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diff --git a/15237.txt b/15237.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..00a4931 --- /dev/null +++ b/15237.txt @@ -0,0 +1,3698 @@ +The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Chemistry of Food and Nutrition, by A. W. +Duncan + + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + + + + +Title: The Chemistry of Food and Nutrition + +Author: A. W. Duncan + +Release Date: March 2, 2005 [eBook #15237] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII) + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE CHEMISTRY OF FOOD AND +NUTRITION*** + + +E-text prepared by Feòrag NicBhrìde, Richard Prairie, and the Project +Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team + + + +THE CHEMISTRY OF FOOD AND NUTRITION + +by + +A. W. DUNCAN, F.C.S. +Analytical Chemist. + +Manchester +The Vegetarian Society + +1905 + + + + + + + ____________________________________________________________ + | | + | THE FOOD ROUTE | + | | + | Is the safest way to sturdy health. | + | | + | Many people are kept ill because they do not | + | know _how to select food_ that their own particular | + | bodies will take up and build upon. | + | | + | What will answer for one _will not do for another_. | + | | + | If one is ailing it is safe to _change food_ entirely | + | and go on a plain simple diet, say, for breakfast:-- | + | | + | Cooked Fruit, | + | Dish of GRAPE-NUTS and Cream or hot or | + | cold Milk, Two lightly boiled eggs, | + | One cup of our Postum Food Coffee, | + | Slice of toast. No more. | + | | + | Our word! but a diet like that _makes one feel | + | good_ after a few days' use. | + | | + | The most perfectly made food for human use is | + | | + | Grape-Nuts | + | | + | THERE'S A REASON. | + | | + | GRAPE-NUTS CO., Ltd., 66 Shoe Lane, London, E.C. | + |____________________________________________________________| + + + + + ____________________________________________________________ + | | + | The Vegetatian Society, | + | | + | _Operations National and International,_ | + | | + | 27 DEANSGATE, MANCHESTER. | + | | + | The Vegetarian Society is a philanthropic organisation, | + | and is supported entirely by the voluntary | + | contributions of those who sympathise with its aims. | + | Gifts and Donations from any who are in sympathy with | + | the Society's work will be gratefully acknowledged by | + | the Secretary. Send penny stamp for Recipes and | + | Explanatory literature. | + |____________________________________________________________| + + ____________________________________________________________ + | | + | _At the same address,_ | + | | + | FOOD STORE DEPARTMENT | + | | + | _for the supply of_ | + | | + | VEGETARIAN SPECIALITIES & LITERATURE. | + | | + | _Send for Price List._ | + |____________________________________________________________| + + ____________________________________________________________ + | | + | Useful literature for Beginners. | + | | + | Vegetarianism and Manual Labour. 1/2d. | + | | + | The Liver: Its Influence on Health. Dr. Kellogg. ONE | + | In Praise of Simpler Life. Eustace H. Miles PENNY | + | Forty Vegetarian Dinners. 135 Recipes EACH. | + | | + | Chemistry of Food. By A.W. Duncan, F.C.S. | + | Paper Copies 3d; Cloth 6d. | + | | + | The First Step. Tolstoy. 3d. | + | | + | Science in the Daily Meal. 3d. | + | Fruits, Nuts, and Vegetables: Their uses as Food EACH. | + | and Medicine | + | | + | _Postage extra._ | + | | + | From The Vegetarian Society, 257 Deansgate, Manchester. | + |____________________________________________________________| + + + + +PREFACE. + + +The first edition of 1884 contained but 5 pages of type; the second of +1898, 14 pages. Only by conciseness has it been possible to give even a +summary of the principles of dietetics within the limit or this pamphlet. +Should there appear in places an abruptness or incompleteness of +treatment, these limitations must be my excuse. + +Those who wish to thoroughly study the science of food are referred to the +standard work, "Food and Dietetics," by Dr. R. Hutchison (E. Arnold, +16s.). The effects of purin bodies in producing illness has been patiently +and thoroughly worked out by Dr. Alexander Haig. Students are referred to +his "Uric Acid, an epitome of the subject" (J. & A. Churchhill, 1904, +2s.6d.), or to his larger work on "Uric Acid." An able scientific summary +of investigations on purins, their chemical and pathological properties, +and the quantities in foods will be found in "The Purin Bodies of Food +Stuffs," by Dr. I. Walker Hall (Sherratt & Hughes, Manchester, 1903, +4s.6d.). The U.S. Department of Agriculture has made a large number of +elaborate researches on food and nutrition. My thanks are due to Mr. +Albert Broadbent, the Secretary of the Vegetarian Society, for placing +some of their bulletins in my hands, and for suggestions and help. He has +also written several useful popular booklets on food of a very practical +character, at from a penny to threepence each. + +Popular literature abounds in unsound statements on food. It is +unfortunate that many ardent workers in the cause of health are lacking +in scientific knowledge, especially of physiology and chemistry. By their +immature and sweeping statements from the platform and press, they often +bring discredit on a good cause. Matters of health must be primarily based +on experience and we must bear in mind that each person can at the most +have full knowledge of himself alone, and to a less degree of his family +and intimates. The general rules of health are applicable to all alike, +but not in their details. Owing to individual imperfections of +constitution, difference of temperament and environment, there is danger +when one man attempts to measure others by his own standard. + +For the opinions here expressed I only must be held responsible, and not +the Society publishing the pamphlet. + +Vegetarians, generally, place the humane as the highest reason for their +practice, though the determining cause of the change from a flesh diet has +been in most cases bad health. + +A vegetarian may be defined as one who abstains from all animals as food. +The term animal is used in its proper scientific sense (comprising +insects, molluscs, crustaceans, fish, etc.). Animal products are not +excluded, though they are not considered really necessary. They are +looked upon as a great convenience, whilst free from nearly all the +objections appertaining to flesh food. + +A.W.D. + + + + +The Chemistry of Food and Nutrition + +By A.W. DUNCAN, F.C.S. + + +We may define a food to be any substance which will repair the functional +waste of the body, increase its growth, or maintain the heat, muscular, +and nervous energy. In its most comprehensive sense, the oxygen of the air +is a food; as although it is admitted by the lungs, it passes into the +blood, and there re-acts upon the other food which has passed through the +stomach. It is usual, however, to restrict the term food to such nutriment +as enters the body by the intestinal canal. Water is often spoken of as +being distinct from food, but for this there is no sufficient reason. + +Many popular writers have divided foods into flesh-formers, heat-givers, +and bone-formers. Although attractive from its simplicity, this +classification will not bear criticism. Flesh-formers are also +heat-givers. Only a portion of the mineral matter goes to form bone. + +Class I.--INORGANIC COMPOUNDS. + Sub-class 1. Water. 2. Mineral Matter or Salts. +Class II--ORGANIC COMPOUNDS. + 1. Non-Nitrogeneous or Ternary Compounds. _a_ Carbohydrates. + _b_ Oils. _c_ Organic Acids. + 2. Nitrogenous Compounds. _a_ Proteids. _b_ Osseids. +Class III.--NON-NUTRITIVES, FOOD ADJUNCTS AND DRUGS. + Essential Oils, Alkaloids, Extractives, Alcohol, &c. + +These last are not strictly foods, if we keep to the definition already +given; but they are consumed with the true foods or nutrients, comprised +in the other two classes, and cannot well be excluded from consideration. + +Water forms an essential part of all the tissues of the body. It is the +solvent and carrier of other substances. + +Mineral Matter or Salts, is left as an ash when food is thoroughly +burnt. The most important salts are calcium phosphate, carbonate and +fluoride, sodium chloride, potassium phosphate and chloride, and compounds +of magnesium, iron and silicon. + +Mineral matter is quite as necessary for plant as for animal life, and is +therefore present in all food, except in the case of some highly-prepared +ones, such as sugar, starch and oil. Children require a good proportion of +calcium phosphate for the growth of their bones, whilst adults require +less. The outer part of the grain of cereals is the richest in mineral +constituents, white flour and rice are deficient. Wheatmeal and oatmeal +are especially recommended for the quantity of phosphates and other salts +contained in them. Mineral matter is necessary not only for the bones but +for every tissue of the body. + +When haricots are cooked, the liquid is often thrown away, and the beans +served nearly dry, or with parsley or other sauce. Not only is the food +less tasty but important saline constituents are lost. The author has made +the following experiments:--German whole lentils, Egyptian split red +lentils and medium haricot beans were soaked all night (16 hours) in just +sufficient cold water to keep them covered. The water was poured off and +evaporated, the residue heated in the steam-oven to perfect dryness and +weighed. After pouring off the water, the haricots were boiled in more +water until thoroughly cooked, the liquid being kept as low as possible. +The liquid was poured off as clear as possible, from the haricots, +evaporated and dried. The ash was taken in each case, and the alkalinity +of the water-soluble ash was calculated as potash (K_{2}O). The quantity +of water which could be poured off was with the German lentils, half as +much more than the original weight of the pulse; not quite as much could +be poured off the others. + + G. Lentils. E. Lentils. Haricots. Cooked H. +Proportion of liquid 1.5 1.25 1.20 -- +Soluble dry matter 0.97 3.38 1.43 7.66 per cent. +Ash 0.16 0.40 0.28 1.26 " " +Alkalinity as K_{2}O 0.02 0.082 0.084 0.21 " " + +The loss on soaking in cold water, unless the water is preserved, is seen +to be considerable. The split lentils, having had the protecting skin +removed, lose most. In every case the ash contained a good deal of +phosphate and lime. Potatoes are rich in important potash salts; by +boiling a large quantity is lost, by steaming less and by baking in the +skins, scarcely any. The flavour is also much better after baking. + +The usual addition of common salt (sodium-chloride) to boiled potatoes is +no proper substitute for the loss of their natural saline constituents. +Natural and properly cooked foods are so rich in sodium chloride and other +salts that the addition of common salt is unnecessary. An excess of the +latter excites thirst and spoils the natural flavour of the food. It is +the custom, especially in restaurants, to add a large quantity of salt to +pulse, savoury food, potatoes and soups. Bakers' brown bread is usually +very salt, and sometimes white is also. In some persons much salt causes +irritation of the skin, and the writer has knowledge of the salt food of +vegetarian restaurants causing or increasing dandruff. As a rule, fondness +for salt is an acquired taste, and after its discontinuance for a time, +food thus flavoured becomes unpalatable. + +Organic Compounds are formed by living organisms (a few can also be +produced by chemical means). They are entirely decomposed by combustion. + +The Non-Nitrogenous Organic Compounds are commonly called carbon +compounds or heat-producers, but these terms are also descriptive of the +nitrogenous compounds. These contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen only, and +furnish by their oxidation or combustion in the body the necessary heat, +muscular and nervous energy. The final product of their combustion is +water and carbon dioxide (carbonic acid gas). + +The Carbohydrates comprise starch, sugar, gum, mucilage, pectose, +glycogen, &c.; cellulose and woody fibre are carbohydrates, but are little +capable of digestion. They contain hydrogen and oxygen in the proportion +to form water, the carbon alone being available to produce heat by +combustion. Starch is the most widely distributed food. It is insoluble in +water, but when cooked is readily digested and absorbed by the body. +Starch is readily converted into sugar, whether in plants or animals, +during digestion. There are many kinds of sugar, such as grape, cane and +milk sugars. + +The Oils and Fats consist of the same elements as the carbohydrates, +but the hydrogen is in larger quantity than is necessary to form water, +and this surplus is available for the production of energy. During their +combustion in the body they produce nearly two-and-a-quarter times (4 : +8.9 = 2.225) as much heat as the carbohydrates; but if eaten in more than +small quantities, they are not easily digested, a portion passing away by +the intestines. The fat in the body is not solely dependent upon the +quantity consumed as food, as an animal may become quite fat on food +containing none. A moderate quantity favours digestion and the bodily +health. In cold weather more should be taken. In the Arctic regions the +Esquimaux consume enormous quantities. Nuts are generally rich in oil. +Oatmeal contains more than any of the other cereals (27 analyses gave from +8 to 12.3 per cent.) + +The most esteemed and dearest oil is Almond. What is called Peach-kernel +oil (Oleum Amygdalae Persicae), but which in commerce includes the oil +obtained from plum and apricot stones, is almost as tasteless and useful, +whilst it is considerably cheaper. It is a very agreeable and useful food. +It is often added to, as an adulterant, or substituted for the true Almond +oil. The best qualities of Olive oil are much esteemed, though they are +not as agreeable to English taste as the oil previously mentioned. The +best qualities are termed Virgin, Extra Sublime and Sublime. Any that has +been exposed for more than a short time to the light and heat of a shop +window should be rejected, as the flavour is affected. It should be kept +in a cool place. Not only does it vary much in freedom from acid and +rancidity, but is frequently adulterated. Two other cheaper oils deserve +mention. The "cold-drawn" Arachis oil (pea-nut or earth-nut oil) has a +pleasant flavour, resembling that of kidney beans. The "cold-drawn" Sesame +oil has an agreeable taste, and is considered equal to Olive oil for +edible purposes. The best qualities are rather difficult to obtain; those +usually sold being much inferior to Peach-kernel and Olive oils. +Cotton-seed oil is the cheapest of the edible ones. Salad oil, not sold +under any descriptive name, is usually refined Cotton-seed oil, with +perhaps a little Olive oil to impart a richer flavour. + +The solid fats sold as butter and lard substitutes, consist of deodorised +cocoanut oil, and they are excellent for cooking purposes. It is claimed +that biscuits, &c., made from them may be kept for a much longer period, +without showing any trace of rancidity, than if butter or lard had been +used. They are also to be had agreeably flavoured by admixture with +almond, walnut, &c., "cream." + +The better quality oils are quite as wholesome as the best fresh butter, +and better than most butter as sold. Bread can be dipped into the oil, or +a little solid vegetable fat spread on it. The author prefers to pour a +little Peach-kernel oil upon some ground walnut kernels (or other ground +nuts in themselves rich in oil), mix with a knife to a suitable +consistency and spread upon the bread. Pine-kernels are very oily, and can +be used in pastry in the place of butter or lard. + +Whenever oils are mentioned, without a prefix, the fixed or fatty oils are +always understood. The volatile or essential oils are a distinct class. +Occasionally, the fixed oils are called hydrocarbons, but hydrocarbon +oils are quite different and consist of carbon and hydrogen alone. Of +these, petroleum is incapable of digestion, whilst others are poisonous. + +Vegetable Acids are composed of the same three elements and undergo +combustion into the same compounds as the carbohydrates. They rouse the +appetite, stimulate digestion, and finally form carbonates in combination +with the alkalies, thus increasing the alkalinity of the blood. The chief +vegetable acids are: malic acid, in the apple, pear, cherry, &c.; citric +acid, in the lemon, lime, orange, gooseberry, cranberry, strawberry, +raspberry, &c.; tartaric acid, in the grape, pineapple, &c. + +Some place these under Class III. or food adjuncts. Oxalic acid (except +when in the insoluble state of calcium oxalate), and several other acids +are poisonous. + +Proteids or Albuminoids are frequently termed flesh-formers. They are +composed of nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and a small quantity of +sulphur, and are extremely complex bodies. Their chief function is to form +flesh in the body; but without previously forming it, they may be +transformed into fat or merely give rise to heat. They form the essential +part of every living cell. + +Proteids are excreted from the body as water, carbon dioxide, urea, uric +acid, sulphates, &c. + +The principal proteids of animal origin have their corresponding proteids +in the vegetable kingdom. Some kinds, whether of animal or vegetable +origin, are more easily digested than others. They have the same +physiological value from whichever kingdom they are derived. + +The Osseids comprise ossein, gelatin, cartilage, &c., from bone, skin, +and connective issue. They approach the proteids in composition, but +unlike them they cannot form flesh or fulfil the same purpose in +nutrition. Some food chemists wish to call the osseids, albuminoids; what +were formerly termed albuminoids to be always spoken of as proteids only. + +Jellies are of little use as food; not only is this because of the low +nutritive value of gelatin, but also on account of the small quantity +which is mixed with a large proportion of water. + +The Vegetable Kingdom is the prime source of all organic food; water, +and to a slight extent salts, form the only food that animals can derive +directly from the inorganic kingdom. When man consumes animal food--a +sheep for example--he is only consuming a portion of the food which that +sheep obtained from grass, clover, turnips, &c. All the proteids of the +flesh once existed as proteids in the vegetables; some in exactly the same +chemical form. + +Flesh contains no starch or sugar, but a small quantity of glycogen. The +fat in an animal is derived from the carbohydrates, the fats and the +proteids of the vegetables consumed. The soil that produced the herbage, +grain and roots consumed by cattle, in most cases could have produced food +capable of direct utilisation by man. By passing the product of the soil +through animals there is an enormous economic loss, as the greater part of +that food is dissipated in maintaining the life and growth; little remains +as flesh when the animal is delivered into the hands of the butcher. Some +imagine that flesh food is more easily converted into flesh and blood in +our bodies and is consequently more valuable than similar constituents in +vegetables, but such is not the case. Fat, whether from flesh or from +vegetables is digested in the same manner. The proteids of flesh, like +those of vegetables, are converted into peptone by the digestive +juices--taking the form of a perfectly diffusible liquid--otherwise they +could not be absorbed and utilised by the body. Thus the products of +digestion of both animal and vegetable proteids and fats are the same. +Formerly, proteid matter was looked upon as the most valuable part of the +food, and a large proportion was thought necessary for hard work. It was +thought to be required, not only for the construction of the muscle +substance, but to be utilised in proportion to muscular exertion. These +views are now known to be wrong. A comparatively small quantity of proteid +matter, such as is easily obtained from vegetable food, is ample for the +general needs of the body. Increased muscular exertion requires but a +slight increase of this food constituent. It is the carbohydrates, or +carbohydrates and fats that should be eaten in larger quantity, as these +are the main source of muscular energy. The fact that animals, capable of +the most prolonged and powerful exertion, thrive on vegetables of +comparatively low proteid value, and that millions of the strongest races +have subsisted on what most Englishmen would consider a meagre vegetarian +diet, should have been sufficient evidence against the earlier view. + +A comparison of flesh and vegetable food, shows in flesh an excessive +quantity of proteid matter, a very small quantity of glycogen (the animal +equivalent of starch and sugar) and a variable quantity of fat. Vegetable +food differs much, but as a rule it contains a much smaller quantity of +proteid matter, a large proportion of starch and sugar and a small +quantity of fat. Some vegetable foods, particularly nuts, contain much +fat. + +Investigation of the digestive processes has shown that the carbohydrates +and fats entail little strain on the system; their ultimate products are +water and carbon dioxide, which are easily disposed of. The changes which +the proteids undergo in the body are very complicated. There is ample +provision in the body for their digestion, metabolism, and final +rejection, when taken in moderate quantity, as is the case in a dietary of +vegetables. The proteids in the human body, after fulfilling their +purpose, are in part expelled in the same way as the carbohydrates; but +the principal part, including all the nitrogen, is expelled by the kidneys +in the form of urea (a very soluble substance), and a small quantity of +uric acid in the form of quadurates. + +There is reciprocity between the teeth and digestive organs of animals and +their natural food. The grasses, leaves, &c., which are consumed by the +herbivora, contain a large proportion of cellulose and woody tissue. +Consequently, the food is bulky; it is but slowly disintegrated and the +nutritious matter liberated and digested. The cellulose appears but +slightly acted upon by the digestive juices. The herbivora possess +capacious stomachs and the intestines are very long. The carnivora have +simpler digestive organs and short intestines. Even they consume +substances which leave much indigestible residue, such as skin, ligaments +and bones, but civilised man, when living on a flesh dietary removes as +much of such things as possible. The monkeys, apes, and man (comprised in +the order _Primates_) have a digestive canal intermediate in complexity +and in length to the herbivora and carnivora. A certain quantity of +indigestible matter is necessary for exciting peristaltic action of the +bowels. The carnivora with their short intestinal canal need the least, +the frugivora more, and the herbivora a much larger quantity. The +consumption by man of what is commonly called concentrated food is the +cause of the constipation to which flesh-eating nations are subject. Most +of the pills and other nostrums which are used in enormous quantities +contain aloes or other drugs which stimulate the action of the intestines. + +Highly manufactured foods, from which as much as possible of the +non-nutritious matter has been removed is often advocated, generally by +those interested in its sale. Such food would be advantageous only if it +were possible to remove or modify a great part of our digestive canal (we +are omitting from consideration certain diseased conditions, when such +foods may be useful). The eminent physiologist and bacteriologist, Elie +Metchnikoff, has given it as his opinion that much of man's digestive +organs is not only useless but often productive of derangement and +disease. In several cases where it has been necessary, in consequence of +serious disease, to remove the entire stomach or a large part of the +intestines, the digestive functions have been perfectly performed. It is +not that our organs are at fault, but our habits of life differ from that +of our progenitors. In past times, when a simple dietary in which flesh +food formed little or no part, and to-day, in those countries where one +wholly or nearly all derived from vegetable sources and simply prepared is +the rule, diseases of the digestive organs are rare. The Englishman going +to a tropical country and partaking largely of flesh and alcohol, suffers +from disease of the liver and other organs, to which the natives and the +few of his own countrymen, living in accordance with natural laws are +strangers. + +Indigestible Matter--Food is never entirely digested. As a reason +against confining ourselves solely to vegetable food, it has been stated +that such is less perfectly digested than animal food and that it +therefore throws more work on the digestive organs. It is also urged that +on this account a greater quantity of vegetable food is required. We have +shown elsewhere that, on the contrary, vegetarians are satisfied with a +smaller amount of food. Man requires a small quantity of woody fibre or +cellulose in his food to stimulate intestinal action and prevent +constipation. + +It is difficult to determine how much of a food is unassimilated in the +body. This is for the reason of the intestinal refuse consisting not only +of undigested food, but also of residues of the digestive juices, mucus +and epithelial debris. These latter have been shown to amount to from +one-third to one-half of the whole of the faeces, which is much more than +had previously been supposed. + +John Goodfellow has shown that of very coarse wholemeal bread quite 14 per +cent. was undigested, whilst bread made from ordinary grade wholemeal +showed 12.5 per cent. Such a method of analysis was adopted as it was +believed would exclude other than the food waste. The experiments were +made on a person who was eating nothing but the bread. It seems probable +that a smaller proportion would have remained unassimilated had the bread +not formed the sole food. It is advisable that wheatmeal he ground as +finely as possible, the coarse is not only to a less extent assimilated +but apt to irritate the bowels. Notwithstanding that fine white bread gave +only 4.2 per cent. and a coarse white bread 4.9 per cent. of waste, a fine +wheatmeal bread is more economical as the same quantity of wheat produces +a greater weight of flour richer in proteid and mineral matter. From a +large number of experiments with man, it has been calculated that of +proteids there is digested when animal food is eaten 98 per cent., from +cereals and sugars 8 per cent., from vegetables and fruits 80 per cent. +The difference between the proportions digested of the other food +constituents was much less. Although there is here a theoretical advantage +in favour of animal food, there are other considerations of far more +importance than a little undigestible waste. The main question is one of +health. In some dietary experiments of a girl aged 7, living upon a fruit +diet, of whom we have given some particulars elsewhere, Professor Jaffa +gives the following particulars. During the ten days trial the percentages +absorbed were proteids 82.5, fat 86.9, nitrogen free extract 96, crude +fibre 80, ash 5.7, heat of combustion in calories 86.7. He says, +"generally speaking, the food was quite thoroughly assimilated, the +coefficients of digestibility being about the same as are found in an +ordinary mixed diet. It is interesting to note that 80 per cent. of the +crude fibre appeared to be digested. The results of a number of foreign +experiments on the digestibility of crude fibre by man are from 30 to 91.4 +per cent., the former value being from mixed wheat and rye, and the latter +in a diet made of rice, vegetables and meat." + +TABLE OF ANALYSIS OF FOOD + +Key: +P = Proteins. +Cb = Carbohydrates. +C = Cellulose. +R = Refuse. +W = Water. +Ca = Calories. + + Nt'nt + P. Fat. Cb. Ash. C R W Ca Ratio +Wholemeal, G. 14.9 1.6 66.2 1.7 1.6 ... 14.0 1577 4.68 +Fine Flour, G. 9.3 0.8 76.5 0.7 0.7 ... 12.0 1629 8.4 +Medium Flour, G. 12.1 0.9 72.2 0.9 0.9 ... 13.0 1606 6.13 +Bread, + Wholemeal, G. 12.2 1.2 43.5 1.3 1.8 ... 40.0 1086 3.8 +Bread, White, G. 7.5 0.8 53.8 0.9 ... ... 37.0 1174 7.4 +Macaroni, U. 13.4 0.9 74.1 1.3 ... ... 10.3 1665 5.67 +Oatmeal, D. 14.8 9.6 63.3 2.2 1.4 ... 8.7 1858 5.72 +Maize, + American, S. 10.0 4.25 71.75 1.5 1.75 ... 10.75 1700 8.12 +Rice, husked, U. 8.0 0.3 79.0 0.4 ... ... 12.3 1630 10.0 +Rye Flour, U. 6.8 0.9 78.3 0.7 0.4 ... 12.9 1620 11.8 +Barley, + Pearl, C. 6.2 1.3 76.0 1.1 0.8 ... 14.6 1584 12.7 +Buckwheat + Flour, U. 6.4 1.2 77.9 0.9 ... ... 13.6 1619 12.6 +Soy Bean, C. 35.3 18.9 26.0 4.6 4.2 ... 11.0 1938 1.93 +Pea-nut, C. 24.5 50.0 11.7 1.8 4.5 ... 7.5 2783 5.2 +Lentils, U. 25.7 1.0 59.2 5.7 ... ... 8.4 1621 2.4 +Peas, dried, U. 24.6 1.0 62.0 2.9 4.5 ... 9.5 1655 2.6 +Peas, + green, E.U. 7.0 0.5 15.2 1.0 1.7 ... 74.6 465 2.3 +Haricots, C. 23.0 2.3 52.3 2.9 5.5 ... 14.0 1463 2.5 +Walnuts, + fresh k., C. 12.5 31.6 8.9 1.7 0.8 ... 44.5 1563 6.33 +Walnut kernels 21.4 54.1 15.2 2.9 1.4 ... 5.0 2964 6.33 +Filberts, + fresh ker., C. 8.4 28.5 11.1 1.5 2.5 ... 48.0 1506 8.9 +Tomatoes, U. 1.2 0.2 3.5 0.6 0.5 ... 94.0 105 3.3 +Grapes, U. 1.0 1.2 10.1 0.4 4.3 25 58.0 335 12.8 +Apples, E.U. 0.4 0.5 13.0 0.3 1.2 (25) 84.6 290 35.3 +Raisins, E U. 2.6 3.3 76.1 3.4 ... (10) 14.6 1605 32.0 +Dates, E.U. 2.1 2.8 78.4 1.3 ... (10) 15.4 1615 40.0 +Banana, C.D. 1.71 ... 20.13 0.71 1.74 ... 75.7 406 11.7 +Banana Flour, P. 3.13 1.73 82.4 5.93 1.21 ... 5.6 1664 27.5 +Potatoes, K. 1.9 0.2 20.7 1.0 0.7 ... 75.7 429 11.0 +Turnips, E. 1.3 0.2 6.8 0.8 1.3 (30) 89.6 159 5.57 +Onions, E.U. 1.6 0.3 9.1 0.6 0.8 (10) 87.6 225 6.1 +Cabbage, E U. 1.6 0.3 4.5 1.0 1.1 (15) 91.5 123 3.23 +Asparagus, U. 1.5 0.1 2.3 1.2 0.5 ... 94.4 85 1.7 +Celery, E.U. 1.1 0.1 3.3 1.0 ... (20) 94.5 85 3.2 +Mushrooms, U. 3.5 0.4 6.8 1.2 ... ... 88.1 210 2.2 +Tapioca, U. 0.4 0.1 88.0 0.1 ... ... 11.4 1650 220 +Sugar ... ... 100 ... ... ... ... 1860 ... +Oil ... 100 ... ... ... ... ... 4220 ... +Milk 3.6 3.7 4.6 0.73 ... ... 87.4 309 3.56 +Butter, fresh 0.8 83.5 1.5 0.2 ... ... 14.0 3566 234 +Cheese, U. 25.9 33.7 2.4 3.8 ... ... 34.2 1950 3.0 +Hen's Eggs, U. 11.9 9.3 ... 0.9 ... 11.2 65.5 635 1.74 +Beef, loin, U. 16.4 16.9 ... 0.9 ... 13.3 52.9 1020 2.3 +Beef, loin, edible + p., U. 19.0 19.1 ... 1.0 ... ... 61.3 1155 2.3 +Mutton, + shoulder, U. 13.7 17.1 ... 0.7 ... 22.1 46.8 975 2.77 +Pork, Ham, U. 14.3 29.7 ... 0.8 ... 10.3 45.1 1520 4.6 +Bacon, smoked, U. 9.5 59.4 ... 4.5 ... 8.7 18.4 2685 13.9 +Fowl, U. 13.7 12.3 ... 0.7 ... 25.9 47.1 775 2.0 +Goose, U. 13.4 29.8 ... 0.7 ... 17.6 38.5 1505 4.9 +Cod, dressed, U. 11.1 0.2 ... 0.8 ... 29.9 58.5 215 0.04 +Mackerel, whole, U. 10.2 4.2 ... 0.7 ... 44.7 40.4 365 9.13 +Oysters, L. 8.75 0.92 8.09 2.4 ... ... 79.8 352 1.16 + + +NOTES ON THE TABLE OF ANALYSIS.--Under calories are shown kilo-calories +per pound of food. In the analysis marked U the crude fibre or cellulose +is included with the carbo-hydrate, the figures being those given in +Atwater's table. He has found that from 30 to 91 per cent. of the crude +fibre was digested, according to the kind of food. The term fibre or +cellulose in analytical tables is not a very definite one. It depends upon +the details of the method of analysis. In the analyses other than U, the +cellulose is excluded in calculating the calories. Nutrient ratio is the +proportion of the sum of the carbo-hydrate and fat, compared with the +proteid as 1. The fat has first been multiplied by 2.225 to bring it to +the same nutrient value as the carbo-hydrate. + +U indicates that the analyses are taken from the United States Department +of Agriculture Experimental Station, Bulletin 28, the tests being chiefly +made by Dr. W.O. Atwater, or under his direction. They are average +analyses of several samples. The refuse consists of such parts as are +rejected in preparing the food; the outer leaves, skin, stalk, seeds, &c., +of vegetables; the shell of eggs; the bone, &c., of meat. E, indicates +that the edible portion only of the food has been analysed, and under +refuse, in brackets, is shown the quantity rejected before the analysis +was made. + +There is considerable variation in the same kind of food, according to the +variety of seed and conditions of growth &c., especially is this the case +with wheat and flour; whenever it has been possible the average of the +analyses of many samples have been given. The method of analysis has not +always been uniform, frequently the cellulose is included with the +carbo-hydrates, and the proteid sometimes includes a very appreciable +quantity of non-proteid nitrogenous matter. This is the case in the +analysis of the mushrooms. G.--Analyses are by John Goodfellow; it will be +noticed that the wheatmeal bread is not made from the same flour as the +whole-meal. D.--B. Dyer, average of 19 fine and coarse oatmeals. S, from +U.S. Cons. Reports, 1899. C.--A.H. Church. The walnut kernels are in the +dried condition as purchased; originally of the same composition as shewn +in the fresh kernels. C.D.--Cavendish or Figi variety of banana, analysis +by D.W.M. Doherty, N.S. Wales. P.--A. Petermann, U.S. Cons. Banana flour, +_musca paradisiaca_ variety. This is widely used in Central America. The +flour is from the unripe fruit, and contains starch 45.7 per cent.; on +ripening the starch is converted into sugar. K.--Konig, mean of 90 +analysis. Milk:--Average of many thousand analyses of the pure. +Butter.--Made without salt. L, from the "Lancet," 1903, I, p. 72. Oysters +at 2/6 per dozen. The 8.09 per cent. includes 0.91 glycogen (animal +starch). The shell was of course excluded, also the liquid in the shell. +Apples.--The refuse includes seeds, skin, &c., and such edible portion as +is wasted in cutting them away; the analysis was made on the rest. + +Cookery.--Flesh is easier to digest raw. A few, on the advice of their +doctors, eat minced raw flesh, raw beef juice and even fresh warm blood. +Such practice is abhorrent to every person of refinement. Cooking lessens +the offensive appearance and qualities of flesh and changes the flavour; +thorough cooking also destroys any parasites that may be present. Raw +flesh is more stimulating to the animal passions, and excites ferocity in +both man and animals. If the old argument was valid, that as flesh is much +nearer in composition and quality to our own flesh and tissues, it is +therefore our best food, we do wrong in coagulating the albuminoids, +hardening the muscle substance and scorching it by cooking. + +Fruits when ripe and in good condition are best eaten raw; cooking spoils +the flavour. Food requiring mastication and encouraging insalivation is +the best. Food is frequently made too sloppy or liquid, and is eaten too +hot, thus favouring indigestion and decay of the teeth. The cereals and +pulses can only with difficulty be eaten raw. When cooked in water the +starch granules swell and break up, the plant cells are ruptured, the +fibres are separated and the nutritious matter rendered easy of digestion. +The flavour is greatly improved. Cooking increases our range and variety +of food. The civilised races use it to excess and over-season their +dishes, favouring over-eating. + +If baking powders are used they should only be of the best makes. They +should be composed of sodium bicarbonate and tartaric acid, in such +correct proportions that upon the addition of water only sodium tartrate +and carbon dioxide (carbonic acid) should result. Some powders contain an +excess of sodium bicarbonate. Self-raising flours should be avoided. They +are commonly composed of--in addition to sodium bicarbonate--acid calcium +phosphate, calcium superphosphate and calcium sulphate. Common baking +powders often consist of the same ingredients, and sometimes also of +magnesia and alum. These are often made and sold by ignorant men, whose +sole object is to make money. Calcium superphosphate and acid calcium +phosphate very frequently contain arsenic, and as the cheap commercial +qualities are often used there is danger in this direction. A good formula +for baking powder is, tartaric acid 8 ozs., sodium bicarbonate 9 ozs., +rice flour 10 to 20 ozs. The last is added to baking powders to improve +the keeping quality and to add bulk. The ingredients must be first +carefully dried, the sodium bicarbonate at not too high a temperature or +it decomposes, and then thoroughly mixed; this must be preserved in well +closed and dry bottles. Another formula, which is slow rising and well +adapted for pastry, is sodium bicarbonate 4 ozs., cream of tartar 9 ozs., +rice flour about 14 ozs. Custard powders consist of starch, colouring and +flavouring. Egg powders are similar to baking powders but contain yellow +colouring. Little objection can be taken to them if they are coloured with +saffron; turmeric would do if it were not that it gives a slightly +unpleasant taste. Artificial colouring matters or coal tar derivatives are +much used, several of these are distinctly poisonous. + +Drinks.--It is better not to drink during eating, or insalivation may be +interfered with; a drink is better taken at the end of a meal. The +practice of washing down food with hot tea is bad. The refreshing nature +of a cup of hot tea, coffee, or cocoa is to a very great extent due to the +warmth of the water. The benefit is felt at once, before the alkaloid can +enter the blood stream and stimulate the nerve centres. Hot water, not too +hot to cause congestion of the mucous membrane, is one of the best drinks. +When the purity of the water supply is doubtful, there is advantage in +first bringing it to the boil, as pathogenic bacteria are destroyed. Some +find it beneficial to drink a cup of hot water the first thing in the +morning; this cleanses the stomach from any accumulation of mucus. + +If fruit, succulent vegetables, or cooked food, containing much water be +freely used, and there be little perspiration, it is possible to do +without drinking; but there is danger of taking insufficient water to +hold freely in solution the waste products excreted by the body. + +Aerated drinks, except a very few of the best, and non-alcoholic beers and +wines, are generally unwholesome, from their containing preservatives, +foaming powders, artificial flavourings, &c. + +Stimulants.--Tea and coffee contain an alkaloid theine, besides volatile +oils, tannin, &c. Cocoa contains the milder alkaloid, theobromine. They +stimulate the heart and nervous systems; tea and coffee have also a +diuretic effect. Formerly they were erroneously thought to lessen tissue +waste. These alkaloids, being purins, are open to the general objections +named elsewhere. Stimulants do not impart energy or force of any kind, but +only call forth reserve strength by exciting the heart, nervous system, +&c., to increased activity. This is followed by a depression which is as +great, generally greater, than the previous stimulation. Except, perhaps, +as an occasional medicine, stimulants, should be avoided. Analysis of +cocoa shows a good proportion of proteids and a very large quantity of +fat. The claim that it is a valuable and nutritious food would only be +true if it could be eaten in such quantities as are other foods (bread, +fruits, &c.). Were this attempted, poisoning would result from the large +quantity of alkaloid. The food value of half a spoonful or thereabouts of +cocoa is insignificant. Certain much advertised cocoa mixtures are +ridiculous in their pretentions, unscientific in preparation, and often +injurious. + +Cereals.--The most valuable is wheat, from its proteid being chiefly in +the form known as gluten. From its tenacity, gluten enables a much better +loaf to be produced from wheat than from any other cereal. The outer part +of the grain is the richest in mineral matter and proteid. Wheatmeal bread +shows a considerably higher proteid value than white. A large proportion +of the proteid in the outer coats of the wheat berry is, however, not +digested, and in some experiments the waste has been enough to quite +nullify its seeming advantage over white bread. Coarsely ground, sharp +branny particles in bread irritate the intestines, and cause excessive +waste of nutriment; but finely ground wheatmeal is free from this +objection, and is beneficial in preventing constipation. The comparative +value of white and brown bread has been much discussed; it depends both +on the quality of the bread and the condition of the digestive organs. +Experiments on the digestion of bread and other things, have often been +made on persons unaccustomed to such foods, or the foods have been given +in excessive quantity. To those accustomed to it good wheatmeal bread is +much pleasanter, more satisfying, and better flavoured than white; indeed, +the latter is described as insipid. Most bakers' bread is of +unsatisfactory quality. Flour and bread contain very little fat, the +absence of which is considered a defect. This is remedied by the addition +of butter, fat or oil, or by nuts, &c., which are rich in oil. These may +be mixed with the flour prior to cooking, or used afterwards. + +Oats contain a substance called avenin, apparently an alkaloid, which has +an irritating action; the quantity is variable. It is to this that the +so-called heating effect of oatmeal on some persons is due. + +Prepared Cereals or Breakfast Foods.--Analyses were made of 34 of these +cereal preparations by Weems and Ellis (Iowa State College Agricultural +Bulletin, 1904). They report that the foods possess no nutritive value in +excess of ordinary food materials; that the claim made for many +pre-digested foods are valueless, and no reliance can be placed on the +statement that they are remedies for any disease. + +Oatmeal and other cereals are sold in packets as being partially cooked. +We do not doubt that they have been subjected to a dry heat, but this has +scarcely any effect on their starch and other constituents. The difference +is a mechanical one. In rolled oats the grains are so cracked and broken, +that on boiling with water, the water readily penetrates and more quickly +cooks them throughout. There are other prepared cereal foods, but we doubt +whether they are thoroughly cooked after the short boiling directed on the +labels. They are a great convenience where it is difficult to get the time +necessary for cooking the ordinary cereals. Coarsely ground wheat is too +irritating when made into porridge, but there are some granulated wheats +sold in packets, which are quite suitable. The Ralston breakfast food is +excellent. They are rich in the phosphates and salts, found in the outer +part of the grain. One cereal preparation called Grape Nuts, has had its +starch converted into maltose and dextrin (maltose being a sugar), by a +scientific application of the diastase of the grain. It is consequently +easier of digestion and requires no cooking. It is beneficial for some +forms of indigestion. There are several competing foods of less merit, the +starch being less perfectly changed; one at least of which is +objectionably salt. Properly cooked starch is readily digested by healthy +persons, and for them malted food is of no special value. + +Pulse, or Legumes, includes haricots and other beans, peas and lentils. +The proteid contained is that variety known as legumin, which is either +the same, or is closely allied, to the casein of milk and cheese. Pulse is +very rich in proteid, the dried kinds in general use, contain 24 or 25 per +cent. The richest is the soy-bean, which is used in China and Japan, it +contains 35 per cent., besides 19 per cent. of fat. Pulse requires +thorough cooking, haricots taking the longest time. Split lentils are +cooked sooner, and are better digested; this is chiefly due to the removal +of the skins. The haricots, bought from small grocers who have a slow +sale, are often old, and will not cook tender. Pulse is best adapted to +the labouring classes; the sedentary should eat it sparingly, it is liable +to cause flatulence or accumulation of gas in the intestines, and +constipation. Haricots are easier to digest when mashed and mixed with +other food. Pulse was formerly stated to leave much undigested residue. +Recent experiments have shown that it is satisfactorily digested under +favourable conditions. Struempell found beans in their skins to leave a +large proportion of proteid matter unabsorbed. Lentil meal mixed with +other food was digested in a perfectly satisfactory manner. Another +experimenter (Rubner) found that when even the very large quantity of +1-1/8 pound of dried split peas per day were eaten, only 17 per cent. of +proteid matter was unabsorbed, which compares very well with the 11 per +cent. of proteid left from a macaroni diet, with which the same man was +fed at another time. Had a reasonable quantity of peas been eaten per day, +the quantity undigested would probably have differed little from that of +other foods. + +Nuts are, as a rule, very rich in oil and contain a fair proportion of +proteid; when well masticated they are a very valuable food. Walnuts are +one of the best, and the kernels can be purchased shelled, thus avoiding +much trouble. They can be finely ground in a nut-mill and used for several +purposes, mixed in the proportion of about two ounces to the pound of +wheatmeal they produce a rich flavoured bread. They can also he used in +sweet cakes and in rich puddings to increase their food value, lightness +and taste. Pine kernels being very oily, can be used with flour in the +place of lard or butter. + +Fruits are generally looked upon as luxuries, rather than as food +capable of supplying a meal or a substantial part of one. They are usually +eaten only when the appetite has been appeased by what is considered more +substantial fare. Fresh fruits contain a larger proportion of water than +nearly all other raw foods, and consequently the proportion of +nourishment is small; but we must not despise them on this account. Milk +contains as much or more water. Certain foods which in the raw state +contain very little water, such as the pulses and cereals when cooked +absorb a very large quantity; this is particularly the case in making +porridge. Cabbage, cauliflower, Spanish onions and turnips, after cooking +contain even 97 per cent. of water. Roast beef contains on an average 48 +per cent., and cooked round steak with fat removed 63 per cent. of water. +It is customary at meal times to drink water, tea, coffee, beer, wine, &c. +When a meal contains any considerable quantity of fresh fruits there need +be no desire to drink. Notwithstanding that fruits contain so much water, +a dietary consisting of fruits with nuts, to which may be added bread and +vegetables, will contain less water than the total quantity usually +consumed by a person taking the more customary highly cooked and seasoned +foods. An advantage is that the water in fruits is in a wholesome +condition, free from the pollution often met with in the water used for +drinking purposes. Raw fruits favour mastication, with its consequent +advantages, whilst cooked and soft food discourages it. Plums and what are +termed stone fruits, if eaten in more than very small quantities, are apt +to disagree. Persons with good digestions can take fruit with bread, +biscuits and with uncooked foods without any inconvenience. Fruit is more +likely to disagree when taken in conjunction with elaborately cooked +foods. Many cannot take fruit, especially if it be acid, at the same time +as cereal or starchy substances, and the difficulty is said to be greater +at the morning's meal. If the indigestion produced is due to the acid of +the fruit preventing the saliva acting on the starch, scientific +principles would direct that the fruit be eaten quite towards the end of +the meal. The same consideration condemns the use of mint sauce, cucumber +and vinegar, or pickles, with potatoes and bread, or even mint sauce with +green peas. Bananas are an exception, as not interfering with the +digestion of starch. Bananas are generally eaten in an unripe condition, +white and somewhat mealy; they should be kept until the starch has been +converted into sugar, when they are both more pleasant and wholesome. Nuts +and fruit go well together. For a portable meal, stoned raisins or other +dried fruit and walnut kernels or other nuts are excellent. + +What has been called a defect in most fruits, is the fact that the proteid +is small in proportion to the other constituents. This has been too much +dwelt upon, owing to the prevailing exaggerated idea of the quantity of +proteid required. The tomato contains a large proportion, though the water +is very high. Bananas, grapes and strawberries contain to each part of +proteid from 10 to 12 parts of other solid nutritive constituents (any oil +being calculated into starch equivalents); this is termed the nutritive +ratio. Although this may seem a small proportion of proteid, there are +reasons for believing that it is sufficient. Taking the average of 29 +analyses of American apples, a nutritive ratio of 33 was obtained. If it +were suggested that life should be sustained on apples alone, this small +quantity of proteid would be an insurmountable difficulty. As the addition +of nuts or other nutritious food sufficiently increases the proteid, no +objection can with justice be made against the use of fruit. A study of +our teeth, digestive organs and general structure, and of comparative +anatomy, points to fruits, nuts and succulent vegetables as our original +diet. + +The potash and other salts of the organic acids in fruits tend to keep the +blood properly alkaline. Where there is a tendency to the deposition of +uric acid in the body, they hinder its formation. Citric, tartaric, malic +and other organic acids exist in fruits in combination with potash and +other bases, as well as in the free state. The free acids in fruits, when +eaten, combine with the alkalies in the intestinal tract, and are absorbed +by the body and pass into the blood, not as acids, but as neutral salts. +Here they are converted into potassium carbonate or some other carbonate. +Fruit acids never make the blood acid but the reverse. Fruit salts and +acids are antiscorbutic. Fruits have often proved of the greatest benefit +in illness. What is known as the grape cure has been productive of much +good. Lemons and oranges have also been of great benefit. Strawberries +have been craved for and have proved of the greatest advantage in some +extreme cases of illness when more concentrated food could not be endured. +Fruit is coming into greater use, especially owing to its better +distribution and lessened cost. Fruit is not as cheap as it should be, as +it can be produced in great abundance at little cost, and with +comparatively little labour. The price paid by the public greatly exceeds +the real cost of production. A very large proportion, often the greater +part of the cost to the consumer, goes in railway and other rates and in +middle-men's profits. It is commonly cheaper to bring fruit from over the +sea, including land carriage on either side, than it is to transport +English produce from one part of our country to another. English homegrown +fruit would be cheaper were it not for the difficulty of buying suitable +land at a reasonable price, and the cost of transit. For the production of +prime fruit there is a lack of sufficient intelligence, of scientific +culture and co-operation. + +Vegetables--using the name in its popular sense--contain valuable saline +constituents or salts. By the usual method of cooking a large proportion +of the salts is lost. It is better to steam than to boil them. The fibrous +portion of vegetables is not all digested, but it is useful in stimulating +the peristaltic action of the bowels and lessening any tendency to +constipation. Vegetables are more especially useful to non-vegetarians to +correct the defects of their other food. + +The potato belongs to a poisonous order--the _Solanacae_. There is a little +alkaloid in the skin, but this is lost in the cooking. The eyes and +sprouting portions contain the most and should be cut out. + +Fungi.--There are about a hundred edible species in this country, but +many of the fungi are poisonous, some intensely so. It can scarcely be +expected that these lowly organised plants, differing so much in their +manner of growth from the green or chlorophyll bearing plants, can be +particularly nourishing. It is only the fructifying part, which appears +above the ground, that is generally eaten. It is of very rapid growth. Of +9 edible fungi of 4 species, obtained in the Belgrade market, the average +amount of water was 89.3 per cent., leaving only 10.7 per cent. of solid +matter; the average of fat was 0.55 per cent. The food value of fungi has +been greatly over-rated. In most of the analyses given in text-books and +elsewhere, the total nitrogen has been multiplied by 6.25 and the result +expressed as proteid. The amount of nitrogen in a form useless for the +purpose of nutrition is about a third of the whole. Of the remainder or +proteid nitrogen, it is said much is not assimilated, sometimes quite +half, owing to the somewhat indigestible character of the fungi. An +analysis of the common mushroom gave proteids 2.2 per cent., amides +(useless nitrogenous compounds) 1.3 per cent., and water 93.7 per cent. +The fungi are of inferior nutritive value to many fresh vegetables and are +much more expensive. Their chief value is as a flavouring. + +Milk and Eggs are permissible in a vegetarian dietary, and as a rule, +vegetarians use them. Eggs, with the exception of such as are unfertile, +are of course alive; but they have no conscious existence, and cannot be +said to suffer any pain on being killed and eaten. An objection to their +use as food is, that on an egg and poultry farm, the superfluous male +birds are killed, and as the hens become unprofitable layers they are also +killed. A similar humane objection applies to the use of cow's milk by +man. The calves are deprived of part of their natural food, the deficiency +being perhaps made up by unnatural farinaceous milk substitutes. Many of +the calves, especially the bull calves, are killed, thus leaving all the +milk for human use. When cows cease to yield sufficient milk they too are +slaughtered. Milch cows are commonly kept in unhealthy houses, deprived +of exercise and pure air, crowded together, with filthy evil smelling +floors reeking with their excrements, tended by uncleanly people. With no +exercise and a rich stimulating diet they produce more milk; but it is no +matter for surprise that tuberculosis is common amongst them. When the +lesions of tubercle (consumption) are localised and not excessive, the +rest of the carcase is passed by veterinary surgeons as fit for food; were +it otherwise, enormous quantities of meat would be destroyed. As butcher's +meat is seldom officially inspected, but a very small part is judged by +the butchers as too bad for food. In mitigation it may be said that +poultry lead a happy existence and their death is, or should be, quickly +produced with but little pain, probably less pain than if left to die from +natural causes. The same cannot be said of cattle and sheep when the time +arrives for their transport to the slaughter man's. It is argued by +vegetarians who take milk and animal products that they are not +responsible for the death of the animals, as they do not eat their flesh. +As vegetarians profit by conditions in which the slaughtering of the +animals is a part, they cannot be altogether exonerated. Cow's milk is +prone to absorb bad odours, and it forms a most suitable breeding or +nutrient medium for most species of bacteria which may accidentally get +therein. By means of milk many epidemics have been spread, of scarlet +fever, diphtheria, cholera, and typhoid. Occasionally milk contains +tubercle bacilli from the cows themselves. By boiling, all bacteria, +except a few which may be left out of consideration, are destroyed. Such +a temperature, however, renders the milk less digestible and wholesome for +infants. By heating to 160 deg. F. or 170 deg. F. for a few minutes, such +pathogenic germs as are at all likely to be in milk (tubercle, typhoid, +diphtheria, &c.) are killed, and the value of the milk is but little +affected: this is called Pasteurising. It was until quite recently a +common practice to add boric acid, formaldehyde and other preservatives; +this has injured the vitality and caused the death of many infants. They +have not yet gone quite out of use. + +For infants the only satisfactory food is that of a healthy mother. On +account of physical defects in the mother, or often for merely selfish +reasons, the infant is deprived of its natural food. Many attempts have +been made to bring cow's milk to approximately the same composition as +human milk. It can be done by adding water, milk sugar and cream of known +composition, in certain proportions. Great difficulties are met with when +this is put into practice. The simplest method is that of Professor +Soxhlet. The proper quantity of milk sugar is added, but instead of adding +the right quantity of cream or fat--a very difficult thing to do--the +equivalent quantity of extra milk sugar is used. Although not +theoretically satisfactory, in practice it answers very well. We have +found it to agree very well with infants. To cow's milk of pure average +quality, add half its volume of water containing 12.3 per cent. of milk +sugar; or, what amounts to the same thing, to a pint of cow's milk add one +and a quarter ounce of milk sugar and half-a-pint of water. It is +preferable to Pasteurise by placing the bottle of milk in a vessel of +water. This water is to be heated until the milk shows a temperature of +about 75 deg. C. or 165 deg. F., but must not exceed 80 deg. C. or a +change in the albumen of the milk takes place which affects its +digestibility. Keep at this temperature for about ten minutes. If not +required at once, a plug of cotton wool should be placed in the neck +of the bottle, and it should be kept in a cold place until required. +Professor Soxhlet does not advise the addition of lime water. The +proteids are not of the same composition as in human milk (the calf +being a ruminating animal)--and it is a common plan to add water or +barley water to milk until it is so watered down that it cannot curdle +into tough curds. An infant has thus either to distend its stomach with +a large quantity of watery nourishment, or else to get insufficient +food. Sometimes it is necessary to peptonise the milk a little. At +the Leipzig infants hospital, and also the Hygienic Institute, they +give to infants, up to 9 months old, Prof. Soxhlet's mixture, except +that an equal volume of water is added to the milk. Milk, cheese, and +especially hen's eggs contain a very large proportion of proteid. When +added to food poor in proteid they improve its nutritive quality. It has +often been said, and with truth, that some vegetarians by the profuse use +of animal products, consume as much, or even more proteid of animal origin +than the average person who includes flesh food in his dietary. An excess +of proteid from these sources is less injurious as eggs contain no purins, +and milk but a very small quantity. In support of the use of animal +products, it may be said that we have become so fond of animal foods and +stimulating drinks, that the use of milk, butter, cheese and eggs renders +the transition to a dietary derived from the vegetable kingdom much +easier. By means of these, cooked dishes can be produced which approach +and sometimes can scarcely be distinguished from those of cooked flesh. + +In the present state of society, when really good vegetarian fare is +difficult to procure away from home, eggs, cheese, and milk are a great +convenience. + +Digestion.--The digestive juices contain certain unorganised ferments, +which produce chemical changes in the food. If the food is solid, it has +to be liquefied. Even if already liquid it has generally to undergo a +chemical change before being fitted for absorption into the body. The +alimentary canal is a tubular passage which is first expanded into the +mouth, and later into the stomach. As the food passes down, it is acted +upon by several digestive juices, and in the small intestine the nutritive +matter is absorbed, whilst the residue passes away. + +The saliva is the first digestive juice. It is alkaline and contains a +ferment called ptyalin. This acts energetically on the cooked and +gelatinous starch, and slowly on the raw starch. Starch is quite insoluble +in water, but the first product of salivary digestion is a less complex +substance called soluble-starch. When time is allowed for the action to be +completed, the starch is converted into one of the sugars called maltose. +In infants this property of acting on starch does not appear in effective +degree until the sixth or seventh month, and starch should not be given +before that time. Only a small quantity should be provided before the +twelfth month, when it may be gradually increased. Dr. Sims Wallace has +suggested that the eruption of the lower incisors from the seventh to the +eighth month, was for the purpose of enabling the infant--in the +pre-cooking stage of man's existence--to pierce the outer covering of +fruits so as to permit his extracting the soluble contents by suction; and +accordingly when these teeth are cut we may allow the child to bite at +such vegetable substances as apples, oranges, and sugar cane. Dr. Harry +Campbell says that starch should be given to the young, "not as is the +custom, as liquid or pap, but in a form compelling vigorous mastication, +for it is certain that early man, from the time he emerged from the ape +till he discovered how to cook his vegetable food, obtained practically +all his starch in such a form. If it is given as liquid or pap it will +pass down as starch into the stomach, to setup disturbance in that organ; +while if it is administered in a form which obliges the child to chew it +properly, not only will the jaws, the teeth, and the gums obtain the +exercise which they crave, and without which they cannot develop normally, +but the starch will be thoroughly insalivated that much of it will be +converted within the mouth into maltose. Hard well baked crusts constitute +a convenient form in which to administer starch to children. A piece of +crust may be put in the oven and rebaked, and spread with butter. Later, +we may give hard plain biscuits." Dr. Campbell continues, that he does not +say that starch in the pappy form, or as porridge, should find no place +whatever in man's dietary at the present day, but we should arrange that a +large proportion of our food is in a form inviting mastication. + +The teeth perform the very important function of breaking down our food +and enabling it to be intimately incorporated with the saliva and +afterwards with the digestive juices. The Anglo-Saxon race shows a greater +tendency to degeneracy in the teeth than do other races; the teeth of the +present generation are less perfect than those of previous generations. A +dentist writes (_Lancet_, 1903-2, p. 1054) "I have had the opportunity of +examining the teeth of many natives in their more or less uncivilised +state, from the Red Indians of North America, the negroes of Africa, to +the more civilised Chinese, Japanese, and Indians of the East, and I have +usually found them possessed of sound teeth, but so soon as they come +under the influence of civilised life in Washington, Montreal, London, +Paris and other cities, their teeth begin to degenerate, though their +general health may remain good." In a long article on mastication in the +_Lancet_ (1903-2, p. 84) from which we have already quoted, Dr. Harry +Campbell gives as the effect of thorough and efficient mastication, that +it increases the amount of alkaline saliva passing into the stomach, and +prolongs the period of starch digestion within that organ. That it +influences the stomach reflexly by promoting the flow of gastric juice. +That the frequent use of the jaws and the tongue, during the period of +growth, cause the jaws to expand. If the jaws are not adequately exercised +during this period, owing to the use of soft food, they do not reach their +normal size, the teeth are overcrowded, do not develop fully, and are +prone to decay. The effect of vigorous mastication is to stimulate the +circulation in the tooth pulp, which promotes nutrition and maintains a +firm dental setting. Dr. Campbell writes: "I am perfectly at one with Dr. +Wallace, in believing that the removal of the fibrous portion of food is +the main cause of the prevalence of caries among moderns." + +When the food reaches the stomach, gastric juice is secreted. This juice +contains a ferment called pepsin and hydrochloric acid. Pepsin is only +active in an acid media. Starch digestion proceeds in the stomach to such +a time--stated as from 15 to 30 minutes--when the acid gastric juice has +been poured out in sufficient quantity to neutralise the alkalinity of +the saliva. The gastric juice acts upon the proteids only. After a time +the liquefied contents of the stomach are passed into the first portion +of the small intestine, called the duodenum. Here it meets with the +pancreatic juice, which like the gastric juice attacks proteids, but even +more energetically, and only in an alkaline media. The proteolitic ferment +is called trypsin. The pancreatic, the most important of the digestive +fluids, contains other ferments; one called amylopsin, takes up the +digestion of any remaining or imperfectly converted starch left from the +salivary digestion. Amylopsin is much more powerful and rapid than the +ptyalin of the saliva, especially on uncooked starch. Its absence from the +pancreatic juice of infants is an indication that starch should not be +given them. Another ferment, stearopsin, emulsifies fats. The bile is +alkaline and assists the pancreatic juice in neutralising the acid mixture +that leaves the stomach; it also assists the absorption of fats. The +digestion of proteids is not completed in the stomach. There are some who +look upon the stomach as chiefly of use as a receptacle for the large mass +of food, which is too quickly eaten to be passed at once into the +intestines; the food being gradually expelled from the stomach, in such +quantities as the duodenal digestion can adequately treat. A frequently +used table, showing the time required for the digestion of various foods +in the stomach, is of little practical value. There is ample provision for +the digestion of food, there is a duplication of ferments for the proteids +and starch. In health, the ferments are not only very active, but are +secreted in ample quantities. The digestive or unorganised ferments must +not be confused with the organised ferments such as yeast. The latter are +living vegetable cells, capable of indefinite multiplication. The former +are soluble bodies, and though capable of transforming or digesting some +thousands of times their mass of food, their power in this direction is +restricted within definite limits. Another and preferable name for them is +enzymes. + +The action of saliva on starch is powerfully retarded by tea, this is due +to the tannin. Coffee and cocoa are without effect. Tea infused for two +minutes only, was not found to have sensibly less restraining effect than +when infused for thirty minutes. On peptic digestion both tea and coffee +had a powerful retarding effect. When of equal strength cocoa was nearly +as bad, but as it is usually taken much weaker, its inhibitory effect is +of little consequence. + +Bacteria are minute vegetable organisms, which exist in the dust of the +air, in water and almost everywhere on or near the surface of the earth. +They are consequently taken in with our food. They exist in the mouth; +those in carious teeth are often sufficient to injuriously affect +digestion and health. The healthy gastric juice is to a great degree +antiseptic, but few bacteria being able to endure its acidity. When the +residue of the food reaches the large intestine, bacteria are found in +very great numbers. The warmth of the body is highly favourable to their +growth. They cause the food and intestinal _debris_ to assume its faecal +character. Should the mass be retained, the bacterial poisons accumutate +and being absorbed into the body produce headaches, exhaustion, +neurasthenia and other complaints. Proteid matter, the products of its +decomposition and nitrogenous matter generally, are especially the food of +bacteria; this is shown in the offensiveness of the faeces of the +carnivora, notwithstanding their short intestines, compared with that of +the herbivora. Also in the difference of the faeces of the dog when fed on +flesh and on a nearly vegetable diet. On a rich proteid diet, especially +if it consists largely of flesh, the bacterial products in the intestines +are greater than on a vegetable diet. On the latter such a disease as +appendicitis is rare. Professor Elie Metchnikoff, of the Pasteur +Institute, thinks that man's voluminous and highly developed large +intestine fulfils no useful purpose, and on account of its breeding a very +copious and varied bacterial flora, could with advantage be dispensed +with. He also has said that man, who could support himself on food easily +digestible, has a small intestine which is disproportionately fully +developed. Instead of having between 18 and 21 feet of small intestine, +man might do with one-third of that length. According to him, there is a +disharmony of our food and our digestive system. Referring to such views, +and the desire of some surgeons to remove the vermiform appendix and +portions of the intestines upon too little provocation, Sir W. Macewin, +M.D., F.R.S. (_B. Medical Jrn._, 1904, 2 p. 874) says:--"Is this human +body of ours so badly constructed that it contains so many useless parts +and requires so much tinkering? Possibly I may be out of fashion with the +times, as I cannot find such imperfections in the normal human body as are +alleged. On the contrary, the more one looks into the human body and sees +it work, the better one understands it and the more one is struck with the +wondrous utility, beauty, and harmony of all its parts." Our food we can +change, but not our organs-except by a dangerous surgical operations. Our +teeth with our complex and very long intestines are adapted for fibrous, +bulky and solid food. On such food mankind has lived for an immense period +of time. It is true that there are several theoretical advantages in +cooked vegetable foods; but unfortunately there is a want of conformity +with our digestive organs. If a flesh diet is taken, the incongruity is +greater. Concentrated food causes constipation. An active man, leading an +out-of-door life, can take unsuitable food with little or no apparent +inconvenience, the movements of his body favouring intestinal action; +whilst the same food to a sedentary person will prove distinctly +injurious. + +Some persons have such a vigorous digestion that they can consume almost +any food, even that which is obviously unsuitable; not only bad in kind +but excessive in quantity. Other persons have to be very careful. Many +have boasted that they can take of what they call the good things of life +to their full, without bad effect. We know of such men who have been much +esteemed for their joviality and good nature, but who have broken down in +what should have been a hearty and useful middle life. There are others +who were poorly equipped for the battle of life, with indifferent +constitutions, never having had the buoyancy and overflowing of animal +spirits; but who, by conserving such strength as they had, have outlived +all their more healthy but less careful comrades. The errors of the +parents are often most evident in the children or grandchildren. There +are many persons who cannot eat of some particular food, although it may +be quite wholesome to others. Sometimes it is a psychological rather than +a physiological disability, which may he overcome by an effort of the +will. At other times it seems to have no connection with the imagination, +although it is not always possible to give a sound reason for it. In the +main, of course, there are principles of dietetics applicable to all +alike, but in regard to details, everyone should make rules for himself, +according to his experience. When there appears no real reason for an +idiosyncrasy, a little humouring of our taste and digestion will often +overcome it, to our advantage. It is generally those of delicate +constitution who are most sensitive. Some cannot eat oatmeal except in +small quantity. Olive and other vegetable oils, even when of good quality +cannot be taken by many people, whilst others find them quite as +wholesome, or even better than butter. Vegetarians can generally detect +lard in pastry both by its taste and its after effects, although those +accustomed to this fat do not object to it. It is also surprising how some +individual's tastes and habits will vary at different periods of their +lives. + +One form of dyspepsia is due to undigested starch remaining in the stomach +and causing an excessive secretion of hydrochloric acid. As long as +proteid food is present, the pepsin and acid expend themselves on it, and +are removed together. The undigested starch continues to stimulate gastric +secretion, and the acid residuum causes pain, heartburn and flatulence. If +there be also any butyric acid, or some other fatty acid, derived from +milk, butter, cheese, &c., there will be acid eructations. For this form +of indigestion there are several methods of treatment. First; the very +thorough cooking of all starchy food, and it is an advantage to take a +little good extract of malt, either at the time of eating or directly +afterwards. The diastase of the malt has the same action on starch as the +ptyalin in the saliva. It is better, scientifically, to have the +farinaceous food at about 130 deg. F. (as hot as the mouth can bear will +do), and then to add malt extract. On keeping the mixture warm, from a +few minutes to half an hour or more, the starch is digested and rendered +soluble. Such food is not very pleasant to take. The food known as Grape +Nuts has been treated in a similar manner. The use of malt extract, +however, seems a clumsy substitute for salivary digestion. Second; the +eating of starch in the form of hard and dry biscuits, crusts and other +hard food, which demand thorough mastication and insalivation, and the +keeping in the mouth for a long while, during which the saliva has time to +act. This is the best plan. Third; the taking of sodium bicarbonate +towards the end of the period of digestion, in order to neutralise the +acid in the stomach. This gives relief, but does not cure, as the dose has +to be repeated after each meal; in course of time the quantity of soda has +sometimes to be increased to an alarming extent. Fourth; the abstention +from starchy foods and the substitution of an exclusive flesh dietary. In +the "Salisbury" treatment, raw minced beef is given. This method often +gives immediate relief, but its ultimate effect on the kidneys and other +organs is very bad. + +No hard and fast rule can be laid down as to the number of meals into +which the daily amount of food required should be divided. The stomach +appears to work to the best advantage when it is full, or nearly so, and +the appetite is appeased. Three approximately equal meals seems to be a +convenient division. Dr. Dewey and his followers advise only two meals a +day, and it seems incontestable that many persons find the plan +advantageous. These are generally adults with weak digestions, or elderly +persons who, on account of their age and the sluggish action of their +assimilative functions, require comparatively little food. Children, on +account of their vigorous vitality, rapid growth and hearty appetites, +ought not to be restricted to this number. Persons who have got into the +pernicious habit of greatly over-eating, and whose stomachs have become +distended and unusually large, sometimes find it easier to restrict their +daily food to a healthy quantity by taking only two meals. The general +objections against two meals are that either two little food is taken, or +the ingestion of such a large quantity is bad for the stomach and causes +it to press on the adjacent viscera. The large quantity of blood and nerve +force drawn to the over-distended stomach, depletes the brain and nervous +system, causing drowsiness and incapacity for mental and physical work. +The carnivora, whose opportunity for obtaining food--unlike the +herbivora--is irregular and often at long intervals, gorge themselves upon +opportunity and are in the habit of sleeping after a meal. The frugivora +and herbivora, however, are alert and ready to fly from their enemies +should such appear. The conveying of so much nourishment to the liver and +blood stream at one time, is probably a greater tax on them. A light lunch +between the usual full meals has nothing to recommend it. The stomach is +burdened to little purpose, often before it has finished with one meal +another is imposed upon it, no time being left for recuperation. + +Dietaries.--The best proportions of proteids, carbo-hydrates and fats +required for the nourishment of the body has not yet been conclusively +decided. The common plan is to average the dietary of large bodies of +persons, particualrly of soldiers and prisoners. These dietaries have been +adjusted empirically (the earlier ones at least), and are generally +considered as satisfactory. They are chiefly of English and German origin. +Another method is to laboriously analyse the injesta or food consumed and +compare it with the dejecta or excretions, until a quantity and kind of +food is found which is just sufficient to keep the body in equilibrium. +This latter plan is the best, but to be quite satisfactory must be tried +on a large number of suitable persons under varying conditions, both of +quantity and kind of food. Nearly all the experiments have been made on +persons accustomed to a stimulating dietary: their usual food has included +a considerable quantity of flesh and alcoholic drinks. Sufficient +attention has not been paid to the dietaries of the more abstemious races +who partake of little if any flesh food. The standard daily dietary for a +man of average weight, doing a moderate amount of work, is variously +stated by the best authorities as proteids from 100 to 130 grammes, fat 35 +to 125 grammes, and carbo-hydrates 450 to 550 grammes. There is a +surprising difference of opinion on the amount of fat, but those who give +least fat give the largest quantity of carbo-hydrate and _vice-versa_. Dr. +R. Hutchison in "Food and Dietetics," sums up the quantities given by the +highest authorities as follows:--- + +Proteid 125 g. ( 4.4 oz.) x 4.1 = 512 cal. = 20 g. N, 62 C +Carbo-hydrate 500 g. (17.6 oz.) 4.1 2050 200 +Fat 50 g. ( 1.8 oz.) 9.3 465 38 + ----------------- ---- -------- ----- + 675 g.(23.8 ) 3027 Total 20 g. N, 300 C + +The nutrient ratio is 1 : 4.9. For scientific purposes, metrical weights +and measures are used, instead of the inconvenient English grains, ounces, +pounds, &c. (1 gramme = 15.43 grains; 1 ounce avoirdupois = 437.5 grains = +28.35 grammes). A calorie is a measure of the power of a food in +generating heat and muscular energy (these two being convertible). + +The calories used in food tables are kilo-calories, representing the +amount of heat which would raise a kilogramme (1000 grammes) of water +1 deg. Centigrade. This is the same as raising 1 pound weight 4 deg. +Fahrenheit. According to the table given, 125 grammes of dry proteid are +required per day; this contains 20 grammes of nitrogen and 62 of carbon. +When thoroughly consumed or utilised in the body, the heat or its +equivalent in muscular work equals 512 kilo-calories. Proteids have, of +course, an additional value as tissue formers. The factors used here, of +4.1 and 9.3, are those commonly employed; but the latest and most +reliable research, taking account only of that part of the food which +is actually available in the body, gives for proteid and carbo-hydrate +4 calories, and for fat 8.9 calories. + +Fat has a higher food value than the carbo-hydrates, as 4.1 : 9.3 = 2.27 +or 4.0 : 89 = 2.225, according to whether the old or new factors are used. +In the table of analyses 2.225 was used. The standard dietary for a woman, +or of a boy 14 to 16 years of age, is given as equivalent to eight-tenths +that of a man; a child of 10 to 13 six-tenths; of 2 to 5 four-tenths. A +man doing hard work requires one-tenth more. The following table gives +three standard dietaries, and a few actual ones, in grammes per day. The +food of persons in easy circumstances, and of working men in the receipt +of good wages, approximate to the standard dietaries, except that the fat +is higher and the carbo-hydrates proportionately less. This is due to an +abundance of animal food. It was thought unnecessary to give them in +detail:-- + + Pr't. Fat. C'rb. Cal. N.R. +Hutchison: Man, moderate muscular work 125 50 500 3027 4.9 +Atwater: " " " " 125 ... ... 3400 6.2 +Voit: " " " " 118 56 500 2965 5.5 +Atwater: Woman, light to moderate muscular work, + or Man without muscular exercise 90 ... ... 2450 6.1 +Football teams, Connecticut and California, U.S. 226 354 634 6590 6.6 +Russian peasants 129 33 589 3165 5.4 +Negro families--Alabama and Virginia 86 145 440 3395 9.3 +Labourers-Lombardy (diet, mostly vegetable) 82 40 362 2192 5.5 +Japanese, on vegetable diet (_a_) 71 12 396 2026 6.0 +Trappist monk, in Cloisters-vegetable diet 68 11 469 2304 7.3 +Java village--Columbia Exposition, 1893 66 19 254 1450 4.7 +Sewing girl-London (3/9 per week) 53 33 316 1820 7.3 +German vegetarians 54 22 573 2775 11.6 +German labourers' family (poor circumstances) 52 32 287 1640 7.2 +Dr. T.R.A.--wheatmeal bread and water only (_b_) 82 8.5 470 2342 6.0 +Man--3 years' exclusively vegetable diet (_c_) 54 22 557 2710 11.2 +Thomas Wood, the miller of Billericay (_d_) 55 5.7 313 1560 6.0 + +Dr. Alexander Haig considers that 88 grammes of proteid is required by a +man leading a decidedly active life. + +NOTES.--(_a_) The Japanese are of small stature and weight. + +(_b_) One of a series of experiments by A.W. Blyth, 1888. 1-1/2 lbs. of +wheatmeal per day was required for equilibrium; sedentary occupation, with +a daily walk of six miles. + +(_c_) See "A Text Book of Physiology," by M. Foster, 5th edition, part +ii., p. 839; the diet was bread, fruit and oil. The man was in apparently +good health and stationary weight; only 59 per cent. of the proteids were +digested, leaving the small quantity of 32 grammes available for real use. +In commenting upon this, Professor Foster writes:--"We cannot +authoritatively say that such a reduction is necessarily an evil; for our +knowledge will not at present permit us to make an authoritative exact +statement as to the extent to which the proteid may be reduced without +disadvantage to the body, when accompanied by adequate provision of the +other elements of food; and this statement holds good whether the body be +undertaking a small or large amount of labour." + +(_d_) The Miller of Billericay's case is quoted by Dr. Carpenter, and also +by Dr. Pavy. It was reported to the College of Physicians in 1767 by Sir +George Baker. A remarkable degree of vigour is said to have been sustained +for upwards of eighteen years on no other nutriment than 16 oz. of flour, +made into a pudding with water, no other liquid of any kind being taken. + +A striking instance of abstemiousness is that of Cornaro, a Venetian +nobleman, who died in the year 1566 at the age of 98. Up to the age of 40 +he spent a life of indulgence, eating and drinking to excess. At this +time, having been endowed with a feeble constitution, he was suffering +from dyspepsia, gout, and an almost continual slow fever, with an +intolerable thirst continually hanging upon him. The skill of the best +physicians of Italy was unavailing. At length he completely changed his +habits of diet, and made a complete recovery. At the age of 83 he wrote a +treatise on a "Sure and certain method of attaining a long and healthful +life." He says, what with bread, meat, the yolk of an egg and soup, I ate +as much as weighed 12 ozs., neither more nor less. I drank 14 oz. of wine. +When 78 he was persuaded to increase his food by the addition of 2 oz. per +day, and this nearly proved fatal. He writes that, instead of old age +being one of weakness, infirmity and misery, I find myself to be in the +most pleasant and delightful stage of life. At 83 I am always merry, +maintaining a happy peace in my own mind. A sober life has preserved me in +that sprightliness of thought and gaiety of humour. My teeth are all as +sound as in my youth. He was able to take moderate exercise in riding and +walking at that age. He was very passionate and hasty in his youth. He +wrote other treatises up to the age of 95. + +Kumagara, Lapicque and Breis-acher, have, as the result of their +experiments, reduced the quantity of proteid required per 24 hours to 45 +grammes. T. Hirschfeld states, as the conclusion of his research, that it +is possible for a healthy man (in one case for 15 days and in another for +10 days) to maintain nitrogenous balance on from 30 to 40 grammes of +proteid per day. Labbe and Morchoisne (Comptes Rendus, 30th May, 1904, p. +1365) made a dieting experiment during 38 days, upon one of themselves. +The proteid was derived exclusively from vegetable food. The food +consisted of bread, lentils, haricots, potatoes, carrots, chestnuts, +endives, apples, oranges, preserves, sugar, starch, butter, chocolate and +wine. At the commencement, the day's food contained 14.1 grammes of +nitrogen = 89.3 proteid, which was gradually diminished. On the 7th day +11.6 g. N. = 73.5 g. proteid was reached; during this time less N. was +eliminated, indicating that the proteid food was in excess of that +required for the wear and tear of the body. As the quantity of nitrogenous +food was diminished almost daily, the N. eliminated was found to diminish +also. This latter was in slight excess of that absorbed; but when a day or +two's time was allowed, without further reduction in the food, the body +tended to adjust itself to the dimished supply, and there was an +approximation of income and expenditure. The smallest quantity of food was +reached on the 32nd day with 1.06 N. = 6.7 proteid, which was obviously +too little, as 2.19 N. = 13.9 proteid was eliminated. On the 21st day 4.12 +N. = 26 proteid was injested, and 4.05 N. was eliminated. The inference +drawn from the research is that about 26 grammes of proteid per day was +sufficient. The weight of the body remained practically constant +throughout, and the subject did not suffer inconvenience. Of course the +full amount of calories was kept up; as each succeeding quantity of the +proteid was left off, it was replaced by a proper quantity of +non-nitrogenous food. These experiments were carried out in the usual +approved scientific manner. It may, however, be urged against any +generalised and positive conclusions as to the minimum quantity of proteid +required for the body, being drawn from such experiments, that the period +covered by them was much too short. A prolonged trial might have revealed +some obscure physiological derangement. We are quite justified in +concluding that the usual, so-called "standard dietaries" contain an +unnecessarily large proportion of proteid. In some practical dietaries, 50 +grammes and under have seemed enough; but for the ordinary adult man, who +has been accustomed to an abundance of proteid, and whose ancestors have +also, it is probably advisable not to take less than 70 or 80 grammes per +day (2-1/2 to 3 ounces). If it is desired to try less, the diminution +should be very gradual, and a watch should be kept for any lessening of +strength. + +Some comments may now be made upon the table of dietaries. That of the +London sewing girl contained 53 grammes of proteid, which should have been +ample, according to some of the authorities we have given; yet she was +badly nourished. The food was doubtless of bad quality, and it appears +deficient in carbo-hydrates; this latter is shown by the low number of +calories. The long hours and unhealthy conditions of work, and not a +deficiency of food constituents, is probably the cause of the bad health +of such persons. There is no reason to think the proteid insufficient, +although some persons have said as much. We have no particulars of the +German vegetarians, but the calories appear satisfactory. In the poor +German labourer's family the calories are too low. In Dr. T.R. Allinson's +experiment on a wheatmeal dietary, it will not do to assume that less than +82 grammes of proteid would have been insufficient. It is probable that a +smaller quantity of proteid would have been enough if the fat and +carbohydrates had been increased. The calories are below the usual +standard. In the succeeding example the calories are considerably higher, +being not far from the usual standard, yet 54 grammes of proteid sufficed. +It is a common error to place an undue value on the proteids to the extent +of overlooking the other constituents. Dr. Alexander Haig in "Diet and +Food," p. 8, cites the case of a boy aged 10, fed on 2-1/4 pints of milk +per day. The boy lost weight, and Dr. Haig is of opinion that the quantity +of milk was very deficient in proteid; more than twice as much being +required. 2-1/4 pints of milk contain about 45 grammes of proteid, +whereas, according to the usual figures (125 x 6/10) a boy of this age +requires 75 g. This quantity of 45 g. is however, higher, allowing for the +boy's age, than that in several of the dietaries we have given in our +table. A little consideration will show that Dr. Haig has overlooked the +serious deficiency of the milk in the other constituents, which accounts +for the boy's loss of weight. The quantity of milk contains only about 160 +g. of total solid matter, whilst 400 g. is the necessary quantity. Milk is +too rich in proteid matter to form, with advantage, the sole food of a +human being. Human milk contains much less in proportion to the other +constituents. + +The old doctrine enunciated by Justus von Liebig was that proteid matter +is the principal source of muscular energy or strength. He afterwards +discovered and acknowledged his error, and the subject has since been +thoroughly investigated. The makers of meat extracts and other foods, +either from their own ignorance of modern research or their wish to take +advantage of the lack of knowledge and prejudice of the public, call +proteid matter alone nourishment. The carbo-hydrates and fats are equally +entitled to be called nourishment. + +Our reason for devoting so much space to the consideration of the quantity +of proteid matter required, is that in the opinion of many eminent writers +it is the crux of vegetarianism. They have stated that it is impossible to +obtain sufficient from vegetable foods alone, without consuming an +excessive quantity of carbo-hydrates. We will summarise the argument as +given in Kirke's Physiology, as edited by Morrant Baker, a standard work, +and which is repeated in Furneaux's "Animal Physiology," a book which is +much used in elementary science schools: "The daily waste from the system +amounts to, carbon 4,500 grains (or 300 grammes), and nitrogen, 300 grains +(or 20 grammes). Now let us suppose a person to feed on bread only. In +order to obtain the necessary quantity of nitrogen to repair this waste +he would have to eat nearly 4-1/4 lbs. daily.... He would be compelled to +take about double the quantity of carbon required in order to obtain the +necessary weight of nitrogen.... Next, let us suppose that he feeds on +lean meat only. Then, in order to obtain the necessary quantity of carbon, +he must eat no less than 6-1/2 lbs. daily.... In this case we notice a +similar waste of nitrogen, the removal of which would give an undue amount +of work to the organs concerned.... But it is possible to take such a +mixed diet of bread and meat as will supply all the requirements of the +system, and at the same time yield but little waste material." (These +extracts are from Furneaux, the next is from Kirke. The figures and +argument is the same in each, but we have chosen those sentences for +quotation which are the briefest and most suitable; certain calculations +being omitted.) "A combination of bread and meat would supply much more +economically what was necessary ... so that 3/4 lbs. of meat, and less +than 2 lbs. of bread would supply all the needful carbon and nitrogen with +but little waste. From these facts it will be plain that a mixed diet is +the best and most economical food for man; and the result of experience +entirely coincides with what might have been anticipated on theoretical +grounds only." Professor Huxley, in his "Elementary Physiology" uses +almost the same figures and argument. + +The adoption of this high proteid or nitrogen figure would lead to some +ridiculous conclusions. One writer states that 18 eggs would contain +sufficient flesh forming substance for a day's ration, but a very much +larger quantity would be required to supply enough carbon. On the other +hand, Professor Church says that, no less than 70 lbs. of pears would have +to be eaten per day, to supply the necessary quantity of nitrogen; +although the carbon would be in excess. The curious may calculate the +proper quantity of each that would make a theoretically perfect dietary. +People are apt to assume that what they themselves eat, or what their +class, race, or nation eat, is the proper and necessary diet; at least as +far as the elementary constituents and quantities are concerned. The error +is in attempting to make a vegetarian diet, however contrary to common +sense and the experience of the greater part of the earth's inhabitants, +agree in composition with the ordinary lavish flesh dietary of the +well-to-do European. It is significant that John Bull is caricatured with +a large abdomen and a coarse, ruddy, if not inflamed face, indicative of +his hearty dining on flesh, coarse food and alcoholic drinks. An unhealthy +short lived individual. Even if we accept a high proportion of proteid, it +is possible to combine purely vegetable foods so as to give the required +quantity of the various constituents, without a superfluity of the +carbo-hydrates. In "Food Grains of India," Professor A.H. Church shows by +elaborate analyses and dietary tables, how this can be accomplished by +various combinations of cereals, pulses, etc. He takes Forster and Voit's +standard of 282 grains of nitrogen and 5,060 grains of carbon, with a +suitable deduction for the smaller weight of the Indians. In his examples +of daily rations he gives from 5 to 9 ounces of various beans, balanced +by the addition of the proper quantity of rice--4 to 16 ounces, and a +little oil. Such a large quantity of pulse appears to us excessive, and +would cause discomfort to most persons. We much doubt whether those +Indians who are strict vegetarians could consume such quantities. + +Some valuable investigations were made on the diet of a family of +fruitarians, at the Californian Agricultural Experimental Station, July, +1900, by Professor M.E. Jaffa (bulletin 107). The proportion of food, both +proteid and carbo-hydrate used was surprisingly small. The research is +particularly important, as the diet was not an experimental one, tried +during a short period only; but that to which the family were accustomed. +The family consisted of two women and three children; they had all been +fruitarians for five to seven years, and made no change in their dietary +during the experiment. They only had two meals a day, the food being eaten +uncooked. The quantities of all the foods and other particulars are +detailed in the bulletin. The first meal was at 10-30 a.m., and always +consisted of nuts followed by fruits. The other meal was about 5 p.m., +when they usually ate no nuts, substituting olive oil and honey. The nuts +used were almonds, Brazil, pine, pignolias and walnuts; the fresh fruits +were apples, apricots, bananas, figs, grapes, oranges, peaches and pears. +Other foods were dates, raisins, pickled olives, olive oil and honey. One +person (_b_) ate a little celery and tomatoes, and another (_c_) a little +cereal food. In the following table are given the average daily quantities +of the food constituents in grammes:--Proteids, fat, carbo-hydrate, crude +fibre, value in calories and nutrient ratio. The crude fibre is classed as +a carbo-hydrate and included in the calorie value, and also in calculating +the nutrient ratio. + + Pro. Fat. C'r'b. Fibre. Cal. N. R. +Woman, age 33, weight 90 lbs. (_a_) 33 59 110 40 1300 8.6 +Woman " 30 " 104 " (_b_) 25 57 72 27 1040 9.1 +Girl " 13 " 75-1/2 " (_c_) 26 52 111 46 1235 10.5 +Boy " 9 " 43 " (_d_) 27 56 102 50 1255 10.3 +Girl " 6 " 30-1/2 " (_e_) 24 58 97 37 1190 11.1 +Girl " 7 " 34 " (_ee_) 40 72 126 8 1385 7.4 + +The last research extended over ten days; the period during which each of +the other subjects was under observation was from 20 to 28 days. + +(_a_) The tentative standard for a woman at light work calls for 90 +grammes of proteids and 2,500 calories; it is thus seen that the quantity +of food eaten was far below that usually stated as being necessary. The +subject, however, was a very small woman, 5 feet in height, taking almost +no physical exercise. She believed, as do fruitarians generally, that +people need far less raw than cooked food. (_b_) The food eaten was even +less in quantity than in the previous dietary. One reason for this was the +fact that the subject was, for part of the time at least, under great +mental strain, and did not have her usual appetite. Even this small amount +of food, judging by her appearance and manner, seemed sufficient for her +needs, enabling her to do her customary housework and take care of her two +nieces and nephew, the subjects of the other experiments. (_c_) This girl +was given cereals and vegetables when she craved them, but her aunt says +she never looks nor feels so well when she has much starchy food, and +returns to her next meal of uncooked food with an increased appreciation +of its superiority. The commonly accepted dietary standard for a child 13 +years old and of average activity, is not far from 90 grammes of proteids +and 2,450 calories, yet the girl had all the appearance of being well fed +and in excellent health and spirits. (_d_) During the 22 days of +experiment, there was an increase in weight of 2 pounds, due to the fact +that the family had been in straitened circumstances, and the food +provided was more abundant during the study. (_e_) The subject had been +very delicate as a baby. She was very small for her age, being 10 pounds +under the average weight, and 7 inches less than the average height. It is +interesting to note that her only gain in weight during the past year was +made during this dietary and the one immediately following. This was due +to her being urged to eat all she wanted, of what she most preferred, as +the food was provided by those making the study. The proteid is less than +the tentative standard for a child of 1 to 2 years old, but the subject +appeared perfectly well and was exceedingly active. She impressed one as +being a healthy child, but looked younger than her age. (_ee_) The subject +is the same as in the previous experiment (_e_), but after an interval of +8 months, her seventh birthday occurred during the time. + +Professor Jaffa, who made the investigation, says:--"It would appear that +all the subjects were decidedly under-nourished, even making allowance for +their light weight. But when we consider that the two adults have lived +upon this diet for seven years, and think they are in better health and +capable of more work than they ever were before, we hesitate to pronounce +judgment. The three children had the appearance of health and strength. +They ran and jumped and played all day like ordinary healthy children, and +were said to be unusually free from colds and other complaints common to +childhood. The youngest child, and the only one who has lived as a +fruitarian almost from infancy was certainly undeveloped. She looked fully +two years younger than she was. Still, there are so many children who are +below the average in development, whose dietaries conform to the ordinary +standards, that it would be unfair to draw any conclusions until many more +such investigations are made." + +The research shows that not only is there need of a revision of the +"standard" quantity of proteids, but also of the carbo-hydrates and fats. +It is generally said by those who have no practical experience amongst +vegetarians, that the latter require a much larger quantity of food than +do those who include flesh. The truth is that vegetarians eat less, often +much less. It is a common experience that vegetable food has a more +staying power, and a much longer period can be allowed between meals, +without the inconvenience that a flesh-eater, especially a flesh and +alcohol consumer, suffers. This is due, in part at least, to its less +stimulating character and its slower digestion. This fact has been shown +by the success of vegetarians in feats of strength and endurance, and +especially in the comparatively fresh condition in which they have +finished long walking, cycling, tennis, and other matches. Those who +attempt to prolong their powers of endurance by flesh extracts and +stimulating foods and drinks, usually finish in a very exhausted +condition. The superior endurance and recovery from wounds, when compared +with our English soldiers, of simple feeding men, such as the Zulus, Turks +and Japanese, has often been remarked. It is often said that vegetable +food, as it contains more fibre and is slower of digestion, taxes the +bodily organs more. If we attempted to eat uncooked, the more fibrous +vegetables, the grains, and unripe fruit, it would be quite true, but it +is not so of the ordinary food of vegetarians. A slowness of digestion +does not necessarily imply a greater strain on the system. As vegetables, +in particular, are for the longest period of time in the intestines, and +undergo the greater part of their digestion there, a gentle and slow +process of digestion in that organ may be more thorough. It may also +entail less expenditure of nervous energy than if the food had been of +such a stimulating character, as to be hurried along the digestive tract. +Digestion is for the most part a chemical process. If the food is of right +kind and quantity, thoroughly masticated, assisted if necessary by +cookery, and the digestive ferments are normal, digestion proceeds without +any sensible expenditure or energy or consciousness of its accomplishment. +There is nothing improbable in a flesh-eater requiring more food than a +simple living vegetarian. His food contains more proteid, and +excrementitious matter or extractives; these stimulate the digestive +organs and overtax the excretory ones. Generally, he is fond of +condiments, salt, and elaborate cooking, often also of alcohol; if a man, +probably of tobacco. He lives, as it were, at high pressure. + +There are on record certain experiments which appear to indicate the +necessity of a large proportion of proteid, especially when the diet has +been of vegetable origin. These experiments are inconclusive, because the +subject has been accustomed to an ordinary flesh diet, perhaps also to +alcoholic drinks. The change to a comparatively non-stimulating diet +cannot be made, and the digestive organs expected to adapt themselves in +a few days. Perhaps not even a month or a year would suffice, for some +people, and yet that same diet would suit others. In some experiments the +food has not been appetising, the subject has even taken it with +reluctance or even loathing; an excess of some food has been eaten which +no vegetarian or anybody else would think of using in a practical dietary. + +Sometimes persons on changing from an ordinary flesh dietary, lose weight +and strength. Generally, it is found that they have done little more than +discontinue the flesh, without substituting suitable foods. Authorities +think it is from a deficiency of proteid, and recommend an addition of +such foods as pulse, wheatmeal, oatmeal, eggs, milk, cheese, and such as a +reference to the table of analyses, show a low nutrient ratio figure. This +may also be due to an insufficiency of food eaten, owing to the +comparatively insipid character of the food and want of appetite. In +making a change to a vegetarian diet, such foods had better be taken that +are rather rich in proteid, and that approximate somewhat in their flavour +and manner of cooking to that used previously. A further change to a +simpler diet can afterwards gradually be made, according to conviction, +tastes and bodily adaptability. It must not be expected that a change, +even an ultimately very advantageous one, will always meet with an +immediate and proper response from digestive and assimilative organs which +have been accustomed for many years, perhaps by inheritance for +generations, to another manner of living. There are several preparations +produced from centrifugalised milk--that is milk from which the butter fat +has been removed, which consist chiefly of proteid. These have a value in +increasing the proteid contents of foods which may be thought deficient. +The addition of these manufactured products appear unnecessary, as most +of our food contains an abundance of proteid, and we can easily limit the +quantity or avoid altogether those that are thought defective. + +The later apologists for a flesh diet have had to admit that it is not a +physiological necessity; but they have attempted to justify its use by a +theory somewhat as follows. It is admitted, that any excess of proteid +over that necessary for its special province of producing tissue, is +utilised as a force-producer, in a similar manner to the carbo-hydrates. +When the molecule is split up, and the carbon utilised, the nitrogen +passes off in the form of urea by the kidneys. The theory propounded is +that at the moment the nitrogen portion is liberated, it in some manner +stimulates the living protoplasm of the nerve cells in its immediate +neighbourhood to a higher state of activity. These views are given by Dr. +Hutchison in his book on "Food," but there are no substantial grounds for +them. It is only prompted by a wish to excuse a cherished habit. Sir +William Roberts, M.D., in "Dietetics and Dyspepsia," p. 16 says that "high +feeding consists mainly in a liberal allowance of meat, and in the +systematic use of alcoholic beverages, and that low-feeding consists in a +diet which is mainly vegetarian and non-alcoholic," and he proceeds to say +that the high-fed classes and races display, on the whole, a richer +vitality and a greater brain-power than their low-fed brethren. That "it +is remarkable how often we hear of eminent men being troubled with gout, +and gout is usually produced either by personal or ancestral +high-feeding." We can only spare room for a few remarks on this subject. +Intellectual and business ability brings wealth, wealth frequently leads +to the pleasures of the table, but such habits are detrimental to +sustained effort and clearness of mind. The children and grandchildren of +such high livers are usually common-place, intellectually, and of +deteriorated physique. The aristocracy who are generally high livers, +notwithstanding their great advantages of education, travel and leisure, +are not as a rule famed for their intellectual gifts. In the recent war +the frugal living Japanese soldier has proved himself the most enduring +and bravest in history; whilst the Japanese officers are more resourceful +and tactful than the wealthier, high-fed Russian officers, with their +aristocratic lineage. What is called high-feeding, is of the greatest +benefit to the doctors and the proprietors of remedies for digestive and +nervous disorders. + +Food Adjuncts and Drugs.--In addition to the nutrients and the small +quantity of indigestible fibre of which we have already written, food +generally contains small quantities of substances which are difficult to +classify, and whose action on the body is but imperfectly understood. Many +of these possess pungent or strong odours and flavours. To them, various +fruits, meats, etc., owe much of their characteristic differences of +taste. When pure the proteids and starches are devoid of taste. Such oils +and fats as are generally eaten have also but little flavour, providing +they are free from rancidity and of good quality. The sugars differ from +the other nutrients in possessing a more or less decided taste. The free +vegetable acids also strongly affect the sense of taste, but they are only +consumed in small quantities. + +A drug may be defined as a substance which modifies the functions of the +body or of some organ without sensibly imparting nourishment. This action +may be one of stimulation or of depression. A drug is taken for its +medicinal action, a food adjunct for its modifying action on food. It is +impossible to give a quite satisfactory definition, or to draw sharp +distinctions. For example, tea, coffee, alcohol and tobacco are sometimes +placed in one group, and sometimes in another, according to opinion of +their action and the definition of the terms food adjuncts, drugs and +poisons. The difference of grouping often depends upon intensity rather +than of kind of action. If taken frequently and not in quantity sufficient +to have a markedly medicinal action, such things are generally called food +adjuncts or supplementary foods, although much may be said in favour of a +different view. The volatile oils of mustard, caraway, cloves, etc., are +used in medicine; also the alkaloids of coffee and cocoa. Even honey is +used as a mild laxative for infants; that is, as a drug. The difference +between a drug and a poison is one only of degree. Some of the most +esteemed drugs have to be administered in very small quantities, or they +cause death; e.g., strychnine and morphine. + +Classifications are necessary for methodical study, and for assisting the +memory in grasping large numbers of things which can be grouped together. +Classifications, however, are artificial, not due to natural lines of +demarkation, but according to man's knowledge and convenience; hence a +group is apt to approach and finally merge into another group, although on +first consideration they appeared quite distinct. The disregard of this +often leads to confusion and useless discussions. + +Plants, like animals, as the result of tissue change, have certain used-up +or waste matters to get out of the way. Animals have special excretory +organs for the purpose; waste matter remains in the flesh and blood of +dead animals. In plants are found a large number of powerful volatile +oils, alkaloids, bitter resins, etc. Many of these are, in all +probability, excretory products of no assimilative value to the plant. +Certain volatile oils may attract insects, and in obtaining nectar from +flowers insects assist fertilisation. Agreeable volatile oils and +flavouring substances in fruits attract birds and animals. The eating of +the fruits cause the seeds, which are uninjured by passing through the +digestive system, to be disseminated over wide areas to the advantage of +the plant species. On the other hand, nauseous and poisonous alkaloids, +oils, resins, etc., serve as a protection against the attacks of browsing +animals, birds, caterpillars, snails, etc. These nauseous substances are +most abundant in the bark, husk, skin and outer parts. It is commonly +supposed that the food on which each animal, including man, subsists, is +especially produced by Nature for the purpose. This is an error, for each +species of plant and animal lives for itself alone, and protects itself, +with more or less success, against destruction by its competitors and +enemies. Each species of animal selects from its surroundings such food as +is most suitable. Such food may not be theoretically perfect; that is, it +may not contain the maximum of nourishment free from innutritious matter; +but during the long period of evolution, each species of animal has become +possessed of organs suited to its environment. If to such animals be given +food containing less indigestible matter, or food which is more readily +digested by laboratory tests made independently of the living animal, +their digestive system will be thrown out of gear, become clogged up or +refuse to work properly, just as the furnace of a steam boiler, made to +burn coal, will act badly with wood or petroleum. Many scientific men have +overlooked this fact, and have endeavoured to produce food substances for +general consumption, in the most concentrated and soluble form, thinking +such food would be more easily assimilated. + +The Volatile and Essential Oils are contained in minute quantity in a +very large number of animal and vegetable foods. They contribute in part +to the flavour of fruits. They are the cause of the pungency and aroma of +mustard, horse-radish, cloves, nutmegs, cinnamon, caraway seeds, mint, +sage and other spices. Onions contain a notable quantity. When extracted +the essential oils become powerful drugs. In moderate quantities they are +stomachic and carminative, in larger quantities irritant and emetic. +Condiments and spices not only add flavour to food, but stimulate the +secretion of gastric juice and peristaltic movement. + +The Alkaloids most used are those of tea, coffee, kola-nut, cocoa, coca, +tobacco and opium. Although the two last are generally smoked, they must +be classed amongst the food adjuncts. It is of little consequence whether +their active principles enter the body by the mouth and saliva or the +lungs; their action on the blood and nervous system is the same. + +The Extractives, as they are called, comprise a number of bodies of +varying nature. They especially exist in flesh and flesh extracts. Amongst +these are the purins. They will be treated at greater length hereafter. + +Alcohol is to some extent a true food, but its stimulant and other +action quite overshadows any food value it may possess. + +There are other bodies such as the resins and bitters. The active +principle of Indian hemp is a resin. + +There is a great difference of opinion as to the extent to which +stimulants may advantageously be used. It is remarkable that amongst +nearly all nations, either alcohol in some form or one of the stronger +alkaloids is in common use. From this fact it is sometimes argued that +stimulants must supply a physiological need. The same method of reasoning +will apply with greater force to the use of condiments. Such conclusions +appear to us to be scarcely warranted. If the extensive or even universal +practice of a thing proves its necessity, then has there been +justification, either now or in the past, for war, lying, avarice and +other vices. It is strange that drugs differing so greatly in their +immediate and obvious effects as, for example, alcohol and opium, or +coffee and tobacco should be used. Should it he said that only some of the +much used stimulants are useful, there is an end to the argument based on +their universal use. There is no doubt that the use of stimulants in more +than very small quantities is distinctly injurious, and it is difficult to +see what physiological advantage there can be in their habitual use, to +what is vaguely called a moderate extent. Sometimes they are taken for a +supposed medical necessity, and where taste attracts, little evidence +satisfies. Those in the habit of taking them, if honest, must confess that +it is chiefly on account of the apparent enjoyment. The ill-nourished and +the depressed in body and mind crave most for stimulants. A food creates +energy in the body, including the nervous system, and this is the only +legitimate form of stimulation. A mere stimulant does not create but draws +on the reserve forces. What was latent energy--to become in the natural +course gradually available--under stimulation is rapidly set free; there +is consequently, subsequent depletion of energy. There may occasionally be +times when a particular organ needs a temporary stimulus to increased +action, notwithstanding it may suffer an after depression; but such cases +are so rare that they may be left out of our present argument, and +stimulants should only be used, like other powerful drugs, under medical +advice. In the last 25 years the use of alcohol by the medical profession +has steadily diminished, its poisonous properties having become more +evident. + +There is a general similarity in the effects of stimulants on the +digestive and nervous systems. The most largely used stimulant is ethyl +alcohol, and as its action is best known, it may be useful to name the +principal effects. Alcohol in the form of wine and spirits, in small +quantities, first stimulates the digestive organs. Large quantities +inflame the stomach and stop digestion. (Beer, however, retards digestion, +altogether out of proportion to the alcohol it contains.) Alcohol +increases the action of the heart, increases the blood pressure, and +causes the vessels of the whole body to dilate, especially those of the +skin; hence there is a feeling of warmth. It the person previously felt +cold he now feels warm. The result of the increased circulation through +the various organs is that they work with greater vigour, hence the mental +faculties are brightened for a time, and the muscular strength seems +increased. The person usually feels the better for it, though this is not +always the case; some have a headache or feel very sleepy. It has been +repeatedly proved that these good results are but transitory. The heart, +although at first stimulated, is more exhausted after the action of the +alcohol has passed away than it was at first. This is true of all the +organs of the body which were stimulated. In consequence of the dilatation +of the blood vessels of the skin, an unusual quantity of heat is lost and +the body is cooled. After taking alcohol persons are less able to stand +cold. When overtaken by snowstorms or subjected to excessive or prolonged +cold, it has often happened that those who resorted to spirit drinking +have succumbed, whilst the others have survived. Insurance statistics +have conclusively shown that teetotallers are longer livers than the +so-called moderate drinkers. The terrible effects on both body and mind of +the excessive drinking of alcohol, or the use of other strong stimulants +or narcotics, are too obvious to need allusion to here; we are only +concerned with what is vaguely called their moderate use. + +The stimulation produced by tea and coffee is in some respects like that +of alcohol. The heart is stimulated and the blood pressure rises. The +kidneys are strongly affected in those unaccustomed to the drug, but this +ceases after a week or more of use. Their chief effect is on the brain and +nervous system. + +Many have boasted that they can take of what they call the good things of +life to their full, without any bad effect, and looking over a few years, +or even many years, it seems a fact. Some of us have known of such men, +who have been esteemed for their joviality and good nature, who have +suddenly broken down at what should have been a hearty middle life. On the +other hand there are men who were badly equipped for the battle of life, +with indifferent constitutions, who never had the buoyancy and overflow of +animal spirits, but who with care have long outlived all their formerly +more robust but careless companions. + +Simple versus Highly-flavoured Foods.--It is very difficult to decide to +what extent condiments and flavourings should be used. These have +stimulating properties, although differing from the more complex +properties of alcohol and the alkaloids. The great differences in the +dietetic practices of nations does not appear to be in conformity with any +general rule. It varies with opportunity, climate and national +temperament; though doubtless the national temperament is often due in +part to the dietetic habits. Some races are content with the simplest +foods, large numbers subsist chiefly on rice, others on the richer +cereals, wheat, oatmeal, etc., and fruit. On the other hand there are +races who enjoy stronger flavoured food, including such things as garlic, +curry, pickles, pepper, strong cheese, meat extracts, rancid fats, dried +and smoked fish, high game or still more decomposed flesh, offal and +various disgusting things. The Greenlanders will eat with the keenest +appetite, the half-frozen, half-putrid head and fins of the seal, after +it has been preserved under the grass of summer. In Burmah and Sumatra a +mess is made by pounding together prawns, shrimps, or any cheap fish; this +is frequently allowed to become partially putrid. It is largely used as a +condiment for mixing with their rice. Numerous examples of this sort could +be given. There is scarcely anything that it is possible to eat, but has +been consumed with relish by some tribe or other. The strongest flavoured, +and to our minds most disgusting foods are eaten by the least intelligent +and most brutal races. It is hunger that compels the poor African bushman +to eat anything he can get, and the Hottentot not only the flesh, but the +entrails of cattle which die naturally, and this last he has come to think +exquisite when boiled in beast-blood. All this shows a wonderful range of +adaptability in the human body, but it would not be right to say that all +such food is equally wholesome. The most advanced and civilised races, +especially the more delicately organised of them are the most fastidious, +whilst it is the most brutal, that take the most rank and strongly +flavoured foods. Even amongst the civilised there are great differences. +The assimilative and nervous systems can be trained to tolerate injurious +influences to a remarkable degree. A striking example is seen in the +nausea commonly produced by the first pipe of tobacco, and the way the +body may in time be persuaded, not only to tolerate many times such a +quantity without manifesting any unpleasant feelings, but to receive +pleasure from the drug. Opium or laudanum may be taken in gradually +increasing quantities, until such a dose is taken as would at first have +produced death, yet now without causing any immediate or very apparent +harm. Nearly all drugs loose much of their first effect on continued use. +Not only is this so, but a sudden discontinuance of a drug may cause +distress, as the body, when free from the artificial stimulation to which +it has become habituated, falls into a sluggish or torpid condition. For +the enjoyment of food two things are equally necessary, a healthy and keen +appetite and suitable food; without the first no food, however good and +skilfully prepared, will give satisfaction. The sense of taste resides in +certain of the papilloe of the tongue, and to a much less degree in the +palate. Tastes may be classified into sweet, bitter, acid and saline. +Sweet tastes are best appreciated by the tip, acid by the side, and bitter +by the back of the tongue. Hot or pungent substances produce sensations of +general feeling, which obscure any strictly gustatory sensations which may +be present at the same time. To affect the taste the food must enter into +solution. Like the other senses, taste may be rendered more delicate by +cultivation. Flavours are really odours, and the word smell would be more +appropriate. For example, what we call the taste of an onion, the flavour +of fruit, etc. (independent of the sweetness or sourness of the fruit) is +due to the nose. + +Much has been written on the necessity of making food tasty, so as to +stimulate the appetite and digestion. It is urged that unless this is done +food will not be eaten in sufficient quantity. Innumerable receipts (some +very elaborate) have been published for this purpose. All this is supposed +to increase the enjoyment of food. The Anglo-Saxon race--the race whose +dietary is the most elaborate--is especially subject to digestive +derangements, and without good digestion and the consequent healthy +appetite, no food will give full gustatory pleasure. The most wholesome +food, and that which can be eaten most frequently without weariness, is +mildly flavoured and simply prepared. Plain bread is an example; whereas +sweet bread, currant bread, etc., though agreeable in small quantity, or +as an occasional delicacy, soon palls on the appetite. Rice is the poorest +and mildest flavoured of the cereals, it is therefore often, perhaps +generally, made more tasty by the addition of fish, curry, etc. The bulk +of the Chinese live on rice, with the exception of only 3 or 4 ounces of +fish per day, and they are a fine, big and strong race. The Japanese +labourer lives on similar food. In India rice is the food most in use, +though many other cereals are eaten there. Other races live chiefly on +fruits. It appears that the digestive organs will perform their functions +perfectly with the mildest flavoured food. There is nothing surprising in +this. The strongest, most intelligent, and largest animals are those which +feed on grass, herbs and fruits. Even the African lion is no match for the +gorilla. The lion and tiger are capable of great strength, but they cannot +put it forth for long periods as can the herbivora. Our most useful +animal, the horse, can exert much more muscular energy, weight for weight, +than any of the carnivora. The cost of feeding one of the herbivora is +much less than that of one of the carnivora of the same weight. This is so +whether we take the cost of purchasing the food; or the expenditure of +time, labour and energy on the part of man or of natural forces in the +production of the food. Herbs, roots, corn and fruit are produced much +more abundantly and freely than the corresponding quantity of sheep, deer, +etc., on which the carnivora feed. + +The restlessness, craving for novelty, and love of excitement, so +characteristic of the Anglo-Saxon, and to a less extent of some other +European races, has its correspondence in the food of these races. +Highly-seasoned and nitrogenous foods act as a stimulant and favour +spasmodic, and for a time perhaps, great intellectual and physical +exertion, with a succeeding period of exhaustion. Simpler food favours +long, sustained, uniform muscular strength, clearness of intellect, and +contentment. Let no one misunderstand us; we do not assert that all who +live on simple food have either clear intellects or are contented, because +there are other factors besides food, but that such qualities are more +easily retained or obtained under that condition. It is well known that +the over-fed and badly fed are the most irritable and discontented Those +living on a stimulating dietary consisting largely of flesh have their +chief successes in feats of short duration. Simple and abstemious living +individuals or races excel in laborious work requiring endurance over long +periods, such as long walking, cycling, and other athletic feats and long +military campaigns. + +The digestive and assimilative organs need the food constituents of which +we have written, in proper proportion and quantity, and in a fairly +digestible condition. Within these very wide and comprehensive limits, the +organs can be trained. Very much of the great difference in food is due to +the non-essential flavouring and stimulating part, rather than to that +part which is essential and nourishing. What is the best, interests but +few; whilst what is at present the pleasantest, influences the many. The +ego, the superphysical conscious and reasoning entity should rule its +material body, its temporary vehicle. The body, being the servant of the +ego, just as a horse, dog, or other of the lower animals recognises its +master, becomes a docile subject. The body can be led into good habits +nearly as easily as into bad ones; often more easily, as bad habits are +sometimes painfully acquired. The body being once habituated to certain +movements, conditions, foods or drinks, within reasonable limits, derives +pleasure therefrom and resists change. It is only when the food, etc., +transgresses certain elementary principles, that the result is more or +less painful. We may on scientific principles condemn flesh-foods, +stimulants and elaborately prepared foods; but after ruling all this out, +there is still left a very great variety of foods and methods of preparing +them: hereon each individual must form his own opinion. Of the foods thus +left, the same kind is not equally suitable to everyone, nor even to the +same person at different periods. + +A delicately balanced, fine-grained, high-toned mind and body responds to +every tender influence, and is painfully jarred by that which is coarse. +To such, fruits and delicately flavoured and easily digested foods are +doubtless best and conducive to purity and clearness of thought. A +coarse-grained, badly poised, roughly working body and spirit, is +non-responsive except to loud or coarse impulses; and such a one's +appetite is gratified, not by simple but by coarsely seasoned foods. + +A person who is accustomed to a stimulating dietary of flesh-foods, +especially if well-seasoned, finds a simple diet unsatisfying. Should such +persons dine off simple vegetarian food, there is a tendency to +over-eating. The less stimulating food fails to rouse the digestive organs +and to appease the appetite; although an ample supply of nourishment be +consumed. This is the reason why so many imagine that it is necessary to +eat a larger quantity of food if it be vegetable. Should a distressing +fulness and flatulence result from their over-feeding, they lay the blame +to the vegetarian dietary instead of to themselves. Most persons, on +changing to a vegetarian dietary, commence by imitating flesh dishes in +appearance and flavour and even in the names. There is the additional +inducement that the food may be attractive and palatable to friends who +lack sympathy with the aesthetic and humane principles of the diet. After +a while many of them incline to simpler flavoured foods. They revert to +the unperverted taste of childhood, for children love sweets, fruits, and +mild-flavoured foods rather than savouries. One who loves savouries, as a +rule, cares much less for fruits. By compounding and cooking, a very great +variety of foods can be prepared, but the differences in taste are much +less than is usually, supposed. The effect of seasoning instead of +increasing the range, diminishes it, by dulling the finer perception of +flavours. The predominating seasoning also obscures everything else. The +mixture of foods produces a conglomeration of tastes in which any +particular or distinct flavours are obscured, resulting in a general +sameness. It is often stated that as an ordinary flesh-eater has the +choice of a greater range of foods and flavours than a vegetarian, he can +obtain more enjoyment, and that the latter is disagreeably restricted. +Certainly he has the choice, but does he avail himself of it to any +considerable extent? No one cares to take all the different kinds of food, +whether of animal or vegetable that are possible. Of edible animals but a +very few kinds are eaten. A person who particularly relishes and partakes +largely of flesh-foods will reject as insipid and unsatisfying many +mild-flavoured foods at one end of the scale. The vegetarian may abstain +from foods at the opposite end of the scale, not always from humane +reasons, but because they are unpleasant. Thus there may be little to +choose between the mere range of flavours that give enjoyment to each +class of persons. The sense of taste is in its character and range lower +than the sense of sight and hearing. The cultivation of the taste for +savouries seems to blunt the taste for fruits and the delicate foods. The +grass and herbs on which the herbivora subsist, seems to our imagination +of little flavour and monotonous; but they eat with every sign of +enjoyment, deliberately munching their food as though to get its full +flavour. In all probability they find a considerable range of flavours in +the great varieties of grasses commonly found together in a pasture. + +Our elaborate cooking customs entail a vast amount of labour. They +necessitate the cost, trouble and dirt from having fires in great excess +of that required for warmth: the extra time in preparing, mixing and +attending to food which has to be cooked: and the large number of greasy +and soiled utensils which have to be cleaned. Cooked savoury food is +generally much nicer eaten hot, and this necessitates fires and attention +just previous to the meal. We have already said that soft cooked food +discourages mastication and leads to defective teeth. Our elaborate +cookery is mainly due to our custom of eating so largely of flesh, whilst +the eating of flesh would receive a great impetus on the discovery of the +art of cooking. Flesh can only be eaten with relish and with safety when +cooked. Such a large proportion of it is infected with parasites, or is +otherwise diseased, that it would he dangerous to eat it raw, even were it +palatable in such a state. In those countries where man eats flesh in a +raw or semi-cooked form, parasitic diseases are common. There is not the +least doubt that our habit of eating so much cooked food is responsible +for much over-eating, hasty eating, dyspepsia and illness. In regard to +the making of bread, porridge, and many other comparatively simple +prepared foods, the advantages of cooking seem overwhelmingly great. With +our present imperfect knowledge and conflicting opinions, it is +impossible to arrive at any satisfactory conclusion, and the whole +question requires careful and impartial investigation. Experiments have +been made with animals, chiefly pigs, with cooked and uncooked clover, +hay, corn, meal, etc. (U.S. Department of Agriculture). It was found that +the food was more or less diminished in digestibility by cooking. At least +13 separate series of experiments with pigs in different part of the +country have been reported. In 10 of these trials there has been a +positive loss from cooking the food. The amount of food required to +produce in the animal a pound gain in weight was larger when the food had +been cooked than when it was given raw. In some cases, the increased +quantity of food required after cooking was considerable. + +Those who live on uncooked food contend that a smaller quantity of +nourishment is required. As uncooked food requires more mastication and is +eaten more slowly, there is a better flow of saliva and time is given for +the digestive organs to be gradually brought into complete action, and +finally for the appeasing of the appetite. In the case of the members of +the fruitarian family, whose food was uncooked, and of whom we have +previously written, the quantity of nutriment taken was much less than +that thought necessary, even after making full allowance for their small +stature and weight. + +Meat Extracts.--Justus von Liebig, the great German chemist, was the +first to attempt to make these on the commercial scale. He described a +method in 1847, and this not proving satisfactory, another one in 1865. He +stated that the only practicable plan on a manufacturing scale, was to +treat the chopped flesh with eight to ten times its weight of water, which +was to be raised to 180 deg. F. In another passage he says it is to be +boiled for half-an-hour. After straining from all the undissolved meat +fibre, etc., and carefully cleansing from all fat, the decoction is to be +evaporated to a soft extract; such a preparation is practically free from +albumin, gelatin and fat; all the nutritive principles except the saline +matter having been extracted. Liebig states that 34 pounds of meat are +required to produce 1 pound of extract. In 1872, he wrote "neither tea nor +extract of meat are nutritive in the ordinary sense," and he went on to +speak of their medicinal properties. Druit, in 1861, in describing the +effect of a liquid preparation of meat, states that it exerted a rapid and +stimulating action on the brain, and he proposed it as an auxiliary and +partial substitute for brandy, in all case of great exhaustion or weakness +attended with cerebral depression or despondency. In like manner, a feast +of animal food in savages, whose customary diet was almost exclusively +vegetable, has been described by travellers as producing great excitement +and stimulation similar to that of intoxicating spirits. Similar effects +have been observed from a copious employment of Liebig's extract. Voit +asserts, from the results of his experiments, that extract of meat is +practically useless as a food, and other authorities are quite of the same +opinion, although they may value it as a stimulant and drug. _The Extra +Pharmacopaeia_, 1901, states that "Liebig's Extract or Lemco consists of +creatin, creatinin, globulin and urea, with organic potash and other +salts. It has been much over-estimated as a food either for invalids or +healthy persons; still it is often valuable as a flavouring to add to +soups, beef-tea, etc., and it is a nerve food allied to tea." Meat +extracts stimulate the action of the heart and the digestive processes, +but as in the case of other stimulants there is a succeeding period of +depression. The _British Medical Journal_ says that the widespread belief +in the universal suitability of concentrated beef-tea is frequently +responsible for increasing the patient's discomfort, and is even capable +in conditions of kidney inefficiency, of producing positive harm. Some of +the meat bases, the leucomaines, have been found to possess marked +poisonous effects on the body. The manfacturers of meat extracts continue +to mislead the public by absurdly false statements of the value of their +products. They assert that their extracts contain the nutritive matter of +30, 40 or 50 times their weight of fresh meat, or that one or two +meat-lozenges are sufficient for a meal. One company, asserts by direct +statement, or imply by pictorial advertisement, that the nutritive matter +in an ox can be concentrated into the bulk of a bottle of extract; and +another company that a tea-cup full is equivalent in food value to an ox. +Professor Halliburton writes: "Instead of an ox in a tea-cup, the ox's +urine in a tea-cup would be much nearer the fact, for the meat extract +consists largely of products on the way to urea, which more nearly +resemble in constitution the urine than they do the flesh of the ox." +Professor Robert Bartholow has also stated that the chemical composition +of beef-tea closely resembles urine, and is more an excrementitious +substance than a food. Those whose business it is to make a pure +meat-broth, for the purpose of preparing therefrom a nutrient for +experimenting with bacteria, cannot fail to recognise its similarity both +in odour and colour to urine. Little consideration is needful to show the +untruthfulness and the absurdity of the statements made by manufacturers +as to the food value of these extracts. Fresh lean beef contains about 25 +per cent. of solid nutriment and 75 per cent. of water. If lean beef be +desiccated, one pound will be reduced to four ounces of perfectly dry +substance; this will consist of about 80 per cent. of proteid matter and +nearly 20 per cent. of fat including a little saline matter and the +extractives. This is as far as it is possible to concentrate the beef. If +it were possible to remove, without interfering with the nutritious +constituents, the membraneous matter, the creatin, creatinine and purin +bodies, we should reduce it to a little less than four ounces. It is very +remarkable that the most nutritious matter of the beef, the muscle +substance or proteid and the fat, are rejected in making Liebig's extract, +whilst the effete or waste products are retained. In Bovril and some other +preparations, some meat fibre has been added with the object of imparting +a definite food value. Hence in some advertisements, now withdrawn, it was +alleged that the preparations were immensely superior in nutritive value +to ordinary meat extracts. The Bovril Company extensively circulated the +following:--"It is hard for ladies to realise that the beef tea they make +at home from the choicest fresh beef contains absolutely no nourishment +and is nothing more than a slight stimulant. It is so, however, and many a +patient has been starved on beef tea, whether made from fresh beef or from +the meat extracts that are sold to the public. From these Bovril differs +so much that one ounce of its nutritious constituents contains more real +and direct nourishment than fifty ounces of ordinary meat extract." If +analyses of meat extracts are referred to, it will be seen that the +principal part of Bovril is the meat bases and other things common to all +such extracts, and which the Company in their circular so emphatically +condemn. If the meat fibre, which is the principal, if not the sole +difference, is the only nourishing constituent, it is difficult to see the +advantage over ordinary beef, which can be procured at a very small +proportionate cost. Concerning this added meat fibre, C.A. Mitchell, in +"Flesh Foods," writes: "As this amounts to at most some 8 or 10 per cent., +it is obvious that a large quantity of the substance would be required to +obtain as much unaltered proteid as is contained in an egg. On the other +hand, it has been pointed out that there is nothing to show that flesh +powder suspended in meat extract is more digestible than ordinary flesh in +the same fine state of division, whilst the amount of flesh bases, the +principal stimulating agents, is correspondingly reduced." Concerning +added albumin and meat fibre, A.H. Allen, in "Commercial Organic +Analysis," vol. iv., writes: "The amount of these constituents present in +such a quantity of meat extract as is usually, or could be, taken at a +time, is too insignificant to give it any appreciable value as nutriment." +Notwithstanding such statements by analysts and others, Bovril is +advertised to contain "the entire nourishment of prime ox-beef." The great +extent of the extract of meat trade is shown by a circular issued by the +Lemco and Oxo Company. They give the number of their cattle killed since +1865 as 5,550,000; stock of cattle 160,000; employees in works, farms and +branches, 3,200. This is only one out of many such companies. It is a sad +thing that myriads of animals should be slaughtered with all the horrible +and brutalising surroundings of the slaughter-house to such a purpose--the +nutritious matter being nearly all wasted. Reliance on these extracts is +responsible for much sickness and death. Instead of their preventing +colds, influenza, and other complaints as is professed, they predispose to +them by overloading the body with waste products, taxing the excretory +organs and reducing the vitality. The following analyses of meat extracts +are by Otto Hehner:-- + + Gela- Albu- Meat + Water. Fat. tin. min. Fibre. + +Liebig Co.'s Extractum Carnis 15.26 0.34 5.18 -- 2.12 +Armour's Extract of Meat 15.97 0.21 3.31 -- -- +Brand & Co.'s Extractum Carnis 17.85 0.38 4.56 -- 1.81 +Brand & Co.'s Meat Juice 55.48 0.10 0.69 1.00 -- +Brand & Co.'s Essence of Beef 89.68 0.06 5.12 -- -- +Valentine's Meat juice 55.53 0.10 0.75 0.25 -- +Bovril Company's Fluid Beef 28.34 1.02 3.81 -- 5.37 +Bovril for Invalids 24.34 1.07 4.56 -- 5.87 + + Albu- Pep- Meat + moses. tones. Bases. Ash. +Liebig Co.'s Extractum Carnis 2.01 8.06 39.32 23.51 +Armour's Extract of Meat 1.75 5.13 41.12 29.36 +Brand & Co.'s Extractum Carnis 4.19 10.16 38.90 18.80 +Brand & Co.'s Meat Juice 1.06 2.50 12.50 11.06 +Brand & Co.'s Essence of Beef 0.19 0.57 3.43 1.00 +Valentine's Meat juice 2.00 2.87 12.48 12.01 +Bovril Company's Fluid Beef 8.38 13.18 19.38 17.67 +Bovril for Invalids 5.56 6.44 34.07 16.50 + +Some of the "Liebig's Extract of Meat" so called, contains yeast extract; +some even, is almost entirely, if not altogether made from yeast. The +latter can be manufactured at a very low cost from brewers' and +distillers' waste products, and there is a strong incentive for +unscrupulous dealers to substitute it secretly. Artificial meat extracts +prepared from yeast have the appearance and taste of meat extracts, but +some, at least, have a considerably sharper flavour. In one method of +manufacture common salt is added, and this renders it unfit for use in +more than very small quantities as a flavouring. J. Graff has made +analyses of ten yeast extracts, and contrasted them with meat extracts +(see _Analyst_ 1904, page 194), and says, "It will be seen that the +chemical composition of yeast extract does not greatly differ from that of +meat extract." Yeast extracts contain purin bodies, and are probably +equally as injurious as meat extracts. Such strong and rank flavours (the +odour is suggestive to us of putrefaction) should be discouraged by those +who would cultivate a refined taste in food. + +Flesh Bases and Waste Products.--As the result of destructive +metamorphosis or the wearing out of the body, there remain certain waste +products which have to be expelled as soon as is possible. Their retention +and accumulation would soon produce death. A part is expelled by the +lungs as carbon-dioxide, or as it is generally though less correctly +termed, carbonic acid. Upon the breaking down of the complex proteid and +other nitrogenous matter, the nitrogen is left in comparatively simple +combinations. These effete nitrogen compounds are commonly termed flesh +bases or nitrogenous extractives. They exist in small quantity in flesh +meat, but are concentrated and conserved in the making of beef-tea or +beef-extract. The spleen, lymphatic and other glands, and especially the +liver, break these down into still simpler compounds, so that the kidneys +may readily separate them from the blood, that they may pass out of the +body. By far the largest part of this waste nitrogen is expelled from the +bodies of men and many other mammals in the form of urea. Pure urea is an +odourless transparent crystalline substance, of cooling saline taste like +nitre. It is soluble in an equal volume of water, and is expelled from the +body with great ease. In the herbivora the nitrogenous waste takes the +form of another body called hippuric acid. The nearly solid light-coloured +urinary excretion of birds and serpents consists of urates; this is uric +acid in combination with alkalies. In man, in addition to the urea +excreted, there is also a little hippuric and uric acid or compounds of +these. Uric acid is a transparent colourless crystalline body almost +insoluble in water but soluble as urates in the presence of alkalies. As +deposited from urine it is of a dull red sand-like appearance, as it has a +great affinity for any colouring matter that is present. + +It is only possible to make a brief reference to the chief organic bases. +The xanthine bases are closely related to uric acid. Some of these occur +in small quantity in the urine and animal tissues, others, such as +caffeine, occur in plants. Creatine is a constant constituent of muscle +substance. In fowl's flesh there is said to be 0.32 per cent., in cod-fish +0.17 per cent., and in beef 0.07 per cent. Creatinine is produced from +creatine with great facility; it exists in urine. Both creatine and +creatinine are readily soluble in water. A series of bases, closely allied +to creatinine have been isolated from the flesh of large animals by A. +Gautier; they are known as Gautier's flesh bases. When administered to +animals, these act more or less powerfully on the nerve centres, inducing +sleep and in some cases causing vomiting and purging in a manner similar +to the alkaloids of snake venom, but less powerfully than the ptomaines. +These bases are formed during life as a result of normal vital processes +and are termed leucomaines. + +Another class of bases of an alkaloidal nature, are termed ptomaines; +these differ from the leucomaines, being produced by putrefactive or +bacterial agency from dead flesh. The poisoning which has occasionally +resulted from the eating of sausages, pork-pies, tinned meats, etc., is +due to their having contained ptomaines. + +Such quantities of waste products as are produced in the healthy body are +excreted with ease, but it is otherwise in certain diseases. Either +specially noxious substances are produced, or the usual substances are in +excessive quantity and not eliminated with sufficient rapidity; in +consequence the body is poisoned. Those who eat largely of flesh, +introduce into their system the excretory matter contained therein, which +super-added to the excretory matter resulting from the vital processes of +the body puts an unusual and unnatural strain upon the liver and kidneys. +It has been observed, that the eating of the flesh of some trapped animals +has produced severe symptoms of poisoning. The pain and horror of having a +limb bleeding and mangled in a most cruel steel trap, the struggles which +only add to the misery, slowly being done to death during hours or even +days of torture, has produced in their bodies virulent poisons. Leucomaine +poisons have also been produced by the violent and prolonged exertions of +an animal, fleeing from its pursuers, until its strength was completely +spent. Cases are also known, where a mother nursing her infant, has given +way to violent anger or other emotion, and the child at the breast has +been made violently ill. We must not expect the flesh of any hunted or +terrified animals to be wholesome. Animals brought in cattle ships across +the Atlantic, suffer acutely. After rough weather they will often arrive +in a maimed condition, some being dead. To this is added the terror and +cruelty to which they are subjected whilst driven by callous drovers, +often through a crowded city, to the slaughter house to which they have an +instinctive dread. It is only to be expected that the dead flesh from such +animals, should contain an unusually large quantity of the more poisonous +flesh bases. + +Purin Bodies.--The term purin has been applied to all bodies containing +the nucleus C_{5}N_{4}. It comprises the xanthine group and the uric acid +group of bodies. The principal purins are hypoxanthin, xanthin, uric acid, +guanin, adenin, caffeine and theobromine. Purins in the body may either +result from the wear and tear of certain cell contents, when they are +called endogenous purins; or they are introduced in the food, when they +are distinguished as exogenous purins. These purins are waste products and +are readily converted into uric acid. The production of some uric acid by +tissue change is, of course, unavoidable; but that resulting from the +purins in food is under control. + +An excess of uric acid is commonly associated with gout and similar +diseases. The morbid phenomena of gout are chiefly manifested in the +joints and surrounding tissues. The articular cartilages become swollen, +with ensuing great pain. There is an accumulation of mortar like matter +about the joints. This is calcium urate (not sodium urate as is generally +stated). These nodular concretions are called tophi or chalkstones. + +Very many are the hypotheses which have been propounded on the cause of +gout and the part played by uric acid; many have had to be discarded or +greatly modified. Though much light has recently been thrown on the +subject, there remains much that is obscure. The subject is one which is +surrounded with great difficulties, and would not be suitable for +discussion here, were it not for the following reason: Certain views on +uric acid as the cause of gout and several other diseases, are at the +present time being pushed to the extreme in some health journals and +pamphlets. Unfortunately many of the writers have very little knowledge, +either of chemistry or physiology, and treat the question as though it +were a simple one that had been quite settled. Our purpose is to clear the +ground to some extent, for a better understanding of its fundamentals, +and to warn against dogmatism. Our remarks, however, must be brief. It is +undeniable that great eaters of meat, especially if they also take +liberally of alcoholic drinks, are prone to diseases of the liver and +kidneys, about or soon after the time of middle life. Flesh meat contains +relatively large quantities of purins. Purins are metabolised in the body +to uric acid, about half of the uric acid produced in the body disappears +as such, being disintegrated, whilst the other half remains to be excreted +by the kidneys. + +One view is that whilst the organs of the body can readily dispose of its +endogenous uric acid, or that produced by its own tissue change, together +with the small amount of uric acid derived from most foods, the organs are +strained by the larger quantity introduced in flesh-food or any other food +rich in purins: that there is an accumulation in the system of some of +this uric acid. Vegetable foods tend to keep the blood alkaline, flesh +possesses less of this property; alkalinity of the blood is thought to be +favourable to the elimination of uric acid, whilst anything of an acid +nature acts contrarily. Dr. Alexander Haig writes "I consider that every +man who eats what is called ordinary diet with butcher's meat twice a day, +and also drinks acid wine or beer, will, by the time he is 50, have +accumulated 300 to 400 grains of uric acid in his tissues, and possibly +much more; and about this time, owing to the large amount of uric acid in +his body, he will probably be subject to attacks of some form of gout or +chronic rheumatism." Dr. Haig ascribes to the presence of uric acid in the +system, not only gout and rheumatism, but epilepsy, hysteria, mental and +bodily depression, diseases of the liver, kidneys, brain, etc. + +The opinion of the majority of eminent medical men, during recent years, +is that uric acid is not a cause, but a symptom of gout, that uric acid is +not an irritant to the tissues, and that it is readily excreted in the +healthy subject. Some of the reasons for this latter and against the +previously stated hypothesis, are as follows:--Birds very rarely suffer +from gout--the nodular concretions, sometimes found about their joints and +which have been ascribed to gout, are of tuberculous origin--yet their +blood contains more uric acid than that of man, and the solid matter of +their excretion is mainly urates. If uric acid caused gout we should +expect the disease to be common in birds. It is a remarkable fact that the +waste nitrogen should be excreted in the form of uric acid or urates from +such widely differing classes of animals as birds and serpents. Birds +have a higher body temperature than man, they are very rapid in their +movements and consume a large amount of food proportionate to their +weight. They live, as it were, at high pressure. Serpents, on the other +hand, have a low body temperature, they are lethargic and can live a long +while without food. There is no obvious reason why some animals excrete +urea and others uric acid. As uric acid is a satisfactory and +unirritating form in which waste nitrogen is expelled from the body of the +active alert bird, as well as from the slow moving reptile, it is +surprising if a very much smaller quantity acts as a poison in man. Many +physicians are convinced that uric acid is absolutely unirritating. Uratic +deposits may occur to an enormous extent in gouty persons without the +occurrence of any pain or paroxysms. Urates have been injected in large +amounts into the bodies of animals as well as administered in their food +with no toxic result whatever, or more than purely local irritation. The +most careful investigations upon the excretions of persons suffering from +gouty complaints, have failed to show uric acid in the excretions in +excess of that in normal individuals, except during the later stage of an +acute attack. There is an excess of uric acid in the blood of gouty +subjects; some eminent medical men say it is in the highest degree +probable, that this excess is not due to over production or deficient +destruction, but to defective excretion by the kidneys. The excess may +arise from failure of the uric acid to enter into combination with a +suitable substance in the blood, which assists its passage through the +kidneys. Under the head of gout are classed a number of unrelated +disturbances in the gastro-intestinal tract and nutritive organs, whose +sole bond of union is that they are accompanied by an excess of urates, +and in well developed cases by deposits in the tissues. This is why there +are so many different causes, curative treatments, theories, +contradictions and vagaries in gout. There are good reasons for believing +that uric acid is not in the free state in the body. In the urine it is in +combination with alkalies as urates, perhaps also with some organic body. +It has been shown that the blood of the gouty is not saturated with uric +acid, but can take up more, and that the alkalinity of the blood is not +diminished. The excess over the normal is in many cases small; it is said +to be absent in some persons, and rarely, if ever reaches the quantity +found in leukaemia. Leukaemia is a disease marked by an excessive and +permanent increase in the white blood corpuscles and consequent +progressive anaemia. Neither does the uric acid of gout reach the quantity +produced in persons whilst being fed with thymus gland (sweetbread), for +medical purposes. In neither of these cases are any of the symptoms of +gout present. In the urine of children, it is not unusual to find a +copious precipitate of urates, yet without any observed effect on them. + +The symptoms of gout point to the presence of a toxin in the blood, and it +is this which produces the lesions; the deposition of urates in the joints +being secondary. This poison is probably of bacterial origin, derived from +decomposing faecal matter in the large intestine. This is due to faulty +digestion and insufficient or defective intestinal secretions and +constipation. This explains why excessive feeding, especially of proteid +food, is so bad. The imperfectly digested residue of such food, when left +to stagnate and become a mass of bacteria and putrefaction, gives off +poisons which are absorbed in part, into the system. This bacterial poison +produces headache, migraine, gouty or other symptoms. Because of the +general failure of gouty persons to absorb the proper amount of nutriment +from their food, they require to eat a larger quantity; this gives a +further increase of faecal decomposition and thus aggravates matters. The +voluminous bowel or colon of man is a legacy from remote pre-human +ancestors, whose food consisted of bulky, fibrous and slowly digested +vegetable matters. It was more useful then, than now that most of our food +is highly cooked. About a third part of the faecal matter consists of +bacteria of numerous species, though chiefly of the species known as the +_bacillus coli communis_, one of the less harmful kind which is a constant +inhabitant of the intestinal tract in man and animals. This species is +even thought to be useful in breaking down the cellulose, which forms a +part of the food of the herbivora. Flesh meat leaves a residue in which +the bacteria of putrefaction find a congenial home. Poisons such as +ptomaines, fatty acids and even true toxins are produced. It is believed +that there exists in the colons of gouty persons, either conditions more +favourable to the growth of the bacteria of putrefaction, or that they are +less able to resist the effect of the poisons produced. It has generally +been found that milk is a very good food for gouty patients. This seems +due to its being little liable to putrefaction, the bacterial fermentation +to which it is liable producing lactic acid--the souring of milk. The +growth of most bacteria, particularly the putrefactive kinds are hindered +or entirely stopped by acids slightly alkaline media are most favourable. +This explains how it is that milk will often stop diarrhoea. + +Dr. Haig condemns pulse and some other vegetable foods, because, he says, +they contain uric acid. Pulse, he states, contains twice as much as most +butcher's meat. Vegetable foods, however, contain no uric acid and meat +but a very small quantity. The proper term to use is purins or nucleins. +Dr. Haig has used a method of analysis which is quite incapable of giving +correct results. Many vegetarians have accepted these figures and his +deductions therefrom, and have given up the use of valuable foods in +consequence. We therefore give some of the analyses of Dr. I. Walker Hall, +from "The Purin Bodies in Food Stuffs." The determination of the purins +has proved a very difficult process. Dr. Hall has devoted much time to +investigating and improving the methods of others, and his figures may be +accepted with confidence. + +The first column of figures indicates purin bodies in parts per 1,000, the +second column purin bodies in grains per pound:-- + +Sweet bread 10.06 70.4 +Liver 2.75 19.3 +Beef steak 2.07 14.5 +Beef Sirloin 1.30 9.1 +Ham 1.15 8.1 +Chicken 1.3 9.1 +Rabbit 0.97 6.3 +Pork Loin 1.21 8.5 +Veal loin 1.16 8.14 +Mutton 0.96 6.75 +Salmon 1.16 8.15 +Cod 0.58 4.07 +Lentils and haricots 0.64 4.16 +Oatmeal 0.53 3.45 +Peameal 0.39 2.54 +Asparagus (cooked) 0.21 1.50 +Onions 0.09 0.06 +Potatoes 0.02 0.1 + +The following showed no traces of purins: white bread, rice, cabbage, +lettuce, cauliflower and eggs. Milk showed a very small quantity, and +cheese consequently must contain still less. + +The researches of Dr. Hall show that the purins of food are metabolised or +broken down by gouty patients, almost as well as by normal individuals, +any slight retention being due to increased capillary pressure. A portion +of the purins remain undigested, the quantity depending upon the +particular purin and the vigour of the digestive organs. Two rabbits had +the purin hypoxanthin given to them daily, in quantities which if given to +a man in proportion to his weight, would have been 17 and 3 grains +respectively. These rabbits showed malnutrition, and after death +degenerative changes were visible in their liver and kidneys. Dr. Hall has +made a large number of personal experiments, and says that when he has +taken large doses of purin bodies--such as 7 grains of hypoxanthin, 15 to +77 grains of guanin or 7 to 15 grains of uric acid, apparently associated +symptoms of general malaise and irritability have frequently appeared. In +gouty subjects such moderate or small quantities of purins which are +without effect on the healthy subject, may prove a source of irritation to +the already weakened liver and kidneys. + +Professor Carl von Noorden says of gout, "with regard to treatment we are +all agreed that food containing an excess of purin bodies should be +avoided, and those words embody almost all there is to be said as to +dietetics. Alcohol is very injurious in gout. Salicylic acid is a +dangerous remedy. Alkalies in every form are utterly useless." Dr. J. +Woods-Hutchinson says, "the one element which has been found to be of the +most overwhelming importance and value in the treatment of gout and +lith3/4mia, water, would act most admirably upon a toxic condition from any +source; first, by sweeping out both the alimentary canal primarily, and +the liver, kidneys and skin secondarily; and secondly, by supplying to the +body cells that abundant salt-water bath in which alone they can live and +discharge their functions." Dr. Woods-Hutchinson proceeds to state, that +the one active agent in all the much vaunted mineral waters is nothing +more or less than the water. "Their alleged solvent effects are now known +to be pure moonshine." The value consists in "plain water, plus +suggestion--not to say humbug--aided, of course, by the pure air of the +springs and the excellent hygienic rules." + +It is a common experience amongst rheumatic patients, that they cannot +take lentils, haricots and some other foods; sometimes, even eggs and milk +are inadmissible. This is not for the alleged reason that they contain +purins, or as some misname it, uric acid; but because the digestive organs +are unequal to the task. It will be seen, that although Dr. Haig's +hypothesis of uric acid as a cause of gout and some other diseases is +disputed by many eminent physicians, his treatment by excluding flesh and +other foods which contain purins, and also pulse, which is difficult of +digestion by the weakly, is a wise one. It has proved of the greatest +value in very many cases. + +Digestion and nutrition is a complex process, and it may be faulty at +various stages and in several ways; there may be either deficient or +excessive secretions or inaction. Thus there are exceptions, where gouty +symptoms, including an excessive quantity of urates in the urine, have +only been relieved by the giving up of milk foods or starch foods (see +_Lancet_, 1900, I., p. 1, and 1903, I., p. 1059). + +Those particularly interested in the subject of the purins and gout are +referred to the lecture on "The meaning of uric acid and the urates," by +Dr. Woods-Hutchinson, in the _Lancet_, 1903, I., p. 288, and the +discussion on "The Chemical Pathology of Gout" before the British Medical +Association at Oxford (see _British Medical Journal_, 1904, II., p. 740). + +Dr. George S. Keith, in "Fads of an Old Physician," has a chapter on +rheumatic fever; he says that the disease is much more common than it was +fifty years ago. He has never met with it in the young or old except when +the diet had consisted largely of beef and mutton, and this although he +has been on the outlook for at least forty years for a case of the disease +in a child or youth who had not been fed on red meat. He speaks of it as +being exceedingly common in Buenos Ayres and Rosario in the Argentine +Republic, amongst the young; and that it leads to most of the heart +disease there. The amount of meat, especially of beef, consumed by old and +young is enormous. The main evils there, were anaemia in children and +neuralgia both in old and young. Dr. Haig relates how he suffered from +migraine all his life, until the time of his discontinuing butchers' meat. +As meat contains a comparatively large quantity of purins and other bodies +called extractives, it is probable that such quantities have an injurious +effect, quite apart from the question of uric acid production. That an +excessive meat diet lessens the vitality of the body and pre-disposes to +disease is undoubted, but opinions differ as to how the injury is brought +about. + +On thorough Mastication.--We have written at some length on the quantity +and constituents of food required per day and have criticised the usually +accepted standards. We have since read a valuable contribution to the +subject by Mr. Horace Fletcher in his book, "The A.B.-Z. of our own +nutrition" (F.A. Stokes & Co., New York). Ten years previous to the +writing of the book, when of the age of 4, he was fast becoming a physical +wreck, although he was trained as an athlete in his youth and had lived an +active and most agreeable life. He had contracted a degree of physical +disorder that made him ineligible as an insurance risk. This unexpected +disability and warning was so much a shock, that it led to his making a +strong personal effort to save himself. He concluded that he took too much +food and too much needless worry. His practice and advice is, be sure that +you are really hungry and are not pampering false appetite. If true +appetite that will relish plain bread alone is not present, wait for it, +if you have to wait till noon. Then chew, masticate, munch, bite, taste +everything you take in your mouth; until it is not only thoroughly +liquefied and made neutral or alkaline by saliva, but until the reduced +substance all settles back in the folds at the back of the mouth and +excites the swallowing impulse into a strong inclination to swallow. Then +swallow what has collected and has excited the impulse, and continue to +chew at the remainder, liquid though it be, until the last morsel +disappears in response to the swallowing impulse. In a very short time +this will become an agreeable and profitable fixed habit. Mr. Fletcher has +been under the observation of several eminent scientific men. Professor +R.H. Chittenden, of Yale University, in his report refers to the +experiments of Kumagawa, Siven, and other physiologists; who have shown +that men may live and thrive, for a time at least, on amounts of proteid +per day equal to only one-half and one-quarter the amount called for in +the Voit standard (see p. 32), even without unduly increasing the total +calories of the food intake. Such investigations, however, have always +called forth critical comment from writers reluctant to depart from the +current standards, as extending over too short periods of time. + +Dr. Chittenden writes that he has had in his laboratory, for several +months past, a gentleman (H.F.) who for some five years, practised a +certain degree of abstinence in the taking of food and attained important +economy with, as he believes, great gain, in bodily and mental vigour and +with marked improvement in his general health. The gentleman in question +fully satisfies his appetite, but no longer desires the amount of food +consumed by most individuals. For a period of thirteen days, in January, +he was under observation in Professor Chittenden's laboratory. The daily +amount of proteid metabolised was 41.25 grammes, the body-weight (165 +pounds) remaining practically constant. Analysis of the excretions showed +an output of an equivalent quantity of nitrogen. In February a more +thorough series of observations was made. The diet was quite simple, and +consisted merely of a prepared cereal food, milk and maple sugar. This +diet was taken twice a day for seven days, and was selected by the subject +as giving sufficient variety for his needs and quite in accord with his +taste. No attempt was made to conform to any given standard of quantity, +but the subject took each day such amounts of the above foods as his +appetite craved. The daily average in grammes was, proteid 44.9 (1.58 +ounces), fats 38.0, carbohydrates 253.0, calories 1,606. The total intake +of nitrogen per day was 7.19, while the output was 6.90. It may be asked, +says Professor Chittenden, was this diet at all adequate for the needs of +the body--sufficient for a man weighing 165 pounds? In reply, it may be +said that the appetite was satisfied and that the subject had full freedom +to take more food if he so desired. The body-weight remained practically +constant and the nitrogen of the intake and output were not far apart. An +important point is, can a man on such food be fit for physical work? Mr. +Fletcher was placed under the guidance of Dr. W.G. Anderson, the director +of the gymnasium of Yale University. Dr. Anderson reports that on the four +last days of the experiment, in February, 1903, Mr. Fletcher was given the +same kind of exercises as are given to the 'Varsity crew. They are drastic +and fatiguing and cannot be done by beginners without soreness and pain +resulting. They are of a character to tax the heart and lungs as well as +to try the muscles of the limbs and trunk. "My conclusion, given in +condensed form, is this: Mr. Fletcher performs this work with greater ease +and with fewer noticeable bad results than any man of his age and +condition I have ever worked with." "To appreciate the full significance +of this report, it must be remembered," writes Professor Chittenden, "that +Mr. Fletcher had for several months past taken practically no exercise +other than that involved in daily walks about town." Sir Michael Forster +had Mr. Fletcher and others under observation in his Cambridge +laboratories, and in his report he remarks on the waste products of the +bowel being not only greatly reduced in amount, as might be expected; but +that they are also markedly changed in character, becoming odourless and +inoffensive, and assuming a condition which suggests that the intestine is +in a healthier and more aseptic condition than is the case under ordinary +circumstances. If we can obtain sufficient nourishment, as Mr. Fletcher +does, on half the usual quantity of food, we diminish by half the +expenditure of energy required for digestion. By thorough mastication the +succeeding digestive processes are more easily and completely performed. +What is also of great importance is that there is not the danger of the +blocking up of the lower intestines with a mass of incompletely digested +and decomposing residue, to poison the whole body. Even where there is +daily defaecation, there is often still this slowly shifting mass; the end +portion only, being expelled at a time, one or more days after its proper +period. All this improved condition of the digestive tract, leaves more +vitality for use in other directions, a greater capacity for work and +clearness of brain. + +Professor R.H. Chittenden, in "Physiological Economy in Nutrition," +writes:--"Our results, obtained with a great variety of subjects, justify +the conviction that the minimum proteid requirements of the healthy man, +under ordinary conditions of life, are far below the generally accepted +dietary standards, and far below the amounts called for by the acquired +taste of the generality of mankind. Body weight, health, strength, mental +and physical vigour and endurance can be maintained with at least one-half +of the proteid food ordinarily consumed." + +From these and other considerations, we see that it is not only +unnecessary, but inadvisable to diet ourselves according to any of the old +standards, such as that of Voit, or even to any other standard, until they +have been very thoroughly revised. We shall probably find that as the body +becomes accustomed to simpler food, a smaller quantity of the food is +necessary. The proportion of proteids to other constituents in all the +ordinary, not over manfactured vegetable foods, such as are generally +eaten, may be taken as sufficient. Several cookery books have been +compiled in conformity with certain proteid standards and also with some +more or less fanciful requirements; these give the quantities and kinds of +food which it is imagined should be eaten each day. Theoretically, this +should be calculated to accord with the weight, temperament, age and sex +of the eater and the work he or she has to perform. The dietaries that we +have seen have their proteid ratio placed unnecessarily high. This high +proteid ratio can be got by the use of the pulses, but except in small +quantities they are not generally admissible, and in some of the dietaries +they are ruled out. The difficulty is got over by the liberal use of eggs, +cheese and milk. To admit a necessity for these animal products is to show +a weakness and want of confidence in the sufficiency of vegetable foods. +Some of these cookery books are of use in sickness, especially as +replacing those of the beef-tea, chicken-broth, jelly and arrowroot order. +They provide a half-way stage between flesh and vegetable food, such as is +palatable to those who have not quite overcome a yearning for flesh and +stimulating foods. The liberal use of animal products is less likely to +excite the prejudice of the ordinary medical practitioner or nurse. +Possibly, also, a higher quantity of proteid may be required on first +giving up flesh foods. + +The Use of Salt.--One of the most remarkable habits of these times is +the extensive use of common salt or sodium chloride. It is in all ordinary +shop bread, in large quantity in a special and much advertised cereal +food, even in a largely sold wheat flour, and often in pastry. It is added +to nearly all savoury vegetable food, and many persons, not content, add +still more at the time of eating. No dinner table is considered complete +without one or more salt-cellars. Some take even threequarters of an +ounce, or an ounce per day. The question is not, of course, whether salt +is necessary or not, but whether there is a sufficient quantity already +existing in our foods. Some allege that there is an essential difference +between added salt and that natural to raw foods. That the former is +inorganic, non-assimilable and even poisonous; whilst the latter is +organised or in organic combination and nutritive. The writer is far from +being convinced that there is a difference in food value. Some herbivorous +animals are attracted by salt, but not the carnivora. This has been +explained by the fact that potassium salts are characteristic of plants, +whilst sodium chloride is the principal saline constituents of blood and +of flesh. In their food, the herbivora take three or four times as much +potash salts as the carnivora. Of course, the sodium chloride in the flesh +of the herbivora and frugivora is obtained from the vegetable matter +forming their food, and very few of them have the opportunity of obtaining +it from salt-licks and mineral sources. They must have the power of +storing up the sodium chloride from plants in sufficient quantity, whilst +the potash salts pass away. There is no justification for saying that they +are worse off by being deprived of salt. If the ape tribe can thrive +without added salt why should not man? Bunge considers that a restriction +to vegetable food causes a great desire for salt. Opposed to this, is the +fact that certain tribes of negroes who cannot obtain salt, add to their +vegetable food wood ashes or a preparation of wood ashes; this is chiefly +potash. One preparation used in British Central Africa was found to +contain about 21 per cent. of potassium chloride to only 0.5 per cent. of +sodium chloride. It has been said that vegetarians consume more salt than +those who take flesh food. We doubt this; we know of many vegetarians who +have a strong objection to added salt, and have abstained from it for +years. Some find that it predisposes to colds, causes skin irritation and +other symptoms. At many vegetarian restaurants the food is exceedingly +salty; the writer on this account cannot partake of their savoury dishes, +except with displeasure. Nearly all who patronise these restaurants are +accustomed to flesh foods, and it is their taste which has to be catered +for. Flesh, and particularly blood, which of course, is in flesh, contains +a considerable quantity of sodium chloride; and most flesh eaters are also +in the habit of using the salt cellar. These people are accustomed to a +stimulating diet, and have not a proper appreciation of the mildly +flavoured unseasoned vegetable foods. Only those who have, for a time, +discontinued the use of added salt, and lost any craving for it, can know +how pleasant vegetables can be; even those vegetables which before were +thought to be nearly tasteless, unless seasoned, are found to have very +distinct flavours. It is then perceived, that there is a much greater +variety in such foods than was previously imagined. It is commonly urged +that salt and other condiments are necessary to make food palatable and to +stimulate the digestive functions. We, on the contrary, say that +condiments are the cause of much over-eating; and that if food cannot be +eaten without them, it is a sign of disorganisation of the digestive +system, and it is better to abstain from food until the appearance of a +natural and healthy appetite. An excess of salt creates thirst and means +more work for the kidneys in separating it from the blood prior to its +expulsion. Even should it be admitted, that certain vegetables contain too +little sodium salts, a very little salt added to such food would be +sufficient; there is no excuse for the general use of it, and in such a +great variety of foods. It is thought that some cases of inflammation of +the kidneys originate in excessive salt eating; certain it is that +patients suffering from the disease very soon improve, on being placed on +a dietary free from added salt and also poor in naturally contained sodium +and potassium salts. It is also possible to cause the swelling of the legs +(oedema), to which such invalids are subject, to disappear and reappear at +will, by withdrawing and afterwards resuming salt-containing foods. The +quantity of one-third of an ounce, added to the usual diet, has after a +continuation of several days, produced oedema. In one patient, on a diet +of nearly two pounds of potatoes, with flesh, but without added salt, the +oedemia disappeared and the albumin in the urine diminished. As potatoes +are particularly rich in potash salts, this case is significant, as +showing contrary to expectations, that such quantity as they contained had +not the irritating effect of added common salt. Salt and other chlorides +have been shown by several observers, to be injurious, not only in +diseases of the kidneys, but also of the liver and heart. In these +diseases the excess of salt is retained in the tissues, it causes a flow +of fluid into them, and so produces oedema and favours the increase of +dropsy. The good effect of milk in such diseases has long been known; it +is probably due to its relative poverty in sodium and potassium chlorides. +Even in the case of three healthy men, by an abrupt change from a diet +extremely rich in chlorides to one deficient, they were able to reduce the +body-weight by as much as two kilos. (4 lbs. 6 oz.); this was by the loss +of an excess of water from their connective tissues. Sodium chloride +diminishes the solvent action of water on uric acid and the urates; but +potassium salts, on the contrary, do not, they may even increase the +action. Although nearly all the medical experience recorded has to do with +diseased persons, such cases are instructive; it is only reasonable to +suppose, that more than a very small quantity of salt in excess of that +natural to the food, is a source of irritation in the body, even of the +ordinarily healthy individual. + +Summary.--Enjoyment of food is dependent upon appetite quite as much as +upon the nature of the food. Better a simple repast with good appetite +than sumptuous fare with bad digestion. There is indeed a causal +relationship between simplicity and health. The savage likes the noise of +the tom-tom or the clatter of wooden instruments: what a contrast this is +to the trained ear of the musician. Uncivilised man has little enjoyment +of scenery or of animal life, except as in respect to their power of +providing him with food, clothing or other physical gratification. What an +enormous advance has taken place. In the case of the painter, his eye and +mind can appreciate a wide range and delicacy of colour. Man has improved +on the crab-apple and the wild strawberry. From a wild grass he has +produced the large-grained nutritious wheat. Vegetables of all kinds have +been greatly improved by long continued cultivation. In tropical and +sub-tropical climates, where wild fruits are more plentiful, high +cultivation is of less importance than in temperate regions. In sparsely +inhabited or wild, temperate and cold regions, in times past, when deer +and other animals were plentiful, and edible fruits few, flesh could be +obtained at less labour; or such intelligence and industry as is required +for the cultivation of fruits, cereals, and other foods scarcely existed. +Flesh almost requires to be cooked to be palatable, certainly this much +improves its flavour. The eating of flesh tends to produce a distaste for +mild vegetable foods, especially if uncooked. In process of time, not only +flesh but vegetable foods, were more and more subjected to cooking and +seasoning, or mixed with the flesh, blood or viscera of the animals +killed. Next, food was manufactured to produce a still greater variety, to +increase the flavour, or less frequently to produce an imagined greater +digestibility or nutritiveness. Man has taken that which seemed most +agreeable, rarely has he been intentionally guided by scientific +principles, by that which is really best. Only of late years can it be +said that there is such a thing as a science of dietetics; although +cookery books innumerable have abounded. Of recent years many diseases +have enormously increased, some even seem to be new. Digestive +disturbances, dental caries, appendicitis, gout, rheumatism, diabetes, +nervous complaints, heart disease, baldness and a host of other diseases +are due, in a great measure, to abuse of food. One of the most learned and +original of scientific men, Professor Elie Metchnikoff, in his remarkable +book on "The Nature of Man," referring to the variety of food and its +complexity of preparation says that it "militates against physiological +old age and that the simpler food of the uncivilised races is better.... +Most of the complicated dishes provided in the homes, hotels and +restaurants of the rich, stimulate the organs of digestion and secretion +in a harmful way. It would be true progress to abandon modern cuisine and +to go back to the simpler dishes of our ancestors." A few have lived to a +hundred years, and physiologists, including Metchnikoff, see no inherent +reason why all men, apart from accident, should not do so. Most men are +old at 70, some even at 60; if we could add 20 or 30 years to our lives, +what an immense gain it would be. Instead of a man being in his prime, a +useful member of the community, from about 25 to 60 or perhaps to 70; he +would have the same physical and mental vigour to 80 or 90 or even longer. +This later period would be the most valuable part of his life, as he would +be using and adding to the accumulated experience and knowledge of the +earlier period. + +Some, perceiving the mischief wrought by luxurious habits, urge us to go +back to nature, to eat natural food. This is ambiguous. To speak of +animals as being in a state of nature, conveys the distinct idea of their +living according to their own instinct and reason, uninterfered with, in +any way, by man. The phrase, applied to man, is either meaningless, or has +a meaning varying with the views of each speaker. If it has any definite +meaning, it must surely be the giving way to the animal impulses and +instincts; to cast off all the artifices of civilisation, to give up all +that the arts and sciences have done for man, all that he has acquired +with enormous labour, through countless failures and successes, during +hundreds of thousands of years, and to fall back to the lowest +savagery--even the savages known to us use art in fashioning their arms, +clothing and shelter, to the time when man was a mere animal. Civilised +man is not only an animal, but an intellectual and spiritual being, and it +is as natural for him to clothe himself as for a cow to eat grass. Our +intellect has been made to wait on our animal nature, whilst our spiritual +has lagged far behind. Animal food and all else of a stimulating +character, stimulates the lower nature of man, his selfish propensities; +whilst mild food makes it easier to lead a pure life. In the treatment of +habitual drunkards in retreats, it has been found that a permanent cure is +rare upon the usual abundant flesh dietary. Only by the use of vegetable +food, particularly farinaceous, can a permanent cure be assured. The +editor of the Clarion, Mr. R. Blatchford, or "Nunquam," has lately adopted +a vegetarian diet. He remarks with surprise, that although he has been a +heavy smoker for more than 30 years, using not less than eight ounces of +tobacco a week, often two ounces in a day, he has found his passion for +tobacco nearly gone. He has had to get milder tobacco, and is now not +smoking half-an-ounce a day. He says "it does not taste the same; I am not +nearly so fond of it." He finds, with regard to wine, that he now cannot +drink it, "it tastes like physic." He writes: "These things have come upon +me as a revelation. I begin to see that the great cure for the evil of +national intemperance is not teetotal propaganda, but vegetarianism." + +We have given reasons of a scientific character, for abstaining from flesh +as food, but higher than these are those relating to ethics. Everything +relating to the slaughter-house is revolting to a refined and humane +person. In the great slaughter-houses of Chicago; in those huge hideous +box-shaped buildings, five or six storeys high, about ten millions of +animals are killed every year. They are treated as if they were bales of +merchandise and as destitute of feeling. Bullocks are struck on the head +with a mallet and let fall into the basement of the building. They are +whilst stunned or half-stunned, at once strung up by their hind legs to +some machinery, which moves them along, their heads hanging downwards. +Regardless of their agony, men run after them to cut their throats, +followed by others with great pails to catch the blood. Much of the warm +blood is spilt over the men or on the floors; but this is of no +consequence, if but a small fraction of a minute is economised. In a short +time, whether the animal has bled long enough or not, it reaches the +lowest and darkest and worst ventilated portion of the gloomy building, +where it is disembowelled. The walls and floors are caked with blood, the +place is filthy, there is no proper lavatory accommodation, everything +both to eyes and nose is detestable. Even if the windows were kept clean, +light could not penetrate into the centre of the buildings. Consequently a +large part of the work is done by artificial light. Tuberculosis is +prevalent amongst the workpeople living under such unsanitary conditions. +Serious crime is much more common amongst them than amongst any other +class. + +We English-speaking people, who pride ourselves on our civilisation and +religion; who call ourselves the followers of the gentle Jesus, the Prince +of Peace; yet hunt, shoot, trap and torture animals for food sport and +science. Our main reason for eating flesh is that of personal +gratification. We are loath to admit that the lower animals have any +rights. Those Eastern peoples who are adherents to the teachings of the +gentle Buddha hold life sacred. Mr. H. Fielding, who lived many years +amongst the simple-minded Burmese, says that though there is now no law +against the sale of beef, yet no respectable Burman will even now, kill +cattle or sell beef. No life at all may be taken by him who keeps to +Buddhistic teaching, and this is a commandment wonderfully well kept. "He +believes that all that is beautiful in life is founded on compassion and +kindness and sympathy--that nothing of great value can exist without them. +Do you think that a Burmese boy would be allowed to birds'-nest or worry +rats with a terrier, or go ferreting? Not so. These would be crimes. That +this kindess and compassion for animals has very far-reaching results, no +one can doubt. If you are kind to animals, you will be kind, too, to your +fellow-men." + +By participating in any form of cruelty or injustice, not only to our +fellow-men, but also to the lower animals, we retard our progress towards +the higher life, the subtler forces in man cannot find their full +expression and we are less responsive to spiritual influences. + +Printed by +Hurst Bros., Shaw Heath, Stockport. + + ______________________________________________________________________ +| | +| THE STANDARD NUT MEAT. | +| | +| PROTOSE | +| | +| Made from choice grains and nuts so combined as to produce | +| a food resembling beef-steak in appearance, taste, and nutriment, | +| but free from all the tissue wastes found in animal foods. | +| | +| Protose constitutes a perfect substitute for all flesh foods, | +| to which it is much to be preferred. | +| | +| It tastes good, promotes health and vigour, and imparts | +| great staying power. | +| | +| The success of Protose is based upon merit, and the best | +| advertisement of Protose is--Protose. | +| | +| Literature more fully descriptive of Protose and of our other | +| Health Foods may be had upon request. | +| | +| THE | +| | +| International Health Association, Ltd., | +| | +| LEGGE STREET, BIRMINGHAM. | +|______________________________________________________________________| + + ______________________________________________________________________ +| | +| THE FOOD REFORM RESTAURANT | +| | +| (Opposite the | +| Prudential 4 FURNIVAL STREET, | +| Assurance HOLBORN, LONDON, E.C. | +| Buildings) | +| | +| _4 minutes walk from City Temple or Law Courts._ | +| | +| The daintiest and most up-to-date Vegetarian Restaurant in London. | +| | +| Central yet quiet situation, every convenience. | +| | +| ROOMS TO LET FOR EVENING MEETINGS. | +| | +| OPEN 9 A.M. TO 8 P.M. | +| (SATURDAYS, 7 p.m. in winter, 4 p.m. in summer). | +| | +| Special Nut and other Proteid | F.R. Co's. Shilling Ordinary | +| Foods always on the Menus. | Three Courses, Cheese & Coffee. | +| | | +| Conservative Cooking, | Six varieties of | +| Great variety of dishes. | Sixpenny Teas. | +| | +| _FRUITS, SALADS, and Dishes a la Carte, in great variety._ | +| | +| PROPRIETORS--THE FOOD REFORM COMPANY, LTD. | +|______________________________________________________________________| + + ______________________________________________________________________ +| | +| _Will you try_ | +| _a cup_ [Illustration] | +| _of tea_ | +| | +| that instead of injuring your nerves and toughening your food, is | +| ABSOLUTELY SAFE AND DELIGHTFUL. | +| | +| The Universal Digestive Tea, | +| 2/2, 2/10, 3/6 per lb. | +| | +| is ordinary tea treated with oxygen, which neutralises the injurious | +| tannin. Every pound of ordinary tea contains about two ounces of | +| tannin. Tannin is a powerful astringent substance to tan skins into | +| leather. The tannin in ordinary teas tans, or hardens, the lining of | +| the digestive organs, also the food eaten. This prevents the | +| healthful nourishment of the body and undoubtedly eventuates in | +| nervous disorders. On receipt of a postcard, The Universal | +| Digestive Tea Co., Ltd., COLONIAL WAREHOUSE, KENDAL, will send a | +| sample of this Tea and name of nearest Agent, also a Descriptive | +| Pamphlet compiled by Albert Broadbent, Author of "Science in the | +| Daily Meal," etc. AGENTS WANTED. | +| | +| Sold by The Vegetarian Society, 257 Deansgate, Manchester. | +|______________________________________________________________________| + + ______________________________________________________________________ +| | +| 'IT IS NATURE'S SOAP'--_Dr. Kirk_ (Edinburgh) | +| | +| M'Clinton's Colleen and Tyr-Owen Toilet Soaps are made from the | +| natural salts of plants and vegetable oils only. They have therefore | +| a mildness that no other soap possesses. The use of this soap | +| prevents heat irritation insummer, and keeps the hands from chapping | +| in cold weather. | +| | +| M'Clinton's Shaving Soap is also made from vegetable oils and the | +| ash of plants, and is the only shaving soap so made. | +| | +| M'Clinton's Tooth Soap is free from the nauseous taste of caustic | +| soda. It contains no animal or mineral matter. An ideal dentifrice. | +| | +| We guarantee these statements, and will return the money to anyone | +| dissatisfied with the result of a trial. For 1/6 we will send, post | +| paid, a large assorted box, say with Shaving soap (cake or stick), | +| or Tooth soap as required. Also a pretty Enamelled Matchholder, | +| representing a cottage fireside in this Irish village. | +| | +| _(Dept. S.)_ D. BROWN & SON, Donaghmore, Tyrone, Ireland. | +|______________________________________________________________________| + + ______________________________________________________________________ +| | +| TRADE MARK They have stood the test | +| _______________________________ | +| [Illustration] | +| F.R. NUT MEAT VEJOLA | +| MEATOSE GRAIN GRANULES | +| NUT CREAM ROLLS NUT CARAMELS | +| NUT BUTTER NUTMEATOSE | +| _______________________________ | +| | +| And found to be best | +| | +| Samples of either of the above will be forwarded post free for six | +| stamps. | +| | +| Solely Manufactured by THE LONDON NUT FOOD CO., Health Food | +| Specialists and Manufacturing Confectioners, | +| 465 Battersea Park Road, London, S. W. | +|______________________________________________________________________| + + ______________________________________________________________________ +| | +| EMPIRE LINEN MESH UNDERWEAR. | +| | +| A CONTRAST. | +| | +| _EMPIRE LINEN MESH UNDERWEAR_ _WOOLLEN UNDERWEAR_ | +| | +| Is a clean vegetable product Is an animal product and cannot | +| be properly cleansed | +| Preserves the Natural heat of the Creates unnatural heat | +| body | +| Is porous and open, allowing the Becomes felted and chokes the | +| skin to breathe pores | +| Absorbs moisture very rapidly Absorbs moisture very slowly | +| Dries very rapidly Dries very slowly | +| Radiates away all moisture from Retains the moisture of the body | +| the pores | +| Can be easily cleansed Cannot be boiled without | +| destroying the fabric | +| Hardens and strengthens the Enervates and enfeebles the | +| system system | +| Does not shrink in washing or wear Always shrinks | +| Prevents chills and colds Encourages chills and colds | +| Prevents and relieves Rheumatism Promotes Rheumatism and similar | +| diseases | +| Does not irritate the most Causes Rash and other skin | +| sensitive skin troubles | +| Cures and prevents prickly heat Irritates all skin diseases | +| _________ _________ | +| | +| "They shall be clothed with Linen "And no wool shall come upon | +| garments."--Ezekiel 44.17 them."--Ezekiel 44.17 | +| "But Flax, that cleanest and best "For wool the excretion of a | +| production of the field, is used sluggish body taken from | +| not only for the inner and outer sheep." &c.--Apuleius | +| clothing,"--Apuleius "I go woolward for penance." | +| "They'll find linen enough." --Shakespeare | +| --Shakespeare | +| | +| _Booklets telling all about this underwear, together with patterns | +| of materials can be had free._ | +| The IRISH LINEN MESH CO., Cathedral Buildings, Belfast. | +|______________________________________________________________________| + + ______________________________________________________________________ +| | +| MAPLETON'S | +| NUT FOODS | +| Stand the test alike of time, experience and chemical | +| analysis. They are daily used by all classes in the community, and | +| have been awarded after full analysis the certificate of the | +| Institute of Hygiene, 34 Devonshire St., Harley St., London, W. | +| | +| _These foods were largely used at the Vegetarian Society's Summer | +| School at St. Andrews._ | +| | +| Send for full descriptive Price List from the manufacturer, | +| Hugh Mapleton, 2 and 3 Dolphin St., Ardwick, Manchester, | +| also at Bristol and Hamburg. | +|______________________________________________________________________| + + ______________________________________________________________________ +| | +| The Broadbent Health Booklets. | +| | +| ONE PENNY EACH. | +| | +| 1. How to Keep Warm | +| 2. Bread: Its Influence on Health | +| 3. Constipation Prevented by Diet | +| 4. Dyspepsia Prevented by Diet | +| 5. Dangers in Food (for sufferers from Rheumatisms) | +| 6. Rheumatism and Gout Prevented by Diet | +| 7. Children: Their Health and Food | +| 8. Complexions made Beautiful | +| 9. Nervousness Prevented by Diet | +| 10. The Secrets of Longevity | +| | +| _London:_ R.J. James. London House Yard, E.C. | +| _Philadelphia:_ THE BROADBENT PRESS. 1023 Foulkrod St., Frankford. | +| _Price 3 cents. Special quotations from the Author for quantities--_ | +| _ALBERT BROADBENT, F.S.S., 257 DEANSGATE, MANCHESTER._ | +|______________________________________________________________________| + + ______________________________________________________________________ +| | +| PLASMON | +| | +| ARROWROOT. | +| [Illustration] | +| INFANTS, INVALIDS, &c. | +| | +| Provides the greatest nourishment; | +| _is absolutely non-irritating_, | +| easily digested, and particularly | +| useful in extreme exhaustion | +| and _wasting diseases_. | +| | +| Tins 5d. & 9d. All Chemists. | +|______________________________________________________________________| + + ______________________________________________________________________ +| | +| The Broadbent Health Books. | +| | +| BY ALBERT BROADBENT, F.S.S., F.R.H.S. | +| | +| ______ | +| Fortieth Dietetic | +| Thousand. "SCIENCE IN THE Treatment for | +| Fourpence DAILY MEAL." Gout, | +| Post Free. Rheumatism. | +| | +| "FRUITS, NUTS, AND VEGETABLES," | +| | +| Seventieth Thousand. THEIR Uses As FOOD AND MEDICINE. | +| 3-1/2d. Post Free. | +| | +| "A BOOK ABOUT SALADS." 3-1/2d. Post Free. | +| | +| _All these Books contain Invaluable Recipes._ | +| | +| FROM 257 DEANSGATE, MANCHESTER. | +|______________________________________________________________________| + + ______________HIGHEST IN QUALITY._______________ + | | + | The "Lancet" says, | + | "Cadburys Cocoa undergoes | + | no method of treatment by which | + | foreign substances are | + | introduced." | + | | + | /\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\ | + | | + | Cadbury's | + | | + | THE NICEST COCOA | + | ____ | + |[Illustration] [Illustration] | + | "The standard of highest | + | purity."--_The Lancet._ | + | | + | \/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/ | + | | + | Cadbury's Cocoa is an exceedingly | + | nourishing article of food | + | containing every ingredient | + | necessary for the sustenance of | + | the body. It is the best and | + | safest stimulant for brain workers | + | and those who undergo great | + | bodily exertion. | + | | + |_________________LOWEST IN PRICE__________________| + + + +***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE CHEMISTRY OF FOOD AND +NUTRITION*** + + +******* This file should be named 15237.txt or 15237.zip ******* + + +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: +https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/5/2/3/15237 + + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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