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diff --git a/15237-h/15237-h.htm b/15237-h/15237-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d378d1e --- /dev/null +++ b/15237-h/15237-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,4136 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> +<html> +<head> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1" /> +<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Chemistry of Food and Nutrition, by A. W. Duncan</title> + <style type="text/css"> + /*<![CDATA[*/ + + <!-- + body {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + p {text-align: justify;} + blockquote {text-align: justify;} + h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 {text-align: center;} + pre {font-size: 0.7em;} + .sc {font-variant: small-caps;} + + hr {text-align: center; width: 50%;} + html>body hr {margin-right: 25%; margin-left: 25%; width: 50%;} + hr.full {width: 100%;} + html>body hr.full {margin-right: 0%; margin-left: 0%; width: 100%;} + hr.short {text-align: center; width: 20%;} + html>body hr.short {margin-right: 40%; margin-left: 40%; width: 20%;} + + .note, .footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} + + span.pagenum + {position: absolute; left: 1%; right: 91%; font-size: 8pt; text-indent: 0;} + + .poem + {margin-left:10%; margin-right:10%; margin-bottom: 1em; text-align: left;} + .poem .stanza {margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em;} + .poem p {margin: 0; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} + .poem p.i2 {margin-left: 1em;} + .poem p.i4 {margin-left: 2em;} + + .figure, .figcenter, .figright, .figleft + {padding: 1em; margin: 0; text-align: center; font-size: 0.8em;} + .figure img, .figcenter img, .figright img, .figleft img + {border: none;} + .figure p, .figcenter p, .figright p, .figleft p + {margin: 0; text-indent: 1em;} + .figcenter {margin: auto;} + .figright {float: right;} + .figleft {float: left;} + + p.author {text-align: right; margin-right: 5%;} + --> + /*]]>*/ + </style> +</head> +<body> +<h1>The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Chemistry of Food and Nutrition, by A. W. +Duncan</h1> +<pre> +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at <a href = "https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></pre> +<p>Title: The Chemistry of Food and Nutrition</p> +<p>Author: A. W. Duncan</p> +<p>Release Date: March 2, 2005 [eBook #15237]</p> +<p>Language: English</p> +<p>Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1</p> +<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE CHEMISTRY OF FOOD AND NUTRITION***</p> +<p> </p> +<h3>E-text prepared by Feòrag NicBhrìde, Richard Prairie,<br /> + and the Project Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team</h3> +<p> </p> +<hr class="full" /> +<p> </p> + <div class="figcenter" + style="width:100%;"> + <a href="images/001.png"><img width="456" + src="images/001.png" + alt="Grape-Nuts Ad" /></a> + </div> + + <p> </p> + + <p> </p> + + <h1>The Chemistry Of Food and Nutrition</h1> + + <h4>BY</h4> + + <h2>A. W. DUNCAN, F.C.S.</h2> + + <h4>ANALYTICAL CHEMIST.</h4> + + <p> </p> + + <p> </p> + + <h4>MANCHESTER THE VEGETARIAN SOCIETY</h4> + + <h4>1905</h4> + + <div class="figcenter" + style="width:100%;"> + <a href="images/003.png"><img width="640" + src="images/003.png" + alt="The Vegetarian Society, Food Store Dept and Useful Literature ads" /> + </a> + </div> + + <h3>PREFACE.</h3> + + <p>The first edition of 1884 contained but 5 pages of type; the + second of 1898, 14 pages. Only by conciseness has it been + possible to give even a summary of the principles of dietetics + within the limit or this pamphlet. Should there appear in + places an abruptness or incompleteness of treatment, these + limitations must be my excuse.</p> + + <p>Those who wish to thoroughly study the science of food are + referred to the standard work, "Food and Dietetics," by Dr. R. + Hutchison (E. Arnold, 16s.). The effects of purin bodies in + producing illness has been patiently and thoroughly worked out + by Dr. Alexander Haig. Students are referred to his "Uric Acid, + an epitome of the subject" (J. & A. Churchhill, 1904, + 2s.6d.), or to his larger work on "Uric Acid." An able + scientific summary of investigations on purins, their chemical + and pathological properties, and the quantities in foods will + be found in "The Purin Bodies of Food Stuffs," by Dr. I. Walker + Hall (Sherratt & Hughes, Manchester, 1903, 4s.6d.). The + U.S. Department of Agriculture has made a large number of + elaborate researches on food and nutrition. My thanks are due + to Mr. Albert Broadbent, the Secretary of the Vegetarian + Society, for placing some of their bulletins in my hands, and + for suggestions and help. He has also written several useful + popular booklets on food of a very practical character, at from + a penny to threepence each.</p> + + <p>Popular literature abounds in unsound statements on food. It + is unfortunate that many ardent workers in the cause of health + are lacking in scientific knowledge, especially of physiology + and chemistry. By their immature and sweeping statements from + the platform and press, they often bring discredit on a good + cause. Matters of health must be primarily based on experience + and we must bear in mind that each person can at the most have + full knowledge of himself alone, and to a less degree of his + family and intimates. The general rules of health are + applicable to all alike, but not in their details. Owing to + individual imperfections of constitution, difference of + temperament and environment, there is danger when one man + attempts to measure others by his own standard.</p> + + <p>For the opinions here expressed I only must be held + responsible, and not the Society publishing the pamphlet.</p> + + <p>Vegetarians, generally, place the humane as the highest + reason for their practice, though the determining cause of the + change from a flesh diet has been in most cases bad health.</p> + + <p>A vegetarian may be defined as one who abstains from all + animals as food. The term animal is used in its proper + scientific sense (comprising insects, molluscs, crustaceans, + fish, etc.). Animal products are not excluded, though they are + not considered really necessary. They are looked upon as a + great convenience, whilst free from nearly all the objections + appertaining to flesh food.</p> + + <p class="author">A.W.D.</p> + + <p> </p> + + <h2 class="sc">The Chemistry of Food and Nutrition</h2> + + <h3 class="sc">By A.W. Duncan, F.C.S.</h3> + + <p> </p> + + <p>We may define a food to be any substance which will repair + the functional waste of the body, increase its growth, or + maintain the heat, muscular, and nervous energy. In its most + comprehensive sense, the oxygen of the air is a food; as + although it is admitted by the lungs, it passes into the blood, + and there re-acts upon the other food which has passed through + the stomach. It is usual, however, to restrict the term food to + such nutriment as enters the body by the intestinal canal. + Water is often spoken of as being distinct from food, but for + this there is no sufficient reason.</p> + + <p>Many popular writers have divided foods into flesh-formers, + heat-givers, and bone-formers. Although attractive from its + simplicity, this classification will not bear criticism. + Flesh-formers are also heat-givers. Only a portion of the + mineral matter goes to form bone.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="sc">Class I.—Inorganic Compounds.</p> + + <p class="i2">Sub-class 1. Water. 2. Mineral Matter or + Salts.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="sc">Class II—Organic Compounds.</p> + + <p class="i2">1. Non-Nitrogeneous or Ternary Compounds. + <i>a</i> Carbohydrates.</p> + + <p class="i4"><i>b</i> Oils. <i>c</i> Organic + Acids.</p> + + <p class="i2">2. Nitrogenous Compounds. <i>a</i> + Proteids. <i>b</i> Osseids.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="sc">Class III.—Non-Nutritives, Food + Adjuncts and Drugs.</p> + + <p class="i2">Essential Oils, Alkaloids, Extractives, + Alcohol, &c.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>These last are not strictly foods, if we keep to the + definition already given; but they are consumed with the true + foods or nutrients, comprised in the other two classes, and + cannot well be excluded from consideration.</p> + + <p><b>Water</b> forms an essential part of all the tissues of + the body. It is the solvent and carrier of other + substances.</p> + + <p><b>Mineral Matter</b> or Salts, is left as an ash when food + is thoroughly burnt. The most important salts are calcium + phosphate, carbonate and fluoride, sodium chloride, potassium + phosphate and chloride, and compounds of magnesium, iron and + silicon.</p> + + <p>Mineral matter is quite as necessary for plant as for animal + life, and is therefore present in all food, except in the case + of some highly-prepared ones, such as sugar, starch and oil. + Children require a good proportion of calcium phosphate for the + growth of their bones, whilst adults require less. The outer + part of the grain of cereals is the richest in mineral + constituents, white flour and rice are deficient. Wheatmeal and + oatmeal are especially recommended for the quantity of + phosphates and other salts contained in them. Mineral matter is + necessary not only for the bones but for every tissue of the + body.</p> + + <p>When haricots are cooked, the liquid is often thrown away, + and the beans served nearly dry, or with parsley or other + sauce. Not only is the food less tasty but important saline + constituents are lost. The author has made the following + experiments:—German whole lentils, Egyptian split red + lentils and medium haricot beans were soaked all night (16 + hours) in just sufficient cold water to keep them covered. The + water was poured off and evaporated, the residue heated in the + steam-oven to perfect dryness and weighed. After pouring off + the water, the haricots were boiled in more water until + thoroughly cooked, the liquid being kept as low as possible. + The liquid was poured off as clear as possible, from the + haricots, evaporated and dried. The ash was taken in each case, + and the alkalinity of the water-soluble ash was calculated as + potash (K<sub>2</sub>O). The quantity of water which could be + poured off was with the German lentils, half as much more than + the original weight of the pulse; not quite as much could be + poured off the others.</p> + + <table summary="Cooking Beans" + align="center" + width="600"> + <tr> + <td> </td> + + <td align="left">G. Lentils.</td> + + <td align="left">E. Lentils.</td> + + <td align="left">Haricots.</td> + + <td align="left">Cooked H.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="left">Proportion of liquid</td> + + <td align="left">1.5</td> + + <td align="left">1.25</td> + + <td align="left">1.20</td> + + <td align="left">—</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="left">Soluble dry matter</td> + + <td align="left">0.97</td> + + <td align="left">3.38</td> + + <td align="left">1.43</td> + + <td align="left">7.66 per cent.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="left">Ash</td> + + <td align="left">0.16</td> + + <td align="left">0.40</td> + + <td align="left">0.28</td> + + <td align="left">1.26 " "</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="left">Alkalinity as K<sub>2</sub>O</td> + + <td align="left">0.02</td> + + <td align="left">0.082</td> + + <td align="left">0.084</td> + + <td align="left">0.21 " "</td> + </tr> + </table> + + <p>The loss on soaking in cold water, unless the water is + preserved, is seen to be considerable. The split lentils, + having had the protecting skin removed, lose most. In every + case the ash contained a good deal of phosphate and lime. + Potatoes are rich in important potash salts; by boiling a large + quantity is lost, by steaming less and by baking in the skins, + scarcely any. The flavour is also much better after baking.</p> + + <p>The usual addition of common salt (sodium-chloride) to + boiled potatoes is no proper substitute for the loss of their + natural saline constituents. Natural and properly cooked foods + are so rich in sodium chloride and other salts that the + addition of common salt is unnecessary. An excess of the latter + excites thirst and spoils the natural flavour of the food. It + is the custom, especially in restaurants, to add a large + quantity of salt to pulse, savoury food, potatoes and soups. + Bakers' brown bread is usually very salt, and sometimes white + is also. In some persons much salt causes irritation of the + skin, and the writer has knowledge of the salt food of + vegetarian restaurants causing or increasing dandruff. As a + rule, fondness for salt is an acquired taste, and after its + discontinuance for a time, food thus flavoured becomes + unpalatable.</p> + + <p><b>Organic Compounds</b> are formed by living organisms (a + few can also be produced by chemical means). They are entirely + decomposed by combustion.</p> + + <p>The <b>Non-Nitrogenous Organic Compounds</b> are commonly + called carbon compounds or heat-producers, but these terms are + also descriptive of the nitrogenous compounds. These contain + carbon, hydrogen and oxygen only, and furnish by their + oxidation or combustion in the body the necessary heat, + muscular and nervous energy. The final product of their + combustion is water and carbon dioxide (carbonic acid gas).</p> + + <p>The <b>Carbohydrates</b> comprise starch, sugar, gum, + mucilage, pectose, glycogen, &c.; cellulose and woody fibre + are carbohydrates, but are little capable of digestion. They + contain hydrogen and oxygen in the proportion to form water, + the carbon alone being available to produce heat by combustion. + Starch is the most widely distributed food. It is insoluble in + water, but when cooked is readily digested and absorbed by the + body. Starch is readily converted into sugar, whether in plants + or animals, during digestion. There are many kinds of sugar, + such as grape, cane and milk sugars.</p> + + <p>The <b>Oils and Fats</b> consist of the same elements as the + carbohydrates, but the hydrogen is in larger quantity than is + necessary to form water, and this surplus is available for the + production of energy. During their combustion in the body they + produce nearly two-and-a-quarter times (4 : 8.9 = 2.225) as + much heat as the carbohydrates; but if eaten in more than small + quantities, they are not easily digested, a portion passing + away by the intestines. The fat in the body is not solely + dependent upon the quantity consumed as food, as an animal may + become quite fat on food containing none. A moderate quantity + favours digestion and the bodily health. In cold weather more + should be taken. In the Arctic regions the Esquimaux consume + enormous quantities. Nuts are generally rich in oil. Oatmeal + contains more than any of the other cereals (27 analyses gave + from 8 to 12.3 per cent.)</p> + + <p>The most esteemed and dearest oil is Almond. What is called + Peach-kernel oil (Oleum Amygdalæ Persicæ), but + which in commerce includes the oil obtained from plum and + apricot stones, is almost as tasteless and useful, whilst it is + considerably cheaper. It is a very agreeable and useful food. + It is often added to, as an adulterant, or substituted for the + true Almond oil. The best qualities of Olive oil are much + esteemed, though they are not as agreeable to English taste as + the oil previously mentioned. The best qualities are termed + Virgin, Extra Sublime and Sublime. Any that has been exposed + for more than a short time to the light and heat of a shop + window should be rejected, as the flavour is affected. It + should be kept in a cool place. Not only does it vary much in + freedom from acid and rancidity, but is frequently adulterated. + Two other cheaper oils deserve mention. The "cold-drawn" + Arachis oil (pea-nut or earth-nut oil) has a pleasant flavour, + resembling that of kidney beans. The "cold-drawn" Sesamé + oil has an agreeable taste, and is considered equal to Olive + oil for edible purposes. The best qualities are rather + difficult to obtain; those usually sold being much inferior to + Peach-kernel and Olive oils. Cotton-seed oil is the cheapest of + the edible ones. Salad oil, not sold under any descriptive + name, is usually refined Cotton-seed oil, with perhaps a little + Olive oil to impart a richer flavour.</p> + + <p>The solid fats sold as butter and lard substitutes, consist + of deodorised cocoanut oil, and they are excellent for cooking + purposes. It is claimed that biscuits, &c., made from them + may be kept for a much longer period, without showing any trace + of rancidity, than if butter or lard had been used. They are + also to be had agreeably flavoured by admixture with almond, + walnut, &c., "cream."</p> + + <p>The better quality oils are quite as wholesome as the best + fresh butter, and better than most butter as sold. Bread can be + dipped into the oil, or a little solid vegetable fat spread on + it. The author prefers to pour a little Peach-kernel oil upon + some ground walnut kernels (or other ground nuts in themselves + rich in oil), mix with a knife to a suitable consistency and + spread upon the bread. Pine-kernels are very oily, and can be + used in pastry in the place of butter or lard.</p> + + <p>Whenever oils are mentioned, without a prefix, the fixed or + fatty oils are always understood. The volatile or essential + oils are a distinct class. Occasionally, the fixed oils are + called hydrocarbons, but hydrocarbon oils are quite different + and consist of carbon and hydrogen alone. Of these, petroleum + is incapable of digestion, whilst others are poisonous.</p> + + <p><b>Vegetable Acids</b> are composed of the same three + elements and undergo combustion into the same compounds as the + carbohydrates. They rouse the appetite, stimulate digestion, + and finally form carbonates in combination with the alkalies, + thus increasing the alkalinity of the blood. The chief + vegetable acids are: malic acid, in the apple, pear, cherry, + &c.; citric acid, in the lemon, lime, orange, gooseberry, + cranberry, strawberry, raspberry, &c.; tartaric acid, in + the grape, pineapple, &c.</p> + + <p>Some place these under Class III. or food adjuncts. Oxalic + acid (except when in the insoluble state of calcium oxalate), + and several other acids are poisonous.</p> + + <p><b>Proteids or Albuminoids</b> are frequently termed + flesh-formers. They are composed of nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen, + oxygen, and a small quantity of sulphur, and are extremely + complex bodies. Their chief function is to form flesh in the + body; but without previously forming it, they may be + transformed into fat or merely give rise to heat. They form the + essential part of every living cell.</p> + + <p>Proteids are excreted from the body as water, carbon + dioxide, urea, uric acid, sulphates, &c.</p> + + <p>The principal proteids of animal origin have their + corresponding proteids in the vegetable kingdom. Some kinds, + whether of animal or vegetable origin, are more easily digested + than others. They have the same physiological value from + whichever kingdom they are derived.</p> + + <p>The <b>Osseids</b> comprise ossein, gelatin, cartilage, + &c., from bone, skin, and connective issue. They approach + the proteids in composition, but unlike them they cannot form + flesh or fulfil the same purpose in nutrition. Some food + chemists wish to call the osseids, albuminoids; what were + formerly termed albuminoids to be always spoken of as proteids + only.</p> + + <p>Jellies are of little use as food; not only is this because + of the low nutritive value of gelatin, but also on account of + the small quantity which is mixed with a large proportion of + water.</p> + + <p>The <b>Vegetable Kingdom</b> is the prime source of all + organic food; water, and to a slight extent salts, form the + only food that animals can derive directly from the inorganic + kingdom. When man consumes animal food—a sheep for + example—he is only consuming a portion of the food which + that sheep obtained from grass, clover, turnips, &c. All + the proteids of the flesh once existed as proteids in the + vegetables; some in exactly the same chemical form.</p> + + <p><b>Flesh</b> contains no starch or sugar, but a small + quantity of glycogen. The fat in an animal is derived from the + carbohydrates, the fats and the proteids of the vegetables + consumed. The soil that produced the herbage, grain and roots + consumed by cattle, in most cases could have produced food + capable of direct utilisation by man. By passing the product of + the soil through animals there is an enormous economic loss, as + the greater part of that food is dissipated in maintaining the + life and growth; little remains as flesh when the animal is + delivered into the hands of the butcher. Some imagine that + flesh food is more easily converted into flesh and blood in our + bodies and is consequently more valuable than similar + constituents in vegetables, but such is not the case. Fat, + whether from flesh or from vegetables is digested in the same + manner. The proteids of flesh, like those of vegetables, are + converted into peptone by the digestive juices—taking the + form of a perfectly diffusible liquid—otherwise they + could not be absorbed and utilised by the body. Thus the + products of digestion of both animal and vegetable proteids and + fats are the same. Formerly, proteid matter was looked upon as + the most valuable part of the food, and a large proportion was + thought necessary for hard work. It was thought to be required, + not only for the construction of the muscle substance, but to + be utilised in proportion to muscular exertion. These views are + now known to be wrong. A comparatively small quantity of + proteid matter, such as is easily obtained from vegetable food, + is ample for the general needs of the body. Increased muscular + exertion requires but a slight increase of this food + constituent. It is the carbohydrates, or carbohydrates and fats + that should be eaten in larger quantity, as these are the main + source of muscular energy. The fact that animals, capable of + the most prolonged and powerful exertion, thrive on vegetables + of comparatively low proteid value, and that millions of the + strongest races have subsisted on what most Englishmen would + consider a meagre vegetarian diet, should have been sufficient + evidence against the earlier view.</p> + + <p>A comparison of flesh and vegetable food, shows in flesh an + excessive quantity of proteid matter, a very small quantity of + glycogen (the animal equivalent of starch and sugar) and a + variable quantity of fat. Vegetable food differs much, but as a + rule it contains a much smaller quantity of proteid matter, a + large proportion of starch and sugar and a small quantity of + fat. Some vegetable foods, particularly nuts, contain much + fat.</p> + + <p>Investigation of the digestive processes has shown that the + carbohydrates and fats entail little strain on the system; + their ultimate products are water and carbon dioxide, which are + easily disposed of. The changes which the proteids undergo in + the body are very complicated. There is ample provision in the + body for their digestion, metabolism, and final rejection, when + taken in moderate quantity, as is the case in a dietary of + vegetables. The proteids in the human body, after fulfilling + their purpose, are in part expelled in the same way as the + carbohydrates; but the principal part, including all the + nitrogen, is expelled by the kidneys in the form of urea (a + very soluble substance), and a small quantity of uric acid in + the form of quadurates.</p> + + <p>There is reciprocity between the teeth and digestive organs + of animals and their natural food. The grasses, leaves, + &c., which are consumed by the herbivora, contain a large + proportion of cellulose and woody tissue. Consequently, the + food is bulky; it is but slowly disintegrated and the + nutritious matter liberated and digested. The cellulose appears + but slightly acted upon by the digestive juices. The herbivora + possess capacious stomachs and the intestines are very long. + The carnivora have simpler digestive organs and short + intestines. Even they consume substances which leave much + indigestible residue, such as skin, ligaments and bones, but + civilised man, when living on a flesh dietary removes as much + of such things as possible. The monkeys, apes, and man + (comprised in the order <i>Primates</i> have a digestive canal + intermediate in complexity and in length to the herbivora and + carnivora. A certain quantity of indigestible matter is + necessary for exciting peristaltic action of the bowels. The + carnivora with their short intestinal canal need the least, the + frugivora more, and the herbivora a much larger quantity. The + consumption by man of what is commonly called concentrated food + is the cause of the constipation to which flesh-eating nations + are subject. Most of the pills and other nostrums which are + used in enormous quantities contain aloes or other drugs which + stimulate the action of the intestines.</p> + + <p>Highly manufactured foods, from which as much as possible of + the non-nutritious matter has been removed is often advocated, + generally by those interested in its sale. Such food would be + advantageous only if it were possible to remove or modify a + great part of our digestive canal (we are omitting from + consideration certain diseased conditions, when such foods may + be useful). The eminent physiologist and bacteriologist, Elie + Metchnikoff, has given it as his opinion that much of man's + digestive organs is not only useless but often productive of + derangement and disease. In several cases where it has been + necessary, in consequence of serious disease, to remove the + entire stomach or a large part of the intestines, the digestive + functions have been perfectly performed. It is not that our + organs are at fault, but our habits of life differ from that of + our progenitors. In past times, when a simple dietary in which + flesh food formed little or no part, and to-day, in those + countries where one wholly or nearly all derived from vegetable + sources and simply prepared is the rule, diseases of the + digestive organs are rare. The Englishman going to a tropical + country and partaking largely of flesh and alcohol, suffers + from disease of the liver and other organs, to which the + natives and the few of his own countrymen, living in accordance + with natural laws are strangers.</p> + + <p><b>Indigestible Matter</b>—Food is never entirely + digested. As a reason against confining ourselves solely to + vegetable food, it has been stated that such is less perfectly + digested than animal food and that it therefore throws more + work on the digestive organs. It is also urged that on this + account a greater quantity of vegetable food is required. We + have shown elsewhere that, on the contrary, vegetarians are + satisfied with a smaller amount of food. Man requires a small + quantity of woody fibre or cellulose in his food to stimulate + intestinal action and prevent constipation.</p> + + <p>It is difficult to determine how much of a food is + unassimilated in the body. This is for the reason of the + intestinal refuse consisting not only of undigested food, but + also of residues of the digestive juices, mucus and epithelial + debris. These latter have been shown to amount to from + one-third to one-half of the whole of the fæces, which is + much more than had previously been supposed.</p> + + <p>John Goodfellow has shown that of very coarse wholemeal + bread quite 14 per cent. was undigested, whilst bread made from + ordinary grade wholemeal showed 12.5 per cent. Such a method of + analysis was adopted as it was believed would exclude other + than the food waste. The experiments were made on a person who + was eating nothing but the bread. It seems probable that a + smaller proportion would have remained unassimilated had the + bread not formed the sole food. It is advisable that wheatmeal + he ground as finely as possible, the coarse is not only to a + less extent assimilated but apt to irritate the bowels. + Notwithstanding that fine white bread gave only 4.2 per cent. + and a coarse white bread 4.9 per cent. of waste, a fine + wheatmeal bread is more economical as the same quantity of + wheat produces a greater weight of flour richer in proteid and + mineral matter. From a large number of experiments with man, it + has been calculated that of proteids there is digested when + animal food is eaten 98 per cent., from cereals and sugars 8 + per cent., from vegetables and fruits 80 per cent. The + difference between the proportions digested of the other food + constituents was much less. Although there is here a + theoretical advantage in favour of animal food, there are other + considerations of far more importance than a little + undigestible waste. The main question is one of health. In some + dietary experiments of a girl aged 7, living upon a fruit diet, + of whom we have given some particulars elsewhere, Professor + Jaffa gives the following particulars. During the ten days + trial the percentages absorbed were proteids 82.5, fat 86.9, + nitrogen free extract 96, crude fibre 80, ash 5.7, heat of + combustion in calories 86.7. He says, "generally speaking, the + food was quite thoroughly assimilated, the coefficients of + digestibility being about the same as are found in an ordinary + mixed diet. It is interesting to note that 80 per cent. of the + crude fibre appeared to be digested. The results of a number of + foreign experiments on the digestibility of crude fibre by man + are from 30 to 91.4 per cent., the former value being from + mixed wheat and rye, and the latter in a diet made of rice, + vegetables and meat."</p> + + <div class="figcenter" + style="width:100%;"> + <a href="images/15-16.png"><img width="618" + src="images/15-16.png" + alt="TABLE OF ANALYSIS OF FOOD" /></a> + </div> + + <p>NOTES ON THE TABLE OF ANALYSIS.—Under calories are + shown kilo-calories per pound of food. In the analysis marked U + the crude fibre or cellulose is included with the + carbo-hydrate, the figures being those given in Atwater's + table. He has found that from 30 to 91 per cent. of the crude + fibre was digested, according to the kind of food. The term + fibre or cellulose in analytical tables is not a very definite + one. It depends upon the details of the method of analysis. In + the analyses other than U, the cellulose is excluded in + calculating the calories. Nutrient ratio is the proportion of + the sum of the carbo-hydrate and fat, compared with the proteid + as 1. The fat has first been multiplied by 2.225 to bring it to + the same nutrient value as the carbo-hydrate.</p> + + <p>U indicates that the analyses are taken from the United + States Department of Agriculture Experimental Station, Bulletin + 28, the tests being chiefly made by Dr. W.O. Atwater, or under + his direction. They are average analyses of several samples. + The refuse consists of such parts as are rejected in preparing + the food; the outer leaves, skin, stalk, seeds, &c., of + vegetables; the shell of eggs; the bone, &c., of meat. E, + indicates that the edible portion only of the food has been + analysed, and under refuse, in brackets, is shown the quantity + rejected before the analysis was made.</p> + + <p>There is considerable variation in the same kind of food, + according to the variety of seed and conditions of growth + &c., especially is this the case with wheat and flour; + whenever it has been possible the average of the analyses of + many samples have been given. The method of analysis has not + always been uniform, frequently the cellulose is included with + the carbo-hydrates, and the proteid sometimes includes a very + appreciable quantity of non-proteid nitrogenous matter. This is + the case in the analysis of the mushrooms. G.—Analyses + are by John Goodfellow; it will be noticed that the wheatmeal + bread is not made from the same flour as the whole-meal. + D.—B. Dyer, average of 19 fine and coarse oatmeals. S, + from U.S. Cons. Reports, 1899. C.—A.H. Church. The walnut + kernels are in the dried condition as purchased; originally of + the same composition as shewn in the fresh kernels. + C.D.—Cavendish or Figi variety of banana, analysis by + D.W.M. Doherty, N.S. Wales. P.—A. Petermann, U.S. Cons. + Banana flour, <i>musca paradisiaca</i> variety. This is widely + used in Central America. The flour is from the unripe fruit, + and contains starch 45.7 per cent.; on ripening the starch is + converted into sugar. K.—Konig, mean of 90 analysis. + Milk:—Average of many thousand analyses of the pure. + Butter.—Made without salt. L, from the "Lancet," 1903, I, + p. 72. Oysters at 2/6 per dozen. The 8.09 per cent. includes + 0.91 glycogen (animal starch). The shell was of course + excluded, also the liquid in the shell. Apples.—The + refuse includes seeds, skin, &c., and such edible portion + as is wasted in cutting them away; the analysis was made on the + rest.</p> + + <p><b>Cookery.</b>—Flesh is easier to digest raw. A few, + on the advice of their doctors, eat minced raw flesh, raw beef + juice and even fresh warm blood. Such practice is abhorrent to + every person of refinement. Cooking lessens the offensive + appearance and qualities of flesh and changes the flavour; + thorough cooking also destroys any parasites that may be + present. Raw flesh is more stimulating to the animal passions, + and excites ferocity in both man and animals. If the old + argument was valid, that as flesh is much nearer in composition + and quality to our own flesh and tissues, it is therefore our + best food, we do wrong in coagulating the albuminoids, + hardening the muscle substance and scorching it by cooking.</p> + + <p>Fruits when ripe and in good condition are best eaten raw; + cooking spoils the flavour. Food requiring mastication and + encouraging insalivation is the best. Food is frequently made + too sloppy or liquid, and is eaten too hot, thus favouring + indigestion and decay of the teeth. The cereals and pulses can + only with difficulty be eaten raw. When cooked in water the + starch granules swell and break up, the plant cells are + ruptured, the fibres are separated and the nutritious matter + rendered easy of digestion. The flavour is greatly improved. + Cooking increases our range and variety of food. The civilised + races use it to excess and over-season their dishes, favouring + over-eating.</p> + + <p>If baking powders are used they should only be of the best + makes. They should be composed of sodium bicarbonate and + tartaric acid, in such correct proportions that upon the + addition of water only sodium tartrate and carbon dioxide + (carbonic acid) should result. Some powders contain an excess + of sodium bicarbonate. Self-raising flours should be avoided. + They are commonly composed of—in addition to sodium + bicarbonate—acid calcium phosphate, calcium + superphosphate and calcium sulphate. Common baking powders + often consist of the same ingredients, and sometimes also of + magnesia and alum. These are often made and sold by ignorant + men, whose sole object is to make money. Calcium superphosphate + and acid calcium phosphate very frequently contain arsenic, and + as the cheap commercial qualities are often used there is + danger in this direction. A good formula for baking powder is, + tartaric acid 8 ozs., sodium bicarbonate 9 ozs., rice flour 10 + to 20 ozs. The last is added to baking powders to improve the + keeping quality and to add bulk. The ingredients must be first + carefully dried, the sodium bicarbonate at not too high a + temperature or it decomposes, and then thoroughly mixed; this + must be preserved in well closed and dry bottles. Another + formula, which is slow rising and well adapted for pastry, is + sodium bicarbonate 4 ozs., cream of tartar 9 ozs., rice flour + about 14 ozs. Custard powders consist of starch, colouring and + flavouring. Egg powders are similar to baking powders but + contain yellow colouring. Little objection can be taken to them + if they are coloured with saffron; turmeric would do if it were + not that it gives a slightly unpleasant taste. Artificial + colouring matters or coal tar derivatives are much used, + several of these are distinctly poisonous.</p> + + <p><b>Drinks.</b>—It is better not to drink during + eating, or insalivation may be interfered with; a drink is + better taken at the end of a meal. The practice of washing down + food with hot tea is bad. The refreshing nature of a cup of hot + tea, coffee, or cocoa is to a very great extent due to the + warmth of the water. The benefit is felt at once, before the + alkaloid can enter the blood stream and stimulate the nerve + centres. Hot water, not too hot to cause congestion of the + mucous membrane, is one of the best drinks. When the purity of + the water supply is doubtful, there is advantage in first + bringing it to the boil, as pathogenic bacteria are destroyed. + Some find it beneficial to drink a cup of hot water the first + thing in the morning; this cleanses the stomach from any + accumulation of mucus.</p> + + <p>If fruit, succulent vegetables, or cooked food, containing + much water be freely used, and there be little perspiration, it + is possible to do without drinking; but there is danger of + taking insufficient water to hold freely in solution the waste + products excreted by the body.</p> + + <p>Aerated drinks, except a very few of the best, and + non-alcoholic beers and wines, are generally unwholesome, from + their containing preservatives, foaming powders, artificial + flavourings, &c.</p> + + <p><b>Stimulants.</b>—Tea and coffee contain an alkaloid + theine, besides volatile oils, tannin, &c. Cocoa contains + the milder alkaloid, theobromine. They stimulate the heart and + nervous systems; tea and coffee have also a diuretic effect. + Formerly they were erroneously thought to lessen tissue waste. + These alkaloids, being purins, are open to the general + objections named elsewhere. Stimulants do not impart energy or + force of any kind, but only call forth reserve strength by + exciting the heart, nervous system, &c., to increased + activity. This is followed by a depression which is as great, + generally greater, than the previous stimulation. Except, + perhaps, as an occasional medicine, stimulants, should be + avoided. Analysis of cocoa shows a good proportion of proteids + and a very large quantity of fat. The claim that it is a + valuable and nutritious food would only be true if it could be + eaten in such quantities as are other foods (bread, fruits, + &c.). Were this attempted, poisoning would result from the + large quantity of alkaloid. The food value of half a spoonful + or thereabouts of cocoa is insignificant. Certain much + advertised cocoa mixtures are ridiculous in their pretentions, + unscientific in preparation, and often injurious.</p> + + <p><b>Cereals.</b>—The most valuable is wheat, from its + proteid being chiefly in the form known as gluten. From its + tenacity, gluten enables a much better loaf to be produced from + wheat than from any other cereal. The outer part of the grain + is the richest in mineral matter and proteid. Wheatmeal bread + shows a considerably higher proteid value than white. A large + proportion of the proteid in the outer coats of the wheat berry + is, however, not digested, and in some experiments the waste + has been enough to quite nullify its seeming advantage over + white bread. Coarsely ground, sharp branny particles in bread + irritate the intestines, and cause excessive waste of + nutriment; but finely ground wheatmeal is free from this + objection, and is beneficial in preventing constipation. The + comparative value of white and brown bread has been much + discussed; it depends both on the quality of the bread and the + condition of the digestive organs. Experiments on the digestion + of bread and other things, have often been made on persons + unaccustomed to such foods, or the foods have been given in + excessive quantity. To those accustomed to it good wheatmeal + bread is much pleasanter, more satisfying, and better flavoured + than white; indeed, the latter is described as insipid. Most + bakers' bread is of unsatisfactory quality. Flour and bread + contain very little fat, the absence of which is considered a + defect. This is remedied by the addition of butter, fat or oil, + or by nuts, &c., which are rich in oil. These may be mixed + with the flour prior to cooking, or used afterwards.</p> + + <p>Oats contain a substance called avenin, apparently an + alkaloid, which has an irritating action; the quantity is + variable. It is to this that the so-called heating effect of + oatmeal on some persons is due.</p> + + <p><b>Prepared Cereals or Breakfast Foods.</b>—Analyses + were made of 34 of these cereal preparations by Weems and Ellis + (Iowa State College Agricultural Bulletin, 1904). They report + that the foods possess no nutritive value in excess of ordinary + food materials; that the claim made for many pre-digested foods + are valueless, and no reliance can be placed on the statement + that they are remedies for any disease.</p> + + <p>Oatmeal and other cereals are sold in packets as being + partially cooked. We do not doubt that they have been subjected + to a dry heat, but this has scarcely any effect on their starch + and other constituents. The difference is a mechanical one. In + rolled oats the grains are so cracked and broken, that on + boiling with water, the water readily penetrates and more + quickly cooks them throughout. There are other prepared cereal + foods, but we doubt whether they are thoroughly cooked after + the short boiling directed on the labels. They are a great + convenience where it is difficult to get the time necessary for + cooking the ordinary cereals. Coarsely ground wheat is too + irritating when made into porridge, but there are some + granulated wheats sold in packets, which are quite suitable. + The Ralston breakfast food is excellent. They are rich in the + phosphates and salts, found in the outer part of the grain. One + cereal preparation called Grape Nuts, has had its starch + converted into maltose and dextrin (maltose being a sugar), by + a scientific application of the diastase of the grain. It is + consequently easier of digestion and requires no cooking. It is + beneficial for some forms of indigestion. There are several + competing foods of less merit, the starch being less perfectly + changed; one at least of which is objectionably salt. Properly + cooked starch is readily digested by healthy persons, and for + them malted food is of no special value.</p> + + <p><b>Pulse, or Legumes</b>, includes haricots and other beans, + peas and lentils. The proteid contained is that variety known + as legumin, which is either the same, or is closely allied, to + the casein of milk and cheese. Pulse is very rich in proteid, + the dried kinds in general use, contain 24 or 25 per cent. The + richest is the soy-bean, which is used in China and Japan, it + contains 35 per cent., besides 19 per cent. of fat. Pulse + requires thorough cooking, haricots taking the longest time. + Split lentils are cooked sooner, and are better digested; this + is chiefly due to the removal of the skins. The haricots, + bought from small grocers who have a slow sale, are often old, + and will not cook tender. Pulse is best adapted to the + labouring classes; the sedentary should eat it sparingly, it is + liable to cause flatulence or accumulation of gas in the + intestines, and constipation. Haricots are easier to digest + when mashed and mixed with other food. Pulse was formerly + stated to leave much undigested residue. Recent experiments + have shown that it is satisfactorily digested under favourable + conditions. Strümpell found beans in their skins to leave + a large proportion of proteid matter unabsorbed. Lentil meal + mixed with other food was digested in a perfectly satisfactory + manner. Another experimenter (Rubner) found that when even the + very large quantity of 1-1/8 pound of dried split peas per day + were eaten, only 17 per cent. of proteid matter was unabsorbed, + which compares very well with the 11 per cent. of proteid left + from a macaroni diet, with which the same man was fed at + another time. Had a reasonable quantity of peas been eaten per + day, the quantity undigested would probably have differed + little from that of other foods.</p> + + <p><b>Nuts</b> are, as a rule, very rich in oil and contain a + fair proportion of proteid; when well masticated they are a + very valuable food. Walnuts are one of the best, and the + kernels can be purchased shelled, thus avoiding much trouble. + They can be finely ground in a nut-mill and used for several + purposes, mixed in the proportion of about two ounces to the + pound of wheatmeal they produce a rich flavoured bread. They + can also he used in sweet cakes and in rich puddings to + increase their food value, lightness and taste. Pine kernels + being very oily, can be used with flour in the place of lard or + butter.</p> + + <p><b>Fruits</b> are generally looked upon as luxuries, rather + than as food capable of supplying a meal or a substantial part + of one. They are usually eaten only when the appetite has been + appeased by what is considered more substantial fare. Fresh + fruits contain a larger proportion of water than nearly all + other raw foods, and consequently the proportion of nourishment + is small; but we must not despise them on this account. Milk + contains as much or more water. Certain foods which in the raw + state contain very little water, such as the pulses and cereals + when cooked absorb a very large quantity; this is particularly + the case in making porridge. Cabbage, cauliflower, Spanish + onions and turnips, after cooking contain even 97 per cent. of + water. Roast beef contains on an average 48 per cent., and + cooked round steak with fat removed 63 per cent. of water. It + is customary at meal times to drink water, tea, coffee, beer, + wine, &c. When a meal contains any considerable quantity of + fresh fruits there need be no desire to drink. Notwithstanding + that fruits contain so much water, a dietary consisting of + fruits with nuts, to which may be added bread and vegetables, + will contain less water than the total quantity usually + consumed by a person taking the more customary highly cooked + and seasoned foods. An advantage is that the water in fruits is + in a wholesome condition, free from the pollution often met + with in the water used for drinking purposes. Raw fruits favour + mastication, with its consequent advantages, whilst cooked and + soft food discourages it. Plums and what are termed stone + fruits, if eaten in more than very small quantities, are apt to + disagree. Persons with good digestions can take fruit with + bread, biscuits and with uncooked foods without any + inconvenience. Fruit is more likely to disagree when taken in + conjunction with elaborately cooked foods. Many cannot take + fruit, especially if it be acid, at the same time as cereal or + starchy substances, and the difficulty is said to be greater at + the morning's meal. If the indigestion produced is due to the + acid of the fruit preventing the saliva acting on the starch, + scientific principles would direct that the fruit be eaten + quite towards the end of the meal. The same consideration + condemns the use of mint sauce, cucumber and vinegar, or + pickles, with potatoes and bread, or even mint sauce with green + peas. Bananas are an exception, as not interfering with the + digestion of starch. Bananas are generally eaten in an unripe + condition, white and somewhat mealy; they should be kept until + the starch has been converted into sugar, when they are both + more pleasant and wholesome. Nuts and fruit go well together. + For a portable meal, stoned raisins or other dried fruit and + walnut kernels or other nuts are excellent.</p> + + <p>What has been called a defect in most fruits, is the fact + that the proteid is small in proportion to the other + constituents. This has been too much dwelt upon, owing to the + prevailing exaggerated idea of the quantity of proteid + required. The tomato contains a large proportion, though the + water is very high. Bananas, grapes and strawberries contain to + each part of proteid from 10 to 12 parts of other solid + nutritive constituents (any oil being calculated into starch + equivalents); this is termed the nutritive ratio. Although this + may seem a small proportion of proteid, there are reasons for + believing that it is sufficient. Taking the average of 29 + analyses of American apples, a nutritive ratio of 33 was + obtained. If it were suggested that life should be sustained on + apples alone, this small quantity of proteid would be an + insurmountable difficulty. As the addition of nuts or other + nutritious food sufficiently increases the proteid, no + objection can with justice be made against the use of fruit. A + study of our teeth, digestive organs and general structure, and + of comparative anatomy, points to fruits, nuts and succulent + vegetables as our original diet.</p> + + <p>The potash and other salts of the organic acids in fruits + tend to keep the blood properly alkaline. Where there is a + tendency to the deposition of uric acid in the body, they + hinder its formation. Citric, tartaric, malic and other organic + acids exist in fruits in combination with potash and other + bases, as well as in the free state. The free acids in fruits, + when eaten, combine with the alkalies in the intestinal tract, + and are absorbed by the body and pass into the blood, not as + acids, but as neutral salts. Here they are converted into + potassium carbonate or some other carbonate. Fruit acids never + make the blood acid but the reverse. Fruit salts and acids are + antiscorbutic. Fruits have often proved of the greatest benefit + in illness. What is known as the grape cure has been productive + of much good. Lemons and oranges have also been of great + benefit. Strawberries have been craved for and have proved of + the greatest advantage in some extreme cases of illness when + more concentrated food could not be endured. Fruit is coming + into greater use, especially owing to its better distribution + and lessened cost. Fruit is not as cheap as it should be, as it + can be produced in great abundance at little cost, and with + comparatively little labour. The price paid by the public + greatly exceeds the real cost of production. A very large + proportion, often the greater part of the cost to the consumer, + goes in railway and other rates and in middle-men's profits. It + is commonly cheaper to bring fruit from over the sea, including + land carriage on either side, than it is to transport English + produce from one part of our country to another. English + homegrown fruit would be cheaper were it not for the difficulty + of buying suitable land at a reasonable price, and the cost of + transit. For the production of prime fruit there is a lack of + sufficient intelligence, of scientific culture and + co-operation.</p> + + <p><b>Vegetables</b>—using the name in its popular + sense—contain valuable saline constituents or salts. By + the usual method of cooking a large proportion of the salts is + lost. It is better to steam than to boil them. The fibrous + portion of vegetables is not all digested, but it is useful in + stimulating the peristaltic action of the bowels and lessening + any tendency to constipation. Vegetables are more especially + useful to non-vegetarians to correct the defects of their other + food.</p> + + <p>The potato belongs to a poisonous order—the + <i>Solanacæ</i>. There is a little alkaloid in the skin, + but this is lost in the cooking. The eyes and sprouting + portions contain the most and should be cut out.</p> + + <p><b>Fungi.</b>—There are about a hundred edible species + in this country, but many of the fungi are poisonous, some + intensely so. It can scarcely be expected that these lowly + organised plants, differing so much in their manner of growth + from the green or chlorophyll bearing plants, can be + particularly nourishing. It is only the fructifying part, which + appears above the ground, that is generally eaten. It is of + very rapid growth. Of 9 edible fungi of 4 species, obtained in + the Belgrade market, the average amount of water was 89.3 per + cent., leaving only 10.7 per cent. of solid matter; the average + of fat was 0.55 per cent. The food value of fungi has been + greatly over-rated. In most of the analyses given in text-books + and elsewhere, the total nitrogen has been multiplied by 6.25 + and the result expressed as proteid. The amount of nitrogen in + a form useless for the purpose of nutrition is about a third of + the whole. Of the remainder or proteid nitrogen, it is said + much is not assimilated, sometimes quite half, owing to the + somewhat indigestible character of the fungi. An analysis of + the common mushroom gave proteids 2.2 per cent., amides + (useless nitrogenous compounds) 1.3 per cent., and water 93.7 + per cent. The fungi are of inferior nutritive value to many + fresh vegetables and are much more expensive. Their chief value + is as a flavouring.</p> + + <p><b>Milk and Eggs</b> are permissible in a vegetarian + dietary, and as a rule, vegetarians use them. Eggs, with the + exception of such as are unfertile, are of course alive; but + they have no conscious existence, and cannot be said to suffer + any pain on being killed and eaten. An objection to their use + as food is, that on an egg and poultry farm, the superfluous + male birds are killed, and as the hens become unprofitable + layers they are also killed. A similar humane objection applies + to the use of cow's milk by man. The calves are deprived of + part of their natural food, the deficiency being perhaps made + up by unnatural farinaceous milk substitutes. Many of the + calves, especially the bull calves, are killed, thus leaving + all the milk for human use. When cows cease to yield sufficient + milk they too are slaughtered. Milch cows are commonly kept in + unhealthy houses, deprived of exercise and pure air, crowded + together, with filthy evil smelling floors reeking with their + excrements, tended by uncleanly people. With no exercise and a + rich stimulating diet they produce more milk; but it is no + matter for surprise that tuberculosis is common amongst them. + When the lesions of tubercle (consumption) are localised and + not excessive, the rest of the carcase is passed by veterinary + surgeons as fit for food; were it otherwise, enormous + quantities of meat would be destroyed. As butcher's meat is + seldom officially inspected, but a very small part is judged by + the butchers as too bad for food. In mitigation it may be said + that poultry lead a happy existence and their death is, or + should be, quickly produced with but little pain, probably less + pain than if left to die from natural causes. The same cannot + be said of cattle and sheep when the time arrives for their + transport to the slaughter man's. It is argued by vegetarians + who take milk and animal products that they are not responsible + for the death of the animals, as they do not eat their flesh. + As vegetarians profit by conditions in which the slaughtering + of the animals is a part, they cannot be altogether exonerated. + Cow's milk is prone to absorb bad odours, and it forms a most + suitable breeding or nutrient medium for most species of + bacteria which may accidentally get therein. By means of milk + many epidemics have been spread, of scarlet fever, diphtheria, + cholera, and typhoid. Occasionally milk contains tubercle + bacilli from the cows themselves. By boiling, all bacteria, + except a few which may be left out of consideration, are + destroyed. Such a temperature, however, renders the milk less + digestible and wholesome for infants. By heating to 160° F. + or 170° F. for a few minutes, such pathogenic germs as are + at all likely to be in milk (tubercle, typhoid, diphtheria, + &c.) are killed, and the value of the milk is but little + affected: this is called Pasteurising. It was until quite + recently a common practice to add boric acid, formaldehyde and + other preservatives; this has injured the vitality and caused + the death of many infants. They have not yet gone quite out of + use.</p> + + <p>For infants the only satisfactory food is that of a healthy + mother. On account of physical defects in the mother, or often + for merely selfish reasons, the infant is deprived of its + natural food. Many attempts have been made to bring cow's milk + to approximately the same composition as human milk. It can be + done by adding water, milk sugar and cream of known + composition, in certain proportions. Great difficulties are met + with when this is put into practice. The simplest method is + that of Professor Soxhlet. The proper quantity of milk sugar is + added, but instead of adding the right quantity of cream or + fat—a very difficult thing to do—the equivalent + quantity of extra milk sugar is used. Although not + theoretically satisfactory, in practice it answers very well. + We have found it to agree very well with infants. To cow's milk + of pure average quality, add half its volume of water + containing 12.3 per cent. of milk sugar; or, what amounts to + the same thing, to a pint of cow's milk add one and a quarter + ounce of milk sugar and half-a-pint of water. It is preferable + to Pasteurise by placing the bottle of milk in a vessel of + water. This water is to be heated until the milk shows a + temperature of about 75° C. or 165° F., but must not + exceed 80° C. or a change in the albumen of the milk takes + place which affects its digestibility. Keep at this temperature + for about ten minutes. If not required at once, a plug of + cotton wool should be placed in the neck of the bottle, and it + should be kept in a cold place until required. Professor + Soxhlet does not advise the addition of lime water. The + proteids are not of the same composition as in human milk (the + calf being a ruminating animal)—and it is a common plan + to add water or barley water to milk until it is so watered + down that it cannot curdle into tough curds. An infant has thus + either to distend its stomach with a large quantity of watery + nourishment, or else to get insufficient food. Sometimes it is + necessary to peptonise the milk a little. At the Leipzig + infants hospital, and also the Hygienic Institute, they give to + infants, up to 9 months old, Prof. Soxhlet's mixture, except + that an equal volume of water is added to the milk. Milk, + cheese, and especially hen's eggs contain a very large + proportion of proteid. When added to food poor in proteid they + improve its nutritive quality. It has often been said, and with + truth, that some vegetarians by the profuse use of animal + products, consume as much, or even more proteid of animal + origin than the average person who includes flesh food in his + dietary. An excess of proteid from these sources is less + injurious as eggs contain no purins, and milk but a very small + quantity. In support of the use of animal products, it may be + said that we have become so fond of animal foods and + stimulating drinks, that the use of milk, butter, cheese and + eggs renders the transition to a dietary derived from the + vegetable kingdom much easier. By means of these, cooked dishes + can be produced which approach and sometimes can scarcely be + distinguished from those of cooked flesh.</p> + + <p>In the present state of society, when really good vegetarian + fare is difficult to procure away from home, eggs, cheese, and + milk are a great convenience.</p> + + <p><b>Digestion.</b>—The digestive juices contain certain + unorganised ferments, which produce chemical changes in the + food. If the food is solid, it has to be liquefied. Even if + already liquid it has generally to undergo a chemical change + before being fitted for absorption into the body. The + alimentary canal is a tubular passage which is first expanded + into the mouth, and later into the stomach. As the food passes + down, it is acted upon by several digestive juices, and in the + small intestine the nutritive matter is absorbed, whilst the + residue passes away.</p> + + <p>The saliva is the first digestive juice. It is alkaline and + contains a ferment called ptyalin. This acts energetically on + the cooked and gelatinous starch, and slowly on the raw starch. + Starch is quite insoluble in water, but the first product of + salivary digestion is a less complex substance called + soluble-starch. When time is allowed for the action to be + completed, the starch is converted into one of the sugars + called maltose. In infants this property of acting on starch + does not appear in effective degree until the sixth or seventh + month, and starch should not be given before that time. Only a + small quantity should be provided before the twelfth month, + when it may be gradually increased. Dr. Sims Wallace has + suggested that the eruption of the lower incisors from the + seventh to the eighth month, was for the purpose of enabling + the infant—in the pre-cooking stage of man's + existence—to pierce the outer covering of fruits so as to + permit his extracting the soluble contents by suction; and + accordingly when these teeth are cut we may allow the child to + bite at such vegetable substances as apples, oranges, and sugar + cane. Dr. Harry Campbell says that starch should be given to + the young, "not as is the custom, as liquid or pap, but in a + form compelling vigorous mastication, for it is certain that + early man, from the time he emerged from the ape till he + discovered how to cook his vegetable food, obtained practically + all his starch in such a form. If it is given as liquid or pap + it will pass down as starch into the stomach, to setup + disturbance in that organ; while if it is administered in a + form which obliges the child to chew it properly, not only will + the jaws, the teeth, and the gums obtain the exercise which + they crave, and without which they cannot develop normally, but + the starch will be thoroughly insalivated that much of it will + be converted within the mouth into maltose. Hard well baked + crusts constitute a convenient form in which to administer + starch to children. A piece of crust may be put in the oven and + rebaked, and spread with butter. Later, we may give hard plain + biscuits." Dr. Campbell continues, that he does not say that + starch in the pappy form, or as porridge, should find no place + whatever in man's dietary at the present day, but we should + arrange that a large proportion of our food is in a form + inviting mastication.</p> + + <p>The teeth perform the very important function of breaking + down our food and enabling it to be intimately incorporated + with the saliva and afterwards with the digestive juices. The + Anglo-Saxon race shows a greater tendency to degeneracy in the + teeth than do other races; the teeth of the present generation + are less perfect than those of previous generations. A dentist + writes (<i>Lancet</i>, 1903-2, p. 1054) "I have had the + opportunity of examining the teeth of many natives in their + more or less uncivilised state, from the Red Indians of North + America, the negroes of Africa, to the more civilised Chinese, + Japanese, and Indians of the East, and I have usually found + them possessed of sound teeth, but so soon as they come under + the influence of civilised life in Washington, Montreal, + London, Paris and other cities, their teeth begin to + degenerate, though their general health may remain good." In a + long article on mastication in the <i>Lancet</i> (1903-2, p. + 84) from which we have already quoted, Dr. Harry Campbell gives + as the effect of thorough and efficient mastication, that it + increases the amount of alkaline saliva passing into the + stomach, and prolongs the period of starch digestion within + that organ. That it influences the stomach reflexly by + promoting the flow of gastric juice. That the frequent use of + the jaws and the tongue, during the period of growth, cause the + jaws to expand. If the jaws are not adequately exercised during + this period, owing to the use of soft food, they do not reach + their normal size, the teeth are overcrowded, do not develop + fully, and are prone to decay. The effect of vigorous + mastication is to stimulate the circulation in the tooth pulp, + which promotes nutrition and maintains a firm dental setting. + Dr. Campbell writes: "I am perfectly at one with Dr. Wallace, + in believing that the removal of the fibrous portion of food is + the main cause of the prevalence of caries among moderns."</p> + + <p>When the food reaches the stomach, gastric juice is + secreted. This juice contains a ferment called pepsin and + hydrochloric acid. Pepsin is only active in an acid media. + Starch digestion proceeds in the stomach to such a + time—stated as from 15 to 30 minutes—when the acid + gastric juice has been poured out in sufficient quantity to + neutralise the alkalinity of the saliva. The gastric juice acts + upon the proteids only. After a time the liquefied contents of + the stomach are passed into the first portion of the small + intestine, called the duodenum. Here it meets with the + pancreatic juice, which like the gastric juice attacks + proteids, but even more energetically, and only in an alkaline + media. The proteolitic ferment is called trypsin. The + pancreatic, the most important of the digestive fluids, + contains other ferments; one called amylopsin, takes up the + digestion of any remaining or imperfectly converted starch left + from the salivary digestion. Amylopsin is much more powerful + and rapid than the ptyalin of the saliva, especially on + uncooked starch. Its absence from the pancreatic juice of + infants is an indication that starch should not be given them. + Another ferment, stearopsin, emulsifies fats. The bile is + alkaline and assists the pancreatic juice in neutralising the + acid mixture that leaves the stomach; it also assists the + absorption of fats. The digestion of proteids is not completed + in the stomach. There are some who look upon the stomach as + chiefly of use as a receptacle for the large mass of food, + which is too quickly eaten to be passed at once into the + intestines; the food being gradually expelled from the stomach, + in such quantities as the duodenal digestion can adequately + treat. A frequently used table, showing the time required for + the digestion of various foods in the stomach, is of little + practical value. There is ample provision for the digestion of + food, there is a duplication of ferments for the proteids and + starch. In health, the ferments are not only very active, but + are secreted in ample quantities. The digestive or unorganised + ferments must not be confused with the organised ferments such + as yeast. The latter are living vegetable cells, capable of + indefinite multiplication. The former are soluble bodies, and + though capable of transforming or digesting some thousands of + times their mass of food, their power in this direction is + restricted within definite limits. Another and preferable name + for them is enzymes.</p> + + <p>The action of saliva on starch is powerfully retarded by + tea, this is due to the tannin. Coffee and cocoa are without + effect. Tea infused for two minutes only, was not found to have + sensibly less restraining effect than when infused for thirty + minutes. On peptic digestion both tea and coffee had a powerful + retarding effect. When of equal strength cocoa was nearly as + bad, but as it is usually taken much weaker, its inhibitory + effect is of little consequence.</p> + + <p>Bacteria are minute vegetable organisms, which exist in the + dust of the air, in water and almost everywhere on or near the + surface of the earth. They are consequently taken in with our + food. They exist in the mouth; those in carious teeth are often + sufficient to injuriously affect digestion and health. The + healthy gastric juice is to a great degree antiseptic, but few + bacteria being able to endure its acidity. When the residue of + the food reaches the large intestine, bacteria are found in + very great numbers. The warmth of the body is highly favourable + to their growth. They cause the food and intestinal + <i>debris</i> to assume its fæcal character. Should the + mass be retained, the bacterial poisons accumutate and being + absorbed into the body produce headaches, exhaustion, + neurasthenia and other complaints. Proteid matter, the products + of its decomposition and nitrogenous matter generally, are + especially the food of bacteria; this is shown in the + offensiveness of the fæces of the carnivora, + notwithstanding their short intestines, compared with that of + the herbivora. Also in the difference of the fæces of the + dog when fed on flesh and on a nearly vegetable diet. On a rich + proteid diet, especially if it consists largely of flesh, the + bacterial products in the intestines are greater than on a + vegetable diet. On the latter such a disease as appendicitis is + rare. Professor Elie Metchnikoff, of the Pasteur Institute, + thinks that man's voluminous and highly developed large + intestine fulfils no useful purpose, and on account of its + breeding a very copious and varied bacterial flora, could with + advantage be dispensed with. He also has said that man, who + could support himself on food easily digestible, has a small + intestine which is disproportionately fully developed. Instead + of having between 18 and 21 feet of small intestine, man might + do with one-third of that length. According to him, there is a + disharmony of our food and our digestive system. Referring to + such views, and the desire of some surgeons to remove the + vermiform appendix and portions of the intestines upon too + little provocation, Sir W. Macewin, M.D., F.R.S. (<i>B. Medical + Jrn.</i>, 1904, 2 p. 874) says:—"Is this human body of + ours so badly constructed that it contains so many useless + parts and requires so much tinkering? Possibly I may be out of + fashion with the times, as I cannot find such imperfections in + the normal human body as are alleged. On the contrary, the more + one looks into the human body and sees it work, the better one + understands it and the more one is struck with the wondrous + utility, beauty, and harmony of all its parts." Our food we can + change, but not our organs-except by a dangerous surgical + operations. Our teeth with our complex and very long intestines + are adapted for fibrous, bulky and solid food. On such food + mankind has lived for an immense period of time. It is true + that there are several theoretical advantages in cooked + vegetable foods; but unfortunately there is a want of + conformity with our digestive organs. If a flesh diet is taken, + the incongruity is greater. Concentrated food causes + constipation. An active man, leading an out-of-door life, can + take unsuitable food with little or no apparent inconvenience, + the movements of his body favouring intestinal action; whilst + the same food to a sedentary person will prove distinctly + injurious.</p> + + <p>Some persons have such a vigorous digestion that they can + consume almost any food, even that which is obviously + unsuitable; not only bad in kind but excessive in quantity. + Other persons have to be very careful. Many have boasted that + they can take of what they call the good things of life to + their full, without bad effect. We know of such men who have + been much esteemed for their joviality and good nature, but who + have broken down in what should have been a hearty and useful + middle life. There are others who were poorly equipped for the + battle of life, with indifferent constitutions, never having + had the buoyancy and overflowing of animal spirits; but who, by + conserving such strength as they had, have outlived all their + more healthy but less careful comrades. The errors of the + parents are often most evident in the children or + grandchildren. There are many persons who cannot eat of some + particular food, although it may be quite wholesome to others. + Sometimes it is a psychological rather than a physiological + disability, which may he overcome by an effort of the will. At + other times it seems to have no connection with the + imagination, although it is not always possible to give a sound + reason for it. In the main, of course, there are principles of + dietetics applicable to all alike, but in regard to details, + everyone should make rules for himself, according to his + experience. When there appears no real reason for an + idiosyncrasy, a little humouring of our taste and digestion + will often overcome it, to our advantage. It is generally those + of delicate constitution who are most sensitive. Some cannot + eat oatmeal except in small quantity. Olive and other vegetable + oils, even when of good quality cannot be taken by many people, + whilst others find them quite as wholesome, or even better than + butter. Vegetarians can generally detect lard in pastry both by + its taste and its after effects, although those accustomed to + this fat do not object to it. It is also surprising how some + individual's tastes and habits will vary at different periods + of their lives.</p> + + <p>One form of dyspepsia is due to undigested starch remaining + in the stomach and causing an excessive secretion of + hydrochloric acid. As long as proteid food is present, the + pepsin and acid expend themselves on it, and are removed + together. The undigested starch continues to stimulate gastric + secretion, and the acid residuum causes pain, heartburn and + flatulence. If there be also any butyric acid, or some other + fatty acid, derived from milk, butter, cheese, &c., there + will be acid eructations. For this form of indigestion there + are several methods of treatment. First; the very thorough + cooking of all starchy food, and it is an advantage to take a + little good extract of malt, either at the time of eating or + directly afterwards. The diastase of the malt has the same + action on starch as the ptyalin in the saliva. It is better, + scientifically, to have the farinaceous food at about 130° + F. (as hot as the mouth can bear will do), and then to add malt + extract. On keeping the mixture warm, from a few minutes to + half an hour or more, the starch is digested and rendered + soluble. Such food is not very pleasant to take. The food known + as Grape Nuts has been treated in a similar manner. The use of + malt extract, however, seems a clumsy substitute for salivary + digestion. Second; the eating of starch in the form of hard and + dry biscuits, crusts and other hard food, which demand thorough + mastication and insalivation, and the keeping in the mouth for + a long while, during which the saliva has time to act. This is + the best plan. Third; the taking of sodium bicarbonate towards + the end of the period of digestion, in order to neutralise the + acid in the stomach. This gives relief, but does not cure, as + the dose has to be repeated after each meal; in course of time + the quantity of soda has sometimes to be increased to an + alarming extent. Fourth; the abstention from starchy foods and + the substitution of an exclusive flesh dietary. In the + "Salisbury" treatment, raw minced beef is given. This method + often gives immediate relief, but its ultimate effect on the + kidneys and other organs is very bad.</p> + + <p>No hard and fast rule can be laid down as to the number of + meals into which the daily amount of food required should be + divided. The stomach appears to work to the best advantage when + it is full, or nearly so, and the appetite is appeased. Three + approximately equal meals seems to be a convenient division. + Dr. Dewey and his followers advise only two meals a day, and it + seems incontestable that many persons find the plan + advantageous. These are generally adults with weak digestions, + or elderly persons who, on account of their age and the + sluggish action of their assimilative functions, require + comparatively little food. Children, on account of their + vigorous vitality, rapid growth and hearty appetites, ought not + to be restricted to this number. Persons who have got into the + pernicious habit of greatly over-eating, and whose stomachs + have become distended and unusually large, sometimes find it + easier to restrict their daily food to a healthy quantity by + taking only two meals. The general objections against two meals + are that either two little food is taken, or the ingestion of + such a large quantity is bad for the stomach and causes it to + press on the adjacent viscera. The large quantity of blood and + nerve force drawn to the over-distended stomach, depletes the + brain and nervous system, causing drowsiness and incapacity for + mental and physical work. The carnivora, whose opportunity for + obtaining food—unlike the herbivora—is irregular + and often at long intervals, gorge themselves upon opportunity + and are in the habit of sleeping after a meal. The frugivora + and herbivora, however, are alert and ready to fly from their + enemies should such appear. The conveying of so much + nourishment to the liver and blood stream at one time, is + probably a greater tax on them. A light lunch between the usual + full meals has nothing to recommend it. The stomach is burdened + to little purpose, often before it has finished with one meal + another is imposed upon it, no time being left for + recuperation.</p> + + <p><b>Dietaries.</b>—The best proportions of proteids, + carbo-hydrates and fats required for the nourishment of the + body has not yet been conclusively decided. The common plan is + to average the dietary of large bodies of persons, particualrly + of soldiers and prisoners. These dietaries have been adjusted + empirically (the earlier ones at least), and are generally + considered as satisfactory. They are chiefly of English and + German origin. Another method is to laboriously analyse the + injesta or food consumed and compare it with the dejecta or + excretions, until a quantity and kind of food is found which is + just sufficient to keep the body in equilibrium. This latter + plan is the best, but to be quite satisfactory must be tried on + a large number of suitable persons under varying conditions, + both of quantity and kind of food. Nearly all the experiments + have been made on persons accustomed to a stimulating dietary: + their usual food has included a considerable quantity of flesh + and alcoholic drinks. Sufficient attention has not been paid to + the dietaries of the more abstemious races who partake of + little if any flesh food. The standard daily dietary for a man + of average weight, doing a moderate amount of work, is + variously stated by the best authorities as proteids from 100 + to 130 grammes, fat 35 to 125 grammes, and carbo-hydrates 450 + to 550 grammes. There is a surprising difference of opinion on + the amount of fat, but those who give least fat give the + largest quantity of carbo-hydrate and <i>vice-versa</i>. Dr. R. + Hutchison in "Food and Dietetics," sums up the quantities given + by the highest authorities as follows:—-</p> + + <table summary="Proteid, Carbo-hydrate and Fat" + align="center" + width="600" + cellpadding="2" + border="0"> + <tr> + <td align="left">Proteid</td> + + <td align="right">125 g. ( 4.4 oz.)</td> + + <td>x</td> + + <td align="left">4.1 =</td> + + <td align="right">512</td> + + <td align="left">cal. = 20 g. N,</td> + + <td align="left"> 62 C</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="left">Carbo-hydrate</td> + + <td align="right">500 g. (17.6 oz.)</td> + + <td> </td> + + <td align="left">4.1</td> + + <td align="right">2050</td> + + <td> </td> + + <td align="left">200</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="left">Fat</td> + + <td align="right"><u>50 g. ( 1.8 oz.)</u></td> + + <td> </td> + + <td align="left">9.3</td> + + <td align="right"><u>465</u></td> + + <td> </td> + + <td align="left"><u> 38</u></td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="bottom"> + <td> </td> + + <td align="right">675 g. (23.8 oz.)</td> + + <td> </td> + + <td> </td> + + <td align="right">3027</td> + + <td>Total 20 g. N,</td> + + <td align="left">300 C</td> + </tr> + </table> + + <p>The nutrient ratio is 1 : 4.9. For scientific purposes, + metrical weights and measures are used, instead of the + inconvenient English grains, ounces, pounds, &c. (1 gramme + = 15.43 grains; 1 ounce avoirdupois = 437.5 grains = 28.35 + grammes). A calorie is a measure of the power of a food in + generating heat and muscular energy (these two being + convertible).</p> + + <p>The calories used in food tables are kilo-calories, + representing the amount of heat which would raise a kilogramme + (1000 grammes) of water 1° Centigrade. This is the same as + raising 1 pound weight 4° Fahrenheit. According to the + table given, 125 grammes of dry proteid are required per day; + this contains 20 grammes of nitrogen and 62 of carbon. When + thoroughly consumed or utilised in the body, the heat or its + equivalent in muscular work equals 512 kilo-calories. Proteids + have, of course, an additional value as tissue formers. The + factors used here, of 4.1 and 9.3, are those commonly employed; + but the latest and most reliable research, taking account only + of that part of the food which is actually available in the + body, gives for proteid and carbo-hydrate 4 calories, and for + fat 8.9 calories.</p> + + <p>Fat has a higher food value than the carbo-hydrates, as 4.1 + : 9.3 = 2.27 or 4.0 : 89 = 2.225, according to whether the old + or new factors are used. In the table of analyses 2.225 was + used. The standard dietary for a woman, or of a boy 14 to 16 + years of age, is given as equivalent to eight-tenths that of a + man; a child of 10 to 13 six-tenths; of 2 to 5 four-tenths. A + man doing hard work requires one-tenth more. The following + table gives three standard dietaries, and a few actual ones, in + grammes per day. The food of persons in easy circumstances, and + of working men in the receipt of good wages, approximate to the + standard dietaries, except that the fat is higher and the + carbo-hydrates proportionately less. This is due to an + abundance of animal food. It was thought unnecessary to give + them in detail:—</p> + + <div class="figcenter" + style="width:100%;"> + <a href="images/035.png"><img width="640" + src="images/035.png" + alt="Table of Three Standard Dietaries" /></a> + </div> + + <p>Dr. Alexander Haig considers that 88 grammes of proteid is + required by a man leading a decidedly active life.</p> + + <p>NOTES.—(<i>a</i>) The Japanese are of small stature + and weight.</p> + + <p>(<i>b</i>) One of a series of experiments by A.W. Blyth, + 1888. 1½ lbs. of wheatmeal per day was required for + equilibrium; sedentary occupation, with a daily walk of six + miles.</p> + + <p>(<i>c</i>) See "A Text Book of Physiology," by M. Foster, + 5th edition, part ii., p. 839; the diet was bread, fruit and + oil. The man was in apparently good health and stationary + weight; only 59 per cent. of the proteids were digested, + leaving the small quantity of 32 grammes available for real + use. In commenting upon this, Professor Foster + writes:—"We cannot authoritatively say that such a + reduction is necessarily an evil; for our knowledge will not at + present permit us to make an authoritative exact statement as + to the extent to which the proteid may be reduced without + disadvantage to the body, when accompanied by adequate + provision of the other elements of food; and this statement + holds good whether the body be undertaking a small or large + amount of labour."</p> + + <p>(<i>d</i>) The Miller of Billericay's case is quoted by Dr. + Carpenter, and also by Dr. Pavy. It was reported to the College + of Physicians in 1767 by Sir George Baker. A remarkable degree + of vigour is said to have been sustained for upwards of + eighteen years on no other nutriment than 16 oz. of flour, made + into a pudding with water, no other liquid of any kind being + taken.</p> + + <p>A striking instance of abstemiousness is that of Cornaro, a + Venetian nobleman, who died in the year 1566 at the age of 98. + Up to the age of 40 he spent a life of indulgence, eating and + drinking to excess. At this time, having been endowed with a + feeble constitution, he was suffering from dyspepsia, gout, and + an almost continual slow fever, with an intolerable thirst + continually hanging upon him. The skill of the best physicians + of Italy was unavailing. At length he completely changed his + habits of diet, and made a complete recovery. At the age of 83 + he wrote a treatise on a "Sure and certain method of attaining + a long and healthful life." He says, what with bread, meat, the + yolk of an egg and soup, I ate as much as weighed 12 ozs., + neither more nor less. I drank 14 oz. of wine. When 78 he was + persuaded to increase his food by the addition of 2 oz. per + day, and this nearly proved fatal. He writes that, instead of + old age being one of weakness, infirmity and misery, I find + myself to be in the most pleasant and delightful stage of life. + At 83 I am always merry, maintaining a happy peace in my own + mind. A sober life has preserved me in that sprightliness of + thought and gaiety of humour. My teeth are all as sound as in + my youth. He was able to take moderate exercise in riding and + walking at that age. He was very passionate and hasty in his + youth. He wrote other treatises up to the age of 95.</p> + + <p>Kumagara, Lapicque and Breis-acher, have, as the result of + their experiments, reduced the quantity of proteid required per + 24 hours to 45 grammes. T. Hirschfeld states, as the conclusion + of his research, that it is possible for a healthy man (in one + case for 15 days and in another for 10 days) to maintain + nitrogenous balance on from 30 to 40 grammes of proteid per + day. Labbé and Morchoisne (Comptes Rendus, 30th May, + 1904, p. 1365) made a dieting experiment during 38 days, upon + one of themselves. The proteid was derived exclusively from + vegetable food. The food consisted of bread, lentils, haricots, + potatoes, carrots, chestnuts, endives, apples, oranges, + preserves, sugar, starch, butter, chocolate and wine. At the + commencement, the day's food contained 14.1 grammes of nitrogen + = 89.3 proteid, which was gradually diminished. On the 7th day + 11.6 g. N. = 73.5 g. proteid was reached; during this time less + N. was eliminated, indicating that the proteid food was in + excess of that required for the wear and tear of the body. As + the quantity of nitrogenous food was diminished almost daily, + the N. eliminated was found to diminish also. This latter was + in slight excess of that absorbed; but when a day or two's time + was allowed, without further reduction in the food, the body + tended to adjust itself to the dimished supply, and there was + an approximation of income and expenditure. The smallest + quantity of food was reached on the 32nd day with 1.06 N. = 6.7 + proteid, which was obviously too little, as 2.19 N. = 13.9 + proteid was eliminated. On the 21st day 4.12 N. = 26 proteid + was injested, and 4.05 N. was eliminated. The inference drawn + from the research is that about 26 grammes of proteid per day + was sufficient. The weight of the body remained practically + constant throughout, and the subject did not suffer + inconvenience. Of course the full amount of calories was kept + up; as each succeeding quantity of the proteid was left off, it + was replaced by a proper quantity of non-nitrogenous food. + These experiments were carried out in the usual approved + scientific manner. It may, however, be urged against any + generalised and positive conclusions as to the minimum quantity + of proteid required for the body, being drawn from such + experiments, that the period covered by them was much too + short. A prolonged trial might have revealed some obscure + physiological derangement. We are quite justified in concluding + that the usual, so-called "standard dietaries" contain an + unnecessarily large proportion of proteid. In some practical + dietaries, 50 grammes and under have seemed enough; but for the + ordinary adult man, who has been accustomed to an abundance of + proteid, and whose ancestors have also, it is probably + advisable not to take less than 70 or 80 grammes per day (2½ + to 3 ounces). If it is desired to try less, the diminution + should be very gradual, and a watch should be kept for any + lessening of strength.</p> + + <p>Some comments may now be made upon the table of dietaries. + That of the London sewing girl contained 53 grammes of proteid, + which should have been ample, according to some of the + authorities we have given; yet she was badly nourished. The + food was doubtless of bad quality, and it appears deficient in + carbo-hydrates; this latter is shown by the low number of + calories. The long hours and unhealthy conditions of work, and + not a deficiency of food constituents, is probably the cause of + the bad health of such persons. There is no reason to think the + proteid insufficient, although some persons have said as much. + We have no particulars of the German vegetarians, but the + calories appear satisfactory. In the poor German labourer's + family the calories are too low. In Dr. T.R. Allinson's + experiment on a wheatmeal dietary, it will not do to assume + that less than 82 grammes of proteid would have been + insufficient. It is probable that a smaller quantity of proteid + would have been enough if the fat and carbohydrates had been + increased. The calories are below the usual standard. In the + succeeding example the calories are considerably higher, being + not far from the usual standard, yet 54 grammes of proteid + sufficed. It is a common error to place an undue value on the + proteids to the extent of overlooking the other constituents. + Dr. Alexander Haig in "Diet and Food," p. 8, cites the case of + a boy aged 10, fed on 2¼ pints of milk per day. The boy lost + weight, and Dr. Haig is of opinion that the quantity of milk + was very deficient in proteid; more than twice as much being + required. 2¼ pints of milk contain about 45 grammes of + proteid, whereas, according to the usual figures (125 x 6/10) a + boy of this age requires 75 g. This quantity of 45 g. is + however, higher, allowing for the boy's age, than that in + several of the dietaries we have given in our table. A little + consideration will show that Dr. Haig has overlooked the + serious deficiency of the milk in the other constituents, which + accounts for the boy's loss of weight. The quantity of milk + contains only about 160 g. of total solid matter, whilst 400 g. + is the necessary quantity. Milk is too rich in proteid matter + to form, with advantage, the sole food of a human being. Human + milk contains much less in proportion to the other + constituents.</p> + + <p>The old doctrine enunciated by Justus von Liebig was that + proteid matter is the principal source of muscular energy or + strength. He afterwards discovered and acknowledged his error, + and the subject has since been thoroughly investigated. The + makers of meat extracts and other foods, either from their own + ignorance of modern research or their wish to take advantage of + the lack of knowledge and prejudice of the public, call proteid + matter alone nourishment. The carbo-hydrates and fats are + equally entitled to be called nourishment.</p> + + <p>Our reason for devoting so much space to the consideration + of the quantity of proteid matter required, is that in the + opinion of many eminent writers it is the crux of + vegetarianism. They have stated that it is impossible to obtain + sufficient from vegetable foods alone, without consuming an + excessive quantity of carbo-hydrates. We will summarise the + argument as given in Kirke's Physiology, as edited by Morrant + Baker, a standard work, and which is repeated in Furneaux's + "Animal Physiology," a book which is much used in elementary + science schools: "The daily waste from the system amounts to, + carbon 4,500 grains (or 300 grammes), and nitrogen, 300 grains + (or 20 grammes). Now let us suppose a person to feed on bread + only. In order to obtain the necessary quantity of nitrogen to + repair this waste he would have to eat nearly 4¼ lbs. + daily.... He would be compelled to take about double the + quantity of carbon required in order to obtain the necessary + weight of nitrogen.... Next, let us suppose that he feeds on + lean meat only. Then, in order to obtain the necessary quantity + of carbon, he must eat no less than 6½ lbs. daily.... In + this case we notice a similar waste of nitrogen, the removal of + which would give an undue amount of work to the organs + concerned.... But it is possible to take such a mixed diet of + bread and meat as will supply all the requirements of the + system, and at the same time yield but little waste material." + (These extracts are from Furneaux, the next is from Kirke. The + figures and argument is the same in each, but we have chosen + those sentences for quotation which are the briefest and most + suitable; certain calculations being omitted.) "A combination + of bread and meat would supply much more economically what was + necessary ... so that ¾ lbs. of meat, and less than 2 lbs. of + bread would supply all the needful carbon and nitrogen with but + little waste. From these facts it will be plain that a mixed + diet is the best and most economical food for man; and the + result of experience entirely coincides with what might have + been anticipated on theoretical grounds only." Professor + Huxley, in his "Elementary Physiology" uses almost the same + figures and argument.</p> + + <p>The adoption of this high proteid or nitrogen figure would + lead to some ridiculous conclusions. One writer states that 18 + eggs would contain sufficient flesh forming substance for a + day's ration, but a very much larger quantity would be required + to supply enough carbon. On the other hand, Professor Church + says that, no less than 70 lbs. of pears would have to be eaten + per day, to supply the necessary quantity of nitrogen; although + the carbon would be in excess. The curious may calculate the + proper quantity of each that would make a theoretically perfect + dietary. People are apt to assume that what they themselves + eat, or what their class, race, or nation eat, is the proper + and necessary diet; at least as far as the elementary + constituents and quantities are concerned. The error is in + attempting to make a vegetarian diet, however contrary to + common sense and the experience of the greater part of the + earth's inhabitants, agree in composition with the ordinary + lavish flesh dietary of the well-to-do European. It is + significant that John Bull is caricatured with a large abdomen + and a coarse, ruddy, if not inflamed face, indicative of his + hearty dining on flesh, coarse food and alcoholic drinks. An + unhealthy short lived individual. Even if we accept a high + proportion of proteid, it is possible to combine purely + vegetable foods so as to give the required quantity of the + various constituents, without a superfluity of the + carbo-hydrates. In "Food Grains of India," Professor A.H. + Church shows by elaborate analyses and dietary tables, how this + can be accomplished by various combinations of cereals, pulses, + etc. He takes Forster and Voit's standard of 282 grains of + nitrogen and 5,060 grains of carbon, with a suitable deduction + for the smaller weight of the Indians. In his examples of daily + rations he gives from 5 to 9 ounces of various beans, balanced + by the addition of the proper quantity of rice—4 to 16 + ounces, and a little oil. Such a large quantity of pulse + appears to us excessive, and would cause discomfort to most + persons. We much doubt whether those Indians who are strict + vegetarians could consume such quantities.</p> + + <p>Some valuable investigations were made on the diet of a + family of fruitarians, at the Californian Agricultural + Experimental Station, July, 1900, by Professor M.E. Jaffa + (bulletin 107). The proportion of food, both proteid and + carbo-hydrate used was surprisingly small. The research is + particularly important, as the diet was not an experimental + one, tried during a short period only; but that to which the + family were accustomed. The family consisted of two women and + three children; they had all been fruitarians for five to seven + years, and made no change in their dietary during the + experiment. They only had two meals a day, the food being eaten + uncooked. The quantities of all the foods and other particulars + are detailed in the bulletin. The first meal was at 10-30 a.m., + and always consisted of nuts followed by fruits. The other meal + was about 5 p.m., when they usually ate no nuts, substituting + olive oil and honey. The nuts used were almonds, Brazil, pine, + pignolias and walnuts; the fresh fruits were apples, apricots, + bananas, figs, grapes, oranges, peaches and pears. Other foods + were dates, raisins, pickled olives, olive oil and honey. One + person (<i>b</i>) ate a little celery and tomatoes, and another + (<i>c</i>) a little cereal food. In the following table are + given the average daily quantities of the food constituents in + grammes:—Proteids, fat, carbo-hydrate, crude fibre, value + in calories and nutrient ratio. The crude fibre is classed as a + carbo-hydrate and included in the calorie value, and also in + calculating the nutrient ratio.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" + style="width:100%;"> + <a href="images/041.png"><img width="611" + src="images/041.png" + alt="Daily Quantities of Food" /></a> + </div> + + <p>The last research extended over ten days; the period during + which each of the other subjects was under observation was from + 20 to 28 days.</p> + + <p>(<i>a</i>) The tentative standard for a woman at light work + calls for 90 grammes of proteids and 2,500 calories; it is thus + seen that the quantity of food eaten was far below that usually + stated as being necessary. The subject, however, was a very + small woman, 5 feet in height, taking almost no physical + exercise. She believed, as do fruitarians generally, that + people need far less raw than cooked food. (<i>b</i>) The food + eaten was even less in quantity than in the previous dietary. + One reason for this was the fact that the subject was, for part + of the time at least, under great mental strain, and did not + have her usual appetite. Even this small amount of food, + judging by her appearance and manner, seemed sufficient for her + needs, enabling her to do her customary housework and take care + of her two nieces and nephew, the subjects of the other + experiments. (<i>c</i>) This girl was given cereals and + vegetables when she craved them, but her aunt says she never + looks nor feels so well when she has much starchy food, and + returns to her next meal of uncooked food with an increased + appreciation of its superiority. The commonly accepted dietary + standard for a child 13 years old and of average activity, is + not far from 90 grammes of proteids and 2,450 calories, yet the + girl had all the appearance of being well fed and in excellent + health and spirits. (<i>d</i>) During the 22 days of + experiment, there was an increase in weight of 2 pounds, due to + the fact that the family had been in straitened circumstances, + and the food provided was more abundant during the study. + (<i>e</i>) The subject had been very delicate as a baby. She + was very small for her age, being 10 pounds under the average + weight, and 7 inches less than the average height. It is + interesting to note that her only gain in weight during the + past year was made during this dietary and the one immediately + following. This was due to her being urged to eat all she + wanted, of what she most preferred, as the food was provided by + those making the study. The proteid is less than the tentative + standard for a child of 1 to 2 years old, but the subject + appeared perfectly well and was exceedingly active. She + impressed one as being a healthy child, but looked younger than + her age. (<i>ee</i>) The subject is the same as in the previous + experiment (<i>e</i>), but after an interval of 8 months, her + seventh birthday occurred during the time.</p> + + <p>Professor Jaffa, who made the investigation, says:—"It + would appear that all the subjects were decidedly + under-nourished, even making allowance for their light weight. + But when we consider that the two adults have lived upon this + diet for seven years, and think they are in better health and + capable of more work than they ever were before, we hesitate to + pronounce judgment. The three children had the appearance of + health and strength. They ran and jumped and played all day + like ordinary healthy children, and were said to be unusually + free from colds and other complaints common to childhood. The + youngest child, and the only one who has lived as a fruitarian + almost from infancy was certainly undeveloped. She looked fully + two years younger than she was. Still, there are so many + children who are below the average in development, whose + dietaries conform to the ordinary standards, that it would be + unfair to draw any conclusions until many more such + investigations are made."</p> + + <p>The research shows that not only is there need of a revision + of the "standard" quantity of proteids, but also of the + carbo-hydrates and fats. It is generally said by those who have + no practical experience amongst vegetarians, that the latter + require a much larger quantity of food than do those who + include flesh. The truth is that vegetarians eat less, often + much less. It is a common experience that vegetable food has a + more staying power, and a much longer period can be allowed + between meals, without the inconvenience that a flesh-eater, + especially a flesh and alcohol consumer, suffers. This is due, + in part at least, to its less stimulating character and its + slower digestion. This fact has been shown by the success of + vegetarians in feats of strength and endurance, and especially + in the comparatively fresh condition in which they have + finished long walking, cycling, tennis, and other matches. + Those who attempt to prolong their powers of endurance by flesh + extracts and stimulating foods and drinks, usually finish in a + very exhausted condition. The superior endurance and recovery + from wounds, when compared with our English soldiers, of simple + feeding men, such as the Zulus, Turks and Japanese, has often + been remarked. It is often said that vegetable food, as it + contains more fibre and is slower of digestion, taxes the + bodily organs more. If we attempted to eat uncooked, the more + fibrous vegetables, the grains, and unripe fruit, it would be + quite true, but it is not so of the ordinary food of + vegetarians. A slowness of digestion does not necessarily imply + a greater strain on the system. As vegetables, in particular, + are for the longest period of time in the intestines, and + undergo the greater part of their digestion there, a gentle and + slow process of digestion in that organ may be more thorough. + It may also entail less expenditure of nervous energy than if + the food had been of such a stimulating character, as to be + hurried along the digestive tract. Digestion is for the most + part a chemical process. If the food is of right kind and + quantity, thoroughly masticated, assisted if necessary by + cookery, and the digestive ferments are normal, digestion + proceeds without any sensible expenditure or energy or + consciousness of its accomplishment. There is nothing + improbable in a flesh-eater requiring more food than a simple + living vegetarian. His food contains more proteid, and + excrementitious matter or extractives; these stimulate the + digestive organs and overtax the excretory ones. Generally, he + is fond of condiments, salt, and elaborate cooking, often also + of alcohol; if a man, probably of tobacco. He lives, as it + were, at high pressure.</p> + + <p>There are on record certain experiments which appear to + indicate the necessity of a large proportion of proteid, + especially when the diet has been of vegetable origin. These + experiments are inconclusive, because the subject has been + accustomed to an ordinary flesh diet, perhaps also to alcoholic + drinks. The change to a comparatively non-stimulating diet + cannot be made, and the digestive organs expected to adapt + themselves in a few days. Perhaps not even a month or a year + would suffice, for some people, and yet that same diet would + suit others. In some experiments the food has not been + appetising, the subject has even taken it with reluctance or + even loathing; an excess of some food has been eaten which no + vegetarian or anybody else would think of using in a practical + dietary.</p> + + <p>Sometimes persons on changing from an ordinary flesh + dietary, lose weight and strength. Generally, it is found that + they have done little more than discontinue the flesh, without + substituting suitable foods. Authorities think it is from a + deficiency of proteid, and recommend an addition of such foods + as pulse, wheatmeal, oatmeal, eggs, milk, cheese, and such as a + reference to the table of analyses, show a low nutrient ratio + figure. This may also be due to an insufficiency of food eaten, + owing to the comparatively insipid character of the food and + want of appetite. In making a change to a vegetarian diet, such + foods had better be taken that are rather rich in proteid, and + that approximate somewhat in their flavour and manner of + cooking to that used previously. A further change to a simpler + diet can afterwards gradually be made, according to conviction, + tastes and bodily adaptability. It must not be expected that a + change, even an ultimately very advantageous one, will always + meet with an immediate and proper response from digestive and + assimilative organs which have been accustomed for many years, + perhaps by inheritance for generations, to another manner of + living. There are several preparations produced from + centrifugalised milk—that is milk from which the butter + fat has been removed, which consist chiefly of proteid. These + have a value in increasing the proteid contents of foods which + may be thought deficient. The addition of these manufactured + products appear unnecessary, as most of our food contains an + abundance of proteid, and we can easily limit the quantity or + avoid altogether those that are thought defective.</p> + + <p>The later apologists for a flesh diet have had to admit that + it is not a physiological necessity; but they have attempted to + justify its use by a theory somewhat as follows. It is + admitted, that any excess of proteid over that necessary for + its special province of producing tissue, is utilised as a + force-producer, in a similar manner to the carbo-hydrates. When + the molecule is split up, and the carbon utilised, the nitrogen + passes off in the form of urea by the kidneys. The theory + propounded is that at the moment the nitrogen portion is + liberated, it in some manner stimulates the living protoplasm + of the nerve cells in its immediate neighbourhood to a higher + state of activity. These views are given by Dr. Hutchison in + his book on "Food," but there are no substantial grounds for + them. It is only prompted by a wish to excuse a cherished + habit. Sir William Roberts, M.D., in "Dietetics and Dyspepsia," + p. 16 says that "high feeding consists mainly in a liberal + allowance of meat, and in the systematic use of alcoholic + beverages, and that low-feeding consists in a diet which is + mainly vegetarian and non-alcoholic," and he proceeds to say + that the high-fed classes and races display, on the whole, a + richer vitality and a greater brain-power than their low-fed + brethren. That "it is remarkable how often we hear of eminent + men being troubled with gout, and gout is usually produced + either by personal or ancestral high-feeding." We can only + spare room for a few remarks on this subject. Intellectual and + business ability brings wealth, wealth frequently leads to the + pleasures of the table, but such habits are detrimental to + sustained effort and clearness of mind. The children and + grandchildren of such high livers are usually common-place, + intellectually, and of deteriorated physique. The aristocracy + who are generally high livers, notwithstanding their great + advantages of education, travel and leisure, are not as a rule + famed for their intellectual gifts. In the recent war the + frugal living Japanese soldier has proved himself the most + enduring and bravest in history; whilst the Japanese officers + are more resourceful and tactful than the wealthier, high-fed + Russian officers, with their aristocratic lineage. What is + called high-feeding, is of the greatest benefit to the doctors + and the proprietors of remedies for digestive and nervous + disorders.</p> + + <p><b>Food Adjuncts and Drugs.</b>—In addition to the + nutrients and the small quantity of indigestible fibre of which + we have already written, food generally contains small + quantities of substances which are difficult to classify, and + whose action on the body is but imperfectly understood. Many of + these possess pungent or strong odours and flavours. To them, + various fruits, meats, etc., owe much of their characteristic + differences of taste. When pure the proteids and starches are + devoid of taste. Such oils and fats as are generally eaten have + also but little flavour, providing they are free from rancidity + and of good quality. The sugars differ from the other nutrients + in possessing a more or less decided taste. The free vegetable + acids also strongly affect the sense of taste, but they are + only consumed in small quantities.</p> + + <p>A drug may be defined as a substance which modifies the + functions of the body or of some organ without sensibly + imparting nourishment. This action may be one of stimulation or + of depression. A drug is taken for its medicinal action, a food + adjunct for its modifying action on food. It is impossible to + give a quite satisfactory definition, or to draw sharp + distinctions. For example, tea, coffee, alcohol and tobacco are + sometimes placed in one group, and sometimes in another, + according to opinion of their action and the definition of the + terms food adjuncts, drugs and poisons. The difference of + grouping often depends upon intensity rather than of kind of + action. If taken frequently and not in quantity sufficient to + have a markedly medicinal action, such things are generally + called food adjuncts or supplementary foods, although much may + be said in favour of a different view. The volatile oils of + mustard, caraway, cloves, etc., are used in medicine; also the + alkaloids of coffee and cocoa. Even honey is used as a mild + laxative for infants; that is, as a drug. The difference + between a drug and a poison is one only of degree. Some of the + most esteemed drugs have to be administered in very small + quantities, or they cause death; e.g., strychnine and + morphine.</p> + + <p>Classifications are necessary for methodical study, and for + assisting the memory in grasping large numbers of things which + can be grouped together. Classifications, however, are + artificial, not due to natural lines of demarkation, but + according to man's knowledge and convenience; hence a group is + apt to approach and finally merge into another group, although + on first consideration they appeared quite distinct. The + disregard of this often leads to confusion and useless + discussions.</p> + + <p>Plants, like animals, as the result of tissue change, have + certain used-up or waste matters to get out of the way. Animals + have special excretory organs for the purpose; waste matter + remains in the flesh and blood of dead animals. In plants are + found a large number of powerful volatile oils, alkaloids, + bitter resins, etc. Many of these are, in all probability, + excretory products of no assimilative value to the plant. + Certain volatile oils may attract insects, and in obtaining + nectar from flowers insects assist fertilisation. Agreeable + volatile oils and flavouring substances in fruits attract birds + and animals. The eating of the fruits cause the seeds, which + are uninjured by passing through the digestive system, to be + disseminated over wide areas to the advantage of the plant + species. On the other hand, nauseous and poisonous alkaloids, + oils, resins, etc., serve as a protection against the attacks + of browsing animals, birds, caterpillars, snails, etc. These + nauseous substances are most abundant in the bark, husk, skin + and outer parts. It is commonly supposed that the food on which + each animal, including man, subsists, is especially produced by + Nature for the purpose. This is an error, for each species of + plant and animal lives for itself alone, and protects itself, + with more or less success, against destruction by its + competitors and enemies. Each species of animal selects from + its surroundings such food as is most suitable. Such food may + not be theoretically perfect; that is, it may not contain the + maximum of nourishment free from innutritious matter; but + during the long period of evolution, each species of animal has + become possessed of organs suited to its environment. If to + such animals be given food containing less indigestible matter, + or food which is more readily digested by laboratory tests made + independently of the living animal, their digestive system will + be thrown out of gear, become clogged up or refuse to work + properly, just as the furnace of a steam boiler, made to burn + coal, will act badly with wood or petroleum. Many scientific + men have overlooked this fact, and have endeavoured to produce + food substances for general consumption, in the most + concentrated and soluble form, thinking such food would be more + easily assimilated.</p> + + <p><b>The Volatile and Essential Oils</b> are contained in + minute quantity in a very large number of animal and vegetable + foods. They contribute in part to the flavour of fruits. They + are the cause of the pungency and aroma of mustard, + horse-radish, cloves, nutmegs, cinnamon, caraway seeds, mint, + sage and other spices. Onions contain a notable quantity. When + extracted the essential oils become powerful drugs. In moderate + quantities they are stomachic and carminative, in larger + quantities irritant and emetic. Condiments and spices not only + add flavour to food, but stimulate the secretion of gastric + juice and peristaltic movement.</p> + + <p><b>The Alkaloids</b> most used are those of tea, coffee, + kola-nut, cocoa, coca, tobacco and opium. Although the two last + are generally smoked, they must be classed amongst the food + adjuncts. It is of little consequence whether their active + principles enter the body by the mouth and saliva or the lungs; + their action on the blood and nervous system is the same.</p> + + <p><b>The Extractives</b>, as they are called, comprise a + number of bodies of varying nature. They especially exist in + flesh and flesh extracts. Amongst these are the purins. They + will be treated at greater length hereafter.</p> + + <p><b>Alcohol</b> is to some extent a true food, but its + stimulant and other action quite overshadows any food value it + may possess.</p> + + <p>There are other bodies such as the resins and bitters. The + active principle of Indian hemp is a resin.</p> + + <p>There is a great difference of opinion as to the extent to + which stimulants may advantageously be used. It is remarkable + that amongst nearly all nations, either alcohol in some form or + one of the stronger alkaloids is in common use. From this fact + it is sometimes argued that stimulants must supply a + physiological need. The same method of reasoning will apply + with greater force to the use of condiments. Such conclusions + appear to us to be scarcely warranted. If the extensive or even + universal practice of a thing proves its necessity, then has + there been justification, either now or in the past, for war, + lying, avarice and other vices. It is strange that drugs + differing so greatly in their immediate and obvious effects as, + for example, alcohol and opium, or coffee and tobacco should be + used. Should it he said that only some of the much used + stimulants are useful, there is an end to the argument based on + their universal use. There is no doubt that the use of + stimulants in more than very small quantities is distinctly + injurious, and it is difficult to see what physiological + advantage there can be in their habitual use, to what is + vaguely called a moderate extent. Sometimes they are taken for + a supposed medical necessity, and where taste attracts, little + evidence satisfies. Those in the habit of taking them, if + honest, must confess that it is chiefly on account of the + apparent enjoyment. The ill-nourished and the depressed in body + and mind crave most for stimulants. A food creates energy in + the body, including the nervous system, and this is the only + legitimate form of stimulation. A mere stimulant does not + create but draws on the reserve forces. What was latent + energy—to become in the natural course gradually + available—under stimulation is rapidly set free; there is + consequently, subsequent depletion of energy. There may + occasionally be times when a particular organ needs a temporary + stimulus to increased action, notwithstanding it may suffer an + after depression; but such cases are so rare that they may be + left out of our present argument, and stimulants should only be + used, like other powerful drugs, under medical advice. In the + last 25 years the use of alcohol by the medical profession has + steadily diminished, its poisonous properties having become + more evident.</p> + + <p>There is a general similarity in the effects of stimulants + on the digestive and nervous systems. The most largely used + stimulant is ethyl alcohol, and as its action is best known, it + may be useful to name the principal effects. Alcohol in the + form of wine and spirits, in small quantities, first stimulates + the digestive organs. Large quantities inflame the stomach and + stop digestion. (Beer, however, retards digestion, altogether + out of proportion to the alcohol it contains.) Alcohol + increases the action of the heart, increases the blood + pressure, and causes the vessels of the whole body to dilate, + especially those of the skin; hence there is a feeling of + warmth. It the person previously felt cold he now feels warm. + The result of the increased circulation through the various + organs is that they work with greater vigour, hence the mental + faculties are brightened for a time, and the muscular strength + seems increased. The person usually feels the better for it, + though this is not always the case; some have a headache or + feel very sleepy. It has been repeatedly proved that these good + results are but transitory. The heart, although at first + stimulated, is more exhausted after the action of the alcohol + has passed away than it was at first. This is true of all the + organs of the body which were stimulated. In consequence of the + dilatation of the blood vessels of the skin, an unusual + quantity of heat is lost and the body is cooled. After taking + alcohol persons are less able to stand cold. When overtaken by + snowstorms or subjected to excessive or prolonged cold, it has + often happened that those who resorted to spirit drinking have + succumbed, whilst the others have survived. Insurance + statistics have conclusively shown that teetotallers are longer + livers than the so-called moderate drinkers. The terrible + effects on both body and mind of the excessive drinking of + alcohol, or the use of other strong stimulants or narcotics, + are too obvious to need allusion to here; we are only concerned + with what is vaguely called their moderate use.</p> + + <p>The stimulation produced by tea and coffee is in some + respects like that of alcohol. The heart is stimulated and the + blood pressure rises. The kidneys are strongly affected in + those unaccustomed to the drug, but this ceases after a week or + more of use. Their chief effect is on the brain and nervous + system.</p> + + <p>Many have boasted that they can take of what they call the + good things of life to their full, without any bad effect, and + looking over a few years, or even many years, it seems a fact. + Some of us have known of such men, who have been esteemed for + their joviality and good nature, who have suddenly broken down + at what should have been a hearty middle life. On the other + hand there are men who were badly equipped for the battle of + life, with indifferent constitutions, who never had the + buoyancy and overflow of animal spirits, but who with care have + long outlived all their formerly more robust but careless + companions.</p> + + <p><b>Simple versus Highly-flavoured Foods.</b>—It is + very difficult to decide to what extent condiments and + flavourings should be used. These have stimulating properties, + although differing from the more complex properties of alcohol + and the alkaloids. The great differences in the dietetic + practices of nations does not appear to be in conformity with + any general rule. It varies with opportunity, climate and + national temperament; though doubtless the national temperament + is often due in part to the dietetic habits. Some races are + content with the simplest foods, large numbers subsist chiefly + on rice, others on the richer cereals, wheat, oatmeal, etc., + and fruit. On the other hand there are races who enjoy stronger + flavoured food, including such things as garlic, curry, + pickles, pepper, strong cheese, meat extracts, rancid fats, + dried and smoked fish, high game or still more decomposed + flesh, offal and various disgusting things. The Greenlanders + will eat with the keenest appetite, the half-frozen, + half-putrid head and fins of the seal, after it has been + preserved under the grass of summer. In Burmah and Sumatra a + mess is made by pounding together prawns, shrimps, or any cheap + fish; this is frequently allowed to become partially putrid. It + is largely used as a condiment for mixing with their rice. + Numerous examples of this sort could be given. There is + scarcely anything that it is possible to eat, but has been + consumed with relish by some tribe or other. The strongest + flavoured, and to our minds most disgusting foods are eaten by + the least intelligent and most brutal races. It is hunger that + compels the poor African bushman to eat anything he can get, + and the Hottentot not only the flesh, but the entrails of + cattle which die naturally, and this last he has come to think + exquisite when boiled in beast-blood. All this shows a + wonderful range of adaptability in the human body, but it would + not be right to say that all such food is equally wholesome. + The most advanced and civilised races, especially the more + delicately organised of them are the most fastidious, whilst it + is the most brutal, that take the most rank and strongly + flavoured foods. Even amongst the civilised there are great + differences. The assimilative and nervous systems can be + trained to tolerate injurious influences to a remarkable + degree. A striking example is seen in the nausea commonly + produced by the first pipe of tobacco, and the way the body may + in time be persuaded, not only to tolerate many times such a + quantity without manifesting any unpleasant feelings, but to + receive pleasure from the drug. Opium or laudanum may be taken + in gradually increasing quantities, until such a dose is taken + as would at first have produced death, yet now without causing + any immediate or very apparent harm. Nearly all drugs loose + much of their first effect on continued use. Not only is this + so, but a sudden discontinuance of a drug may cause distress, + as the body, when free from the artificial stimulation to which + it has become habituated, falls into a sluggish or torpid + condition. For the enjoyment of food two things are equally + necessary, a healthy and keen appetite and suitable food; + without the first no food, however good and skilfully prepared, + will give satisfaction. The sense of taste resides in certain + of the papilloe of the tongue, and to a much less degree in the + palate. Tastes may be classified into sweet, bitter, acid and + saline. Sweet tastes are best appreciated by the tip, acid by + the side, and bitter by the back of the tongue. Hot or pungent + substances produce sensations of general feeling, which obscure + any strictly gustatory sensations which may be present at the + same time. To affect the taste the food must enter into + solution. Like the other senses, taste may be rendered more + delicate by cultivation. Flavours are really odours, and the + word smell would be more appropriate. For example, what we call + the taste of an onion, the flavour of fruit, etc. (independent + of the sweetness or sourness of the fruit) is due to the + nose.</p> + + <p>Much has been written on the necessity of making food tasty, + so as to stimulate the appetite and digestion. It is urged that + unless this is done food will not be eaten in sufficient + quantity. Innumerable receipts (some very elaborate) have been + published for this purpose. All this is supposed to increase + the enjoyment of food. The Anglo-Saxon race—the race + whose dietary is the most elaborate—is especially subject + to digestive derangements, and without good digestion and the + consequent healthy appetite, no food will give full gustatory + pleasure. The most wholesome food, and that which can be eaten + most frequently without weariness, is mildly flavoured and + simply prepared. Plain bread is an example; whereas sweet + bread, currant bread, etc., though agreeable in small quantity, + or as an occasional delicacy, soon palls on the appetite. Rice + is the poorest and mildest flavoured of the cereals, it is + therefore often, perhaps generally, made more tasty by the + addition of fish, curry, etc. The bulk of the Chinese live on + rice, with the exception of only 3 or 4 ounces of fish per day, + and they are a fine, big and strong race. The Japanese labourer + lives on similar food. In India rice is the food most in use, + though many other cereals are eaten there. Other races live + chiefly on fruits. It appears that the digestive organs will + perform their functions perfectly with the mildest flavoured + food. There is nothing surprising in this. The strongest, most + intelligent, and largest animals are those which feed on grass, + herbs and fruits. Even the African lion is no match for the + gorilla. The lion and tiger are capable of great strength, but + they cannot put it forth for long periods as can the herbivora. + Our most useful animal, the horse, can exert much more muscular + energy, weight for weight, than any of the carnivora. The cost + of feeding one of the herbivora is much less than that of one + of the carnivora of the same weight. This is so whether we take + the cost of purchasing the food; or the expenditure of time, + labour and energy on the part of man or of natural forces in + the production of the food. Herbs, roots, corn and fruit are + produced much more abundantly and freely than the corresponding + quantity of sheep, deer, etc., on which the carnivora feed.</p> + + <p>The restlessness, craving for novelty, and love of + excitement, so characteristic of the Anglo-Saxon, and to a less + extent of some other European races, has its correspondence in + the food of these races. Highly-seasoned and nitrogenous foods + act as a stimulant and favour spasmodic, and for a time + perhaps, great intellectual and physical exertion, with a + succeeding period of exhaustion. Simpler food favours long, + sustained, uniform muscular strength, clearness of intellect, + and contentment. Let no one misunderstand us; we do not assert + that all who live on simple food have either clear intellects + or are contented, because there are other factors besides food, + but that such qualities are more easily retained or obtained + under that condition. It is well known that the over-fed and + badly fed are the most irritable and discontented Those living + on a stimulating dietary consisting largely of flesh have their + chief successes in feats of short duration. Simple and + abstemious living individuals or races excel in laborious work + requiring endurance over long periods, such as long walking, + cycling, and other athletic feats and long military + campaigns.</p> + + <p>The digestive and assimilative organs need the food + constituents of which we have written, in proper proportion and + quantity, and in a fairly digestible condition. Within these + very wide and comprehensive limits, the organs can be trained. + Very much of the great difference in food is due to the + non-essential flavouring and stimulating part, rather than to + that part which is essential and nourishing. What is the best, + interests but few; whilst what is at present the pleasantest, + influences the many. The ego, the superphysical conscious and + reasoning entity should rule its material body, its temporary + vehicle. The body, being the servant of the ego, just as a + horse, dog, or other of the lower animals recognises its + master, becomes a docile subject. The body can be led into good + habits nearly as easily as into bad ones; often more easily, as + bad habits are sometimes painfully acquired. The body being + once habituated to certain movements, conditions, foods or + drinks, within reasonable limits, derives pleasure therefrom + and resists change. It is only when the food, etc., + transgresses certain elementary principles, that the result is + more or less painful. We may on scientific principles condemn + flesh-foods, stimulants and elaborately prepared foods; but + after ruling all this out, there is still left a very great + variety of foods and methods of preparing them: hereon each + individual must form his own opinion. Of the foods thus left, + the same kind is not equally suitable to everyone, nor even to + the same person at different periods.</p> + + <p>A delicately balanced, fine-grained, high-toned mind and + body responds to every tender influence, and is painfully + jarred by that which is coarse. To such, fruits and delicately + flavoured and easily digested foods are doubtless best and + conducive to purity and clearness of thought. A coarse-grained, + badly poised, roughly working body and spirit, is + non-responsive except to loud or coarse impulses; and such a + one's appetite is gratified, not by simple but by coarsely + seasoned foods.</p> + + <p>A person who is accustomed to a stimulating dietary of + flesh-foods, especially if well-seasoned, finds a simple diet + unsatisfying. Should such persons dine off simple vegetarian + food, there is a tendency to over-eating. The less stimulating + food fails to rouse the digestive organs and to appease the + appetite; although an ample supply of nourishment be consumed. + This is the reason why so many imagine that it is necessary to + eat a larger quantity of food if it be vegetable. Should a + distressing fulness and flatulence result from their + over-feeding, they lay the blame to the vegetarian dietary + instead of to themselves. Most persons, on changing to a + vegetarian dietary, commence by imitating flesh dishes in + appearance and flavour and even in the names. There is the + additional inducement that the food may be attractive and + palatable to friends who lack sympathy with the aesthetic and + humane principles of the diet. After a while many of them + incline to simpler flavoured foods. They revert to the + unperverted taste of childhood, for children love sweets, + fruits, and mild-flavoured foods rather than savouries. One who + loves savouries, as a rule, cares much less for fruits. By + compounding and cooking, a very great variety of foods can be + prepared, but the differences in taste are much less than is + usually, supposed. The effect of seasoning instead of + increasing the range, diminishes it, by dulling the finer + perception of flavours. The predominating seasoning also + obscures everything else. The mixture of foods produces a + conglomeration of tastes in which any particular or distinct + flavours are obscured, resulting in a general sameness. It is + often stated that as an ordinary flesh-eater has the choice of + a greater range of foods and flavours than a vegetarian, he can + obtain more enjoyment, and that the latter is disagreeably + restricted. Certainly he has the choice, but does he avail + himself of it to any considerable extent? No one cares to take + all the different kinds of food, whether of animal or vegetable + that are possible. Of edible animals but a very few kinds are + eaten. A person who particularly relishes and partakes largely + of flesh-foods will reject as insipid and unsatisfying many + mild-flavoured foods at one end of the scale. The vegetarian + may abstain from foods at the opposite end of the scale, not + always from humane reasons, but because they are unpleasant. + Thus there may be little to choose between the mere range of + flavours that give enjoyment to each class of persons. The + sense of taste is in its character and range lower than the + sense of sight and hearing. The cultivation of the taste for + savouries seems to blunt the taste for fruits and the delicate + foods. The grass and herbs on which the herbivora subsist, + seems to our imagination of little flavour and monotonous; but + they eat with every sign of enjoyment, deliberately munching + their food as though to get its full flavour. In all + probability they find a considerable range of flavours in the + great varieties of grasses commonly found together in a + pasture.</p> + + <p>Our elaborate cooking customs entail a vast amount of + labour. They necessitate the cost, trouble and dirt from having + fires in great excess of that required for warmth: the extra + time in preparing, mixing and attending to food which has to be + cooked: and the large number of greasy and soiled utensils + which have to be cleaned. Cooked savoury food is generally much + nicer eaten hot, and this necessitates fires and attention just + previous to the meal. We have already said that soft cooked + food discourages mastication and leads to defective teeth. Our + elaborate cookery is mainly due to our custom of eating so + largely of flesh, whilst the eating of flesh would receive a + great impetus on the discovery of the art of cooking. Flesh can + only be eaten with relish and with safety when cooked. Such a + large proportion of it is infected with parasites, or is + otherwise diseased, that it would he dangerous to eat it raw, + even were it palatable in such a state. In those countries + where man eats flesh in a raw or semi-cooked form, parasitic + diseases are common. There is not the least doubt that our + habit of eating so much cooked food is responsible for much + over-eating, hasty eating, dyspepsia and illness. In regard to + the making of bread, porridge, and many other comparatively + simple prepared foods, the advantages of cooking seem + overwhelmingly great. With our present imperfect knowledge and + conflicting opinions, it is impossible to arrive at any + satisfactory conclusion, and the whole question requires + careful and impartial investigation. Experiments have been made + with animals, chiefly pigs, with cooked and uncooked clover, + hay, corn, meal, etc. (U.S. Department of Agriculture). It was + found that the food was more or less diminished in + digestibility by cooking. At least 13 separate series of + experiments with pigs in different part of the country have + been reported. In 10 of these trials there has been a positive + loss from cooking the food. The amount of food required to + produce in the animal a pound gain in weight was larger when + the food had been cooked than when it was given raw. In some + cases, the increased quantity of food required after cooking + was considerable.</p> + + <p>Those who live on uncooked food contend that a smaller + quantity of nourishment is required. As uncooked food requires + more mastication and is eaten more slowly, there is a better + flow of saliva and time is given for the digestive organs to be + gradually brought into complete action, and finally for the + appeasing of the appetite. In the case of the members of the + fruitarian family, whose food was uncooked, and of whom we have + previously written, the quantity of nutriment taken was much + less than that thought necessary, even after making full + allowance for their small stature and weight.</p> + + <p><b>Meat Extracts.</b>—Justus von Liebig, the great + German chemist, was the first to attempt to make these on the + commercial scale. He described a method in 1847, and this not + proving satisfactory, another one in 1865. He stated that the + only practicable plan on a manufacturing scale, was to treat + the chopped flesh with eight to ten times its weight of water, + which was to be raised to 180° F. In another passage he + says it is to be boiled for half-an-hour. After straining from + all the undissolved meat fibre, etc., and carefully cleansing + from all fat, the decoction is to be evaporated to a soft + extract; such a preparation is practically free from albumin, + gelatin and fat; all the nutritive principles except the saline + matter having been extracted. Liebig states that 34 pounds of + meat are required to produce 1 pound of extract. In 1872, he + wrote "neither tea nor extract of meat are nutritive in the + ordinary sense," and he went on to speak of their medicinal + properties. Druit, in 1861, in describing the effect of a + liquid preparation of meat, states that it exerted a rapid and + stimulating action on the brain, and he proposed it as an + auxiliary and partial substitute for brandy, in all case of + great exhaustion or weakness attended with cerebral depression + or despondency. In like manner, a feast of animal food in + savages, whose customary diet was almost exclusively vegetable, + has been described by travellers as producing great excitement + and stimulation similar to that of intoxicating spirits. + Similar effects have been observed from a copious employment of + Liebig's extract. Voit asserts, from the results of his + experiments, that extract of meat is practically useless as a + food, and other authorities are quite of the same opinion, + although they may value it as a stimulant and drug. _The Extra + Pharmacopæia_, 1901, states that "Liebig's Extract or + Lemco consists of creatin, creatinin, globulin and urea, with + organic potash and other salts. It has been much over-estimated + as a food either for invalids or healthy persons; still it is + often valuable as a flavouring to add to soups, beef-tea, etc., + and it is a nerve food allied to tea." Meat extracts stimulate + the action of the heart and the digestive processes, but as in + the case of other stimulants there is a succeeding period of + depression. The <i>British Medical Journal</i> says that the + widespread belief in the universal suitability of concentrated + beef-tea is frequently responsible for increasing the patient's + discomfort, and is even capable in conditions of kidney + inefficiency, of producing positive harm. Some of the meat + bases, the leucomaines, have been found to possess marked + poisonous effects on the body. The manfacturers of meat + extracts continue to mislead the public by absurdly false + statements of the value of their products. They assert that + their extracts contain the nutritive matter of 30, 40 or 50 + times their weight of fresh meat, or that one or two + meat-lozenges are sufficient for a meal. One company, asserts + by direct statement, or imply by pictorial advertisement, that + the nutritive matter in an ox can be concentrated into the bulk + of a bottle of extract; and another company that a tea-cup full + is equivalent in food value to an ox. Professor Halliburton + writes: "Instead of an ox in a tea-cup, the ox's urine in a + tea-cup would be much nearer the fact, for the meat extract + consists largely of products on the way to urea, which more + nearly resemble in constitution the urine than they do the + flesh of the ox." Professor Robert Bartholow has also stated + that the chemical composition of beef-tea closely resembles + urine, and is more an excrementitious substance than a food. + Those whose business it is to make a pure meat-broth, for the + purpose of preparing therefrom a nutrient for experimenting + with bacteria, cannot fail to recognise its similarity both in + odour and colour to urine. Little consideration is needful to + show the untruthfulness and the absurdity of the statements + made by manufacturers as to the food value of these extracts. + Fresh lean beef contains about 25 per cent. of solid nutriment + and 75 per cent. of water. If lean beef be desiccated, one + pound will be reduced to four ounces of perfectly dry + substance; this will consist of about 80 per cent. of proteid + matter and nearly 20 per cent. of fat including a little saline + matter and the extractives. This is as far as it is possible to + concentrate the beef. If it were possible to remove, without + interfering with the nutritious constituents, the membraneous + matter, the creatin, creatinine and purin bodies, we should + reduce it to a little less than four ounces. It is very + remarkable that the most nutritious matter of the beef, the + muscle substance or proteid and the fat, are rejected in making + Liebig's extract, whilst the effete or waste products are + retained. In Bovril and some other preparations, some meat + fibre has been added with the object of imparting a definite + food value. Hence in some advertisements, now withdrawn, it was + alleged that the preparations were immensely superior in + nutritive value to ordinary meat extracts. The Bovril Company + extensively circulated the following:—"It is hard for + ladies to realise that the beef tea they make at home from the + choicest fresh beef contains absolutely no nourishment and is + nothing more than a slight stimulant. It is so, however, and + many a patient has been starved on beef tea, whether made from + fresh beef or from the meat extracts that are sold to the + public. From these Bovril differs so much that one ounce of its + nutritious constituents contains more real and direct + nourishment than fifty ounces of ordinary meat extract." If + analyses of meat extracts are referred to, it will be seen that + the principal part of Bovril is the meat bases and other things + common to all such extracts, and which the Company in their + circular so emphatically condemn. If the meat fibre, which is + the principal, if not the sole difference, is the only + nourishing constituent, it is difficult to see the advantage + over ordinary beef, which can be procured at a very small + proportionate cost. Concerning this added meat fibre, C.A. + Mitchell, in "Flesh Foods," writes: "As this amounts to at most + some 8 or 10 per cent., it is obvious that a large quantity of + the substance would be required to obtain as much unaltered + proteid as is contained in an egg. On the other hand, it has + been pointed out that there is nothing to show that flesh + powder suspended in meat extract is more digestible than + ordinary flesh in the same fine state of division, whilst the + amount of flesh bases, the principal stimulating agents, is + correspondingly reduced." Concerning added albumin and meat + fibre, A.H. Allen, in "Commercial Organic Analysis," vol. iv., + writes: "The amount of these constituents present in such a + quantity of meat extract as is usually, or could be, taken at a + time, is too insignificant to give it any appreciable value as + nutriment." Notwithstanding such statements by analysts and + others, Bovril is advertised to contain "the entire nourishment + of prime ox-beef." The great extent of the extract of meat + trade is shown by a circular issued by the Lemco and Oxo + Company. They give the number of their cattle killed since 1865 + as 5,550,000; stock of cattle 160,000; employees in works, + farms and branches, 3,200. This is only one out of many such + companies. It is a sad thing that myriads of animals should be + slaughtered with all the horrible and brutalising surroundings + of the slaughter-house to such a purpose—the nutritious + matter being nearly all wasted. Reliance on these extracts is + responsible for much sickness and death. Instead of their + preventing colds, influenza, and other complaints as is + professed, they predispose to them by overloading the body with + waste products, taxing the excretory organs and reducing the + vitality. The following analyses of meat extracts are by Otto + Hehner:—</p> + + <div class="figcenter" + style="width:100%;"> + <a href="images/058.png"><img width="601" + src="images/058.png" + alt="Analyses of Meat Extracts" /></a> + </div> + + <p>Some of the "Liebig's Extract of Meat" so called, contains + yeast extract; some even, is almost entirely, if not altogether + made from yeast. The latter can be manufactured at a very low + cost from brewers' and distillers' waste products, and there is + a strong incentive for unscrupulous dealers to substitute it + secretly. Artificial meat extracts prepared from yeast have the + appearance and taste of meat extracts, but some, at least, have + a considerably sharper flavour. In one method of manufacture + common salt is added, and this renders it unfit for use in more + than very small quantities as a flavouring. J. Graff has made + analyses of ten yeast extracts, and contrasted them with meat + extracts (see <i>Analyst</i> 1904, page 194), and says, "It + will be seen that the chemical composition of yeast extract + does not greatly differ from that of meat extract." Yeast + extracts contain purin bodies, and are probably equally as + injurious as meat extracts. Such strong and rank flavours (the + odour is suggestive to us of putrefaction) should be + discouraged by those who would cultivate a refined taste in + food.</p> + + <p><b>Flesh Bases and Waste Products.</b>—As the result + of destructive metamorphosis or the wearing out of the body, + there remain certain waste products which have to be expelled + as soon as is possible. Their retention and accumulation would + soon produce death. A part is expelled by the lungs as + carbon-dioxide, or as it is generally though less correctly + termed, carbonic acid. Upon the breaking down of the complex + proteid and other nitrogenous matter, the nitrogen is left in + comparatively simple combinations. These effete nitrogen + compounds are commonly termed flesh bases or nitrogenous + extractives. They exist in small quantity in flesh meat, but + are concentrated and conserved in the making of beef-tea or + beef-extract. The spleen, lymphatic and other glands, and + especially the liver, break these down into still simpler + compounds, so that the kidneys may readily separate them from + the blood, that they may pass out of the body. By far the + largest part of this waste nitrogen is expelled from the bodies + of men and many other mammals in the form of urea. Pure urea is + an odourless transparent crystalline substance, of cooling + saline taste like nitre. It is soluble in an equal volume of + water, and is expelled from the body with great ease. In the + herbivora the nitrogenous waste takes the form of another body + called hippuric acid. The nearly solid light-coloured urinary + excretion of birds and serpents consists of urates; this is + uric acid in combination with alkalies. In man, in addition to + the urea excreted, there is also a little hippuric and uric + acid or compounds of these. Uric acid is a transparent + colourless crystalline body almost insoluble in water but + soluble as urates in the presence of alkalies. As deposited + from urine it is of a dull red sand-like appearance, as it has + a great affinity for any colouring matter that is present.</p> + + <p>It is only possible to make a brief reference to the chief + organic bases. The xanthine bases are closely related to uric + acid. Some of these occur in small quantity in the urine and + animal tissues, others, such as caffeine, occur in plants. + Creatine is a constant constituent of muscle substance. In + fowl's flesh there is said to be 0.32 per cent., in cod-fish + 0.17 per cent., and in beef 0.07 per cent. Creatinine is + produced from creatine with great facility; it exists in urine. + Both creatine and creatinine are readily soluble in water. A + series of bases, closely allied to creatinine have been + isolated from the flesh of large animals by A. Gautier; they + are known as Gautier's flesh bases. When administered to + animals, these act more or less powerfully on the nerve + centres, inducing sleep and in some cases causing vomiting and + purging in a manner similar to the alkaloids of snake venom, + but less powerfully than the ptomaines. These bases are formed + during life as a result of normal vital processes and are + termed leucomaines.</p> + + <p>Another class of bases of an alkaloidal nature, are termed + ptomaines; these differ from the leucomaines, being produced by + putrefactive or bacterial agency from dead flesh. The poisoning + which has occasionally resulted from the eating of sausages, + pork-pies, tinned meats, etc., is due to their having contained + ptomaines.</p> + + <p>Such quantities of waste products as are produced in the + healthy body are excreted with ease, but it is otherwise in + certain diseases. Either specially noxious substances are + produced, or the usual substances are in excessive quantity and + not eliminated with sufficient rapidity; in consequence the + body is poisoned. Those who eat largely of flesh, introduce + into their system the excretory matter contained therein, which + super-added to the excretory matter resulting from the vital + processes of the body puts an unusual and unnatural strain upon + the liver and kidneys. It has been observed, that the eating of + the flesh of some trapped animals has produced severe symptoms + of poisoning. The pain and horror of having a limb bleeding and + mangled in a most cruel steel trap, the struggles which only + add to the misery, slowly being done to death during hours or + even days of torture, has produced in their bodies virulent + poisons. Leucomaine poisons have also been produced by the + violent and prolonged exertions of an animal, fleeing from its + pursuers, until its strength was completely spent. Cases are + also known, where a mother nursing her infant, has given way to + violent anger or other emotion, and the child at the breast has + been made violently ill. We must not expect the flesh of any + hunted or terrified animals to be wholesome. Animals brought in + cattle ships across the Atlantic, suffer acutely. After rough + weather they will often arrive in a maimed condition, some + being dead. To this is added the terror and cruelty to which + they are subjected whilst driven by callous drovers, often + through a crowded city, to the slaughter house to which they + have an instinctive dread. It is only to be expected that the + dead flesh from such animals, should contain an unusually large + quantity of the more poisonous flesh bases.</p> + + <p><b>Purin Bodies.</b>—The term purin has been applied + to all bodies containing the nucleus + C<sub>5</sub>N<sub>4</sub>. It comprises the xanthine group and + the uric acid group of bodies. The principal purins are + hypoxanthin, xanthin, uric acid, guanin, adenin, caffeine and + theobromine. Purins in the body may either result from the wear + and tear of certain cell contents, when they are called + endogenous purins; or they are introduced in the food, when + they are distinguished as exogenous purins. These purins are + waste products and are readily converted into uric acid. The + production of some uric acid by tissue change is, of course, + unavoidable; but that resulting from the purins in food is + under control.</p> + + <p>An excess of uric acid is commonly associated with gout and + similar diseases. The morbid phenomena of gout are chiefly + manifested in the joints and surrounding tissues. The articular + cartilages become swollen, with ensuing great pain. There is an + accumulation of mortar like matter about the joints. This is + calcium urate (not sodium urate as is generally stated). These + nodular concretions are called tophi or chalkstones.</p> + + <p>Very many are the hypotheses which have been propounded on + the cause of gout and the part played by uric acid; many have + had to be discarded or greatly modified. Though much light has + recently been thrown on the subject, there remains much that is + obscure. The subject is one which is surrounded with great + difficulties, and would not be suitable for discussion here, + were it not for the following reason: Certain views on uric + acid as the cause of gout and several other diseases, are at + the present time being pushed to the extreme in some health + journals and pamphlets. Unfortunately many of the writers have + very little knowledge, either of chemistry or physiology, and + treat the question as though it were a simple one that had been + quite settled. Our purpose is to clear the ground to some + extent, for a better understanding of its fundamentals, and to + warn against dogmatism. Our remarks, however, must be brief. It + is undeniable that great eaters of meat, especially if they + also take liberally of alcoholic drinks, are prone to diseases + of the liver and kidneys, about or soon after the time of + middle life. Flesh meat contains relatively large quantities of + purins. Purins are metabolised in the body to uric acid, about + half of the uric acid produced in the body disappears as such, + being disintegrated, whilst the other half remains to be + excreted by the kidneys.</p> + + <p>One view is that whilst the organs of the body can readily + dispose of its endogenous uric acid, or that produced by its + own tissue change, together with the small amount of uric acid + derived from most foods, the organs are strained by the larger + quantity introduced in flesh-food or any other food rich in + purins: that there is an accumulation in the system of some of + this uric acid. Vegetable foods tend to keep the blood + alkaline, flesh possesses less of this property; alkalinity of + the blood is thought to be favourable to the elimination of + uric acid, whilst anything of an acid nature acts contrarily. + Dr. Alexander Haig writes "I consider that every man who eats + what is called ordinary diet with butcher's meat twice a day, + and also drinks acid wine or beer, will, by the time he is 50, + have accumulated 300 to 400 grains of uric acid in his tissues, + and possibly much more; and about this time, owing to the large + amount of uric acid in his body, he will probably be subject to + attacks of some form of gout or chronic rheumatism." Dr. Haig + ascribes to the presence of uric acid in the system, not only + gout and rheumatism, but epilepsy, hysteria, mental and bodily + depression, diseases of the liver, kidneys, brain, etc.</p> + + <p>The opinion of the majority of eminent medical men, during + recent years, is that uric acid is not a cause, but a symptom + of gout, that uric acid is not an irritant to the tissues, and + that it is readily excreted in the healthy subject. Some of the + reasons for this latter and against the previously stated + hypothesis, are as follows:—Birds very rarely suffer from + gout—the nodular concretions, sometimes found about their + joints and which have been ascribed to gout, are of tuberculous + origin—yet their blood contains more uric acid than that + of man, and the solid matter of their excretion is mainly + urates. If uric acid caused gout we should expect the disease + to be common in birds. It is a remarkable fact that the waste + nitrogen should be excreted in the form of uric acid or urates + from such widely differing classes of animals as birds and + serpents. Birds have a higher body temperature than man, they + are very rapid in their movements and consume a large amount of + food proportionate to their weight. They live, as it were, at + high pressure. Serpents, on the other hand, have a low body + temperature, they are lethargic and can live a long while + without food. There is no obvious reason why some animals + excrete urea and others uric acid. As uric acid is a + satisfactory and unirritating form in which waste nitrogen is + expelled from the body of the active alert bird, as well as + from the slow moving reptile, it is surprising if a very much + smaller quantity acts as a poison in man. Many physicians are + convinced that uric acid is absolutely unirritating. Uratic + deposits may occur to an enormous extent in gouty persons + without the occurrence of any pain or paroxysms. Urates have + been injected in large amounts into the bodies of animals as + well as administered in their food with no toxic result + whatever, or more than purely local irritation. The most + careful investigations upon the excretions of persons suffering + from gouty complaints, have failed to show uric acid in the + excretions in excess of that in normal individuals, except + during the later stage of an acute attack. There is an excess + of uric acid in the blood of gouty subjects; some eminent + medical men say it is in the highest degree probable, that this + excess is not due to over production or deficient destruction, + but to defective excretion by the kidneys. The excess may arise + from failure of the uric acid to enter into combination with a + suitable substance in the blood, which assists its passage + through the kidneys. Under the head of gout are classed a + number of unrelated disturbances in the gastro-intestinal tract + and nutritive organs, whose sole bond of union is that they are + accompanied by an excess of urates, and in well developed cases + by deposits in the tissues. This is why there are so many + different causes, curative treatments, theories, contradictions + and vagaries in gout. There are good reasons for believing that + uric acid is not in the free state in the body. In the urine it + is in combination with alkalies as urates, perhaps also with + some organic body. It has been shown that the blood of the + gouty is not saturated with uric acid, but can take up more, + and that the alkalinity of the blood is not diminished. The + excess over the normal is in many cases small; it is said to be + absent in some persons, and rarely, if ever reaches the + quantity found in leukaemia. Leukaemia is a disease marked by + an excessive and permanent increase in the white blood + corpuscles and consequent progressive anæmia. Neither + does the uric acid of gout reach the quantity produced in + persons whilst being fed with thymus gland (sweetbread), for + medical purposes. In neither of these cases are any of the + symptoms of gout present. In the urine of children, it is not + unusual to find a copious precipitate of urates, yet without + any observed effect on them.</p> + + <p>The symptoms of gout point to the presence of a toxin in the + blood, and it is this which produces the lesions; the + deposition of urates in the joints being secondary. This poison + is probably of bacterial origin, derived from decomposing + fæcal matter in the large intestine. This is due to + faulty digestion and insufficient or defective intestinal + secretions and constipation. This explains why excessive + feeding, especially of proteid food, is so bad. The imperfectly + digested residue of such food, when left to stagnate and become + a mass of bacteria and putrefaction, gives off poisons which + are absorbed in part, into the system. This bacterial poison + produces headache, migraine, gouty or other symptoms. Because + of the general failure of gouty persons to absorb the proper + amount of nutriment from their food, they require to eat a + larger quantity; this gives a further increase of fæcal + decomposition and thus aggravates matters. The voluminous bowel + or colon of man is a legacy from remote pre-human ancestors, + whose food consisted of bulky, fibrous and slowly digested + vegetable matters. It was more useful then, than now that most + of our food is highly cooked. About a third part of the + fæcal matter consists of bacteria of numerous species, + though chiefly of the species known as the <i>bacillus coli + communis</i>, one of the less harmful kind which is a constant + inhabitant of the intestinal tract in man and animals. This + species is even thought to be useful in breaking down the + cellulose, which forms a part of the food of the herbivora. + Flesh meat leaves a residue in which the bacteria of + putrefaction find a congenial home. Poisons such as ptomaines, + fatty acids and even true toxins are produced. It is believed + that there exists in the colons of gouty persons, either + conditions more favourable to the growth of the bacteria of + putrefaction, or that they are less able to resist the effect + of the poisons produced. It has generally been found that milk + is a very good food for gouty patients. This seems due to its + being little liable to putrefaction, the bacterial fermentation + to which it is liable producing lactic acid—the souring + of milk. The growth of most bacteria, particularly the + putrefactive kinds are hindered or entirely stopped by acids + slightly alkaline media are most favourable. This explains how + it is that milk will often stop diarrhoea.</p> + + <p>Dr. Haig condemns pulse and some other vegetable foods, + because, he says, they contain uric acid. Pulse, he states, + contains twice as much as most butcher's meat. Vegetable foods, + however, contain no uric acid and meat but a very small + quantity. The proper term to use is purins or nucleins. Dr. + Haig has used a method of analysis which is quite incapable of + giving correct results. Many vegetarians have accepted these + figures and his deductions therefrom, and have given up the use + of valuable foods in consequence. We therefore give some of the + analyses of Dr. I. Walker Hall, from "The Purin Bodies in Food + Stuffs." The determination of the purins has proved a very + difficult process. Dr. Hall has devoted much time to + investigating and improving the methods of others, and his + figures may be accepted with confidence.</p> + + <p>The first column of figures indicates purin bodies in parts + per 1,000, the second column purin bodies in grains per + pound:—</p> + + <table width="500" + align="center" + cellpadding="6" + summary="Purin bodies"> + <tr> + <td> + <table summary="purins - 1" + align="left" + width="240"> + <tr> + <td align="left">Sweet bread</td> + + <td align="right">0.06</td> + + <td align="right">0.4</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="left">Liver</td> + + <td align="right">2.75</td> + + <td align="right">9.3</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="left">Beef steak</td> + + <td align="right">2.07</td> + + <td align="right">4.5</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="left">Beef Sirloin</td> + + <td align="right">1.30</td> + + <td align="right">9.1</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="left">Ham</td> + + <td align="right">1.15</td> + + <td align="right">8.1</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="left">Chicken</td> + + <td align="right">1.30</td> + + <td align="right">9.1</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="left">Rabbit</td> + + <td align="right">0.97</td> + + <td align="right">6.3</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="left">Pork Loin</td> + + <td align="right">1.21</td> + + <td align="right">8.5</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="left">Veal loin</td> + + <td align="right">1.16</td> + + <td align="right">8.14</td> + </tr> + </table> + </td> + + <td> + <table summary="purins - 2" + align="right" + width="240"> + <tr> + <td align="left">Mutton</td> + + <td align="right">0.96</td> + + <td align="right"> 6.75</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="left">Salmon</td> + + <td align="right">1.16</td> + + <td align="right">8.15</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="left">Cod</td> + + <td align="right">0.58</td> + + <td align="right">4.07</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="left">Lentils and haricots</td> + + <td align="right">0.64</td> + + <td align="right">4.16</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="left">Oatmeal</td> + + <td align="right">0.53</td> + + <td align="right">3.45</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="left">Peameal</td> + + <td align="right">0.39</td> + + <td align="right">2.54</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="left">Asparagus (cooked)</td> + + <td align="right">0.21</td> + + <td align="right">1.50</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="left">Onions</td> + + <td align="right">0.09</td> + + <td align="right">0.06</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="left">Potatoes</td> + + <td align="right">0.02</td> + + <td align="right">0.1</td> + </tr> + </table> + </td> + </tr> + </table><br clear="all" /> + <br /> + + + <p>The following showed no traces of purins: white bread, rice, + cabbage, lettuce, cauliflower and eggs. Milk showed a very + small quantity, and cheese consequently must contain still + less.</p> + + <p>The researches of Dr. Hall show that the purins of food are + metabolised or broken down by gouty patients, almost as well as + by normal individuals, any slight retention being due to + increased capillary pressure. A portion of the purins remain + undigested, the quantity depending upon the particular purin + and the vigour of the digestive organs. Two rabbits had the + purin hypoxanthin given to them daily, in quantities which if + given to a man in proportion to his weight, would have been 17 + and 3 grains respectively. These rabbits showed malnutrition, + and after death degenerative changes were visible in their + liver and kidneys. Dr. Hall has made a large number of personal + experiments, and says that when he has taken large doses of + purin bodies—such as 7 grains of hypoxanthin, 15 to 77 + grains of guanin or 7 to 15 grains of uric acid, apparently + associated symptoms of general malaise and irritability have + frequently appeared. In gouty subjects such moderate or small + quantities of purins which are without effect on the healthy + subject, may prove a source of irritation to the already + weakened liver and kidneys.</p> + + <p>Professor Carl von Noorden says of gout, "with regard to + treatment we are all agreed that food containing an excess of + purin bodies should be avoided, and those words embody almost + all there is to be said as to dietetics. Alcohol is very + injurious in gout. Salicylic acid is a dangerous remedy. + Alkalies in every form are utterly useless." Dr. J. + Woods-Hutchinson says, "the one element which has been found to + be of the most overwhelming importance and value in the + treatment of gout and lith¾mia, water, would act most + admirably upon a toxic condition from any source; first, by + sweeping out both the alimentary canal primarily, and the + liver, kidneys and skin secondarily; and secondly, by supplying + to the body cells that abundant salt-water bath in which alone + they can live and discharge their functions." Dr. + Woods-Hutchinson proceeds to state, that the one active agent + in all the much vaunted mineral waters is nothing more or less + than the water. "Their alleged solvent effects are now known to + be pure moonshine." The value consists in "plain water, plus + suggestion—not to say humbug—aided, of course, by + the pure air of the springs and the excellent hygienic + rules."</p> + + <p>It is a common experience amongst rheumatic patients, that + they cannot take lentils, haricots and some other foods; + sometimes, even eggs and milk are inadmissible. This is not for + the alleged reason that they contain purins, or as some misname + it, uric acid; but because the digestive organs are unequal to + the task. It will be seen, that although Dr. Haig's hypothesis + of uric acid as a cause of gout and some other diseases is + disputed by many eminent physicians, his treatment by excluding + flesh and other foods which contain purins, and also pulse, + which is difficult of digestion by the weakly, is a wise one. + It has proved of the greatest value in very many cases.</p> + + <p>Digestion and nutrition is a complex process, and it may be + faulty at various stages and in several ways; there may be + either deficient or excessive secretions or inaction. Thus + there are exceptions, where gouty symptoms, including an + excessive quantity of urates in the urine, have only been + relieved by the giving up of milk foods or starch foods (see + <i>Lancet</i>, 1900, I., p. 1, and 1903, I., p. 1059).</p> + + <p>Those particularly interested in the subject of the purins + and gout are referred to the lecture on "The meaning of uric + acid and the urates," by Dr. Woods-Hutchinson, in the + <i>Lancet</i>, 1903, I., p. 288, and the discussion on "The + Chemical Pathology of Gout" before the British Medical + Association at Oxford (see <i>British Medical Journal</i>, + 1904, II., p. 740).</p> + + <p>Dr. George S. Keith, in "Fads of an Old Physician," has a + chapter on rheumatic fever; he says that the disease is much + more common than it was fifty years ago. He has never met with + it in the young or old except when the diet had consisted + largely of beef and mutton, and this although he has been on + the outlook for at least forty years for a case of the disease + in a child or youth who had not been fed on red meat. He speaks + of it as being exceedingly common in Buenos Ayres and Rosario + in the Argentine Republic, amongst the young; and that it leads + to most of the heart disease there. The amount of meat, + especially of beef, consumed by old and young is enormous. The + main evils there, were anæmia in children and neuralgia + both in old and young. Dr. Haig relates how he suffered from + migraine all his life, until the time of his discontinuing + butchers' meat. As meat contains a comparatively large quantity + of purins and other bodies called extractives, it is probable + that such quantities have an injurious effect, quite apart from + the question of uric acid production. That an excessive meat + diet lessens the vitality of the body and pre-disposes to + disease is undoubted, but opinions differ as to how the injury + is brought about.</p> + + <p><b>On thorough Mastication.</b>—We have written at + some length on the quantity and constituents of food required + per day and have criticised the usually accepted standards. We + have since read a valuable contribution to the subject by Mr. + Horace Fletcher in his book, "The A.B.-Z. of our own nutrition" + (F.A. Stokes & Co., New York). Ten years previous to the + writing of the book, when of the age of 4, he was fast becoming + a physical wreck, although he was trained as an athlete in his + youth and had lived an active and most agreeable life. He had + contracted a degree of physical disorder that made him + ineligible as an insurance risk. This unexpected disability and + warning was so much a shock, that it led to his making a strong + personal effort to save himself. He concluded that he took too + much food and too much needless worry. His practice and advice + is, be sure that you are really hungry and are not pampering + false appetite. If true appetite that will relish plain bread + alone is not present, wait for it, if you have to wait till + noon. Then chew, masticate, munch, bite, taste everything you + take in your mouth; until it is not only thoroughly liquefied + and made neutral or alkaline by saliva, but until the reduced + substance all settles back in the folds at the back of the + mouth and excites the swallowing impulse into a strong + inclination to swallow. Then swallow what has collected and has + excited the impulse, and continue to chew at the remainder, + liquid though it be, until the last morsel disappears in + response to the swallowing impulse. In a very short time this + will become an agreeable and profitable fixed habit. Mr. + Fletcher has been under the observation of several eminent + scientific men. Professor R.H. Chittenden, of Yale University, + in his report refers to the experiments of Kumagawa, + Sivén, and other physiologists; who have shown that men + may live and thrive, for a time at least, on amounts of proteid + per day equal to only one-half and one-quarter the amount + called for in the Voit standard (see p. 32), even without + unduly increasing the total calories of the food intake. Such + investigations, however, have always called forth critical + comment from writers reluctant to depart from the current + standards, as extending over too short periods of time.</p> + + <p>Dr. Chittenden writes that he has had in his laboratory, for + several months past, a gentleman (H.F.) who for some five + years, practised a certain degree of abstinence in the taking + of food and attained important economy with, as he believes, + great gain, in bodily and mental vigour and with marked + improvement in his general health. The gentleman in question + fully satisfies his appetite, but no longer desires the amount + of food consumed by most individuals. For a period of thirteen + days, in January, he was under observation in Professor + Chittenden's laboratory. The daily amount of proteid + metabolised was 41.25 grammes, the body-weight (165 pounds) + remaining practically constant. Analysis of the excretions + showed an output of an equivalent quantity of nitrogen. In + February a more thorough series of observations was made. The + diet was quite simple, and consisted merely of a prepared + cereal food, milk and maple sugar. This diet was taken twice a + day for seven days, and was selected by the subject as giving + sufficient variety for his needs and quite in accord with his + taste. No attempt was made to conform to any given standard of + quantity, but the subject took each day such amounts of the + above foods as his appetite craved. The daily average in + grammes was, proteid 44.9 (1.58 ounces), fats 38.0, + carbohydrates 253.0, calories 1,606. The total intake of + nitrogen per day was 7.19, while the output was 6.90. It may be + asked, says Professor Chittenden, was this diet at all adequate + for the needs of the body—sufficient for a man weighing + 165 pounds? In reply, it may be said that the appetite was + satisfied and that the subject had full freedom to take more + food if he so desired. The body-weight remained practically + constant and the nitrogen of the intake and output were not far + apart. An important point is, can a man on such food be fit for + physical work? Mr. Fletcher was placed under the guidance of + Dr. W.G. Anderson, the director of the gymnasium of Yale + University. Dr. Anderson reports that on the four last days of + the experiment, in February, 1903, Mr. Fletcher was given the + same kind of exercises as are given to the 'Varsity crew. They + are drastic and fatiguing and cannot be done by beginners + without soreness and pain resulting. They are of a character to + tax the heart and lungs as well as to try the muscles of the + limbs and trunk. "My conclusion, given in condensed form, is + this: Mr. Fletcher performs this work with greater ease and + with fewer noticeable bad results than any man of his age and + condition I have ever worked with." "To appreciate the full + significance of this report, it must be remembered," writes + Professor Chittenden, "that Mr. Fletcher had for several months + past taken practically no exercise other than that involved in + daily walks about town." Sir Michael Forster had Mr. Fletcher + and others under observation in his Cambridge laboratories, and + in his report he remarks on the waste products of the bowel + being not only greatly reduced in amount, as might be expected; + but that they are also markedly changed in character, becoming + odourless and inoffensive, and assuming a condition which + suggests that the intestine is in a healthier and more aseptic + condition than is the case under ordinary circumstances. If we + can obtain sufficient nourishment, as Mr. Fletcher does, on + half the usual quantity of food, we diminish by half the + expenditure of energy required for digestion. By thorough + mastication the succeeding digestive processes are more easily + and completely performed. What is also of great importance is + that there is not the danger of the blocking up of the lower + intestines with a mass of incompletely digested and decomposing + residue, to poison the whole body. Even where there is daily + defæcation, there is often still this slowly shifting + mass; the end portion only, being expelled at a time, one or + more days after its proper period. All this improved condition + of the digestive tract, leaves more vitality for use in other + directions, a greater capacity for work and clearness of + brain.</p> + + <p>Professor R.H. Chittenden, in "Physiological Economy in + Nutrition," writes:—"Our results, obtained with a great + variety of subjects, justify the conviction that the minimum + proteid requirements of the healthy man, under ordinary + conditions of life, are far below the generally accepted + dietary standards, and far below the amounts called for by the + acquired taste of the generality of mankind. Body weight, + health, strength, mental and physical vigour and endurance can + be maintained with at least one-half of the proteid food + ordinarily consumed."</p> + + <p>From these and other considerations, we see that it is not + only unnecessary, but inadvisable to diet ourselves according + to any of the old standards, such as that of Voit, or even to + any other standard, until they have been very thoroughly + revised. We shall probably find that as the body becomes + accustomed to simpler food, a smaller quantity of the food is + necessary. The proportion of proteids to other constituents in + all the ordinary, not over manfactured vegetable foods, such as + are generally eaten, may be taken as sufficient. Several + cookery books have been compiled in conformity with certain + proteid standards and also with some more or less fanciful + requirements; these give the quantities and kinds of food which + it is imagined should be eaten each day. Theoretically, this + should be calculated to accord with the weight, temperament, + age and sex of the eater and the work he or she has to perform. + The dietaries that we have seen have their proteid ratio placed + unnecessarily high. This high proteid ratio can be got by the + use of the pulses, but except in small quantities they are not + generally admissible, and in some of the dietaries they are + ruled out. The difficulty is got over by the liberal use of + eggs, cheese and milk. To admit a necessity for these animal + products is to show a weakness and want of confidence in the + sufficiency of vegetable foods. Some of these cookery books are + of use in sickness, especially as replacing those of the + beef-tea, chicken-broth, jelly and arrowroot order. They + provide a half-way stage between flesh and vegetable food, such + as is palatable to those who have not quite overcome a yearning + for flesh and stimulating foods. The liberal use of animal + products is less likely to excite the prejudice of the ordinary + medical practitioner or nurse. Possibly, also, a higher + quantity of proteid may be required on first giving up flesh + foods.</p> + + <p><b>The Use of Salt.</b>—One of the most remarkable + habits of these times is the extensive use of common salt or + sodium chloride. It is in all ordinary shop bread, in large + quantity in a special and much advertised cereal food, even in + a largely sold wheat flour, and often in pastry. It is added to + nearly all savoury vegetable food, and many persons, not + content, add still more at the time of eating. No dinner table + is considered complete without one or more salt-cellars. Some + take even threequarters of an ounce, or an ounce per day. The + question is not, of course, whether salt is necessary or not, + but whether there is a sufficient quantity already existing in + our foods. Some allege that there is an essential difference + between added salt and that natural to raw foods. That the + former is inorganic, non-assimilable and even poisonous; whilst + the latter is organised or in organic combination and + nutritive. The writer is far from being convinced that there is + a difference in food value. Some herbivorous animals are + attracted by salt, but not the carnivora. This has been + explained by the fact that potassium salts are characteristic + of plants, whilst sodium chloride is the principal saline + constituents of blood and of flesh. In their food, the + herbivora take three or four times as much potash salts as the + carnivora. Of course, the sodium chloride in the flesh of the + herbivora and frugivora is obtained from the vegetable matter + forming their food, and very few of them have the opportunity + of obtaining it from salt-licks and mineral sources. They must + have the power of storing up the sodium chloride from plants in + sufficient quantity, whilst the potash salts pass away. There + is no justification for saying that they are worse off by being + deprived of salt. If the ape tribe can thrive without added + salt why should not man? Bunge considers that a restriction to + vegetable food causes a great desire for salt. Opposed to this, + is the fact that certain tribes of negroes who cannot obtain + salt, add to their vegetable food wood ashes or a preparation + of wood ashes; this is chiefly potash. One preparation used in + British Central Africa was found to contain about 21 per cent. + of potassium chloride to only 0.5 per cent. of sodium chloride. + It has been said that vegetarians consume more salt than those + who take flesh food. We doubt this; we know of many vegetarians + who have a strong objection to added salt, and have abstained + from it for years. Some find that it predisposes to colds, + causes skin irritation and other symptoms. At many vegetarian + restaurants the food is exceedingly salty; the writer on this + account cannot partake of their savoury dishes, except with + displeasure. Nearly all who patronise these restaurants are + accustomed to flesh foods, and it is their taste which has to + be catered for. Flesh, and particularly blood, which of course, + is in flesh, contains a considerable quantity of sodium + chloride; and most flesh eaters are also in the habit of using + the salt cellar. These people are accustomed to a stimulating + diet, and have not a proper appreciation of the mildly + flavoured unseasoned vegetable foods. Only those who have, for + a time, discontinued the use of added salt, and lost any + craving for it, can know how pleasant vegetables can be; even + those vegetables which before were thought to be nearly + tasteless, unless seasoned, are found to have very distinct + flavours. It is then perceived, that there is a much greater + variety in such foods than was previously imagined. It is + commonly urged that salt and other condiments are necessary to + make food palatable and to stimulate the digestive functions. + We, on the contrary, say that condiments are the cause of much + over-eating; and that if food cannot be eaten without them, it + is a sign of disorganisation of the digestive system, and it is + better to abstain from food until the appearance of a natural + and healthy appetite. An excess of salt creates thirst and + means more work for the kidneys in separating it from the blood + prior to its expulsion. Even should it be admitted, that + certain vegetables contain too little sodium salts, a very + little salt added to such food would be sufficient; there is no + excuse for the general use of it, and in such a great variety + of foods. It is thought that some cases of inflammation of the + kidneys originate in excessive salt eating; certain it is that + patients suffering from the disease very soon improve, on being + placed on a dietary free from added salt and also poor in + naturally contained sodium and potassium salts. It is also + possible to cause the swelling of the legs (oedema), to which + such invalids are subject, to disappear and reappear at will, + by withdrawing and afterwards resuming salt-containing foods. + The quantity of one-third of an ounce, added to the usual diet, + has after a continuation of several days, produced oedema. In + one patient, on a diet of nearly two pounds of potatoes, with + flesh, but without added salt, the oedemia disappeared and the + albumin in the urine diminished. As potatoes are particularly + rich in potash salts, this case is significant, as showing + contrary to expectations, that such quantity as they contained + had not the irritating effect of added common salt. Salt and + other chlorides have been shown by several observers, to be + injurious, not only in diseases of the kidneys, but also of the + liver and heart. In these diseases the excess of salt is + retained in the tissues, it causes a flow of fluid into them, + and so produces oedema and favours the increase of dropsy. The + good effect of milk in such diseases has long been known; it is + probably due to its relative poverty in sodium and potassium + chlorides. Even in the case of three healthy men, by an abrupt + change from a diet extremely rich in chlorides to one + deficient, they were able to reduce the body-weight by as much + as two kilos. (4 lbs. 6 oz.); this was by the loss of an excess + of water from their connective tissues. Sodium chloride + diminishes the solvent action of water on uric acid and the + urates; but potassium salts, on the contrary, do not, they may + even increase the action. Although nearly all the medical + experience recorded has to do with diseased persons, such cases + are instructive; it is only reasonable to suppose, that more + than a very small quantity of salt in excess of that natural to + the food, is a source of irritation in the body, even of the + ordinarily healthy individual.</p> + + <p><b>Summary.</b>—Enjoyment of food is dependent upon + appetite quite as much as upon the nature of the food. Better a + simple repast with good appetite than sumptuous fare with bad + digestion. There is indeed a causal relationship between + simplicity and health. The savage likes the noise of the + tom-tom or the clatter of wooden instruments: what a contrast + this is to the trained ear of the musician. Uncivilised man has + little enjoyment of scenery or of animal life, except as in + respect to their power of providing him with food, clothing or + other physical gratification. What an enormous advance has + taken place. In the case of the painter, his eye and mind can + appreciate a wide range and delicacy of colour. Man has + improved on the crab-apple and the wild strawberry. From a wild + grass he has produced the large-grained nutritious wheat. + Vegetables of all kinds have been greatly improved by long + continued cultivation. In tropical and sub-tropical climates, + where wild fruits are more plentiful, high cultivation is of + less importance than in temperate regions. In sparsely + inhabited or wild, temperate and cold regions, in times past, + when deer and other animals were plentiful, and edible fruits + few, flesh could be obtained at less labour; or such + intelligence and industry as is required for the cultivation of + fruits, cereals, and other foods scarcely existed. Flesh almost + requires to be cooked to be palatable, certainly this much + improves its flavour. The eating of flesh tends to produce a + distaste for mild vegetable foods, especially if uncooked. In + process of time, not only flesh but vegetable foods, were more + and more subjected to cooking and seasoning, or mixed with the + flesh, blood or viscera of the animals killed. Next, food was + manufactured to produce a still greater variety, to increase + the flavour, or less frequently to produce an imagined greater + digestibility or nutritiveness. Man has taken that which seemed + most agreeable, rarely has he been intentionally guided by + scientific principles, by that which is really best. Only of + late years can it be said that there is such a thing as a + science of dietetics; although cookery books innumerable have + abounded. Of recent years many diseases have enormously + increased, some even seem to be new. Digestive disturbances, + dental caries, appendicitis, gout, rheumatism, diabetes, + nervous complaints, heart disease, baldness and a host of other + diseases are due, in a great measure, to abuse of food. One of + the most learned and original of scientific men, Professor Elie + Metchnikoff, in his remarkable book on "The Nature of Man," + referring to the variety of food and its complexity of + preparation says that it "militates against physiological old + age and that the simpler food of the uncivilised races is + better.... Most of the complicated dishes provided in the + homes, hotels and restaurants of the rich, stimulate the organs + of digestion and secretion in a harmful way. It would be true + progress to abandon modern cuisine and to go back to the + simpler dishes of our ancestors." A few have lived to a hundred + years, and physiologists, including Metchnikoff, see no + inherent reason why all men, apart from accident, should not do + so. Most men are old at 70, some even at 60; if we could add 20 + or 30 years to our lives, what an immense gain it would be. + Instead of a man being in his prime, a useful member of the + community, from about 25 to 60 or perhaps to 70; he would have + the same physical and mental vigour to 80 or 90 or even longer. + This later period would be the most valuable part of his life, + as he would be using and adding to the accumulated experience + and knowledge of the earlier period.</p> + + <p>Some, perceiving the mischief wrought by luxurious habits, + urge us to go back to nature, to eat natural food. This is + ambiguous. To speak of animals as being in a state of nature, + conveys the distinct idea of their living according to their + own instinct and reason, uninterfered with, in any way, by man. + The phrase, applied to man, is either meaningless, or has a + meaning varying with the views of each speaker. If it has any + definite meaning, it must surely be the giving way to the + animal impulses and instincts; to cast off all the artifices of + civilisation, to give up all that the arts and sciences have + done for man, all that he has acquired with enormous labour, + through countless failures and successes, during hundreds of + thousands of years, and to fall back to the lowest + savagery—even the savages known to us use art in + fashioning their arms, clothing and shelter, to the time when + man was a mere animal. Civilised man is not only an animal, but + an intellectual and spiritual being, and it is as natural for + him to clothe himself as for a cow to eat grass. Our intellect + has been made to wait on our animal nature, whilst our + spiritual has lagged far behind. Animal food and all else of a + stimulating character, stimulates the lower nature of man, his + selfish propensities; whilst mild food makes it easier to lead + a pure life. In the treatment of habitual drunkards in + retreats, it has been found that a permanent cure is rare upon + the usual abundant flesh dietary. Only by the use of vegetable + food, particularly farinaceous, can a permanent cure be + assured. The editor of the Clarion, Mr. R. Blatchford, or + "Nunquam," has lately adopted a vegetarian diet. He remarks + with surprise, that although he has been a heavy smoker for + more than 30 years, using not less than eight ounces of tobacco + a week, often two ounces in a day, he has found his passion for + tobacco nearly gone. He has had to get milder tobacco, and is + now not smoking half-an-ounce a day. He says "it does not taste + the same; I am not nearly so fond of it." He finds, with regard + to wine, that he now cannot drink it, "it tastes like physic." + He writes: "These things have come upon me as a revelation. I + begin to see that the great cure for the evil of national + intemperance is not teetotal propaganda, but + vegetarianism."</p> + + <p>We have given reasons of a scientific character, for + abstaining from flesh as food, but higher than these are those + relating to ethics. Everything relating to the slaughter-house + is revolting to a refined and humane person. In the great + slaughter-houses of Chicago; in those huge hideous box-shaped + buildings, five or six storeys high, about ten millions of + animals are killed every year. They are treated as if they were + bales of merchandise and as destitute of feeling. Bullocks are + struck on the head with a mallet and let fall into the basement + of the building. They are whilst stunned or half-stunned, at + once strung up by their hind legs to some machinery, which + moves them along, their heads hanging downwards. Regardless of + their agony, men run after them to cut their throats, followed + by others with great pails to catch the blood. Much of the warm + blood is spilt over the men or on the floors; but this is of no + consequence, if but a small fraction of a minute is economised. + In a short time, whether the animal has bled long enough or + not, it reaches the lowest and darkest and worst ventilated + portion of the gloomy building, where it is disembowelled. The + walls and floors are caked with blood, the place is filthy, + there is no proper lavatory accommodation, everything both to + eyes and nose is detestable. Even if the windows were kept + clean, light could not penetrate into the centre of the + buildings. Consequently a large part of the work is done by + artificial light. Tuberculosis is prevalent amongst the + workpeople living under such unsanitary conditions. Serious + crime is much more common amongst them than amongst any other + class.</p> + + <p>We English-speaking people, who pride ourselves on our + civilisation and religion; who call ourselves the followers of + the gentle Jesus, the Prince of Peace; yet hunt, shoot, trap + and torture animals for food sport and science. Our main reason + for eating flesh is that of personal gratification. We are + loath to admit that the lower animals have any rights. Those + Eastern peoples who are adherents to the teachings of the + gentle Buddha hold life sacred. Mr. H. Fielding, who lived many + years amongst the simple-minded Burmese, says that though there + is now no law against the sale of beef, yet no respectable + Burman will even now, kill cattle or sell beef. No life at all + may be taken by him who keeps to Buddhistic teaching, and this + is a commandment wonderfully well kept. "He believes that all + that is beautiful in life is founded on compassion and kindness + and sympathy—that nothing of great value can exist + without them. Do you think that a Burmese boy would be allowed + to birds'-nest or worry rats with a terrier, or go ferreting? + Not so. These would be crimes. That this kindess and compassion + for animals has very far-reaching results, no one can doubt. If + you are kind to animals, you will be kind, too, to your + fellow-men."</p> + + <p>By participating in any form of cruelty or injustice, not + only to our fellow-men, but also to the lower animals, we + retard our progress towards the higher life, the subtler forces + in man cannot find their full expression and we are less + responsive to spiritual influences.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" + style="width:50%;"> + <a href="images/076.png"><img width="300" + src="images/076.png" + alt="Page Decoration" /></a> + </div> + + <p> </p> + + <p> </p> + + <p style="font-size:smaller">Printed by<br /> + Hurst Bros., Shaw Heath, Stockport.</p> + + <p> </p> + + <p> </p> + + <div class="figcenter" + style="width:100%;"> + <a href="images/077.png"><img width="640" + src="images/077.png" + alt="ads" /></a> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter" + style="width:100%;"> + <a href="images/078.png"><img width="640" + src="images/078.png" + alt="ads" /></a> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter" + style="width:100%;"> + <a href="images/079.png"><img width="640" + src="images/079.png" + alt="ads" /></a> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter" + style="width:100%;"> + <a href="images/080.png"><img width="640" + src="images/080.png" + alt="ads" /></a> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter" + style="width:100%;"> + <a href="images/081.png"><img width="640" + src="images/081.png" + alt="ads" /></a> + </div> +<p> </p> + <hr class="full" /> +<p>***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE CHEMISTRY OF FOOD AND NUTRITION***</p> +<p>******* This file should be named 15237-h.txt or 15237-h.zip *******</p> +<p>This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:<br /> +<a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/5/2/3/15237">https://www.gutenberg.org/1/5/2/3/15237</a></p> +<p>Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed.</p> + +<p>Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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