint (_Shêng-jên_). The third stage is that of the superhuman +beings or saints. They are those who have attained to extraordinary +intelligence and virtue. + + +The God of the Immortals + +Mu Kung or Tung Wang Kung, the God of the Immortals, was also called +I Chün Ming and Yü Huang Chün, the Prince Yü Huang. + +The primitive vapour congealed, remained inactive for a time, and +then produced living beings, beginning with the formation of Mu Kung, +the purest substance of the Eastern Air, and sovereign of the active +male principle _yang_ and of all the countries of the East. His +palace is in the misty heavens, violet clouds form its dome, blue +clouds its walls. Hsien T'ung, 'the Immortal Youth,' and Yü Nü, +'the Jade Maiden,' are his servants. He keeps the register of all +the Immortals, male and female. + + +Hsi Wang Mu + +Hsi Wang Mu was formed of the pure quintessence of the Western Air, +in the legendary continent of Shên Chou. She is often called the +Golden Mother of the Tortoise. + +Her family name is variously given as Hou, Yang, and Ho. Her own name +was Hui, and first name Wan-chin. She had nine sons and twenty-four +daughters. + +As Mu Kung, formed of the Eastern Air, is the active principle of +the male air and sovereign of the Eastern Air, so Hsi Wang Mu, born +of the Western Air, is the passive or female principle (_yin_) and +sovereign of the Western Air. These two principles, co-operating, +engender Heaven and earth and all the beings of the universe, and +thus become the two principles of life and of the subsistence of all +that exists. She is the head of the troop of genii dwelling on the +K'un-lun Mountains (the Taoist equivalent of the Buddhist Sumêru), and +from time to time holds intercourse with favoured imperial votaries. + + +The Feast of Peaches + +Hsi Wang Mu's palace is situated in the high mountains of the snowy +K'un-lun. It is 1000 _li_ (about 333 miles) in circuit; a rampart of +massive gold surrounds its battlements of precious stones. Its right +wing rises on the edge of the Kingfishers' River. It is the usual +abode of the Immortals, who are divided into seven special categories +according to the colour of their garments--red, blue, black, violet, +yellow, green, and 'nature-colour.' There is a marvellous fountain +built of precious stones, where the periodical banquet of the +Immortals is held. This feast is called P'an-t'ao Hui, 'the Feast of +Peaches.' It takes place on the borders of the Yao Ch'ih, Lake of Gems, +and is attended by both male and female Immortals. Besides several +superfine meats, they are served with bears' paws, monkeys' lips, +dragons' liver, phoenix marrow, and peaches gathered in the orchard, +endowed with the mystic virtue of conferring longevity on all who +have the good luck to taste them. It was by these peaches that the +date of the banquet was fixed. The tree put forth leaves once every +three thousand years, and it required three thousand years after that +for the fruit to ripen. These were Hsi Wang Mu's birthdays, when all +the Immortals assembled for the great feast, "the occasion being more +festive than solemn, for there was music on invisible instruments, +and songs not from mortal tongues." + + +The First Taoist Pope + +Chang Tao-ling, the first Taoist pope, was born in A.D. 35, in the +reign of the Emperor Kuang Wu Ti of the Han dynasty. His birthplace +is variously given as the T'ien-mu Shan, 'Eye of Heaven Mountain,' +in Lin-an Hsien, in Chekiang, and Fêng-yang Fu, in Anhui. He devoted +himself wholly to study and meditation, declining all offers to enter +the service of the State. He preferred to take up his abode in the +mountains of Western China, where he persevered in the study of alchemy +and in cultivating the virtues of purity and mental abstraction. From +the hands of Lao Tzu he received supernaturally a mystic treatise, +by following the instructions in which he was successful in his search +for the elixir of life. + +One day when he was engaged in experimenting with the 'Dragon-tiger +elixir' a spiritual being appeared to him and said: "On Po-sung +Mountain is a stone house in which are concealed the writings of the +Three Emperors of antiquity and a canonical work. By obtaining these +you may ascend to Heaven, if you undergo the course of discipline +they prescribe." + +Chang Tao-ling found these works, and by means of them obtained +the power of flying, of hearing distant sounds, and of leaving +his body. After going through a thousand days of discipline, and +receiving instruction from a goddess, who taught him to walk about +among the stars, he proceeded to fight with the king of the demons, +to divide mountains and seas, and to command the wind and thunder. All +the demons fled before him. On account of the prodigious slaughter of +demons by this hero the wind and thunder were reduced to subjection, +and various divinities came with eager haste to acknowledge their +faults. In nine years he gained the power to ascend to Heaven. + + +The Founder of Modern Taoism + +Chang Tao-ling may rightly be considered as the true founder of modern +Taoism. The recipes for the pills of immortality contained in the +mysterious books, and the invention of talismans for the cure of all +sorts of maladies, not only exalted him to the high position he has +since occupied in the minds of his numerous disciples, but enabled +them in turn to exploit successfully this new source of power and +wealth. From that time the Taoist sect began to specialize in the art +of healing. Protecting or curing talismans bearing the Master's seal +were purchased for enormous sums. It is thus seen that he was after +all a deceiver of the people, and unbelievers or rival partisans of +other sects have dubbed him a 'rice-thief'--which perhaps he was. + +He is generally represented as clothed in richly decorated garments, +brandishing with his right hand his magic sword, holding in his +left a cup containing the draught of immortality, and riding a tiger +which in one paw grasps his magic seal and with the others tramples +down the five venomous creatures: lizard, snake, spider, toad, +and centipede. Pictures of him with these accessories are pasted +up in houses on the fifth day of the fifth moon to forfend calamity +and sickness. + + + +The Peach-gathering + +It is related of him that, not wishing to ascend to Heaven too soon, +he partook of only half of the pill of immortality, dividing the +other half among several of his admirers, and that he had at least two +selves or personalities, one of which used to disport itself in a boat +on a small lake in front of his house. The other self would receive +his visitors, entertaining them with food and drink and instructive +conversation. On one occasion this self said to them: "You are unable +to quit the world altogether as I can, but by imitating my example in +the matter of family relations you could procure a medicine which would +prolong your lives by several centuries. I have given the crucible +in which Huang Ti prepared the draught of immortality to my disciple +Wang Ch'ang. Later on, a man will come from the East, who also will +make use of it. He will arrive on the seventh day of the first moon." + +Exactly on that day there arrived from the East a man named Chao +Shêng, who was the person indicated by Chang Tao-ling. He was +recognized by a manifestation of himself he had caused to appear +in advance of his coming. Chang then led all his disciples, to the +number of three hundred, to the highest peak of the Yün-t'ai. Below +them they saw a peach-tree growing near a pointed rock, stretching +out its branches like arms above a fathomless abyss. It was a large +tree, covered with ripe fruit. Chang said to his disciples: "I will +communicate a spiritual formula to the one among you who will dare +to gather the fruit of that tree." They all leaned over to look, +but each declared the feat to be impossible. Chao Shêng alone had +the courage to rush out to the point of the rock and up the tree +stretching out into space. With firm foot he stood and gathered the +peaches, placing them in the folds of his cloak, as many as it would +hold, but when he wished to climb back up the precipitous slope, +his hands slipped on the smooth rock, and all his attempts were in +vain. Accordingly, he threw the peaches, three hundred and two in all, +one by one up to Chang Tao-ling, who distributed them. Each disciple +ate one, as also did Chang, who reserved the remaining one for Chao +Shêng, whom he helped to climb up again. To do this Chang extended +his arm to a length of thirty feet, all present marvelling at the +miracle. After Chao had eaten his peach Chang stood on the edge of +the precipice, and said with a laugh: "Chao Shêng was brave enough +to climb out to that tree and his foot never tripped. I too will make +the attempt. If I succeed I will have a big peach as a reward." Having +spoken thus, he leapt into space, and alighted in the branches of the +peach-tree. Wang Ch'ang and Chao Shêng also jumped into the tree and +stood one on each side of him. There Chang communicated to them the +mysterious formula. Three days later they returned to their homes; +then, having made final arrangements, they repaired once more to the +mountain peak, whence, in the presence of the other disciples, who +followed them with their eyes until they had completely disappeared +from view, all three ascended to Heaven in broad daylight. + + +Chang Tao-ling's Great Power + +The name of Chang Tao-ling, the Heavenly Teacher, is a household +word in China. He is on earth the Vicegerent of the Pearly Emperor +in Heaven, and the Commander-in-Chief of the hosts of Taoism. He, the +chief of the wizards, the 'true [_i.e._ ideal] man,' as he is called, +wields an immense spiritual power throughout the land. The present +pope boasts of an unbroken line for three-score generations. His +family obtained possession of the Dragon-tiger Mountain in Kiangsi +about A.D. 1000. "This personage," says a pre-Republican writer, +"assumes a state which mimics the imperial. He confers buttons like +an emperor. Priests come to him from various cities and temples to +receive promotion, whom he invests with titles and presents with +seals of office." + + +Kings of Heaven + +The Four Kings of Heaven, Ssu Ta T'ien-wang, reside on Mount Sumêru +(Hsü-mi Shan), the centre of the universe. It is 3,360,000 _li_--that +is, about a million miles--high. [19] Its eastern slope is of gold, its +western of silver, its south-eastern of crystal, and its north-eastern +of agate. The Four Kings appear to be the Taoist reflection of the +four _Chin-kang_ of Buddhism already noticed. Their names are Li, +Ma, Chao, and Wên. They are represented as holding a pagoda, sword, +two swords, and spiked club respectively. Their worship appears to +be due to their auspicious appearance and aid on various critical +occasions in the dynastic history of the T'ang and Sung Periods. + + +T'ai I + +Temples are found in various parts dedicated to T'ai I, the Great +One, or Great Unity. When Emperor Wu Ti (140-86 B.C.) of the Han +dynasty was in search of the secret of immortality, and various +suggestions had proved unsatisfactory, a Taoist priest, Miao Chi, +told the Emperor that his want of success was due to his omission to +sacrifice to T'ai I, the first of the celestial spirits, quoting the +classical precedent of antiquity found in the _Book of History_. The +Emperor, believing his word, ordered the Grand Master of Sacrifices to +re-establish this worship at the capital. He followed carefully the +prescriptions of Miao Chi. This enraged the _literati_, who resolved +to ruin him. One day, when the Emperor was about to drink one of +his potions, one of the chief courtiers seized the cup and drank the +contents himself. The Emperor was about to have him slain, when he +said: "Your Majesty's order is unnecessary; if the potion confers +immortality, I cannot be killed; if, on the other hand, it does not, +your Majesty should recompense me for disproving the pretensions of +the Taoist priest." The Emperor, however, was not convinced. + +One account represents T'ai I as having lived in the time of +Shên Nung, the Divine Husbandman, who visited him to consult with +him on the subjects of diseases and fortune. He was Hsien Yüan's +medical preceptor. His medical knowledge was handed down to future +generations. He was one of those who, with the Immortals, was invited +to the great Peach Assembly of the Western Royal Mother. + +As the spirit of the star T'ai I he resides in the Eastern Palace, +listening for the cries of sufferers in order to save them. For this +purpose he assumes numberless forms in various regions. With a boat +of lotus-flowers of nine colours he ferries men over to the shore of +salvation. Holding in his hand a willow-branch, he scatters from it +the dew of the doctrine. + +T'ai I is variously represented as the Ruler of the Five Celestial +Sovereigns, Cosmic Matter before it congealed into concrete shapes, the +Triune Spirit of Heaven, earth, and T'ai I as three separate entities, +an unknown Spirit, the Spirit of the Pole Star, etc., but practically +the Taoists confine their T'ai I to T'ai-i Chên-jên, in which Perfect +Man they personify the abstract philosophical notions. [20] + + +Goddess of the North Star + +Tou Mu, the Bushel Mother, or Goddess of the North Star, worshipped +by both Buddhists and Taoists, is the Indian Maritchi, and was made a +stellar divinity by the Taoists. She is said to have been the mother +of the nine Jên Huang or Human Sovereigns of fabulous antiquity, +who succeeded the lines of Celestial and Terrestrial Sovereigns. She +occupies in the Taoist religion the same relative position as Kuan +Yin, who may be said to be the heart of Buddhism. Having attained to +a profound knowledge of celestial mysteries, she shone with heavenly +light, could cross the seas, and pass from the sun to the moon. She +also had a kind heart for the sufferings of humanity. The King of Chou +Yü, in the north, married her on hearing of her many virtues. They +had nine sons. Yüan-shih T'ien-tsun came to earth to invite her, her +husband, and nine sons to enjoy the delights of Heaven. He placed +her in the palace Tou Shu, the Pivot of the Pole, because all the +other stars revolve round it, and gave her the title of Queen of the +Doctrine of Primitive Heaven. Her nine sons have their palaces in +the neighbouring stars. + +Tou Mu wears the Buddhist crown, is seated on a lotus throne, has +three eyes, eighteen arms, and holds various precious objects in her +numerous hands, such as a bow, spear, sword, flag, dragon's head, +pagoda, five chariots, sun's disk, moon's disk, etc. She has control +of the books of life and death, and all who wish to prolong their +days worship at her shrine. Her devotees abstain from animal food on +the third and twenty-seventh day of every month. + +Of her sons, two are the Northern and Southern Bushels; the latter, +dressed in red, rules birth; the former, in white, rules death. "A +young Esau once found them on the South Mountain, under a tree, +playing chess, and by an offer of venison his lease of life was +extended from nineteen to ninety-nine years." + + +Snorter and Blower + +At the time of the overthrow of the Shang and establishment of the Chou +dynasty in 1122 B.C. there lived two marshals, Chêng Lung and Ch'ên +Ch'i. These were Hêng and Ha, the Snorter and Blower respectively. + +The former was the chief superintendent of supplies for the armies of +the tyrant emperor Chou, the Nero of China. The latter was in charge +of the victualling department of the same army. + +From his master, Tu O, the celebrated Taoist magician of the K'un-lun +Mountains, Hêng acquired a marvellous power. When he snorted, his +nostrils, with a sound like that of a bell, emitted two white columns +of light, which destroyed his enemies, body and soul. Thus through him +the Chou gained numerous victories. But one day he was captured, bound, +and taken to the general of Chou. His life was spared, and he was +made general superintendent of army stores as well as generalissimo +of five army corps. Later on he found himself face to face with the +Blower. The latter had learnt from the magician how to store in his +chest a supply of yellow gas which, when he blew it out, annihilated +anyone whom it struck. By this means he caused large gaps to be made +in the ranks of the enemy. + +Being opposed to each other, the one snorting out great streaks of +white light, the other blowing streams of yellow gas, the combat +continued until the Blower was wounded in the shoulder by No-cha, +of the army of Chou, and pierced in the stomach with a spear by Huang +Fei-hu, Yellow Flying Tiger. + +The Snorter in turn was slain in this fight by Marshal Chin Ta-shêng, +'Golden Big Pint,' who was an ox-spirit and endowed with the mysterious +power of producing in his entrails the celebrated _niu huang_, +ox-yellow, or bezoar. Facing the Snorter, he spat in his face, with +a noise like thunder, a piece of bezoar as large as a rice-bowl. It +struck him on the nose and split his nostrils. He fell to the earth, +and was immediately cut in two by a blow from his victor's sword. + +After the Chou dynasty had been definitely established Chiang Tzu-ya +canonized the two marshals Hêng and Ha, and conferred on them the +offices of guardians of the Buddhist temple gates, where their gigantic +images may be seen. + + +Blue Dragon and White Tiger + +The functions discharged by Hêng and Ha at the gates of Buddhist +temples are in Taoist temples discharged by Blue Dragon and White +Tiger. + +The former, the Spirit of the Blue Dragon Star, was Têng Chiu-kung, +one of the chief generals of the last emperor of the Yin dynasty. He +had a son named Têng Hsiu, and a daughter named Ch'an-yü. + +The army of Têng Chiu-kung was camped at San-shan Kuan, when he +received orders to proceed to the battle then taking place at Hsi +Ch'i. There, in standing up to No-cha and Huang Fei-hu, he had his +left arm broken by the former's magic bracelet, but, fortunately for +him, his subordinate, T'u Hsing-sun, a renowned magician, gave him +a remedy which quickly healed the fracture. + +His daughter then came on the scene to avenge her father. She had a +magic weapon, the Five-fire Stone, which she hurled full in the face +of Yang Chien. But the Immortal was not wounded; on the other hand, +his celestial dog jumped at Ch'an-yü and bit her neck, so that she +was obliged to flee. T'u Hsing-sun, however, healed the wound. + +After a banquet, Têng Chiu-kung promised his daughter in marriage to +T'u Hsing-sun if he would gain him the victory at Hsi Ch'i. Chiang +Tzu-ya then persuaded T'u's magic master, Chü Liu-sun, to call his +disciple over to his camp, where he asked him why he was fighting +against the new dynasty. "Because," he replied, "Chiu-kung has promised +me his daughter in marriage as a reward of success." Chiang Tzu-ya +thereupon promised to obtain the bride, and sent a force to seize +her. As a result of the fighting that ensued, Chiu-kung was beaten, +and retreated in confusion, leaving Ch'an-yü in the hands of the +victors. During the next few days the marriage was celebrated with +great ceremony in the victor's camp. According to custom, the bride +returned for some days to her father's house, and while there she +earnestly exhorted Chiu-kung to submit. Following her advice, he went +over to Chiang Tzu-ya's party. + +In the ensuing battles he fought valiantly on the side of his former +enemy, and killed many famous warriors, but he was eventually attacked +by the Blower, from whose mouth a column of yellow gas struck him, +throwing him from his steed. He was made prisoner, and executed by +order of General Ch'iu Yin. Chiang Tzu-ya conferred on him the kingdom +of the Blue Dragon Star. + +The Spirit of the White Tiger Star is Yin Ch'êng-hsiu. His father, +Yin P'o-pai, a high courtier of the tyrant Chou Wang, was sent to +negotiate peace with Chiang Tzu-ya, but was seized and put to death by +Marquis Chiang Wên-huan. His son, attempting to avenge his father's +murder, was pierced by a spear, and his head was cut off and carried +in triumph to Chiang Tzu-ya. + +As compensation he was, though somewhat tardily, canonized as the +Spirit of the White Tiger Star. + + +Apotheosized Philosophers + +The philosophers Lieh Tzu, Huai-nan Tzu, Chuang Tzu, Mo Tzu, etc., +have also been apotheosized. Nothing very remarkable is related +of them. Most of them had several reincarnations and possessed +supernatural powers. The second, who was a king, when taken by +the Eight Immortals to the genii's Heaven forgot now and then to +address them as superiors, and but for their intercession with +Yü Ti, the Pearly Emperor, would have been reincarnated. In order +to humiliate himself, he thereafter called himself Huai-nan Tzu, +'the Sage of the South of the Huai.' The third, Chuang Tzu, Chuang +Shêng, or Chuang Chou, was a disciple of Lao Tzu. Chuang Tzu was in +the habit of sleeping during the day, and at night would transform +himself into a butterfly, which fluttered gaily over the flowers in +the garden. On waking, he would still feel the sensation of flying in +his shoulders. On asking Lao Tzu the reason for this, he was told: +"Formerly you were a white butterfly which, having partaken of the +quintessence of flowers and of the _yin_ and the _yang_, should have +been immortalized; but one day you stole some peaches and flowers in +Wang Mu Niang-niang's garden. The guardian of the garden slew you, +and that is how you came to be reincarnated." At this time he was +fifty years of age. + + +Fanning the Grave + +One of the tales associated with him describes how he saw a young +woman in mourning vigorously fanning a newly made grave. On his asking +her the reason of this strange conduct, she replied: "I am doing this +because my husband begged me to wait until the earth on his tomb was +dry before I remarried!" Chuang Tzu offered to help her, and as soon +as he waved the fan once the earth was dry. The young widow thanked +him and departed. + +On his return home, Chuang Shêng related this incident to his +wife. She expressed astonishment at such conduct on the part of a +wife. "There's nothing to be surprised at," rejoined the husband; +"that's how things go in this world." Seeing that he was poking fun +at her, she protested angrily. Some little time after this Chuang +Shêng died. His wife, much grieved, buried him. + + +Husband and Wife + +A few days later a young man named Ch'u Wang-sun arrived with the +intention, as he said, of placing himself under the instruction of +Chuang Shêng. When he heard that he was dead he went and performed +prostrations before his tomb, and afterward took up his abode in an +empty room, saying that he wished to study. After half a month had +elapsed, the widow asked an old servant who had accompanied Wang-sun +if the young man was married. On his replying in the negative, she +requested the old servant to propose a match between them. Wang-sun +made some objections, saying that people would criticize their +conduct. "Since my husband is dead, what can they say?" replied +the widow. She then put off her mourning-garments and prepared for +the wedding. + +Wang-sun took her to the grave of her husband, and said to her: +"The gentleman has returned to life!" She looked at Wang-sun and +recognized the features of her husband. She was so overwhelmed with +shame that she hanged herself. Chuang Shêng buried her in an empty +tomb, and then began to sing. + +He burnt his house, went away to P'u-shui, in Hupei, and occupied +himself in fishing. From there he went on to Chung-t'iao Shan, where +he met Fêng Hou and her teacher Hsüan Nü, the Mother of Heaven. In +their company he visited the palaces of the stars. One day, when he +was attending a banquet at the palace of Wang-mu, Shang Ti gave him as +his kingdom the planet Jupiter, and assigned to him as his palace the +ancient abode of Mao Mêng, the stellar god reincarnated during the Chou +dynasty. He had not yet returned, and had left his palace empty. Shang +Ti had cautioned him never to absent himself without his permission. + + +Canonized Generalissimos + +A large number of military men also have been canonized as celestial +generalissimos. A few will serve as examples of the rest. + + + +The Three Musical Brothers + +There were three brothers: T'ien Yüan-shuai, the eldest; T'ien Hung-i, +the second; and T'ien Chih-piao, the youngest. They were all musicians +of unsurpassed talent. + +In the K'ai-yüan Period (A.D. 713-42) the Emperor Hsüan Tsung, of +the T'ang dynasty, appointed them his music masters. At the sound of +their wonderful flute the clouds in the sky stopped in their courses; +the harmony of their songs caused the odoriferous _la mei_ flower to +open in winter. They excelled also in songs and dances. + +The Emperor fell sick. He saw in a dream the three brothers +accompanying their singing on a mandolin and violin. The harmony of +their songs charmed his ear, and on waking he found himself well +again. Out of gratitude for this benefit he conferred on each the +title of marquis. + +The Grand Master of the Taoists was trying to stay the ravages +of a pestilence, but he could not conquer the devils which caused +it. Under these circumstances he appealed to the three brothers and +asked their advice as to what course to adopt. T'ien Yüan-shuai had a +large boat built, called 'Spirit-boat.' He assembled in it a million +spirits, and ordered them to beat drums. On hearing this tumult all +the demons of the town came out to listen. T'ien Yüan-shuai, seizing +the opportunity, captured them all and, with the help of the Grand +Master, expelled them from the town. + +Besides the canonization of the three T'ien brothers, all the members +of their families received posthumous titles. + + + +The Dragon-boat Festival + +This is said to be the origin of the dragon-boats which are to be +seen on all the waterways of China on the fifth day of the fifth +moon. [21] The Festival of the Dragon-boats, held on that day, was +instituted in memory of the statesman-poet Ch'ü Yüan (332-296 B.C.), +who drowned himself in the Mi-lo River, an affluent of the Tung-t'ing +Lake, after having been falsely accused by one of the petty princes +of the State. The people, out of pity for the unfortunate courtier, +sent out these boats in search of his body. + + +Chiang Tzu-ya + +In the wars which resulted in the overthrow of the tyrant Chou Wang +and his dynasty and the establishment of the great Chou dynasty, +the most influential generalissimo was Chiang Tzu-ya. His family name +was Chiang, and his own name Shang, but owing to his descent from one +of the ministers of the ancient King Yao, whose heirs owned the fief +of Lü, the family came to be called by that name, and he himself was +known as Lü Shang. His honorific title was T'ai Kung Wang, 'Hope of +T'ai Kung,' given him by Wên Wang, who recognized in the person of +Chiang Tzu-ya the wise minister whom his father T'ai Kung had caused +him to expect before his death. + + +The Battle of Mu Yeh + +Chiang Tzu-ya was originally in the service of the tyrant Chou Wang, +but transferred his services to the Chou cause, and by his wonderful +skill enabled that house finally to gain the victory. The decisive +battle took place at Mu Yeh, situated to the south of Wei-hui Fu, +in 1122 B.C. The soldiers of Yin, 700,000 in number, were defeated, +and Chou, the tyrant, shut himself up in his magnificent palace, set +it alight, and was burned alive with all his possessions. For this +achievement Chiang Tzu-ya was granted by Wu Wang the title of Father +and Counsellor, and was appointed Prince of Ch'i, with perpetual +succession to his descendants. + + +A Legend of Chiang Tzu-ya + +The _Feng shên yen i_ contains many chapters describing in detail the +various battles which resulted in the overthrow of the last tyrant +of the Shang dynasty and the establishment of the illustrious Chou +dynasty on the throne of China. This legend and the following one +are epitomized from that work. + + +No-cha defeats Chang Kuei-fang + +The redoubtable No-cha having, by means of his Heaven-and-earth +Bracelet, vanquished Fêng Lin, a star-god and subordinate officer of +Chang Kuei-fang, in spite of the black smoke-clouds which he blew +out of his nostrils, the defeated warrior fled and sought the aid +of his chief, who fought No-cha in some thirty to forty encounters +without succeeding in dislodging him from his Wind-fire Wheel, +which enabled him to move about rapidly and to perform prodigious +feats, such as causing hosts of silver flying dragons like clouds of +snow to descend upon his enemy. During one of these fights No-cha +heard his name called three times, but paid no heed. Finally, with +his Heaven-and-earth Bracelet he broke Chang Kuei-fang's left arm, +following this up by shooting out some dazzling rays of light which +knocked him off his horse. + +When he returned to the city to report his victory to Tzu-ya, +the latter asked him if during the battle Kuei-fang had called +his name. "Yes," replied No-cha, "he called, but I took no heed +of him." "When Kuei-fang calls," said Tzu-ya, "the _hun_ and the +_p'o_ [_anima_ and _umbra_] become separated, and so the body +falls apart." "But," replied No-cha, "I had changed myself into a +lotus-flower, which has neither _hun_ nor _p'o_, so he could not +succeed in getting me off my magic wheel." + + +Tzu-ya goes to K'un-lun + +Tzu-ya, however, still uncertain in mind about the finality of No-cha's +victories, went to consult Wu Wang (whose death had not yet taken +place at this time). After the interview Tzu-ya informed Wu Wang of +his wish to visit K'un-lun Mountain. Wu Wang warned him of the danger +of leaving the kingdom with the enemy so near the capital; but Tzu-ya +obtained his consent by saying he would be absent only three days +at most. So he gave instructions regarding the defence to No-cha, +and went off in his spirit chariot to K'un-lun. On his arrival at the +Unicorn Precipice he was much enraptured with the beautiful scenery, +the colours, flowers, trees, bridges, birds, deer, apes, blue lions, +white elephants, etc., all of which seemed to make earth surpass +Heaven in loveliness. + + +He receives the List of Immortals + +From the Unicorn Precipice he went on to the Jade Palace of +Abstraction. Here he was presented to Yüan-shih. From him he received +the List of Promotions to Immortals, which Nan-chi Hsien-wêng, +'Ancient Immortal of the South Pole,' had brought, and was told to +go and erect a Fêng Shên T'ai (Spirits' Promotion Terrace) on which +to exhibit it. Yüan-shih also warned him that if anyone called him +while he was on the way he was to be most careful not to answer. On +reaching the Unicorn Precipice on his way back, he heard some one +call: "Chiang Tzu-ya!" This happened three times without his paying +any heed. Then the voice was heard to say: "Now that you are Prime +Minister, how devoid of feeling and forgetful of bygone benefits you +must be not to remember one who studied with you in the Jade Palace +of Abstraction!" Tzu-ya could not but turn his head and look. He +then saw that it was Shên Kung-pao. He said: "Brother, I did not know +it was you who were calling me, and I did not heed you as Shih-tsun +told me on no account to reply." Shên Kung-pao said: "What is that +you hold in your hand?" He told him it was the List of Promotions +to Immortals. Shên Kung-pao then tried to entice Tzu-ya from his +allegiance to Chou. Among Shên's tactics was that of convincing +Tzu-ya of the superiority of the magical arts at the disposal of +the supporters of Chou Wang. "You," he said, "can drain the sea, +change the hills, and suchlike things, but what are those compared +with my powers, who can take off my head, make it mount into space, +travel 10,000,000 _li_, and return to my neck just as complete as +before and able to speak? Burn your List of Promotions to Immortals +and come with me." Tzu-ya, thinking that a head which could travel +10,000,000 _li_ and be the same as before was exceedingly rare, said: +"Brother, you take your head off, and if in reality it can do as you +say, rise into space and return and be as before, I shall be willing to +burn the List of Promotions to Immortals and return with you to Chao +Ko." Shên Kung-pao said: "You will not go back on your word?" Tzu-ya +said: "When your elder brother has spoken his word is as unchangeable +as Mount T'ai, How can there be any going back on my word?" + + +The Soaring Head + +Shên Kung-pao then doffed his Taoist cap, seized his sword, with his +left hand firmly grasped the blue thread binding his hair, and with +his right cut off his head. His body did not fall down. He then took +his head and threw it up into space. Tzu-ya gazed with upturned face +as it continued to rise, and was sorely puzzled. But the Ancient +Immortal of the South Pole had kept a watch on the proceedings. He +said: "Tzu-ya is a loyal and honest man; it looks as if he has been +deceived by this charlatan." He ordered White Crane Youth to assume +quickly the form of a crane and fetch Shên Kung-pao's head. + + +The Ancient Immortal saves the Situation + +Tzu-ya was still gazing upward when he felt a slap on his back +and, turning round, saw that it was the Ancient Immortal of the +South Pole. Tzu-ya quickly asked: "My elder brother, why have you +returned?" Hsien-wêng said: "You are a fool. Shên Kung-pao is a +man of unholy practices. These few small tricks of his you take as +realities. But if the head does not return to the neck within an hour +and three-quarters the blood will coagulate and he will die. Shih-tsun +ordered you not to reply to anyone; why did you not hearken to +his words? From the Jade Palace of Abstraction I saw you speaking +together, and knew you had promised to burn the List of Promotions to +Immortals. So I ordered White Crane Youth to bring me the head. After +an hour and three-quarters Shên Kung-pao will be recompensed." + +Tzu-ya said: "My elder brother, since you know all you can pardon +him. In the Taoist heart there is no place where mercy cannot be +exercised. Remember the many years during which he has faithfully +followed the Path." + +Eventually the Ancient Immortal was persuaded, but in the meantime +Shên Kung-pao, finding that his head did not return, became very much +troubled in mind. In an hour and three-quarters the blood would stop +flowing and he would die. However, Tzu-ya having succeeded in his +intercession with the Ancient Immortal, the latter signed to White +Crane Youth, who was flying in space with the head in his beak, to +let it drop. He did so, but when it reached the neck it was facing +backward. Shên Kung-pao quickly put up his hand, took hold of an ear, +and turned his head the right way round. He was then able to open +his eyes, when he saw the Ancient Immortal of the South Pole. The +latter arraigned him in a loud voice saying: "You as-good-as-dead +charlatan, who by means of corrupt tricks try to deceive Tzu-ya and +make him burn the List of Immortals and help Chou Wang against Chou, +what do you mean by all this? You should be taken to the Jade Palace +of Abstraction to be punished!" + +Shên Kung-pao, ashamed, could not reply; mounting his tiger, he made +off; but as he left he hurled back a threat that the Chou would yet +have their white bones piled mountains high at Hsi Ch'i. Subsequently +Tzu-ya, carefully preserving the precious List, after many adventures +succeeded in building the Fêng Shên T'ai, and posted the List up on +it. Having accomplished his mission, he returned in time to resist +the capture of Hsi Ch'i by Chang Kuei-fang, whose troops were defeated +with great slaughter. + + + +Ch'iung Hsiao's Magic Scissors + +In another of the many conflicts between the two rival states Lao Tzu +entered the battle, whereupon Ch'iung Hsiao, a goddess who fought for +the house of Shang (Chou), hurled into the air her gold scaly-dragon +scissors. As these slowly descended, opening and closing in a most +ominous manner, Lao Tzu waved the sleeve of his jacket and they fell +into the sea and became absolutely motionless. Many similar tricks +were used by the various contestants. The Gold Bushel of Chaotic +Origin succumbed to the Wind-fire Sphere, and so on. Ch'iung Hsiao +resumed the attack with some magic two-edged swords, but was killed +by a blow from White Crane Youth's Three-precious Jade Sceptre, hurled +at her by Lao Tzu's orders. Pi Hsiao, her sister, attempted to avenge +her death, but Yüan-shih, producing from his sleeve a magical box, +threw it into the air and caught Pi Hsiao in it. When it was opened +it was found that she had melted into blood and water. + + +Chiang Tzu-ya defeats Wên Chung + +After this Lao Tzu rallied many of the skilful spirits to help Chiang +Tzu-ya in his battle with Wên Chung, providing them with the Ancient +Immortal of the South Pole's Sand-blaster and an earth-conquering light +which enabled them to travel a thousand _li_ in a day. From the hot +sand used the contest became known as the Red Sand Battle. Jan Têng, +on P'êng-lai Mountain, in consultation with Tzu-ya, also arranged +the plan of battle. + + +The Red Sand Battle + +The fight began with a challenge from the Ancient Immortal of the +South Pole to Chang Shao. The latter, riding his deer, dashed into +the fray, and aimed a terrific blow with his sword at Hsien-wêng's +head, but White Crane Youth warded it off with his Three-precious Jade +Sceptre. Chang then produced a two-edged sword and renewed the attack, +but, being disarmed, dismounted from his deer and threw several +handfuls of hot sand at Hsien-wêng. The latter, however, easily +fanned them away with his Five-fire Seven-feathers Fan, rendering +them harmless. Chang then fetched a whole bushel of the hot sand and +scattered it over the enemy, but Hsien-wêng counteracted the menace +by merely waving his fan. White Crane Youth struck Chang Shao with +his jade sceptre, knocking him off his horse, and then dispatched +him with his two-edged sword. + +After this battle Wu Wang was found to be already dead. Jan Têng +on learning this ordered Lei Chên-tzu to take the corpse to Mount +P'êng and wash it. He then dissolved a pill in water and poured the +solution into Wu Wang's mouth, whereupon he revived and was escorted +back to his palace. + + +Further Fighting + +Preparations were then made for resuming the attack on Wên +Chung. While the latter was consulting with Ts'ai-yün Hsien-tzu and +Han Chih-hsien, he heard the sound of the Chou guns and the thunder of +their troops. Wên Chung, mounting his black unicorn, galloped like a +whiff of smoke to meet Tzu-ya, but was stopped by blows from two silver +hammers wielded by Huang T'ien-hua. Han Chih-hsien came to Wên's aid, +but was opposed by Pi Hsiang-yang. Ts'ai-yün Hsien-tzu dashed into +the fray, but No-cha stepped on to his Wind-fire Wheel and opposed +him. From all sides other Immortals joined in the terrific battle, +which was a turmoil of longbows and crossbows, iron armour and brass +mail, striking whips and falling hammers, weapons cleaving mail and +mail resisting weapons. In this fierce contest, while Tzu-ya was +fighting Wên Chung, Han Chih-hsien released a black wind from his +magic wind-bag, but he did not know that the Taoist Barge of Mercy +(which transports departed souls to the land of bliss), sent by +Kuan Yin, the Goddess of Mercy, had on board the Stop-wind Pearl, +by which the black storm was immediately quelled. Thereupon Tzu-ya +quickly seized his Vanquish-spirits Whip and struck Han Chih-hsien +in the middle of the skull, so that the brain-fluid gushed forth and +he died. No-cha then slew Ts'ai-yün Hsien-tzu with a spear-thrust. + +Thus the stern fight went on, until finally Tzu-ya, under cover +of night, attacked Wên Chung's troops simultaneously on all four +sides. The noise of slaughter filled the air. Generals and rank and +file, lanterns, torches, swords, spears, guns, and daggers were one +confused _mêlée_; Heaven could scarcely be distinguished from earth, +and corpses were piled mountains high. + +Tzu-ya, having broken through seven lines of the enemy's ranks, +forced his way into Wên Chung's camp. The latter mounted his unicorn, +and brandishing his magic whip dashed to meet him. Tzu-ya drew +his sword and stopped his onrush, being aided by Lung Hsü-hu, who +repeatedly cast a rain of hot stones on to the troops. In the midst +of the fight Tzu-ya brought out his great magic whip, and in spite +of Wên Chung's efforts to avoid it succeeded in wounding him in the +left arm. The Chou troops were fighting like dragons lashing their +tails and pythons curling their bodies. To add to their disasters, +the Chou now saw flames rising behind the camp, and knew that their +provisions were being burned by Yang Chien. + +The Chou armies, with gongs beating and drums rolling, advanced for a +final effort, the slaughter being so great that even the devils wept +and the spirits wailed. Wên Chung was eventually driven back seventy +_li_ to Ch'i Hill. His troops could do nothing but sigh and stumble +along. He made for Peach-blossom Range, but as he approached it he +saw a yellow banner hoisted, and under it was Kuang Ch'êng-tzu. Being +prevented from escaping in that direction he joined battle, but by +use of red-hot sand, his two-edged sword, and his Turn-heaven Seal +Kuang Ch'êng-tzu put him to flight. He then made off toward the +west, followed by Têng Chung. His design was to make for Swallow +Hill, which he reached after several days of weary marching. Here +he saw another yellow banner flying, and Ch'ih Ching-tzu informed +him that Jan Têng had forbidden him to stop at Swallow Hill or to +go through the Five Passes. This led to another pitched battle, +Wên Chung using his magic whip and Ch'ih his spiritual two-edged +sword. After several bouts Ch'ih brought out his _yin-yang_ mirror, +by use of which irresistible weapon Wên was driven to Yellow Flower +Hill and Blue Dragon Pass, and so on from battle to battle, until he +was drawn up to Heaven from the top of Dead-dragon Mountain. + + +Thousand-li Eye and Favourable-wind Ear + +Ch'ien-li Yen, 'Thousand-_li_ Eye,' and Shun-fêng Êrh, 'Favourable-wind +Ear,' were two brothers named Kao Ming and Kao Chio. On account +of their martial bearing they found favour with the tyrant emperor +Chou Wang, who appointed them generals, and sent them to serve with +Generalissimo Yüan Hung (who was a monkey which had taken human form) +at Mêng-ching. + +Kao Ming was very tall, with a blue face, flaming eyes, a large mouth, +and prominent teeth like those of a rhinoceros. + +Kao Chio had a greenish face and skin, two horns on his head, a red +beard, and a large mouth with teeth shaped like swords. + +One of their first encounters was with No-cha, who hurled at them his +mystic bracelet, which struck Kao Chio on the head, but did not leave +even a scratch. When, however, he seized his fire-globe the brothers +thought it wiser to retreat. + +Finding no means of conquering them, Yang Chien, Chiang Tzu-ya, and +Li Ching took counsel together and decided to have recourse to Fu +Hsi's trigrams, and by smearing them with the blood of a fowl and a +dog to destroy their spiritual power. + +But the two brothers were fully informed of what was +designed. Thousand-_li_ Eye had seen and Favourable-wind Ear had +heard everything, so that all their preparations proved unavailing. + +Yang Chien then went to Chiang Tzu-ya and said to him: "These +two brothers are powerful devils; I must take more effectual +measures." "Where will you go for aid?" asked Chiang Tzu-ya. "I +cannot tell you, for they would hear," replied Yang. He then +left. Favourable-wind Ear heard this dialogue, and Thousand-_li_ +Eye saw him leave. "He did not say where he was going," they said +to each other, "but we fear him not." Yang Chien went to Yü-ch'üan +Shan, where lived Yü-ting Chên-jên, 'Hero Jade-tripod.' He told him +about their two adversaries, and asked him how they were to conquer +them. "These two genii," replied the Chên-jên, "are from Ch'i-p'an +Shan, Chessboard Mountain. One is a spiritual peach-tree, the other +a spiritual pomegranate-tree. Their roots cover an area of thirty +square _li_ of ground. On that mountain there is a temple dedicated to +Huang-ti, in which are clay images of two devils called Ch'ien-li Yen +and Shun-fêng Êrh. The peach-tree and pomegranate-tree, having become +spiritual beings, have taken up their abode in these images. One has +eyes which can see objects distinctly at a distance of a thousand _li_, +the other ears that can hear sounds at a like distance. But beyond +that distance they can neither see nor hear. Return and tell Chiang +Tzu-ya to have the roots of those trees torn up and burned, and the +images destroyed; then the two genii will be easily vanquished. In +order that they may neither see nor hear you during your conversation +with Chiang Tzu-ya, wave flags about the camp and order the soldiers +to beat tom-toms and drums." + + +How the Brothers were Defeated + +Yang Chien returned to Chiang Tzu-ya. "What have you been doing?" asked +the latter. Before replying Yang Chien went to the camp and ordered +soldiers to wave large red flags and a thousand others to beat the +tom-toms and drums. The air was so filled with the flags and the +noise that nothing else could be either seen or heard. Under cover of +this device Yang Chien then communicated to Chiang Tzu-ya the course +advised by the Chên-jên. + +Accordingly Li Ching at the head of three thousand soldiers proceeded +to Ch'i-p'an Shan, pulled up and burned the roots of the two trees, +and broke the images to pieces. At the same time Lei Chên-tzu was +ordered to attack the two genii. + +Thousand-_li_ Eye and Favourable-wind Ear could neither see nor hear: +the flags effectually screened the horizon and the infernal noise of +the drums and gongs deadened all other sound. They did not know how +to stop them. + +The following night Yüan Hung decided to take the camp of Chiang +Tzu-ya by assault, and sent the brothers in advance. They were, +however, themselves surprised by Wu Wang's officers, who surrounded +them. Chiang Tzu-ya then threw into the air his 'devil-chaser' whip, +which fell on the two scouts and cleft their skulls in twain. + + +Celestial Ministries + +The dualistic idea, already referred to, of the Otherworld being +a replica of this one is nowhere more clearly illustrated than in +the celestial Ministries or official Bureaux or Boards, with their +chiefs and staffs functioning over the spiritual hierarchies. The Nine +Ministries up aloft doubtless had their origin in imitation of the Six, +Eight, or Nine Ministries or Boards which at various periods of history +have formed the executive part of the official hierarchy in China. But +their names are different and their functions do not coincide. + +Generally, the functions of the officers of the celestial Boards are +to protect mankind from the evils represented in the title of the +Board, as, for example, thunder, smallpox, fire, etc. In all cases +the duties seem to be remedial. As the God of War was, as we saw, the +god who protects people from the evils of war, so the vast hierarchy +of these various divinities is conceived as functioning for the good +of mankind. Being too numerous for inclusion here, an account of them +is given under various headings in some of the following chapters. + + +Protectors of the People + +Besides the gods who hold definite official posts in these various +Ministries, there are a very large number who are also protecting +patrons of the people; and, though _ex officio_, in many cases quite +as popular and powerful, if not more so. Among the most important +are the following: Shê-chi, Gods of the Soil and Crops; Shên Nung, +God of Agriculture; Hou-t'u, Earth-mother; Ch'êng-huang, City-god; +T'u-ti, Local Gods; Tsao Chün, Kitchen-god; T'ien-hou and An-kung, +Goddess and God of Sailors; Ts'an Nü, Goddess of Silkworms; Pa-ch'a, +God of Grasshoppers; Fu Shên, Ts'ai Shên, and Shou Hsing, Gods of +Happiness, Wealth, and Longevity; Mên Shên, Door-gods; and Shê-mo Wang, +etc., the Gods of Serpents. + + +The Ch'êng-huang + +Ch'êng-huang is the Celestial Mandarin or City-god. Every fortified +city or town in China is surrounded by a wall, _ch'êng_, composed +usually of two battlemented walls, the space between which is filled +with earth. This earth is dug from the ground outside, making a ditch, +or _huang_, running parallel with the _ch'êng_. The Ch'êng-huang +is the spiritual official of the city or town. All the numerous +Ch'êng-huang constitute a celestial Ministry of Justice, presided +over by a Ch'êng-huang-in-chief. + +The origin of the worship of the Ch'êng-huang dates back to the time +of the great Emperor Yao (2357 B.C.), who instituted a sacrifice called +Pa Cha in honour of eight spirits, of whom the seventh, Shui Yung, had +the meaning of, or corresponded to, the dyke and rampart known later +as Ch'êng-huang. Since the Sung dynasty sacrifices have been offered +to the Ch'êng-huang all over the country, though now and then some +towns have adopted another or special god as their Ch'êng-huang, such +as Chou Hsin, adopted as the Ch'êng-huang of Hangchou, the capital of +Chekiang Province. Concerning Chou Hsin, who had a "face of ice and +iron," and was so much dreaded for his severity that old and young +fled at his approach, it is related that once when he was trying a +case a storm blew some leaves on to his table. In spite of diligent +search the tree to which this kind of leaf belonged could not be found +anywhere in the neighbourhood, but was eventually discovered in a +Buddhist temple a long way off. The judge declared that the priests +of this temple must be guilty of murder. By his order the tree was +felled, and in its trunk was found the body of a woman who had been +assassinated, and the priests were convicted of the murder. + + +The Kitchen-god + +Tsao Chün is a Taoist invention, but is universally worshipped by +all families in China--about sixty millions of pictures of him are +regularly worshipped twice a month--at new and full moon. "His temple +is a little niche in the brick cooking-range; his palace is often +filled with smoke; and his Majesty sells for one farthing." He is also +called 'the God of the Stove.' The origin of his worship, according to +the legend, is that a Taoist priest, Li Shao-chün by name, of the Ch'i +State, obtained from the Kitchen-god the double favour of exemption +from growing old and of being able to live without eating. He then +went to the Emperor Hsiao Wu-ti (140-86 B.C.) of the Han dynasty, and +promised that credulous monarch that he should benefit by the powers +of the god provided that he would consent to patronize and encourage +his religion. It was by this means, he added, that the Emperor Huang +Ti obtained his knowledge of alchemy, which enabled him to make gold. + +The Emperor asked the priest to bring him his divine patron, and one +night the image of Tsao Chün appeared to him. + +Deceived by this trick, dazzled by the ingots of gold which he too +should obtain, and determined to risk everything for the pill of +immortality which was among the benefits promised, the Emperor made +a solemn sacrifice to the God of the Kitchen. + +This was the first time that a sacrifice had been officially offered +to this new deity. + +Li Shao-chün gradually lost the confidence of the Emperor and, at +his wits' end, conceived the plan of writing some phrases on a piece +of silk and then causing them to be swallowed by an ox. This done, +he announced that a wonderful script would be found in the animal's +stomach. The ox being killed, the script was found there as predicted, +but Li's unlucky star decreed that the Emperor should recognize +his handwriting, and he was forthwith put to death. Nevertheless, +the worship of the Kitchen-god continued and increased, and exists +in full vigour down to the present day. + +This deity has power over the lives of the members of each family +under his supervision, distributes riches and poverty at will, and +makes an annual report to the Supreme Being on the conduct of the +family during the year, for which purpose he is usually absent for from +four to seven days. Some hold that he also makes these reports once or +twice or several times each month. Various ceremonies are performed on +seeing him off to Heaven and welcoming him back. One of the former, +as we saw, is to regale him with honey, so that only sweet words, +if any, may be spoken by him while up aloft! + + +Ts'an Nü + +In the kingdom of Shu (modern Ssuch'uan), in the time of Kao Hsing +Ti, a band of robbers kidnapped the father of Ts'an Nü. A whole year +elapsed, and the father's horse still remained in the stable as he +had left it. The thought of not seeing her father again caused Ts'an +Nü such grief that she would take no nourishment. Her mother did +what she could to console her, and further promised her in marriage +to anyone who would bring back her father. But no one was found who +could do this. Hearing the offer, the horse stamped with impatience, +and struggled so much that at length he broke the halter by which +he was tied up. He then galloped away and disappeared. Several days +later, his owner returned riding the horse. From that time the horse +neighed incessantly, and refused all food. This caused the mother +to make known to her husband the promise she had made concerning her +daughter. "An oath made to men," he replied, "does not hold good for +a horse. Is a human being meant to live in marital relations with +a horse?" Nevertheless, however good and abundant food they offered +him, the horse would not eat. When he saw the young lady he plunged +and kicked furiously. Losing his temper, the father discharged an +arrow and killed him on the spot; then he skinned him and spread the +skin on the ground outside the house to dry. As the young lady was +passing the spot the skin suddenly moved, rose up, enveloped her, +and disappeared into space. Ten days later it was found at the foot +of a mulberry-tree; Ts'an Nü changed into a silkworm, was eating the +mulberry-leaves, and spinning for herself a silken garment. + +The parents of course were in despair. But one day, while they were +overwhelmed with sad thoughts, they saw on a cloud Ts'an Nü riding +the horse and attended by several dozens of servants. She descended +toward her parents, and said to them: "The Supreme Being, as a reward +for my martyrdom in the cause of filial piety and my love of virtue, +has conferred on me the dignity of Concubine of the Nine Palaces. Be +reassured as to my fate, for in Heaven I shall live for ever." Having +said this she disappeared into space. + +In the temples her image is to be seen covered with a horse's +skin. She is called Ma-t'ou Niang, 'the Lady with the Horse's +Head,' and is prayed to for the prosperity of mulberry-trees and +silkworms. The worship continues even in modern times. The goddess +is also represented as a stellar divinity, the star T'ien Ssu; as +the first man who reared silkworms, in this character bearing the +same name as the God of Agriculture, Pasture, and Fire; and as the +wife of the Emperor Huang Ti. + + +The God of Happiness + +The God of Happiness, Fu Shên, owes his origin to the predilection +of the Emperor Wu Ti (A.D. 502-50) of the Liang dynasty for dwarfs as +servants and comedians in his palace. The number levied from the Tao +Chou district in Hunan became greater and greater, until it seriously +prejudiced the ties of family relations. When Yang Ch'êng, _alias_ +Yang Hsi-chi, was Criminal Judge of Tao Chou he represented to the +Emperor that, according to law, the dwarfs were his subjects but not +his slaves. Being touched by this remark, the Emperor ordered the +levy to be stopped. + +Overjoyed at their liberation from this hardship, the people +of that district set up images of Yang and offered sacrifices to +him. Everywhere he was venerated as the Spirit of Happiness. It was in +this simple way that there came into being a god whose portraits and +images abound everywhere throughout the country, and who is worshipped +almost as universally as the God of Riches himself. + +Another person who attained to the dignity of God of Happiness (known +as Tsêng-fu Hsiang-kung, 'the Young Gentleman who Increases Happiness') +was Li Kuei-tsu, the minister of Emperor Wên Ti of the Wei dynasty, +the son of the famous Ts'ao Ts'ao, but in modern times the honour +seems to have passed to Kuo Tzu-i. He was the saviour of the T'ang +dynasty from the depredations of the Turfans in the reign of the +Emperor Hsüan Tsung. He lived A.D. 697-781, was a native of Hua Chou, +in Shensi, and one of the most illustrious of Chinese generals. He +is very often represented in pictures clothed in blue official robes, +leading his small son Kuo Ai to Court. + + +The God of Wealth + +As with many other Chinese gods, the proto-being of the God of Wealth, +Ts'ai Shên, has been ascribed to several persons. The original and +best known until later times was Chao Kung-ming. The accounts of him +differ also, but the following is the most popular. + +When Chiang Tzu-ya was fighting for Wu Wang of the Chou dynasty +against the last of the Shang emperors, Chao Kung-ming, then a +hermit on Mount Ô-mei, took the part of the latter. He performed +many wonderful feats. He could ride a black tiger and hurl pearls +which burst like bombshells. But he was eventually overcome by the +form of witchcraft known in Wales as _Ciurp Creadh_. Chiang Tzu-ya +made a straw image of him, wrote his name on it, burned incense and +worshipped before it for twenty days, and on the twenty-first shot +arrows made of peach-wood into its eyes and heart. At that same +moment Kung-ming, then in the enemy's camp, felt ill and fainted, +and uttering a cry gave up the ghost. + +Later on Chiang Tzu-ya persuaded Yüan-shih T'ien-tsun to release from +the Otherworld the spirits of the heroes who had died in battle, +and when Chao Kung-ming was led into his presence he praised his +bravery, deplored the circumstances of his death, and canonized him +as President of the Ministry of Riches and Prosperity. + +The God of Riches is universally worshipped in China; images and +portraits of him are to be seen everywhere. Talismans, trees of which +the branches are strings of cash, and the fruits ingots of gold, +to be obtained merely by shaking them down, a magic inexhaustible +casket full of gold and silver--these and other spiritual sources +of wealth are associated with this much-adored deity. He himself +is represented in the guise of a visitor accompanied by a crowd of +attendants laden with all the treasures that the hearts of men, women, +and children could desire. + + +The God of Longevity + +The God of Longevity, Shou Hsing, was first a stellar deity, later on +represented in human form. It was a constellation formed of the two +star-groups Chio and K'ang, the first two on the list of twenty-eight +constellations. Hence, say the Chinese writers, because of this +precedence, it was called the Star of Longevity. When it appears the +nation enjoys peace, when it disappears there will be war. Ch'in Shih +Huang-ti, the First Emperor, was the first to offer sacrifices to this +star, the Old Man of the South Pole, at Shê Po, in 246 B.C. Since then +the worship has been continued pretty regularly until modern times. + +But desire for something more concrete, or at least more personal, +than a star led to the god's being represented as an old man. Connected +with this is a long legend which turns on the point that after the +father of Chao Yen had been told by the celebrated physiognomist +Kuan Lo that his son would not live beyond the age of nineteen, the +transposition from _shih-chiu_, nineteen, to _chiu-shih_, ninety, +was made by one of two gamblers, who turned out to be the Spirit of +the North Pole, who fixes the time of decease, as the Spirit of the +South Pole does that of birth. + +The deity is a domestic god, of happy mien, with a very high +forehead, usually spoken of as Shou Hsing Lao T'ou Tzu, 'Longevity +Star Old-pate,' and is represented as riding a stag, with a flying bat +above his head. He holds in his hand a large peach, and attached to his +long staff are a gourd and a scroll. The stag and the bat both indicate +_fu_, happiness. The peach, gourd, and scroll are symbols of longevity. + + +The Door-gods + +An old legend relates that in the earliest times there grew on +Mount Tu Shuo, in the Eastern Sea, a peach-tree of fabulous size +whose branches covered an area of several thousand square _li_. The +lowest branches, which inclined toward the north-east, formed the +Door of the Devils (_kuei_), through which millions of them passed +in and out. Two spirits, named Shên Shu (or Shu Yü) and Yü Lü, had +been instructed to guard this passage. Those who had done wrong to +mankind were immediately bound by them and given over to be devoured +by tigers. When Huang Ti heard of this he had the portraits of the +two spirits painted on peach-wood tablets and hung above the doors to +keep off evil spirits. This led to the suspension of the small figures +or plaques on the doors of the people generally. Gradually they were +supplanted by paintings on paper pasted on the doors, showing the two +spirits armed with bows, arrows, spears, etc., Shên Shu on the left, +Yü Lü on the right. + +In later times, however, these Door-gods were supplanted in popular +favour by two ministers of the Emperor T'ai Tsung of the T'ang dynasty, +by name Ch'in Shu-pao and Hu Ching-tê. T'ai Tsung had fallen sick, and +imagined that he heard demons rampaging in his bedroom. The ministers +of State, on inquiring as to the nature of the malady, were informed +by the physician that his Majesty's pulse was feverish, that he seemed +nervous and saw visions, and that his life was in danger. + +The ministers were in great fear. The Empress summoned other physicians +to a consultation, and after the sick Emperor had informed them that, +though all was quiet during the daytime, he was sure he saw and heard +demons during the night, Ch'in Shu-pao and Hu Ching-tê stated that +they would sit up all night and watch outside his door. + +Accordingly they posted themselves, fully armed, outside the palace +gate all night, and the Emperor slept in peace. Next day the Emperor +thanked them heartily, and from that time his sickness diminished. The +two ministers, however, continued their vigils until the Emperor +informed them that he would no longer impose upon their readiness +to sacrifice themselves. He ordered them to paint their portraits +in full martial array and paste these on the palace doors to see if +that would not have the same effect. For some nights all was peace; +then the same commotion was heard at the back gates of the palace. The +minister Wei Chêng offered to stand guard at the back gates in the +same way that his colleagues had done at the front gates. The result +was that in a few days the Emperor's health was entirely restored. + +Thus it is that Wei Chêng is often associated with the other two +Door-gods, sometimes with them, sometimes in place of them. Pictures +of these _mên shên_, elaborately coloured, and renewed at the New Year, +are to be seen on almost every door in China. + + +Chinese Polytheism + +That the names of the gods of China are legion will be readily +conceded when it is said that, besides those already described, +those still to be mentioned, and many others to whom space will not +permit us to refer, there are also gods, goddesses, patrons, etc., +of wind, rain, snow, frost, rivers, tides, caves, trees, flowers, +theatres, horses, oxen, cows, sheep, goats, dogs, pigs, scorpions, +locusts, gold, tea, salt, compass, archery, bridges, lamps, gems, +wells, carpenters, masons, barbers, tailors, jugglers, nets, wine, +bean-curd, jade, paper-clothing, eye, ear, nose, tongue, teeth, +heart, liver, throat, hands, feet, skin, architecture, rain-clothes, +monkeys, lice, Punch and Judy, fire-crackers, cruelty, revenge, manure, +fornication, shadows, corners, gamblers, oculists, smallpox, liver +complaint, stomach-ache, measles, luck, womb, midwives, hasteners +of child-birth, brigands, butchers, furnishers, centipedes, frogs, +stones, beds, candle-merchants, fishermen, millers, wig-merchants, +incense-merchants, spectacle-makers, cobblers, harness-makers, +seedsmen, innkeepers, basket-makers, chemists, painters, perfumers, +jewellers, brush-makers, dyers, fortune-tellers, strolling singers, +brothels, varnishers, combs, etc., etc. There is a god of the light +of the eye as well as of the eye itself, of smallpox-marks as well as +of smallpox, of 'benign' measles as well as of measles. After reading +a full list of the gods of China, those who insist that the religion +of China was or is a monotheism may be disposed to revise their belief. + + + +CHAPTER V + +Myths of the Stars + + +Astrological Superstitions + +According to Chinese ideas, the sun, moon, and planets influence +sublunary events, especially the life and death of human beings, and +changes in their colour menace approaching calamities. Alterations +in the appearance of the sun announce misfortunes to the State or its +head, as revolts, famines, or the death of the emperor; when the moon +waxes red, or turns pale, men should be in awe of the unlucky times +thus fore-omened. + +The sun is symbolized by the figure of a raven in a circle, and +the moon by a hare on its hind-legs pounding rice in a mortar, or +by a three-legged toad. The last refers to the legend of Ch'ang Ô, +detailed later. The moon is a special object of worship in autumn, +and moon-cakes dedicated to it are sold at this season. All the +stars are ranged into constellations, and an emperor is installed +over them, who resides at the North Pole; five monarchs also live +in the five stars in Leo, where is a palace called Wu Ti Tso, or +'Throne of the Five Emperors.' In this celestial government there are +also an heir-apparent, empresses, sons and daughters, and tribunals, +and the constellations receive the names of men, animals, and other +terrestrial objects. The Great Bear, or Dipper, is worshipped as the +residence of the Fates, where the duration of life and other events +relating to mankind are measured and meted out. Fears are excited by +unusual phenomena among the heavenly bodies. + +Both the sun and the moon are worshipped by the Government in +appropriate temples on the east and west sides of Peking. + + +Various Star-gods + +Some of the star-gods, such as the God of Literature, the Goddess of +the North Star, the Gods of Happiness, Longevity, etc., are noticed +in other parts of this work. The cycle-gods are also star-gods. There +are sixty years in a cycle, and over each of these presides a special +star-deity. The one worshipped is the one which gave light on the +birthday of the worshipper, and therefore the latter burns candles +before that particular image on each succeeding anniversary. These +cycle-gods are represented by most grotesque images: "white, black, +yellow, and red; ferocious gods with vindictive eyeballs popping out, +and gentle faces as expressive as a lump of putty; some looking like +men and some like women." In one temple one of the sixty was in the +form of a hog, and another in that of a goose. "Here is an image +with arms protruding out of his eye-sockets, and eyes in the palms +of his hands, looking downward to see the secret things within the +earth. See that rabbit, Minerva-like, jumping from the divine head; +again a mud-rat emerges from his occipital hiding-place, and lo! a +snake comes coiling from the brain of another god--so the long line +serves as models for an artist who desires to study the fantastic." + + +Shooting the Heavenly Dog + +In the family sleeping-apartments in Chinese houses hang pictures +of Chang Hsien, a white-faced, long-bearded man with a little boy by +his side, and in his hand a bow and arrow, with which he is shooting +the Heavenly Dog. The dog is the Dog-star, and if the 'fate' of the +family is under this star there will be no son, or the child will be +short-lived. Chang Hsien is the patron of child-bearing women, and was +worshipped under the Sung dynasty by women desirous of offspring. The +introduction of this name into the Chinese pantheon is due to an +incident in the history of Hua-jui Fu-jên, a name given to Lady Fei, +concubine of Mêng Ch'ang, the last ruler of the Later Shu State, +A.D. 935-964. When she was brought from Shu to grace the harem of +the founder of the Sung dynasty, in A.D. 960, she is said to have +preserved secretly the portrait of her former lord, the Prince of Shu, +whose memory she passionately cherished. Jealously questioned by her +new consort respecting her devotion to this picture, she declared it +to be the representation of Chang Hsien, the divine being worshipped +by women desirous of offspring. Opinions differ as to the origin +of the worship. One account says that the Emperor Jên Tsung, of the +Sung dynasty, saw in a dream a beautiful young man with white skin +and black hair, carrying a bow in his hand. He said to the Emperor: +"The star T'ien Kou, Heavenly Dog, in the heavens is hiding the +sun and moon, and on earth devouring small children. It is only my +presence which keeps him at bay." + +On waking, the Emperor at once ordered the young man's portrait to +be painted and exhibited, and from that time childless families would +write the name Chang Hsien on tablets and worship them. + +Another account describes Chang Hsien as the spirit of the star +Chang. In the popular representations Chang Hsien is seen in the +form of a distinguished personage drawing a bow. The spirit of the +star Chang is supposed to preside over the kitchen of Heaven and to +arrange the banquets given by the gods. + + +The Sun-king + +The worship of the sun is part of the State religion, and the officials +make their offerings to the sun-tablet. The moon also is worshipped. At +the harvest moon, the full moon of the eighth month, the Chinese +bow before the heavenly luminary, and each family burns incense as +an offering. Thus "100,000 classes all receive the blessings of the +icy-wheel in the Milky Way along the heavenly street, a mirror always +bright." In Chinese illustrations we see the moon-palace of Ch'ang O, +who stole the pill of immortality and flew to the moon, the fragrant +tree which one of the genii tried to cut down, and a hare pestling +medicine in a mortar. This refers to the following legend. + +The sun and the moon are both included by the Chinese among the +stars, the spirit of the former being called T'ai-yang Ti-chün, +'the Sun-king,' or Jih-kung Ch'ih-chiang, 'Ch'ih-chiang of the Solar +Palace,' that of the latter T'ai-yin Huang-chün, 'the Moon-queen,' +or Yüeh-fu Ch'ang O, 'Ch'ang O of the Lunar Palace.' + +Ch'ih-chiang Tzu-yü lived in the reign of Hsien-yüan Huang-ti, who +appointed him Director of Construction and Furnishing. + +When Hsien-yüan went on his visit to Ô-mei Shan, a mountain in +Ssuch'uan, Ch'ih-chiang Tzu-yü obtained permission to accompany +him. Their object was to be initiated into the doctrine of immortality. + +The Emperor was instructed in the secrets of the doctrine by T'ai-i +Huang-jên, the spirit of this famous mountain, who, when he was about +to take his departure, begged him to allow Ch'ih-chiang Tzu-yü to +remain with him. The new hermit went out every day to gather the +flowering plants which formed the only food of his master, T'ai-i +Huang-jên, and he also took to eating these flowers, so that his body +gradually became spiritualized. + + +The Steep Summit + +One day T'ai-i Huang-jên sent him to cut some bamboos on the summit of +Ô-mei Shan, distant more than three hundred _li_ from the place where +they lived. When he reached the base of the summit, all of a sudden +three giddy peaks confronted him, so dangerous that even the monkeys +and other animals dared not attempt to scale them. But he took his +courage in his hands, climbed the steep slope, and by sheer energy +reached the summit. Having cut the bamboos, he tried to descend, but +the rocks rose like a wall in sharp points all round him, and he could +not find a foothold anywhere. Then, though laden with the bamboos, he +threw himself into the air, and was borne on the wings of the wind. He +came to earth safe and sound at the foot of the mountain, and ran with +the bamboos to his master. On account of this feat he was considered +advanced enough to be admitted to instruction in the doctrine. + + +The Divine Archer + +The Emperor Yao, in the twelfth year of his reign (2346 B.C.), one day, +while walking in the streets of Huai-yang, met a man carrying a bow +and arrows, the bow being bound round with a piece of red stuff. This +was Ch'ih-chiang Tzu-yü. He told the Emperor he was a skilful archer +and could fly in the air on the wings of the wind. Yao, to test his +skill, ordered him to shoot one of his arrows at a pine-tree on the +top of a neighbouring mountain. Ch'ih shot an arrow which transfixed +the tree, and then jumped on to a current of air to go and fetch +the arrow back. Because of this the Emperor named him Shên I, 'the +Divine Archer,' attached him to his suite, and appointed him Chief +Mechanician of all Works in Wood. He continued to live only on flowers. + + +Vanquishes the Wind-spirit + +At this time terrible calamities began to lay waste the land. Ten +suns appeared in the sky, the heat of which burnt up all the crops; +dreadful storms uprooted trees and overturned houses; floods overspread +the country. Near the Tung-t'ing Lake a serpent, a thousand feet long, +devoured human beings, and wild boars of enormous size did great +damage in the eastern part of the kingdom. Yao ordered Shên I to go +and slay the devils and monsters who were causing all this mischief, +placing three hundred men at his service for that purpose. + +Shên I took up his post on Mount Ch'ing Ch'iu to study the cause of the +devastating storms, and found that these tempests were released by Fei +Lien, the Spirit of the Wind, who blew them out of a sack. As we shall +see when considering the thunder myths, the ensuing conflict ended +in Fei Lien suing for mercy and swearing friendship to his victor, +whereupon the storms ceased. + + +Dispels the Nine False Suns + +After this first victory Shên I led his troops to the banks of the +Hsi Ho, West River, at Lin Shan. Here he discovered that on three +neighbouring peaks nine extraordinary birds were blowing out fire and +thus forming nine new suns in the sky. Shên I shot nine arrows in +succession, pierced the birds, and immediately the nine false suns +resolved themselves into red clouds and melted away. Shên I and his +soldiers found the nine arrows stuck in nine red stones at the top +of the mountain. + + +Marries the Sister of the Water-spirit + +Shên I then led his soldiers to Kao-liang, where the river had risen +and formed an immense torrent. He shot an arrow into the water, +which thereupon withdrew to its source. In the flood he saw a man +clothed in white, riding a white horse and accompanied by a dozen +attendants. He quickly discharged an arrow, striking him in the left +eye, and the horseman at once took to flight. He was accompanied +by a young woman named Hêng O [22], the younger sister of Ho Po, +the Spirit of the Waters. Shên I shot an arrow into her hair. She +turned and thanked him for sparing her life, adding: "I will agree +to be your wife." After these events had been duly reported to the +Emperor Yao, the wedding took place. + + +Slays Various Dangerous Creatures + +Three months later Yao ordered Shên I to go and kill the great +Tung-t'ing serpent. An arrow in the left eye laid him out stark and +dead. The wild boars also were all caught in traps and slain. As a +reward for these achievements Yao canonized Shên I with the title of +Marquis Pacifier of the Country. + + +Builds a Palace for Chin Mu + +About this time T'ai-wu Fu-jên, the third daughter of Hsi Wang Mu, +had entered a nunnery on Nan-min Shan, to the north of Lo-fou Shan, +where her mother's palace was situated. She mounted a dragon to +visit her mother, and all along the course left a streak of light in +her wake. One day the Emperor Yao, from the top of Ch'ing-yün Shan, +saw this track of light, and asked Shên I the cause of this unusual +phenomenon. The latter mounted the current of luminous air, and +letting it carry him whither it listed, found himself on Lo-fou Shan, +in front of the door of the mountain, which was guarded by a great +spiritual monster. On seeing Shên I this creature called together +a large number of phoenixes and other birds of gigantic size and +set them at Shên I. One arrow, however, settled the matter. They +all fled, the door opened, and a lady followed by ten attendants +presented herself. She was no other than Chin Mu herself. Shên I, +having saluted her and explained the object of his visit, was admitted +to the goddess's palace, and royally entertained. + +"I have heard," said Shên I to her, "that you possess the pills of +immortality; I beg you to give me one or two." "You are a well-known +architect," replied Chin Mu; "please build me a palace near this +mountain." Together they went to inspect a celebrated site known as +Pai-yü-kuei Shan, 'White Jade-tortoise Mountain,' and fixed upon it +as the location of the new abode of the goddess. Shên I had all the +spirits of the mountain to work for him. The walls were built of jade, +sweet-smelling woods were used for the framework and wainscoting, +the roof was of glass, the steps of agate. In a fortnight's time +sixteen palace buildings stretched magnificently along the side of +the mountain. Chin Mu gave to the architect a wonderful pill which +would bestow upon him immortality as well as the faculty of being +able at will to fly through the air. "But," she said, "it must not +be eaten now: you must first go through a twelve months' preparatory +course of exercise and diet, without which the pill will not have all +the desired results." Shên I thanked the goddess, took leave of her, +and, returning to the Emperor, related to him all that had happened. + + +Kills Chisel-tooth + +On reaching home, the archer hid his precious pill under a rafter, +lest anyone should steal it, and then began the preparatory course +in immortality. + +At this time there appeared in the south a strange man named Tso Ch'ih, +'Chisel-tooth.' He had round eyes and a long projecting tooth. He +was a well-known criminal. Yao ordered Shên I and his small band +of brave followers to deal with this new enemy. This extraordinary +man lived in a cave, and when Shên I and his men arrived he emerged +brandishing a padlock. Shên I broke his long tooth by shooting an +arrow at it, and Tso Ch'ih fled, but was struck in the back and laid +low by another arrow from Shên I. The victor took the broken tooth +with him as a trophy. + + +Hêng Ô flies to the Moon + +Hêng Ô, during her husband's absence, saw a white light which seemed +to issue from a beam in the roof, while a most delicious odour filled +every room. By the aid of a ladder she reached up to the spot whence +the light came, found the pill of immortality, and ate it. She suddenly +felt that she was freed from the operation of the laws of gravity +and as if she had wings, and was just essaying her first flight when +Shên I returned. He went to look for his pill, and, not finding it, +asked Hêng Ô what had happened. + +The young wife, seized with fear, opened the window and flew out. Shên +I took his bow and pursued her. The moon was full, the night clear, +and he saw his wife flying rapidly in front of him, only about the +size of a toad. Just when he was redoubling his pace to catch her up +a blast of wind struck him to the ground like a dead leaf. + +Hêng Ô continued her flight until she reached a luminous sphere, +shining like glass, of enormous size, and very cold. The only +vegetation consisted of cinnamon-trees. No living being was to be +seen. All of a sudden she began to cough, and vomited the covering +of the pill of immortality, which was changed into a rabbit as white +as the purest jade. This was the ancestor of the spirituality of the +_yin_, or female, principle. Hêng Ô noticed a bitter taste in her +mouth, drank some dew, and, feeling hungry, ate some cinnamon. She +took up her abode in this sphere. + +As to Shên I, he was carried by the hurricane up into a high +mountain. Finding himself before the door of a palace, he was invited +to enter, and found that it was the palace of Tung-hua Ti-chün, +otherwise Tung Wang Kung, the husband of Hsi Wang Mu. + + +The Sun-palace and the Bird of Dawn + +The God of the Immortals said to Shên I: "You must not be annoyed +with Hêng Ô. Everybody's fate is settled beforehand. Your labours +are nearing an end, and you will become an Immortal. It was I who +let loose the whirlwind that brought you here. Hêng O, through having +borrowed the forces which by right belong to you, is now an Immortal +in the Palace of the Moon. As for you, you deserve much for having +so bravely fought the nine false suns. As a reward you shall have +the Palace of the Sun. Thus the _yin_ and the _yang_ will be united +in marriage." This said, Tung-hua Ti-chün ordered his servants to +bring a red Chinese sarsaparilla cake, with a lunar talisman. + +"Eat this cake," he said; "it will protect you from the heat of the +solar hearth. And by wearing this talisman you will be able at will +to visit the lunar palace of Hêng O; but the converse does not hold +good, for your wife will not have access to the solar palace." This is +why the light of the moon has its birth in the sun, and decreases in +proportion to its distance from the sun, the moon being light or dark +according as the sun comes and goes. Shên I ate the sarsaparilla cake, +attached the talisman to his body, thanked the god, and prepared to +leave. Tung Wang Kung said to him: "The sun rises and sets at fixed +times; you do not yet know the laws of day and night; it is absolutely +necessary for you to take with you the bird with the golden plumage, +which will sing to advise you of the exact times of the rising, +culmination, and setting of the sun." "Where is this bird to be +found?" asked Shên I. "It is the one you hear calling _Ia! Ia!_ +It is the ancestor of the spirituality of the _yang_, or male, +principle. Through having eaten the active principle of the sun, +it has assumed the form of a three-footed bird, which perches on the +_fu-sang_ tree [a tree said to grow at the place where the sun rises] +in the middle of the Eastern Sea. This tree is several thousands of +feet in height and of gigantic girth. The bird keeps near the source +of the dawn, and when it sees the sun taking his morning bath gives +vent to a cry that shakes the heavens and wakes up all humanity. That +is why I ordered Ling Chên-tzu to put it in a cage on T'ao-hua Shan, +Peach-blossom Hill; since then its cries have been less harsh. Go +and fetch it and take it to the Palace of the Sun. Then you will +understand all the laws of the daily movements." He then wrote a +charm which Shên I was to present to Ling Chên-tzu to make him open +the cage and hand the golden bird over to him. + +The charm worked, and Ling Chên-tzu opened the cage. The bird of +golden plumage had a sonorous voice and majestic bearing. "This +bird," he said, "lays eggs which hatch out nestlings with red combs, +who answer him every morning when he starts crowing. He is usually +called the cock of heaven, and the cocks down here which crow morning +and evening are descendants of the celestial cock." + + +Shên I visits the Moon + +Shên I, riding on the celestial bird, traversed the air and reached +the disk of the sun just at mid-day. He found himself carried into +the centre of an immense horizon, as large as the earth, and did not +perceive the rotatory movement of the sun. He then enjoyed complete +happiness without care or trouble. The thought of the happy hours +passed with his wife Hêng O, however, came back to memory, and, borne +on a ray of sunlight, he flew to the moon. He saw the cinnamon-trees +and the frozen-looking horizon. Going to a secluded spot, he found +Hêng O there all alone. On seeing him she was about to run away, +but Shên I took her hand and reassured her. "I am now living in the +solar palace," he said; "do not let the past annoy you." Shên I cut +down some cinnamon-trees, used them for pillars, shaped some precious +stones, and so built a palace, which he named Kuang-han Kung, 'Palace +of Great Cold.' From that time forth, on the fifteenth day of every +moon, he went to visit her in her palace. That is the conjunction of +the _yang_ and _yin_, male and female principles, which causes the +great brilliancy of the moon at that epoch. + +Shên I, on returning to his solar kingdom, built a wonderful palace, +which he called the Palace of the Lonely Park. + +From that time the sun and moon each had their ruling sovereign. This +_régime_ dates from the forty-ninth year (2309 B.C.) of Yao's reign. + +When the old Emperor was informed that Shên I and his wife had both +gone up to Heaven he was much grieved to lose the man who had rendered +him such valuable service, and bestowed upon him the posthumous title +of Tsung Pu, 'Governor of Countries.' In the representations of this +god and goddess the former is shown holding the sun, the latter the +moon. The Chinese add the sequel that Hêng O became changed into a +toad, whose outline is traceable on the moon's surface. + + +Star-worship + +The star-deities are adored by parents on behalf of their children; +they control courtship and marriage, bring prosperity or adversity in +business, send pestilence and war, regulate rainfall and drought, and +command angels and demons; so every event in life is determined by the +'star-ruler' who at that time from the shining firmament manages the +destinies of men and nations. The worship is performed in the native +homes either by astrologers engaged for that purpose or by Taoist +priests. In times of sickness, ten paper star-gods are arranged, +five good on one side and five bad on the other; a feast is placed +before them, and it is supposed that when the bad have eaten enough +they will take their flight to the south-west; the propitiation of +the good star-gods is in the hope that they will expel the evil stars, +and happiness thus be obtained. + +The practical effect of this worship is seen in the following +examples taken from the Chinese list of one hundred and twenty-nine +lucky and unlucky stars, which, with the sixty cycle-stars and the +twenty-eight constellations, besides a vast multitude of others, make +up the celestial galaxy worshipped by China's millions: the Orphan +Star enables a woman to become a man; the Star of Pleasure decides +on betrothals, binding the feet of those destined to be lovers with +silver cords; the Bonepiercing Star produces rheumatism; the Morning +Star, if not worshipped, kills the father or mother during the year; +the Balustrade Star promotes lawsuits; the Three-corpse Star controls +suicide, the Peach-blossom Star lunacy; and so on. + + +The Herdsman and the Weaver-girl + +In the myths and legends which have clustered about the observations of +the stars by the Chinese there are subjects for pictorial illustration +without number. One of these stories is the fable of Aquila and Vega, +known in Chinese mythology as the Herdsman and the Weaver-girl. The +latter, the daughter of the Sun-god, was so constantly busied with her +loom that her father became worried at her close habits and thought +that by marrying her to a neighbour, who herded cattle on the banks +of the Silver Stream of Heaven (the Milky Way), she might awake to +a brighter manner of living. + +No sooner did the maiden become wife than her habits and character +utterly changed for the worse. She became not only very merry and +lively, but quite forsook loom and needle, giving up her nights +and days to play and idleness; no silly lover could have been more +foolish than she. The Sun-king, in great wrath at all this, concluded +that the husband was the cause of it, and determined to separate the +couple. So he ordered him to remove to the other side of the river of +stars, and told him that hereafter they should meet only once a year, +on the seventh night of the seventh month. To make a bridge over the +flood of stars, the Sun-king called myriads of magpies, who thereupon +flew together, and, making a bridge, supported the poor lover on +their wings and backs as if on a roadway of solid land. So, bidding +his weeping wife farewell, the lover-husband sorrowfully crossed the +River of Heaven, and all the magpies instantly flew away. But the two +were separated, the one to lead his ox, the other to ply her shuttle +during the long hours of the day with diligent toil, and the Sun-king +again rejoiced in his daughter's industry. + +At last the time for their reunion drew near, and only one fear +possessed the loving wife. What if it should rain? For the River +of Heaven is always full to the brim, and one extra drop causes a +flood which sweeps away even the bird-bridge. But not a drop fell; +all the heavens were clear. The magpies flew joyfully in myriads, +making a way for the tiny feet of the little lady. Trembling with joy, +and with heart fluttering more than the bridge of wings, she crossed +the River of Heaven and was in the arms of her husband. This she did +every year. The husband stayed on his side of the river, and the +wife came to him on the magpie bridge, save on the sad occasions +when it rained. So every year the people hope for clear weather, +and the happy festival is celebrated alike by old and young. + +These two constellations are worshipped principally by women, that +they may gain cunning in the arts of needlework and making of fancy +flowers. Water-melons, fruits, vegetables, cakes, etc., are placed +with incense in the reception-room, and before these offerings are +performed the kneeling and the knocking of the head on the ground in +the usual way. + + +The Twenty-eight Constellations + +Sacrifices were offered to these spirits by the Emperor on the marble +altar of the Temple of Heaven, and by the high officials throughout +the provinces. Of the twenty-eight the following are regarded as +propitious--namely, the Horned, Room, Tail, Sieve, Bushel, House, +Wall, Mound, Stomach, End, Bristling, Well, Drawn-bow, and Revolving +Constellations; the Neck, Bottom, Heart, Cow, Female, Empty, Danger, +Astride, Cock, Mixed, Demon, Willow, Star, Wing, are unpropitious. + +The twenty-eight constellations seem to have become the abodes of gods +as a result of the defeat of a Taoist Patriarch T'ung-t'ien Chiao-chu, +who had espoused the cause of the tyrant Chou, when he and all his +followers were slaughtered by the heavenly hosts in the terrible +catastrophe known as the Battle of the Ten Thousand Immortals. Chiang +Tzu-ya as a reward conferred on them the appanage of the twenty-eight +constellations. The five planets, Venus, Jupiter, Mercury, Mars, and +Saturn, are also the abodes of stellar divinities, called the White, +Green, Black, Red, and Yellow Rulers respectively. Stars good and +bad are all likewise inhabited by gods or demons. + + +A Victim of Ta Chi + +Concerning Tzu-wei Hsing, the constellation Tzu-wei (north circumpolar +stars), of which the stellar deity is Po I-k'ao, the following legend +is related in the _Fêng shên yen i_. + +Po I-k'ao was the eldest son of Wên Wang, and governed the kingdom +during the seven years that the old King Was detained as a prisoner of +the tyrant Chou. He did everything possible to procure his father's +release. Knowing the tastes of the cruel King, he sent him for his +harem ten of the prettiest women who could be found, accompanied by +seven chariots made of perfumed wood, and a white-faced monkey of +marvellous intelligence. Besides these he included in his presents +a magic carpet, on which it was necessary only to sit in order to +recover immediately from the effects of drunkenness. + +Unfortunately for Po I-k'ao, Chou's favourite concubine, Ta +Chi, conceived a passion for him and had recourse to all sorts +of ruses to catch him in her net; but his conduct was throughout +irreproachable. Vexed by his indifference, she tried slander in order +to bring about his ruin. But her calumnies did not at first have +the result she expected. Chou, after inquiry, was convinced of the +innocence of Po. But an accident spoiled everything. In the middle +of an amusing _séance_ the monkey which had been given to the King +by Po perceived some sweets in the hand of Ta Chi, and, jumping on +to her body, snatched them from Her. The King and his concubine were +furious, Chou had the monkey killed forthwith, and Ta Chi accused Po +I-k'ao of having brought the animal into the palace with the object +of making an attempt on the lives of the King and herself. But the +Prince explained that the monkey, being only an animal, could not +grasp even the first idea of entering into a conspiracy. + +Shortly after this Po committed an unpardonable fault which changed +the goodwill of the King into mortal enmity. He allowed himself to +go so far as to suggest to the King that he should break off his +relations with this infamous woman, the source of all the woes which +were desolating the kingdom, and when Ta Chi on this account grossly +insulted him he struck her with his lute. + +For this offence Ta Chi caused him to be crucified in the palace. Large +nails were driven through his hands and feet, and his flesh was cut +off in pieces. Not content with ruining Po I-k'ao, this wretched +woman wished also to ruin Wen Wang. She therefore advised the King to +have the flesh of the murdered man made up into rissoles and sent as +a present to his father. If he refused to eat the flesh of his own +son he was to be accused of contempt for the King, and there would +thus be a pretext for having him executed. Wen Wang, being versed in +divination and the science of the _pa kua_, Eight Trigrams, knew that +these rissoles contained the flesh of his son, and to avoid the snare +spread for him he ate three of the rissoles in the presence of the +royal envoys. On their return the latter reported this to the King, +who found himself helpless on learning of Wen Wang's conduct. + +Po I-k'ao was canonized by Chiang Tzu-ya, and appointed ruler of the +constellation Tzu-wei of the North Polar heavens. + + +Myths of Time + +T'ai Sui is the celestial spirit who presides over the year. He +is the President of the Ministry of Time. This god is much to +be feared. Whoever offends against him is sure to be destroyed. He +strikes when least expected to. T'ai Sui is also the Ministry itself, +whose members, numbering a hundred and twenty, are set over time, +years, months, and days. The conception is held by some writers to +be of Chaldeo-Assyrian origin. + +The god T'ai Sui is not mentioned in the T'ang and Sung rituals, but in +the Yüan dynasty (A.D. 1280-1368) sacrifices were offered to him in the +College of the Grand Historiographer whenever any work of importance +was about to be undertaken. Under this dynasty the sacrifices were +offered to T'ai Sui and to the ruling gods of the months and of the +days. But these sacrifices were not offered at regular times: it +was only at the beginning of the Ch'ing (Manchu) dynasty (1644-1912) +that it was decided to offer the sacrifices at fixed periods. + + +The Planet Jupiter + +T'ai Sui corresponds to the planet Jupiter. He travels across the +sky, passing through the twelve sidereal mansions. He is a stellar +god. Therefore an altar is raised to him and sacrifices are offered +on it under the open sky. This practice dates from the beginning of +the Ming dynasty, when the Emperor T'ai Tsu ordered sacrifices to +this god to be made throughout the Empire. According to some authors, +he corresponds to the god of the twelve sidereal mansions. He is also +variously represented as the moon, which turns to the left in the sky, +and the sun, which turns to the right. The diviners gave to T'ai Sui +the title of Grand Marshal, following the example of the usurper Wang +Mang (A.D. 9-23) of the Western Han dynasty, who gave that title to +the year-star. + + +Legend of T'ai Sui + +The following is the legend of T'ai Sui. + +T'ai Sui was the son of the Emperor Chou, the last of the Yin +dynasty. His mother was Queen Chiang. When he was born he looked +like a lump of formless flesh. The infamous Ta Chi, the favourite +concubine of this wicked Emperor, at once informed him that a monster +had been born in the palace, and the over-credulous sovereign ordered +that it should immediately be cast outside the city. Shên Chên-jên, +who was passing, saw the small abandoned one, and said: "This is an +Immortal who has just been born." With his knife he cut open the caul +which enveloped it, and the child was exposed. + +His protector carried him to the cave Shui Lien, where he led the +life of a hermit, and entrusted the infant to Ho Hsien-ku, who acted +as his nurse and brought him up. + +The child's hermit-name was Yin Ting-nu, his ordinary name Yin +No-cha, but during his boyhood he was known as Yin Chiao, _i.e._ +'Yin the Deserted of the Suburb,' When he had reached an age when he +was sufficiently intelligent, his nurse informed him that he was not +her son, but really the son of the Emperor Chou, who, deceived by the +calumnies of his favourite Ta Chi, had taken him for an evil monster +and had him cast out of the palace. His mother had been thrown down +from an upper storey and killed. Yin Chiao went to his rescuer and +begged him to allow him to avenge his mother's death. The Goddess +T'ien Fei, the Heavenly Concubine, picked out two magic weapons from +the armoury in the cave, a battle-axe and club, both of gold, and +gave them to Yin Chiao. When the Shang army was defeated at Mu Yeh, +Yin Chiao broke into a tower where Ta Chi was, seized her, and brought +her before the victor, King Wu, who gave him permission to split her +head open with his battle-axe. But Ta Chi was a spiritual hen-pheasant +(some say a spiritual vixen). She transformed herself into smoke and +disappeared. To reward Yin Chiao for his filial piety and bravery +in fighting the demons, Yü Ti canonized him with the title T'ai Sui +Marshal Yin. + +According to another version of the legend, Yin Chiao fought on +the side of the Yin against Wu Wang, and after many adventures was +caught by Jan Têng between two mountains, which he pressed together, +leaving only Yin Chiao's head exposed above the summits. The general +Wu Chi promptly cut it off with a spade. Chiang Tz[u)]-ya subsequently +canonized Yin Chiao. + + +Worship of T'ai Sui + +The worship of T'ai Sui seems to have first taken place in the reign +of Shên Tsung (A.D. 1068-86) of the Sung dynasty, and was continued +during the remainder of the Monarchical Period. The object of the +worship is to avert calamities, T'ai Sui being a dangerous spirit +who can do injury to palaces and cottages, to people in their houses +as well as to travellers on the roads. But he has this peculiarity, +that he injures persons and things not in the district in which he +himself is, but in those districts which adjoin it. Thus, if some +constructive work is undertaken in a region where T'ai Sui happens +to be, the inhabitants of the neighbouring districts take precautions +against his evil influence. This they generally do by hanging out the +appropriate talisman. In order to ascertain in what region T'ai Sui +is at any particular time, an elaborate diagram is consulted. This +consists of a representation of the twelve terrestrial branches +or stems, _ti chih_> and the ten celestial trunks, _t'ien kan,_ +indicating the cardinal points and the intermediate points, north-east, +north-west, south-east, and south-west. The four cardinal points are +further verified with the aid of the Five Elements, the Five Colours, +and the Eight Trigrams. By using this device, it is possible to find +the geographical position of T'ai Sui during the current year, the +position of threatened districts, and the methods to be employed to +provide against danger. + + + +CHAPTER VI + +Myths of Thunder, Lightning, Wind, and Rain + + +The Ministry of Thunder and Storms + +As already noted, affairs in the Otherworld are managed by official +Bureaux or Ministries very similar to those on earth. The _Fêng shên +yen i_ mentions several of these, and gives full details of their +constitution. The first is the Ministry of Thunder and Storms. This +is composed of a large number of officials. The principal ones are +Lei Tsu, the Ancestor of Thunder, Lei Kung, the Duke of Thunder, Tien +Mu, the Mother of Lightning, Feng Po, the Count of Wind, and Y['u] +Shih, the Master of Rain. These correspond to the Buddhist Asuras, +the "fourth class of sentient beings, the mightiest of all demons, +titanic enemies of the Dêvas," and the Vedic Maruta, storm-demons. In +the temples Lei Tsu is placed in the centre with the other four to +right and left. There are also sometimes represented other gods of +rain, or attendants. These are Hsing T'ien Chün and T'ao T'ien Chün, +both officers of Wen Chung, or Lei Tsu, Ma Yüan-shuai, Generalissimo +Ma, whose exploits are referred to later, and others. + + +The President of the Ministry of Thunder + +This divinity has three eyes, one in the middle of his forehead, from +which, when open, a ray of white light proceeds to a distance of more +than two feet. Mounted on a black unicorn, he traverses millions of +miles in the twinkling of an eye. + +His origin is ascribed to a man named Wên Chung, generally known +as Wên Chung T'ai-shih, 'the Great Teacher Wên Chung,' He was +a minister of the tyrant king Chou (1154-1122 B.C.), and fought +against the armies of the Chou dynasty. Being defeated, he fled +to the mountains of Yen, Yen Shan, where he met Ch'ih Ching-tzu, +one of the alleged discoverers of fire, and joined battle with him; +the latter, however, flashed his _yin-yang_ mirror at the unicorn, +and put it out of action. Lei Chên-tzu, one of Wu Wang's marshals, +then struck the animal with his staff, and severed it in twain. + +Wên Chung escaped in the direction of the mountains of Chüeh-lung Ling, +where another marshal, Yün Chung-tzu, barred his way. Yün's hands had +the power of producing lightning, and eight columns of mysterious fire +suddenly came out of the earth, completely enveloping Wên Chung. They +were thirty feet high and ten feet in circumference. Ninety fiery +dragons came out of each and flew away up into the air. The sky was +like a furnace, and the earth shook with the awful claps of thunder. In +this fiery prison Wên Chung died. + +When the new dynasty finally proved victorious, Chiang Tzu-ya, by +order of Yüan-shih T'ien-tsun, conferred on Wên Chung the supreme +direction of the Ministry of Thunder, appointing him celestial prince +and plenipotentiary defender of the laws governing the distribution of +clouds and rain. His full title was Celestial and Highly-honoured Head +of the Nine Orbits of the Heavens, Voice of the Thunder, and Regulator +of the Universe. His birthday is celebrated on the twenty-fourth day +of the sixth moon. + + +The Duke of Thunder + +The Spirit of Thunder, for whom Lei Tsu is often mistaken, is +represented as an ugly, black, bat-winged demon, with clawed feet, +monkey's head, and eagle's beak, who holds in one hand a steel +chisel, and in the other a spiritual hammer, with which he beats +numerous drums strung about him, thus producing the terrific noise +of thunder. According to Chinese reasoning it is the sound of these +drums, and not the lightning, which causes death. + +A. Gruenwedel, in his _Guide to the Lamaist Collection of Prince +Uchtomsky,_ p. 161, states that the Chino-Japanese God of Thunder, +Lei Kung, has the shape of the Indian divine bird Garuda. Are we to +suppose, then, that the Chinese Lei Kung is of Indian origin? In modern +pictures the God of Thunder is depicted with a cock's head and claws, +carrying in one hand the hammer, in the other the chisel. We learn, +however, from Wang Ch'ung's _Lun Hêng_ that in the first century B.C., +when Buddhism was not yet introduced into China, the 'Thunderer' was +represented as a strong man, not as a bird, with one hand dragging +a cluster of drums, and with the other brandishing a hammer. Thus +Lei Kung existed already in China when the latter received her first +knowledge of India. Yet his modern image may well owe its wings to the +Indian rain-god Vajrapani, who in one form appears with Garuda wings. + +Lei Kung P'u-sa, the avatar of Lei Kung (whose existence as the Spirit +of Thunder is denied by at least one Chinese writer), has made various +appearances on the earth. One of these is described below. + + +Lei Kung in the Tree + +A certain Yeh Ch'ien-chao of Hsin Chou, when a youth, used to climb +the mountain Chien-ch'ang Shan for the purpose of cutting firewood and +collecting medicinal herbs. One day when he had taken refuge under +a tree during a rain-storm there was a loud clap of thunder, and he +saw a winged being, with a blue face, large mouth, and bird's claws, +caught in a cleft of the tree. This being addressed Yeh, saying: +"I am Lei Kung. In splitting this tree I got caught in it; if you +will free me I will reward you handsomely." The woodcutter opened the +cleft wider by driving in some stones as wedges, and liberated the +prisoner. "Return to this spot to-morrow," said the latter, "and I +will reward you." The next day the woodcutter kept the appointment, +and received from Lei Kung a book. "If you consult this work," he +explained, "you will be able at will to bring thunder or rain, cure +sickness, or assuage sorrow. We are five brothers, of whom I am the +youngest. When you want to bring rain call one or other of my brothers; +but call me only in case of pressing necessity, because I have a bad +character; but I will come if it is really necessary." Having said +these words, he disappeared. + +Yeh Ch'ien-chao, by means of the prescriptions contained in the +mysterious book, could cure illnesses as easily as the sun dissipates +the morning mist. One day, when he was intoxicated and had gone to +bed in the temple of Chi-chou Ssu, the magistrate wished to arrest and +punish him. But when he reached the steps of the _yamên_, Ch'ien-chao +called Lei Kung to his aid. A terrible clap of thunder immediately +resounded throughout the district. The magistrate, nearly dead with +fright, at once dismissed the case without punishing the culprit. The +four brothers never failed to come to his aid. + +By the use of his power Ch'ien-chao saved many regions from famine +by bringing timely rain. + + + +The Mysterious Bottle + +Another legend relates that an old woman living in Kiangsi had her arm +broken through being struck by lightning, when a voice from above was +heard saying: "I have made a mistake." A bottle fell out of space, and +the voice again said: "Apply the contents and you will be healed at +once." This being done, the old woman's arm was promptly mended. The +villagers, regarding the contents of the bottle as divine medicine, +wished to take it away and hide it for future use, but several of +them together could not lift it from the ground. Suddenly, however, +it rose up and disappeared into space. Other persons in Kiangsi were +also struck, and the same voice was heard to say: "Apply some grubs +to the throat and they will recover." After this had been done the +victims returned to consciousness none the worse for their experience. + +The worship of Lei Kung seems to have been carried on regularly from +about the time of the Christian era. + + +Lei Chên-tzu + +Another Son of Thunder is Lei Chên-tzu, mentioned above, whose name +when a child was Wên Yü, who was hatched from an egg after a clap +of thunder and found by the soldiers of Wên Wang in some brushwood +near an old tomb. The infant's chief characteristic was its brilliant +eyes. Wên Wang, who already had ninety-nine children, adopted it as +his hundredth, but gave it to a hermit named Yün Chung-tzu to rear +as his disciple. The hermit showed him the way to rescue his adopted +father from the tyrant who held him prisoner. In seeking for some +powerful weapon the child found on the hillside two apricots, and +ate them both. He then noticed that wings had grown on his shoulders, +and was too much ashamed to return home. + +But the hermit, who knew intuitively what had taken place, sent a +servant to seek him. When they met the servant said: "Do you know that +your face is completely altered?" The mysterious fruit had not only +caused Lei Chên-tzu to grow wings, known as Wings of the Wind and +Thunder, but his face had become green, his nose long and pointed, +and two tusks protruded horizontally from each side of his mouth, +while his eyes shone like mirrors. + +Lei Chên-tzu now went and rescued Wên Wang, dispersing his enemies +by means of his mystical power and bringing the old man back on his +shoulders. Having placed him in safety he returned to the hermit. + + +The Mother of Lightning + +This divinity is represented as a female figure, gorgeously apparelled +in blue, green, red, and white, holding in either hand a mirror from +which proceed two broad streams or flashes of light. Lightning, say +the Chinese, is caused by the rubbing together of the _yin_ and the +_yang_, just as sparks of fire may be produced by the friction of +two substances. + + +The Origin of the Spirit of Lightning + +Tung Wang Kung, the King of the Immortals, was playing at pitch-pot +[23] with Yü Nü. He lost; whereupon Heaven smiled, and from its +half-open mouth a ray of light came out. This was lightning; it is +regarded as feminine because it is supposed to come from the earth, +which is of the _yin_, or female, principle. + + +The God of the Wind + +Fêng Po, the God of the Wind, is represented as an old man with a +white beard, yellow cloak, and blue and red cap. He holds a large +sack, and directs the wind which comes from its mouth in any direction +he pleases. + +There are various ideas regarding the nature of this deity. He is +regarded as a stellar divinity under the control of the star Ch'i, +[24] because the wind blows at the time when the moon leaves that +celestial mansion. He is also said to be a dragon called Fei Lien, at +first one of the supporters of the rebel Ch'ih Yu, who was defeated +by Huang Ti. Having been transformed into a spiritual monster, he +stirred up tremendous winds in the southern regions. The Emperor +Yao sent Shên I with three hundred soldiers to quiet the storms and +appease Ch'ih Yu's relatives, who were wreaking their vengeance on the +people. Shên I ordered the people to spread a long cloth in front of +their houses, fixing it with stones. The wind, blowing against this, +had to change its direction. Shên I then flew on the wind to the top +of a high mountain, whence he saw a monster at the base. It had the +shape of a huge yellow and white sack, and kept inhaling and exhaling +in great gusts. Shên I, concluding that this was the cause of all +these storms, shot an arrow and hit the monster, whereupon it took +refuge in a deep cave. Here it turned on Shên I and, drawing a sword, +dared him to attack the Mother of the Winds. Shên I, however, bravely +faced the monster and discharged another arrow, this time hitting it +in the knee. The monster immediately threw down its sword and begged +that its life might be spared. + +Fei Lien is elsewhere described as a dragon who was originally one of +the wicked ministers of the tyrant Chou, and could walk with unheard-of +swiftness. Both he and his son Ô Lai, who was so strong that he could +tear a tiger or rhinoceros to pieces with his hands, were killed when +in the service of Chou Wang. Fei Lien is also said to have the body +of a stag, about the size of a leopard, with a bird's head, horns, +and a serpent's tail, and to be able to make the wind blow whenever +he wishes. + + +The Master of Rain + +Yü Shih, the Master of Rain, clad in yellow scale-armour, with a blue +hat and yellow busby, stands on a cloud and from a watering-can pours +rain upon the earth. Like many other gods, however, he is represented +in various forms. Sometimes he holds a plate, on which is a small +dragon, in his left hand, while with his right he pours down the +rain. He is obviously the Parjanya of Vedism. + +According to a native account, the God of Rain is one Ch'ih Sung-tzu, +who appeared during a terrible drought in the reign of Shên Nung +(2838-2698 B.C.), and owing to his reputed magical power was requested +by the latter to bring rain from the sky. "Nothing is easier," he +replied; "pour a bottleful of water into an earthen bowl and give it +to me." This being done, he plucked from a neighbouring mountain a +branch of a tree, soaked it in the water, and with it sprinkled the +earth. Immediately clouds gathered and rain fell in torrents, filling +the rivers to overflowing. Ch'ih Sung-tzu was then honoured as the God +of Rain, and his images show him holding the mystic bowl. He resides +in the K'un-lun Mountains, and has many extraordinary peculiarities, +such as the power to go through water without getting wet, to pass +through fire without being burned, and to float in space. + +This Rain-god also assumes the form of a silkworm chrysalis in +another account. He is there believed to possess a concubine who has +a black face, holds a serpent in each hand, and has other serpents, +red and green, reposing on her right and left ears respectively; +also a mysterious bird, with only one leg, the _shang yang_, which +can change its height at will and drink the seas dry. The following +legend is related of this bird. + + +The One-legged Bird + +At the time when Hsüan-ming Ta-jên instructed Fei Lien in the secrets +of magic, the latter saw a wonderful bird which drew in water with its +beak and blew it out again in the shape of rain. Fei lien tamed it, +and would take it about in his sleeve. + +Later on a one-legged bird was seen in the palace of the Prince of +Ch'i walking up and down and hopping in front of the throne. Being +much puzzled, the Prince sent a messenger to Lu to inquire of Confucius +concerning this strange behaviour. "This bird is a _shang yang_" said +Confucius; "its appearance is a sign of rain. In former times the +children used to amuse themselves by hopping on one foot, knitting +their eyebrows, and saying: 'It will rain, because the _shang yang_ +is disporting himself.' Since this bird has gone to Ch'i, heavy rain +will fall, and the people should be told to dig channels and repair +the dykes, for the whole country will be inundated." Not only Ch'i, but +all the adjacent kingdoms were flooded; all sustained grievous damage +except Ch'i, where the necessary precautions had been taken. This +caused Duke Ching to exclaim: "Alas! how few listen to the words of +the sages!" + + +Ma Yüan-shuai + +Ma Yüan-shuai is a three-eyed monster condemned by Ju Lai to +reincarnation for excessive cruelty in the extermination of evil +spirits. In order to obey this command he entered the womb of Ma +Chin-mu in the form of five globes of fire. Being a precocious youth, +he could fight when only three days old, and killed the Dragon-king +of the Eastern Sea. From his instructor he received a spiritual work +dealing with wind, thunder, snakes, etc., and a triangular piece of +stone which he could at will change into anything he liked. By order of +Yü Ti he subdued the Spirits of the Wind and Fire, the Blue Dragon, +the King of the Five Dragons, and the Spirit of the Five Hundred +Fire Ducks, all without injury to himself. For these and many other +enterprises he was rewarded by Yü Ti with various magic articles +and with the title of Generalissimo of the West, and is regarded as +so successful an interceder with Yü Ti that he is prayed to for all +sorts of benefits. + + + +CHAPTER VII + +Myths of the Waters + + +The Dragons + +The dragons are spirits of the waters. "The dragon is a kind of being +whose miraculous changes are inscrutable." In a sense the dragon +is the type of a man, self-controlled, and with powers that verge +upon the supernatural. In China the dragon, except as noted below, +is not a power for evil, but a beneficent being producing rain and +representing the fecundating principle in nature. He is the essence +of the _yang_, or male, principle. "He controls the rain, and so +holds in his power prosperity and peace." The evil dragons are those +introduced by the Buddhists, who applied the current dragon legends +to the _nagas_ inhabiting the mountains. These mountain _nagas_, or +dragons (perhaps originally dreaded mountain tribes), are harmful, +those inhabiting lakes and rivers friendly and helpful. The dragon, +the "chief of the three hundred and sixty scaly reptiles," is most +generally represented as having the head of a horse and the tail of a +snake, with wings on its sides. It has four legs. The imperial dragon +has five claws on each foot, other dragons only four. The dragon is +also said to have nine 'resemblances': "its horns resemble those of +a deer, its head that of a camel, its eyes those of a devil, its neck +that of a snake, its abdomen that of a large cockle, its scales those +of a carp, its claws those of an eagle, the soles of its feet those of +a tiger, its ears those of an ox;" but some have no ears, the organ of +hearing being said to be in the horns, or the creature "hears through +its horns." These various properties are supposed to indicate the +"fossil remnants of primitive worship of many animals." The small +dragon is like the silk caterpillar. The large dragon fills the Heaven +and the earth. Before the dragon, sometimes suspended from his neck, +is a pearl. This represents the sun. There are azure, scaly, horned, +hornless, winged, etc., dragons, which apparently evolve one out +of the other: "a horned dragon," for example, "in a thousand years +changes to a flying dragon." + +The dragon is also represented as the father of the great emperors +of ancient times. His bones, teeth, and saliva are employed as a +medicine. He has the power of transformation and of rendering himself +visible or invisible at pleasure. In the spring he ascends to the +skies, and in the autumn buries himself in the watery depths. Some are +wingless, and rise into the air by their own inherent power. There is +the celestial dragon, who guards the mansions of the gods and supports +them so that they do not fall; the divine dragon, who causes the winds +to blow and produces rain for the benefit of mankind; the earth-dragon, +who marks out the courses of rivers and streams; and the dragon of the +hidden treasures, who watches over the wealth concealed from mortals. + +The Buddhists count their dragons in number equal to the fish of the +great deep, which defies arithmetical computation, and can be expressed +only by their sacred numerals. The people have a more certain faith +in them than in most of their divinities, because they see them so +often; every cloud with a curious configuration or serpentine tail +is a dragon. "We see him," they say. The scattering of the cloud is +his disappearance. He rules the hills, is connected with _fêng-shui_ +(geomancy), dwells round the graves, is associated with the Confucian +worship, is the Neptune of the sea, and appears on dry land. + + +The Dragon-kings + +The Sea-dragon Kings live in gorgeous palaces in the depths of the +sea, where they feed on pearls and opals. There are five of these +divinities, the chief being in the centre, and the other four occupying +the north, the west, the south, and the east. Each is a league in +length, and so bulky that in shifting its posture it tosses one +mountain against another. It has five feet, one of them being in the +middle of its belly, and each foot is armed with five sharp claws. It +can reach into the heavens, and stretch itself into all quarters of +the sea. It has a glowing armour of yellow scales, a beard under its +long snout, a hairy tail, and shaggy legs. Its forehead projects over +its blazing eyes, its ears are small and thick, its mouth gaping, +its tongue long, and its teeth sharp. Fish are boiled by the blast of +its breath, and roasted by the fiery exhalations of its body. When it +rises to the surface the whole ocean surges, waterspouts foam, and +typhoons rage. When it flies, wingless, through the air, the winds +howl, torrents of rain descend, houses are unroofed, the firmament +is filled with a din, and whatever lies along its route is swept away +with a roar in the hurricane created by the speed of its passage. + +The five Sea-dragon Kings are all immortal. They know each other's +thoughts, plans, and wishes without intercommunication. Like all the +other gods they go once a year to the superior Heavens, to make an +annual report to the Supreme Ruler; but they go in the third month, +at which time none of the other gods dare appear, and their stay +above is but brief. They generally remain in the depths of the ocean, +where their courts are filled with their progeny, their dependents, +and their attendants, and where the gods and genii sometimes visit +them. Their palaces, of divers coloured transparent stones, with +crystal doors, are said to have been seen in the early morning by +persons gazing into the deep waters. + + +The Foolish Dragon + +The part of the great Buddha legend referring to the dragon is +as follows: + +In years gone by, a dragon living in the great sea saw that his wife's +health was not good. He, seeing her colour fade away, said: "My dear, +what shall I get you to eat?" Mrs Dragon was silent. Just tell me and +I will get it," pleaded the affectionate husband. "You cannot do it; +why trouble?" quoth she. "Trust me, and you shall have your heart's +desire," said the dragon. "Well, I want a monkey's heart to eat." "Why, +Mrs Dragon, the monkeys live in the mountain forests! How can I get +one of their hearts?" "Well, I am going to die; I know I am." + +Forthwith the dragon went on shore, and, spying a monkey on the top +of a tree, said: "Hail, shining one, are you not afraid you will +fall?" "No, I have no such fear." "Why eat of one tree? Cross the +sea, and you will find forests of fruit and flowers." "How can I +cross?" "Get on my back." The dragon with his tiny load went seaward, +and then suddenly dived down. "Where are you going?" said the monkey, +with the salt water in his eyes and mouth. "Oh! my dear sir! my wife +is very sad and ill, and has taken a fancy to your heart." "What +shall I do?" thought the monkey. He then spoke, "Illustrious friend, +why did not you tell me? I left my heart on the top of the tree; +take me back, and I will get it for Mrs Dragon." The dragon returned +to the shore. As the monkey was tardy in coming down from the tree, +the dragon said: "Hurry up, little friend, I am waiting." Then the +monkey thought within himself, "What a fool this dragon is!" + +Then Buddha said to his followers: "At this time I was the monkey." + + +The Ministry of Waters + +In the spirit-world there is a Ministry which controls all things +connected with the waters on earth, salt or fresh. Its main +divisions are the Department of Salt Waters, presided over by four +Dragon-kings--those of the East, South, West, and North--and the +Department of Sweet Waters, presided over by the Four Kings (_Ssu +Tu_) of the four great rivers--the Blue (Chiang), Yellow (Ho), Huai, +and Ch'i--and the Dragon-spirits who control the Secondary Waters, the +rivers, springs, lakes, pools, rapids. Into the names and functions of +the very large number of officials connected with these departments +it is unnecessary to enter. It will be sufficient here to refer only +to those whose names are connected with myth or legend. + + +An Unauthorized Portrait + +One of these legends relates to the visit of Ch'in Shih Huang-ti, +the First Emperor, to the Spirit of the Sea, Yang Hou, originally +a marquis (_bou_) of the State Yang, who became a god through being +drowned in the sea. + +Po Shih, a Taoist priest, told the Emperor that an enormous oyster +vomited from the sea a mysterious substance which accumulated in the +form of a tower, and was known as 'the market of the sea' (Chinese for +'mirage'). Every year, at a certain period, the breath from his mouth +was like the rays of the sun. The Emperor expressed a wish to see +it, and Po Shih said he would write a letter to the God of the Sea, +and the next day the Emperor could behold the wonderful sight. + +The Emperor then remembered a dream he had had the year before in +which he saw two men fighting for the sun. The one killed the other, +and carried it off. He therefore wished to visit the country where +the sun rose. Po Shih said that all that was necessary was to throw +rocks into the sea and build a bridge across them. Thereupon he +rang his magic bell, the earth shook, and rocks began to rise up; +but as they moved too slowly he struck them with his whip, and blood +came from them which left red marks in many places. The row of rocks +extended as far as the shore of the sun-country, but to build the +bridge across them was found to be beyond the reach of human skill. + +So Po Shih sent another messenger to the God of the Sea, requesting +him to raise a pillar and place a beam across it which could be used +as a bridge. The submarine spirits came and placed themselves at the +service of the Emperor, who asked for an interview with the god. To +this the latter agreed on condition that no one should make a portrait +of him, he being very ugly. Instantly a stone gangway 100,000 feet +long rose out of the sea, and the Emperor, mounting his horse, went +with his courtiers to the palace of the god. Among his followers was +one Lu Tung-shih, who tried to draw a portrait of the god by using +his foot under the surface of the water. Detecting this manoeuvre, +the god was incensed, and said to the Emperor: "You have broken your +word; did you bring Lu here to insult me? Retire at once, or evil will +befall you." The Emperor, seeing that the situation was precarious, +mounted his horse and galloped off. As soon as he reached the beach, +the stone cause-way sank, and all his suite perished in the waves. One +of the Court magicians said to the Emperor: "This god ought to be +feared as much as the God of Thunder; then he could be made to help +us. To-day a grave mistake has been made." For several days after +this incident the waves beat upon the beach with increasing fury. The +Emperor then built a temple and a pagoda to the god on Chih-fu Shan +and Wên-têng Shan respectively; by which act of propitiation he was +apparently appeased. + + +The Shipwrecked Servant + +Once the Eight Immortals (see Chapter XI) were on their way to +Ch'ang-li Shan to celebrate the birthday anniversary of Hsien Wêng, +the God of Longevity. They had with them a servant who bore the +presents they intended to offer to the god. When they reached the +seashore the Immortals walked on the waves without any difficulty, +but Lan Ts'ai-ho remarked that the servant was unable to follow them, +and said that a means of transport must be found for him. So Ts'ao +Kuo-chiu took a plank of cypress-wood and made a raft. But when they +were in mid-ocean a typhoon arose and upset the raft, and servant +and presents sank to the bottom of the sea. + +Regarding this as the hostile act of a water-devil, the Immortals said +they must demand an explanation from the Dragon-king, Ao Ch'in. Li +T'ieh-kuai took his gourd, and, directing the mouth toward the bottom +of the sea, created so brilliant a light that it illuminated the whole +palace of the Sea-king. Ao Ch'in, surprised, asked where this powerful +light originated, and deputed a courier to ascertain its cause. + +To this messenger the Immortals made their complaint. "All we want," +they added, "is that the Dragon-king shall restore to us our servant +and the presents." On this being reported to Ao Ch'in he suspected +his son of being the cause, and, having established his guilt, +severely reprimanded him. The young Prince took his sword, and, +followed by an escort, went to find those who had made the complaint +to his father. As soon as he caught sight of the Immortals he began +to inveigh against them. + + +A Battle and its Results + +Han Hsiang Tzu, not liking this undeserved abuse, changed his flute +into a fishing-line, and as soon as the Dragon-prince was within reach +caught him on the hook, with intent to retain him as a hostage. The +Prince's escort returned in great haste and informed Ao Ch'in of +what had occurred. The latter declared that his son was in the wrong, +and proposed to restore the shipwrecked servant and the presents. The +Court officers, however, held a different opinion. "These Immortals," +they said, "dare to hold captive your Majesty's son merely on account +of a few lost presents and a shipwrecked servant. This is a great +insult, which we ask permission to avenge." Eventually they won +over Ao Ch'in, and the armies of the deep gathered for the fray. The +Immortals called to their aid the other Taoist Immortals and Heroes, +and thus two formidable armies found themselves face to face. + +Several attempts were made by other divinities to avert the conflict, +but without success. The battle was a strenuous one. Ao Ch'in received +a ball of fire full on his head, and his army was threatened with +disaster when Tz'u-hang Ta-shih appeared with his bottle of lustral +water. He sprinkled the combatants with this magic fluid, using a +willow-branch for the purpose, thus causing all their magic powers +to disappear. + +Shui Kuan, the Ruler of the Watery Elements, then arrived, and +reproached Ao Ch'in; he assured him that if the matter were to +come to the knowledge of Shang Ti, the Supreme Ruler, he would not +only be severely punished, but would risk losing his post. Ao Ch'in +expressed penitence, restored the servant and the presents, and made +full apology to the Eight Immortals. + + +The Dragon in the Pond + +One day Chang Tao-ling, the 'father of modern Taoism,' was on +Ho-ming Shan with his disciple Wang Ch'ang. "See," he said, "that +shaft of white light on Yang Shan yonder! There are undoubtedly +some bad spirits there. Let us go and bring them to reason." When +they reached the foot of the mountain they met twelve women who had +the appearance of evil spirits. Chang Tao-ling asked them whence +came the shaft of white light. They answered that it was the _yin_, +or female, principle of the earth. "Where is the source of the salt +water?" he asked again. "That pond in front of you," they replied, +"in which lives a very wicked dragon." Chang Tao-ling tried to force +the dragon to come out, but without success. Then he drew a phoenix +with golden wings on a charm and hurled it into the air over the +pond. Thereupon the dragon took fright and fled, the pond immediately +drying up. After that Chang Tao-ling took his sword and stuck it in +the ground, whereupon a well full of salt water appeared on the spot. + + +The Spirits of the Well + +The twelve women each offered Chang Tao-ling a jade ring, and asked +that they might become his wives. He took the rings, and pressing +them together in his hands made of them one large single ring. "I +will throw this ring into the well," he said, "and the one of you +who recovers it shall be my wife." All the twelve women jumped into +the well to get the ring; whereupon Chang Tao-ling put a cover over +it and fastened it down, telling them that henceforth they should be +the spirits of the well and would never be allowed to come out. + +Shortly after this Chang Tao-ling met a hunter. He exhorted him not +to kill living beings, but to change his occupation to that of a +salt-burner, instructing him how to draw out the salt from salt-water +wells. Thus the people of that district were advantaged both by being +able to obtain the salt and by being no longer molested by the twelve +female spirits. A temple, called Temple of the Prince of Ch'ing Ho, +was built by them, and the territory of Ling Chou was given to Chang +Tao-ling in recognition of the benefits he had conferred upon the +people. + + +The Dragon-king's Daughter + +A graduate named Liu I, in the reign-period I Fêng (A.D. 676-679) +of the Emperor Kao Tsung of the T'ang dynasty, having failed in +his examination for his licentiate's degree, when passing through +Ching-yang Hsien, in Ch'ang-an, Shensi, on his way home, saw a +young woman tending goats by the roadside. She said to him: "I am the +youngest daughter of the Dragonking of the Tung-t'ing Lake. My parents +married me to the son of the God of the River Ching, but my husband, +misled by the slanders of the servants, repudiated me. I have heard +that you are returning to the Kingdom of Wu, which is quite close +to my native district, so I want to ask you to take this letter to +my father. To the north of the Tung-t'ing Lake you will find a large +orange-tree, called by the natives Protector of the Soil. Strike it +three times with your girdle and some one will appear." + +Some months later the graduate went to the spot, found the orange-tree, +and struck it three times, whereupon a warrior arose from the lake +and, saluting him, asked what he wanted. "I wish to see your great +King," the graduate replied. The warrior struck the waters, opening +a passage for Liu I, and led him to a palace. "This," he said, "is +the palace of Ling Hsü." In a few minutes there appeared a person +dressed in violet-coloured clothes and holding in his hand a piece +of jade. "This is our King," said the warrior. "I am your Majesty's +neighbour," replied Liu I. "I spent my youth in Ch'u and studied in +Ch'in. I have just failed in my licentiate examination. On my way +home I saw your daughter tending some goats; she was all dishevelled, +and in so pitiable a condition that it hurt me to see her, She has +sent you this letter." + + +Golden Dragon Great Prince + +On reading the letter the King wept, and all the courtiers followed +his example. "Stop wailing," said the King, "lest Ch'ien-t'ang +hear." "Who is Ch'ien-t'ang?" asked Liu I. "He is my dear brother," +replied the King; "formerly he was one of the chief administrators of +the Ch'ien-t'ang River; now he is the chief God of Rivers." "Why are +you so afraid that he might hear what I have just told you?" "Because +he has a terrible temper. It was he who, in the reign of Yao, caused +a nine-years flood." + +Before he had finished speaking, a red dragon, a thousand feet long, +with red scales, mane of fire, bloody tongue, and eyes blazing +like lightning, passed through the air with rapid flight and +disappeared. Barely a few moments had elapsed when it returned with +a young woman whom Liu I recognized as the one who had entrusted him +with the letter. The Dragon-king, overjoyed, said to him: "This is my +daughter; her husband is no more, and she offers you her hand." Liu +did not dare to accept, since it appeared that they had just killed +her husband. He took his departure, and married a woman named Chang, +who soon died. He then married another named Han, who also died. He +then went to live at Nanking, and, his solitude preying upon his +spirits, he decided to marry yet again. A middleman spoke to him of a +girl of Fang Yang, in Chihli, whose father, Hao, had been Magistrate +of Ch'ing Liu, in Anhui. This man was always absent on his travels, +no one knew whither. The girl's mother, Cheng, had married her two +years before to a man named Chang of Ch'ing Ho, in Chihli, who had +just died. Distressed at her daughter being left a widow so young, +the mother wished to find another husband for her. + +Liu I agreed to marry this young woman, and at the end of a year +they had a son. She then said to her husband: "I am the daughter +of the King of the Tung-t'ing Lake. It was you who saved me from +my miserable plight on the bank of the Ching, and I swore I would +reward you. Formerly you refused to accept my hand, and my parents +decided to marry me to the son of a silk-merchant. I cut my hair, +and never ceased to hope that I might some time or other be united +to you in order that I might show you my gratitude." + +In A.D. 712, in the reign-period K'ai-yüan of the Emperor Hsüan Tsung +of the T'ang dynasty, they both returned to the Tung-t'ing Lake; +but the legend says nothing further with regard to them. + +Shang Ti, the Supreme Ruler, conferred on Liu I the title of Chin +Lung Ta Wang, 'Golden Dragon Great Prince.' + + +The Old Mother of the Waters + +The Old Mother of the Waters, Shul-mu Niang-niang, is the legendary +spirit of Ssu-chou, in Anhui. To her is popularly ascribed the +destruction of the ancient city of Ssu-chou, which was completely +submerged by the waters of the Hung-tsê Lake in A.D. 1574. + +One author states that this Goddess of the Waters is the younger +sister of the White Spiritual Elephant, a guardian of the Door of +Buddha. This elephant is the "subtle principle of metamorphosed water." + +In his _Recherches sur Us Superstitions en Chine_, Père Henri Doré, +S.J., relates the legends he had heard with regard to this deity. One +of these is as follows: + +Shui-mu Niang-niang inundated the town of Ssu-chou almost every year. A +report was presented to Yu Huang, Lord of the Skies, begging him to +put an end to the scourge which devastated the country and cost so +many lives. The Lord of the Skies commanded the Great Kings of the +Skies and their generals to raise troops and take the field in order +to capture this goddess and deprive her of the power of doing further +mischief. But her tricks triumphed over force, and the city continued +to be periodically devastated by inundations. + +One day Shui-mu Niang-niang was seen near the city gate carrying two +buckets of water. Li Lao-chün suspected some plot, but, an open attack +being too risky, he preferred to adopt a ruse. He went and bought +a donkey, led it to the buckets of water, and let it drink their +contents. Unfortunately the animal could not drink all the water, +so that a little remained at the bottom of the buckets. Now these +magical buckets contained the sources of the five great lakes, which +held enough water to inundate the whole of China. Shui-mu Niang-niang +with her foot overturned one of the buckets, and the water that had +remained in it was enough to cause a formidable flood, which submerged +the unfortunate town, and buried it for ever under the immense sheet +of water called the Lake of Hung-tsê. + +So great a crime deserved an exemplary punishment, and accordingly Yü +Huang sent reinforcements to his armies, and a pursuit of the goddess +was methodically organized. + + +The Magic Vermicelli + +Sun Hou-tzu, the Monkey Sun, [25] the rapid courier, who in a +single skip could traverse 108,000 _li_ (36,000 miles), started in +pursuit and caught her up, but the astute goddess was clever enough +to slip through his fingers. Sun Hou-tzu, furious at this setback, +went to ask Kuan-yin P'u-sa to come to his aid. She promised to do +so. As one may imagine, the furious race she had had to escape from +her enemy had given Shui-mu Niang-niang a good appetite. Exhausted +with fatigue, and with an empty stomach, she caught sight of a woman +selling vermicelli, who had just prepared two bowls of it and was +awaiting customers. Shui-mu Niang-niang went up to her and began +to eat the strength-giving food with avidity. No sooner had she +eaten half of the vermicelli than it changed in her stomach into +iron chains, which wound round her intestines. The end of the chain +protruded from her mouth, and the contents of the bowl became another +long chain which welded itself to the end which stuck out beyond her +lips. The vermicelli-seller was no other than Kuan-yin P'u-sa herself, +who had conceived this stratagem as a means of ridding herself of +this evil-working goddess. She ordered Sun Hou-tzu to take her down +a deep well at the foot of a mountain in Hsü-i Hsien and to fasten +her securely there. It is there that Shui-mu Niang-niang remains in +her liquid prison. The end of the chain is to be seen when the water +is low. + + +Hsü, the Dragon-slayer + +Hsü Chên-chün was a native either of Ju-ning Fu in Honan, or of +Nan-ch'ang Fu in Kiangsi. His father was Hsü Su. His personal name +was Ching-chih, and his ordinary name Sun. + +At forty-one years of age, when he was Magistrate of Ching-yang, +near the modern Chih-chiang Hsien, in Hupei, during times of drought +he had only to touch a piece of tile to turn it into gold, and thus +relieve the people of their distress. He also saved many lives by +curing sickness through the use of talismans and magic formulæ. + +During the period of the dynastic troubles he resigned and joined +the famous magician Kuo P'o. Together they proceeded to the minister +Wang Tun, who had risen against the Eastern Chin dynasty. Kuo P'o's +remonstrances only irritated the minister, who cut off his head. + +Hsü Sun then threw his chalice on the ridgepole of the room, causing +it to be whirled into the air. As Wang Tun was watching the career of +the chalice, Hsü disappeared and escaped. When he reached Lu-chiang +K'ou, in Anhui, he boarded a boat, which two dragons towed into the +offing and then raised into the air. In an instant they had borne it +to the Lü Shan Mountains, to the south of Kiukiang, in Kiangsi. The +perplexed boatman opened the window of his boat and took a furtive +look out. Thereupon the dragons, finding themselves discovered by an +infidel, set the boat down on the top of the mountain and fled. + + +The Spiritual Alligator + +In this country was a dragon, or spiritual alligator, which transformed +itself into a young man named Shên Lang, and married Chia Yü, daughter +of the Chief Judge of T'an Chou (Ch'ang-sha Fu, capital of Hunan). The +young people lived in rooms below the official apartments. During +spring and summer Shên Lang, as dragons are wont to do, roamed in the +rivers and lakes. One day Hsü Chên-chün met him, recognized him as a +dragon, and knew that he was the cause of the numerous floods which +were devastating Kiangsi Province. He determined to find a means of +getting rid of him. + +Shên Lang, aware of the steps being taken against him, changed himself +into a yellow ox and fled. Hsü Chên-chün at once transformed himself +into a black ox and started in pursuit. The yellow ox jumped down a +well to hide, but the black ox followed suit. The yellow ox then jumped +out again, and escaped to Ch'ang-sha, where he reassumed a human form +and lived with Ms wife in the home of his father-in-law, Hsü Sun, +returning to the town, hastened to the _yamên,_ and called to Shên +Lang to come out and show himself, addressing him in a severe tone +of voice as follows: "Dragon, how dare you hide yourself there under +a borrowed form?" Shên Lang then reassumed the form of a spiritual +alligator, and Hsü Sun ordered the spiritual soldiers to kill him. He +then commanded his two sons to come out of their abode. By merely +spurting a mouthful of water on them he transformed them into young +dragons. Chia Yü was told to vacate the rooms with all speed, and +in the twinkling of an eye the whole _yamên_ sank beneath the earth, +and there remained nothing but a lake where it had been. + +Hsü Chên-chün, after his victory over the dragon, assembled the members +of his family, to the number of forty-two, on Hsi Shan, outside the +city of Nan-ch'ang Fu, and all ascended to Heaven in full daylight, +taking with them even the dogs and chickens. He was then 133 years +old. This took place on the first day of the eighth moon of the second +year (A.D. 374) of the reign-period Ning-K'ang of the reign of the +Emperor Hsiao Wu Ti of the Eastern Chin dynasty. + +Subsequently a temple was erected to him, and in A.D. 1111 he was +canonized as Just Prince, Admirable and Beneficent. + + +The Great Flood + +The repairing of the heavens by Nü Kua, elsewhere alluded to, is also +attributed to the following incident. + +Before the Chinese Empire was founded a noble and wonderful queen +fought with the chief of the tribes who inhabited the country round +about Ô-mei Shan. In a fierce battle the chief and his followers met +defeat; raging with anger at being beaten by a woman, he rushed up +the mountain-side; the Queen pursued him with her army, and overtook +him at the summit; finding no place to hide himself, he attempted in +desperation both to wreak vengeance upon his enemies and to end his +own life by beating his head violently against the cane of the Heavenly +Bamboo which grew there. By his mad battering he at last succeeded in +knocking down the towering trunk of the tree, and as he did so its +top tore great rents in the canopy of the sky, through which poured +great floods of water, inundating the whole earth and drowning all the +inhabitants except the victorious Queen and her soldiers. The floods +had no power to harm her or her followers, because she herself was +an all-powerful divinity and was known as the 'Mother of the Gods,' +and the 'Defender of the Gods.' From the mountain-side she gathered +together stones of a kind having five colours, and ground them into +powder; of this she made a plaster or mortar, with which she repaired +the tears in the heavens, and the floods immediately ceased. + + +The Marriage of the River-god + +In Yeh Hsien there was a witch and some official attendants who +collected money from the people yearly for the marriage of the +River-god. + +The witch would select a pretty girl of low birth, and say that she +should be the Queen of the River-god. The girl was bathed, and clothed +in a beautiful dress of gay and costly silk. She was then taken to +the bank of the river, to a monastery which was beautifully decorated +with scrolls and banners. A feast was held, and the girl was placed +on a bed which was floated out upon the tide till it disappeared +under the waters. + +Many families having beautiful daughters moved to distant places, +and gradually the city became deserted. The common belief in Yeh was +that if no queen was offered to the River-god a flood would come and +drown the people. + +One day Hsi-mên Pao, Magistrate of Yeh Hsien, said to his attendants: +"When the marriage of the River-god takes place I wish to say farewell +to the chosen girl." + +Accordingly Hsi-mên Pao was present to witness the ceremony. About +three thousand people had come together. Standing beside the old +witch were ten of her female disciples, "Call the girl out," said +Hsi-mên Pao. After seeing her, Hsi-mên Pao said to the witch: "She +is not fair. Go you to the River-god and tell him that we will find +a fairer maid and present her to him later on." His attendants then +seized the witch and threw her into the river. + +After a little while Hsi-mên Pao said: "Why does she stay so long? Send +a disciple to call her back." One of the disciples was thrown into the +river. Another and yet another followed. The magistrate then said:" +The witches are females and therefore cannot bring me a reply." So +one of the official attendants of the witch was thrown into the river. + +Hsi-mên Pao stood on the bank for a long time, apparently awaiting +a reply. The spectators were alarmed. Hsi-mên Pao then bade his +attendants send the remaining disciples of the witch and the other +official attendants to recall their mistress. The wretches threw +themselves on their knees and knocked their heads on the ground, +which was stained with the blood from their foreheads, and with tears +confessed their sin. + +"The River-god detains his guest too long," said Hsi-mên Pao at +length. "Let us adjourn." + +Thereafter none dared to celebrate the marriage of the River-god. + + +Legend of the Building of Peking + +When the Mongol Yüan dynasty had been destroyed, and the Emperor +Hung Wu had succeeded in firmly establishing that of the Great Ming, +Ta Ming, he made Chin-ling, the present Nanking, his capital, and held +his Court there with great splendour, envoys from every province within +the 'Four Seas' (the Chinese Empire) assembling there to witness his +greatness and to prostrate themselves before the Dragon Throne. + +The Emperor had many sons and daughters by his different consorts and +concubines, each mother, in her inmost heart, fondly hoping that her +own son would be selected by his father to succeed him. + +Although the Empress had a son, who was the heir-apparent, yet she felt +envious of those ladies who had likewise been blessed with children, +for fear one of the princes should supplant her son in the affection +of the Emperor and in the succession. This envy displayed itself on +every occasion; she was greatly beloved by the Emperor, and exerted +all her influence with him, as the other young princes grew up, +to get them removed from Court. Through her means most of them were +sent to the different provinces as governors; those provinces under +their government being so many principalities or kingdoms. + + + +Chu-ti + +One of the consorts of Hung Wu, the Lady Wêng, had a son named +Chu-ti. This young prince was very handsome and graceful in his +deportment; he was, moreover, of an amiable disposition. He was the +fourth son of the Emperor, and his pleasing manner and address had made +him a great favourite, not only with his father, but with every one +about the Court. The Empress noticed the evident affection the Emperor +evinced for this prince, and determined to get him removed from the +Court as soon as possible. By a judicious use of flattery and cajolery, +she ultimately persuaded the Emperor to appoint the prince governor of +the Yen country, and thenceforth he was styled Yen Wang, Prince of Yen. + + +The Sealed Packet + +The young Prince, shortly after, taking an affectionate leave of +the Emperor, left Chin-ling to proceed to his post. Ere he departed, +however, a Taoist priest, called Liu Po-wên, who had a great affection +for the Prince, put a sealed packet into his hand, and told him to +open it when he found himself in difficulty, distress, or danger; the +perusal of the first portion that came to his hand would invariably +suggest some remedy for the evil, whatever it was. After doing so, +he was again to seal the packet, without further looking into its +contents, till some other emergency arose necessitating advice or +assistance, when he would again find it. The Prince departed on his +journey, and in the course of time, without meeting with any adventures +worth recording, arrived safely at his destination. + + + +A Desolate Region + +The place where Peking now stands was originally called Yu Chou; in the +T'ang dynasty it was called Pei-p'ing Fu; and afterward became known +as Shun-t'ien Fu--but that was after the city now called Peking was +built. The name of the country in which this place was situated was +Yen. It was a mere barren wilderness, with very few inhabitants; these +lived in huts and scattered hamlets, and there was no city to afford +protection to the people and to check the depredations of robbers. + +When the Prince saw what a desolate-looking place he had been appointed +to, and thought of the long years he was probably destined to spend +there, he grew very melancholy, and nothing his attendants essayed +to do in hope of alleviating his sorrow succeeded. + + +The Prince opens the Sealed Packet + +All at once the Prince bethought himself of the packet which the old +Taoist priest had given him; he forthwith proceeded to make search for +it--for in the bustle and excitement of travelling he had forgotten +all about it--in hope that it might suggest something to better the +prospects before him. Having found the packet, he hastily broke it +open to see what instructions it contained; taking out the first +paper which came to hand, he read the following: + +"When you reach Pei-p'ing Fu you must build a city there and name +it No-cha Ch'êng, the City of No-cha. [26] But, as the work will +be costly, you must issue a proclamation inviting the wealthy to +subscribe the necessary funds for building it. At the back of this +paper is a plan of the city; you must be careful to act according to +the instructions accompanying it." + +The Prince inspected the plan, carefully read the instructions, and +found even the minutest details fully explained. He was struck with +the grandeur of the design of the proposed city, and at once acted on +the instructions contained in the packet; proclamations were posted up, +and large sums were speedily subscribed, ten of the wealthiest families +who had accompanied him from Chin-ling being the largest contributors, +supporting the plan not only with their purses, by giving immense sums, +but by their influence among their less wealthy neighbours. + + +The City is Founded + +When sufficient money had been subscribed, a propitious day was chosen +on which to commence the undertaking. Trenches where the foundations +of the walls were to be were first dug out, according to the plan +found in the packet. The foundations themselves consisted of layers +of stone quarried from the western hills; bricks of an immense size +were made and burnt in the neighbourhood; the moat was dug out, and +the earth from it used to fill in the centre of the walls, which, +when complete, were forty-eight _li_ in circumference, fifty cubits in +height, and fifty in breadth; the whole circuit of the walls having +battlements and embrasures. Above each of the nine gates of the city +immense three-storied towers were built, each tower being ninety-nine +cubits in height. + +Near the front entrance of the city, facing each other, were built the +Temples of Heaven and of Earth. In rear of it the beautiful 'Coal Hill' +(better known as 'Prospect Hill') was raised; while in the square in +front of the Great Gate of the palace was buried an immense quantity +of charcoal (that and the coal being stored as a precaution in case +of siege). + +The palace, containing many superb buildings, was built in a style of +exceeding splendour; in the various enclosures were beautiful gardens +and lakes; in the different courtyards, too, seventy-two wells were +dug and thirty-six golden tanks placed. The whole of the buildings +and grounds was surrounded by a lofty wall and a stone-paved moat, +in which the lotus and other flowers bloomed in great beauty and +profusion, and in the clear waters of which myriads of gold and silver +fish disported themselves. + +The geomancy of the city was similar to that of Chin-ling, When +everything was completed the Prince compared it with the plan and +found that the city tallied with it in every respect. He was much +delighted, and called for the ten wealthy persons who had been +the chief contributors, and gave each of them a pair of 'couchant +dragon' silk- or satin-embroidered cuffs, and allowed them great +privileges. Up to the present time there is the common saying: +"Since then the 'dragon-cuffed' gentlefolks have flourished." + + +General Prosperity + +All the people were loud in praise of the beauty and strength of the +newly built city. Merchants from every province hastened to Peking, +attracted by the news they heard of its magnificence and the prospect +there was of profitably disposing of their wares. In short, the people +were prosperous and happy, food was plentiful, the troops brave, the +monarch just, his ministers virtuous, and all enjoyed the blessings +of peace. + + +A Drought and its Cause + +While everything was thus tranquil, a sudden and untoward event +occurred which spread dismay and consternation on all sides. One day +when the Prince went into the hall of audience one of his ministers +reported that "the wells are thirsty and the rivers dried up"--there +was no water, and the people were all in the greatest alarm. The +Prince at once called his counsellors together to devise some means +of remedying this disaster and causing the water to return to the +wells and springs, but no one could suggest a suitable plan. + +It is necessary to explain the cause of this scarcity of water. There +was a dragon's cave outside the east gate of the city at a place +called Lei-chên K'ou, 'Thunder-clap Mouth' or 'Pass' (the name of a +village). The dragon had not been seen for myriads of years, yet it +was well known that he lived there. + +In digging out the earth to build the wall the workmen had broken into +this dragon's cave, little thinking of the consequences which would +result. The dragon was exceedingly wroth and determined to shift his +abode, but the she-dragon said: "We have lived here thousands of years, +and shall we suffer the Prince of Yen to drive us forth thus? If we +_do_ go we will collect all the water, place it in our _yin-yang_ +baskets [used for drawing water], and at midnight we will appear in a +dream to the Prince, requesting permission to retire. If he gives us +permission to do so, and allows us also to take our baskets of water +with us, he will fall into our trap, for we shall take the waler with +his own consent," + + + +The Prince's Dream + +The two dragons then transformed themselves into an old man and +an old woman, went to the chamber of the Prince, who was asleep, +and appeared to him in a dream. Kneeling before him, they cried: +"O Lord of a Thousand Years, we have come before you to beg leave to +retire from this place, and to beseech you out of your great bounty +to give us permission to take these two baskets of water with us." + +The Prince readily assented, little dreaming of the danger he was +incurring. The dragons were highly delighted, and hastened out of +his presence; they filled the baskets with all the water there was +in Peking, and carried them off with them. + +When the Prince awoke he paid no attention to his dream till he +heard the report of the scarcity of water, when, reflecting on the +singularity of his dream, he thought there might be some hidden meaning +in it. He therefore had recourse to the packet again, and discovered +that his dream-visitors had been dragons, who had taken the waters of +Peking away with them in their magic baskets; the packet, however, +contained directions for the recovery of the water, and he at once +prepared to follow them. + + +The Pursuit of the Dragons + +In haste the Prince donned his armour, mounted his black steed, and, +spear in hand, dashed out of the west gate of the city. He pressed on +his horse, which went swift as the wind, nor did he slacken speed till +he came up with the water-stealing dragons, who still retained the +forms in which they had appeared to him in his dream. On a cart were +the two identical baskets he had seen; in front of the cart, dragging +it, was the old woman, while behind, pushing it, was the old man. + + +An Unexpected Flood + +When the Prince saw them he galloped up to the cart, and, without +pausing, thrust his spear into one of the baskets, making a great hole, +out of which the water rushed so rapidly that the Prince was much +frightened. He dashed off at full speed to save himself from being +swallowed up by the waters, which in a very short time had risen more +than thirty feet and had flooded the surrounding country. On galloped +the Prince, followed by the roaring water, till he reached a hill, +up which he urged his startled horse. When he gained the top he found +that it stood out of the water like an island, completely surrounded; +the water was seething and swirling round the hill in a frightful +manner, but no vestige could he see of either of the dragons. + + +The Waters Subside + +The Prince was very much alarmed at his perilous position, when +suddenly a Buddhist priest appeared before him, with clasped hands and +bent head, who bade him not be alarmed, as with Heaven's assistance +he would soon disperse the water. Hereupon the priest recited a short +prayer or spell, and the waters receded as rapidly as they had risen, +and finally returned to their proper channels. + + +The Origin of Chên-shui T'a + +The broken basket became a large deep hole, some three _mu_ (about +half an English acre) in extent, in the centre of which was a fountain +which threw up a vast body of clear water. From the midst of this +there arose a pagoda, which rose and fell with the water, floating on +the top like a vessel; the spire thrusting itself far up into the sky, +and swaying about like the mast of a ship in a storm. + +The Prince returned to the city filled with wonder at what he +had seen, and with joy at having so successfully carried out the +directions contained in the packet. On all sides he was greeted by +the acclamations of the people, who hailed him as the saviour of +Peking. Since that time Peking has never had the misfortune to be +without water. + +The pagoda is called the Pagoda on the Hill of the Imperial Spring +(Yü Ch'üan Shan T'a; more commonly Chên-shui T'a, 'Water-repressing +Pagoda'). [27] The spring is still there, and day and night, +unceasingly, its clear waters bubble up and flow eastward to Peking, +which would now be a barren wilderness but for Yen Wang's pursuit of +the water. + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +Myths of Fire + + +The Ministry of Fire + +The celestial organization of Fire is the fifth Ministry, and is +presided over by a President, Lo Hsüan, whose titular designation is +Huo-tê Hsing-chün, 'Stellar Sovereign of the Fire-virtue,' with five +subordinate ministers, four of whom are star-gods, and the fifth a +"celestial prince who receives fire": Chieh-huo T'ien-chün. Like so +many other Chinese deities, the five were all ministers of the tyrant +emperor Chou. + +It is related that Lo Hsüan was originally a Taoist priest known as +Yen-chung Hsien, of the island Huo-lung, 'Fire-dragon.' His face was +the colour of ripe fruit of the jujube-tree, his hair and beard red, +the former done up in the shape of a fish-tail, and he had three +eyes. He wore a red cloak ornamented with the _pa kua_; his horse +snorted flames from its nostrils and fire darted from its hoofs. + +While fighting in the service of the son of the tyrant emperor, +Lo Hsüan suddenly changed himself into a giant with three heads and +six arms. In each of his hands he held a magic weapon. These were a +seal which reflected the heavens and the earth, a wheel of the five +fire-dragons, a gourd containing ten thousand fire-crows, and, in +the other hands, two swords which floated like smoke, and a column +of smoke several thousands of _li_ long enclosing swords of fire. + + +A Conflagration + +Having arrived at the city of Hsi Ch'i, Lo Hsüan sent forth his +smoke-column, the air was filled with swords of fire, the ten thousand +fire-crows, emerging from the gourd, spread themselves over the town, +and a terrible conflagration broke out, the whole place being ablaze +in a few minutes. + +At this juncture there appeared in the sky the Princess Lung Chi, +daughter of Wang-mu Niang-niang; forthwith she spread over the +city her shroud of mist and dew, and the fire was extinguished by a +heavy downpour of rain. All the mysterious mechanisms of Lo Hsüan +lost their efficacy, and the magician took to his heels down the +side of the mountain. There he was met by Li, the Pagoda-bearer, +[28] who threw his golden pagoda into the air. The pagoda fell on Lo +Hsüan's head and broke his skull. + + +C'ih Ching-tzu + +Of the various fire-gods, Ch'ih Ching-tzu, the principle of spiritual +fire, is one of the five spirits representing the Five Elements. He +is Fire personified, which has its birth in the south, on Mount +Shih-t'ang. He himself and everything connected with him--his skin, +hair, beard, trousers, cloak of leaves, etc.--are all of the colour of +fire, though he is sometimes represented with a blue cap resembling +the blue tip of a flame. He appeared in the presence of Huang Lao +in a fire-cloud. He it was who obtained fire from the wood of the +mulberry-tree, and the heat of this fire, joined with the moisture +of water, developed the germs of terrestrial beings. + + +The Red Emperor + +Chu Jung, though also otherwise personified, is generally regarded as +having been a legendary emperor who made his first appearance in the +time of Hsien Yuan (2698-2598 B.C.). In his youth he asked Kuang-shou +Lao-jên, 'Old Longevity,' to grant him immortality. "The time has +not yet come," replied Old Longevity; "before it does you have to +become an emperor. I will give you the means of reaching the end you +desire. Give orders that after you are dead you are to be buried on +the southern slope of the sacred mountain Hêng Shan; there you will +learn the doctrine of Ch'ih Ching-tzu and will become immortal." + +The Emperor Hsien Yüan, having abdicated the throne, sent for Chu Jung, +and bestowed upon him the crown. Chu Jung, having become emperor, +taught the people the use of fire and the advantages to be derived +therefrom. In those early times the forests were filled with venomous +reptiles and savage animals; he ordered the peasants to set fire to the +brushwood to drive away these dangerous neighbours and keep them at a +distance. He also taught his subjects the art of purifying, forging, +and welding metals by the action of fire. He was nicknamed Ch'ih Ti, +'the Red Emperor.' He reigned for more than two hundred years, and +became an Immortal, His capital was the ancient city of Kuei, thirty +_li_ north-east of Hsin-chêng Hsien, in the Prefecture of K'ai-fêng +Fu, Honan. His tomb is on the southern slope of Heng Shan. The peak +is known as Chu Jung Peak. His descendants, who went to live in the +south, were the ancestors of the Directors of Fire. + + +Hui Lu + +The most popular God of Fire, however, is Hui Lu, a celebrated +magician who, according to the _Shên hsien t'ung chien_, lived some +time before the reign of Ti K'u (2436-2366 B.C.), the father of Yao +the Great, and had a mysterious bird named Pi Fang and a hundred other +fire-birds shut up in a gourd. He had only to let them out to set up +a conflagration which would extend over the whole country. + +Huang Ti ordered Chu Jung to fight Hui Lu and also to subdue the +rebel Chih Yu. Chu Jung had a large bracelet of pure gold--a most +wonderful and effective weapon. He hurled it into the air, and it +fell on Hui Lu's neck, throwing him to the ground and rendering him +incapable of moving. Finding resistance impossible, he asked mercy +from his victor and promised to be his follower in the spiritual +contests. Subsequently he always called himself Huo-shih Chih T'u, +'the Disciple of the Master of Fire.' + + +The Fire-emperor + +Shen Nung, the God of Agriculture, also adds to his other functions +those appertaining to the God of Fire, the reason being that when +he succeeded the Emperor Fu Hsi on the throne he adopted fire as +the emblem of his government, just as Huang Ti adopted the symbol +of Earth. Thus he came to be called Huo Ti, the 'Fire-emperor.' He +taught his subjects the use of fire for smelting metals and making +implements and weapons, and the use of oil in lamps, etc. All the +divisions of his official hierarchy were connected in some way with +this element; thus, there were the Ministers of Fire generally, the +officers of Fire of the North, South, etc. Becoming thus doubly the +patron of fire, a second fire symbol (_huo_) was added to his name, +changing it from Huo Ti, 'Fire-emperor,' to Yen Ti, 'Blazing Emperor,' + + + +CHAPTER IX + +Myths of Epidemics, Medicine, Exorcism, Etc. + + +The Ministry of Epidemics + +The gods of epidemics, etc., belong to the sixth, ninth, second, +and third celestial Ministries. The composition of the Ministry of +Epidemics is arranged differently in different works as Epidemics +(regarded as epidemics on earth, but as demons in Heaven) of the +Centre, Spring, Summer, Autumn, and Winter, or as the marshals clothed +in yellow, green, red, white, and blue respectively, or as the Officers +of the East, West, South, and North, with two additional members: +a Taoist who quells the plague, and the Grand Master who exhorts +people to do right. + +With regard to the Ministry of Seasonal Epidemics, it is related that +in the sixth moon of the eleventh year (A.D. 599) of the reign of Kao +Tsu, founder of the Sui dynasty, five stalwart persons appeared in +the air, clothed in robes of five colours, each carrying different +objects in his hands: the first a spoon and earthenware vase, the +second a leather bag and sword, the third a fan, the fourth a club, +the fifth a jug of fire. The Emperor asked Chang Chü-jên, his Grand +Historiographer, who these were and if they were benevolent or evil +spirits. The official answered: "These are the five powers of the five +directions. Their appearance indicates the imminence of epidemics, +which will last throughout the four seasons of the year." "What +remedy is there, and how am I to protect the people?" inquired the +Emperor. "There is no remedy," replied the official, "for epidemics +are sent by Heaven." During that year the mortality was very great. The +Emperor built a temple to the five persons, and bestowed upon them the +title of Marshals to the Five Spirits of the Plague. During that and +the following dynasty sacrifices were offered to them on the fifth +day of the fifth moon. + + +The President of the Ministry + +The following particulars are given concerning the President of the +Ministry, whose name was Lü Yüeh. He was an old Taoist hermit, living +at Chiu-lung Tao, 'Nine-dragon Island,' who became an Immortal. The +four members of the Ministry were his disciples. He wore a red garment, +had a blue face, red hair, long teeth, and three eyes. His war-horse +was named the Myopic Camel. He carried a magic sword, and was in the +service of Chou Wang, whose armies were concentrated at Hsi Ch'i. In +a duel with Mu-cha, brother of No-cha, he had his arm severed by a +sword-cut. In another battle with Huang T'ien-hua, son of Huang Fei-hu, +he appeared with three heads and six arms. In his many hands he held +the celestial seal, plague microbes, the flag of plague, the plague +sword, and two mysterious swords. His faces were green, and large +teeth protruded from his mouths. Huang T'ien-hua threw his magic +weapon, Huo-lung Piao, and hit him on the leg. Just at that moment +Chiang Tzu-ya arrived with his goblin-dispelling whip and felled him +with a blow. He was able, however, to rise again, and took to flight. + + +The Plague-disseminating Umbrellas + +Resolved to avenge his defeat, he joined General Hsü Fang, who was +commanding an army corps at Ch'uan-yün Kuan. Round the mountain he +organized a system of entrenchments and of infection against their +enemies. Yang Chien released his celestial hound, which bit Lü Yüeh +on the crown of his head. Then Yang Jên, armed with his magic fan, +pursued Lü Yüeh and compelled him to retreat to his fortress. Lü +Yüeh mounted the central raised part of the embattled wall and opened +all his plague-disseminating umbrellas, with the object of infecting +Yang Jên, but the latter, simply by waving his fan, reduced all the +umbrellas to dust, and also burned the fort, and with it Lü Yüeh. + +Similar wonderful achievements are related in short notices in the +_Fêng shên yen i_ of the four other officers of the Ministry. + +Li P'ing, the sixth officer of the Ministry, met a like fate to that +of Lü Yüeh after having failed to induce the latter to abandon the +cause of the Shang dynasty for that of Chou. + + +The Five Graduates + +In Père Henri Doré's _Recherches sur les Superstitions en Chine_ +is given an interesting legend concerning five other gods of +epidemics. These gods are called the Wu Yüeh, 'Five Mountains,' +and are worshipped in the temple San-i Ko at Ju-kao, especially in +outbreaks of contagious diseases and fevers. A sufferer goes to the +temple and promises offerings to the gods in the event of recovery. The +customary offering is five small wheaten loaves, called _shao ping_, +and a pound of meat. + +The Wu Yüeh are stellar devils whom Yü Huang sent to be reincarnated on +earth. Their names were T'ien Po-hsüeh, Tung Hung-wên, Ts'ai Wên-chü, +Chao Wu-chên, and Huang Ying-tu, and they were reincarnated at +Nan-ch'ang Fu, Chien-ch'ang Fu, Yen-mên Kuan, Yang Chou, and Nanking +respectively. They were all noted for their brilliant intellects, +and were clever scholars who passed their graduate's examination +with success. + +When Li Shih-min ascended the throne, in A.D. 627, he called together +all the _literati_ of the Empire to take the Doctor's Examination +in the capital. Our five graduates started for the metropolis, but, +losing their way, were robbed by brigands, and had to beg help in +order to reach the end of their journey. By good luck they all met in +the temple San-i Ko, and related to each other the various hardships +they had undergone. But when they eventually reached the capital +the examination was over, and they were out in the streets without +resources. So they took an oath of brotherhood for life and death. They +pawned some of the few clothes they possessed, and buying some musical +instruments formed themselves into a band of strolling musicians. + +The first bought a drum, the second a seven-stringed guitar, the +third a mandolin, the fourth a clarinet, and the fifth and youngest +composed songs. + +Thus they went through the streets of the capital giving their +concerts, and Fate decreed that Li Shih-min should hear their +melodies. Charmed with the sweet sounds, he asked Hsü Mao-kung +whence came this band of musicians, whose skill was certainly +exceptional. Having made inquiries, the minister related their +experiences to the Emperor. Li Shih-min ordered them to be brought +into his presence, and after hearing them play and sing appointed them +to his private suite, and henceforth they accompanied him wherever +he went. + + +The Emperors Strategy + +The Emperor bore malice toward Chang T'ien-shih, the Master of +the Taoists, because he refused to pay the taxes on his property, +and conceived a plan to bring about his destruction. He caused a +spacious subterranean chamber to be dug under the reception-hall of +his palace. A wire passed through the ceiling to where the Emperor +sat. He could thus at will give the signal for the music to begin +or stop. Having stationed the five musicians in this subterranean +chamber, he summoned the Master of the Taoists to his presence and +invited him to a banquet. During the course of this he pulled the wire, +and a subterranean babel began. + +The Emperor pretended to be terrified, and allowed himself to fall +to the ground. Then, addressing himself to the T'ien-shih, he said: +"I know that you can at will catch the devilish hobgoblins which +molest human beings. You can hear for yourself the infernal row they +make in my palace. I order you under penalty of death to put a stop +to their pranks and to exterminate them." + + +The Musicians are Slain + +Having spoken thus, the Emperor rose and left. The Master of the +Taoists brought his projecting mirror, and began to seek for the +evil spirits. In vain he inspected the palace and its precincts; +he could discover nothing. Fearing that he was lost, he in despair +threw his mirror on the floor of the reception-hall. + +A minute later, sad and pensive, he stooped to pick it up; what was +his joyful surprise when he saw reflected in it the subterranean room +and the musicians! At once he drew five talismans on yellow paper, +burned them, and ordered his celestial general, Chao Kung-ming, to +take his sword and kill the five musicians. The order was promptly +executed, and the T'ien-shih informed the Emperor, who received the +news with ridicule, not believing it to be true. He went to his seat +and pulled the wire, but all remained silent. A second and third time +he gave the signal, but without response. He then ordered his Grand +Officer to ascertain what had happened. The officer found the five +graduates bathed in their blood, and lifeless. + +The Emperor, furious, reproached the Master of the Taoists. "But," +replied the T'ien-shih, "was it not your Majesty who ordered me under +pain of death to exterminate the authors of this pandemonium?" Li +Shih-min could not reply. He dismissed the Master of the Taoists and +ordered the five victims to be buried. + + +The Emperor Tormented + +After the funeral ceremonies, apparitions appeared at night in the +place where they had been killed, and the palace became a babel. The +spirits threw bricks and broke the tiles on the roofs. + +The Emperor ordered his uncomfortable visitors to go to the T'ien-shih +who had murdered them. They obeyed, and, seizing the garments of the +Master of the Taoists, swore not to allow him any rest if he would +not restore them to life. + +To appease them the Taoist said: "I am going to give each of you a +wonderful object. You are then to return and spread epidemics among +wicked people, beginning in the imperial palace and with the Emperor +himself, with the object of forcing him to canonize you." + +One received a fan, another a gourd filled with fire, the third a +metallic ring to encircle people's heads, the fourth a stick made of +wolves' teeth, and the fifth a cup of lustral water. + +The spirit-graduates left full of joy, and made their first experiment +on Li Shih-min. The first gave him feverish chills by waving his +fan, the second burned him with the fire from his gourd, the third +encircled his head with the ring, causing him violent headache, the +fourth struck him with his stick, and the fifth poured out his cup +of lustral water on his head. + +The same night a similar tragedy took place in the palace of the +Empress and the two chief imperial concubines. + +T'ai-po Chin-hsing, however, informed Yü Huang what had happened, +and, touched with compassion, he sent three Immortals with pills and +talismans which cured the Empress and the ladies of the palace. + + +The Graduates Canonized + +Li Shih-min, having also recovered his health, summoned the five +deceased graduates and expressed his regret for the unfortunate issue +of his design against the T'ien-shih. He proceeded: "To the south of +the capital is the temple San-i Ko. I will change its name to Hsiang +Shan Wu Yüeh Shên, 'Fragrant Hill of the Five Mountain Spirits.' On +the twenty-eighth day of the ninth moon betake yourselves to that +temple to receive the seals of your canonization." He conferred upon +them the title of Ti, 'Emperor.' + + +The Ministry of Medicine + +The celestial Ministry of Medicine is composed of three main +divisions comprising: (1) the Ancestral Gods of the Chinese race; +(2) the King of Remedies, Yao Wang; and (3) the Specialists. There +is a separate Ministry of Smallpox. This latter controls and cures +smallpox, and the establishment of a separate celestial Ministry is +significant of the prevalence and importance of the affliction. The +ravages of smallpox in China, indeed, have been terrific: so much so, +that, until recent years, it was considered as natural and inevitable +for a child to have smallpox as for it to cut its teeth. One of the +ceremonial questions addressed by a visitor to the parent of a child +was always _Ch'u la hua'rh mei yu_? "Has he had the smallpox?" and a +child who escaped the scourge was often, if not as a rule, regarded +with disfavour and, curiously enough, as a weakling. Probably the +train of thought in the Chinese mind was that, as it is the fittest +who survive, those who have successfully passed through the process of +"putting out the flowers" have proved their fitness in the struggle +for existence. Nowadays vaccination is general, and the number of +pockmarked faces seen is much smaller than it used to be--in fact, +the pockmarked are now the exception. But, as far as I have been +able to ascertain, the Ministry of Smallpox has not been abolished, +and possibly its members, like those of some more mundane ministries, +continue to draw large salaries for doing little or no work. + + +The Medicine-gods + +The chief gods of medicine are the mythical kings P'an Ku, Fu Hsi, +Shên Nung, and Huang Ti. The first two, being by different writers +regarded as the first progenitor or creator of the Chinese people, +are alternatives, so that Fu Hsi, Shên Nung, and Huang Ti may be said +to be a sort of ancestral triad of medicine-gods, superior to the +actual God or King of Medicine, Yao Wang. Of P'an Ku we have spoken +sufficiently in Chapter III, and with regard to Fu Hsi, also called +T'ien Huang Shih, 'the Celestial Emperor,' the mythical sovereign +and supposed inventor of cooking, musical instruments, the calendar, +hunting, fishing, etc., the chief interest for our present purpose +centres in his discovery of the _pa kua_, or Eight Trigrams. It is on +the strength of these trigrams that Fu Hsi is regarded as the chief +god of medicine, since it is by their mystical power that the Chinese +physicians influence the minds and maladies of their patients. He +is represented as holding in front of him a disk on which the signs +are painted. + + +The Ministry of Exorcism + +The Ministry of Exorcism is a Taoist invention and is composed of seven +chief ministers, whose duty is to expel evil spirits from dwellings +and generally to counteract the annoyances of infernal demons. The +two gods usually referred to in the popular legends are P'an Kuan and +Chung K'uei. The first is really the Guardian of the Living and the +Dead in the Otherworld, Fêng-tu P'an Kuan (Fêng-tu or Fêng-tu Ch'êng +being the region beyond the tomb). He was originally a scholar named +Ts'ui Chio, who became Magistrate of Tz'u Chou, and later Minister +of Ceremonies. After his death he was appointed to the spiritual post +above mentioned. His best-known achievement is his prolongation of the +life of the Emperor T'ai Tsung of the T'ang dynasty by twenty years by +changing _i_, 'one,' into _san_, 'three,' in the life-register kept +by the gods. The term P'an Kuan is, however, more generally used as +the designation of an officer or civil or military attendant upon +a god than of any special individual, and the original P'an Kuan, +'the Decider of Life in Hades,' has been gradually supplanted in +popular favour by Chung K'uei, 'the Protector against Evil Spirits.' + + +The Exorcism of 'Emptiness and Devastation' + +The Emperor Ming Huang of the T'ang dynasty, also known as T'ang +Hsüan Tsung, in the reign-period K'ai Yüan (A.D. 712-742), after an +expedition to Mount Li in Shensi, was attacked by fever. During a +nightmare he saw a small demon fantastically dressed in red trousers, +with a shoe on one foot but none on the other, and a shoe hanging from +his girdle. Having broken through a bamboo gate, he took possession +of an embroidered box and a jade flute, and then began to make a +tour of the palace, sporting and gambolling. The Emperor grew angry +and questioned him. "Your humble servant," replied the little demon, +"is named Hsü Hao, 'Emptiness and Devastation,'" "I have never heard +of such a person," said the Emperor. The demon rejoined, "Hsü means to +desire Emptiness, because in Emptiness one can fly just as one wishes; +Hao, 'Devastation,' changes people's joy to sadness. "The Emperor, +irritated by this flippancy, was about to call his guard, when suddenly +a great devil appeared, wearing a tattered head-covering and a blue +robe, a horn clasp on his belt, and official boots on his feet. He +went up to the sprite, tore out one of his eyes, crushed it up, and ate +it. The Emperor asked the newcomer who he was. "Your humble servant," +he replied, "is Chung K'uei, Physician of Tung-nan Shan in Shensi. In +the reign-period Wu Tê (A.D. 618-627) of the Emperor Kao Tsu of the +T'ang dynasty I was ignominiously rejected and unjustly defrauded +of a first class in the public examinations. Overwhelmed with shame, +I committed suicide on the steps of the imperial palace. The Emperor +ordered me to be buried in a green robe [reserved for members of the +imperial clan], and out of gratitude for that favour I swore to protect +the sovereign in any part of the Empire against the evil machinations +of the demon Hsü Hao." At these words the Emperor awoke and found +that the fever had left him. His Majesty called for Wu Tao-tzu (one +of the most celebrated Chinese artists) to paint the portrait of the +person he had seen in his dream. The work was so well done that the +Emperor recognized it as the actual demon he had seen in his sleep, +and rewarded the artist with a hundred taels of gold. The portrait is +said to have been still in the imperial palace during the Sung dynasty. + +Another version of the legend says that Chung K'uefs essay was +recognized by the examiners as equal to the work of the best authors +of antiquity, but that the Emperor rejected him on account of his +extremely ugly features, whereupon he committed suicide in his +presence, was honoured by the Emperor and accorded a funeral as if +he had been the successful first candidate, and canonized with the +title of Great Spiritual Chaser of Demons for the Whole Empire. + + + +CHAPTER X + +The Goddess of Mercy + + +The Guardian Angel of Buddhism + +As Mary is the guiding spirit of Rome, so is Kuan Yin of the Buddhist +faith. + +According to a beautiful Chinese legend, Kuan Yin. when about to +enter Heaven, heard a cry of anguish rising from the earth beneath +her, and, moved by pity, paused as her feet touched the glorious +threshold. Hence her name 'Kuan (Shih) Yin' (one who notices or hears +the cry, or prayer, of the world). + +Kuan Yin was at one time always represented as a man; but in the +T'ang dynasty and Five Dynasties we find him represented as a woman, +and he has been generally, though not invariably, so represented +since that time. + +In old Buddhism Shâkyamuni was the chief god, and in many temples +he still nominally occupies the seat of honour, but he is completely +eclipsed by the God or Goddess of Mercy. + +"The men love her, the children adore her, and the women chant her +prayers. Whatever the temple may be, there is nearly always a chapel +for Kuan Yin within its precincts; she lives in many homes, and in +many, many hearts she sits enshrined. She is the patron goddess of +mothers, and when we remember the relative value of a son in Chinese +estimation we can appreciate the heartiness of the worship. She +protects in sorrow, and so millions of times the prayer is offered, +'Great mercy, great pity, save from sorrow, save from suffering,' or, +as it is in the books, 'Great mercy, great pity, save from misery, +save from evil, broad, great, efficacious, responsive Kuan Yin Buddha,' +She saves the tempest-tossed sailor, and so has eclipsed the Empress +of Heaven, who, as the female Neptune, is the patroness of seamen; +in drought the mandarins worship the Dragon and the Pearly Emperor, +but if they fail the bronze Goddess of Mercy from the hills brings +rain. Other gods are feared, she is loved; others have black, +scornful faces, her countenance is radiant as gold, and gentle as +the moon-beam; she draws near to the people and the people draw near +to her. Her throne is upon the Isle of Pootoo [P'u T'o], to which +she came floating upon a water-lily. She is the model of Chinese +beauty, and to say a lady or a little girl is a 'Kuan Yin' is the +highest compliment that can be paid to grace and loveliness. She is +fortunate in having three birthdays, the nineteenth of the second, +sixth, and ninth moons." There are many metamorphoses of this goddess. + + +The Buddhist Saviour + +"She is called Kuan Yin because at any cry of misery she 'hears the +voice and removes the sorrow.' Her appellation is 'Taking-away-fear +Buddha,' If in the midst of the fire the name of Kuan Yin is called, +the fire cannot burn; if tossed by mountain billows, call her name, +and shallow waters will be reached. If merchants go across the sea +seeking gold, silver, pearls, and precious stones, and a storm comes +up and threatens to carry the crew to the evil devil's kingdom, +if one on board calls on the name of Kuan Yin, the ship will be +saved. If one goes into a conflict and calls on the name of Kuan +Yin, the sword and spear of the enemy fall harmless. If the three +thousand great kingdoms are visited by demons, call on her name, +and these demons cannot with an evil eye look on a man. If, within, +you have evil thoughts, only call on Kuan Yin, and your heart will +be purified, Anger and wrath may be dispelled by calling on the name +of Kuan Yin. A lunatic who prays to Kuan Yin will become sane. Kuan +Yin gives sons to mothers, and if the mother asks for a daughter she +will be beautiful. Two men--one chanting the names of the 6,200,000 +Buddhas, in number like the sands of the Ganges, and the other simply +calling on Kuan Yin--have equal merit. Kuan Yin may take the form of +a Buddha, a prince, a priest, a nun, a scholar, any form or shape, +go to any kingdom, and preach the law throughout the earth." + + +Miao Chuang desires an Heir + +In the twenty-first year of the reign of Ta Hao, the Great Great +One, of the Golden Heavenly Dynasty, a man named P'o Chia, whose +first name was Lo Yü, an enterprising kinglet of Hsi Yii, seized the +throne for twenty years, after carrying on a war for a space of three +years. His kingdom was known as Hsing Lin, and the title of his reign +as Miao Chuang. + +The kingdom of Hsing Lin was, so says the Chinese writer, situated +between India on the west, the kingdom of T'ien Cheng on the south, +and the kingdom of Siam on the north, and was 3000 _li_ in length. The +boundaries differ according to different authors. Of this kingdom +the two pillars of State were the Grand Minister Chao Chen and the +General Ch'u Chieh. The Queen Pao Tê, whose maiden name was Po Ya, and +the King Miao Chuang had lived nearly half a century without having +any male issue to succeed to the throne. This was a source of great +grief to them. Po Ya suggested to the King that the God of Hua Shan, +the sacred mountain in the west, had the reputation of being always +willing to help; and that if he prayed to him and asked his pardon +for having shed so much blood during the wars which preceded his +accession to the throne he might obtain an heir. + +Welcoming this suggestion, the King sent for Chao Chên and ordered +him to dispatch to the temple of Hua Shan the two Chief Ministers of +Ceremonies, Hsi Hêng-nan and Chih Tu, with instructions to request +fifty Buddhist and Taoist priests to pray for seven days and seven +nights in order that the King might obtain a son. When that period +was over, the King and Queen would go in person to offer sacrifices +in the temple. + + +Prayers to the Gods + +The envoys took with them many rare and valuable presents, and for +seven days and seven nights the temple resounded with the sound of +drums, bells, and all kinds of instruments, intermingled with the +voices of the praying priests. On their arrival the King and Queen +offered sacrifices to the god of the sacred mountain. + +But the God of Hua Shan knew that the King had been deprived of a +male heir as a punishment for the bloody hecatombs during his three +years' war. The priests, however, interceded for him, urging that the +King had come in person to offer the sacrifices, wherefore the God +could not altogether reject his prayer. So he ordered Ch'ien-li Yen, +'Thousand-_li_ Eye,' and Shun-fêng Erh, 'Favourable-wind Ear,' [29] +to go quickly and ascertain if there were not some worthy person who +was on the point of being reincarnated into this world. + +The two messengers shortly returned, and stated that in India, in the +Chiu Ling Mountains, in the village of Chih-shu Yüan, there lived a +good man named Shih Ch'in-ch'ang, whose ancestors for three generations +had observed all the ascetic rules of the Buddhists. This man was the +father of three children, the eldest Shih Wên, the second Shih Chin, +and the third Shih Shan, all worthy followers of the great Buddha. + + +The Murder of the Tais + +Wang Chê, a brigand chief, and thirty of his followers, finding +themselves pursued and harassed by the Indian soldiers, without +provisions or shelter, dying of hunger, went to Shih Wên and begged for +something to eat. Knowing that they were evildoers, Shih Wên and his +two brothers refused to give them anything; if they starved, they said, +the peasants would no longer suffer from their depredations. Thereupon +the brigands decided that it was a case of life for life, and broke +into the house of a rich family of the name of Tai, burning their +home, killing a hundred men, women, and children, and carrying off +everything they possessed. + +The local _t'u-ti_ at once made a report to Yü Huang. + +"This Shih family," replied the god, "for three generations has +given itself up to good works, and certainly the brigands were not +deserving of any pity. However, it is impossible to deny that the +three brothers Shih, in refusing them food, morally compelled them to +loot the Tai family's house, putting all to the sword or flames. Is +not this the same as if they had committed the crime themselves? Let +them be arrested and put in chains in the celestial prison, and let +them never see the light of the sun again." + +"Since," said the messenger to the God of Hua Shan, "your gratitude +toward Miao Chuang compels you to grant him an heir, why not ask Yü +Huang to pardon their crime and reincarnate them in the womb of the +Queen Po Ya, so that they may begin a new terrestrial existence and +give themselves up to good works?" As a result, the God of Hua Shan +called the Spirit of the Wind and gave him a message for Yü Huang. + + +A Message for Yü Huang + +The message was as follows: "King Miao Chuang has offered sacrifice +to me and begged me to grant him an heir. But since by his wars he +has caused the deaths of a large number of human beings, he does not +deserve to have his request granted. Now these three brothers Shih +have offended your Majesty by constraining the brigand Wang Che to be +guilty of murder and robbery. I pray you to take into account their +past good works and pardon their crime, giving them an opportunity +of expiating it by causing them all three to be reborn, but of the +female sex, in the womb of Po Ya the Queen. [30] In this way they +will be able to atone for their crime and save many souls." Yü Huang +was pleased to comply, and he ordered the Spirit of the North Pole +to release the three captives and take their souls to the palace of +King Miao Chuang, where in three years' time they would be changed +into females in the womb of Queen Po Ya. + + +Birth of the Three Daughters + +The King, who was anxiously expecting day by day the birth of an heir, +was informed one morning that a daughter had been born to him. She was +named Miao Ch'ing. A year went by, and another daughter was born. This +one was named Miao Yin. When, at the end of the third year, another +daughter was born, the King, beside himself with rage, called his +Grand Minister Chao Chên and, all disconsolate, said to him, "I am +past fifty, and have no male child to succeed me on the throne. My +dynasty will therefore become extinct. Of what use have been all my +labours and all my victories?" Chao Chen tried to console him, saying, +"Heaven has granted you three daughters: no human power can change this +divine decree. When these princesses have grown up, we will choose +three sons-in-law for your Majesty, and you can elect your successor +from among them. Who will dare to dispute his right to the throne?" + +The King named the third daughter Miao Shan. She became noted for her +modesty and many other good qualities, and scrupulously observed all +the tenets of the Buddhist doctrines. Virtuous living seemed, indeed, +to be to her a second nature. + + +Miao Shan's Ambition + +One day, when the three sisters were playing in the palace garden of +Perpetual Spring, Miao Shan, with a serious mien, said to her sisters, +"Riches and glory are like the rain in spring or the morning dew; +a little while, and all is gone. Kings and emperors think to enjoy to +the end the good fortune which places them in a rank apart from other +human beings; but sickness lays them low in their coffins, and all +is over. Where are now all those powerful dynasties which have laid +down the law to the world? As for me, I desire nothing more than a +peaceful retreat on a lone mountain, there to attempt the attainment +of perfection. If some day I can reach a high degree of goodness, +then, borne on the clouds of Heaven, I will travel throughout the +universe, passing in the twinkling of an eye from east to west. I +will rescue my father and mother, and bring them to Heaven; I will +save the miserable and afflicted on earth; I will convert the spirits +which do evil, and cause them to do good. That is my only ambition." + + +Her Sisters Marry + +No sooner had she finished speaking than a lady of the Court came to +announce that the King had found sons-in-law to his liking for his two +elder daughters. The wedding-feast was to be the very next day. "Be +quick," she added, "and prepare your presents, your dresses, and so +forth, for the King's order is imperative." The husband chosen for Miao +Ch'ing was a First Academician named Chao K'uei. His personal name was +Tê Ta, and he was the son of a celebrated minister of the reigning +dynasty. Miao Yin's husband-elect was a military officer named Ho +Fêng, whose personal name was Ch'ao Yang. He had passed first in the +examination for the Military Doctorate. The marriage ceremonies were +of a magnificent character. Festivity followed festivity; the newly-wed +were duly installed in their palaces, and general happiness prevailed. + + +Miao Shan's Renunciation + +There now remained only Miao Shan. The King and Queen wished to find +for her a man famous for knowledge and virtue, capable of ruling the +kingdom, and worthy of being the successor to the throne. So the +King called her and explained to her all his plans regarding her, +and how all his hopes rested on her. + +"It is a crime," she replied, "for me not to comply with my father's +wishes; but you must pardon me if my ideas differ from yours." + +"Tell me what your ideas are," said the King. + +"I do not wish to marry," she rejoined. "I wish to attain to perfection +and to Buddhahood. Then I promise that I will not be ungrateful +to you." + +"Wretch of a daughter," cried the King in anger, "you think you can +teach me, the head of the State and ruler of so great a people! Has +anyone ever known a daughter of a king become a nun? Can a good woman +be found in that class? Put aside all these mad ideas of a nunnery, +and tell me at once if you will marry a First Academician or a Military +First Graduate." + +"Who is there," answered the girl, "who does not love the royal +dignity?--what person who does not aspire to the happiness of +marriage? However, I wish to become a nun. With respect to the riches +and glory of this world, my heart is as cold as a dead cinder, and +I feel a keen desire to make it ever purer and purer." + +The King rose in fury, and wished to cast her out from his +presence. Miao Shan, knowing she could not openly disobey his orders, +took another course. "If you absolutely insist upon my marrying," +she said, "I will consent; only I must marry a physician." + +"A physician!" growled the King. "Are men of good family and talents +wanting in my kingdom? What an absurd idea, to want to marry a +physician!" + +"My wish is," said Miao Shan, "to heal humanity of all its ills; of +cold, heat, lust, old age, and all infirmities. I wish to equalize all +classes, putting rich and poor on the same footing, to have community +of goods, without distinction of persons. If you will grant me my wish, +I can still in this way become a Buddha, a Saviour of Mankind. There +is no necessity to call in the diviners to choose an auspicious day. I +am ready to be married now." + + +She is Exiled to the Garden + +At these words the King was mad with rage. "Wicked imbecile!" he +cried, "what diabolical suggestions are these that you dare to make +in my presence?" + +Without further ado he called Ho T'ao, who on that day was officer +of the palace guard. When he had arrived and kneeled to receive the +King's commands, the latter said: "This wicked nun dishonours me. Take +from her her Court robes, and drive her from my presence. Take her +to the Queen's garden, and let her perish there of cold: that will +be one care less for my troubled heart." + +Miao Shan fell on her face and thanked the King, and then went with +the officer to the Queen's garden, where she began to lead her retired +hermit life, with the moon for companion and the wind for friend, +content to see all obstacles overthrown on her way to Nirvana, the +highest state of spiritual bliss, and glad to exchange the pleasures +of the palace for the sweetness of solitude. + + +The Nunnery of the White Bird + +After futile attempts to dissuade her from her purpose by the Court +ladies, her parents, and sisters, the King and Queen next deputed +Miao Hung and Ts'ui Hung to make a last attempt to bring their +misguided daughter to her senses. Miao Shan, annoyed at this renewed +solicitation, in a haughty manner ordered them never again to come and +torment her with their silly prattle. "I have found out," she added, +"that there is a well-known temple at Ju Chou in Lung-shu Hsien. This +Buddhist temple is known as the Nunnery of the White Bird, Po-ch'iao +Ch'an-ssu. In it five hundred nuns give themselves up to the study +of the true doctrine and the way of perfection. Go then and ask the +Queen on my behalf to obtain the King's permission for me to retire +thither. If you can procure me this favour, I will not fail to reward +you later." + +Miao Chuang summoned the messengers and inquired the result of their +efforts. "She is more unapproachable than ever," they replied; "she has +even ordered us to ask the Queen to obtain your Majesty's permission +to retire to the Nunnery of the White Bird in Lung-shu Hsien." + +The King gave his permission, but sent strict orders to the nunnery, +instructing the nuns to do all in their power to dissuade the Princess +when she arrived from carrying out her intention to remain. + + +Her Reception at the Nunnery + +This Nunnery of the White Bird had been built by Huang Ti, and +the five hundred nuns who lived in it had as Superior a lady named +I Yu, who was remarkable for her virtue. On receipt of the royal +mandate, she had summoned Chêng Chêng-ch'ang, the choir-mistress, +and informed her that Princess Miao Shan, owing to a disagreement +with her father, would shortly arrive at the temple. She requested +her to receive the visitor courteously, but at the same time to do +all she could to dissuade her from adopting the life of a nun. Having +given these instructions, the Superior, accompanied by two novices, +went to meet Miao Shan at the gate of the temple. On her arrival +they saluted her. The Princess returned the salute, but said: "I +have just left the world in order to place myself under your orders: +why do you come and salute me on my arrival? I beg you to be so good +as to take me into the temple, in order that I may pay my respects to +the Buddha." I Yu led her into the principal hall, and instructed the +nuns to light incense-sticks, ring the bells, and beat the drums. The +visit to the temple finished, she went into the preaching-hall, where +she greeted her instructresses. The latter obeyed the King's command +and endeavoured to persuade the Princess to return to her home, but, +as none of their arguments had any effect, it was at length decided to +give her a trial, and to put her in charge of the kitchen, where she +could prepare the food for the nunnery, and generally be at the service +of all. If she did not give satisfaction they could dismiss her. + + +She makes Offering to the Buddha + +Miao Shan joyfully agreed, and proceeded to make her humble submission +to the Buddha. She knelt before Ju Lai, and made offering to him, +praying as follows: "Great Buddha, full of goodness and mercy, your +humble servant wishes to leave the world. Grant that I may never +yield to the temptations which will be sent to try my faith." Miao +Shan further promised to observe all the regulations of the nunnery +and to obey the superiors. + + +Spiritual Aid + +This generous self-sacrifice touched the heart of Yü Huang, the Master +of Heaven, who summoned the Spirit of the North Star and instructed +him as follows: "Miao Shan, the third daughter of King Miao Chuang, +has renounced the world in order to devote herself to the attainment of +perfection. Her father has consigned her to the Nunnery of the White +Bird. She has undertaken without grumbling the burden of all the work +in the nunnery. If she is left without help, who is there who will be +willing to adopt the virtuous life? Do you go quickly and order the +Three Agents, the Gods of the Five Sacred Peaks, the Eight Ministers +of the Heavenly Dragon, Ch'ieh Lan, and the _t'u-ti_ to send her help +at once. Tell the Sea-dragon to dig her a well near the kitchen, +a tiger to bring her firewood, birds to collect vegetables for the +inmates of the nunnery, and all the spirits of Heaven to help her in +her duties, that she may give herself up without disturbance to the +pursuit of perfection. See that my commands are promptly obeyed." The +Spirit of the North Star complied without delay. + + +The Nunnery on Fire + +Seeing all these gods arrive to help the novice, the Superior, I Yu, +held consultation with the choir-mistress, saying: "We assigned to +the Princess the burdensome work of the kitchen because she refused to +return to the world; but since she has entered on her duties the gods +of the eight caves of Heaven have come to offer her fruit, Ch'ieh Lan +sweeps the kitchen, the dragon has dug a well, the God of the Hearth +and the tiger bring her fuel, birds collect vegetables for her, the +nunnery bell every evening at dusk booms of itself, as if struck by +some mysterious hand. Obviously miracles are being performed. Hasten +and fetch the King, and beg his Majesty to recall his daughter." + +Chêng Chêng-ch'ang started on her way, and, on arrival, informed +the King of all that had taken place. The King called Hu Pi-li, +the chief of the guard, and ordered him to go to the sub-prefecture +of Lung-shu Hsien at the head of an army corps of 5000 infantry and +cavalry. He was to surround the Nunnery of the White Bird and burn it +to the ground, together with the nuns. When he reached the place the +commander surrounded the nunnery with his soldiers, and set fire to +it. The five hundred doomed nuns invoked the aid of Heaven and earth, +and then, addressing Miao Shan, said: "It is you who have brought +upon us this terrible disaster." + +"It is true," said Miao Shan. "I alone am the cause of your +destruction." She then knelt down and prayed to Heaven: "Great +Sovereign of the Universe, your servant is the daughter of King Miao +Chuang; you are the grandson of King Lun. Will you not rescue your +younger sister? You have left your palace; I also have left mine. You +in former times betook yourself to the snowy mountains to attain +perfection; I came here with the same object. Will you not save us +from this fiery destruction?" + +Her prayer ended, Miao Shan took a bamboo hairpin from her hair, +pricked the roof of her mouth with it, and spat the flowing blood +toward Heaven. Immediately great clouds gathered in all parts of the +sky and sent down inundating showers, which put out the fire that +threatened the nunnery. The nuns threw themselves on their knees and +thanked her effusively for having saved their lives. + +Hu Pi-li retired, and went in haste to inform the King of this +extraordinary occurrence. The King, enraged, ordered him to go back +at once, bring his daughter in chains, and behead her on the spot. + + +The Execution of Miao Shan + +But the Queen, who had heard of this new plot, begged the King to grant +her daughter a last chance. "If you will give permission," she said, +"I will have a magnificent pavilion built at the side of the road +where Miao Shan will pass in chains on the way to her execution, and +will go there with our two other daughters and our sons-in-law. As +she passes we will have music, songs, feasting, everything likely +to impress her and make her contrast our luxurious life with her +miserable plight. This will surely bring her to repentance." + +"I agree," said the King, "to counter-order her execution until your +preparations are complete." Nevertheless, when the time came, Miao +Shan showed nothing but disdain for all this worldly show, and to all +advances replied only: "I love not these pompous vanities; I swear +that I prefer death to the so-called joys of this world." She was then +led to the place of execution. All the Court was present. Sacrifices +were made to her as to one already dead. A Grand Minister pronounced +the sacrificial oration. + +In the midst of all this the Queen appeared, and ordered the officials +to return to their posts, that she might once more exhort her daughter +to repent. But Miao Shan only listened in silence with downcast eyes. + +The King felt great repugnance to shedding his daughter's blood, and +ordered her to be imprisoned in the palace, in order that he might make +a last effort to save her. "I am the King," he said; "my orders cannot +be lightly set aside. Disobedience to them involves punishment, and +in spite of my paternal love for you, if you persist in your present +attitude, you will be executed to-morrow in front of the palace gate." + +The _t'u-ti_, hearing the King's verdict, went with all speed to Yü +Huang, and reported to him the sentence which had been pronounced +against Miao Shan. Yü Huang exclaimed: "Save Buddha, there is none in +the west so noble as this Princess. To-morrow, at the appointed hour, +go to the scene of execution, break the swords, and splinter the lances +they will use to kill her. See that she suffers no pain. At the moment +of her death transform yourself into a tiger, and bring her body to +the pine-wood. Having deposited it in a safe place, put a magic pill +in her mouth to arrest decay. Her triumphant soul on its return from +the lower regions must find it in a perfect state of preservation in +order to be able to re-enter it and animate it afresh. After that, +she must betake herself to Hsiang Shan on P'u T'o Island, where she +will reach the highest state of perfection." + +On the day appointed, Commander Hu Pi-li led the condemned Princess +to the place of execution. A body of troops had been stationed +there to maintain order. The _t'u-ti_ was in attendance at the +palace gates. Miao Shan was radiant with joy. "To-day," she said, +"I leave the world for a better life. Hasten to take my life, but +beware of mutilating my body." + +The King's warrant arrived, and suddenly the sky became overcast and +darkness fell upon the earth. A bright light surrounded Miao Shan, +and when the sword of the executioner fell upon the neck of the +victim it was broken in two. Then they thrust at her with a spear, +but the weapon fell to pieces. After that the King ordered that she be +strangled with a silken cord. A few moments later a tiger leapt into +the execution ground, dispersed the executioners, put the inanimate +body of Miao Shan on his back, and disappeared into the pine-forest. Hu +Pi-li rushed to the palace, recounted to the King full details of +all that had occurred, and received a reward of two ingots of gold. + + +Miao Shan visits the Infernal Regions + +Meantime, Miao Shan's soul, which remained unhurt, was borne on +a cloud; when, waking as from a dream, she lifted her head and +looked round, she could not see her body. "My father has just had +me strangled," she sighed. "How is it that I find myself in this +place? Here are neither mountains, nor trees, nor vegetation; no sun, +moon, nor stars; no habitation, no sound, no cackling of a fowl nor +barking of a dog. How can I live in this desolate region?" + +Suddenly a young man dressed in blue, shining with a brilliant light, +and carrying a large banner, appeared and said to her: "By order of +Yen Wang, the King of the Hells, I come to take you to the eighteen +infernal regions." + +"What is this cursed place where I am now?" asked Miao Shan. + +"This is the lower world, Hell," he replied. "Your refusal to marry, +and the magnanimity with which you chose an ignominious death rather +than break your resolutions, deserve the recognition of Yü Huang, +and the ten gods of the lower regions, impressed and pleased at your +eminent virtue, have sent me to you. Fear nothing and follow me." + +Thus Miao Shan began her visit to all the infernal regions. The Gods +of the Ten Hells came to congratulate her. + +"Who am I," asked Miao Shan, "that you should deign to take the +trouble to show me such respect?" + +"We have heard," they replied, "that when you recite your prayers +all evil disappears as if by magic. We should like to hear you pray." + +"I consent," replied Miao Shan, "on condition that all the condemned +ones in the ten infernal regions be released from their chains in +order to listen to me." + +At the appointed time the condemned were led in by Niu T'ou ('Ox-head') +and Ma Mien ('Horse-face'), the two chief constables of Hell, and +Miao Shan began her prayers. No sooner had she finished than Hell was +suddenly transformed into a paradise of joy, and the instruments of +torture into lotus-flowers. + + +Hell a Paradise + +P'an Kuan, the keeper of the Register of the Living and the Dead, +presented a memorial to Yen Wang stating that since Miao Shan's +arrival there was no more pain in Hell; and all the condemned were +beside themselves with happiness. "Since it has always been decreed," +he added, "that, in justice, there must be both a Heaven and a Hell, +if you do not send this saint back to earth, there will no longer be +any Hell, but only a Heaven." + +"Since that is so," said Yen Wang, "let forty-eight flag-bearers +escort her across the Styx Bridge [Nai-ho Ch'iao], that she may be +taken to the pine-forest to reenter her body, and resume her life in +the upper world." + +The King of the Hells having paid his respects to her, the youth +in blue conducted her soul back to her body, which she found lying +under a pine-tree. Having reentered it, Miao Shan found herself alive +again. A bitter sigh escaped from her lips. "I remember," she said, +"all that I saw and heard in Hell. I sigh for the moment which will +find me free of all impediments, and yet my soul has re-entered my +body. Here, without any lonely mountain on which to give myself up +to the pursuit of perfection, what will become of me?" Great tears +welled from her eyes. + + +A Test of Virtue + +Just then Ju Lai Buddha appeared. "Why have you come to this place?" he +asked. Miao Shan explained why the King had put her to death, and +how after her descent into Hell her soul had re-entered her body. "I +greatly pity your misfortune," Ju Lai said, "but there is no one to +help you. I also am alone. Why should we not marry? We could build +ourselves a hut, and pass our days in peace. What say you?" "Sir," +she replied, "you must not make impossible suggestions. I died and +came to life again. How can you speak so lightly? Do me the pleasure +of withdrawing from my presence." + +"Well," said the visitor, "he to whom you are speaking is no other +than the Buddha of the West. I came to test your virtue. This place +is not suitable for your devotional exercises; I invite you to come +to Hsiang Shan." + +Miao Shan threw herself on her knees and said: "My bodily eyes deceived +me. I never thought that your Majesty would come to a place like +this. Pardon my seeming want of respect. Where is this Hsiang Shan?" + +"Hsiang Shan is a very old monastery," Ju Lai replied, "built in +the earliest historical times. It is inhabited by Immortals. It is +situated in the sea, on P'u T'o Island, a dependency of the kingdom +of Annam. There you will be able to reach the highest perfection." + +"How far off is this island?" Miao Shan asked. "More than three +thousand _li_," Ju Lai replied. "I fear," she said, "I could not bear +the fatigue of so long a journey." "Calm yourself," he rejoined. "I +have brought with me a magic peach, of a kind not to be found in any +earthly orchard. Once you have eaten it, you will experience neither +hunger nor thirst; old age and death will have no power over you: +you will live for ever." + +Miao Shan ate the magic peach, took leave of Ju Lai, and started +on the way to Hsiang Shan. From the clouds the Spirit of the North +Star saw her wending her way painfully toward P'u T'o. He called the +Guardian of the Soil of Hsiang Shan and said to him: "Miao Shan is +on her way to your country; the way is long and difficult. Do you +take the form of a tiger, and carry her to her journey's end." + +The _t'u-ti_ transformed himself into a tiger and stationed himself +in the middle of the road along which Miao Shan must pass, giving +vent to ferocious roars. + +"I am a poor girl devoid of filial piety," said Miao Shan when she +came up. "I have disobeyed my father's commands; devour me, and make +an end of me." + +The tiger then spoke, saying: "I am not a real tiger, but the Guardian +of the Soil of Hsiang Shan. I have received instructions to carry +you there. Get on my back." + +"Since you have received these instructions," said the girl, "I will +obey, and when I have attained to perfection I will not forget your +kindness." + +The tiger went off like a flash of lightning, and in the twinkling +of an eye Miao Shan found herself at the foot of the rocky slopes of +P'u T'o Island. + + + +Miao Shan attains to Perfection + +After nine years in this retreat Miao Shan had reached the acme +of perfection. Ti-tsang Wang then came to Hsiang Shan, and was so +astonished at her virtue that he inquired of the local _t'u-ti_ as to +what had brought about this wonderful result. "With the exception of Ju +Lai, in all the west no one equals her in dignity and perfection. She +is the Queen of the three thousand P'u-sa's and of all the beings on +earth who have skin and blood. We regard her as our sovereign in all +things. Therefore, on the nineteenth day of the eleventh moon we will +enthrone her, that the whole world may profit by her beneficence." + +The _t'u-ti_ sent out his invitations for the ceremony. The Dragon-king +of the Western Sea, the Gods of the Five Sacred Mountains, the +Emperor-saints to the number of one hundred and twenty, the thirty-six +officials of the Ministry of Time, the celestial functionaries in +charge of wind, rain, thunder, and lightning, the Three Causes, the +Five Saints, the Eight Immortals, the Ten Kings of the Hells--all +were present on the appointed day. Miao Shan took her seat on the +lotus-throne, and the assembled gods proclaimed her sovereign of +Heaven and earth, and a Buddha. Moreover, they decided that it was +not meet that she should remain alone at Hsiang Shan; so they begged +her to choose a worthy young man and a virtuous damsel to serve her +in the temple. + +The _t'u-ti_ was entrusted with the task of finding them. While making +search, he met a young priest named Shan Ts'ai. After the death of +his parents he had become a hermit on Ta-hua Shan, and was still a +novice in the science of perfection. + +Miao Shan ordered him to be brought to her. "Who are you?" she asked. + +"I am a poor orphan priest of no merit," he replied. "From my earliest +youth I have led the life of a hermit. I have been told that your +power is equalled only by your goodness, so I have ventured to come +to pray you to show me how to attain to perfection." + +"My only fear," replied Miao Shan, "is that your desire for perfection +may not be sincere." + +"I have now no parents," the priest continued, "and I have come more +than a thousand _li_ to find you. How can I be wanting in sincerity?" + +"What special degree of ability have you attained during your course +of perfection?" asked Miao Shan. + +"I have no skill," replied Shan Ts'ai, "but I rely for everything +on your great pity, and under your guidance I hope to reach the +required ability." + +"Very well," said Miao Shan, "take up your station on the top of +yonder peak, and wait till I find a means of transporting you." + + +A Ruse + +Miao Shan called the _t'u-ti_ and bade him go and beg all the Immortals +to disguise themselves as pirates and to besiege the mountain, waving +torches, and threatening with swords and spears to kill her. "Then +I will seek refuge on the summit, and thence leap over the precipice +to prove Shan Ts'ai's fidelity and affection." + +A minute later a horde of brigands of ferocious aspect rushed up +to the temple of Hsiang Shan. Miao Shan cried for help, rushed +up the steep incline, missed her footing, and rolled down into the +ravine. Shan Ts'ai, seeing her fall into the abyss, without hesitation +flung himself after her in order to rescue her. When he reached her, +he asked: "What have you to fear from the robbers? You have nothing +for them to steal; why throw yourself over the precipice, exposing +yourself to certain death?" + +Miao Shan saw that he was weeping, and wept too. "I must comply with +the wish of Heaven," she said. + + +The Transformation of Shan Ts'ai + +Shan Ts'ai, inconsolable, prayed Heaven and earth to save his +protectress. Miao Shan said to him: "You should not have risked +your life by throwing yourself over the precipice, I have not yet +transformed you. But you did a brave thing, and I know that you have +a good heart. Now, look down there." "Oh," said he, "if I mistake +not, that is a corpse." "Yes," she replied, "that is your former +body. Now you are transformed you can rise at will and fly in the +air." Shan Ts'ai bowed low to thank his benefactress, who said to him: +"Henceforth you must say your prayers by my side, and not leave me +for a single day." + + +'Brother and Sister' + +With her spiritual sight Miao Shan perceived at the bottom of the +Southern Sea the third son of Lung Wang, who, in carrying out his +father's orders, was cleaving the waves in the form of a carp. While +doing so, he was caught in a fisherman's net, taken to the market +at Yüeh Chou, and offered for sale. Miao Shan at once sent her +faithful Shan Ts'ai, in the guise of a servant, to buy him, giving +him a thousand cash to purchase the fish, which he was to take to +the foot of the rocks at P'u T'o and set free in the sea. The son +of Lung Wang heartily thanked his deliverer, and on his return to +the palace related to his father what had occurred. The King said: +"As a reward, make her a present of a luminous pearl, so that she +may recite her prayers by its light at night-time." + +Lung Nü, the daughter of Lung Wang's third son, obtained her +grandfather's permission to take the gift to Miao Shan and beg that +she might be allowed to study the doctrine of the sages under her +guidance. After having proved her sincerity, she was accepted as a +pupil. Shan Ts'ai called her his sister, and Lung Nü reciprocated +by calling him her dear brother. Both lived as brother and sister by +Miao Shan's side. + + +The King's Punishment + +After King Miao Chuang had burned the Nunnery of the White Bird and +killed his daughter, Ch'ieh Lan Buddha presented a petition to Yü Huang +praying that the crime be not allowed to go unpunished. Yü Huang, +justly irritated, ordered P'an Kuan to consult the Register of the +Living and the Dead to see how long this homicidal King had yet to +live. P'an Kuan turned over the pages of his register, and saw that +according to the divine ordinances the King's reign on the throne of +Hsing Lin should last for twenty years, but that this period had not +yet expired. [31] "That which has been decreed is immutable," said +Yü Huang, "but I will punish him by sending him illness." He called +the God of Epidemics, and ordered him to afflict the King's body with +ulcers, of a kind which could not be healed except by remedies to be +given him by his daughter Miao Shan. + +The order was promptly executed, and the King could get no rest by day +or by night. His two daughters and their husbands spent their time in +feasting while he tossed about in agony on his sick-bed. In vain the +most famous physicians were called in; the malady only grew worse, and +despair took hold of the patient. He then caused a proclamation to be +made that he would grant the succession to the throne to any person who +would provide him with an effectual remedy to restore him to health. + + +The Disguised Priest-doctor + +Miao Shan had learnt by revelation at Hsiang Shan all that was taking +place at the palace. She assumed the form of a priest-doctor, clothed +herself in a priest's gown, with the regulation headdress and straw +shoes, and attached to her girdle a gourd containing pills and other +medicines. In this apparel she went straight to the palace gate, +read the royal edict posted there, and tore it down. Some members of +the palace guard seized her, and inquired angrily: "Who are you that +you should dare to tear down the royal proclamation?" + +"I, a poor priest, am also a doctor," she replied. "I read the edict +posted on the palace gates. The King is inquiring for a doctor who +can heal him. I am a doctor of an old cultured family, and propose +to restore him to health." + +"If you are of a cultured family, why did you become a priest?" they +asked. "Would it not have been better to gain your living honestly +in practising your art than to shave your head and go loafing about +the world? Besides, all the highest physicians have tried in vain to +cure the King; do you imagine that you will be more skilful than all +the aged practitioners?" + +"Set your minds at ease," she replied. "I have received from my +ancestors the most efficacious remedies, and I guarantee that I +shall restore the King to health," The palace guard then consented +to transmit her petition to the Queen, who informed the King, and in +the end the pretended priest was admitted. Having reached the royal +bed-chamber, he sat still awhile in order to calm himself before +feeling the pulse, and to have complete control of all his faculties +while examining the King. When he felt quite sure of himself, he +approached the King's bed, took the King's hand, felt his pulse, +carefully diagnosed the nature of the illness, and assured himself +that it was easily curable. + + +Strange Medicine + +One serious difficulty, however, presented itself, and that was that +the right medicine was almost impossible to procure. The King showed +his displeasure by saying: "For every illness there is a medical +prescription, and for every prescription a specific medicine; how +can you say that the diagnosis is easy, but that there is no remedy?" + +"Your Majesty," replied the priest, "the remedy for your illness is +not to be found in any pharmacy, and no one would agree to sell it." + +The King became angry, believed that he was being imposed upon, +and ordered those about him to drive away the priest, who left smiling. + +The following night the King saw in a dream an old man who said to +him: "This priest alone can cure your illness, and if you ask him he +himself will give you the right remedy." + +The King awoke as soon as these words had been uttered, and begged +the Queen to recall the priest. When the latter had returned, the +King related his dream, and begged the priest to procure for him the +remedy required. "What, after all, is this remedy that I must have +in order to be cured?" he asked. + +"There must be the hand and eye of a living person, from which to +compound the ointment which alone can save you," answered the priest. + +The King called out in indignation: "This priest is fooling me! Who +would ever give his hand or his eye? Even if anyone would, I could +never have the heart to make use of them." + +"Nevertheless," said the priest, "there is no other effective remedy." + +"Then where can I procure this remedy?" asked the King. + +"Your Majesty must send your ministers, who must observe the Buddhist +rules of abstinence, to Hsiang Shan, where they will be given what +is required." + +"Where is Hsiang Shan, and how far from here?" + +"About three thousand or more _li_, but I myself will indicate the +route to be followed; in a very short time they will return." + +The King, who was suffering terribly, was more contented when he +heard that the journey could be rapidly accomplished. He called his +two ministers, Chao Chên and Liu Ch'in, and instructed them to lose +no time in starting for Hsiang Shan and to observe scrupulously the +Buddhist rules of abstinence. He ordered the Minister of Ceremonies +to detain the priest in the palace until their return. + + +A Conspiracy that Failed + +The two sons-in-law of the King, Ho Fêng and Chao K'uei, who had +already made secret preparations to succeed to the throne as soon as +the King should breathe his last, learned with no little surprise +that the priest had hopes of curing the King's illness, and that +he was waiting in the palace until the saving remedy was brought +to him. Fearing that they might be disappointed in their ambition, +and that after his recovery the King, faithful to his promise, +would give the crown to the priest, they entered into a conspiracy +with an unscrupulous courtier named Ho Li. They were obliged to act +quickly, because the ministers were travelling by forced marches, +and would soon be back. That same night Ho Li was to give to the +King a poisoned drink, composed, he would say, by the priest with +the object of assuaging the King's pain until the return of his +two ministers. Shortly after, an assassin, Su Ta, was to murder the +priest. Thus at one stroke both the King and the priest would meet +their death, and the kingdom would pass to the King's two sons-in-law. + +Miao Shan had returned to Hsiang Shan, leaving in the palace the bodily +form of the priest. She saw the two traitors Ho Fêng and Chao K'uei +preparing the poison, and was aware of their wicked intentions. Calling +the spirit Yu I, who was on duty that day, she told him to fly to +the palace and change into a harmless soup the poison about to be +administered to the King and to bind the assassin hand and foot. + +At midnight Ho Li, carrying in his hand the poisoned drink, knocked +at the door of the royal apartment, and said to the Queen that the +priest had prepared a soothing potion while awaiting the return of +the ministers. "I come," he said, "to offer it to his Majesty." The +Queen took the bowl in her hands and was about to give it to the King, +when Yu I arrived unannounced. Quick as thought he snatched the bowl +from the Queen and poured the contents on the ground; at the same +moment he knocked over those present in the room, so that they all +rolled on the floor. + +At the time this was happening the assassin Su Ta entered the priest's +room, and struck him with his sword. Instantly the assassin, without +knowing how, found himself enwrapped in the priest's robe and thrown +to the ground. He struggled and tried to free himself, but found +that his hands had been rendered useless by some mysterious power, +and that flight was impossible. The spirit Yu I, having fulfilled the +mission entrusted to him, now returned to Hsiang Shan and reported +to Miao Shan. + + +A Confession and its Results + +Next morning, the two sons-in-law of the King heard of the turn things +had taken during the night. The whole palace was in a state of the +greatest confusion. + +When he was informed that the priest had been killed, the King called +Ch'u Ting-lieh and ordered him to have the murderer arrested. Su Ta +was put to the torture and confessed all that he knew. Together with +Ho Li he was condemned to be cut into a thousand pieces. + +The two sons-in-law were seized and ordered to instant execution, +and it was only on the Queen's intercession that their wives were +spared. The infuriated King, however, ordered that his two daughters +should be imprisoned in the palace. + + +The Gruesome Remedy + +Meantime Chao Chên and Liu Ch'in had reached Hsiang Shan. When they +were brought to Miao Shan the ministers took out the King's letter and +read it to her. "I, Miao Chuang, King of Hsing Lin, have learned that +there dwells at Hsiang Shan an Immortal whose power and compassion +have no equal in the whole world. I have passed my fiftieth year, and +am afflicted with ulcers that all remedies have failed to cure. To-day +a priest has assured me that at Hsiang Shan I can obtain the hand and +eye of a living person, with which he will prepare an ointment able +to restore me to my usual state of health. Relying upon his word +and upon the goodness of the Immortal to whom he has directed me, +I venture to beg that those two parts of a living body necessary to +heal my ulcers be sent to me. I assure you of my everlasting gratitude, +fully confident that my request will not be refused." + +The next morning Miao Shan bade the ministers take a knife and cut +off her left hand and gouge out her left eye. Liu Ch'in took the +knife offered him, but did not dare to obey the order. "Be quick," +urged the Immortal; "you have been commanded to return as soon as +possible; why do you hesitate as if you were a young girl?" Liu +Ch'in was forced to proceed. He plunged in the knife, and the red +blood flooded the ground, spreading an odour like sweet incense. The +hand and eye were placed on a golden plate, and, having paid their +grateful respects to the Immortal, the envoys hastened to return. + +When they had left, Miao Shan, who had transformed herself in order to +allow the envoys to remove her hand and eye, told Shan Ts'ai that she +was now going to prepare the ointment necessary for the cure of the +King. "Should the Queen," she added, "send for another eye and hand, +I will transform myself again, and you can give them to her." No sooner +had she finished speaking than she mounted a cloud and disappeared +in space. The two ministers reached the palace and presented to the +Queen the gruesome remedy which they had brought from the temple. She, +overcome with gratitude and emotion, wept copiously. "What Immortal," +she asked, "can have been so charitable as to sacrifice a hand and eye +for the King's benefit?" Then suddenly her tears gushed forth with +redoubled vigour, and she uttered a great cry, for she recognized +the hand of her daughter by a black scar which was on it. + + +Half-measures + +"Who else, in fact, but his child," she continued amid her sobs, +"could have had the courage to give her hand to save her father's +life?" "What are you saying?" said the King. "In the world there are +many hands like this." While they thus reasoned, the priest entered +the King's apartment. "This great Immortal has long devoted herself +to the attainment of perfection," he said. "Those she has healed +are innumerable. Give me the hand and eye." He took them and shortly +produced an ointment which, he told the King, was to be applied to his +left side. No sooner had it touched his skin than the pain on his left +side disappeared as if by magic; no sign of ulcers was to be seen on +that side, but his right side remained swollen and painful as before. + +"Why is it," asked the King, "that this remedy, which is so efficacious +for the left side, should not be applied to the right?" "Because," +replied the priest, "the left hand and eye of the saint cures only +the left side. If you wish to be completely cured, you must send +your officers to obtain the right eye and right hand also." The King +accordingly dispatched his envoys anew with a letter of thanks, and +begging as a further favour that the cure should be completed by the +healing also of his right side. + + +The King Cured + +On the arrival of the envoys Shan Ts'ai met them in the mutilated form +of Miao Shan, and he bade them cut off his right hand, pluck out his +right eye, and put them on a plate. At the sight of the four bleeding +wounds Liu Ch'in could not refrain from calling out indignantly: +"This priest is a wicked man, thus to make a martyr of a woman in +order to obtain the succession!" + +Having thus spoken, he left with his companion for the kingdom of +Hsing Lin. On their return the King was overwhelmed with joy. The +priest quickly prepared the ointment, and the King, without delay, +applied it to his right side. At once the ulcers disappeared like the +darkness of night before the rising sun. The whole Court congratulated +the King and eulogized the priest. The King conferred upon the latter +the title Priest of the Brilliant Eye. He fell on his face to return +thanks, and added: "I, a poor priest, have left the world, and have +only one wish, namely, that your Majesty should govern your subjects +with justice and sympathy and that all the officials of the realm +should prove themselves men of integrity. As for me, I am used to +roaming about. I have no desire for any royal estate. My happiness +exceeds all earthly joys." + +Having thus spoken, the priest waved the sleeve of his cloak, a cloud +descended from Heaven, and seating himself upon it he disappeared +in the sky. From the cloud a note containing the following words was +seen to fall: "I am one of the Teachers of the West. I came to cure +the King's illness, and so to glorify the True Doctrine." + + + +The King's Daughter + +All who witnessed this miracle exclaimed with one voice: "This priest +is the Living Buddha, who is going back to Heaven!" The note was taken +to King Miao Chuang, who exclaimed: "Who am I that I should deserve +that one of the rulers of Heaven should deign to descend and cure me +by the sacrifice of hands and eyes?" + +"What was the face of the saintly person like who gave you the +remedy?" he then asked Chao Chên. + +"It was like unto that of your deceased daughter, Miao Shan," +he replied. + +"When you removed her hands and eyes did she seem to suffer?" + +"I saw a great flow of blood, and my heart failed, but the face of +the victim seemed radiant with happiness." + +"This certainly must be my daughter Miao Shan, who has attained to +perfection," said the King. "Who but she would have given hands +and eyes? Purify yourselves and observe the rules of abstinence, +and go quickly to Hsiang Shan to return thanks to the saint for this +inestimable favour. I myself will ere long make a pilgrimage thither +to return thanks in person." + + +The King and Queen taken Prisoners + +Three years later the King and Queen, with the grandees of their +Court, set out to visit Hsiang Shan, but on the way the monarchs were +captured by the Green Lion, or God of Fire, and the White Elephant, +or Spirit of the Water, the two guardians of the Temple of Buddha, +who transported them to a dark cavern in the mountains. A terrific +battle then took place between the evil spirits on the one side and +some hosts of heavenly genii, who had been summoned to the rescue, +on the other. While its issue was still uncertain, reinforcements +under the Red Child Devil, who could resist fire, and the Dragon-king +of the Eastern Sea, who could subdue water, finally routed the enemy, +and the prisoners were released. + + +The King's Repentance + +The King and Queen now resumed their pilgrimage, and Miao Shan +instructed Shan Ts'ai to receive the monarchs when they arrived +to offer incense. She herself took up her place on the altar, her +eyes torn out, her hands cut off, and her wrists all dripping with +blood. The King recognized his daughter, and bitterly reproached +himself; the Queen fell swooning at her feet. Miao Shan then spoke and +tried to comfort them. She told them of all that she had experienced +since the day when she had been executed, and how she had attained +to immortal perfection. She then went on: "In order to punish you +for having caused the deaths of all those who perished in the wars +preceding your accession to the throne, and also to avenge the burning +of the Nunnery of the White Bird, Yü Huang afflicted you with those +grievous ulcers. It was then that I changed myself into a priest in +order to heal you, and gave my eyes and hands, with which I prepared +the ointment that cured you. It was I, moreover, who procured your +liberty from Buddha when you were imprisoned in the cave by the Green +Lion and the White Elephant." + + +Sackcloth and Ashes + +At these words the King threw himself with his face on the ground, +offered incense, worshipped Heaven, earth, the sun, and the moon, +saying with a voice broken by sobs: "I committed a great crime in +killing my daughter, who has sacrificed her eyes and hands in order +to cure my sickness." + +No sooner were these words uttered than Miao Shan reassumed her +normal form, and, descending from the altar, approached her parents +and sisters. Her body had again its original completeness; and in the +presence of its perfect beauty, and at finding themselves reunited +as one family, all wept for joy. + +"Well," said Miao Shan to her father, "will you now force me to marry +and prevent my devoting myself to the attainment of perfection?" + +"Speak no more of that," replied the King. "I was in the wrong. If you +had not reached perfection, I should not now be alive. I have made up +my mind to exchange my sceptre for the pursuit of the perfect life, +which I wish to lead henceforth together with you." + + +The King renounces the Throne + +Then, in the presence of all, he addressed his Grand Minister Chao +Chên, saying: "Your devotion to the service of the State has rendered +you worthy to wear the crown: I surrender it to you." The Court +proclaimed Chao Chên King of Hsing Lin, bade farewell to Miao Chuang, +and set out for their kingdom accompanied by their new sovereign. + + +Pardon of the Green Lion and the White Elephant + +Buddha had summoned the White Elephant and the Green Lion, and +was on the point of sentencing them to eternal damnation when the +compassionate Miao Shan interceded for them. "Certainly you deserve +no forgiveness," he said, "but I cannot refuse a request made by +Miao Shan, whose clemency is without limit. I give you over to her, +to serve and obey her in everything. Follow her." + + +Miao Shan becomes a Buddha + +The guardian spirit on duty that day then announced the arrival of a +messenger from Yü Huang. It was T'ai-po Chin-hsing, who was the bearer +of a divine decree, which he handed to Miao Shan. It read as follows: +"I, the august Emperor, make known to you this decree: Miao Chuang, +King of Hsing Lin, forgetful alike of Heaven and Hell, the six virtues, +and metempsychosis, has led a blameworthy life; but your nine years +of penitence, the filial piety which caused you to sacrifice your own +body to effect his cure, in short, all your virtues, have redeemed +his faults. Your eyes can see and your ears can hear all the good +and bad deeds and words of men. You are the object of my especial +regard. Therefore I make proclamation of this decree of canonization. + +"Miao Shan will have the title of Very Merciful and Very Compassionate +P'u-sa, Saviour of the Afflicted, Miraculous and Always Helpful +Protectress of Mortals. On your lofty precious lotus-flower throne, +you will be the Sovereign of the Southern Seas and of P'u T'o Isle. + +"Your two sisters, hitherto tainted with earthly pleasures, will +gradually progress till they reach true perfection. + +"Miao Ch'ing will have the title of Very Virtuous P'u-sa, the +Completely Beautiful, Rider of the Green Lion. + +"Miao Yin will be honoured with the title of Very Virtuous and +Completely Resplendent P'u-sa, Rider of the White Elephant. + +"King Miao Chuang is raised to the dignity of Virtuous Conquering +P'u-sa, Surveyor of Mortals. + +"Queen Po Ya receives the title of P'u-sa of Ten Thousand Virtues, +Surveyor of Famous Women. + +"Shan Ts'ai has bestowed upon him the title of Golden Youth. + +"Lung Nü has the title of Jade Maiden. + +"During all time incense is to be burned before all the members of +this canonized group." + + + +CHAPTER XI + +The Eight Immortals + + +Pa Hsien + +Either singly or in groups the Eight Immortals, Pa Hsien, of the Taoist +religion are one of the most popular subjects of representation in +China; their portraits are to be seen everywhere--on porcelain vases, +teapots, teacups, fans, scrolls, embroidery, etc. Images of them are +made in porcelain, earthenware, roots, wood, metals. The term 'Eight +Immortals' is figuratively used for happiness. The number eight has +become lucky in association with this tradition, and persons or things +eight in number are graced accordingly. Thus we read of reverence shown +to the 'Eight Genii Table' (_Pa Hsien Cho_), the 'Eight Genii Bridge' +(_Pa Hsien Ch'iao_), 'Eight Genii Vermicelli' (_Pa Hsien Mien_), the +'Eight Genii of the Wine-cup' (_Tin Chung Pa Hsien_)--wine-bibbers of +the T'ang dynasty celebrated by Tu Fu, the poet. They are favourite +subjects of romance, and special objects of adoration. In them we see +"the embodiment of the ideas of perfect but imaginary happiness which +possess the minds of the Chinese people." Three of them (Chung-li +Ch'üan, Chang Kuo, and Lü Yen) were historical personages; the others +are mentioned only in fables or romances. They represent all kinds +of people--old, young, male, female, civil, military, rich, poor, +afflicted, cultured, noble. They are also representative of early, +middle, and later historical periods. + +The legend of the Eight Immortals is certainly not older than the time +of the Sung dynasty (A.D. 960-1280), and is probably to be assigned +to that of the Yüan dynasty (1280-1368). But some, if not all, of +the group seem to have been previously celebrated as Immortals in the +Taoist legends. Their biographies are usually arranged in the order +of their official eminence or seniority in age. Here I follow that +adopted in _Hsiu hsiang Pa Hsien tung yu chi_ [32] in which they are +described in the order in which they became Immortals. + + +Li T'ieh-kuai + +Li T'ieh-kuai, depicted always with his crutch and gourd full of +magic medicines, was of the family name of Li, his own name being +Li Yüan (Hs'üan, now read Yüan). He is also known as K'ung-mu. Hsi +Wang Mu cured him of an ulcer on the leg and taught him the art of +becoming immortal. He was canonized as Rector of the East. He is +said to have been of commanding stature and dignified mien, devoting +himself solely to the study of Taoist lore. Hsi Wang Mu made him a +present of an iron crutch, and sent him to the capital to teach the +doctrine of immortality to Han Chung-li. + +He is also identified with Li Ning-yang, to whom Lao Tzu descended +from Heaven in order to instruct him in the wisdom of the gods. Soon +after he had completed his course of instruction his soul left his +body to go on a visit to Hua Shan. Some say he was summoned by Lao +Tzu, others that Lao Tzu engaged him as escort to the countries of +Hsi Yü. He left his disciple Lang Ling in charge of his body, saying +that if he did not return within seven days he was to have the body +cremated. Unfortunately, when only six days had elapsed the disciple +was called away to the death-bed of his mother. In order to be able +to leave at once he cremated the body forthwith, and when the soul +returned it found only a heap of ashes. Some say the body was not +cremated, but only became devitalized through neglect or through +being uninhabited for so long a time. The object of the setting of +the watch was not only to prevent injury to or theft of the body, +but also to prevent any other soul from taking up its abode in it. + +In a forest near by a beggar had just died of hunger. Finding this +corpse untenanted, the wandering spirit entered it through the +temples, and made off. When he found that his head was long and +pointed, his face black, his beard and hair woolly and dishevelled, +his eyes of gigantic size, and one of his legs lame, he wished to +get out of this vile body; but Lao Tzu advised him not to make the +attempt and gave him a gold band to keep his hair in order, and an +iron crutch to help his lame leg. On lifting his hand to his eyes, +he found they were as large as buckles. That is why he was called Li +K'ung-mu, 'Li Hollow Eyes.' Popularly he is known as Li T'ieh-kuai, +'Li with the Iron Crutch.' No precise period seems to be assigned +to his career on earth, though one tradition places him in the Yüan +dynasty. Another account says that he was changed into a dragon, +and in that form ascended to Heaven. + +Elsewhere it is related that T'ieh-kuai, after entering the body of +the lame beggar, benevolently proceeded to revive the mother of Yang, +his negligent disciple. Leaning on his iron staff and carrying a gourd +of medicines on his back he went to Yang's house, where preparations +were being made for the funeral. The contents of the gourd, poured +into the mouth, revived the dead woman. He then made himself known, +and, giving Yang another pill, vanished in a gust of wind. Two hundred +years later he effected the immortalization of his disciple. + +During his peregrinations on earth he would hang a bottle on the +wall at night and jump into it, emerging on the following morning. He +frequently returned to earth, and at times tried to bring about the +transmigration of others. + +An example is the case of Ch'ao Tu, the watchman. T'ieh-kuai walked +into a fiery furnace and bade Ch'ao follow. The latter, being afraid +of imitating an act evidently associated with the supernatural world +of evil spirits, refused to do so. T'ieh-kuai then told Ch'ao to step +on to a leaf floating on the surface of the river, saying that it was +a boat that would bear him across safely. Again the watchman refused, +whereupon T'ieh-kuai, remarking that the cares of this world were +evidently too weighty for him to be able to ascend to immortality, +stepped on to the leaf himself and vanished. + + +Chung-li Ch'üan + +Regarding the origin and life of this Immortal several different +accounts are given. One states that his family name was Chung-li, +and that he lived in the Han dynasty, being therefore called Han +Chung-li. His cognomen was Ch'üan, his literary appellation Chi Tao, +and his pseudonyms Ho-ho Tzu and Wang-yang Tzu; his style Yün-fang. + +He was born in the district of Hsien-yang Hsien (a sub-prefecture of +the ancient capital Hsi-an Fu) in Shensi. He became Marshal of the +Empire in the cyclic year 2496. In his old age he became a hermit +on Yang-chio Shan, thirty _li_ north-east of I-ch'êng Hsien in the +prefecture of P'ing-yang Fu in Shansi. He is referred to by the title +of King-emperor of the True Active Principle. + +Another account describes Chung-li Ch'üan as merely a vice-marshal +in the service of Duke Chou Hsiao. He was defeated in battle, and +escaped to Chung-nan Shan, where he met the Five Heroes, the Flowers +of the East, who instructed him in the doctrine of immortality. At +the end of the T'ang dynasty Han Chung-li taught this same science of +immortality to Lü Tung-pin (see p. 297), and took the pompous title +of the Only Independent One Under Heaven. + +Other versions state that Han Chung-li is not the name of a person, +but of a country; that he was a Taoist priest Chung Li-tzu; and that +he was a beggar, Chung-li by name, who gave to one Lao Chih a pill of +immortality. No sooner had the latter swallowed it than he went mad, +left his wife, and ascended to Heaven. + +During a great famine he transmuted copper and pewter into silver +by amalgamating them with some mysterious drug. This treasure he +distributed among the poor, and thousands of lives were thus saved. + +One day, while he was meditating, the stone wall of his dwelling in the +mountains was rent asunder, and a jade casket exposed to view. This was +found to contain secret information as to how to become an Immortal. + +When he had followed these instructions for some time, his room was +filled with many-coloured clouds, music was heard, and a celestial +stork came and bore him away on its back to the regions of immortality. + +He is sometimes represented holding his feather-fan, Yü-mao Shan; +at other times the peach of immortality. Since his admission to +the ranks of the gods, he has appeared on earth at various times as +the messenger of Heaven. On one of these occasions he met Lü Yen, +as narrated on p. 297. + + + +Lan Ts'ai-ho + +Lan Ts'ai-ho is variously stated to have been a woman and an +hermaphrodite. She is the strolling singer or mountebank of the +Immortals. Usually she plays a flute or a pair of cymbals. Her origin +is unknown, but her personal name is said to have been Yang Su, +and her career is assigned to the period of the T'ang dynasty. She +wandered abroad clad in a tattered blue gown held by a black wooden +belt three inches wide, with one foot shoeless and the other shod, +wearing in summer an undergarment of wadded material, and in winter +sleeping on the snow, her breath rising in a brilliant cloud like +the steam from a boiling cauldron. In this guise she earned her +livelihood by singing in the streets, keeping time with a wand three +feet long. Though taken for a lunatic, the doggerel verse she sang +disproved the popular slanders. It denounced this fleeting life and +its delusive pleasures. When given money, she either strung it on +a cord and waved it to the time of her song or scattered it on the +ground for the poor to pick up. + +One day she was found to have become intoxicated in an inn at Fêng-yang +Fu in Anhui, and while in that state disappeared on a cloud, having +thrown down to earth her shoe, robe, belt, and castanets. + +According to popular belief, however, only one of the Eight Immortals, +namely, Ho Hsien-ku, was a woman, Lan Ts'ai-ho being represented as a +young person of about sixteen, bearing a basket of fruit. According +to the _Hsiu hsiang Pa Hsien tung yu chi_, he was 'the Red-footed +Great Genius,' Ch'ih-chiao Ta-hsien incarnate. Though he was a man, +adds the writer, he could not understand how to be a man (which is +perhaps the reason why he has been supposed to be a woman). + + + +Chang Kuo + +The period assigned to Chang Kuo is the middle or close of the seventh +to the middle of the eighth century A.D. He lived as a hermit on +Chung-t'iao Shan, in the prefecture of P'ing-yang Fu in Shansi. The +Emperors T'ai Tsung and Kao Tsung of the T'ang dynasty frequently +invited him to Court, but he persistently refused to go. At last, +pressed once more by the Empress Wu (A.D. 684-705), he consented +to leave his retreat, but was struck down by death at the gate of +the Temple of the Jealous Woman. His body began to decay and to be +eaten by worms, when lo! he was seen again, alive and well, on the +mountains of Hêng Chou in P'ing-yang Fu. He rode on a white mule, +which carried him thousands of miles in a day, and which, when the +journey was finished, he folded up like a sheet of paper and put away +in his wallet. When he again required its services, he had only to +spurt water upon the packet from his mouth and the animal at once +assumed its proper shape. At all times he performed wonderful feats +of necromancy, and declared that he had been Grand Minister to the +Emperor Yao (2357-2255 B.C.) during a previous existence. + +In the twenty-third year (A.D. 735) of the reign-period K'ai Yüan +of the Emperor Hsüan Tsung of the T'ang dynasty, he was called to +Lo-yang in Honan, and elected Chief of the Imperial Academy, with +the honourable title of Very Perspicacious Teacher. + +It was just at this time that the famous Taoist Yeh Fa-shan, thanks +to his skill in necromancy, was in great favour at Court. The Emperor +asked him who this Chang Kuo Lao (he usually has the epithet Lao, +'old,' added to his name) was. "I know," replied the magician; +"but if I were to tell your Majesty I should fall dead at your feet, +so I dare not speak unless your Majesty will promise that you will +go with bare feet and bare head to ask Chang Kuo to forgive you, in +which case I should immediately revive." Hsüan Tsung having promised, +Fa-shan then said: "Chang Kuo is a white spiritual bat which came out +of primeval chaos." No sooner had he spoken than he dropped dead at +the Emperor's feet. + +Hsüan Tsung, with bare head and feet, went to Chang Kuo as he had +promised, and begged forgiveness for his indiscretion. The latter then +sprinkled water on Fa-shan's face and he revived. Soon after Chang fell +sick and returned to die in the Hêng Chou Mountains during the period +A.D. 742-746. When his disciples opened his tomb, they found it empty. + +He is usually seen mounted on his white mule, sometimes facing its +head, sometimes its tail. He carries a phoenix-feather or a peach +of immortality. + +At his interviews with the Emperor Ming Huang in A.D. 723 (when he +was alive still) Chang Kuo "entertained the Emperor with a variety of +magical tricks, such as rendering himself invisible, drinking off a +cup of aconite, and felling birds or flowers by pointing at them. He +refused the hand of an imperial princess, and also declined to have +his portrait placed in the Hall of Worthies." + +A picture of Chang Kuo sitting on a donkey and offering a descendant +to the newly married couple is often found in the nuptial chamber. It +seems somewhat incongruous that an old ascetic should be associated +with matrimonial happiness and the granting of offspring, but the +explanation may possibly be connected with his performance of wonderful +feats of necromancy, though he is said not to have given encouragement +to others in these things during his lifetime. + + + +Ho Hsien Ku + +A maiden holding in her hand a magic lotus-blossom, the flower of +open-heartedness, or the peach of immortality given her by Lü Tung-pin +in the mountain-gorge as a symbol of identity, playing at times the +_shêng_ or reed-organ, or drinking wine--this is the picture the +Chinese paint of the Immortal Ho Hsien Ku. + +She was the daughter of Ho T'ai, a native of Tsêng-ch'êng Hsien in +Kuangtung. Others say her father was a shopkeeper at Ling-ling in +Hunan. She lived in the time of the usurping empress Wu (A.D. 684-705) +of the T'ang dynasty. At her birth six hairs were found growing on +the crown of her head, and the account says she never had any more, +though the pictures represent her with a full head of hair. She +elected to live on Yün-mu Ling, twenty _li_ west of Tsêng-ch'êng +Hsien. On that mountain was found a stone called _yün-mu shih_, +'mother-of-pearl.' In a dream she saw a spirit who ordered her to +powder and eat one of these stones, by doing which she could acquire +both agility and immortality. She complied with this injunction, and +also vowed herself to a life of virginity. Her days were thenceforth +passed in floating from one peak to another, bringing home at night +to her mother the fruits she collected on the mountain. She gradually +found that she had no need to eat in order to live. Her fame having +reached the ears of the Empress, she was invited to Court, but while +journeying thither suddenly disappeared from mortal view and became +an Immortal. She is said to have been seen again in A.D. 750 floating +upon a cloud of many colours at the temple of Ma Ku, the famous female +Taoist magician, and again, some years later, in the city of Canton. + +She is represented as an extremely beautiful maiden, and is remarkable +as occupying so prominent a position in a cult in which no system of +female asceticism is developed. + + +Lü Tung-pin + +Lü Tung-pin's family name was Lü; his personal name Tung-pin; also Yen; +and his pseudonym Shun Yang Tzu. He was born in A.D. 798 at Yung-lo +Hsien, in the prefecture of Ho-chung Fu in Shansi, a hundred and twenty +_li_ south-east of the present sub-prefecture of Yung-chi Hsien (P'u +Chou). He came of an official family, his grandfather having been +President of the Ministry of Ceremonies, and his father Prefect of +Hai Chou. He was 5 feet 2 inches in height, and at twenty was still +unmarried. At this time he made a journey to Lu Shan in Kiangsi, +where he met the Fire-dragon, who presented him with a magic sword, +which enabled him at will to hide himself in the heavens. + +During his visit to the capital, Ch'ang-an in Shensi, he met +the Immortal Han Chung-li, who instructed him in the mysteries of +alchemy and the elixir of life. When he revealed himself as Yün-fang +Hsien-shêng, Lü Yen expressed an ardent desire to aid in converting +mankind to the true doctrine, but was first exposed to a series of +ten temptations. These being successfully overcome, he was invested +with supernatural power and magic weapons, with which he traversed +the Empire, slaying dragons and ridding the earth of divers kinds +of evils, during a period of upward of four hundred years. Another +version says that Han Chung-li was in an inn, heating a jug of +rice-wine. Here Lü met him, and going to sleep dreamed that he +was promoted to a very high office and was exceptionally favoured +by fortune in every way. This had gone on for fifty years when +unexpectedly a serious fault caused him to be condemned to exile, +and his family was exterminated. Alone in the world, he was sighing +bitterly, when he awoke with a start. All had taken place in so short +a space of time that Han Chung-li's wine was not yet hot. This is the +incident referred to in Chinese literature in the phrase 'rice-wine +dream.' Convinced of the hollowness of worldly dignities, he followed +Han Chung-li to the Ho Ling Mountains at Chung-nan in Shensi, where +he was initiated into the divine mysteries, and became an Immortal. + +In A.D. 1115 the Emperor Hui Tsung conferred on him the title of Hero +of Marvellous Wisdom; and later he was proclaimed King-emperor and +Strong Protector. + +There are various versions of the legend of Lü Tung-pin. One of these +adds that in order to fulfil his promise made to Chung-li to do what +he could to aid in the work of converting his fellow-creatures to the +true doctrine, he went to Yüch Yang in the guise of an oil-seller, +intending to immortalize all those who did not ask for additional +weight to the quantity of oil purchased. During a whole year he met +only selfish and extortionate customers, with the exception of one +old lady who alone did not ask for more than was her due. So he went +to her house, and seeing a well in the courtyard threw a few grains +of rice into it. The water miraculously turned into wine, from the +sale of which the dame amassed great wealth. + +He was very skilful in fencing, and is always represented with his +magic Excalibur named Chan-yao Kuai, 'Devil-slaying Sabre,' and in +one hand holds a fly-whisk, Yün-chou, or 'Cloud-sweeper,' a symbol +common in Taoism of being able to fly at will through the air and to +walk on the clouds of Heaven. + +Like Kuan Kung, he is shown bearing in his arms a male +child--indicating a promise of numerous progeny, including _literati_ +and famous officials. Consequently he is one of the spiritual beings +honoured by the _literati_. + + +Han Hsiang Tzu + +Han Hsiang Tzu, who is depicted with a bouquet of flowers or a basket +of peaches of immortality, is stated to have been a grand-nephew of +Han Yü (A.D. 768-824), the great statesman, philosopher, and poet of +the T'ang dynasty, and an ardent votary of transcendental study. His +own name was Ch'ing Fu. The child was entrusted to his uncle to +be educated and prepared for the public examinations. He excelled +his teacher in intelligence and the performance of wonderful feats, +such as the production from a little earth in a flower-pot of some +marvellous flowering plants, on the leaves of which were written in +letters of gold some verses to this effect: + + + The clouds hide Mount Ch'in Ling. + Where is your abode? + The snow is deep on Lan Kuan; + Your horse refuses to advance. + + +"What is the meaning of these verses?" asked Han Yü. "You will see," +replied Han Hsiang Tzu. + +Some time afterward Han Yü was sent in disgrace to the prefecture of +Ch'ao-chou Fu in Kuangtung. When he reached the foot of Lan Kuan the +snow was so deep that he could not go on. Han Hsiang Tzu appeared, and, +sweeping away the snow, made a path for him. Han Yü then understood +the prophecy in his pupil's verses. + +When Han Hsiang Tzu was leaving his uncle, he gave him the following +in verse: + +Many indeed are the eminent men who have served their country, but +which of them surpasses you in his knowledge of literature? When +you have reached a high position, you will be buried in a damp and +foggy land. + +Han Yü also gave his pupil a farewell verse: + +How many here below allow themselves to be inebriated by the love +of honours and pelf! Alone and watchful you persevere in the right +path. But a time will come when, taking your flight to the sky, +you will open in the ethereal blue a luminous roadway. + +Han Yü was depressed at the thought of the damp climate of his place +of exile. "I fear there is no doubt," he said, "that I shall die +without seeing my family again." + +Han Hsiang Tzu consoled him, gave him a prescription, and said: "Not +only will you return in perfect health to the bosom of your family, +but you will be reinstated in your former offices." All this took +place exactly as he had predicted. + +Another account states that he became the disciple of Lü Tung-pin, and, +having been carried up to the supernatural peach-tree of the genii, +fell from its branches, but during his descent attained to the state +of immortality. Still another version says that he was killed by the +fall, was transformed, and then underwent the various experiences +with Han Yü already related. + + +Ts'ao Kuo-chiu + +Ts'ao Kuo-chiu was connected with the imperial family of the Sungs, +and is shown with the tablet of admission to Court in his hand. He +became one of the Eight Immortals because the other seven, who +occupied seven of the eight grottos of the Upper Spheres, wished to +see the eighth inhabited, and nominated him because "his disposition +resembled that of a genie." The legend relates that the Empress +Ts'ao, wife of the Emperor Jên Tsung (A.D. 1023-64), had two younger +brothers. The elder of the two, Ching-hsiu, did not concern himself +with the affairs of State; the younger, Ching-chih, was notorious for +his misbehaviour. In spite of all warnings he refused to reform, and +being at last guilty of homicide was condemned to death. His brother, +ashamed at what had occurred, went and hid in the mountains, where he +clothed his head and body with wild plants, resolved to lead the life +of a hermit. One day Han Chung-li and Lü Tung-pin found him in his +retreat, and asked him what he was doing. "I am engaged in studying +the Way," he replied. "What way, and where is it?" they asked. He +pointed to the sky. "Where is the sky?" they went on. He pointed to +his heart. The two visitors smiled and said: "The heart is the sky, +and the sky is the Way; you understand the origin of things." They +then gave him a recipe for perfection, to enable him to take his +place among the Perfect Ones. In a few days only he had reached this +much-sought-after condition. + +In another version we find fuller details concerning this +Immortal. A graduate named Yüan Wên-chêng of Ch'ao-yang Hsien, in +the sub-prefecture of Ch'ao-chou Fu in Kuangtung, was travelling with +his wife to take his examinations at the capital. Ts'ao Ching-chih, +the younger brother of the Empress, saw the lady, and was struck with +her beauty. In order to gratify his passion he invited the graduate +and his young wife to the palace, where he strangled the husband and +tried to force the wife to cohabit with him. She refused obstinately, +and as a last resort he had her imprisoned in a noisome dungeon. The +soul of the graduate appeared to the imperial Censor Pao Lao-yeh, +and begged him to exact vengeance for the execrable crime. The +elder brother, Ching-hsiu, seeing the case put in the hands of the +upright Pao Lao-yeh, and knowing his brother to be guilty of homicide, +advised him to put the woman to death, in order to cut off all sources +of information and so to prevent further proceedings. The young +voluptuary thereupon caused the woman to be thrown down a deep well, +but the star T'ai-po Chin-hsing, in the form of an old man, drew her +out again. While making her escape, she met on the road an official +procession which she mistook for that of Pao Lao-yeh, and, going up to +the sedan chair, made her accusation. This official was no other than +the elder brother of the murderer. Ching-hsiu, terrified, dared not +refuse to accept the charge, but on the pretext that the woman had +not placed herself respectfully by the side of the official chair, +and thus had not left a way clear for the passage of his retinue, he +had her beaten with iron-spiked whips, and she was cast away for dead +in a neighbouring lane. This time also she revived, and ran to inform +Pao Lao-yeh. The latter immediately had Ts'ao Ching-hsiu arrested, +cangued, and fettered. Without loss of time he wrote an invitation to +the second brother, Ts'ao Ching-chih, and on his arrival confronted him +with the graduate's wife, who accused him to his face. Pao Lao-yeh had +him put in a pit, and remained deaf to all entreaties of the Emperor +and Empress on his behalf. A few days later the murderer was taken to +the place of execution, and his head rolled in the dust. The problem +now was how to get Ts'ao Ching-hsiu out of the hands of the terrible +Censor. The Emperor Jên Tsung, to please the Empress, had a universal +amnesty proclaimed throughout the Empire, under which all prisoners +were set free. On receipt of this edict, Pao Lao-yeh liberated Ts'ao +Ching-hsiu from the cangue, and allowed him to go free. As one risen +from the dead, he gave himself up to the practice of perfection, +became a hermit, and, through the instruction of the Perfect Ones, +became one of the Eight Immortals. + + +Pa Hsien Kuo Hai + +The phrase _Pa Hsien kuo hai_, 'the Eight Immortals crossing the sea,' +refers to the legend of an expedition made by these deities. Their +object was to behold the wondrous things of the sea not to be found +in the celestial sphere. + +The usual mode of celestial locomotion--by taking a seat on a +cloud--was discarded at the suggestion of Lü Yen who recommended that +they should show the infinite variety of their talents by placing +things on the surface of the sea and stepping on them. + +Li T'ieh-kuai threw down his crutch, and scudded rapidly over the +waves. Chung-li Ch'üan used his feather-fan, Chang Kuo his paper +mule, Lü Tung-pin his sword, Han Hsiang Tzu his flower-basket, Ho +Hsien Ku her lotus-flower, Lan Ts'ai-ho his musical instrument, and +Ts'ao Kuo-chiu his tablet of admission to Court. The popular pictures +often represent most of these articles changed into various kinds +of sea-monsters. The musical instrument was noticed by the son of +the Dragon-king of the Eastern Sea. This avaricious prince conceived +the idea of stealing the instrument and imprisoning its owner. The +Immortals thereupon declared war, the details of which are described at +length by the Chinese writers, the outcome being that the Dragon-king +was utterly defeated. After this the Eight Immortals continued their +submarine exploits for an indefinite time, encountering numberless +adventures; but here the author travels far into the fertile region +of romance, beyond the frontiers of our present province. + + + +CHAPTER XII + +The Guardian of the Gate of Heaven + + +Li, the Pagoda-bearer + +In Buddhist temples there is to be seen a richly attired figure of +a man holding in his hand a model of a pagoda. He is Li, the Prime +Minister of Heaven and father of No-cha. + +He was a general under the tyrant Chou and commander of Ch'ên-t'ang +Kuan at the time when the bloody war was being waged which resulted +in the extinction of the Yin dynasty. + +No-cha is one of the most frequently mentioned heroes in Chinese +romance; he is represented in one account as being Yü Huang's +shield-bearer, sixty feet in height, his three heads with nine +eyes crowned by a golden wheel, his eight hands each holding a +magic weapon, and his mouth vomiting blue clouds. At the sound of +his Voice, we are told, the heavens shook and the foundations of the +earth trembled. His duty was to bring into submission all the demons +which desolated the world. + +His birth was in this wise. Li Ching's wife, Yin Shih, bore him three +sons, the eldest Chin-cha, the second Mu-cha, and the third No-cha, +generally known as 'the Third Prince.' + +Yin Shih dreamed one night that a Taoist priest entered her room. She +indignantly exclaimed: "How dare you come into my room in this +indiscreet manner?" The priest replied: "Woman, receive the child of +the unicorn!" Before she could reply the Taoist pushed an object to +her bosom. + +Yin Shih awoke in a fright, a cold sweat all over her body. Having +awakened her husband, she told him what she had dreamed. At that moment +she was seized with the pains of childbirth. Li Ching withdrew to an +adjoining room, uneasy at what seemed to be inauspicious omens. A +little later two servants ran to him, crying out: "Your wife has +given birth to a monstrous freak!" + + +An Avatar of the Intelligent Pearl + +Li Ching seized his sword and went into his wife's room, which he found +filled with a red light exhaling a most extraordinary odour. A ball +of flesh was rolling on the floor like a wheel; with a blow of his +sword he cut it open, and a babe emerged, surrounded by a halo of red +light. Its face was very white, a gold bracelet was on its right wrist, +and it wore a pair of red silk trousers, from which proceeded rays +of dazzling golden light. The bracelet was 'the horizon of Heaven and +earth,' and the two precious objects belonged to the cave Chin-kuang +Tung of T'ai-i Chên-jên, the priest who had bestowed them upon him +when he appeared to his mother during her sleep. The child itself +was an avatar of Ling Chu-tzu, 'the Intelligent Pearl.' + +On the morrow T'ai-i Chên-jên returned and asked Li Ching's permission +to see the new-born babe. "He shall be called No-cha," he said, +"and will become my disciple." + + +A Precocious Youth + +At seven years of age No-cha was already six feet in height. One day +he asked his mother if he might go for a walk outside the town. His +mother granted him permission on condition that he was accompanied +by a servant. She also counselled him not to remain too long outside +the wall, lest his father should become anxious. + +It was in the fifth moon: the heat was excessive. No-cha had not gone +a _li_ before he was in a profuse perspiration. Some way ahead he saw +a clump of trees, to which he hastened, and, settling himself in the +shade, opened his coat, and breathed with relief the fresher air. In +front of him he saw a stream of limpid green water running between +two rows of willows, gently agitated by the movement of the wind, and +flowing round a rock. The child ran to the banks of the stream, and +said to his guardian: "I am covered with perspiration, and will bathe +from the rock." "Be quick," said the servant; "if your father returns +home before you he will be anxious." No-cha stripped himself, took his +red silk trousers, several feet long, and dipped them in the water, +intending to use them as a towel. No sooner were the magic trousers +immersed in the stream than the water began to boil, and Heaven and +earth trembled. The water of this river, the Chiu-wan Ho, 'Nine-bends +River,' which communicated with the Eastern Sea, turned completely +red, and Lung Wang's palace shook to its foundations. The Dragon-king, +surprised at seeing the walls of his crystal palace shaking, called +his officers and inquired: "How is it that the palace threatens to +collapse? There should not be an earthquake at this time." He ordered +one of his attendants to go at once and find out what evil was giving +rise to the commotion. When the officer reached the river he saw that +the water was red, but noticed nothing else except a boy dipping a +band of silk in the stream. He cleft the water and called out angrily: +"That child should be thrown into the water for making the river red +and causing Lung Wang's palace to shake." + +"Who is that who speaks so brutally?" said No-cha. Then, seeing that +the man intended to seize him, he jumped aside, took his gold bracelet, +and hurled it in the air. It fell on the head of the officer, and +No-cha left him dead on the rock. Then he picked up his bracelet and +said smiling: "His blood has stained my precious horizon of Heaven +and earth." He then washed it in the water. + + +The Slaying of the Dragon-king's Son + +"How is it that the officer does not return?" inquired Lung Wang. At +that moment attendants came to inform him that his retainer had been +murdered by a boy. + +Thereupon Ao Ping, the third son of Lung Wang, placing himself at the +head of a troop of marines, his trident in his hand, left the palace +precincts. The warriors dashed into the river, raising on every side +waves mountains high. Seeing the water rising, No-cha stood up on +the rock and was confronted by Ao Ping mounted on a sea-monster. + +"Who slew my messenger?" cried the warrior. + +"I did," answered No-cha. + +"Who are you?" demanded Ao Ping. + +"I am No-cha, the third son of Li Ching of Ch'ên-t'ang Kuan. I came +here to bathe and refresh myself; your messenger cursed me, and I +killed him. Then--" + +"Rascal! do you not know that your victim was a deputy of the King +of Heaven? How dare you kill him, and then boast of your crime?" + +So saying, Ao Ping thrust at the boy with his trident. No-cha, by a +brisk move, evaded the thrust. + +"Who are you?" he asked in turn. + +"I am Ao Ping, the third son of Lung Wang." + +"Ah, you are a blusterer," jeered the boy; "if you dare to touch me +I will skin you alive, you and your mud-eels!" + +"You make me choke with rage," rejoined Ao Ping, at the same time +thrusting again with his trident. + +Furious at this renewed attack, No-cha spread his silk trousers in +the air, and thousands of balls of fire flew out of them, felling Lung +Wang's son. No-cha put his foot on Ao Ping's head and struck it with +his magic bracelet, whereupon he appeared in his true form of a dragon. + +"I am now going to pull out your sinews," he said, "in order to make +a belt for my father to use to bind on his cuirass." + +No-cha was as good as his word, and Ao Ping's escort ran and informed +Lung Wang of the fate of his son. The Dragon-king went to Li Ching +and demanded an explanation. + +Being entirely ignorant of what had taken place, Li Ching sought +No-cha to question him. + + +An Unruly Son + +No-cha was in the garden, occupied in weaving the belt of +dragon-sinew. The stupefaction of Li Ching may be imagined. "You +have brought most awful misfortunes upon us," he exclaimed. "Come +and give an account of your conduct." "Have no fear," replied No-cha +superciliously; "his son's sinews are still intact; I will give them +back to him if he wishes." + +When they entered the house he saluted the Dragon-king, made a curt +apology, and offered to return his son's sinews. The father, moved +with grief at the sight of the proofs of the tragedy, said bitterly +to Li Ching: "You have such a son and yet dare to deny his guilt, +though you heard him haughtily admitting it! To-morrow I shall report +the matter to Yü Huang." Having spoken thus, he departed. + +Li Ching was overwhelmed at the enormity of his son's crime. His +wife, in an adjoining room, hearing his lamentations, went to her +husband. "What obnoxious creature is this that you have brought into +the world?" he said to her angrily. "He has slain two spirits, the +son of Lung Wang and a steward sent by the King of Heaven. To-morrow +the Dragon-king is to lodge a complaint with Yü Huang, and two or +three days hence will see the end of our existence." + +The poor mother began to weep copiously. "What!" she sobbed, "you whom +I suffered so much for, you are to be the cause of our ruin and death!" + +No-cha, seeing his parents so distracted, fell on his knees. "Let me +tell you once for all," he said, "that I am no ordinary mortal. I am +the disciple of T'ai-i Chên-jên; my magic weapons I received from him; +it is they which brought upon me the undying hatred of Lung Wang. But +he cannot prevail. To-day I will go and ask my master's advice. The +guilty alone should suffer the penalty; it is unjust that his parents +should suffer in his stead." + + +Drastic Measures + +He then left for Ch'ien-yüan Shan, and entered the cave of his master +T'ai-i Chên-jên, to whom he related his adventures. The master dwelt +upon the grave consequences of the murders, and then ordered No-cha to +bare his breast. With his finger he drew on the skin a magic formula, +after which he gave him some secret instructions. "Now," he said, "go +to the gate of Heaven and await the arrival of Lung Wang, who purposes +to accuse you before Yü Huang. Then you must come again to consult me, +that your parents may not be molested because of your misdeeds." + +When No-cha reached the gate of Heaven it was closed. In vain he sought +for Lung Wang, but after a while he saw him approaching. Lung Wang did +not see No-cha, for the formula written by T'ai-i Chên-jên rendered +him invisible. As Lung Wang approached the gate No-cha ran up to him +and struck him so hard a blow with his golden bracelet that he fell +to the ground. Then No-cha stamped on him, cursing him vehemently. + +The Dragon-king now recognized his assailant and sharply reproached him +with his crimes, but the only reparation he got was a renewal of kicks +and blows. Then, partially lifting Lung Wang's cloak and raising his +shield, No-cha tore off from his body about forty scales. Blood flowed +copiously, and the Dragon-king, under stress of the pain, begged his +foe to spare his life. To this No-cha consented on condition that he +relinquished his purpose of accusing him before Yü Huang. + +"Now," went on No-cha, "change yourself into a small serpent that I +may take you back without fear of your escaping." + +Lung Wang took the form of a small blue dragon, and followed No-cha +to his father's house, upon entering which Lung Wang resumed his +normal form, and accused No-cha of having belaboured him. "I will go +with all the Dragon-kings and lay an accusation before Yü Huang," +he said. Thereupon he transformed himself into a gust of wind, +and disappeared. + + + +No-cha draws a Bow at a Venture + +"Things are going from bad to worse," sighed Li Ching, His son, +however, consoled him: "I beg you, my father, not to let the future +trouble you. I am the chosen one of the gods. My master is T'ai-i +Chên-jên, and he has assured me that he can easily protect us." + +No-cha now went out and ascended a tower which commanded a view of +the entrance of the fort. There he found a wonderful bow and three +magic arrows. No-cha did not know that this was the spiritual weapon +belonging to the fort. "My master informed me that I am destined +to fight to establish the coming Chou dynasty; I ought therefore to +perfect myself in the use of weapons. This is a good opportunity." He +accordingly seized the bow and shot an arrow toward the south-west. A +red trail indicated the path of the arrow, which hissed as it flew. At +that moment Pi Yün, a servant of Shih-chi Niang-niang, happened to be +at the foot of K'u-lou Shan (Skeleton Hill), in front of the cave of +his mistress. The arrow pierced his throat, and he fell dead, bathed +in his blood. Shih-chi Niang-niang came out of her cave, and examining +the arrow found that it bore the inscription: "Arrow which shakes the +heavens." She thus knew that it must have come from Ch'ên-t'ang Kuan, +where the magic bow was kept. + + +Another Encounter + +The goddess mounted her blue phoenix, flew over the fort, seized Li +Ching, and carried him to her cave. There she made him kneel before +her, and reminded him how she had protected him that he might gain +honour and glory on earth before he attained to immortality. "It is +thus that you show your gratitude--by killing my servant!" + +Li Ching swore that he was innocent; but the tell-tale arrow was +there, and it could not but have come from the fortress. Li Ching +begged the goddess to set him at liberty, in order that he might find +the culprit and bring him to her. "If I cannot find him," he added, +"you may take my life." + +Once again No-cha frankly admitted his deed to his father, and followed +him to the cave of Shih-chi Niang-niang. When he reached the entrance +the second servant reproached him with the crime, whereupon No-cha +struck him a heavy blow. Shih-chi Niang-niang, infuriated, threw +herself at No-cha, sword in hand; one after the other she wrenched +from him his bracelet and magic trousers. + +Deprived of his magic weapons, No-cha fled to his master, T'ai-i +Chên-jên. The goddess followed and demanded that he be put to +death. A terrible conflict ensued between the two champions, until +T'ai-i Chên-jên hurled into the air his globe of nine fire-dragons, +which, falling on Shih-chi Niang-niang, enveloped her in a whirlwind +of flame. When this had passed it was seen that she was changed +into stone. + +"Now you are safe," said T'ai-i Chên-jên to No-cha, "but return +quickly, for the Four Dragon-kings have laid their accusation before +Yü Huang, and they are going to carry off your parents. Follow my +advice, and you will rescue your parents from their misfortune." + + +No-cha commits Hara-Kiri + +On his return No-cha found the Four Dragon-kings on the point of +carrying off his parents. "It is I," he said, "who killed Ao Ping, and +I who should pay the penalty. Why are you molesting my parents? I am +about to return to them what I received from them. Will it satisfy +you?" + +Lung Wang agreed, whereupon No-cha took a sword, and before their eyes +cut off an arm, sliced open his stomach, and fell unconscious. His +soul, borne on the wind, went straight to the cave of T'ai-i Chên-jên, +while his mother busied herself with burying his body. + +"Your home is not here," said his master to him; "return to Ch'ên-t'ang +Kuan, and beg your mother to build a temple on Ts'ui-p'ing Shan, +forty _li_ farther on. Incense will be burned to you for three years, +at the end of which time you will be reincarnated." + + +A Habitation for the Soul + +During the night, toward the third watch, while his mother was in a +deep sleep, No-cha appeared to her in a dream and said: "My mother, +pity me; since my death, my soul, separated from my body, wanders about +without a home. Build me, I pray you, a temple on Ts'ui-p'ing Shan, +that I may be reincarnated." His mother awoke in tears, and related +her vision to Li Ching, who reproached her for her blind attachment +to her unnatural son, the cause of so much disaster. + +For five or six nights the son appeared to his mother, each time +repeating his request. The last time he added: "Do not forget that by +nature I am ferocious; if you refuse my request evil will befall you." + +His mother then sent builders to the mountain to construct a temple +to No-cha, and his image was set up in it. Miracles were not wanting, +and the number of pilgrims who visited the shrine increased daily. + + + +Li Ching destroys his Son's Statue + +One day Li Ching, with a troop of his soldiers, was passing this +mountain, and saw the roads crowded with pilgrims of both sexes. "Where +are these people going?" he asked. "For six months past," he was told, +"the spirit of the temple on this mountain has continued to perform +miracles. People come from far and near to worship and supplicate him." + +"What is the name of this spirit?" inquired Li Ching. + +"No-cha," they replied. + +"No-cha!" exclaimed the father. "I will go and see him myself." + +In a rage Li Ching entered the temple and examined the statue, which +was a speaking image of his son. By its side were images of two of +his servants. He took his whip and began to beat the statue, cursing +it all the while. "It is not enough, apparently, for you to have been +a source of disaster to us," he said; "but even after your death you +must deceive the multitude." He whipped the statue until it fell to +pieces; he then kicked over the images of the servants, and went back, +admonishing the people not to worship so wicked a man, the shame and +ruin of his family. By his orders the temple was burnt to the ground. + +When he reached Ch'ên-t'ang Kuan his wife came to him, but he received +her coldly. "You gave birth to that cursed son," he said, "who has been +the plague of our lives, and after his death you build him a temple in +which he deceives the people. Do you wish to have me disgraced? If I +were to be accused at Court of having instituted the worship of false +gods, would not my destruction be certain? I have burned the temple, +and intend that that shall settle the matter once for all; if ever +you think of rebuilding it I will break off all relations with you." + + +No-cha consults his Master + +At the time of his father's visit No-cha was absent from the temple. On +his return he found only its smoking remnants. The spirits of his +two servants ran up lamenting. "Who has demolished my temple?" he +asked. "Li Ching," they replied. "In doing this he has exceeded his +powers," said No-cha. "I gave him back the substance I received from +him; why did he come with violence to break up my image? I will have +nothing more to do with him." + +No-cha's soul had already begun to be spiritualised. So he determined +to go to T'ai-i Chên-jên and beg for his help. "The worship rendered +to you there," replied the Taoist, "had nothing in it which should +have offended your father; it did not concern him. He was in the +wrong. Before long Chiang Tzu-ya will descend to inaugurate the new +dynasty, and since you must throw in your lot with him I will find +a way to aid you." + + +A New No-cha + +T'ai-i Chên-jên had two water-lily stalks and three lotus-leaves +brought to him. He spread these on the ground in the form of a human +being and placed the soul of No-cha in this lotus skeleton, uttering +magic incantations the while. There emerged a new No-cha full of +life, with a fresh complexion, purple lips, keen glance, and sixteen +feet of height. "Follow me to my peach-garden," said T'ai-i Chên-jên, +"and I will give you your weapons." He handed him a fiery spear, very +sharp, and two wind-and-fire wheels which, placed under his feet, +served as a Vehicle. A brick of gold in a panther-skin bag completed +his magic armament. The new warrior, after thanking his master, +mounted his wind-and-fire wheels and returned to Ch'ên-t'ang Kuan. + + +A Battle between Father and Son + +Li Ching was informed that his son No-cha had returned and was +threatening vengeance. So he took his weapons, mounted his horse, +and went forth to meet him. Having cursed each other profusely, they +joined battle, but Li Ching was worsted and compelled to flee. No-cha +pursued his father, but as he was on the point of overtaking him Li +Ching's second son, Mu-cha, came on the scene, and keenly reproached +his brother for his unfilial conduct. + +"Li Ching is no longer my father," replied No-cha. "I gave him back +my substance; why did he burn my temple and smash up my image?" + +Mu-cha thereupon prepared to defend his father, but received on his +back a blow from the golden brick, and fell unconscious. No-cha then +resumed his pursuit of Li Ching. + +His strength exhausted, and in danger of falling into the hands +of his enemy, Li Ching drew his sword and was about to kill +himself. "Stop!" cried a Taoist priest. "Come into my cave, and I +will protect you." + +When No-cha came up he could not see Li Ching, and demanded his +surrender from the Taoist. But he had to do with one stronger than +himself, no less a being than Wên-chu T'ien-tsun, whom T'ai-i Chên-jên +had sent in order that No-cha might receive a lesson. The Taoist, +with the aid of his magic weapon, seized No-cha, and in a moment he +found a gold ring fastened round his neck, two chains on his feet, +and he was bound to a pillar of gold. + + +Peace at the Last + +At this moment, as if by accident, T'ai-i Chên-jên appeared upon the +scene. His master had No-cha brought before Wên-chu T'ien-tsun and +Li Ching, and advised him to live at peace with his father, but he +also rebuked the father for having burned the temple on Ts'ui-p'ing +Shan. This done, he ordered Li Ching to go home, and No-cha to return +to his cave. The latter, overflowing with anger, his heart full of +vengeance, started again in pursuit of Li Ching, swearing that he would +punish him. But the Taoist reappeared and prepared to protect Li Ching. + +No-cha, bristling like a savage cat, threw himself at his enemy +and tried to pierce him with his spear, but a white lotus-flower +emerged from the Taoist's mouth and arrested the course of the +weapon. As No-cha continued to threaten him, the Taoist drew from +his sleeve a mysterious object which rose in the air, and, falling +at the feet of No-cha, enveloped him in flames. Then No-cha prayed +for mercy. The Taoist exacted from him three separate promises: to +live in harmony with his father, to recognize and address him as his +father, and to throw himself at his, the Taoist's, feet, to indicate +his reconciliation with himself. + +After this act of reconciliation had been performed, Wên-chu T'ien-tsun +promised Li Ching that he should leave his official post to become an +Immortal able to place his services at the disposal of the new Chou +dynasty, shortly to come into power. In order to ensure that their +reconciliation should last for ever, and to place it beyond No-cha's +power to seek revenge, he gave Li Ching the wonderful object by whose +agency No-cha's feet had been burned, and which had been the means +of bringing him into subjection. It was a golden pagoda, which became +the characteristic weapon of Li Ching, and gave rise to his nickname, +Li the Pagoda-bearer. Finally, Yü Huang appointed him Generalissimo +of the Twenty-six Celestial Officers, Grand Marshal of the Skies, +and Guardian of the Gate of Heaven. + + + +CHAPTER XIII + +A Battle of the Gods + + +Multifarious Versatile Divinities + +The _Fêng shên yen i_ describes at length how, during the wars which +preceded the accession of the Chou dynasty in 1122 B.C., a multitude +of demigods, Buddhas, Immortals, etc., took part on one side or the +other, some fighting for the old, some for the new dynasty. They were +wonderful creatures, gifted with marvellous powers. They could at will +change their form, multiply their heads and limbs, become invisible, +and create, by merely uttering a word, terrible monsters who bit and +destroyed, or sent forth poison gases, or emitted flames from their +nostrils. In these battles there is much lightning, thunder, flight +of fire-dragons, dark clouds which vomit burning hails of murderous +weapons; swords, spears, and arrows fall from the sky on to the heads +of the combatants; the earth trembles, the pillars of Heaven shake. + + +Chun T'i + +One of these gifted warriors was Chun T'i, a Taoist of the Western +Paradise, who appeared on the scene when the armies of the rival +dynasties were facing each other. K'ung Hsüan was gallantly holding +the pass of the Chin-chi Ling; Chiang Tzu-ya was trying to take it +by assault--so far without success. + +Chun T'i's mission was to take K'ung Hsüan to the abode of the blest, +his wisdom and general progress having now reached the required +degree of perfection. This was a means of breaking down the invincible +resistance of this powerful enemy and at the same time of rewarding +his brilliant talents. + +But K'ung Hsüan did not approve of this plan, and a fight took +place between the two champions. At one moment Chun T'i was seized +by a luminous bow and carried into the air, but while enveloped in a +cloud of fire he appeared with eighteen arms and twenty-four heads, +holding in each hand a powerful talisman. + + +The One-eyed Peacock + +He put a silk cord round K'ung Hsüan's neck, touched him with his +wand, and forced him to reassume his original form of a red one-eyed +peacock. Chun T'i seated himself on the peacock's back, and it +flew across the sky, bearing its saviour and master to the Western +Paradise. Brilliantly variegated clouds marked its track through space. + + +Arrangements for the Siege + +On the disappearance of its defender the defile of Chin-chi Ling +was captured, and the village of Chieh-p'ai Kuan, the bulwark of the +enemy's forces, reached. This place was defended by a host of genii +and Immortals, the most distinguished among them being the Taoist +T'ung-t'ien Chiao-chu, whose specially effective charms had so far +kept the fort secure against every attempt upon it. + +Lao Tzu himself had deigned to descend from dwelling in happiness, +together with Yüan-shih T'ien-tsun and Chieh-yin Tao-jên, to take +part in the siege. But the town had four gates, and these heavenly +rulers were only three in number. So Chun T'i was recalled, and each +member of the quartette was entrusted with the task of capturing one +of the gates. + + + +Impediments + +Chun T'i's duty was to take the Chüeh-hsien Mên, defended by +T'ung-t'ien Chiao-chu. The warriors who had tried to enter the town by +this gate had one and all paid for their temerity with their lives. The +moment each had crossed the threshold a clap of thunder had resounded, +and a mysterious sword, moving with lightning rapidity, had slain him. + + +Offence and Defence + +As Chun T'i advanced at the head of his warriors terrible lightning +rent the air and the mysterious sword descended like a thunderbolt +upon his head. But Chun T'i held on high his Seven-precious Branch, +whereupon there emerged from it thousands of lotus-flowers, which +formed an impenetrable covering and stopped the sword in its fall. This +and the other gates were then forced, and a grand assault was now +directed against the chief defender of the town. + +T'ung-t'ien Chiao-chu, riding his ox and surrounded by his warriors, +for the last time risked the chance of war and bravely faced his four +terrible adversaries. With his sword held aloft, he threw himself on +Chieh-yin Tao-jên, whose only weapon was his fly-whisk. But there +emerged from this a five-coloured lotus-flower, which stopped the +sword-thrust. While Lao Tzu struck the hero with his staff, Yüan-shih +T'ien-tsun warded off the terrible sword with his jade _ju-i_. + +Chun T'i now called to his help the spiritual peacock, and took the +form of a warrior with twenty-four heads and eighteen arms. His +mysterious weapons surrounded T'ung-t'ien Chiao-chu, and Lao Tzu +struck the hero so hard that fire came out from his eyes, nose, +and mouth. Unable to parry the assaults of his adversaries, he next +received a blow from Chun T'i's magic wand, which felled him, and he +took flight in a whirlwind of dust. + +The defenders now offered no further resistance, and Yüan-shih +T'ien-tsun thanked Chun T'i for the valuable assistance he had rendered +in the capture of the village, after which the gods returned to their +palace in the Western Heaven. + + +Attempts at Revenge + +T'ung-t'ien Chiao-chu, vanquished and routed, swore to have his +revenge. He called to his aid the spirits of the twenty-eight +constellations, and marched to attack Wu Wang's army. The honour of +the victory that ensued belonged to Chun T'i, who disarmed both the +Immortal Wu Yün and T'ung-t'ien Chiao-chu. + +Wu Yün, armed with his magic sword, entered the lists against Chun +T'i; but the latter opened his mouth and a blue lotus-flower came +out and stopped the blows aimed at him. Other thrusts were met by +similar miracles. + +"Why continue so useless a fight?" said Chun T'i at last. "Abandon +the cause of the Shang, and come with me to the Western Paradise. I +came to save you, and you must not compel me to make you resume your +original form." + +An insulting flow of words was the reply; again the magic sword +descended like lightning, and again the stroke was averted by a timely +lotus-flower. Chun T'i now waved his wand, and the magic sword was +broken to bits, the handle only remaining in Wu Yün's hand. + + + +The Golden-bearded Turtle + +Mad with rage, Wu Yün seized his club and tried to fell his enemy. But +Chun T'i summoned a disciple, who appeared with a bamboo pole. This he +thrust out like a fishing-rod, and on a hook at the end of the line +attached to the pole dangled a large golden-bearded turtle. This +was the Immortal Wu Yün, now in his original form of a spiritual +turtle. The disciple seated himself on its back, and both, disappearing +into space, returned to the Western Heavens. + + +The Battle Won + +To conquer T'ung-t'ien Chiao-chu was more difficult, but after a long +fight Chun T'i waved his Wand of the Seven Treasures and broke his +adversary's sword. The latter, disarmed and vanquished, disappeared +in a cloud of dust. Chun T'i did not trouble to pursue him. The battle +was won. + + +Buddhahood + +A disciple of T'ung-t'ien Chiao-chu, P'i-lu Hsien, 'the Immortal +P'i-lu,' seeing his master beaten in two successive engagements, +left the battlefield and followed Chun T'i to the Western Paradise, +to become a Buddha. He is known as P'i-lu Fo, one of the principal +gods of Buddhism. + +Chun T'i's festival is celebrated on the sixth day of the third +moon. He is generally shown with eight hands and three faces, one of +the latter being that of a pig. + + + +CHAPTER XIV + +How the Monkey Became a God + + +The Hsi Yu Chi + +In dealing with the gods of China we noticed the monkey among them. Why +and in what manner he attained to that exalted rank is set forth in +detail in the _Hsi yu chi_ [33]--a work the contents of which have +become woven into the fabric of Chinese legendary lore and are known +and loved by every intelligent native. Its pages are filled with +ghosts, demons, and fairies, good and bad, but "it contains no more +than the average Chinese really believes to exist, and his belief in +such manifestations is so firm that from the cradle to the grave he +lives and moves and has his being in reference to them." Its characters +are said to be allegorical, though it may be doubted whether these +implications may rightly be read into the Chinese text. Thus: + +Hsüan (or Yüan) Chuang, or T'ang Sêng, is the pilgrim of the _Hsi yu +chi_, who symbolizes conscience, to which all actions are brought for +trial. The priestly garment of Hsüan Chuang symbolizes the good work +of the rectified human nature. It is held to be a great protection +to the new heart from the myriads of evil beings which surround it, +seeking its destruction. + +Sun Hou-tzu, the Monkey Fairy, represents human nature, which is prone +to all evil. His unreasonable vagaries moved Hsüan Chuang to compel +him to wear a Head-splitting Helmet which would contract upon his head +in moments of waywardness. The agonizing pressure thus caused would +bring him to his senses, irrespective of his distance from his master. + +The iron wand of Sun Hou-tzu is said to represent the use that can be +made of doctrine. It was useful for all purposes, great or small. By +a word it could be made invisible, and by a word it could become long +enough to span the distance between Heaven and earth. + +Chu Pa-chieh, the Pig Fairy, with his muck-rake, stands for the +coarser passions, which are constantly at war with the conscience in +their endeavours to cast off all restraint. + +Sha Ho-shang, Priest Sha, is a good representation of Mr Faithful +in _The Pilgrim's Progress_. In the _Hsi yu chi_ he stands for the +human character, which is naturally weak and which needs constant +encouragement. + + +Legend of Sun Hou-tzu + +The deeds of this marvellous creature, the hero of the _Hsi yu chi_, +are to be met with continually in Chinese popular literature, and they +are very much alive in the popular mind. In certain parts a regular +worship is offered to him, and in many temples representations of or +legends concerning him are to be seen or heard. + +Other names by which Sun Hou-tzu is referred to are: Sun Hsing-chê, +Sun Wu-k'ung, Mei Hou-wang, Ch'i-t'ien Ta Shêng, and Pi-ma Wên, the +last-mentioned being a title which caused him annoyance by recalling +the derisive dignity conferred upon him by Yü Huang. [34] Throughout +the remainder of this chapter Sun Hou-tzu will be shortly referred +to as 'Sun.' + +Beyond the seas, in the Eastern continent, in the kingdom of Ao-lai, +is the mountain Hua-kuo Shan. On the steep sides of this mountain there +is a rocky point 36 feet 5 inches high and 24 feet in circumference. At +the very top an egg formed, and, fructified by the breath of the wind, +gave birth to a stone monkey. The newly-born saluted the four points +of the horizon; from his eyes shone golden streaks of lightning, +which filled the palace of the North Pole Star with light. This light +subsided as soon as he was able to take nourishment. + +"To-day," said Yü Huang to himself, "I am going to complete the +wonderful diversity of the beings engendered by Heaven and earth. This +monkey will skip and gambol to the highest peaks of mountains, jump +about in the waters, and, eating the fruit of the trees, will be the +companion of the gibbon and the crane. Like the deer he will pass +his nights on the mountain slopes, and during the day will be seen +leaping on their summits or in their caverns. That will be the finest +ornament of all for the mountains!" + +The creature's exploits soon caused him to be proclaimed king +of the monkeys. He then began to try to find some means of +becoming immortal. After travelling for eighteen years by land +and sea he met the Immortal P'u-t'i Tsu-shih on the mountain +Ling-t'ai-fang-ts'un. During his travels the monkey had gradually +acquired human attributes; his face remained always as it had been +originally, but dressed in human apparel he began to be civilized. His +new master gave him the family name of Sun, and personal name of +Wu-k'ung, 'Discoverer of Secrets.' He taught him how to fly through +the air, and to change into seventy-two different forms. With one +leap he could cover 108,000 _li_ (about 36,000 miles). + + + +A Rod of Iron + +Sun, after his return to Hua-kuo Shan, slew the demon Hun-shih Mo-wang, +who had been molesting the monkeys during his long absence. Then he +organized his subjects into a regular army, 47,000 all told. Thus the +peace of the simian kingdom was assured. As for himself, he could +not find a weapon to suit him, and went to consult Ao Kuang, the +Lung Wang, or Dragon-king of the Eastern Sea, about it. It was from +him that he obtained the formidable rod of iron, formerly planted in +the ocean-bed by the Great Yü (Yü Wang) to regulate the level of the +waters. He pulled it out, and modified it to suit his tastes. The +two extremities he bound round with gold bands, and on it engraved +the words: 'Gold-bound Wand of my Desires.' This magic weapon could +accommodate itself to all his wishes; being able to assume the most +incredible proportions or to reduce itself to the form of the finest of +needles, which he kept hidden in his ear. He terrorized the Four Kings +of the sea, and dressed himself at their expense. The neighbouring +kings allied themselves with him. A splendid banquet with copious +libations of wine sealed the alliance of friendship with the seven +kings; but alas! Sun had partaken so liberally that when he was seeing +his guests off, no sooner had he taken a few steps than he fell into a +drunken sleep. The undertakers of Yen Wang, the King of the Hells, to +whom Lung Wang had accused him as the disturber of his watery kingdom, +seized his soul, put chains round its neck, and led it down to the +infernal regions. Sun awoke in front of the gate of the kingdom of +the dead, broke his fetters, killed his two custodians, and, armed +with his magic staff, penetrated into the realm of Yen Wang, where +he threatened to carry out general destruction. He called to the ten +infernal gods to bring him the Register of the Living and the Dead, +tore out with his own hand the page on which were written his name +and those of his monkey subjects, and then told the King of the Hells +that he was no longer subject to the laws of death. Yen Wang yielded, +though with bad grace, and Sun returned triumphant from his expedition +beyond the tomb. + +Before long Sun's escapades came to the knowledge of Yü Huang. Ao +Kuang and Yen Wang each sent deputies to the Master of Heaven, who +took note of the double accusation, and sent T'ai-po Chin-hsing to +summon before him this disturber of the heavenly peace. + + +Grand Master of the Heavenly Stables + +In order to keep him occupied, Sun was appointed Grand Master of the +Heavenly Stables, and was entrusted with the feeding of Yü Huang's +horses; his official celestial title being Pi-ma Wên. Later on, +learning the object of the creation of this derisory appointment, +he overturned the Master's throne, seized his staff, broke down the +South Gate of Heaven, and descended on a cloud to Hua-kuo Shan. + + +Grand Superintendent of the Heavenly Peach-garden + +Yü Huang in great indignation organized a siege of Hua-kuo Shan, +but the Kings of Heaven and the generals with their celestial armies +were repulsed several times. Sun now arrogated to himself the pompous +title of Grand Saint, Governor of Heaven. He had this emblazoned on +his banners, and threatened Yü Huang that he would carry destruction +into his kingdom if he refused to recognize his new dignity. Yü +Huang, alarmed at the result of the military operations, agreed to +the condition laid down by Sun. The latter was then appointed Grand +Superintendent of the Heavenly Peach-garden, the fruit of which +conferred immortality, and a new palace was built for him. + + +Double Immortality + +Having made minute observations on the secret properties of the +peaches, Sun ate of them and was thus assured against death. The +time was ripe for him to indulge in his tricks without restraint, +and an opportunity soon presented itself. Deeply hurt at not having +been invited to the feast of the Peach Festival, P'an-t'ao Hui, given +periodically to the Immortals by Wang-mu Niang-niang, the Goddess of +the Immortals, he resolved upon revenge. When the preparations for the +feast were complete he cast a spell over the servants, causing them +to fall into a deep sleep, and then ate up all the most juicy meats +and drank the fine wines provided for the heavenly guests. Sun had, +however, indulged himself too liberally; with heavy head and bleary +eye he missed the road back to his heavenly abode, and came unaware +to the gate of Lao Chün, who was, however, absent from his palace. It +was only a matter of a few minutes for Sun to enter and swallow the +pills of immortality which Lao Chün kept in five gourds. Thus Sun, +doubly immortal, riding on the mist, again descended to Hua-kuo Shan. + + +Sun Hou-tzu Captured + +These numerous misdeeds aroused the indignation of all the gods and +goddesses. Accusations poured in upon Yü Huang, and he ordered the Four +Gods of the Heavens and their chief generals to bring Sun to him. The +armies laid siege to Hua-kuo Shan, a net was spread in the heavens, +fantastic battles took place, but the resistance of the enemy was as +strenuous and obstinate as before. + +Lao Chün and Êrh-lang, nephew of Yü Huang, then appeared on the +scene. Sun's warriors resisted gallantly, but the forces of Heaven +were too much for them, and at length they were overcome. At this +juncture Sun changed his form, and in spite of the net in the sky +managed to find a way out. In vain search was made everywhere, until +Li T'ien-wang, by the help of his devil-finding mirror, detected the +quarry and informed Êrh-lang, who rushed off in pursuit. Lao Chün +hurled his magic ring on to the head of the fugitive, who stumbled +and fell. Quick as lightning, the celestial dog, T'ien Kou, who was +in Êrh-lang's service, threw himself on him, bit him in the calf, +and caused him to stumble afresh. This was the end of the fight. Sun, +surrounded on all sides, was seized and chained. The battle was won. + + +Sun escapes from Lao Chün's Furnace + +The celestial armies now raised the siege, and returned to their +quarters. But a new and unexpected difficulty arose. Yü Huang condemned +the criminal to death, but when they went to carry out the sentence +the executioners learned that he was invulnerable; swords, iron, +fire, even lightning, could make no impression on his skin. Yü Huang, +alarmed, asked Lao Chün the reason of this. The latter replied that +there was nothing surprising about it, seeing that the knave had +eaten the peaches of life in the garden of Heaven and the pills of +immortality which he had composed. "Hand him over to me," he added. "I +will distil him in my furnace of the Eight Trigrams, and extract from +his composition the elements which render him immortal." + +Yü Huang ordered that the prisoner be handed over, and in the sight +of all he was shut up in Lao Chün's alchemical furnace, which for +forty-nine days was heated white-hot. But at an unguarded moment +Sun lifted the lid, emerged in a rage, seized his magic staff, and +threatened to destroy Heaven and exterminate its inhabitants. Yü Huang, +at the end of his resources, summoned Buddha, who came and addressed +Sun as follows: "Why do you wish to possess yourself of the Kingdom +of the Heavens?" + +"Have I not power enough to be the God of Heaven?" was the arrogant +reply. + +"What qualifications have you?" asked Buddha. "Enumerate them." + +"My qualifications are innumerable," replied Sun. "I am invulnerable, +I am immortal, I can change myself into seventy-two different forms, +I can ride on the clouds of Heaven and pass through the air at will, +with one leap I can traverse a hundred and eight thousand _li_." + +"Well," replied Buddha, "have a match with me; I wager that in one +leap you cannot even jump out of the palm of my hand. If you succeed +I will bestow upon you the sovereignty of Heaven." + + +Broad-jump Competition + +Sun rose into space, flew like lightning in the great vastness, and +reached the confines of Heaven, opposite the five great red pillars +which are the boundaries of the created universe. On one of them +he wrote his name, as irrefutable evidence that he could reach this +extreme limit; this done, he returned triumphant to demand of Buddha +the coveted inheritance. + +"But, wretch," said Buddha, "you never went out of my hand!" + +"How is that?" rejoined Sun. "I went as far as the pillars of Heaven, +and even took the precaution of writing my name on one of them as +proof in case of need." + +"Look then at the words you have written," said Buddha, lifting +a finger on which Sun read with stupefaction his name as he had +inscribed it. + +Buddha then seized Sun, transported him out of Heaven, and changed +his five fingers into the five elements, metal, wood, water, fire, +and earth, which instantly formed five high mountains contiguous to +each other. The mountains were called Wu Hsing Shan, and Buddha shut +Sun up in them. + + +Conditions of Release + +Thus subdued, Sun would not have been able to get out of his stone +prison but for the intercession of Kuan Yin P'u-sa, who obtained +his release on his solemn promise that he would serve as guide, +philosopher, and friend to Hsüan Chuang, the priest who was to +undertake the difficult journey of 108,000 _li_ to the Western +Heaven. This promise, on the whole, he fulfilled in the service +of Hsüan Chuang during the fourteen years of the long journey. Now +faithful, now restive and undisciplined, he was always the one to +triumph in the end over the eighty-one fantastical tribulations which +beset them as they journeyed. + + + +Sha Ho-shang + +One of the principal of Sun's fellow-servants of the Master was +Sha Ho-shang. + +He is depicted wearing a necklace of skulls, the heads of the nine +Chinese deputies sent in former centuries to find the Buddhist canon, +but whom Sha Ho-shang had devoured on the banks of Liu-sha River when +they had attempted to cross it. + +He is also known by the name of Sha Wu-ching, and was originally +Grand Superintendent of the Manufactory of Stores for Yü Huang's +palace. During a great banquet given on the Peach Festival to all +the gods and Immortals of the Chinese Olympus he let fall a crystal +bowl, which was smashed to atoms. Yü Huang caused him to be beaten +with eight hundred blows, drove him out of Heaven, and exiled him to +earth. He lived on the banks of the Liu-sha Ho, where every seventh +day a mysterious sword appeared and wounded him in the neck. Having +no other means of subsistence, he used to devour the passers-by. + + +Sha Ho-shang becomes Baggage-coolie + +When Kuan Yin passed through that region on her way to China to find +the priest who was predestined to devote himself to the laborious +undertaking of the quest of the sacred Buddhist books, Sha Ho-shang +threw himself on his knees before her and begged her to put an end +to all his woes. + +The goddess promised that he should be delivered by the priest, +her envoy, provided he would engage himself in the service of the +pilgrim. On his promising to do this, and to lead a better life, +she herself ordained him priest. In the end it came about that Hsüan +Chuang, when passing the Sha Ho, took him into his suite as coolie +to carry his baggage. Yü Huang pardoned him in consideration of the +service he was rendering to the Buddhist cause. + + +Chu Pa-chieh + +Chu Pa-chieh is a grotesque, even gross, personage, with all the +instincts of animalism. One day, while he was occupying the high office +of Overseer-general of the Navigation of the Milky Way, he, during a +fit of drunkenness, vilely assaulted the daughter of Yü Huang. The +latter had him beaten with two thousand blows from an iron hammer, +and exiled to earth to be reincarnated. + +During his transition a mistake was made, and entering the womb of +a sow he was born half-man, half-pig, with the head and ears of a +pig and a human body. He began by killing and eating his mother, and +then devoured his little porcine brothers. Then he went to live on the +wild mountain Fu-ling Shan, where, armed with an iron rake, he first +robbed and then ate the travellers who passed through that region. + +Mao Êrh-chieh, who lived in the cave Yün-chan Tung, engaged him as +carrier of her personal effects, which she afterward bequeathed to him. + +Yielding to the exhortations of the Goddess Kuan Yin, who, at the +time of her journey to China, persuaded him to lead a less dissolute +life, he was ordained a priest by the goddess herself, who gave him +the name of Chu (Pig), and the religious name of Wu-nêng, 'Seeker +after Strength.' This monster was knocked down by Sun when the latter +was passing over the mountain accompanied by Hsüan Chuang, and he +declared himself a disciple of the pilgrim priest. He accompanied him +throughout the journey, and was also received in the Western Paradise +as a reward for his aid to the Buddhist propaganda. + + + +Hsüan Chuang, the Master + +The origin of this priest was as follows: In the reign of the Emperor +T'ai Tsung of the T'ang dynasty, Ch'ên Kuang-jui, a graduate of Hai +Chou, in his examination for the doctor's degree came out as _chuang +yüan_, first on the list. Wên Chiao (also named Man-t'ang Chiao), the +daughter of the minister Yin K'ai-shan, meeting the young academician, +fell in love with him, and married him. Several days after the wedding +the Emperor appointed Ch'ên Kuang-jui Governor of Chiang Chou (modern +Chên-chiang Fu), in Kiangsu. After a short visit to his native town he +started to take up his post. His old mother and his wife accompanied +him. When they reached Hung Chou his mother fell sick and they were +forced to stay for a time at the Inn of Ten Thousand Flowers, kept +by one Liu Hsiao-êrh. Days passed; the sickness did not leave her, +and as the time for her son to take over the seals of office was +drawing near, he had to proceed without her. + + +The Released Carp + +Before his departure he noticed a fisherman holding in his hand a fine +carp; this he bought for a small sum to give to his mother. Suddenly +he noticed that the fish had a very extraordinary look, and, changing +his mind, he let it go in the waters of the Hung Chiang, afterward +telling his mother what he had done. She congratulated him on his +action, and assured him that the good deed would not go unrewarded. + + +The Chuang Yüan Murdered + +Ch'ên Kuang-jui re-entered his boat with his wife and a servant. They +were stopped by the chief waterman, Liu Hung, and his assistant. Struck +with the great beauty of Ch'ên Kuang-jui's wife, the former planned +a crime which he carried out with the help of his assistant. At the +dead of night he took the boat to a retired spot, killed Ch'ên and +his servant, threw their bodies into the river, seized his official +documents of title and the woman he coveted, passed himself off as the +real _chuang yüan_, and took possession of the magistracy of Chiang +Chou. The widow, who was with child, had two alternatives--silence +or death. Meantime she chose the former. Before she gave birth to her +child, T'ai-po Chin-hsing, the Spirit of the South Pole Star, appeared +to her, and said he had been sent by Kuan Yin, the Goddess of Mercy, +to present her with a son whose fame would fill the Empire. "Above +all," he added, "take every precaution lest Liu Hung kill the child, +for he will certainly do so if he can." When the child was born the +mother, during the absence of Liu Hung, determined to expose it rather +than see it slain. Accordingly she wrapped it up carefully in a shirt, +and carried it to the bank of the Blue River. She then bit her finger, +and with the blood wrote a short note stating the child's origin, +and hid it in its breast. Moreover, she bit off the infant's left +little toe, as an indelible mark of identity. No sooner had this been +done than a gust of wind blew a large plank to the river's edge. The +poor mother tied her infant firmly to this plank and abandoned it to +the mercy of the waves. The waif was carried to the shore of the isle +of Chin Shan, on which stands the famous monastery of Chin-shan Ssu, +near Chinkiang. The cries of the infant attracted the attention of +an old monk named Chang Lao, who rescued it and gave it the name of +Chiang Liu, 'Waif of the River.' He reared it with much care, and +treasured the note its mother had written with her blood. The child +grew up, and Chang Lao made him a priest, naming him Hsüan Chuang on +the day of his taking the vows. When he was eighteen years of age, +having one day quarrelled with another priest, who had cursed him and +reproached him with having neither father nor mother, he, much hurt, +went to his protector Chang Lao. The latter said to him: "The time has +come to reveal to you your origin." He then told him all, showed him +the note, and made him promise to avenge his assassinated father. To +this end he was made a roving priest, went to the official Court, +and eventually got into touch with his mother, who was still living +with the prefect Liu Hung. The letter placed in his bosom, and the +shirt in which he had been wrapped, easily proved the truth of his +statements. The mother, happy at having found her son, promised to +go and see him at Chin Shan. In order to do this, she pretended to +be sick, and told Liu Hung that formerly, when still young, she had +taken a vow which she had not yet been able to fulfil. Liu Hung himself +helped her to do so by sending a large gift of money to the priests, +and allowed her to go with her servants to perform her devotions at +Chin-shan Ssu. On this second visit, during which she could speak +more freely with her son, she wished to see for herself the wound +she had made on his foot. This removed the last shadow of doubt. + + +Hsüan Chuang finds his Grandmother + +She told Hsüan Chuang that he must first of all go to Hung Chou and +find his grandmother, formerly left at the Inn of Ten Thousand Flowers, +and then on to Ch'ang-an to take to her father Yin K'ai-shan a letter, +putting him in possession of the chief facts concerning Liu Hung, +and praying him to avenge her. + +She gave him a stick of incense to take to her mother-in-law. The old +lady lived the life of a beggar in a wretched hovel near the city gate, +and had become blind from weeping. The priest told her of the tragic +death of her son, then touched her eyes with the stick of incense, and +her sight was restored. "And I," she exclaimed, "have so often accused +my son of ingratitude, believing him to be still alive!" He took her +back to the Inn of Ten Thousand Flowers and settled the account, then +hastened to the palace of Yin K'ai-shan. Having obtained an audience, +he showed the minister the letter, and informed him of all that had +taken place. + + +The Murderer Executed + +The following day a report was presented to the Emperor, who gave +orders for the immediate arrest and execution of the murderer of +Ch'ên Kuang-jui. + +Yin K'ai-shan went with all haste to Chên-chiang, where he arrived +during the night, surrounded the official residence, and seized +the culprit, whom he sent to the place where he had committed the +murder. His heart and liver were torn out and sacrificed to the victim. + + +The Carp's Gratitude + +Now it happened that Ch'ên Kuang-jui was not dead after all. The +carp released by him was in fact no other than Lung Wang, the God +of the River, who had been going through his kingdom in that guise +and had been caught in the fisherman's net. On learning that his +rescuer had been cast into the river, Lung Wang had saved him, and +appointed him an officer of his Court. On that day, when his son, +wife, and father-in-law were sacrificing the heart of his assassin +to his _manes_ on the river-bank, Lung Wang ordered that he return +to earth. His body suddenly appeared on the surface of the water, +floated to the bank, revived, and came out full of life and health. The +happiness of the family reunited under such unexpected circumstances +may well be imagined. Ch'ên Kuang-jui returned with his father-in-law +to Chên-chiang, where he took up his official post, eighteen years +after his nomination to it. + +Hsüan Chuang became the Emperor's favourite priest. He was held in +great respect at the capital, and had innumerable honours bestowed upon +him, and in the end was chosen for the journey to the Western Paradise, +where Buddha in person handed him the sacred books of Buddhism. + + +Pai Ma, the White Horse + +When he left the capital, Hsüan Chuang had been presented by the +Emperor with a white horse to carry him on his long pilgrimage. One +day, when he reached Shê-p'an Shan, near a torrent, a dragon emerged +from the deep river-bed and devoured both the horse and its saddle. Sun +tried in vain to find the dragon, and at last had to seek the aid of +Kuan Yin. + +Now Yü Lung San T'ai-tzu, son of Ao Jun, Dragonking of the Western +Sea, having burnt a precious pearl on the roof of his father's palace, +was denounced to Yü Huang, who had him beaten with three hundred blows +and suspended in the air. He was awaiting death when Kuan Yin passed +on her way to China. The unfortunate dragon requested the goddess +to have pity on him, whereupon she prevailed upon Yü Huang to spare +his life on condition that he served as steed for her pilgrim on the +expedition to the Western Paradise. The dragon was handed over to +Kuan Yin, who showed him the deep pool in which he was to dwell while +awaiting the arrival of the priest. It was this dragon who had devoured +Hsüan Chuang's horse, and Kuan Yin now bade him change himself into a +horse of the same colour to carry the priest to his destination. He +had the honour of bearing on his back the sacred books that Buddha +gave to T'ai Tsung's deputy, and the first Buddhist temple built at +the capital bore the name of Pai-ma Miao, 'Temple of the White Horse.' + + +Perils by the Way + +It is natural to expect that numberless exciting adventures should +befall such an interesting quartette, and indeed the _Hsi yu chi_, +which contains a hundred chapters, is full of them. The pilgrims +encountered eighty difficulties on the journey out and one on the +journey home. The following examples are characteristic of the rest. + + +The Grove of Cypress-trees + +The travellers were making their way westward through shining +waters and over green hills, where they found endless luxuriance +of vegetation and flowers of all colours in profusion. But the way +was long and lonely, and as darkness came on without any sign of +habitation the Priest said: "Where shall we find a resting-place for +the night?" The Monkey replied: "My Master, he who has left home +and become a priest must dine on the wind and lodge on the water, +lie down under the moon and sleep in the forest; everywhere is his +home; why then ask where shall we rest?" But Pa-chieh, who was the +bearer of the pilgrim's baggage, was not satisfied with this reply, +and tried to get his load transferred to the horse, but was silenced +when told that the latter's sole duty was to carry the Master. + +However, the Monkey gave Pai Ma a blow with his rod, causing him to +start forward at a great pace, and in a few minutes from the brow of +a hill Hsüan Chuang espied in the distance a grove of cypress-trees, +beneath the shade of which was a large enclosure. This seemed a +suitable place to pass the night, so they made toward it, and as +they approached observed in the enclosure a spacious and luxurious +establishment. There being no indications that the place was then +inhabited, the Monkey made his way inside. + + +A Proposal of Marriage + +He was met by a lady of charming appearance, who came out of an inner +room, and said: "Who is this that ventures to intrude upon a widow's +household?" The situation was embarrassing, but the lady proved to +be most affable, welcomed them all very heartily, told them how she +became a widow and had been left in possession of riches in abundance, +and that she had three daughters, Truth, Love, and Pity by name. She +then proceeded to make a proposal of marriage, not only on behalf +of herself, but of her three daughters as well. They were four men, +and here were four women; she had mountain lands for fruit-trees, +dry lands for grain, flooded fields for rice--more than five thousand +acres of each; horses, oxen, sheep, pigs innumerable; sixty or seventy +farmsteads; granaries choked with grain; storehouses full of silks +and satins; gold and silver enough to last several lifetimes however +extravagantly they lived. Why should the four travellers not finish +their journey there, and be happy ever afterward? The temptation was +great, especially as the three daughters were ladies of surpassing +beauty as well as adepts at needlework and embroidery, well read, +and able to sing sweetly. + +But Hsüan Chuang sat as if listening to frogs after rain, unmoved +except by anger that she should attempt to divert him from his heavenly +purpose, and in the end the lady retired in a rage, slamming the door +behind her. + +The covetous Pa-chieh, however, expressed himself in favour of +accepting the widow's terms. Finding it impossible to do so openly, +he stole round to the back and secured a private interview. His +personal appearance was against him, but the widow was not altogether +uncompliant. She not only entertained the travellers, but agreed +to Pa-chieh retiring within the household in the character of a +son-in-law, the other three remaining as guests in the guest-rooms. + + +Blind Man's Buff + +But a new problem now arose. If Pa-chieh were wedded to one of the +three daughters, the others would feel aggrieved. So the widow proposed +to blindfold him with a handkerchief, and marry him to whichever +he succeeded in catching. But, with the bandage tied over his eyes, +Pa-chieh only found himself groping in darkness. "The tinkling sound +of female trinkets was all around him, the odour of musk was in his +nostrils; like fairy forms they fluttered about him, but he could no +more grasp one than he could a shadow. One way and another he ran till +he was too giddy to stand, and could only stumble helplessly about." + +The prospective mother-in-law then unloosed the bandage, and informed +Pa-chieh that it was not her daughters' 'slipperiness,' as he had +called it, which prevented their capture, but the extreme modesty of +each in being generous enough to forgo her claims in favour of one of +her sisters. Pa-chieh thereupon became very importunate, urging his +suit for any one of the daughters or for the mother herself or for all +three or all four. This was beyond all conscience, but the widow was +equal to the emergency, and suggested another solution. Each of her +daughters wore a waistcoat embroidered in jewels and gold. Pa-chieh +was to try these on in turn, and to marry the owner of the one which +fitted him. Pa-chieh put one on, but as he was tying the cord round +his waist it transformed itself into strong coils of rope which bound +him tightly in every limb. He rolled about in excruciating agony, +and as he did so the curtain of enchantment fell and the beauties +and the palace disappeared. + +Next morning the rest of the party on waking up also found that all +had changed, and saw that they had been sleeping on the ground in the +cypress-grove. On making search they found Pa-chieh bound fast to a +tree. They cut him down, to pursue the journey a sadder and wiser Pig, +and the butt of many a quip from his fellow-travellers. + + +The Lotus Cave + +When the party left the Elephant Country, seeing a mountain ahead, +the Master warned his disciples to be careful. Sun said: "Master, say +not so; remember the text of the Sacred Book, 'So long as the heart is +right there is nothing to fear.'" After this Sun kept a close watch +on Pa-chieh, who, while professing to be on guard, slept most of the +time. When they arrived at Ping-ting Shan they were approached by a +woodcutter, who warned them that in the mountain, which extended for +600 _li_ (200 miles), there was a Lotus Cave, inhabited by a band +of demons under two chiefs, who were lying in wait to devour the +travellers. The woodcutter then disappeared. Accordingly, Pa-chieh +was ordered to keep watch. But, seeing some hay, he lay down and went +to sleep, and the mountain demons carried him away to the Lotus Cave. + +On seeing Pa-chieh, the second chief said: "He is no good; you must +go in search of the Master and the Monkey." All this time the Monkey, +to protect his Master, was walking ahead of the horse, swinging his +club up and down and to right and left. The Demon-king saw him from +the top of the mountain and said to himself: "This Monkey is famous +for his magic, but I will prove that he is no match for me; I will +yet feast on his Master." So, descending the mountain, he transformed +himself into a lame beggar and waited by the roadside. The Master, +out of pity, persuaded the Monkey to carry him. While on the Monkey's +back the Demon, by magic skill, threw Mount Mêru on to Sun's head, +but the Monkey warded it off with his left shoulder, and walked +on. Then the Demon threw Mount Ô-mei on to Sun's head, and this +he warded off with his right shoulder, and walked on, much to the +Demon's surprise. Lastly the Demon caused T'ai Shan to fall on to his +head. This at last stunned the Monkey. Sha Ho-shang now defended the +Master with his staff, which was, however, no match for the Demon's +starry sword. The Demon seized the Master and carried him under one +arm and Sha Ho-shang under the other to the Lotus Cave. + +The two Demons then planned to take their two most precious things, +a yellow gourd and a jade vase, and try to bottle the Monkey. They +arranged to carry them upside down and call out the Monkey's name. If +he replied, then he would be inside, and they could seal him up, +using the seal of the great Ancient of Days, the dweller in the +mansion of T'ai Sui. [35] + + +The Monkey under the Mountain + +When the Monkey found that he was being crushed under the mountain he +was greatly distressed about his Master, and cried out: "Oh, Master, +you delivered me from under the mountain before, and trained me in +religion; how is it that you have brought me to this pass? If you +must die, why should Sha Ho-shang and Pa-chieh and the Dragon-horse +also suffer?" Then his tears poured down like rain. + +The spirits of the mountain were astonished at hearing these words. The +guardian angels of the Five Religions asked: "Whose is this mountain, +and who is crushed beneath it?" The local gods replied: "The mountain +is ours, but who is under it we do not know." "If you do not know," +the angels replied, "we will tell you. It is the Great Holy One, +the Equal of Heaven, who rebelled there five hundred years ago. He +is now converted, and is the disciple of the Chinese ambassador. How +dare you lend your mountain to the Demon for such a purpose?" The +guardian angels and local gods then recited some prayers, and the +mountain was removed. The Monkey sprang up, brandishing his spear, +and the spirits at once apologized, saying that they were under +enforced service to the Demons. + +While they were speaking Sun saw a light approaching, and asked +what it was. The spirits replied: "This light comes from the Demons' +magic treasures. We fear they are bringing them to catch you." Sun +then said: "Now we shall have some sport. Who is the Demon-chief's +associate?" "He is a Taoist," they replied, "who is always occupied in +preparing chemicals." The Monkey said: "Leave me, and I will catch them +myself." He then transformed himself into a duplicate of the Taoist. + + +The Magic Gourd + +Sun went to meet the Demons, and in conversation learnt from them that +they were on their way to catch the famous Monkey, and that the magic +gourd and vase were for that purpose. They showed these treasures to +him, and explained that the gourd, though small, could hold a thousand +people. "That is nothing," replied Sun. "I have a gourd which can +contain all the heavens." At this they marvelled greatly, and made a +bargain with him, according to which he was to give them his gourd, +after it had been tested as to its capacity to contain the heavens, +in exchange for their precious gourd and vase. Going up to Heaven, +the Monkey obtained permission to extinguish the light of the sun, +moon, and stars for one hour. At noon the next day there was complete +darkness, and the Demons believed Sun when he stated that he had put +the whole heavens into his gourd so that there could be no light. They +then handed over to the Monkey their magic gourd and vase, and in +exchange he gave them his false gourd. + + + +The Magic Rope + +On discovering that they had been deceived, the Demons made complaint +to their chiefs, who informed them that Sun, by pretending to be one +of the Immortals, had outwitted them. They had now lost two out of +their five magic treasures. There remained three, the magic sword, +the magic palm fan, and the magic rope. "Go," said they, "and invite +our dear grandmother to come and dine on human flesh." Personating +one of the Demons, Sun himself went on this errand. He told the old +lady that he wanted her to bring with her the magic rope, with which +to catch Sun. She was delighted, and set out in her chair carried by +two fairies. + +When they had gone some few _li_, Sun killed the ladies, and then saw +that they were foxes. He took the magic rope, and thus had three of +the magic treasures. Having changed the dead so that they looked like +living creatures, he returned to the Lotus Cave. Many small demons came +running up, saying that the old lady had been slain. The Demon-king, +alarmed, proposed to release the whole party. But his younger brother +said: "No, let me fight Sun. If I win, we can eat them; if I fail, +we can let them go." + +After thirty bouts Sun lost the magic rope, and the Demon lassoed him +with it and carried him to the cave, and took back the magic gourd +and vase. Sun now transformed himself into two false demons. One he +placed instead of himself in the lasso bound to a pillar, and then +went and reported to the second Demon-chief that Sun was struggling +hard, and that he should be bound with a stronger rope lest he make +his escape. Thus, by this strategy, Sun obtained possession of the +magic rope again. By a similar trick he also got back the magic gourd +and vase. + + + +The Master Rescued + +Sun and the Demons now began to wrangle about the respective merits +of their gourds, which, each assured the other, could imprison men +and make them obey their wishes. Finally, Sun succeeded in putting +one of the Demons into his gourd. + +There ensued another fight concerning the magic sword and palm fan, +during which the fan was burnt to ashes. After more encounters Sun +succeeded in bottling the second Demon in the magic vase, and sealed +him up with the seal of the Ancient of Days. Then the magic sword +was delivered, and the Demons submitted. Sun returned to the cave, +fetched his Master out, swept the cave clean of all evil spirits, and +they then started again on their westward journey. On the road they +met a blind man, who addressed them saying: "Whither away, Buddhist +Priest? I am the Ancient of Days. Give me back my magic treasures. In +the gourd I keep the pills of immortality. In the vase I keep the +water of life. The sword I use to subdue demons. With the fan I stir +up enthusiasm. With the cord I bind bundles. One of these two Demons +had charge of the gold crucible. They stole my magic treasures and +fled to the mundane sphere of mortals. You, having captured them, +are deserving of great reward." But Sun replied: "You should be +severely punished for allowing your servants to do this evil in the +world." The Ancient of Days replied: "No, without these trials your +Master and his disciples could never attain to perfection." + +Sun understood and said: "Since you have come in person for the magic +treasures, I return them to you." After receiving them, the Ancient +of Days returned to his T'ai Sui mansion in the skies. + + + +The Red Child Demon + +By the autumn the travellers arrived at a great mountain. They saw +on the road a red cloud which the Monkey thought must be a demon. It +was in fact a demon child who, in order to entrap the Master, had had +himself bound and tied to the branch of a tree. The child repeatedly +cried out to the passers-by to deliver him. Sun suspected that it was +a trick; but the Master could no longer endure the pitiful wails; he +ordered his disciples to loose the child, and the Monkey to carry him. + +As they proceeded on their way the Demon caused a strong whirlwind to +spring up, and during this he carried off the Master. Sun discovered +that the Demon was an old friend of his, who, centuries before, had +pledged himself to eternal friendship. So he consoled his comrades +by saying that he felt sure no harm would come to the Master. + + +A Prospective Feast + +Soon Sun and his companions reached a mountain covered with +pine-forests. Here they found the Demon in his cave, intent upon +feasting on the Priest. The Demon refused to recognize his ancient +friendship with Sun, so the two came to blows. The Demon set fire to +everything, so that the Monkey might be blinded by the smoke. Thus +he was unable to find his Master. In despair he said: "I must get +the help of some one more skilful than myself." Pa-chieh was sent +to fetch Kuan Yin. The Demon then seized a magic bag, transformed +himself into the shape of Kuan Yin, and invited Pa-chieh to enter the +cave. The simpleton fell into the trap and was seized and placed in +the bag. Then the Demon appeared in his true form, and said: "I am +the beggar child, and mean to cook you for my dinner. A fine man to +protect his Master you are!" The Demon then summoned six of his most +doughty generals and ordered them to accompany him to fetch his father, +King Ox-head, to dine off the pilgrim. When they had gone Sun opened +the bag, released Pa-chieh, and both followed the six generals. + + +The Generals Tricked + +Sun thought that as the Demon had played a trick on Pa-chieh, he +would play one on his generals. So he hurried on in front of them, +and changed himself into the form of King Ox-head. The Demon and +his generals were invited into his presence, and Red Child said: +"If anyone eats of the pilgrim's flesh, his life will be prolonged +indefinitely. Now he is caught and I invite you to feast on him." Sun, +personifying the father, said: "No, I cannot come. I am fasting +to-day. Moreover, Sun has charge of the pilgrim, and if any harm befall +him it will be the worse for you, for he has seventy-two magic arts. He +can make himself so big that your cave cannot contain him, and he +can make himself as small as a fly, a mosquito, a bee, or a butterfly." + +Sun then went to Kuan Yin and appealed for help. She gave him a +bottle, but he found he could not move it. "No," said Kuan Yin, +"for all the forces of the ocean are stored in it." + +Kuan Yin lifted it with ease, and said: "This dew water is different +from dragon water, and can extinguish the fire of passion. I will +send a fairy with you on your boat. You need no sails. The fairy +needs only to blow a little, and the boat moves along without any +effort." Finally, the Red Child, having been overcome, repented and +begged to be received as a disciple. Kuan Yin received him and blessed +him, giving him the name of Steward. + + +The Demons of Blackwater River + +One day the Master suddenly exclaimed: "What is that noise?" Sun +replied: "You are afraid; you have forgotten the Heart Prayer, +according to which we are to be indifferent to all the calls of the +six senses--the eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, mind. These are the Six +Thieves. If you cannot suppress them, how do you expect to see the +Great Lord?" The Master thought a while and then said: "O disciple, +when shall we see the Incarnate Model (Ju Lai) face to face?" + +Pa-chieh said: "If we are to meet such demons as these, it will take +us a thousand years to get to the West." But Sha Ho-shang rejoined: +"Both you and I are stupid; if we persevere and travel on, shoulder +to shoulder, we shall reach there at last." While thus talking, +they saw before them a dark river in flood, which the horse could not +cross. Seeing a small boat, the Master said: "Let us engage that boat +to take us across." While crossing the river in it, they discovered +that it was a boat sent by the Demon of Blackwater River to entrap +them in midstream, and the Master would have been slain had not Sun +and the Western Dragon come to the rescue. + + +The Slow-carts Country + +Having crossed the Blackwater River, they journeyed westward, +facing wind and snow. Suddenly they heard a great shout as of +ten thousand voices. The Master was alarmed, but Sun laughingly +went to investigate. Sitting on a cloud, he rose in the air, and +saw a city, outside of which there were thousands of priests and +carts laden with bricks and all kinds of building materials. This +was the city where Taoists were respected, and Buddhists were not +wanted. The Monkey, who appeared among the people as a Taoist, was +informed that the country was called the Ch'ê Ch'ih, 'Slow-carts +Country,' and for twenty years had been ruled by three Taoists who +could procure rain during times of drought. Their names were Tiger, +Deer, and Sheep. They could also command the wind, and change stones +into gold. The Monkey said to the two leading Taoists: "I wonder +if I shall be so fortunate as to see your Emperor?" They replied: +"We will see to that when we have attended to our business." The +Monkey inquired what business the priests could have. "In former +times," they said, "when our King ordered the Buddhists to pray for +rain, their prayers were not answered. Then the Taoists prayed, and +copious showers fell. Since then all the Buddhist priests have been +our slaves, and have to carry the building materials, as you see. We +must assign them their work, and then will come to you." Sun replied: +"Never mind; I am in search of an uncle of mine, from whom I have not +heard for many years. Perhaps he is here among your slaves." They said: +"You may see if you can find him." + + +Restraints on Freedom + +Sun went to look for his uncle. Hearing this, many Buddhist priests +surrounded him, hoping to be recognized as his lost relative. After +a while he smiled. They asked him the reason. He said: "Why do you +make no progress? Life is not meant for idleness." They said: "We +cannot do anything. We are terribly oppressed." "What power have your +masters?" "By using their magic they can call up wind or rain." "That +is a small matter," said Sun. "What else can they do?" "They can make +the pills of immortality, and change stone into gold." + +Sun said: "These are also small matters; many can do the same. How did +these Taoists deceive your King?" "The King attends their prayers night +and day, expecting thereby to attain to immortality." "Why do you not +leave the place?" "It is impossible, for the King has ordered pictures +of us to be hung up everywhere. In all the numerous prefectures, +magistracies, and market-places in Slow-carts Country are pictures of +the Buddhist priests, and any official who catches a runaway priest +is promoted three degrees, while every non-official receives fifty +taels. The proclamation is signed by the King. So you see we are +helpless." Sun then said: "You might as well die and end it all." + + +Immortal for Suffering + +They replied: "A great number have died. At one time we numbered +more than two thousand. But through deaths and suicides there now +remain only about five hundred. And we who remain cannot die. Ropes +cannot strangle us, swords cannot cut us; if we plunge into the +river we cannot sink; poison does not kill us." Sun said: "Then +you are fortunate, for you are all Immortals." "Alas!" said they, +"we are immortal only for suffering. We get poor food. We have only +sand to sleep on. But in the night hours spirits appear to us and +tell us not to kill ourselves, for an Arhat will come from the East +to deliver us. With him there is a disciple, the Great Holy One, +the Equal of Heaven, most powerful and tender-hearted. He will put +an end to these Taoists and have pity on us Buddhists." + + +The Saviour of the Buddhists + +Inwardly Sun was glad that his fame had gone abroad. Returning to the +city, he met the two chief Taoists. They asked him if he had found +his relative. "Yes," he replied, "they are all my relatives!" They +smiled and said: "How is it that you have so many relatives?" Sun +said: "One hundred are my father's relatives, one hundred my mother's +relatives, and the remainder my adopted relatives. If you will let +all these priests depart with me, then I will enter the city with you; +otherwise I will not enter." "You must be mad to speak to us in this +way. The priests were given us by the King. If you had asked for a +few only, we might have consented, but your request is altogether +unreasonable." Sun then asked them three times if they would liberate +the priests. When they finally refused, he grew very angry, took his +magic spear from his ear and brandished it in the air, when all their +heads fell off and rolled on the ground. + + +Anger of the Buddhist Priests + +The Buddhist priests saw from a distance what had taken place, +and shouted: "Murder, murder! The Taoist superintendents are being +killed." They surrounded Sun, saying: "These priests are our masters; +they go to the temple without visiting the King, and return home +without taking leave of the King. The King is the high priest. Why +have you killed his disciples? The Taoist chief priest will certainly +accuse us Buddhist priests of the murders. What are we to do? If we go +into the city with you they will make you pay for this with your life." + +Sun laughed. "My friends," he said, "do not trouble yourselves over +this matter. I am not the Master of the Clouds, but the Great Holy +One, a disciple of the Holy Master from China, going to the Western +Paradise to fetch the sacred books, and have come to save you." + +"No, no," said they, "this cannot be, for we know him." Sun replied: +"Having never met him, how can you know him?" They replied: "We have +seen him in our dreams. The spirit of the planet Venus has described +him to us and warned us not to make a mistake." "What description did +he give?" asked Sun. They replied: "He has a hard head, bright eyes, +a round, hairy face without cheeks, sharp teeth, prominent mouth, +a hot temper, and is uglier than the Thunder-god. He has a rod of +iron, caused a disturbance in Heaven itself, but later repented, +and is coming with the Buddhist pilgrim in order to save mankind from +calamities and misery." With mixed feelings Sun replied: "My friends, +no doubt you are right in saying I am not Sun. I am only his disciple, +who has come to learn how to carry out his plans. But," he added, +pointing with his hand, "is not that Sun coming yonder?" They all +looked in the direction in which he had pointed. + + +Sun bestows Talismans + +Sun quickly changed himself from a Taoist priest, and appeared in +his natural form. At this they all fell down and worshipped him, +asking his forgiveness because their mortal eyes could not recognize +him. They then begged him to enter the city and compel the demons to +repent. Sun told them to follow him. He then went with them to a sandy +place, emptied two carts and smashed them into splinters, and threw +all the bricks, tiles, and timber into a heap, calling upon all the +priests to disperse. "Tomorrow," he said, "I am going to see the King, +and will destroy the Taoists!" Then they said: "Sir, we dare not go +any farther, lest they attempt to seize you and cause trouble." "Have +no fear," he replied; "but if you think so I will give you a charm to +protect you." He pulled out some hairs, and gave one to each to hold +firmly on the third finger. "If anyone tries to seize you," he said, +"keep tight hold of it, call out 'Great Holy One, the Equal of Heaven,' +and I will at once come to your rescue, even though I be ten thousand +miles away." Some of them tried the charm, and, sure enough, there +he was before them like the God of Thunder. In his hand he held a +rod of iron, and he could keep ten thousand men and horses at bay. + + +The Magic Circle + +It was now winter. The pilgrims were crossing a high mountain by +a narrow pass, and the Master was afraid of wild beasts. The three +disciples bade him fear not, as they were united, and were all good +men seeking truth. Being cold and hungry they rejoiced to see a fine +building ahead of them, but Sun said: "It is another devil's trap. I +will make a ring round you. Inside that you will be safe. Do not wander +outside it. I will go and look for food." Sun returned with his bowl +full of rice, but found that his companions had got tired of waiting, +and had disappeared. They had gone forward to the fine building, which +Pa-chieh entered. Not a soul was to be seen, but on going upstairs +he was terrified to see a human skeleton of immense size lying on +the floor. At this moment the Demon of the house descended on them, +bound the Master, and said: "We have been told that if we eat of your +flesh our white hair will become black again, and our lost teeth grow +anew." So he ordered the small devils who accompanied him to bind the +others. This they did, and thrust the pilgrims into a cave, and then +lay in wait for Sun. It was not long before the Monkey came up, when +a great fight ensued. In the end, having failed, notwithstanding the +exercise of numerous magic arts, to release his companions, Sun betook +himself to the Spiritual Mountain and besought Ju Lai's aid. Eighteen +_lohan_ were sent to help him against the Demon. When Sun renewed the +attack, the _lohan_ threw diamond dust into the air, which blinded the +Demon and also half buried him. But, by skilful use of his magic coil, +he gathered up all the diamond dust and carried it back to his cave. + +The _lohan_ then advised Sun to seek the aid of the Ancient of +Days. Accordingly, Sun ascended to the thirty-third Heaven, where +was the palace of the god. He there discovered that the Demon was +none other than one of the god's ox-spirits who had stolen the magic +coil. It was, in fact, the same coil with which Sun himself had at +last been subdued when he had rebelled against Heaven. + + +Help from Ju Lai + +The Ancient of Days mounted a cloud and went with Sun to the cave. When +the Demon saw who had come he was terrified. The Ancient of Days then +recited an incantation, and the Demon surrendered the magic coil +to him. On the recitation of a second incantation all his strength +left him, and he appeared as a bull, and was led away by a ring in +his nose. The Master and his disciples were then set at liberty, +and proceeded on their journey. + + +The Fire-quenching Fan + +In the autumn the pilgrims found themselves in the Ssu Ha Li Country, +where everything was red--red walls, red tiles, red varnish on doors +and furniture. Sixty _li_ from this place was the Flaming Mountain, +which lay on their road westward. + +An old man they met told them that it was possible to cross the +Flaming Mountain only if they had the Magic Iron Fan, which, waved +once, quenched fire, waved a second time produced strong wind, and +waved a third time produced rain. This magic fan was kept by the +Iron-fan Princess in a cave on Ts'ui-yün Shan, 1500 _li_ distant. On +hearing this, Sun mounted a cloud, and in an instant was transported +to the cave. The Iron-fan Princess was one of the _lochas_ (wives +and daughters of demons), and the mother of the Red Child Demon, who +had become a disciple of Kuan Yin. On seeing Sun she was very angry, +and determined to be revenged for the outwitting of her husband, +King Ox-head, and for the carrying away of her son. The Monkey said: +"If you lend me the Iron Fan I will bring your son to see you." For +answer she struck him with a sword. They then fell to fighting, the +contest lasting a long while, until at length, feeling her strength +failing, the Princess took out the Iron Fan and waved it. The wind +it raised blew Sun to a distance of 84,000 _li_, and whirled him +about like a leaf in a whirlwind. But he soon returned, reinforced +by further magic power lent him by the Buddhist saints. The Princess, +however, deceived him by giving him a fan which increased the flames +of the mountain instead of quenching them. Sun and his friends had +to retreat more than 20 _li_, or they would have been burned. + +The local mountain-gods now appeared, bringing refreshments, and urging +the pilgrims to get the Fan so as to enable them to proceed on their +journey. Sun pointed to his fan and said: "Is not this the Fan?" They +smiled and said: "No, this is a false one which the Princess has +given you." They added: "Originally there was no Flaming Mountain, but +when you upset the furnace in Heaven five hundred years ago the fire +fell here, and has been burning ever since. For not having taken more +care in Heaven, we have been set to guard it. The Demon-king Ox-head, +though he married the _locha_ Princess, deserted her some two years +ago for the only daughter of a fox-king. They live at Chi-lei Shan, +some three thousand _li_ from here. If you can get the true Iron +Fan through his help you will be able to extinguish the flames, take +your Master to the West, save the lives of many people round here, +and enable us to return to Heaven once more." + +Sun at once mounted a cloud and was soon at Chi-lei Shan. There +he met the Fox-princess, whom he upbraided and pursued back to +her cave. The Ox-demon came out and became very angry with Sun +for having frightened her. Sun asked him to return with him to the +_locha_ Princess and persuade her to give him the Magic Fan, This he +refused to do. They then fought three battles, in all of which Sun +was successful. He changed into the Ox-demon's shape and visited the +_locha_ Princess. She, thinking he was the Ox-demon, gladly received +him, and finally gave him the Magic Fan; he then set out to return +to his Master. + + +The Power of the Magic Fan + +The Ox-demon, following after Sun, saw him walking along, joyfully +carrying the Magic Fan on his shoulder. Now Sun had forgotten to ask +how to make it small, like an apricot leaf, as it was at first. The +Ox-demon changed himself into the form of Pa-chieh, and going up to +Sun he said: "Brother Sun, I am glad to see you back; I hope you have +succeeded." "Yes," replied Sun, and described his fights, and how he +had tricked the Ox-demon's wife into giving him the Fan. The seeming +Pa-chieh said: "You must be very tired after all your efforts; let +me carry the Magic Fan for you." As soon as he had got possession of +it he appeared in his true form, and tried to use it to blow Sun away +84,000 _li_, for he did not know that the Great Holy One had swallowed +a wind-resisting pill, and was therefore immovable. He then put the +Magic Fan in his mouth and fought with his two swords. He was a match +for Sun in all the magic arts, but through the aid of Pa-chieh and +the help of the local gods sent by the Master the Monkey was able +to prevail against him. The Ox-demon changed himself many times into +a number of birds, but for each of these Sun changed himself into a +swifter and stronger one. The Ox-demon then changed himself into many +beasts, such as tigers, leopards, bears, elephants, and an ox 10,000 +feet long. He then said to Sun, with a laugh: "What can you do to me +now?" Sun seized his rod of iron, and cried: "Grow!" He immediately +became 100,000 feet high, with eyes like the sun and moon. They fought +till the heavens and the earth shook with their onslaughts. + + + +Defeat of the Ox-demon + +The Ox-demon being of so fierce and terrible a nature, both Buddha +in Heaven and the Taoist Celestial Ruler sent down whole legions of +celebrated warriors to help the Master's servant. The Ox-demon tried +to escape in every direction, one after the other, but his efforts +were in vain. Finally defeated, he was made to promise for himself and +his wife to give up their evil ways and to follow the holy precepts +of the Buddhist doctrine. + +The Magic Fan was given to Sun, who at once proceeded to test its +powers. When he waved it once the fires on Flaming Mountain died +out. When he waved it a second time a gentle breeze sprang up. When +he waved it a third time refreshing rain fell everywhere, and the +pilgrims proceeded on their way in comfort. + + +The Lovely Women + +Having travelled over many mountains, the travellers came to a +village. The Master said: "You, my disciples, are always very kind, +taking round the begging-bowl and getting food for me. To-day I will +take the begging-bowl myself." But Sun said: "That is not right; you +must let us, your disciples, do this for you." But the Master insisted. + +When he reached the village, there was not a man to be seen, but only +some lovely women. He did not think that it was right for him to speak +to women. On the other hand, if he did not procure anything for their +meal, his disciples would make fun of him. So, after long hesitation, +he went forward and begged food of them. They invited him to their cave +home, and, having learnt who he was, ordered food for him, but it was +all human flesh. The Master informed them that he was a vegetarian, +and rose to take his departure, but instead of letting him go they +surrounded and bound him, thinking that he would be a fine meal for +them next day. + + +An Awkward Predicament + +Then seven of the women went out to bathe in a pool. There Sun, in +search of his Master, found them and would have killed them, only he +thought it was not right to kill women. So he changed himself into an +eagle and carried away their clothes to his nest. This so frightened +the women that they crouched in the pool and did not dare to come out. + +But Pa-chieh, also in search of his Master, found the women bathing. He +changed himself into a fish, which the women tried to catch, chasing +him hither and thither round the pool. After a while Pa-chieh leapt +out of the pool and, appearing in his true form, threatened the +women for having bound his Master. In their fright the women fled to +a pavilion, round which they spun spiders' threads so thickly that +Pa-chieh became entangled and fell. They then escaped to their cave +and put on some clothes. + + +How the Master was Rescued + +When Pa-chieh at length had disentangled himself from the webs, he saw +Sun and Sha Ho-shang approaching. Having learnt what had happened, +they feared the women might do some injury to the Master, so they +ran to the cave to rescue him. On the way they were beset by the +seven dwarf sons of the seven women, who transformed themselves into +a swarm of dragon-flies, bees, and other insects. But Sun pulled out +some hairs and, changing them into seven different swarms of flying +insects, destroyed the hostile swarm, and the ground was covered a +foot deep with the dead bodies. On reaching the cave, the pilgrims +found it had been deserted by the women. They released the Master, +and made him promise never to beg for food again. Having given the +promise, he mounted his horse, and they proceeded on their journey. + + +The Spiders and the Extinguisher + +When they had gone a short distance they perceived a great building of +fine architecture ahead of them. It proved to be a Taoist temple. Sha +Ho-shang said: "Let us enter, for Buddhism and Taoism teach the +same things. They differ only in their vestments." The Taoist abbot +received them with civility and ordered five cups of tea. Now he was +in league with the seven women, and when the servant had made the tea +they put poison in each cup. Sun, however, suspected a conspiracy, +and did not drink his tea. Seeing that the rest had been poisoned, he +went and attacked the sisters, who transformed themselves into huge +spiders. They were able to spin ropes instead of webs with which to +bind their enemies. But Sun attacked and killed them all. + +The Taoist abbot then showed himself in his true form, a demon with +a thousand eyes. He joined battle with Sun, and a terrible contest +ensued, the result being that the Demon succeeded in putting an +extinguisher on his enemy. This was a new trick which Sun did not +understand. However, after trying in vain to break out through the +top and sides, he began to bore downward, and, finding that the +extinguisher was not deep in the ground, he succeeded in effecting +his escape from below. But he feared that his Master and the others +would die of the poison. At this juncture, while he was suffering +mental tortures on their behalf, a Bodhisattva, Lady Pi Lan, came +to his rescue. By the aid of her magic he broke the extinguisher, +gave his Master and fellow-disciples pills to counteract the poison, +and so rescued them. + + +Shaving a Whole City + +The summer had now arrived. On the road the pilgrims met an old +lady and a little boy. The old lady said: "You are priests; do not +go forward, for you are about to pass into the country known as the +Country that exterminates Religion. The inhabitants have vowed to +kill ten thousand priests. They have already slain that number all +but four noted ones whose arrival they expect; then their number will +be complete." + +This old lady was Kuan Yin, with Shên Tsai (Steward), who had come to +give them warning. Sun thereupon changed himself into a candle-moth +and flew into the city to examine for himself. He entered an inn, +and heard the innkeeper warning his guests to look after their own +clothes and belongings when they went to sleep. In order to travel +safely through the city, Sun decided that they should all put on +turbans and clothing resembling that of the citizens. Perceiving +from the innkeeper's warning that thieving was common, Sun stole some +clothing and turbans for his Master and comrades. Then they all came +to the inn at dusk, Sun representing himself as a horse-dealer. + +Fearing that in their sleep their turbans would fall off, and their +shaven heads be revealed, Sun arranged that they should sleep in a +cupboard, which he asked the landlady to lock. + +During the night robbers came and carried the cupboard away, thinking +to find in it silver to buy horses. A watchman saw many men carrying +this cupboard, and became suspicious, and called out the soldiers. The +robbers ran away, leaving the cupboard in the open. The Master was very +angry with Sun for getting him into this danger. He feared that at +daylight they would be discovered and all be executed. But Sun said: +"Do not be alarmed; I will save you yet!" He changed himself into an +ant, and escaped from the cupboard. Then he plucked out some hairs +and changed them into a thousand monkeys like himself. To each he +gave a razor and a charm for inducing sleep. When the King and all +the officials and their wives had succumbed to this charm, the monkeys +were to shave their heads. + +On the morrow there was a terrible commotion throughout the city, +as all the leaders and their families found themselves shaved like +Buddhists. + +Thus the Master was saved again. + + +The Return to China + +The pilgrims having overcome the predicted eighty difficulties of +their outward journey, there remained only one to be overcome on the +homeward way. + +They were now returning upon a cloud which had been placed at their +disposal, and which had been charged to bear them safely home. But +alas! the cloud broke and precipitated them to the earth by the side +of a wide river which they must cross. There were no ferry-boats or +rafts to be seen, so they were glad to avail themselves of the kind +offices of a turtle, who offered to take them across on his back. But +in midstream the turtle reminded Hsüan Chuang of a promise he had made +him when on his outward journey, namely, that he would intercede for +him before the Ruler of the West, and ask his Majesty to forgive all +past offences and allow him to resume his humanity again. The turtle +asked him if he had remembered to keep his word. Hsüan Chuang replied: +"I remember our conversation, but I am sorry to say that under great +pressure I quite forgot to keep my promise." "Then," said the turtle, +"you are at liberty to dispense with my services." He then disappeared +beneath the water, leaving the pilgrims floundering in the stream with +their precious books. They swam the river, and with great difficulty +managed to save a number of volumes, which they dried in the sun. + + +The Travellers Honoured + +The pilgrims reached the capital of their country without further +difficulty. As soon as they appeared in sight the whole population +became greatly excited, and cutting down branches of willow-trees +went out to meet them. As a mark of special distinction the Emperor +sent his own horse for Hsüan Chuang to ride on, and the pilgrims were +escorted with royal honours into the city, where the Emperor and his +grateful Court were waiting to receive them. Hsüan Chuang's queer +trio of converts at first caused great amusement among the crowds +who thronged to see them, but when they learned of Sun's superhuman +achievements, and his brave defence of the Master, their amusement +was changed into wondering admiration. + +But the greatest honours were conferred upon the travellers at +a meeting of the Immortals presided over by Mi-lo Fo, the Coming +Buddha. Addressing Hsüan Chuang, the Buddha said, "In a previous +existence you were one of my chief disciples. But for disobedience +and for lightly esteeming the great teaching your soul was imprisoned +in the Eastern Land. Now a memorial has been presented to me stating +that you have obtained the True Classics of Salvation, thus, by your +faithfulness, completing your meritorious labours. You are appointed +to the high office of Controller of Sacrifices to his Supreme Majesty +the Pearly Emperor." + +Turning to Sun, the Buddha said, "You, Sun, for creating a disturbance +in the palace of Heaven, were imprisoned beneath the Mountain of +the Five Elements, until the fullness of Heaven's calamities had +descended upon you, and you had repented and had joined the holy +religion of Buddha. From that time you have endeavoured to suppress +evil and cherish virtue. And on your journey to the West you have +subjugated evil spirits, ghosts, and demons. For your services you +are appointed God of Victorious Strife." + +For his repentance, and for his assistance to his Master, Chu Pa-chieh, +the Pig Fairy, was appointed Head Altar-washer to the Gods. This +was the highest office for which he was eligible, on account of his +inherent greed. + +Sha Ho-shang was elevated to the rank of Golden Body Perpetual Saint. + +Pai Ma, the white horse who had patiently carried Hsüan Chuang and +his burden of books, was led by a god down the Spirit Mountain to +the banks of the Pool of Dragon-transformation. Pai Ma plunged in, +when he changed at once into a four-footed dragon, with horns, scales, +claws, and wings complete. From this time he became the chief of the +celestial dragon tribe. + +Sun's first thought upon receiving his promotion was to get rid of the +Head-splitting Helmet. Accordingly he said to his Master, "Now that +I am, like yourself, a Buddha, I want you to relieve my head of the +helmet you imposed upon me during the years of my waywardness." Hsüan +Chuang replied, "If you have really become a Buddha, your helmet +should have disappeared of itself. Are you sure it is still upon your +head?" Sun raised his hand, and lo! the helmet was gone. + +After this the great assembly broke up, and each of the Immortals +returned in peace to his own celestial abode. + + + +CHAPTER XV + +Fox Legends + + +The Fox + +Among the many animals worshipped by the Chinese, those at times +seen emerging from coffins or graves naturally hold a prominent +place. They are supposed to be the transmigrated souls of deceased +human beings. We should therefore expect such animals as the fox, +stoat, weasel, etc., to be closely associated with the worship of +ghosts, spirits, and suchlike creatures, and that they should be the +subjects of, or included in, a large number of Chinese legends. This +we find. Of these animals the fox is mentioned in Chinese legendary +lore perhaps more often than any other. + +The subject of fox-lore has been dealt with exhaustively by +my respected colleague, the late Mr Thomas Watters (formerly +H.B.M. Consul-General at Canton, a man of vast learning and extreme +modesty, insufficiently appreciated in his generation), in the _Journal +of the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society_, viii, 45-65, +to which the reader is referred for details. Generally, the fox is +a creature of ill omen, long-lived (living to eight hundred or even +a thousand years), with a peculiar virtue in every part of his body, +able to produce fire by striking the ground with his tail, cunning, +cautious, sceptical, able to see into the future, to transform himself +(usually into old men, or scholars, or pretty young maidens), and +fond of playing pranks and tormenting mankind. + + +Fox Legends + +Many interesting fox legends are to be found in a collection of stories +entitled _Liao chai chih i_, by P'u Sung-ling (seventeenth century +A.D.), part of which was translated into English many years ago by +Professor H.A. Giles and appeared in two fascinating volumes called +_Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio_. These legends were related +to the Chinese writer by various people as their own experiences. + + +Friendship with Foxes + +A certain man had an enormous stack of straw, as big as a hill, in +which his servants, taking what was daily required for use, had made +quite a large hole. In this hole a fox fixed his abode, and would +often show himself to the master of the house under the form of an +old man. One day the latter invited the master to walk into his abode; +he at first declined, but accepted on being pressed; and when he got +inside, lo! he saw a long suite of handsome apartments. They then +sat down, and exquisitely perfumed tea and wine were brought; but +the place was so gloomy that there was no difference between night +and day. By and by, the entertainment being over, the guest took his +leave; and on looking back the beautiful rooms and their contents had +all disappeared. The old man himself was in the habit of going away in +the evening and returning with the first streaks of morning; and as +no one was able to follow him, the master of the house asked him one +day whither he went. To this he replied that a friend invited him to +take wine; and then the master begged to be allowed to accompany him, +a proposal to which the old man very reluctantly consented. However, +he seized the master by the arm, and away they went as though riding +on the wings of the wind; and in about the time it takes to cook +a pot of millet they reached a city and walked into a restaurant, +where there were a number of people drinking together and making a +great noise. The old man led his companion to a gallery above, from +which they could look down on the feasters below; and he himself went +down and brought away from the tables all kinds of nice food and wine, +without appearing to be seen or noticed by any of the company. After +a while a man dressed in red garments came forward and laid upon +the table some dishes of cumquats; [36] the master at once requested +the old man to go down and get him some of these. "Ah," replied the +latter, "that is an upright man: I cannot approach him." Thereupon +the master said to himself, "By thus seeking the companionship of a +fox, I then am deflected from the true course. Henceforth I too will +be an upright man." No sooner had he formed this resolution than he +suddenly lost all control over his body, and fell from the gallery +down among the revellers below. These gentlemen were much astonished +by his unexpected descent; and he himself, looking up, saw there was +no gallery to the house, but only a large beam upon which he had +been sitting. He now detailed the whole of the circumstances, and +those present made up a purse for him to pay his travelling expenses; +for he was at Yü-t'ai--a thousand _li_ from home. + + +The Marriage Lottery + +A certain labourer, named Ma T'ien-jung, lost his wife when he was +only about twenty years of age, and was too poor to take another. One +day, when out hoeing in the fields, he beheld a nice-looking young +lady leave the path and come tripping across the furrows toward +him. Her face was well painted, [37] and she had altogether such a +refined look that Ma concluded she must have lost her way, and began +to make some playful remarks in consequence. "You go along home," +cried the young lady, "and I'll be with you by and by." Ma doubted +this rather extraordinary promise, but she vowed and declared she +would not break her word; and then Ma went off, telling her that his +front door faced the north, etc. At midnight the young lady arrived, +and then Ma saw that her hands and face were covered with fine hair, +which made him suspect at once that she was a fox. She did not deny the +accusation; and accordingly Ma said to her, "If you really are one of +those wonderful creatures you will be able to get me anything I want; +and I should be much obliged if you would begin by giving me some +money to relieve my poverty." The young lady said she would; and next +evening, when she came again, Ma asked her where the money was. "Dear +me!" replied she, "I quite forgot it." When she was going away Ma +reminded her of what he wanted, but on the following evening she made +precisely the same excuse, promising to bring it another day. A few +nights afterward Ma asked her once more for the money, and then she +drew from her sleeve two pieces of silver, each weighing about five +or six ounces. They were both of fine quality, with turned-up edges, +[38] and Ma was very pleased, and stored them away in a cupboard. Some +months after this he happened to require some money for use, and took +out these pieces; but the person to whom he showed them said they +were only pewter, and easily bit off a portion of one of them with +his teeth. Ma was much alarmed, and put the pieces away directly, +taking the opportunity when evening came of abusing the young lady +roundly. "It's all your bad luck," retorted she. "Real gold would be +too much for your inferior destiny." There was an end of that; but Ma +went on to say, "I always heard that fox-girls were of surpassing +beauty; how is it you are not?" "Oh," replied the young lady, +"we always adapt ourselves to our company. Now you haven't the luck +of an ounce of silver to call your own; and what would you do, for +instance, with a beautiful princess? My beauty may not be good enough +for the aristocracy; but among your big-footed, bent-backed rustics, +[39] why, it may safely be called 'surpassing'!" + +A few months passed away, and then one day the young lady came and +gave Ma three ounces of silver, saying, "You have often asked me for +money, but in consequence of your bad luck I have always refrained +from giving you any. Now, however, your marriage is at hand, and +I here give you the cost of a wife, which you may also regard as a +parting gift from me." Ma replied that he was not engaged, to which the +young lady answered that in a few days a go-between would visit him +to arrange the affair. "And what will she be like?" asked Ma. "Why, +as your aspirations are for 'surpassing' beauty," replied the young +lady, "of course she will be possessed of surpassing beauty." "I hardly +expect that," said Ma; "at any rate, three ounces of silver will not be +enough to get a wife." "Marriages," explained the young lady, "are made +in the moon; [40] mortals have nothing to do with them." "And why must +you be going away like this?" inquired Ma. "Because," answered she, +"for us to meet only by night is not the proper thing. I had better +get you another wife and have done with you." Then when morning came +she departed, giving Ma a pinch of yellow powder, saying, "In case +you are ill after we are separated, this will cure you." Next day, +sure enough, a go-between did come, and Ma at once asked what the +proposed bride was like; to which the former replied that she was +very passable-looking. Four or five ounces of silver was fixed as the +marriage present, Ma making no difficulty on that score, but declaring +he must have a peep at the young lady. [41] The go-between said she +was a respectable girl, and would never allow herself to be seen; +however, it was arranged that they should go to the house together, +and await a good opportunity. So off they went, Ma remaining outside +while the go-between went in, returning in a little while to tell +him it was all right. "A relative of mine lives in the same court, +and just now I saw the young lady sitting in the hall. We have only +got to pretend we are going to see my relative, and you will be able +to get a glimpse of her." Ma consented, and they accordingly passed +through the hall, where he saw the young lady sitting down with her +head bent forward while some one was scratching her back. She seemed +to be all that the go-between had said; but when they came to discuss +the money it appeared that the young lady wanted only one or two ounces +of silver, just to buy herself a few clothes, etc., which Ma thought +was a very small amount; so he gave the go-between a present for her +trouble, which just finished up the three ounces his fox-friend had +provided. An auspicious day was chosen, and the young lady came over +to his house; when lo! she was humpbacked and pigeon-breasted, with +a short neck like a tortoise, and feet which were fully ten inches +long. The meaning of his fox-friend's remarks then flashed upon him. + + +The Magnanimous Girl + +At Chin-ling there lived a young man named Ku, who had considerable +ability, but was very poor; and having an old mother, he was very +loth to leave home. So he employed himself in writing or painting +[42] for people, and gave his mother the proceeds, going on thus +till he was twenty-five years of age without taking a wife. Opposite +to their house was another building, which had long been untenanted; +and one day an old woman and a young girl came to occupy it, but there +being no gentleman with them young Ku did not make any inquiries as +to who they were or whence they hailed. Shortly afterward it chanced +that just as Ku was entering the house he observed a young lady +come out of his mother's door. She was about eighteen or nineteen, +very clever and refined-looking, and altogether such a girl as one +rarely sets eyes on; and when she noticed Mr Ku she did not run away, +but seemed quite self-possessed. "It was the young lady over the way; +she came to borrow my scissors and measure," said his mother, "and +she told me that there is only her mother and herself. They don't +seem to belong to the lower classes. I asked her why she didn't get +married, to which she replied that her mother was old. I must go and +call on her to-morrow, and find out how the land lies. If she doesn't +expect too much, you could take care of her mother for her." So next +day Ku's mother went, and found that the girl's mother was deaf, and +that they were evidently poor, apparently not having a day's food in +the house. Ku's mother asked what their employment was, and the old +lady said they trusted for food to her daughter's ten fingers. She +then threw out some hints about uniting the two families, to which +the old lady seemed to agree; but, on consultation with her daughter, +the latter would not consent. Mrs Ku returned home and told her son, +saying, "Perhaps she thinks we are too poor. She doesn't speak or +laugh, is very nice-looking, and as pure as snow; truly no ordinary +girl." There ended that; until one day, as Ku was sitting in his +study, up came a very agreeable young fellow, who said he was from a +neighbouring village, and engaged Ku to draw a picture for him. The +two youths soon struck up a firm friendship and met constantly, +and later it happened that the stranger chanced to see the young +lady of over the way. "Who is that?" said he, following her with +his eyes. Ku told him, and then he said, "She is certainly pretty, +but rather stern in her appearance." By and by Ku went in, and his +mother told him the girl had come to beg a little rice, as they had +had nothing to eat all day. "She's a good daughter," said his mother, +"and I'm very sorry for her. We must try and help them a little." Ku +thereupon shouldered a peck of rice, and, knocking at their door, +presented it with his mother's compliments. The young lady received +the rice, but said nothing; and then she got into the habit of coming +over and helping Ku's mother with her work and household affairs, +almost as if she had been her daughter-in-law, for which Ku was very +grateful to her, and whenever he had anything nice he always sent some +of it in to her mother, though the young lady herself never once took +the trouble to thank him. So things went on until Ku's mother got an +abscess on her leg, and lay writhing in agony day and night. Then the +young lady devoted herself to the invalid, waiting on her and giving +her medicine with such care and attention that at last the sick woman +cried out, "O that I could secure such a daughter-in-law as you to see +this old body into its grave!" The young lady soothed her, and replied, +"Your son is a hundred times more filial than I, a poor widow's only +daughter." "But even a filial son makes a bad nurse," answered the +patient; "besides, I am now drawing toward the evening of my life, +when my body will be exposed to the mists and the dews, and I am +vexed in spirit about our ancestral worship and the continuance of our +line." As she was speaking Ku walked in; and his mother, weeping, said, +"I am deeply indebted to this young lady; do not forget to repay her +goodness." Ku made a low bow, but the young lady said, "Sir, when you +were kind to my mother, I did not thank you; why then thank me?" Ku +thereupon became more than ever attached to her; but could never get +her to depart in the slightest degree from her cold demeanour toward +himself. One day, however, he managed to squeeze her hand, upon which +she told him never to do so again; and then for some time he neither +saw nor heard anything of her. She had conceived a violent dislike +to the young stranger above mentioned; and one evening, when he was +sitting talking with Ku, the young lady appeared. After a while she +got angry at something he said, and drew from her robe a glittering +knife about a foot long. The young man, seeing her do this, ran out +in a fright and she after him, only to find that he had vanished. She +then threw her dagger up into the air, and _whish!_ a streak of light +like a rainbow, and something came tumbling down with a flop. Ku got +a light, and ran to see what it was; and lo! there lay a white fox, +head in one place and body in another. "There is your _friend_," +cried the girl; "I knew he would cause me to destroy him sooner or +later." Ku dragged it into the house, and said, "Let us wait till +to-morrow to talk it over; we shall then be more calm." Next day the +young lady arrived, and Ku inquired about her knowledge of the black +art; but she told Ku not to trouble himself about such affairs, and +to keep it secret or it might be prejudicial to his happiness. Ku +then entreated her to consent to their union, to which she replied +that she had already been as it were a daughter-in-law to his mother, +and there was no need to push the thing further. "Is it because I am +poor?" asked Ku. "Well, I am not rich," answered she, "but the fact +is I had rather not." She then took her leave, and the next evening +when Ku went across to their house to try once more to persuade her +the young lady had disappeared, and was never seen again. + + +The Boon-companion + +Once upon a time there was a young man named Ch'ê, who was not +particularly well off, but at the same time very fond of his wine; +so much so that without his three stoups of liquor every night he was +quite unable to sleep, and bottles were seldom absent from the head +of his bed. One night he had woken up and was turning over and over, +when he fancied some one was in the bed with him; but then, thinking +it was only the clothes which had slipped off, he put out his hand +to feel, and in doing so touched something silky like a cat. Striking +a light, he found it was a fox, lying in a drunken sleep like a dog; +and then looking at his wine bottle he saw that it had been emptied. "A +boon-companion," said he, laughing, as he avoided startling the animal, +and, covering it up, lay down to sleep with his arm across it, and the +candle alight so as to see what transformation it might undergo. About +midnight the fox stretched itself, and Ch'ê cried, "Well, to be sure, +you've had a nice sleep!" He then drew off the clothes, and beheld an +elegant young man in a scholar's dress; but the young man jumped up, +and, making a low obeisance, returned his host many thanks for not +cutting off his head. "Oh," replied Ch'ê, "I am not averse to liquor +myself; in fact they say I'm too much given to it. If you have no +objection, we'll be a pair of bottle-and-glass chums." So they lay +down and went to sleep again, Ch'ê urging the young man to visit him +often, and saying that they must have faith in each other. The fox +agreed to this, but when Ch'ê awoke in the morning his bedfellow had +already disappeared. So he prepared a goblet of first-rate wine in +expectation of his friend's arrival, and at nightfall sure enough he +came. They then sat together drinking, and the fox cracked so many +jokes that Ch'ê said he regretted he had not known him before. "And +truly I don't know how to repay your kindness," replied the former, +"in preparing all this nice wine for me." "Oh," said Ch'ê, "what's +a pint or so of wine?--nothing worth speaking of." "Well," rejoined +the fox, "you are only a poor scholar, and money isn't so easily to be +got. I must see if I can't secure a little wine capital for you." Next +evening, when he arrived, he said to Ch'ê, "Two miles down toward +the south-east you will find some silver lying by the wayside. Go +early in the morning and get it." So on the morrow Ch'ê set off, +and actually obtained two lumps of silver, with which he bought some +choice morsels to help them out with their wine that evening. The fox +now told him that there was a vault in his backyard which he ought to +open; and when he did so he found therein more than a hundred strings +of cash. [43] "Now then," cried Ch'ê, delighted, "I shall have no more +anxiety about funds for buying wine with all this in my purse!" "Ah," +replied the fox, "the water in a puddle is not inexhaustible. I must +do something further for you." Some days afterward the fox said to +Ch'ê, "Buckwheat is very cheap in the market just now. Something is +to be done in that line." Accordingly Ch'ê bought over forty tons, +and thereby incurred general ridicule; but by and by there was a bad +drought, and all kinds of grain and beans were spoilt. Only buckwheat +would grow, and Ch'ê sold off his stock at a profit of 1000 per +cent. His wealth thus began to increase; he bought two hundred acres +of rich land, and always planted his crops, corn, millet, or what not, +upon the advice of the fox secretly given him beforehand. The fox +looked on Ch'ê's wife as a sister, and on Ch'ê's children as his own; +but when subsequently Ch'ê died it never came to the house again. + + +The Alchemist [44] + +At Ch'ang-an there lived a scholar named Chia Tzu-lung, who one day +noticed a very refined-looking stranger; and, on making inquiries +about him, learned that he was a Mr Chên who had taken lodgings +hard by. Accordingly, Chia called next day and sent in his card, +but did not see Chên, who happened to be out at the time. The same +thing occurred thrice; and at length Chia engaged some one to watch +and let him know when Mr Chên was at home. However, even then the +latter would not come forth to receive his guest, and Chia had to +go in and rout him out. The two now entered into conversation, and +soon became mutually charmed with each other; and by and by Chia sent +off a servant to bring wine from a neighbouring wine-shop. Mr Chên +proved himself a pleasant boon-companion, and when the wine was nearly +finished he went to a box and took from it some wine-cups and a large +and beautiful jade tankard; into the latter he poured a single cup of +wine, and immediately it was filled to the brim. They then proceeded +to help themselves from the tankard; but however much they took out, +the contents never seemed to diminish. Chia was astonished at this, +and begged Mr Chên to tell him how it was done. "Ah," replied Mr Chên, +"I tried to avoid making your acquaintance solely because of your +one bad quality--avarice. The art I practise is a secret known to +the Immortals only: how can I divulge it to you?" "You do me wrong," +rejoined Chia, "in thus attributing avarice to me. The avaricious, +indeed, are always poor." Mr Chên laughed, and they separated for that +day; but from that time they were constantly together, and all ceremony +was laid aside between them. Whenever Chia wanted money Mr Chên would +bring out a black stone, and, muttering a charm, would rub it on a tile +or a brick, which was forthwith changed into a lump of silver. This +silver he would give to Chia, and it was always just as much as he +actually required, neither more nor less; and if ever the latter asked +for more Mr Chên would rally him on the subject of avarice. Finally +Chia determined to try to get possession of this stone; and one day, +when Mr Chên was sleeping off the fumes of a drinking-bout, he tried +to extract it from his clothes. However, Chên detected him at once, +and declared that they could be friends no more, and next day he +left the place altogether. About a year afterward Chia was one day +wandering by the river-bank, when he saw a handsome-looking stone, +marvellously like that in the possession of Mr Chên; and he picked +it up at once and carried it home with him. A few days passed away, +and suddenly Mr Chên presented himself at Chia's house, and explained +that the stone in question possessed the property of changing anything +into gold, and had been bestowed upon him long before by a certain +Taoist priest whom he had followed as a disciple. "Alas!" added he, +"I got tipsy and lost it; but divination told me where it was, +and if you will now restore it to me I will take care to repay your +kindness." "You have divined rightly," replied Chia; "the stone is +with me; but recollect, if you please, that the indigent Kuan Chung +[45] shared the wealth of his friend Pao Shu." At this hint Mr Chên +said he would give Chia one hundred ounces of silver; to which the +latter replied that one hundred ounces was a fair offer, but that he +would far sooner have Mr Chên teach him the formula to utter when +rubbing the stone on anything, so that he might try the thing once +himself. Mr Chên was afraid to do this; whereupon Chia cried out, +"You are an Immortal yourself; you must know well enough that I +would never deceive a friend." So Mr Chên was prevailed upon to +teach him the formula, and then Chia would have tried the art upon +the immense stone washing-block [46] which was lying near at hand +had not Mr Chên seized his arm and begged him not to do anything +so outrageous. Chia then picked up half a brick and laid it on the +washing-block, saying to Mr Chên, "This little piece is not too much, +surely?" Accordingly Mr Chên relaxed his hold and let Chia proceed; +which he did by promptly ignoring the half-brick and quickly rubbing +the stone on the washing-block. Mr Chên turned pale when he saw him +do this, and made a dash forward to get hold of the stone, but it was +too late; the washing-block was already a solid mass of silver, and +Chia quietly handed him back the stone. "Alas! alas!" cried Mr Chên +in despair, "what is to be done now? For, having thus irregularly +conferred wealth upon a mortal, Heaven will surely punish me. Oh, +if you would save me, give away one hundred coffins [47] and one +hundred suits of wadded clothes." "My friend," replied Chia, "my +object in getting money was not to hoard it up like a miser." Mr +Chên was delighted at this; and during the next three years Chia +engaged in trade, taking care to fulfil always his promise to Mr +Chên. At the expiration of that time Mr Chên himself reappeared, and, +grasping Chia's hand, said to him, "Trustworthy and noble friend, +when we last parted the Spirit of Happiness impeached me before God, +[48] and my name was erased from the list of angels. But now that you +have carried out my request that sentence has been rescinded. Go on +as you have begun, without ceasing." Chia asked Mr Chên what office +he filled in Heaven; to which the latter replied that he was only +a fox who, by a sinless life, had finally attained to that clear +perception of the truth which leads to immortality. Wine was then +brought, and the two friends enjoyed themselves together as of old; +and even when Chia had passed the age of ninety years the fox still +used to visit him from time to time. + + + +CHAPTER XVI + +Miscellaneous Legends + + +The Unnatural People + +The _Shan hai ching_, or _Hill and River Classic_, contains +descriptions of some curious people supposed to inhabit the regions +on the maps represented on the nine tripod vases of the Great Yü, +first emperor of the Hsia dynasty. + + +The Pygmies + +The pygmies inhabit many mountainous regions of the Empire, but are +few in number. They are less than nine inches high, but are well +formed. They live in thatched houses that resemble ants' nests. When +they walk out they go in companies of from six to ten, joining hands +in a line for mutual protection against birds that might carry them +away, or other creatures that might attack them. Their tone of voice +is too low to be distinguished by an ordinary human ear. They occupy +themselves in working in wood, gold, silver, and precious stones, but +a small proportion are tillers of the soil. They wear clothes of a red +colour. The sexes are distinguishable by a slight beard on the men, +and long tresses on the women, the latter in some cases reaching four +to five inches in length. Their heads are unduly large, being quite +out of proportion to their small bodies. A husband and wife usually +go about hand in hand. A Hakka charcoal-burner once found three of the +children playing in his tobacco-box. He kept them there, and afterward, +when he was showing them to a friend, he laughed so that drops of +saliva flew from his mouth and shot two of them dead. He then begged +his friend to take the third and put it in a place of safety before +he should laugh again. His friend attempted to lift it from the box, +but it died on being touched. + + +The Giants + +In the Country of the Giants the people are fifty feet in height. Their +footprints are six feet in length. Their teeth are like those of a +saw. Their finger-nails present the appearance of hooked claws, while +their diet consists wholly of uncooked animal food. Their eyebrows +are of such length as to protrude from the front of the carts in +which they ride, large though it is necessary for these vehicles to +be. Their bodies are covered with long black hair resembling that +of the bear. They live to the advanced age of eighteen thousand +years. Though cannibals, they never eat members of their own tribe, +confining their indulgence in human flesh chiefly to enemies taken in +battle. Their country extends some thousands of miles along certain +mountain ranges in North-eastern Asia, in the passes of which they +have strong iron gates, easy to close, but difficult to open; hence, +though their neighbours maintain large standing armies, they have +thus far never been conquered. + + +The Headless People + +The Headless People inhabit the Long Sheep range, to which their +ancestors were banished in the remote past for an offence against the +gods. One of the said ancestors had entered into a controversy with +the rulers of the heavens, and they in their anger had transformed +his two breasts into eyes and his navel into a mouth, removed his +head, leaving him without nose and ears, thus cutting him off from +smell and sound, and banished him to the Long Sheep Mountains, where +with a shield and axe, the only weapons vouchsafed to the people of +the Headless Country, he and his posterity were compelled to defend +themselves from their enemies and provide their subsistence. This, +however, does not in the least seem to have affected their tempers, +as their bodies are wreathed in perpetual smiles, except when they +flourish their warlike weapons on the approach of an enemy. They are +not without understanding, because, according to Chinese notions of +physiology, "their bellies are full of wisdom." + + +The Armless People + +In the Mountains of the Sun and Moon, which are in the Centre of the +Great Waste, are the people who have no arms, but whose legs instead +grow out of their shoulders. They pick flowers with their toes. They +bow by raising the body horizontal with the shoulders, thus turning +the face to the ground. + + +The Long-armed and Long-legged People + +The Long-armed People are about thirty feet high, their arms reaching +from the shoulders to the ground. Once when a company of explorers +was passing through the country which borders on the Eastern Sea they +inquired of an old man if he knew whether or not there were people +dwelling beyond the waters. He replied that a cloth garment, in fashion +and texture not unlike that of a Chinese coat, with sleeves thirty +feet in length, had been found in the sea. The explorers fitted out an +expedition, and the discovery of the Long-armed Country was the result. + +The natives subsist for the most part on fish, which they obtain by +wading in the water, and taking the fish with their hands instead of +with hooks or nets. + +The arms of the Long-legged People are of a normal length, the legs +are developed to a length corresponding to that of the arms of the +Long-armed People. + +The country of the latter borders on that of the Long-legs. The habits +and food of the two are similar. The difference in their physical +structure makes them of mutual assistance, those with the long arms +being able to take the shellfish of the shallow waters, while those +with the long legs take the surface fish from the deeper localities; +thus the two gather a harvest otherwise unobtainable. + + +The One-eyed People and Others + +A little to the east of the Country of the Long-legs are to be found +the One-eyed People. They have but one eye, rather larger than the +ordinary human eye, placed in the centre of the forehead, directly +above the nose. Other clans or families have but one arm and one leg, +some having a right arm and left leg, others a left arm and right +leg, while still others have both on the same side, and go in pairs, +like shoes. Another species not only has but one arm and one leg, +but is of such fashion as to have but one eye, one nostril, and beard +on but one side of the face, there being as it were rights and lefts, +the two in reality being one, for it is in this way that they pair. The +Long-eared People resemble Chinese in all except their ears. They live +in the far West among mountains and in caves. Their pendant, flabby +ears extend to the ground, and would impede their feet in walking if +they did not support them on their hands. They are sensitive to the +faintest sound. Still another people in this region are distinguished +by having six toes on each foot. + + + +The Feathered People, etc. + +The Feathered People are very tall, and are covered with fluffy +down. They have wings in place of arms, and can fly short distances. On +the points of the wings are claws, which serve as hands. Their +noses are like beaks. Gentle and timid, they do not leave their own +country. They have good voices, and like to sing ballads. If one +wishes to visit this people he must go far to the south-east and then +inquire. There is also the Land of the People with Three Faces, who +live in the centre of the Great Waste and never die; the Land of the +Three-heads, east of the K'un-lun Mountains; the Three-body Country, +the inhabitants of which have one head with three bodies, three arms +and but two legs; and yet another where the people have square heads, +broad shoulders, and three legs, and the stones on the land are all +gold and jade. + + +The People of the Punctured Bodies + +Another community is said to be composed of people who have holes +through their chests. They can be carried about on a pole put through +the orifice, or may be comfortably hung upon a peg. They sometimes +string themselves on a rope, and thus walk out in file. They are +harmless people, and eat snakes that they kill with bows and arrows, +and they are very long-lived. + + +The Women's Kingdom + +The Women's Kingdom, the country inhabited exclusively by women, is +said to be surrounded by a sea of less density than ordinary water, +so that ships sink on approaching the shores. It has been reached only +by boats carried thither in whirlwinds, and but few of those wrecked +on its rocks have survived and returned to tell of its wonders. The +women have houses, gardens, and shops. Instead of money they use gems, +perforated and strung like beads. They reproduce their kind by sleeping +where the south wind blows upon them. + + +The Land of the Flying Cart + +Situated to the north of the Plain of Great Joy, the Land of +the Flying Cart joins the Country of the One-armed People on the +south-west and that of the Three-bodied People on the south-east. The +inhabitants have but one arm, and an additional eye of large size in +the centre of the forehead, making three eyes in all. Their carts, +though wheeled, do not run along the ground, but chase each other in +mid-air as gracefully as a flock of swallows. The vehicles have a +kind of winged framework at each end, and the one-armed occupants, +each grasping a flag, talk and laugh one to another in great glee +during what might be called their aerial recreation were it not for +the fact that it seems to be their sole occupation. + + +The Expectant Wife + +A curious legend is told regarding a solitary, weird figure which +stands out, rudely weatherworn, from a hill-top in the pass called +Shao-hsing Gorge, Canton Province. This point of the pass is called +Lung-mên, or Dragon's Mouth, and the hill the Husband-expecting +Hill. The figure itself, which is called the Expectant Wife, resembles +that of a woman. Her bent head and figure down to the waist are +very lifelike. + +The story, widely known in this and the neighbouring province, runs as +follows. Centuries ago a certain poor woman was left by her husband, +who went on a journey into Kwangsi, close by, but in those days +considered a wild and distant region, full of dangers. He promised +to return in three years. The time went slowly and sadly past, for +she dearly loved her lord, but no husband appeared. He, ungrateful +and unfaithful spouse, had fallen in love with a fair one in Kwangsi, +a sorceress or witch, who threw a spell over him and charmed him to +his destruction, turning him at length into stone. To this day his +figure may be seen standing near a cave close by the river which is +known by the name of the Detained Man Cave. + +The wife, broken by grief at her husband's failure to return, was +likewise turned into a stone, and it is said that a supernatural +power will one day bring the couple to life again and reward the +ever-faithful wife. The legend receives entire credence from the +simple boatmen sad country people. + + +The Wild Men + +The wild beasts of the mountain have a king. He is a wild man, with +long, thick locks, fiery red in colour, and his body is covered with +hair. He is very strong: with a single blow of his huge fist, he can +break large rocks to pieces; he also can pull up the trees of the +forest by the root. His flesh is as hard as iron and is invulnerable +to the thrusts of knife, spear, or sword. He rides upon a tiger when +he leaves his home; he rules over the wolves, leopards, and tigers, and +governs all their affairs. Many other wild men, like him in appearance, +live in these mountains, but on account of his great strength he alone +is king. These wild men kill and eat all human beings they meet, and +other hill tribes live in terror of meeting them. Indeed, who of all +these mountain people would have been left alive had not some men, +more crafty than their fellows, devised a means of overpowering these +fierce savages? + +This is the method referred to: On leaving his home the herb-gatherer +of the mountains arms himself with two large hollow bamboo tubes which +he slips over his wrists and arms; he also carries a jar of very +strong wine. When he meets one of the wild men he stands still and +allows the giant to grasp him by the arm. As the giant holds him fast, +as he supposes, in his firm grasp, he quietly and slowly withdraws +one arm from the bamboo cuff, and, taking the pot of wine from the +other hand, quickly pours it down the throat of the stooping giant, +whose mouth is wide open with immoderate laughter at the thought of +having captured a victim so easily. The potent draught of wine acts +at once, causing the victim to drop to the ground in a dead sleep, +whereupon the herb-gatherer either dispatches him summarily with a +thrust through the heart, or leaves the drunken tyrant to sleep off the +effect of his draught, while he returns again to his work of collecting +the health-restoring herbs. In this way have the numbers of these wild +men become less and less, until at the present time but few remain. + + +The Jointed Snake + +The people on Ô-mei Shan tell of a wonderful kind of snake that is +said to live there. Part of its life is spent among the branches of +the trees; if by chance it falls to the ground it breaks up into two +or more pieces. These separate segments later on come together again +and unite. + +Many other marvellous and interesting tales are related of this +mountain and its inhabitants. + + + +The Casting of the Great Bell + +In every province of China there is a legend relating to the casting +of the great bell swung in the bell tower of the chief city. These +legends are curiously identical in almost every detail. The following +is the one current in Peking. + +It was in the reign of Yung Lo, the third monarch of the Ming dynasty, +that Peking first became the capital of China. Till that period the +'Son of Heaven' had held his Court at Nanking, and Peking had been +of comparatively little note. Now, however, on being honoured by the +'Sacred Presence,' stately buildings arose in all directions for +the accommodation of the Emperor and his courtiers. Clever men from +all parts of the Empire were attracted to the capital, and such as +possessed talent were sure of lucrative employment. About this time the +Drum Tower and the Bell Tower were built; both of them as 'look-out' +and 'alarm' towers. The Drum Tower was furnished with a monster drum, +which it still possesses, of such a size that the thunder of its tones +might be heard all over the city, the sound being almost enough to +waken the dead. + +The Bell Tower had been completed some time before attempts were +made to cast a bell proportionate to the size of the building. At +length Yung Lo ordered Kuan Yu, a mandarin of the second grade, who +was skilled in casting guns, to cast a bell the sound of which should +be heard, on the least alarm, in every part of the city. Kuan Yu at +once commenced the undertaking. He secured the services of a great +number of experienced workmen, and collected immense quantities of +material. Months passed, and at length it was announced to the Emperor +that everything was ready for the casting. A day was appointed; the +Emperor, surrounded by a crowd of courtiers, and preceded by the +Court musicians, went to witness the ceremony. At a given signal, +and to the crash of music, the melted metal rushed into the mould +prepared for it. The Emperor and his Court then retired, leaving +Kuan Yu and his subordinates to await the cooling of the metal, which +would tell of failure or success. At length the metal was sufficiently +cool to detach the mould from it. Kuan Yu, in breathless trepidation, +hastened to inspect it, but to his mortification and grief discovered +it to be honeycombed in many places. The circumstance was reported to +the Emperor, who was naturally vexed at the expenditure of so much +time, labour, and money with so unsatisfactory a result. However, +he ordered Kuan Yu to try again. + +The mandarin hastened to obey, and, thinking the failure of the +first attempt must have resulted from some oversight or omission on +his part, he watched every detail with redoubled care and attention, +fully determined that no neglect or remissness should mar the success +of this second casting. + +After months of labour the mould was again prepared, and the metal +poured into it, but again with the same result. Kuan Yu was distracted, +not only at the loss of his reputation, but at the certain loss of +the Emperor's favour. Yung Lo, when he heard of this second failure, +was very wroth, and at once ordered Kuan Yu into his presence, and +told him he would give him a third and last trial, and if he did +not succeed this time he would behead him. Kuan Yu went home in a +despairing state of mind, asking himself what crime he or any of his +ancestors could have committed to have justified this calamity. + +Now Kuan Yu had an only daughter, about sixteen years of age, and, +having no sons, the whole of his love was centred in this girl, for +he had hopes of perpetuating his name and fame through her marriage +with some deserving young nobleman. Truly she was worthy of being +loved. She had "almond-shaped eyes, like the autumn waves, which, +sparkling and dancing in the sun, seem to leap up in very joy and +wantonness to kiss the fragrant reeds that grow upon the rivers' +banks, yet of such limpid transparency that one's form could be +seen in their liquid depths as if reflected in a mirror. These were +surrounded by long silken lashes--now drooping in coy modesty, anon +rising in youthful gaiety and disclosing the laughing eyes but just +before concealed beneath them. Eyebrows like the willow leaf; cheeks +of snowy whiteness, yet tinged with the gentlest colouring of the +rose; teeth like pearls of the finest water were seen peeping from +between half-open lips, so luscious and juicy that they resembled +two cherries; hair of the jettiest blackness and of the silkiest +texture. Her form was such as poets love to describe and painters +limn; there was grace and ease in every movement; she appeared to +glide rather than walk, so light was she of foot. Add to her other +charms that she was skilful in verse-making, excellent in embroidery, +and unequalled in the execution of her household duties, and we have +but a faint description of Ko-ai, the beautiful daughter of Kuan Yu." + +Well might the father be proud of and love his beautiful child, +and she returned his love with all the ardour of her affectionate +nature; often cheering him with her innocent gaiety when he returned +from his daily vocations wearied or vexed. Seeing him now return +with despair depicted in his countenance, she tenderly inquired the +cause, not without hope of being the means of alleviating it. When +her father told her of his failures, and of the Emperor's threat, she +exclaimed: "Oh, my father, be comforted! Heaven will not always be thus +unrelenting. Are we not told that 'out of evil cometh good'? These +two failures will but enhance the glory of your eventual success, +for success _this_ time _must_ crown your efforts. I am only a girl, +and cannot assist you but with my prayers; these I will daily and +hourly offer up for your success; and the prayers of a daughter for +a loved parent _must_ be heard." Somewhat soothed by the endearments +of Ko-ai, Kuan Yu again devoted himself to his task with redoubled +energy, Ko-ai meanwhile constantly praying for him in his absence, +and ministering to his wants when he returned home. One day it +occurred to the maiden to go to a celebrated astrologer to ascertain +the cause of these failures, and to ask what means could be taken to +prevent a recurrence of them. She thus learned that the next casting +would also be a disappointment if the blood of a maiden were not +mixed with the ingredients. She returned home full of horror at this +information, yet inwardly resolving to immolate herself rather than +allow her father to fail. The day for the casting at length came, +and Ko-ai requested her father to allow her to witness the ceremony +and "to exult in his success," as she laughingly said. Kuan Yu gave +his consent, and accompanied by several servants she went, taking up +a position near the mould. + +Everything was prepared as before. An immense concourse assembled +to witness the third and final casting, which was to result either +in honour or degradation and death for Kuan Yu. A dead silence +prevailed through the vast assemblage as the melted metal once more +rushed to its destination; this was broken by a shriek, and a cry, +"For my father!" and Ko-ai was seen to throw herself headlong into the +seething, hissing metal. One of her servants attempted to seize her +while in the act of plunging into the boiling fluid, but succeeded only +in grasping one of her shoes, which came off in his hand. The father +was frantic, and had to be kept by force from following her example; +he was taken home a raving maniac. The prediction of the astrologer +was fulfilled, for, on uncovering the bell after it had cooled, it +was found to be perfect, but not a vestige of Ko-ai was to be seen; +the blood of a maiden had indeed been infused with the ingredients. + +After a time the bell was suspended by order of the Emperor, +and expectation was at its height to hear it rung for the first +time. The Emperor himself was present. The bell was struck, and far +and near was heard the deep tone of its sonorous boom. This indeed +was a triumph! Here was a bell surpassing in size and sound any +other that had ever been cast! But--and the surrounding multitudes +were horror-struck as they listened--the heavy boom of the bell was +followed by a low wailing sound like the agonized cry of a woman, and +the word _hsieh_ (shoe) was distinctly heard. To this day the bell, +each time it is rung, after every boom appears to utter the word +'hsieh,' and people when they hear it shudder and say, "There's poor +Ko-ai's voice calling for her shoe." + + +The Cursed Temple + +The reign of Ch'ung Chêng, the last monarch of the Ming dynasty, +was much troubled both by internal broils and by wars. He was +constantly threatened by Tartar hordes from without, though these +were generally beaten back by the celebrated general Wu San-kuei, +and the country was perpetually in a state of anarchy and confusion, +being overrun by bands of marauding rebels; indeed, so bold did +these become under a chief named Li Tzu-ch'êng that they actually +marched on the capital with the avowed intention of placing their +leader on the Dragon Throne. Ch'ung Chêng, on the reception of this +startling news, with no one that he could trust in such an emergency +(for Wu San-kuei was absent on an expedition against the Tartars), +was at his wits' end. The insurgents were almost in sight of Peking, +and at any moment might arrive. Rebellion threatened in the city +itself. If he went out boldly to attack the oncoming rebels his own +troops might go over to the enemy, or deliver him into their hands; +if he stayed in the city the people would naturally attribute it to +pusillanimity, and probably open the gates to the rebels. + +In this strait he resolved to go to the San Kuan Miao, an imperial +temple situated near the Ch'ao-yang Mên, and inquire of the gods as +to what he should do, and decide his fate by 'drawing the slip.' If he +drew a long slip, this would be a good omen, and he would boldly march +out to meet the rebels, confident of victory; if a middle length one, +he would remain quietly in the palace and passively await whatever +might happen; but if he should unfortunately draw a short one he would +take his own life rather than suffer death at the hands of the rebels. + +Upon arrival at the temple, in the presence of the high officers of +his Court, the sacrifices were offered up, and the incense burnt, +previous to drawing the slip on which hung the destiny of an empire, +while Ch'ung Chêng himself remained on his knees in prayer. At the +conclusion of the sacrificial ceremony the tube containing the bamboo +fortune-telling sticks was placed in the Emperor's hand by one of +the priests. His courtiers and the attendant priests stood round in +breathless suspense, watching him as he swayed the tube to and fro; +at length one fell to the ground; there was dead silence as it was +raised by a priest and handed to the Emperor. _It was a short one!_ +Dismay fell on every one present, no one daring to break the painful, +horrible silence. After a pause the Emperor, with a cry of mingled +rage and despair, dashed the slip to the ground, exclaiming: "May this +temple built by my ancestors evermore be accursed! Henceforward may +every suppliant be denied what he entreats, as I have been! Those +who come in sorrow, may that sorrow be doubled; in happiness, may +that happiness be changed to misery; in hope, may they meet despair; +in health, sickness; in the pride of life and strength, death! I, +Ch'ung Chêng, the last of the Mings, curse it!" + +Without another word he retired, followed by his courtiers, proceeded +at once to the palace, and went straight to the apartments of the +Empress. The next morning he and his Empress were found suspended from +a tree on Prospect Hill. "In their death they were not divided." The +scenes that followed; how the rebels took possession of the city and +were driven out again by the Chinese general, assisted by the Tartars; +how the Tartars finally succeeded in establishing the Manchu dynasty, +are all matters of history. The words used by the Emperor at the +temple were prophetic; he _was_ the last of the Mings. The tree on +which the monarch of a mighty Empire closed his career and brought +the Ming dynasty to an end was ordered to be surrounded with chains; +it still exists, and is still in chains. Upward of two hundred +and seventy years have passed since that time, yet the temple is +standing as of old; but the halls that at one time were crowded with +worshippers are now silent, no one ever venturing to worship there; +it is the resort of the fox and the bat, and people at night pass it +shudderingly--"It is the cursed temple!" + + +The Maniac's Mite + +An interesting story is told of a lady named Ch'ên, who was a +Buddhist nun celebrated for her virtue and austerity. Between the +years 1628 and 1643 she left her nunnery near Wei-hai city and set +out on a long journey for the purpose of collecting subscriptions for +casting a new image of the Buddha. She wandered through Shantung and +Chihli and finally reached Peking, and there--subscription-book in +hand--she stationed herself at the great south gate in order to take +toll from those who wished to lay up for themselves treasures in the +Western Heaven. The first passer-by who took any notice of her was an +amiable maniac. His dress was made of coloured shreds and patches, +and his general appearance was wild and uncouth. "Whither away, +nun?" he asked. She explained that she was collecting subscriptions +for the casting of a great image of Buddha, and had come all the +way from Shantung. "Throughout my life," remarked the madman, "I was +ever a generous giver." So, taking the nun's subscription-book, he +headed a page with his own name (in very large characters) and the +amount subscribed. The amount in question was two cash, equivalent +to a small fraction of a farthing. He then handed over the two small +coins and went on his way. + +In course of time the nun returned to Wei-hai-wei with her +subscriptions, and the work of casting the image was duly begun. When +the time had come for the process of smelting, it was observed that +the copper remained hard and intractable. Again and again the furnace +was fed with fuel, but the shapeless mass of metal remained firm as a +rock. The head workman, who was a man of wide experience, volunteered +an explanation of the mystery. "An offering of great value must be +missing," he said. "Let the collection-book be examined so that it +may be seen whose subscription has been withheld." The nun, who was +standing by, immediately produced the madman's money, which on account +of its minute value she had not taken the trouble to hand over. "There +is one cash," she said, "and there is another. Certainly the offering +of these must have been an act of the highest merit, and the giver +must be a holy man who will some day attain Buddhahood." As she said +this she threw the two cash into the midst of the cauldron. Great +bubbles rose and burst, the metal melted and ran like the sap from +a tree, limpid as flowing water, and in a few moments the work was +accomplished and the new Buddha successfully cast. + + +The City-god of Yen Ch'êng + +The following story of the Ch'êng-huang P'u-sa of Yen Ch'êng (Salt +City) is told by Helena von Poseck in the _East of Asia Magazine_, +vol. iii (1904), pp. 169-171. This legend is also related of several +other cities in China. + +The Ch'êng-huang P'u-sa is, as already noted, the tutelary god of a +city, his position in the unseen world answering to that of a _chih +hsien_, or district magistrate, among men, if the city under his +care be a _hsien_; but if the city hold the rank of a _fu_, it has +(or used to have until recently) two Ch'êng-huang P'u-sas, one a +prefect, and the other a district magistrate. One part of his duty +consists of sending small demons to carry off the spirits of the +dying, of which spirits he afterward acts as ruler and judge. He is +supposed to exercise special care over the _k'u kuei_, or spirits +which have no descendants to worship and offer sacrifices to them, +and on the occasion of the Seventh Month Festival he is carried round +the city in his chair to maintain order among them, while the people +offer food to them, and burn paper money for their benefit. He is +also carried in procession at the Ch'ing Ming Festival, and on the +first day of the tenth month. + +The Ch'êng-huang P'u-sa of the city of Yen Ch'êng is in the extremely +unfortunate predicament of having no skin to his face, which fact is +thus accounted for: + +Once upon a time there lived at Yen Ch'êng an orphan boy who was +brought up by his uncle and aunt. He was just entering upon his teens +when his aunt lost a gold hairpin, and accused him of having stolen +it. The boy, whose conscience was clear in the matter, thought of a +plan by which his innocence might be proved. + +"Let us go to-morrow to Ch'êng-huang P'u-sa's temple," he said, "and +I will there swear an oath before the god, so that he may manifest +my innocence." + +They accordingly repaired to the temple, and the boy, solemnly +addressing the idol, said: + +"If I have taken my aunt's gold pin, may my foot twist, and may I +fall as I go out of your temple door!" + +Alas for the poor suppliant! As he stepped over the threshold his +foot twisted, and he fell to the ground. Of course, everybody was +firmly convinced of his guilt, and what could the poor boy say when +his own appeal to the god thus turned against him? + +After such a proof of his depravity his aunt had no room in her house +for her orphan nephew, neither did he himself wish to stay with people +who suspected him of theft. So he left the home which had sheltered +him for years, and wandered out alone into the cold hard world. Many +a hardship did he encounter, but with rare pluck he persevered in +his studies, and at the age of twenty odd years became a mandarin. + +In course of time our hero returned to Yen Ch'êng to visit his uncle +and aunt. While there he betook himself to the temple of the deity who +had dealt so hardly with him, and prayed for a revelation as to the +whereabouts of the lost hairpin. He slept that night in the temple, +and was rewarded by a vision in which the Ch'êng-huang P'u-sa told +him that the pin would be found under the floor of his aunt's house. + +He hastened back, and informed his relatives, who took up the boards +in the place indicated, and lo! there lay the long-lost pin! The +women of the house then remembered that the pin had been used in +pasting together the various layers of the soles of shoes, and, when +night came, had been carelessly left on the table. No doubt rats, +attracted by the smell of the paste which clung to it, had carried +it off to their domains under the floor. + +The young mandarin joyfully returned to the temple, and offered +sacrifices by way of thanksgiving to the Ch'êng-huang P'u-sa for +bringing his innocence to light, but he could not refrain from +addressing to him what one is disposed to consider a well-merited +reproach. + +"You made me fall down," he said, "and so led people to think I was +guilty, and now you accept my gifts. Aren't you ashamed to do such +a thing? _You have no face!_" + +As he uttered the words all the plaster fell from the face of the idol, +and was smashed into fragments. + +From that day forward the Ch'êng-huang P'u-sa of Yen Ch'êng has had +no skin on his face. People have tried to patch up the disfigured +countenance, but in vain: the plaster always falls off, and the face +remains skinless. + +Some try to defend the Ch'êng-huang P'u-sa by saying that he was not +at home on the day when his temple was visited by the accused boy and +his relatives, and that one of the little demons employed by him in +carrying off dead people's spirits out of sheer mischief perpetrated +a practical joke on the poor boy. + +In that case it is certainly hard that his skin should so persistently +testify against him by refusing to remain on his face! + + +The Origin of a Lake + +In the city of Ta-yeh Hsien, Hupei, there is a large sheet of water +known as the Liang-ti Lake. The people of the district give the +following account of its origin: + +About five hundred years ago, during the Ming dynasty, there was no +lake where the broad waters now spread. A flourishing _hsien_ city +stood in the centre of a populous country. The city was noted for its +wickedness, but amid the wicked population dwelt one righteous woman, +a strict vegetarian and a follower of all good works. In a vision of +the night it was revealed to her that the city and neighbourhood would +be destroyed by water, and the sign promised was that when the stone +lions in front of the _yamên_ wept tears of blood, then destruction +was near at hand. Like Jonah at Nineveh, the woman, known to-day +simply as Niang-tzu, walked up and down the streets of the city, +warning all of the coming calamity. She was laughed at and looked +upon as mad by the careless people. A pork-butcher in the town, +a noted wag, took some pig's blood and sprinkled it round the eyes +of the stone lions. This had the desired effect, for when Niang-tzu +saw the blood she fled from the city amid the jeers and laughter of +the inhabitants. Before many hours had passed, however, the face of +the sky darkened, a mighty earthquake shook the country-side, there +was a great subsidence of the earth's surface, and the waters of the +Yangtzu River flowed into the hollow, burying the city and villages +out of sight. But a spot of ground on which the good woman stood, +after escaping from the doomed city, remained at its normal level, +and it stands to-day in the midst of the lake, an island called +Niang-tzu, a place at which boats anchor at night, or to which they +fly for shelter from the storms that sweep the lake. They are saved +to-day because of one good woman helped by the gods so long ago. + +As a proof of the truth of the above story, it is asserted that on +clear days traces of the buried city may be seen, while occasionally +a fisherman casting his net hauls up some household utensil or relic +of bygone days. + + +Miao Creation Legends + +If the Miao have no written records, they have many legends in verse, +which they learn to repeat and sing. The Hei Miao (or Black Miao, so +called from their dark chocolate-coloured clothes) treasure poetical +legends of the Creation and of a deluge. These are composed in lines +of five syllables, in stanzas of unequal length, one interrogative +and one responsive. They are sung or recited by two persons or two +groups at feasts and festivals, often by a group of youths and a +group of maidens. The legend of the Creation commences: + + + Who made Heaven and earth? + Who made insects? + Who made men? + Made male and made female? + I who speak don't know. + + + + + Heavenly King made Heaven and earth, + Ziene made insects, + Ziene made men and demons, + Made male and made female. + How is it you don't know? + + + + How made Heaven and earth? + How made insects? + How made men and demons? + Made male and made female? + I who speak don't know. + + + + Heavenly King was intelligent, + Spat a lot of spittle into his hand, + Clapped his hands with a noise, + Produced Heaven and earth, + Tall grass made insects, + Stories made men and demons, + Made male and made female. + How is it you don't know? + + + +The legend proceeds to state how and by whom the heavens were +propped up and how the sun was made and fixed in its place, but the +continuation is exceedingly silly. + +The legend of the Flood is another very silly composition, but it is +interesting to note that it tells of a great deluge. It commences: + + + Who came to the bad disposition, + To send fire and burn the hill? + Who came to the bad disposition, + To send water and destroy the earth? + I who sing don't know. + + + + Zie did. Zie was of bad disposition, + Zie sent fire and burned the hill; + Thunder did. Thunder was of bad disposition, + Thunder sent water and destroyed the earth. + Why don't you know? + + +In this story of the flood only two persons were saved in a large +bottle gourd used as a boat, and these were A Zie and his sister. After +the flood the brother wished his sister to become his wife, but she +objected to this as not being proper. At length she proposed that +one should take the upper and one the nether millstone, and going to +opposite hills should set the stones rolling to the valley between. If +these should be found in the valley properly adjusted one above the +other she would be his wife, but not if they came to rest apart. The +young man, considering it unlikely that two stones thus rolled down +from opposite hills would be found in the valley one upon another, +while pretending to accept the test suggested, secretly placed two +other stones in the valley one upon the other. The stones rolled from +the hills were lost in the tall wild grass, and on descending into +the valley A Zie called his sister to come and see the stones he had +placed. She, however, was not satisfied, and suggested as another test +that each should take a knife from a double sheath and, going again +to the opposite hill-tops, hurl them into the valley below. If both +these knives were found in the sheath in the valley she would marry +him, but if the knives were found apart they would live apart. Again +the brother surreptitiously placed two knives in the sheath, and, the +experiment ending as A Zie wished, his sister became his wife. They +had one child, a misshapen thing without arms or legs, which A Zie +in great anger killed and cut to pieces. He threw the pieces all +over the hill, and next morning, on awaking, he found these pieces +transformed into men and women; thus the earth was repeopled. + + +The Dream of the South Branch + +The dawn of Chinese romantic literature must be ascribed to the +period between the eighth and tenth centuries of our era, when +the cultivation of the liberal arts received encouragement at the +hands of sovereigns who had reunited the Empire under the sway of +a single ruler, and whose conquests and distant embassies attracted +representatives from every Asiatic nation to their splendid Court. It +was during this period that the vast bulk of Indian literature was +successfully attacked by a host of Buddhist translators, and that the +alchemists and mechanicians of Central Asia, Persia, and the Byzantine +Empire introduced their varied acquirements to the knowledge of the +Chinese. With the flow of new learning which thus gained admittance to +qualify the frigid and monotonous cultivation of the ancient classics +and their commentators, there came also an impetus to indulgence in +the licence of imagination in which it is impossible to mistake the +influence of Western minds. While the Sanskrit fables, on the one +hand, passed into a Chinese dress, and contributed to the colouring +of the popular mythology, the legends which circulated from mouth to +mouth in the lively Arabian bazaars found, in like manner, an echo +in the heart of China. Side by side with the mechanical efforts +of rhythmical composition which constitute the national ideal of +poetry there began, during the middle period of the T'ang dynasty +(A.D. 618-907), to grow up a class of romantic tales in which the +kinship of ideas with those that distinguish the products of Arabian +genius is too marked to be ignored. The invisible world appears +suddenly to open before the Chinese eye; the relations of the sexes +overstep for a moment the chilling limit imposed by the traditions +of Confucian decorum; a certain degree of freedom and geniality is, +in a word, for the first time and only for a brief interval infused +into the intellectual expression of a nation hitherto closely cramped +in the bonds of a narrow pedantry. It was at this period that the +drama began to flourish, and the germs of the modern novelist's art +made their first appearance. Among the works of imagination dating +from the period in question which have come down to the present +day there is perhaps none which better illustrates the effect of an +exotic fancy upon the sober and methodical authorship of the Chinese, +or which has left a more enduring mark upon the language, than the +little tale which is given in translation in the following pages. + +The _Nan k'o mêng_, or _Dream of the South Branch_ (as the title, +literally translated, should read), is the work of a writer named +Li Kung-tso, who, from an incidental mention of his own experiences +in Kiangsi which appears in another of his tales, is ascertained +to have lived at the beginning of the ninth century of our era. The +_nan k'o_, or South Branch, is the portion of a _huai_ tree (_Sophora +Japdonica_, a tree well known in China, and somewhat resembling the +American locust-tree) in which the adventures narrated in the story +are supposed to have occurred; and from this narrative of a dream, +recalling more than one of the incidents recounted in the Arabian +Nights, the Chinese have borrowed a metaphor to enrich the vocabulary +of their literature. The equivalent of our own phrase "the baseless +fabric of a vision" is in Chinese _nan k'o chih mêng_--a dream of +the south branch. + + +Ch'un-yü Fên enters the Locust-tree + +Ch'un-yü Fên, a native of Tung-p'ing, was by nature a gallant who +had little regard for the proprieties of life, and whose principal +enjoyment was found in indulgence in wine-bibbing in the society +of boon-companions. At one time he held a commission in the army, +but this he lost through his dissipated conduct, and from that time +he more than ever gave himself up to the pleasures of the wine-cup. + +One day--it was in the ninth moon of the seventh year of Chêng Yüan +(A.D. 791)--after drinking heavily with a party of friends under a +wide-spreading old locust-tree near his house, he had to be carried +to bed and there left to recover, his friends saying that they would +leave him while they went to bathe their feet. The moment he laid down +his head he fell into a deep slumber. In his dream appeared to him two +men clothed in purple, who kneeling down informed him that they had +been sent by their master the King of Huai-an ('Locust-tree Peace') to +request his presence. Unconsciously he rose, and, arranging his dress, +followed his visitors to the door, where he saw a varnished chariot +drawn by a white horse. On each side were ranged seven attendants, +by whom he was assisted to mount, whereupon the carriage drove off, +and, going out of the garden gate, passed through a hole in the trunk +of the locust-tree already spoken of. Filled with astonishment, but +too much afraid to speak, Ch'un-yü noticed that he was passing by +hills and rivers, trees and roads, but of quite a different kind from +those he was accustomed to. A few miles brought them to the walls +of a city, the approach to which was lined with men and vehicles, +who fell back at once the moment the order was given. Over the gate +of the city was a pavilion on which was written in gold letters "The +Capital of Huai-an." As he passed through, the guard turned out, and +a mounted officer, shouting that the husband of the King's daughter +had arrived, showed him the way into a hall where he was to rest +awhile. The room contained fruits and flowers of every description, +and on the tables was laid out a profuse display of refreshments. + +While Ch'un-yü still remained lost in astonishment, a cry was raised +that the Prime Minister was coming. Ch'un-yü got up to meet him, +and the two received each other with every demonstration of politeness. + + +He marries the King's Daughter + +The minister, looking at Ch'un-yü, said: "The King, my master, +has brought you to this remote region in order to give his daughter +in marriage to you." "How could I, a poor useless wretch," replied +Ch'un-yü, "have ever aspired to such honour?" With these words both +proceeded toward the audience-chamber, passing through a hall lined +with soldiers, among whom, to his great joy and surprise, Ch'un-yü +recognized an old friend of his former drinking days, to whom he +did not, however, then venture to speak; and, following the Prime +Minister, he was ushered into the King's presence. The King, a man +of noble bearing and imposing stature, was dressed in plain silk, +a jewelled crown reposing on his head. Ch'un-yü was so awe-stricken +that he was powerless even to look up, and the attendants on either +side were obliged to remind him to make his prostrations. The King, +addressing him, said: "Your father, small as my kingdom is, did not +disdain to promise that you should marry my daughter." Ch'un-yü could +not utter a word; he merely lay prostrate on the ground. After a +few moments he was taken back to his apartments, and he busied his +thoughts in trying to discover what all this meant. "My father," +he said to himself, "fought on the northern frontier, and was taken +prisoner; but whether his life was saved or not I don't know. It may +be that this affair was settled while he was in those distant regions." + +That same night preparations were made for the marriage; and the +rooms and passages were filled with damsels who passed and repassed, +filling the air with the sound of their dancing and music. They +surrounded Ch'un-yü and kept up a constant fire of witty remarks, +while he sat there overcome by their grace and beauty, unable to say +a word. "Do you remember," said one of them, coming up to Ch'un-yü, +"the other day when with the Lady Ling-chi I was listening to the +service in the courtyard of a temple, and while I, with all the other +girls, was sitting on the window step, you came up to us, talking +nonsense, and trying to get up a flirtation? Don't you remember how +we tied a handkerchief on the stem of a bamboo?" Then she continued: +"Another time at a temple, when I threw down two gold hairpins and an +ivory box as an offering, you asked the priest to let you look at the +things, and after admiring them for a long time you turned toward me, +and said that neither the gifts nor the donor were of this world; +and you wanted to know my name, and where I lived, but I wouldn't +tell you; and then you gazed on me so tenderly, and could not take +your eyes off me. You remember this, without doubt?" "I have ever +treasured the recollection in my heart; how could I possibly forget +it?" was Ch'un-yü's reply, whereat all the maidens exclaimed that they +had never expected to see him in their midst on this joyful occasion. + +At this moment three men came up to Ch'un-yü and stated that they +had been appointed his ministers. He stepped up to one of them +and asked him if his name was not Tzu-hua. "It is," was the reply; +whereupon Ch'un-yü, taking him by the hands, recalled to him their +old friendship, and questioned him as to how he had found his way +to this spot. He then proceeded to ask him if Chou-pien was also +here. "He is," replied the other, "and holding very high office; +he has often used his influence on my behalf." + +As they were talking, Ch'un-yü was summoned to the palace, and as he +passed within, a curtain in front of him was drawn aside, disclosing +a young girl of about fourteen years of age. She was known as the +Princess of the Golden Stem, and her dazzling beauty was well in +keeping with her matchless grace. + + +He writes to his Father + +The marriage was celebrated with all magnificence, and the young +couple grew fonder from day to day. Their establishment was kept up +in princely style, their principal amusement being the chase, the King +himself frequently inviting Ch'un-yü to join him in hunting expeditions +to the Tortoise-back Hill. As they were returning one day from one of +these excursions, Ch'un-yü said to the King: "On my marriage day your +Majesty told me that it was my father's desire that I should espouse +your daughter. My father was worsted in battle on the frontier, and +for seventeen years we have had no news of him. If your Majesty knows +his whereabouts, I would beg permission to go and see him." + +"Your father," replied the King, "is frequently heard of; you may +send him a letter; it is not necessary to go to him." Accordingly a +letter and some presents were got ready and sent, and in due time a +reply was received, in which Ch'un-yü's father asked many questions +about his relations, his son's occupation, but manifested no desire +that the latter should come to him. + + +He takes Office + +One day Ch'un-yü's wife asked him if he would not like to hold +office. His answer was to the effect that he had always been a rolling +stone, and had no experience of official affairs, but the Princess +promised to give him her assistance, and found occasion to speak on the +subject to her father. In consequence the King one day told Ch'un-yü +that he was not satisfied with the state of affairs in the south of his +territory, that the present governor was old and useless, and that he +would be pleased if he would proceed thither. Ch'un-yü bowed to the +King's commands, and inwardly congratulated himself that such good +fortune should have befallen a rover like him. He was supplied with a +splendid outfit, and farewell entertainments were given in his honour. + +Before leaving he acknowledged to the King that he had no great +confidence in his own powers, and suggested that he should be allowed +to take with him Chou-pien and Tzu-hua as commissioners of justice +and finance. The King gave his consent, and issued the necessary +instructions. The day of departure having arrived, both the King +and the Queen came to see Ch'un-yü and his wife off, and to Ch'un-yü +the King said: "The province of Nan-k'o is rich and fertile; and the +inhabitants are brave and prosperous; it is by kindness that you must +rule them." To her daughter the Queen said: "Your husband is violent +and fond of wine. The duty of a wife is to be kind and submissive. Act +well toward him, and I shall have no anxiety. Nan-k'o, it is true, +is not very far--only one day's journey; still, in parting from +you my tears will flow." Ch'un-yü and his bride waved a farewell, +and were whirled away toward their destination, reaching Nan-k'o the +same evening. + +Once settled in the place, Ch'un-yü set himself to become thoroughly +acquainted with the manners and customs of the people, and to relieve +distress. To Chou-pien and Tzu-hua he confided all questions of +administration, and in the course of twenty years a great improvement +was to be noticed in the affairs of the province. The people showed +their appreciation by erecting a monument to his honour, while the +King conferred upon him an estate and the dignity of a title, and in +recognition of their services promoted Chou-pien and Tzu-hua to very +high posts. Ch'un-yü's children also shared their father's rewards; +the two sons were given office, while the two daughters were betrothed +to members of the royal family. There remained nothing which could +add to his fame and greatness. + + +He meets with Disasters + +About this period the state of T'an-lo made an incursion on the +province of Nan-k'o. The King at once commanded that Chou-pien should +proceed at the head of 30,000 men to repel the enemy. Chou-pien, +full of confidence, attacked the foe, but sustained a disastrous +defeat, and, barely escaping with his life, returned to the capital, +leaving the invaders to plunder the country and retire. Ch'un-yü threw +Chou-pien into prison, and asked the King what punishment should be +visited upon him. His Majesty granted Chou-pien his pardon; but that +same month he died of disease. + +A few days later Ch'un-yü's wife also fell ill and died, whereupon +he begged permission to resign his post and return to Court with his +wife's remains. This request was granted, and Tzu-hua was appointed +in his stead. As Ch'un-yü, sad and dejected, was leaving the city +with the funeral _cortège_, he found the road lined with people giving +loud expression to their grief, and almost ready to prevent his taking +his departure. + + + +He returns Home + +As he neared the capital the King and Queen, dressed in mourning, were +awaiting the bier in tears. The Princess, after a posthumous title +had been conferred upon her, was buried with great magnificence a few +miles to the east of the city, while Ch'un-yü remained in the capital, +living in such state, and gaining so much influence, that he excited +the King's jealousy; and when it was foretold, by means of signs in +the heavens, that ruin threatened the kingdom, that its inhabitants +would be swept away, and that this would be the work of an alien, +the prophecy seemed to point to ambitious designs on the part of +Ch'un-yü, and means were taken to keep him under restraint. + +Ch'un-yü, conscious that he had faithfully filled a high office for +many years, felt greatly grieved by these calumnies--a result which +the King could not avoid noticing. He accordingly sent for Ch'un-yü, +and said: "For more than twenty years we have been connexions, +although my poor daughter, unfortunately, has not been spared to be +a companion to you in old age. Her mother is now taking care of her +children; your own home you have not seen for many years; return to +see your friends; your children will be looked after, and in three +years you will see them again." "Is not this my home? Whither else am +I to go?" was Ch'un-yü's reply. "My friend," the King said laughingly, +"you are a human being; you don't belong to this place." At these words +Ch'un-yü seemed to fall into a deep swoon, and he remained unconscious +for some time, after which he began to recall some glimpses of the +distant past. With tears in his eyes he begged that he might be +allowed to return to his home, and, saying farewell, he departed. + +Outside the palace he found the same two officials in purple clothes +who had led the way so many years ago. A conveyance was also there, +but this time it was a mere bullock-cart, with no outriders. He took +the same road as before, and noticed the same hills and streams. The +two officials were by no means imposing this time, and when he asked +how far was his destination they continued to hum and whistle and +paid no attention to him. At last they passed through an opening, and +he recognized his own village, precisely as he had left it. The two +officials desired him to get down and walk up the steps before him, +where, much to his horror, he saw himself lying down in the porch. He +was too much bedazed with terror to advance, but the two officials +called out his name several times, and upon this he awoke. The +servants were bustling about the house, and his two companions +were still washing their feet. Everything was as he had left it, +and the lifetime he had lived in his dream had occupied only a few +moments. Calling out to his two friends, he made them follow him to +the locust-tree, and pointed out the opening through which he had +begun his journey in dream-land. + +An axe was sent for, and the interior of the trunk thrown open, +whereupon a series of galleries was laid bare. At the root of the +tree a mound of earth was discovered, in shape like a city, and +swarming with ants. This was the capital of the kingdom in which +he had lived in his dream. A terrace surrounded by a guard of ants +was the residence of the King and Queen, two winged insects with +red heads. Twenty feet or so along another gallery was found an +old tortoise-shell covered with a thick growth of moss; it was the +Tortoise-back Hill of the dream. In another direction was found a +small mound of earth round which was coiled a root in shape like a +dragon's tongue; it was the grave of the King's daughter, Ch'un-yü's +wife in the vision. As he recalled each incident of the dream he was +much affected at discovering its counterpart in this nest of ants, +and he refused to allow his companions to disturb it further. They +replaced everything as they had found it; but that night a storm of +wind and rain came, and next morning not a vestige of the ants was +to be seen. They had all disappeared, and here was the fulfilment of +the warning in the dream, that the kingdom would be swept away. + + +Ch'un-yü Regenerate + +At this time Ch'un-yü had not seen Chou-pien and Tzu-hua for some +ten days. He sent a messenger to make inquiries about them, and the +news he brought back was that Chou-pien was dead and Tzu-hua lying +ill. The fleeting nature of man's existence revealed itself to him +as he recalled the greatness of these two men in the ant-world. From +that day he became a reformed man; drink and dissipation were put +aside. After three years had elapsed he died, thus giving effect to +the promise of the ant-king that he should see his children once more +at the end of three years. + + +Why the Jung Tribe have Heads of Dogs + +The wave of conquest which swept from north to south in the earliest +periods of Chinese history [49] left on its way, like small islands +in the ocean, certain remnants of aboriginal tribes which survived +and continued to exist despite the sustained hostile attitude of the +flood of alien settlers around them. When stationed at Foochow I saw +the settlements of one of these tribes which lived in the mountainous +country not very many miles inland from that place. They were those +of the Jung tribe, the members of which wore on their heads a large +and peculiar headgear constructed of bamboo splints resting on a +peg inserted in the chignon at the back of the head, the weight of +the structure in front being counterbalanced by a pad, serving as +a weight, attached to the end of the splints, which projected as +far down as the middle of the shoulders. This framework was covered +by a mantilla of red cloth which, when not rolled up, concealed the +whole head and face, The following legend, related to me on the spot, +explains the origin of this unusual headdress. + + +Two Tribes at War + +In early times the Chief of a Chinese tribe (another version says +an Emperor of China) was at war with the Chief of another tribe who +came to attack his territory from the west. The Western Chief so badly +defeated the Chinese army that none of the generals or soldiers could +be induced to renew hostilities and endeavour to drive the enemy back +to his own country. This distressed the Chinese Chief very much. As +a last resort he issued a proclamation promising his daughter in +marriage to anyone who would bring him the head of his enemy, the +Chief of the West. + + +The Chief's Promise + +The people in the palace talked much of this promise made by the +Chief, and their conversation was listened to by a fine large white +dog belonging to one of the generals. This dog, having pondered the +matter well, waited until midnight and then stole over to the tent +of the enemy Chief. The latter, as well as his guard, was asleep; +or, if the guard was not, the dog succeeded in avoiding him in the +darkness. Entering the tent, the dog gnawed through the Chief's +neck and carried his head off in his mouth. At dawn he placed it at +the Chinese Chief's feet, and waited for his reward. The Chief was +soon able to verify the fact that his enemy had been slain, for the +headless body had caused so much consternation in the hostile army +that it had already begun to retreat from Chinese territory. + + +A Strange Contract + +The dog then reminded the Chief of his promise, and asked for his +daughter's hand in marriage. "But how," said the Chief, "can I possibly +marry my daughter to a dog?" "Well," replied the dog, "will you agree +to her marrying me if I change myself into a man?" This seemed a safe +promise to make, and the Chief agreed. The dog then stipulated that +he should be placed under a large bell and that no one should move +it or look into it for a space of 280 days. + + +The Chiefs Curiosity + +This was done, and for 279 days the bell remained unmoved, but on +the 280th day the Chief could restrain his curiosity no longer, +and tilting up the bell saw that the dog had changed into a man +all except his head, the last day being required to complete the +transformation. However, the spell was now broken, and the result was +a man with a dog's head. Since it was the Chief's fault that, through +his over-inquisitiveness, the dog could not become altogether a man, +he was obliged to keep his promise, and the wedding duly took place, +the bridegroom's head being veiled for the occasion by a red mantilla. + + +The Origin of a Custom + +Unfortunately the fruit of the union took more after their father +than their mother, and though comely of limb had exceedingly ugly +features. [50] They were therefore obliged to continue to wear the +head-covering adopted by their father at the marriage ceremony, and +this became so much an integral part of the tribal costume that not +only has it been worn ever since by their descendants, but a change +of headgear has become synonymous with a change of husbands or a +divorce. One account says that at the original bridal ceremony the +bride wore the red mantilla to prevent her seeing her husband's ugly +features, and that is why the headdress is worn by the women and not by +the men, or more generally by the former than the latter, though others +say that it was originally worn by the ugly children of both sexes. + + +And of a Worship + +This legend explains the dog-worship of the Jung tribe, which now +consists of four clans, with a separate surname (Lei, Chung, Lang, +and Pan) to each, has a language of its own, and does not intermarry +with the Foochow natives. At about the time of the old Chinese New +Year (somewhere in February) they paint a large figure of a dog on a +screen and worship it, saying it is their ancestor who was victorious +over the Western invader. + + + +Conclusion + +If the greatness of nations is to be judged by the greatness of +their myths (using the word 'great' in the sense of world-famous +and of perennial influence), there would be few great nations, and +China would not be one of them. As stated in an earlier chapter, the +design has been to give an account of Chinese myth as it is, and not +as it might have been under imaginary conditions. But for the Chinese +philosophers we should in all probability have had more Chinese myths, +but philosophy is unifying, and without it we might have had a break-up +of China and perhaps no myths at all, or none specially belonging to +China as a whole and separate independent nation. Had there been great, +world-stirring myths there could hardly but have been also more wars, +more cruelty, more wounding of the "heart that weeps and trembles," +more saturating of the earth with human blood. It is not a small thing +to have conquered myth with philosophy, especially at a time when the +Western world was still steeped in the grossest superstition. Therefore +we may be thankful that the Chinese were and are a peace-loving, sober, +agricultural, industrial, non-military, non-priest-ridden, literary, +and philosophical people, and that we have instead of great myths a +great people. + +But if the real test of greatness is purity and justice, then Chinese +myth must be placed among the greatest of all; for it is not obscene, +and it is invariably just. + + + + + + +The Pronunciation of Chinese Words + +During the course of Chinese history the restriction of intercourse +due to mountain-chains or other natural obstacles between various +tribes or divisions of the Chinese people led to the birth of a number +of families of languages, which again became the parents of numerous +local dialects. These dialects have in most cases restricted ranges, +so that that of one district may be partially or wholly unintelligible +to the natives of another situated at a distance of only a hundred +miles or less. + +The Court or Government language is that spoken in Peking and the +metropolitan district, and is the language of official communication +throughout the country. Though neither the oldest nor the purest +Chinese dialect, it seems destined more than any other to come into +universal use in China. The natives of each province or district will +of course continue to speak to each other in their own particular +dialect, and foreign missionaries or merchants, for example, whose +special duties or transactions are connected with special districts +will naturally learn and use the dialects of those districts; but as +a means of intercommunication generally between natives of different +provinces, or between natives and foreigners, the Court language seems +likely to continue in use and to spread more and more over the whole +country. It is to this that the following remarks apply. + +The essentials of correct pronunciation of Chinese are accuracy of +sound, tone, and rhythm. + + +Sound + +_Vowels and Diphthongs_ + +_a_ as in _father_. + +_ai_ as in Italian _amái_. + +_ao_. Italian _ao_ in _Aosta_: sometimes _á-oo,_ the _au_ in _cauto_. + +_e_ in _eh_, _en_, as in _yet_, _lens_. + +_ei_. Nearly _ey_ in _grey_, but more as in Italian _lei_, _contei_. + +_ê_. The vowel-sound in _lurk_. + +_êi_. The foregoing _ê_ followed enclitically by _y_. _Money_ without +the _n_ = _mêi_. + +_êrh._ The _urr_ in _purr_. + +_i_. As a single or final syllable the vowel-sound in _ease_, _tree_; +in _ih_, _in_, _ing_, as in _chick_, _thing_. + +_ia_ generally as in the Italian _Maria_. + +_iai_. The _iai_ in the Italian _vecchiaia_. + +_iao_ as in _ia_ and _ao_, with the terminal peculiarity of the latter. + +_ie_ as in the Italian _siesta_. + +_io_. The French _io_ in _pioche_. + +_iu_ as a final, longer than the English _ew_. In _liu, niu_, almost +_leyew, neyew_. In _chiung, hsiung, iung_, is _eeyong_ (_o_ in _roll_). + +_o._ Between vowel-sound in _awe_ and that in _roll_. + +_ou._ Really _êo_; _ou_ in _round_. + +_ü._ The vowel-sound in the French _tu, eût_. + +_üa._ Only in _üan_, which in some tones is _üen_. The _u_ as above; +the _an_ as in _antic_. + +_üe_. The vowel-sounds in the French _tu es_. + +_üo_. A disputed sound, used, if at all, interchangeably with _io_ +in certain syllables. + +_u_. The _oo_ in _too_; in _un_ and _ung_ as in the Italian _punto_. + +_ua_. Nearly _ooa_, in many instances contracting to _wa_. + +_uai_ as in the Italian _guai_. + +_uei._ The vowel-sounds in the French _jouer_. + +_uê._ Only in final _uên_ = _ú-un_; frequently _wên_ or _wun_. + +_ui._ The vowel-sounds in _screwy_; in some tones _uei_. + +_uo._ The Italian _uo_ in _fuori_; often _wo_, and at times nearly +_oo_. + +_u._ Between the _i_ in _bit_ and the _u_ in _shut_. + +_Consonants_ + +_ch_ as in _chair_; but before _ih_ softened to _dj_. + +_ch'_. A strong breathing. _Mu_ch-ha_rm_ without the italicized +letters = _ch'a_. + +_f_ as in farm. + +_h_ as _ch_ in Scotch _loch_. + +_hs_. A slight aspirate preceding and modifying the sibilant, which is, +however, the stronger of the two consonants; _e.g. hsing_ = _hissing_ +without the first _i_, + +_j_. Nearly the French _j_ in _jaune_; the English _s_ in _fusion_. + +_k_. _c_ in _car_, _k_ in _king_; but when following other sounds +often softened to _g_ in _go, gate_. + +_k'_. The aspirate as in _ch'_. _Ki_ck-ha_rd_ without the italicized +letters = _k'a_; and _ki_ck-he_r_ == _k'ê_. + +_l_ as in English. + +_m_ as in English. + +_n_ as in English. + +_ng_. The italicized letters in the French mo_n ga_lant = _nga_; +mo_n gai_llard = _ngai_; so_n go_sier = _ngo_. + +_p_ as in English. + +_p'_ The Irish pronunciation of _p_arty, _p_arliament. _Sla_p-ha_rd_ +without the italicized letters = _p'a_. + +_s_ as in English. + +_sh_ as in English. + +_ss_. Only in _ssu_. The object of employing _ss_ is to fix attention +on the peculiar vowel-sound _u_ (see above). + +_t_ as in English. + +_t'_ The Irish _t_ in _t_orment. _Hi_t-ha_rd_ without the italicized +letters = _t'a_. + +_ts_ as in _jetsam_; after another word softened to _ds_ in _gladsome_. + +_ts'._ The aspirate intervening, as in _ch'_, etc. _Be_ts-ha_rd_ +without the italicized letters = _ts'a_. + +_tz_. Employed to mark the peculiarity of the final _u_; hardly of +greater power than _ts_. + +_tz'_ like _ts'_. This, _tz_, and _ss_ used only before _u_. + +_w_ as in English; but very faint, or even non-existent, before _ü_. + +_y_ as in English; but very faint before _i_ or _ü_. + + +Tone + +The correct pronunciation of the sound (_yin_) is not sufficient to +make a Chinese spoken word intelligible. Unless the tone (_shêng_), +or musical note, is simultaneously correctly given, either the wrong +meaning or no meaning at all will be conveyed. The tone is the key in +which the voice is pitched. Accent is a 'song added to,' and tone is +emphasized accent. The number of these tones differs in the different +dialects. In Pekingese there are now four. They are best indicated +in transliteration by numbers added to the sound, thus: + +_pa_ (1) _pa_ (2) _pa_ (3) _pa_ (4) + +To say, for example, _pa_ (3) instead of _pa_ (1) would be as great +a mistake as to say 'grasp' instead of 'trumpet.' Correctness of tone +cannot be learnt except by oral instruction. + + +Rhythm + +What tone is to the individual sound rhythm is to the sentence. This +also, together with proper appreciation of the mutual modifications +of tone and rhythm, can be correctly acquired only by oral instruction. + + + + + + +NOTES + +[1] The inventions of the Chinese during a period of four thousand +years may be numbered on the fingers of one hand. + +[2] _East of Asia Magazine_, i, 15-16. + +[3] _Cf_. Aristotle's belief that bugs arose spontaneously from sweat. + +[4] For the Buddhist account see _China Review_, xi, 80-82. + +[5] Compare the Japanese legend, which relates that the Sun-goddess was +induced to come out of a cave by being tempted to gaze at herself in a +mirror. See _Myths and Legends of Japan_, F. Hadland Davis, pp. 27-28. + +[6] See _Myths of the Norsemen_, by H. A. Guerber. These resemblances +and the further one--namely, the dualism in the prechaotic epoch +(a very interesting point in Scandinavian mythology)--illustrate the +danger of inferring identity of origin from similarity of physical, +intellectual, or moral results. Several remarkable parallelisms of +Chinese religious and mythological beliefs with those recorded in +the Hebrew scriptures may also be briefly noted. There is an age +of virtue and happiness, a garden with a tree bearing 'apples of +immortality,' guarded by a winged serpent (dragon), the fall of man, +the beginnings of lust and war (the doctrine of original sin), a great +flood, virgin-born god-men who rescue man from barbarism and endow +him with superhuman attributes, discipleship, worship of a Virgin +Mother, trinities, monasticism, celibacy, fasting, preaching, prayers, +primeval Chaos, Paradise, etc. For details see _Chinese Repository,_ +vii, 520-521. + +[7] _Cf._ the dwarfs in the Scandinavian myth. + +[8] See Legge, _Shu ching_, ii, 320, note. + +[9] In order to avoid misunderstanding, it is as well to note that the +mention of the _t'ai chi_ in the _Canon of Changes (I ching_) no more +constituted monism the philosophy of China than did the steam-driven +machinery mentioned by Hero of Alexandria constitute the first century +B.C. the 'age of steam.' Similarly, to take another example, the idea +of the earth's rotundity, though conceived centuries before Ptolemy +in the second century, did not become established before the sixteenth +century. It was, in fact, from the _I ching_ that the Chinese derived +their _dualistic_ (not their monistic) conception of the world. + +[10] "Formerly, I, Chuang Chou, dreamt that I was a butterfly, flying +about and feeling that it was enjoying itself. I did not know that +it was Chou. Suddenly I awoke and was myself again, the veritable +Chou. I did not know whether it had formerly been Chou dreaming that +he was a butterfly, or whether it was now a butterfly dreaming that +it was Chou." _Chuang Tzu_, Book II. + +[11] See the present writer's _China of the Chinese_, chapter viii. + +[12] See Du Bose, pp. 282, 286, 361, 409, 410, and _Journal of the +North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society_, xxxiv, 110-111. + +[13] Du Bose, p. 38. + +[14] He is sometimes represented as a reincarnation of Wên Chung; +see p. 198. + +[16] See footnote, p. 107. + +[17] _Religion_, p. 177. + +[18] See _Myths of the Hindus and Buddhists_, by Sister Nivedita and +Ananda Coomaraswamy. + +[19] The native accounts differ on this point. _Cf._ p. 16. + +[20] For further details concerning T'ai I see _Babylonian and Oriental +Record_, vi, 145-150. + +[21] _Cf._ Chapter I. + +[22] She is the same as Ch'ang Ô, the name Hêng being changed to +Ch'ang because it was the tabooed personal name of the Emperors Mu +Tsung of the T'ang dynasty and Chên Tsung of the Sung dynasty. + +[23] See p. 45. + +[24] In Sagittarius, or the Sieve; Chinese constellation of the +Leopard. + +[25] See Chapter XIV. + +[26] See Chapter XII. + +[27] This pagoda is distant about twenty _li_ (seven miles) from +Peking. It is on the top of the hill, while the spring is at the foot, +half a _li_ distant. The imperial family used the water from this +spring, whence it was carried to Peking in carts. + +[28] See Chapter XII. + +[29] See Chapter IV. + +[30] This has reference to the change of Kuan Yin from the masculine +to the feminine gender, already mentioned. + +[31] There is evidently a mistake here, since the King was twenty +when he ascended the throne and fifty at the birth of Miao Shan. + +[32] _An Illustrated Account of the Eight Immortals' Mission to +the East_. + +[33] A record of a journey to the Western Paradise to procure +the Buddhist scriptures for the Emperor of China. The work is a +dramatization of the introduction of Buddhism into China. + +[34] See p. 329. + +[35] See p. 195. + +[36] Literally 'golden oranges.' These are skilfully preserved by +the Cantonese, and form a delicious sweetmeat for dessert. + +[37] Only slave-girls and women of the poorer classes and old women +omit this very important part of a Chinese lady's toilet. + +[38] Alluding probably to the shape of the 'shoe' or ingot of silver. + +[39] Slave-girls do not have their feet compressed. + +[40] Wherein resides an old gentleman who ties together with a red cord +the feet of those destined to become man and wife. From this bond there +is no escape, no matter what distance may separate the affianced pair. + +[41] This proceeding is highly improper, but is 'winked at' in a +large majority of Chinese betrothals. + +[42] The usual occupation of poor scholars who are ashamed to go +into trade and who have not enterprise enough to start as doctors or +fortune-tellers. Besides painting pictures and fans, and illustrating +books, these men write fancy scrolls in the various ornamental styles +so much prized by the Chinese; they keep accounts for people, and +write or read business and private letters for the illiterate masses. + +[43] Say about £10. + +[44] Alchemy is first mentioned in Chinese history B.C. 133, and was +widely cultivated in China during the Han dynasty by priests of the +Taoist religion. + +[45] Kuan Chung and Pao Shu are the Chinese types of friendship. They +were two statesmen of considerable ability who flourished in the +seventh century B.C. + +[46] These are used, together with a heavy wooden _bâton_, by the +Chinese washerman, the effect being most disastrous to a European +wardrobe. + +[47] To provide coffins for poor people has ever been regarded as +an act of transcendent merit. The tornado at Canton in April 1878, +in which several thousand lives were lost, afforded an admirable +opportunity for the exercise of this form of charity--an opportunity +which was largely taken advantage of by the benevolent. + +[48] For usurping its prerogative by allowing Chia to obtain wealth. + +[49] See Chapter I. + +[50] Compare the legend of the tailed Miao Tzu tribes named Yao, +'mountain-dogs' or 'jackals,' living on the mountain ranges in the +north-west of Kuangtung Province, related in the _Jih chi so chih_. + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Myths and Legends of China, by E. T. C. 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