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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/15097-0.txt b/15097-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6db9bce --- /dev/null +++ b/15097-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,2886 @@ +Project Gutenberg's A Grammar of the English Tongue, by Samuel Johnson + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: A Grammar of the English Tongue + +Author: Samuel Johnson + +Release Date: February 18, 2005 [EBook #15097] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE *** + + + + +Produced by Jonathan Ingram, Keith Edkins and the PG Online +Distributed Proofreading Team. + + + + + +A + +DICTIONARY + +OF THE + +ENGLISH LANGUAGE: + +IN WHICH + +THE WORDS ARE DEDUCED FROM THEIR ORIGINALS, +EXPLAINED IN THEIR DIFFERENT MEANINGS, + +AND + +AUTHORIZED BY THE NAMES OF THE WRITERS IN WHOSE WORKS +THEY ARE FOUND. + +ABSTRACTED FROM THE FOLIO EDITION, + +BY THE AUTHOR, + +SAMUEL JOHNSON, LL.D. + + * * * * * + +TO WHICH IS PREFIXED, + +DR. JOHNSON'S PREFACE TO THE ORIGINAL FOLIO EDITION, + +AND + +HIS GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. + +1812. + + * * * * * + +A GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE. + +GRAMMAR, which is the art of using words properly, comprises four parts: +Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody. + + In this division and order of the parts of grammar I follow the common + grammarians, without inquiring whether a fitter distribution might not + be found. Experience has long shown this method to be so distinct as to + obviate confusion, and so comprehensive as to prevent any inconvenient + omissions. I likewise use the terms already received, and already + understood, though perhaps others more proper might sometimes be + invented. Sylburgius, and other innovators, whose new terms have sunk + their learning into neglect, have left sufficient warning against the + trifling ambition of teaching arts in a new language. + +ORTHOGRAPHY is the art of combining letters into syllables, and syllables +into words. It therefore teaches previously the form and sound of letters. + +The letters of the English language are, + +Roman. Italick. Name. + +A a A a a + +B b B b be + +C c C c see + +D d D d dee + +E e E e e + +F f F f eff + +G g G g jee + +H h H h aitch + +I i I i i (or ja) + +J j J j j conson. + +K k K k ka + +L l L l el + +M m M m em + +N n N n en + +O o O o o + +P P P p pee + +Q q Q q cue + +R r R r ar + +S s S s ess + +T t T t tee + +U u U u u (or va) + +V v V v v conson. + +W w W w double u + +X x X x ex + +Y y Y y wy + +Z z Z z zed + +To these may be added certain combinations of letters universally used in +printing; as, fl, ff, fi, ffi, ffl, and &, or and per se, and. + + Our letters are commonly reckoned twenty-four, because anciently i and + j as well as u and v were expressed by the same character; but as those + letters, which had always different powers, have now different forms, + our alphabet may be properly said to consist of twenty-six letters + +Vowels are five, a, e, i, o, u. + +Such is the number generally received; but for i it is the practice to +write y in the end of words, as thy, holy; before i, as from die, dying; +from beautify, beautifying; in the words says, days, eyes; and in words +derived from the Greek, and written originally with υ, as sympathy, +συμπαθεια, system, συστημα. + +For u we often write w after a vowel, to make a diphthong; as, raw, grew, +view, vow, flowing; lowness. + +The sounds of all the letters are various. + + In treating on the letters, I shall not, like some other grammarians, + inquire into the original of their form, as an antiquarian; nor into + their formation and prolation by the organs of speech, as a mechanick, + anatomist, or physiologist; nor into the properties and gradation of + sounds, or the elegance or harshness of particular combinations, as a + writer of universal and transcendental grammar. I consider the English + alphabet only as it is English; and even in this narrow disquisition I + follow the example of former grammarians, perhaps with more reverence + than judgment, because by writing in English I suppose my reader + already acquainted with the English language, and consequently able to + pronounce the letters of which I teach the pronunciation; and because + of sounds in general it may be observed, that words are unable to + describe them. An account, therefore, of the primitive and simple + letters, is useless, almost alike to those who know their sound, and + those who know it not. + +OF VOWELS + +A. + +A has three sounds, the slender, open, and broad. + +A slender is found in most words, as face, mane, and in words ending in +ation, as creation, salvation, generation. + + The a slender is the proper English a, called very justly by Erpenius, + in his Arabick Grammar, a Anglicum cum e mistum, as having a middle + sound between the open a and the e. The French have a similar sound in + the word pais, and in their e masculine. + +A open is the a of the Italian, or nearly resembles it; as father, rather, +congratulate, fancy, glass. + +A broad resembles the a of the German; as all, wall, call. + + Many words pronounced with a broad were anciently written with au; as + sault, mault; and we still say, fault, vault. This was probably the + Saxon sound, for it is yet retained in the northern dialects, and in + the rustick pronunciation; as maun for man, haund for hand. + +The short a approaches to the a open, as grass. + +The long a, if prolonged by e at the end of the word, is always slender, as +graze, fame. + +A forms a diphthong only with i or y, and u or w. Ai or ay, as in plain, +wain, gay, clay, has only the sound of the long and slender a, and differs +not in the pronunciation from plane, wane. + +Au or aw has the sound of the German a, as raw, naughty. + + Ae is sometimes found in Latin words not completely naturalized or + assimilated, but is no English diphthong; and is more properly + expressed by single e, as Cesar, Eneas. + +E. + + E is the letter which occurs most frequently in the English language. + +E is long, as in scēne; or short, as in cĕllar, sĕparate, cĕlebrate, mĕn, +thĕn. + +It is always short before a double consonant, or two consonants, as in vĕx, +pĕrplexity, relĕnt, mĕdlar, rĕptile, sĕrpent, cĕllar, cĕssation, blĕssing, +fĕll, fĕlling, dĕbt. + +E is always mute at the end of a word, except in monosyllables that have no +other vowel, as the; or proper names, as Penelope, Phebe, Derbe; being used +to modify the foregoing consonants, as since, once, hedge, oblige; or to +lengthen the preceding vowel, as băn, bāne; căn, cāne; pĭn, pīne; tŭn, +tūne; rŭb, rūbe; pŏp, pōpe; fĭr, fīre; cŭr, cūre; tŭb, tūbe. + + Almost all words which now terminate in consonants ended anciently in + e, as year, yeare; wildness, wildnesse; which e probably had the force + of the French e feminine, and constituted a syllable with its associate + consonant; for in old editions words are sometimes divided thus, + clea-re, fel-le, knowled-ge. This e was perhaps for a time vocal or + silent in poetry as convenience required; but it has been long wholly + mute. Camden in his Remains calls it the silent e. + +It does not always lengthen the foregoing vowel, as glŏve, lĭve, gĭve. + +It has sometimes in the end of words a sound obscure, and scarcely +perceptible, as open, shapen, shotten, thistle, participle, metre, lucre. + + This faintness of sound is found when e separates a mute from a liquid, + as in rotten, or follows a mute and liquid, as in cattle. + +E forms a diphthong with a, as near; with i, as deign, receive; and with u +or w, as new, stew. + +Ea sounds like e long, as mean; or like ee, as dear, clear, near. + +Ei is sounded like e long, as seize, perceiving. + +Eu sounds as u long and soft. + +E, a, u, are combined in beauty and its derivatives, but have only the +sound of u. + +E may be said to form a diphthong by reduplication, as agree, sleeping. + + Eo is found in yeoman, where it is sounded as o short; and in people, + where it is pronounced like ee. + +I. + +I has a sound long, as fīne; and short as fĭn. + + That is eminently observable in i, which may be likewise remarkable in + other letters, that the short sound is not the long sound contracted, + but a sound wholly different. + +The long sound in monosyllables is always marked by the e final, as thĭn, +thīne. + +I is often sounded before r, as a short u; as flirt, first, shirt. + +It forms a diphthong only with e, as field, shield, which is sounded as the +double ee; except friend, which is sounded as frĕnd. + + I is joined with eu in lieu, and ew in view; which triphthongs are + sounded as the open u. + +O. + +O is long, as bōne, ōbedient, corrōding; or short, as blŏck, knŏck, +ŏblique, lŏll. + +Women is pronounced wimen. + + The short o has sometimes the sound of close u, as son, come. + +O coalesces into a diphthong with a, as moan, groan, approach: oa has the +sound of o long. + + O is united to e in some words derived from Greek, as œconomy; but as + being not an English diphthong, they are better written as they are + sounded, with only e, economy. + +With i, as oil, soil, moil, noisome. + + This coalition of letters seems to unite the sounds of the two letters, + as far as two sounds can be united without being destroyed, and + therefore approaches more nearly than any combination in our tongue to + the notion of a diphthong. + +With o, as boot, hoot, cooler; oo has the sound of the Italian u. + +With u or w, as our, power, flower; but in some words has only the sound of +o long, as in soul, bowl, sow, grow. These different sounds are used to +distinguish different significations: as bow an instrument for shooting; +bow, a depression of the head; sow, the she of a boar; sow, to scatter +seed; bowl, an orbicular body; bowl, a wooden vessel. + +Ou is sometimes pronounced like o soft, as court; sometimes like o short, +as cough; sometimes like u close, as could; or u open, as rough, tough, +which use only can teach. + + Ou is frequently used in the last syllable of words which in Latin end + in or and are made English, as honour, labour, favour, from honor, + labor, favor. + + Some late innovators have ejected the u, without considering that the + last syllable gives the sound neither of or nor ur, but a sound between + them, if not compounded of both; besides that they are probably derived + to us from the French nouns in eur, as honeur, faveur. + +U. + +U is long in ūse, confūsion; or short, as ŭs, concŭssion. + +It coalesces with a, e, i, o; but has rather in these combinations the +force of the w consonant, as quaff, quest, quit, quite, languish; sometimes +in ui the i loses its sound, as in juice. It is sometimes mute before a, e, +i, y, as guard, guest, guise, buy. + + U is followed by e in virtue, but the e has no sound. + + Ue is sometimes mute at the end of a word, in imitation of the French, + as prorogue, synagogue, plague, vague, harangue. + +Y. + +Y is a vowel, which, as Quintilian observes of one of the Roman letters, we +might want without inconvenience, but that we have it. It supplies the +place of i at the end of words, as thy, before an i, as dying; and is +commonly retained in derivative words where it was part of a diphthong, in +the primitive; as, destroy, destroyer; betray, betrayed, betrayer; pray, +prayer; say, sayer; day, days. + + Y being the Saxon vowel y, which was commonly used where i is now put, + occurs very frequently in all old books. + +GENERAL RULES. + +A vowel in the beginning or middle syllable, before two consonants, is +commonly short, as ŏppŏrtunity. + +In monosyllables a single vowel before a single consonant is short; as +stag, frog. + + Many is pronounced as if it were written manny. + + * * * * * + +OF CONSONANTS. + +B. + +B has one unvaried sound, such as it obtains in other languages. + +It is mute in debt, debtor, subtle, doubt, lamb, limb, dumb, thumb, climb, +comb, womb. + + It is used before l and r, as black, brown. + +C. + +C has before e and i the sound of s; as sincerely, centrick, century, +circular, cistern, city, siccity: before a, o, and u, it sounds like k, as +calm, concavity, copper, incorporate, curiosity, concupiscence. + + C might be omitted in the language without loss, since one of its + sounds might be supplied by, s, and the other by k, but that it + preserves to the eye the etymology of words, as face from facies, + captive from captivus. + +Ch has a sound which is analyzed into tsh, as church, chin, crutch. It is +the same sound which the Italians give to the c simple before i and e, as +citta, cerro. + +Ch is sounded like k in words derived from the Greek, as chymist, scheme, +choler. Arch is commonly sounded ark before a vowel, as archangel, and with +the English sound of ch before a consonant, as archbishop. + + Ch, in some French words not yet assimilated, sounds like sh, as + machine, chaise. + + C, according to English orthography, never ends a word; therefore we + write stick, block, which were originally, sticke, blocke. In such + words c is now mute. + + It is used before l and r, as clock, cross. + +D. + +Is uniform in its sound, as death, diligent. + + It is used before r, as draw, dross; and w as dwell. + +F. + +F, though having a name beginning with a vowel, is numbered by the +grammarians among the semivowels, yet has this quality of a mute, that it +is commodiously sounded before a liquid, as flask, fry, freckle. It has an +unvariable sound, except that of is sometimes spoken nearly as ov. + +G. + +G has two sounds; one hard, as in gay, go, gun; the other soft, as in gem, +giant. + +At the end of a word it is always hard, as ring, snug, song, frog. + +Before e and i the sound is uncertain. + +G before e is soft, as gem, generation, except in gear, geld, geese, get, +gewgaw, and derivatives from words ending in g, as singing, stronger, and +generally before er at the ends of words, as finger. + +G is mute before n, as gnash, sign, foreign. + +G before i is hard, as give, except in giant, gigantick, gibbet, gibe, +giblets, Giles, gill, gilliflower, gin, ginger, gingle, to which may be +added Egypt and gypsy. + +Gh in the beginning of a word has the sound of the hard g, as ghostly; in +the middle, and sometimes at the end, it is quite silent, as though, right, +sought, spoken tho', rite, soute. + +It has often at the end the sound of f, as laugh; whence laughter retains +the same sound in the middle; cough, trough, sough, tough, enough, slough. + + It is not to be doubted, but that in the original pronunciation gh has + the force of a consonant deeply guttural, which is still continued + among the Scotch. + + G is used before h, l, and r. + +H. + +H is a note of aspiration, and shows that the following vowel must be +pronounced with a strong emission of breath, as hat, horse. + +It seldom begins any but the first syllable, in which it is always sounded +with a full breath, except in heir, herb, hostler, honour, humble, honest, +humour and their derivatives. + + It sometimes begins middle or final syllables in words compounded, as + blockhead; or derived from the Latin, as comprehend. + +J. + +J consonant sounds uniformly like the soft g, and is therefore a letter +useless, except in etymology, as ejaculation, jester, jocund, juice. + +K. + +K has the sound of hard c, and is used before e and i, where, according to +English analogy, c would be soft, as kept, king, skirt, skeptick, for so it +should be written, not sceptick, because sc is sounded like s, as in scene. + + It is used before n, as knell, knot, but totally loses its sound in + modern pronunciation. + +K is never doubled; but c is used before it to shorten the vowel by a +double consonant, as cockle, pickle. + +L. + +L has in English the same liquid sound as in other languages. + + The custom is to double the l at the end of monosyllables, as kill, + will, full. These words were originally written kille, wille, fulle; + and when the e first grew silent, and was afterward omitted, the ll was + retained, to give force, according to the analogy of our language, to + the foregoing vowel. + +L, is sometimes mute, as in calf, half, halves, calves, could, would, +should, psalm, talk, salmon, falcon. + + The Saxons, who delighted in guttural sounds, sometimes aspirated the l + at the beginning of words, as hlaf, a loaf, or bread; hlaford, a lord; + but this pronunciation is now disused. + +Le at the end of words is pronounced like a weak el, in which the e is +almost mute, as table, shuttle. + +M. + +M has always the same sound, as murmur, monumental. + +N. + +N has always, the same sound, as noble, manners. + +N is sometimes mute after m, as damn, condemn, hymn. + +P. + +P has always the same sound which the Welsh and Germans confound with b. + +P is sometimes mute, as in psalm, and between m and t, as tempt. + +Ph is used for f in words derived from the Greek, as philosopher, +philanthropy, Philip. + +Q. + +Q, as in other languages, is always followed by u, and has a sound which +our Saxon ancestors well expressed by cw, as quadrant, queen, equestrian, +quilt, inquiry, quire, quotidian. Qu is never followed by u. + +Qu is sometimes sounded, in words derived from the French, like k, as +conquer, liquor, risque, chequer. + +R. + +R has the same rough snarling sound as in the other tongues. + + The Saxons used often to put h before it, as before l at the beginning + of words. + + Rh is used in words derived from the Greek, as myrrh, myrrhine, + catarrhous, rheum, rheumatick, rhyme. + +Re, at the end of some words derived from the Latin or French, is +pronounced like a weak er, as theatre, sepulchre. + +S. + +S has a hissing sound, as sibilation, sister. + + A single s seldom ends any word, except in the third person of verbs, + as loves, grows; and the plurals of nouns, as trees, bushes, + distresses; the pronouns this, his, ours, yours, us; the adverb thus; + and words derived from Latin, as rebus, surplus; the close being always + either in se, as house, horse, or in ss, as grass, dress, bliss, less, + anciently grasse, dresse. + +S, single at the end of words, has a grosser sound, like that of z, as +trees, eyes, except this, thus, us, rebus, surplus. + +It sounds like z before ion, if a vowel goes before it, as intrusion; and +like s, if it follows a consonant, as conversion. + +It sounds like z before e mute, as refuse, and before y final, as rosy; and +in those words, bosom, desire, wisdom, prison, prisoner, present, present, +damsel, casement. + + It is the peculiar quality of s, that it may be sounded before all + consonants, except x and z, in which s is comprised, x being only ks, + and z a hard or gross s. This s is therefore termed by grammarians suæ + potestatis litera; the reason of which the learned Dr. Clarke + erroneously supposed to be, that in some words it might be doubled at + pleasure. Thus we find in several languages. + +Σβεννυμι, scatter, sdegno, sdrucciolo, sfavellare, σφιγξ, sgombrare, +sgranare, shake, slumber, smell, snipe, space, splendour, spring, squeeze, +shrew, step, strength, stramen, stripe, sventura, swell. + +S is mute in isle, island, demesne, viscount. + +T. + +T has its customary sound; as take, temptation. + +Ti before a vowel has the sound of si as salvation, except an s goes +before, as question; excepting likewise derivatives from words ending in +ty, as mighty, mightier. + +Th has two sounds; the one soft, as thus, whether; the other hard, as +thing, think. The sound is soft in these words, then, thence, and there, +with their derivatives and compounds, and in that, these, thou, thee, thy, +thine, their, they, this, those, them, though, thus; and in all words +between two vowels, as, father, whether; and between r and a vowel, as +burthen. + +In other words it is hard, as thick, thunder, faith, faithful. Where it is +softened at the end of a word, an e silent must be added, as breath, +breathe; cloth, clothe. + +V. + +V has a sound of near affinity to that of f, as vain, vanity. + + From f in the Islandick alphabet, v is only distinguished by a + diacritical point. + +W. + +Of w, which in diphthongs is often an undoubted vowel, some grammarians +have doubted whether it ever be a consonant; and not rather as it is called +a double u, or ou, as water may be resolved into ouater; but letters of the +same sound are always reckoned consonants in other alphabets: and it may be +observed, that w follows a vowel without any hiatus or difficulty of +utterance, as frosty winter. + +Wh has a sound accounted peculiar to the English, which the Saxons better +expressed by hw, as, what, whence, whiting; in whore only, and sometimes in +wholesome, wh is sounded like a simple h. + +X. + +X begins no English word: it has the sound of ks, as axle, extraneous. + +Y. + +Y, when it follows a consonant, is a vowel; when it precedes either a vowel +or a diphthong, is a consonant, as ye, young. It is thought by some to be +in all cases a vowel. But it may be observed of y as of w, that it follows +a vowel without any hiatus, as rosy youth. + + The chief argument by which w and y appear to be always vowels is, that + the sounds which they are supposed to have as consonants, cannot be + uttered after a vowel, like that of all other consonants; thus we say + tu, ut; do, odd; but in wed, dew; the two sounds of w have no + resemblance to each other. + +Z. + +Z begins no word originally English; it has the sound, as its name izzard +or s hard expresses, of an s uttered with a closer compression of the +palate by the tongue, as freeze, froze. + + In orthography I have supposed orthoepy, or just utterance of words, to + be included; orthography being only the art of expressing certain + sounds by proper characters. I have therefore observed in what words + any of the letters are mute. + + Most of the writers of English grammar have given long tables of words + pronounced otherwise than they are written, and seem not sufficiently + to have considered, that of English, as of all living tongues, there is + a double pronunciation, one cursory and colloquial, the other regular + and solemn. The cursory pronunciation is always vague and uncertain, + being made different in different mouths by negligence, unskilfulness, + or affectation. The solemn pronunciation, though by no means immutable + and permanent, is yet always less remote from the orthography, and less + liable to capricious innovation. They have however generally formed + their tables according to the cursory speech of those with whom they + happened to converse; and concluding that the whole nation combines to + vitiate language in one manner, have often established the jargon of + the lowest of the people as the model of speech. + + For pronunciation the best general rule is, to consider those as the + most elegant speakers who deviate least from the written words. + + There have been many schemes offered for the emendation and settlement + of our orthography, which, like that of other nations, being formed by + chance, or according to the fancy of the earliest writers in rude ages, + was at first very various and uncertain, and is yet sufficiently + irregular. Of these reformers some have endeavoured to accommodate + orthography better to the pronunciation, without considering that this + is to measure by a shadow, to take that for a model or standard which + is changing while they apply it. Others, less absurdly indeed, but with + equal unlikelihood of success, have endeavoured to proportion the + number of letters to that of sounds, that every sound may have its own + character, and every character a single sound. Such would be the + orthography of a new language, to be formed by a synod of grammarians + upon principles of science. But who can hope to prevail on nations to + change their practice, and make all their old books useless? or what + advantage would a new orthography procure equivalent to the confusion + and perplexity of such an alteration? + + Some ingenious men, indeed, have endeavoured to deserve well of their + country, by writing honor and labor for honour and labour, red for read + in the preter-tense, sais for says, repete tor repeat, explane for + explain, or declame for declaim. Of these it may be said, that as they + have done no good they have done little harm; both because they have + innovated little, and because few have followed them. + + The English language has properly no dialects; the style of writers has + no professed diversity in the use of words, or of their flexions and + terminations, nor differs but by different degrees of skill or care. + The oral diction is uniform in no spacious country, but has less + variation in England than in most other nations of equal extent. The + language of the northern counties retains many words now out of use, + but which are commonly of the genuine Teutonick race, and is uttered + with a pronunciation which now seems harsh and rough, but was probably + used by our ancestors. The northern speech is therefore not barbarous, + but obsolete. The speech in the western provinces seems to differ from + the general diction rather by a depraved pronunciation, than by any + real difference which letters would express. + + * * * * * + +ETYMOLOGY. + +Etymology teaches the deduction of one word from another, and the various +modifications by which the sense of the same word is diversified; as horse, +horses; I love, I loved. + +Of the ARTICLE. + +The English have two articles, an or a, and the. + +AN, A. + +A has an indefinite signification, and means one, with some reference to +more; as This is a good book; that is, one among the books that are good; +He was killed by a sword; that is, some sword; This is a better book for a +man than a boy; that is, for one of those that are men than one of those +that are boys; An army might enter without resistance; that is, any army. + +In the senses in which we use a or an in the singular, we speak in the +plural without an article; as these are good books. + + I have made an the original article, because it is only the Saxon an, + or æn, one, applied to a new use, as the German ein, and the French un; + the n being cut off before a consonant in the speed of utterance. + +Grammarians of the last age direct, that an should be used before h; whence +it appears that the English anciently asperated less. An is still used +before the silent h; as an herb, an honest man; but otherwise a; as + + A horse, a horse, my kingdom for a horse. Shakespeare. + +An or a can only be joined with a singular: the correspondent plural is the +noun without an article, as, I want a pen, I want pens; or with the +pronominal adjective some, as, I want some pens. + +THE. + +The has a particular and definite signification. + + The fruit + Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste + Brought death into the world. Milton. + +That is, that particular fruit, and this world in which we live. So, He +giveth fodder for the cattle, and green herbs for the use of man; that is, +for those beings that are cattle, and his use that is man. + +The is used in both numbers. + + I am as free as Nature first made man, + Ere the base laws of servitude began, + When wild in woods the noble savage ran. Dryden. + +Many words are used without articles; as + +1. Proper names, as John, Alexander, Longinus, Aristarchus, Jerusalem, +Athens, Rome, London. GOD is used as a proper name. + +2. Abstract names, as blackness, witch-craft, virtue, vice, beauty, +ugliness, love, hatred, anger, good-nature, kindness. + +3. Words in which nothing but the mere being of any thing is implied: This +is not beer, but water; this is not brass, but steel. + + * * * * * + +Of NOUNS SUBSTANTIVE. + +The relations of English nouns to words going before or following are not +expressed by cases, or changes of termination, but, as in most of the other +European languages, by prepositions, unless we may be said to have a +genitive case. + +Singular. + +Nom. Magister, a Master, the Master. + +Gen. Magistri, of a Master, of the Master, + or Master's, the Master's. + +Dat. Magistro, to a Master, to the Master. + +Acc. Magistrum, a Master, the Master. + +Voc. Magister, Master, O Master. + +Abl. Magistro, from a Master, from the Master. + +Plural. + +Nom. Magistri, Masters, the Masters. + +Gen. Magistrorum, of Masters, of the Masters. + +Dat. Magistris, to Masters, to the Masters. + +Acc. Magistros, Masters, the Masters. + +Voc. Magistri, Masters, O Masters. + +Abl. Magistris, from Masters, from the Masters. + +Our nouns are therefore only declined thus: + +Master, Gen. Master's. Plur. Masters. + +Scholar, Gen. Scholar's. Plur. Scholars. + + These genitives are always written with a mark of elision, master's, + scholar's, according to an opinion long received, that the 's is a + contraction of his, as the soldier's valour, for the soldier his + valour: but this cannot be the true original, because 's is put to + female nouns, Woman's beauty; the Virgin's delicacy; Haughty Juno's + unrelenting hate; and collective nouns, as Women's passions; the + rabble's insolence; the multitude's folly: in all these cases it is + apparent that his cannot be understood. We say likewise the + foundation's strength; the diamond's lustre; the winter's severity: but + in these cases his may be understood, he and his having formerly been + applied to neuters in the place now supplied by it and its. + + The learned and sagacious Wallis, to whom every English grammarian owes + a tribute of reverence, calls this modification of the noun an + adjective possessive; I think with no more propriety than he might have + applied the same to the genitive in equitum decus, Trojæ oris, or any + other Latin genitive. Dr. Lowth, on the other part, supposes the + possessive pronouns mine and thine to be genitive cases. + + This termination of the noun seems to constitute a real genitive + indicating possession. It is derived to us from the Saxon's who + declined smith, a smith; Gen. smither, of a smith; Plur. smither or + smithar, smiths; and so in two other of their seven declensions. + + It is a further confirmation of this opinion, that in the old poets + both the genitive and plural were longer by a syllable than the + original word: knitis for knight's, in Chaucer; leavis for leaves, in + Spenser. + + When a word ends in s, the genitive may be the same with the + nominative, as Venus temple. + +The plural is formed by adding s, as table, tables; fly, flies; sister, +sisters; wood, woods; or es where s could not otherwise be sounded, as +after ch, s, sh, x, z; after c sounded like s, and g like j; the mute e is +vocal before s, as lance, lances; outrage, outrages. + + The formation of the plural and genitive singular is the same. + + A few words still make the plural in n, as men, women, oxen, swine, and + more anciently eyen, shoon. This formation is that which generally + prevails in the Teutonick dialects. + +Words that end in f commonly form their plural by ves, as loaf, loaves; +calf, calves. + + Except a few, muff, muffs; chief, chiefs. So hoof, roof, proof, relief, + mischief, puff, cuff, dwarf, handkerchief, grief. + + Irregular plurals are teeth from tooth, lice from louse, mice from + mouse, geese from goose, feet from foot, dice from die, pence from + penny, brethren from brother, children from child. + +Plurals ending in s have no genitives; but we say, Womens excellencies, and +Weigh the mens wits against the ladies hairs. + + Dr. Willis thinks the Lords' house may he said for the house of Lords; + but such phrases are not now in use; and surely an English ear rebels + against them. They would commonly produce a troublesome ambiguity, as + the Lord's house may be the house of Lords, or the house of a Lord. + Besides that the mark of elision is improper, for in the Lords' house + nothing is cut off. + + Some English substantives, like those of many other languages, change + their termination as they express different sexes; as prince, princess; + actor, actress; lion, lioness; hero, heroine. To these mentioned by Dr. + Lowth may be added arbitress, poetess, chauntress, duchess, tigress, + governess, tutress, peeress, authoress, traytress, and perhaps othets. + Of these variable terminations we have only a sufficient number to make + us feel our want; for when we say of a woman that she is a philosopher, + an astronomer, a builder, a weaver, a dancer, we perceive an + impropriety in the termination which we cannot avoid; but we can say + that she is an architect, a botanist, a student. because these + terminations have not annexed to them the notion of sex. In words which + the necessities of life are often requiring, the sex is distinguished + not by different terminations but by different names, as a bull, a cow; + a horse, a mare; equus, equa; a cock, a hen; and sometimes by pronouns + prefixed, as a he-goat, a, she-goat. + + * * * * * + +Of ADJECTIVES. + +Adjectives in the English language are wholly indeclinable; having neither +case, gender, nor number, and being added to substantives in all relations +without any change; as, a good woman, good women, of a good woman; a good +man, good men, of good men. + +The Comparison of Adjectives. + +The comparative degree of adjectives is formed by adding er, the +superlative by adding est, to the positive; as, fair, fairer, fairest; +lovely, lovelier, loveliest; sweet, sweeter, sweetest; low, lower, lowest; +high, higher, highest. + +Some words are irregularly compared; as, good, better, best; bad, worse, +worst; little, less, least; near, nearer, next; much, more, most; many (for +moe), more (for moer) most (for moest); late, later, latest or last. + +Some comparatives form a superlative by adding, most, as nether, +nethermost; outer, outermost; under, undermost; up, upper, uppermost; fore, +former, foremost. + +Most is sometimes added to a substantive, as, topmost, southmost. + +Many adjectives do not admit of comparison by terminations, and are only +compared by more and most, as, benevolent, more benevolent, most +benevolent. + +All adjectives may be compared by more and most, even when they have +comparatives and superlatives regularly formed; as, fair, fairer, or more +fair; fairest, or most fair. + + In adjectives that admit a regular comparison, the comparative more is + oftener used than the superlative most, as more fair is oftener written + for fairer, than most fair for fairest. + +The comparison of adjectives is very uncertain; and being much regulated by +commodiousness of utterance, or agreeableness of sound, is not easily +reduced to rules. + +Monosyllables are commonly compared. + +Polysyllables, or words of more than two syllables, are seldom compared +otherwise than by more and most, as, deplorable, more deplorable, most +deplorable. + +Dissyllables are seldom compared if they terminate in some, as fulsome, +toilsome; in ful, as, careful, spleenful, dreadful; in ing, as trifling, +charming; in ous, as porous; in less, as, careless, harmless; in ed, as +wretched; in id, as candid; in al, as mortal; in ent, as recent, fervent; +in ain, as certain; in ive, as missive; in dy, as woody; in fy, as puffy; +in ky, as rocky, except lucky; in my, as roomy; in ny, as skinny; in py, as +ropy, except happy; in ry, as hoary. + + Some comparatives and superlatives are yet found in good writers formed + without regard to the foregoing rules; but in a language subjected so + little and so lately to grammar, such anomalies must frequently occur. + +So shady is compared by Milton. + + She in shadiest covert hid, + Tun'd her nocturnal note. Par. Lost. + +And virtuous. + + What she wills to say or do, + Seems wisest, virtuousest, discreetest, best. Par. Lost. + +So trifling by Ray, who is indeed of no great authority. + + It is not so decorous, in respect of God, that he should immediately do + all the meanest and triflingest things himself, without making use of + any inferior or subordinate minister. Ray on the Creation. + +Famous, by Milton. + + I shall be nam'd among the famousest + Of women, sung at solemn festivals. Milton's Agonistes. + +Inventive, by Ascham. + + Those have the inventivest heads for all purposes, and roundest tongues + in all matters. Ascham's Schoolmaster. + +Mortal, by Bacon. + + The mortalest poisons practised by the West Indians, have some mixture + of the blood, fat, or flesh of man. Bacon. + +Natural, by Wotton. + + I will now deliver a few of the properest and naturalest considerations + that belong to this piece. Wotton's Architecture. + +Wretched, by Jonson. + + The wretcheder are the contemners of all helps; such as presuming on + their own naturals, deride diligence, and mock at terms when they + understand not things. Ben Jonson. + +Powerful, by Milton. + + We have sustain'd one day in doubtful fight, + What heav'n's great king hath pow'rfullest to send + Against us from about his throne. Par. Lost. + + The termination in ish may be accounted in some sort a degree of + comparison, by which the signification is diminished below the + positive, as black, blackish, or tending to blackness; salt, saltish, + or having a little taste of salt; they therefore admit no comparison. + This termination is seldom added but to words expressing sensible + qualities, nor often to words of above one syllable, and is scarcely + used in the solemn or sublime style. + + * * * * * + +Of PRONOUNS. + +Pronouns, in the English language, are, I, thou, he, with their plurals, +we, ye, they; it, who, which, what, whether, whosoever, whatsoever, my, +mine, our, ours, thy, thine, your, yours, his, her, hers, theirs, this, +that, other, another, the same, some. + +The pronouns personal are irregularly inflected. + + Singular. Plural. + +Nom. I, We. + +Accus. and Me, Us. +other oblique +cases. + +Nom. Thou, Ye. + +Oblique. Thee, You. + +You is commonly used in modern writers for ye, particularly in the language +of ceremony, where the second person plural is used for the second person +singular, You are my friend. + + Singular. Plural. + +Nom. He, They, Applied to masculines. + +Oblique. Him, Them. + +Nom. She, They, Applied to feminines. + +Oblique. Her, Them. + +Nom. It, They, Applied to neuters or things. + +Oblique. Its, Them. + +For it the practice of ancient writers was to use he, and for its, his. + +The possessive pronouns, like other adjectives, are without cases or change +of termination. + +The possessive of the first person is my, mine, our, ours; of the second, +thy, thine, your, yours; of the third, from he, his; from she, her, and +hers; and in the plural, their, theirs, for both sexes. + + Ours, yours, hers, theirs, are used when the substantive preceding is + separated by a verb, as These are our books. These books are ours. Your + children excel ours in stature, but ours surpass yours in learning. + + Ours, yours, hers, theirs, notwithstanding their seeming plural + termination, are applied equally to singular and plural substantives, + as, This book is ours. These books are ours. + + Mine and thine were formerly used before a vowel, as mine amiable lady: + which though now disused in prose, might be still properly continued in + poetry: they are used as ours and yours, when they are referred to a + substantive preceding, as thy house is larger than mine, but my garden + is more spacious than thine. + +Their and theirs are the possessives likewise of they, when they is the +plural of it, and are therefore applied to things. + +Pronouns relative are, who, which, what, whether, whosoever, whatsoever. + +Nom. Who. + +Gen. Whose. + +Other oblique cases. Whom. + +Nom. Which. + +Gen. Of which, or whose. + +Other oblique cases. Which. + + Who is now used in relation to persons, and which in relation to + things; but they were anciently confounded. At least it was common to + say, the man which, though I remember no example of the thing who. + + Whose is rather the poetical than regular genitive of which. + + The fruit + Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste + Brought death into the world. Milton. + +Whether is only used in the nominative and accusative cases; and has no +plural, being applied only to one of a number, commonly to one of two, as +Whether of these is left I know not. Whether shall I choose? It is now +almost obsolete. + +What, whether relative or interrogative, is without variation. + +Whosoever, whatsoever, being compounded of who or what, and soever, follow +the rule of their primitives. + + Singular. Plural. + + This These + +In all cases. That Those. + + Other, Others. + + Whether. + + The plural others is not used but when it is referred to a substantive + preceding, as I have sent other horses. I have not sent the same + horses, but others. + +Another, being only an other, has no plural. + +Here, there, and where, joined with certain particles, have a relative and +pronominal use. Hereof, herein, hereby, hereafter, herewith, thereof, +therein, thereby, thereupon, therewith, whereof, wherein, whereby, +whereupon, wherewith, which signify, of this, in this, &c. of that, in +that, &c. of which, in which, &c. + +Therefore and wherefore, which are properly there for and where for, for +that, for which, are now reckoned conjunctions, and continued in use. The +rest seem to be passing by degrees into neglect, though proper, useful, and +analogous. They are referred both to singular and plural antecedents. + +There are two more words used only in conjunction with pronouns, own and +self. + +Own is added to possessives, both singular and plural, as my own hand, our +own house. It is emphatical, and implies a silent contrariety, or +opposition; as, I live in my own house, that is, not in a hired house. This +I did with my own hand, that is, without help or not by proxy. + +Self is added to possessives, as myself, yourselves; and sometimes to +personal pronouns, as himself, itself, themselves. It then, like own, +expresses emphasis and opposition, as I did this myself, that is, not +another; or it forms a reciprocal pronoun, as We hurt ourselves by vain +rage. + + Himself, itself, themselves, are supposed by Wallis to be put by + corruption, for his self, it self, their selves; so that self is always + a substantive. This seems justly observed, for we say, He came himself; + Himself shall do this; where himself cannot be an accusative. + + * * * * * + +Of the VERB. + +English verbs are active, as I love; or neuter, as I languish. The neuters +are formed like the actives. + + Most verbs signifying action may likewise signify condition or habit, + and become neuters; as I love, I am in love; I strike, I am now + striking. + +Verbs have only two tenses inflected in their terminations, the present, +and simple preterit; the other tenses are compounded of the auxiliary +verbs, have, shall, will, let, may, can, and the infinitive of the active +or neuter verb. + +The passive voice is formed by joining the participle preterit to the +substantive verb, as I am loved. + +To have. Indicative Mood. + +Present Tense. + + Sing. I have, thou hast, he hath or has, + Plur. We have, ye have, they have. + + Has is a termination connoted from hath, but now more frequently used + both in verse and prose. + +Simple Preterit. + + Sing. I had, thou hadst, he had + Plur. We had, ye had, they had. + +Compound Preterit. + + Sing. I have had, thou hast had, he has or hath had; + Plur. We have had, ye have had, they have had. + +Preterpluperfect. + + Sing. I had had, thou hadst had, he had had. + Plur. We had had, ye had had, they had had. + +Future. + + Sing. I shall have, thou shalt have, he shall have; + Plur. We shall have, ye shall have, they shall have. + +Second Future. + + Sing. I will have, thou wilt have, he will have; + Plur. We will have, ye wilt have, they will have. + + By reading these future tenses may be observed the variations of shall + and will. + +Imperative Mood. + + Sing. Have, or have thou, let him have; + Plur. Let us have, have or have ye, let them have. + +Conjunctive Mood. + +Present. + + Sing. I have, thou have, he have; + Plur. We have, ye have, they have. + +Preterit simple as in the Indicative. + +Preterit compound. + + Sing. I have had, thou have had, he have had; + Plur. We have had, ye have had, they have had. + +Future. + + Sing. I shall have, as in the Indicative. + +Second Future. + + Sing. I shall have had, thou shalt have had, he shall have had; + Plur. We shall have had, ye shall have had, they shall have had. + +Potential. + +The potential form of speaking is expressed by may, can, in the present; +and might, could, or should, in the preterit, joined with the infinitive +mood of the verb. + +Present. + + Sing. I may have, thou mayst have, he may have; + Plur. We may have, ye may have, they may have. + +Preterit. + + Sing. I might have, thou mightst have, he might have; + Plur. We might have, ye might have, they might have. + +Present. + + Sing. I can have, thou canst have, he can have; + Plur. We can have, ye can have, they can have. + +Preterit. + + Sing. I could have, thou couldst have, he could have; + Plur. We could have, ye could have, they could have. + +In like manner should is united to the verb. + +There is likewise a double Preterit. + + Sing. I should have had, thou shouldst have had, he should have had; + Plur. We should have had, ye should have had, they should have had. + +In like manner we use, I might have had; I could have had, &c. + +Infinitive Mood. + + Present. To have. + Preterit. To have had. + Participle present. Having. + Participle preterit. Had. + +Verb Active. To love. + +Indicative. Present. + + Sing. I love, thou lovest, he loveth or loves; + Plur. We love, ye love, they love. + +Preterit simple. + + Sing. I loved, thou lovedst, he loved; + Plur. We loved, ye loved, they loved. + Preterperfect compound. I have loved, &c. + Preterpluperfect. I had loved, &c. + Future. I shall love, &c. I will love, &c. + +Imperative. + + Sing. Love or love thou, let him love; + Plur. Let us love, love or love ye, let them love. + +Conjunctive. Present. + + Sing. I love, thou love, he love; + Plur. We love, ye love, they love. + Preterit simple, as in the indicative. + Preterit compound. I have loved, &c. + Future. I shall love, &c. + Second Future. I shall have loved, &c. + +Potential. + + Present. I may or can love, &c. + Preterit. I might, could, or should love, &c. + Double Preterit. I might, could, or should have + loved, &c. + +Infinitive. + + Present. To love. + Preterit. To have loved. + Participle present. Loving. + Participle past. Loved. + +The passive is formed by the addition of the participle preterit to the +different tenses of the verb to be, which must therefore be here exhibited. + +Indicative. Present. + + Sing. I am, thou art, he is; + Plur. We are or be, ye are or be, they are or be. + The plural be is now little in use. + +Preterit. + + Sing. I was, thou wast or wert, he was; + Plur. We were, ye were, they were. + +Wert is properly of the conjunctive mood, and ought not to be used in the +indicative. + + Preterit compound. I have been, &c. + Preterpluperfect. I had been, &c. + Future. I shall or will be, &c. + +Imperative. + + Sing. Be thou; let him be; + Plur. Let us be; be ye; let them be. + +Conjunctive. Present. + + Sing. I be, thou beest, he be; + Plur. We be, ye be, they be. + +Preterit. + + Sing. I were, thou wert, he were; + Plur. We were, ye were, they were. + Preterit compound. I have been, &c. + Future. I shall have been, &c. + +Potential. + + I may or can; would, could, or should be; could, + would, or should have been, &c. + +Infinitive. + + Present. To be. + Preterit. To have been. + Participle present. Being. + Participle preterit. Having been. + +Passive Voice. Indicative Mood. + + I am loved, &c. I was loved, &c. I have been + loved, &c. + +Conjunctive Mood. + + If I be loved, &c. If I were loved, &c. If I shall + have been loved, &c. + +Potential Mood. + + I may or can be loved, &c. I might, could, or + should be loved, &c. I might, could, or should + have been loved, &c. + +Infinitive. + + Present. To be loved. + Preterit. To have been loved. + Participle. Loved. + +There is another form of English verbs, in which the infinitive mood is +joined to the verb do in its various inflections, which are therefore to be +learned in this place. + +To do. + +Indicative. Present. + + Sing. I do, thou dost, he doth; + Plur. We do, ye do, they do. + +Preterit. + + Sing. I did, thou didst, he did; + Plur. We did, ye did, they did. + Preterit., &c. I have done, &c. I had done, &c. + Future. I shall or will do, &c. + +Imperative. + + Sing. Do thou, let him do; + Plur. Let us do, do ye, let them do. + +Conjunctive. Present. + + Sing. I do, thou do, he do; + Plur. We do, ye do, they do. + +The rest are as in the Indicative. + + Infinite. To do, to have done. + Participle present. Doing. + Participle preterit. Done. + +Do is sometimes used superfluously, as I do love, I did love; simply for I +love, or I loved; but this is considered as a vitious mode of speech. + +It is sometimes used emphatically; as, + + I do love thee, and when I love thee not, + Chaos is come again. Shakespeare. + +It is frequently joined with a negative; as, I like her, but I do not love +her; I wished him success, but did not help him. This, by custom at least, +appears more easy than the other form of expressing the same sense by a +negative adverb after the verb, I like her, but love her not. + +The imperative prohibitory is seldom applied in the second person, at least +in prose, without the word do; as, Stop him, but do not hurt him; Praise +beauty, but do not dote on it. + +Its chief use is in interrogative forms of speech, in which it is used +through all the persons; as, Do I live? Dost thou strike me? Do they rebel? +Did I complain? Didst thou love her? Did she die? So likewise in negative +interrogations; Do I not yet grieve? Did she not die? + +Do and did are thus used only for the present and simple preterit. + +There is another manner of conjugating neuter verbs, which, when it is +used, may not improperly denominate them neuter passives, as they are +inflected according to the passive form by the help of the verb substantive +to be. They answer nearly to the reciprocal verbs in French; as, I am +risen, surrexi, Latin; Je me suis levé, French. I was walked out, exieram: +Je m'étois promené. + +In like manner we commonly express the present tense; as, I am going, eo. I +am grieving, doleo, She is dying, illa moritur. The tempest is raging, +furit procella. I am pursuing an enemy, hostem insequor. So the other +tenses, as, We were walking, ετυγχανομεν περιπατουντες, I have been +walking, I had been walking, I shall or will be walking. + +There is another manner of using the active participle, which gives it a +passive signification: as, The grammar is now printing, grammatica jam nunc +chartis imprimitur. The brass is forging, ara excuduntur. This is, in my +opinion, a vitious expression, probably corrupted from a phrase more pure, +but now somewhat obsolete: The book is a printing, The brass is a forging; +a being properly at, and printing and forging verbal nouns signifying +action, according to the analogy of this language. + +The indicative and conjunctive moods are by modern writers frequently +confounded, or rather the conjunctive is wholly neglected, when some +convenience of versification docs not invite its revival. It is used among +the purer writers of former times after if, though, ere, before, till or +until, whether, except, unless, whatsoever, whomsoever, and words of +wishing; as, Doubtless thou art our father, though Abraham be ignorant of +us, and Israel acknowledge us not. + + * * * * * + +Of IRREGULAR VERBS. + +The English verbs were divided by Ben Jonson into four conjugations, +without any reason arising from the nature of the language, which has +properly but one conjugation, such as has been exemplified: from which all +deviations are to be considered as anomalies, which are indeed, in our +monosyllable Saxon verbs, and the verbs derived from them, very frequent; +but almost all the verbs which have been adopted from other languages, +follow the regular form. + + Our verbs are observed by Dr. Wallis to be irregular only in the + formation of the preterit, and its participle. Indeed, in the + scantiness of our conjugations, there is scarcely any other place for + irregularity. + +The first irregularity is a slight deviation from the regular form, by +rapid utterance or poetical contraction: the last syllable ed is often +joined with the former by suppression of e; as lov'd for loved; after c, +ch, sh, f, k, x, and after the consonants s, th, when more strongly +pronounced, and sometimes after m, n, r, if preceded by a short vowel, t is +used in pronunciation, but very seldom in writing rather than d; as plac't, +snatch't, fish't, wak't, dwel't, smel't for plac'd, snatch'd, fish'd, +wak'd, dwel'd, smel'd; or placed, snatched, fished, waked, dwelled, +smelled. + +Those words which terminate in l or ll, or p, make their preterit in t, +even in solemn language; as crept, felt, dwelt; Sometimes after x, ed is +changed into t; as vext: this is not constant. + +A long vowel is often changed into a short one; thus kept, slept, wept, +crept, swept; from the verbs to keep, to sleep, to weep, to creep, to +sweep. + +Where d or t go before, the additional letter d or t, in this contracted +form, coalesce into one letter with the radical d or t: if t were the +radical, they coalesce into t; but if d were the radical, then into d or t, +as the one or the other letter may be more easily pronounced; as read, led, +spread, shed, shred, bid, hid, chid, fed, bled, bred, sped, strid, slid, +rid; from the verbs to read, to lead, to spread, to shed, to shread, to +bid, to hide, to chide, to feed, to bleed, to breed, to speed, to stride, +to slide, to ride. And thus cast, hurt, cost, burst, eat, beat, sweat, sit, +quit, smit, writ, bit, hit, met, shot; from the verbs to cast, to hurt, to +cost, to burst, to eat, to beat, to sweat, to sit, to quit, to smite, to +write, to bite, to hit, to meet, to shoot. And in like manner, lent, sent, +rent, girt; from the verbs to lend, to send, to rend, to gird. + +The participle preterit or passive is often formed in en instead of ed; as, +been, taken, given, slain, known, from the verbs to be, to take, to give, +to slay, to know. + +Many words have two or more participles, as not only written, bitten, +eaten, beaten, hidden, chidden, shotten, chosen, broken; but likewise writ, +bit, eat, beat, hid, chid, shot, chose, broke, are promiscuously used in +the participle, from the verbs to write, to bite, to eat, to beat, to hide, +to chide, to shoot, to choose, to break, and many such like. + +In the same manner, sown, shewn, hewn, mown, loaden, laden, as well as +sow'd, show'd, hew'd, mow'd, loaded, laded, from the verbs to sow, to show, +to hew, to mow, to load, to lade. + +Concerning these double participles it is difficult to give any rule; but +he shall seldom err who remembers, that when a verb has a participle +distinct from its preterit, as write, wrote, written, that distinct +participle is more proper and elegant, as The book is written, is better +than The book is wrote. Wrote however may be used in poetry; at least, if +we allow any authority to poets, who, in the exultation of genius, think +themselves perhaps entitled to trample on grammarians. + +There are other anomalies in the preterit. + +1. Win, spin, begin, swim, strike, stick, sing, sting, fling, ring, wring, +spring, swing, drink, sink, shrink, stink, come, run, find, bind, grind, +wind, both in the preterit imperfect and participle passive, give won, +spun, begun, swum, struck, stuck, sung, stung, flung, rung, wrung, sprung, +swung, drunk, sunk, shrunk, stunk, come, run, found, bound, ground, wound. +And most of them are also formed in the preterit by a, as began, sang, +rang, sprang, drank, came, ran, and some others; but most of these are now +obsolete. Some in the participle passive likewise take en, as stricken, +strucken, drunken, bounden. + +2. Fight, teach, reach, seek, beseech, catch, buy, bring, think, work, make +fought, taught, raught, sought, besought, caught, bought, brought, thought, +wrought. + +But a great many of these retain likewise the regular form, as teached, +reached, beseeched, catched, worked. + +3. Take, shake, forsake, wake, awake, stand, break, speak, bear, shear, +swear, tear, wear, weave, cleave, strive, thrive, drive, shine, rise, +arise, smite, write, bide, abide, ride, choose, chuse, tread, get, beget, +forget, seethe, make in both preterit and participle took, shook, forsook, +woke, awoke, stood, broke, spoke, bore, shore, swore, tore, wore, wove, +clove, strove, throve, drove, shone, rose, arose, smote, wrote, bode, +abode, rode, chose, trode, got, begot, forgot, sod. But we say likewise, +thrive, rise, smit, writ, abid, rid. In the preterit some are likewise +formed by a, as brake, spake, bare, share, sware, tare, ware, clave, gat, +begat, forgat, and perhaps some others, but more rarely. In the participle +passive many of them are formed by en, as taken, shaken, forsaken, broken, +spoken, born, shorn, sworn, torn, worn, woven, cloven, thriven, driven, +risen, smitten, ridden, chosen, trodden, gotten, begotten, forgotten, +sodden. And many do likewise retain the analogy in both, as waked, awaked, +sheared, weaved, cleaved, abided, seethed. + +4. Give, bid, sit, make in the preterit gave, bade, sate; in the participle +passive given, bidden, sitten; but in both bid. + +5. Draw, know, grow, throw, blow, crow like a cock, fly, slay, see, ly, +make their preterit drew, knew, grew, threw, blew, crew, flew, slew, saw, +lay; their participles passive by n, drawn, known, grown, thrown, blown, +flown, slain, seen, lien, lain. Yet from flee is made fled; from go, went, +(from the old wend) the participle is gone. + + * * * * * + +Of DERIVATION. + + That the English language may be more easily understood, it is + necessary to inquire how its derivative words are deduced from their + primitives, and how the primitives are borrowed from other languages. + In this inquiry I shall sometimes copy Dr. Wallis, and sometimes + endeavour to supply his detects, and rectify his errours. + +Nouns are derived from verbs. + +The thing implied in the verb, as done or produced, is commonly either the +present of the verb; as to love, love; to fright, a fright; to fight, a +fight; or the preterit of the verb, as to strike, I strick or strook, a +stroke. + +The action is the same with the participle present, as loving, frighting, +fighting, striking. + +The agent, or person acting, is denoted by the syllable er added to the +verb, as lover, frighter, striker. + +Substantives, adjectives, and sometimes other parts of speech, are changed +into verbs: in which case the vowel is often lengthened, or the consonant +softened; as, a house, to house; brass, to braze; glass, to glaze; grass, +to graze; price, to prize; breath, to breathe; a fish, to fish; oil, to +oil; further, to further; forward, to forward; hinder, to hinder. + +Sometimes the termination en is added, especially to adjectives; as, haste, +to hasten; length, to lengthen; strength, to strengthen; short, to shorten; +fast, to fasten; white, to whiten; black, to blacken; hard, to harden; +soft, to soften. + +From substantives are formed adjectives of plenty, by adding the +termination y: as a louse, lousy; wealth, wealthy; health, healthy; might, +mighty; worth, worthy; wit, witty; lust, lusty; water, watery, earth, +earthy; wood, (a wood) woody; air, airy; a heart, hearty; a hand, handy. + +From substantives are formed adjectives of plenty, by adding the +termination ful, denoting abundance; as, joy, joyful; fruit, fruitful; +youth, youthful; care, careful; use, useful; delight, delightful; plenty, +plentiful; help, helpful. + +Sometimes in almost the same sense, but with some kind of diminution +thereof, the termination some is added, denoting something, or in some +degree; as delight, delightsome; game, gamesome; irk, irksome; burden, +burdensome; trouble, troublesome; light, lightsome; hand, handsome; alone, +lonesome; toil, toilsome. + +On the contrary, the termination less added to substantives, makes +adjectives signifying want; as, worthless, witless, heartless, joyless, +careless, helpless. Thus comfort, comfortless; sap, sapless. + +Privation or contrariety is very often denoted by the participle un +prefixed to many adjectives, or in before words derived from the Latin; as +pleasant, unpleasant; wise, unwise; profitable, unprofitable, patient, +impatient. Thus unworthy, unhealthy, unfruitful, unuseful, and many more. + + The original English privative is un; but as we often borrow trom the + Latin, or its descendants, words already signifying privation, as + inefficacious, impious, indiscreet, the inseparable particles un and in + have fallen into confusion, from which it is not easy to disentangle + them. + + Un is prefixed to all words originally English, as untrue, untruth, + untaught, unhandsome. + + Un is prefixed to all participles made privative adjectives, as + unfeeling, unassisting, unaided, undelighted, unendeared. + + Un ought never to be prefixed to a participle present to mark a + forbearance of action, as unsighing, but a privation of habit, as + unpitying. + + Un is prefixed to most substantives which have an English termination, + as unfertileness, unperfectness, which, if they have borrowed + terminations, take in or im, as infertility, imperfection; uncivil, + incivility; unactive, inactivity. + + In borrowing adjectives, if we receive them already compounded, it is + usual to retain the particle prefixed, as indecent, inelegant, + improper; but if we borrow the adjective, and add the privative + particle, we commonly prefix un, as unpolite, ungallant. + +The prepositive particles dis and mis, derived from the des and mes of the +French, signify almost the same as un; yet dis rather imports contrariety +than privation, since it answers to the Latin preposition de. Mis +insinuates some errour, and for the most part may be rendered by the Latin +words male or perperam. To like, to dislike; honour, dishonour; to honour, +to grace, to dishonour, to disgrace; to deign, to disdeign; chance, hap, +mischance, mishap; to take, to mistake; deed, misdeed; to use, to misuse; +to employ, to misemploy, to apply, to misapply. + +Words derived from Latin written with de or dis retain the same +signification; as distinguish, distinguo; detract, detraho; defame, defamo; +detain, detineo. + +The termination ly added to substantives, and sometimes to adjectives, +forms adjectives that import some kind of similitude or agreement, being +formed by contraction of lick or like. A giant, giantly, giantlike; earth, +earthly; heaven, heavenly; world, worldly; God, godly; good, goodly. + +The same termination ly, added to adjectives, forms adverbs of like +signification; as, beautiful, beautifully; sweet, sweetly; that is, in a +beautiful manner; with some degree of sweetness. + +The termination ish added to adjectives, imports diminution; and added to +substantives, imports similitude or tendency to a character; as green, +greenish; white, whitish; soft, softish; a thief, thievish; a wolf, +wolfish; a child, childish. + +We have forms of diminutives in substantives, though not frequent; as a +hill, a hillock; a cock, a cockrel; a pike, a pickrel; this is a French +termination: a goose, a gosling; this is a German termination: a lamb, a +lambkin; a chick, a chicken; a man, a manikin; a pipe, a pipkin; and thus +Halkin, whence the patronymick, Hawkins; Wilkin, Thomkin, and others. + + Yet still there is another form of diminution among the English, by + lessening the sound itself, especially of vowels, as there is a form of + augmenting them by enlarging or even lengthening it; and that sometimes + not so much by change of the letters, as of their pronunciation; as, + sup, sip, soop, sop, sippet, where, besides the extenuation of the + vowel, there is added the French termination et; top, tip; spit, spout; + babe, baby; booby, Βουπαις; great pronounced long, especially if with a + stronger sound, grea-t; little, pronounced long lee-tle; ting, tang, + tong, imports a succession of smaller and then greater sounds; and so + in jingle, jangle, tingle, tangle, and many other made words. + + Much however of this is arbitrary and fanciful, depending wholly on + oral utterance, and therefore scarcely worthy the notice of Wallis. + +Of concrete adjectives are made abstract substantives, by adding the +termination ness; and a few in hood or head, noting character or qualities: +as white, whiteness; hard, hardness; great, greatness; skilful, +skilfulness, unskilfulness; godhead, manhood, maidenhead, widowhood, +knighthood, priesthood, likelihood, falsehood. + +There are other abstracts, partly derived from adjectives, and partly from +verbs, which are formed by the addition of the termination th, a small +change being sometimes made; as long, length; strong, strength; broad, +breadth; wide, width, deep, depth; true, truth; warm, warmth; dear, dearth; +slow, slowth; merry, mirth; heal, health; well, weal, wealth; dry, drought; +young, youth; and so moon, month. + +Like these are some words derived from verbs; die, death; till, tilth; +grow, growth; mow, later mowth, after mowth; commonly spoken and written +later math, after math; steal, stealth; bear, birth, rue, ruth; and +probably earth, from to ear or plow; fly, flight; weigh, weight; fray, +fright; draw, draught. + + These should rather be written flighth, frighth, only that custom will + not suffer h to be twice repeated. + + The same form retain faith, spight, wreathe, wrath, broth, froth, + breath, sooth, worth, light, wight, and the like, whose primitives are + either entirely obsolete, or seldom occur. Perhaps they are derived + from fey or foy, spry, wry, wreak, brew, mow, fry, bray, say, work. + +Some ending in ship, imply an office, employment, or condition; as, +kingship, wardship, guardianship, partnership, stewardship, headship, +lordship. + + Thus worship, that is, worthship; whence worshipful, and to worship. + +Some few ending in dom, rick, wick, do especially denote dominion, at least +state or condition; as, kingdom, dukedom, earldom, princedom, popedom, +Christendom, freedom, wisdom, whoredom, bishoprick, bailiwick. + +Ment and age are plainly French terminations and are of the same import +with us as among them, scarcely ever occurring, except in words derived +from the French, as commandment, usage. + + There are in English often long trains of words allied by their meaning + and derivation; as, to beat, a bat, batoon, a battle, a beetle, a + battledore, to batter, batter, a kind of glutinous composition for + food, made by beating different bodies into one mass. All these are of + similar signification, and perhaps derived from the Latin batuo. Thus + take, touch, tickle, tack, tackle; all imply a local conjunction from + the Latin tango, tetigi, tactum. + + From two are formed twain, twice, twenty, twelve, twins, twine, twist, + twirl, twig, twitch, twinge, between, betwixt, twilight, twibil. + + The following remarks, extracted from Wallis, are ingenious but of more + subtlety than solidity, and such as perhaps might in every language be + enlarged without end. + + Sn usually imply the nose, and what relates to it. From the Latin nasus + are derived the French nez and the English nose; and nesse, a + promontory, as projecting like a nose. But as if from the consonants ns + taken from nasus, and transposed that they may the better correspond, + sn denote nasus; and thence are derived many words that relate to the + nose, as snout, sneeze, snore, snort,snear, snicker, snot, snivel, + snite, snuff, snuffle, snaffle, snarl, snudge. + + There is another sn which may perhaps be derived from the Latin sinuo, + as snake, sneak, snail, snare; so likewise snap and snatch, snib, snub. + Bl imply a blast; as blow, blast, to blast, to blight, and, + metaphorically, to blast one's reputation; bleat, bleak, a bleak place, + to look bleak, or weather-beaten, black, blay, bleach, bluster, blurt, + blister, blab, bladder, blew, blabber lip't, blubber-cheek't, bloted, + blote-herrings, blast, blaze, to blow, that is, blossom, bloom; and + perhaps blood and blush. + + In the native words of our tongue is to be found a great agreement + between the letters and the thing signified; and therefore the sounds + of the letters smaller, sharper, louder, closer, softer, stronger, + clearer, more obscure, and more stridulous, do very often intimate the + like effects in the things signified. + + Thus words that begin with str intimate the force and effect of the + thing signified, as if probably derived from στρωννυμι, or strenuous; + as strong, strength, strew, strike, streak, stroke, stripe, strive, + strife, struggle, strout, strut, stretch, strait, strict, streight, + that is, narrow, distrain, stress, distress, string, strap, stream, + streamer, strand, strip, stray, struggle, strange, stride, stradale. + + St in like manner imply strength, but in a less degree, so much only as + is sufficient to preserve what has been already communicated, rather + than acquire any new degree; as if it were derived from the Latin sto; + for example, stand, stay, that is, to remain, or to prop; staff, stay, + that is, to oppose; stop, to stuff, stifle, to stay, that is, to stop; + a stay, that is, an obstacle; stick, stut, stutter, stammer, stagger, + stickle, stick, stake, a sharp, pale, and any thing deposited at play; + stock, stem, sting, to sting, stink, stitch, stud, stuncheon, stub, + stubble, to stub up, stump, whence stumble, stalk, to stalk, step, to + stamp with the feet, whence to stamp, that is, to make an impression + and a stamp; stow, to stow, to bestow, steward, or stoward; stead, + steady, stedfast, stable, a stable, a stall, to stall, stool, stall, + still, stall, stallage, stage, still, adjective, and still, adverb: + stale, stout, sturdy, stead, stoat, stallion, stiff, stark-dead, to + starve with hunger or cold; stone, steel, stern, stanch, to stanch + blood, to stare, steep, steeple, stair, standard, a stated measure, + stately. In all these, and perhaps some others, st denote something + firm and fixed. + + Thr imply a more violent degree of motion, as throw, thrust, throng, + throb, through, threat, threaten, thrall, throws. + + Wr imply some sort of obliquity or distortion, as wry, to wreathe, + wrest, wrestle, wring, wrong, wrinch, wrench, wrangle, wrinkle, wrath, + wreak, wrack, wretch, wrist, wrap. + + Sw imply a silent agitation, or a softer kind of lateral motion; as + sway, swag, to sway, swagger, swerve, sweat, sweep, swill, swim, swing, + swift, sweet, switch, swinge. + + Nor is there much difference of sm in smooth, smug, smile, smirk, + smite; which signifies the same as to strike, but is a softer word; + small, smell, smack, smother, smart, a smart blow properly signifies + such a kind of stroke as with an originally silent motion, implied in + sm, proceeds to a quick violence, denoted by ar suddenly ended, as is + shown by t. + + Cl denote a kind of adhesion or tenacity, as in cleave, clay, cling, + climb, clamber, clammy, clasp, to clasp, to clip, to clinch, cloak, + clog, close, to close, a clod, a clot, as a clot of blood, clouted + cream, a clutter, a cluster. + + Sp imply a kind of dissipation or expansion, especially a quick one, + particularly if there be an r, as if it were from spargo or separo: for + example, spread, spring, sprig, sprout, sprinkle, split, splinter, + spill, spit, sputter, spatter. + + Sl denote a kind of silent fall, or a less observable motion; as in + slime, slide, slip, slipper, sly, sleight, slit, slow, slack, slight, + sling, slap. + + And so likewise ash, in crash, rash, gash, flash, clash, lash, slash, + plash, trash, indicate something acting more nimbly and sharply. But + ush, in crush, rush, gush, flush, blush, brush, hush, push, imply + something as acting more obtusely and dully. Yet in both there is + indicated a swift and sudden motion not instantaneous, but gradual, by + the continued sound, sh. + + Thus in fling, sling, ding, swing, cling, sing, wring, sting, the + tingling of the termination ng, and the sharpness of the vowel i, imply + the continuation of a very slender motion or tremor, at length indeed + vanishing, but not suddenly interrupted. But in tink, wink, sink, + clink, chink, think, that end in a mute consonant, there is also + indicated a sudden ending. + + If there be an l, as in jingle, tingle, tinkle, mingle, sprinkle, + twinkle, there is implied a frequency, or iteration of small acts. And + the same frequency of acts, but less subtile by reason of the clearer + vowel a, is indicated in jangle, tangle, spangle, mangle, wrangle, + brangle, dangle; as also in mumble, grumble, jumble. But at the same + time the close u implies something obscure or obtunded; and a congeries + of consonants mbl, denotes a confused kind of rolling or tumbling, as + in ramble, scamble, scramble, wamble, amble; but in these there is + something acute. + + In nimble, the acuteness of the vowel denotes celerity. In sparkle, sp + denotes dissipation, ar an acute crackling, k a sudden interruption, l + a frequent iteration; and in like manner in sprinkle, unless in may + imply the subtilty of the dissipated guttules. Thick and thin differ in + that the former ends with an obtuse consonant, and the latter with an + acute. + + In like manner, in squeek, squeak, squeal, squall, brawl, wraul, yaul, + spaul, screek, shriek, shrill, sharp, shrivel, wrinkle, crack, crash, + clash, gnash, plash, crush, hush, hisse, fisse, whist, soft, jar, hurl, + curl, whirl, buz, bustle, spindle, dwindle, twine, twist, and in many + more, we may observe the agreement of such sort of sounds with the + things signified; and this so frequently happens, that scarce any + language which I know can be compared with ours. So that one + monosyllable word, of which kind are almost all ours, emphatically + expresses what in other languages can scarce be explained but by + compounds, or decompounds, or sometimes a tedious circumlocution. + +We have many words borrowed from the Latin; but the greatest part of them +were communicated by the intervention of the French; as, grace, face, +elegant, elegance, resemble. + +Some verbs which seem borrowed from the Latin, are formed from the present +tense, and some from the supines. + +From the present are formed spend, expend, expendo; conduce, conduco; +despise, despicio; approve, approbo; conceive, concipio. + +From the supines, supplicate, supplico; demonstrate, demonstro; dispose, +dispono; expatiate, expatior; suppress, supprimo; exempt, eximo. + + Nothing is more apparent than that Wallis goes too far in quest of + originals. Many of these which seem selected as immediate descendants + from the Latin, are apparently French, as, conceive, approve, expose, + exempt. + +Some words purely French, not derived from the Latin, we have transferred +into our language; as, garden, garter, buckler, to advance, to cry, to +plead, from the French jardin, jartier, bouclier, avancer, crier, plaider; +though, indeed, even of these part is of Latin original. + + As to many words which we have in common with the Germans, it is + doubtful whether the old Teutons borrowed them from the Latins, or the + Latins from the Teutons, or both had them from some common original; as + wine, vinum; wind, ventus; went, veni; way, via, wall, vallum; wallow, + volvo; wool, vellus; will, volo; worm, vermis; worth, virtus; wasp, + vespa; day, dies; draw, traho; tame, domo, δαμαω; yoke, jugum, ζευγος; + over, upper, super, ‛υπερ; am, sum, ειμι; break, frango; fly, volo; + blow, flo. I make no doubt but the Teutonick is more ancient than the + Latin: and it is no less certain, that the Latin, which borrowed a + great number of words not only from the Greek, especially the Æolick, + but from other neighbouring languages, as the Oscan and others, which + have long become obsolete, received not a few from the Teutonick. It is + certain, that the English, German, and other Teutonick languages, + retained some derived from the Greek, which the Latin has not; as, ax, + achs, mit, ford, pfurd, daughter, tochter, mickle, mingle, moon, sear, + oar, grave, graff, to grave, to scrape, whole, from αξινη, μετα, + πορθμος, θυγατηρ, μεγαλος, μιγνυω, μηνη, ξηρος, γραφω, ‛ολος. Since + they received these immediately from the Greeks, without the + intervention of the Latin language, why may not other words be derived + immediately from the same fountain, though they be likewise found among + the Latins? + +Our ancestors were studious to form borrowed words, however long, into +monosyllables; and not only cut off the formative terminations, but cropped +the first syllable, especially in words beginning with a vowel; and +rejected not only vowels in the middle, but likewise consonants of a weaker +sound, retaining the stronger, which seem the bones of words, or changing +them for others of the same organ, in order that the sound might become the +softer; but especially transposing their order, that they might the more +readily be pronounced without the intermediate vowels. For example in +expendo, spend; exemplum, sample; excipio, scape; extraneus, strange; +extractum, stretch'd; excrucio, to screw; exscorio, to scour; excorio, to +scourge; excortico, to scratch; and others beginning with ex: as also, +emendo, to mend; episcopus, bishop, in Danish bisp; epistola, epistle; +hospitale, spittle; Hispania, Spain; historia, story. + + Many of these etymologies are doubtful, and some evidently mistaken. + + The following are somewhat harder, Alexander, Sander; Elisabetha, + Betty; apis, bee; aper, bar; p passing into b, as in bishop; and by + cutting off a from the beginning, which is restored in the middle; but + for the old bar or bare, we now say boar; as for lang, long, for bain, + bane; for stane, stone; aprugna, brawn, p, being changed into b and a + transposed, as in aper, and g changed into w, as in pignus, pawn; lege, + law; αλωπηξ, fox, cutting off the beginning, and changing p into f, as + in pellis, a fell; pullus, a foal; pater, father; pavor, fear; polio, + file; pleo, impleo, fill, full; piscis, fish; and transposing o into + the middle, which was taken from the beginning; apex, a piece; peak, + pike; zophorus, freese; mustum, stum; defensio, fence; dispensator, + spencer; asculto, escouter, Fr. scout; exscalpo, scrape; restoring l + instead of r, and hence scrap, scrabble, scrawl; exculpo, scoop; + exterritus, start; extonitus, attonitus, stonn'd; stomachus, maw; + offendo, fined; obstipo, stop; audere, dare; cavere, ware; whence, + a-ware, beware, wary, warn, warning; for the Latin v consonant formerly + sounded like our w, and the modern sound of the v consonant was + formerly that of the letter f, that is, the Æolick digamma, which had + the sound of φ, and the modern sound of the letter f was that of the + Greek φ or ph; ulcus, ulcere, ulcer, sore, and hence sorry, sorrow, + sorrowful; ingenium, engine, gin, scalenus, leaning, unless you would + rather derive it from κλινω, whence inclino; infundibulum, funnel; + gagates, jett, projectum, to jett forth, a jetty; cucullus, a cowl. + + There are syncopes somewhat harder; from tempore, time; from nomine, + name, domina, dame; as the French homme, femme, nom, from homine, + fœmina, nomine. Thus pagína, page; ποτηριον, pot; κυπελλα, cup; + cantharus, can; tentorium, tent; precor, pray; preda, prey; specio, + speculor, spy; plico, ply; implico, imply; replico, reply; complico, + comply; sedes episcopalis, see. + + A vowel is also cut off in the middle, that the number of the syllables + may be lessened; as amita, aunt; spiritus, spright; debitum, debt; + dubito, doubt; comes, comitis, count; clericus, clerk; quietus, quit, + quite; acquieto, to acquit; separo, to spare; stabilis, stable; + stabulum, stable; pallacium, palace, place; rabula, rail, rawl, wrawl, + brawl, rable, brable; quæsito, quest. + + As also a consonant, or at least one of a softer sound, or even a whole + syllable, rotundus, round; fragilis, frail; securus, sure; regula, + rule; tegula, tile; subtilis, subtle; nomen, noun; decanus, dean; + computo, count; subitaneus, sudden, soon; superare, to soar; periculum, + peril; mirabile, marvel; as magnus, main; dignor, deign; tingo, stain; + tinctum, taint; pingo, paint; prædari, reach. + + The contractions may seem harder, where many of them meet, as κυριακος, + kyrk, church; presbyter, priest; sacristanus, sexton; frango, fregi, + break, breach; fagus, φηγα, beech, f changed into b, and g into ch, + which are letters near akin; frigesco, freeze, frigesco, fresh, sc into + sh, as above in bishop, fish, so in scapha, skiff, skip, and + refrigesco, refresh; but viresco, fresh; phlebotamus, fleam; bovina, + beef; vitulina, veal; scutifer, squire; pœnitentia, penance; + sanctuarium, sanctuary, sentry; quæsitio, chase; perquisitio, purchase; + anguilla, eel; insula, isle, ile, island, iland; insuletta, islet, + ilet, eyght, and more contractedly ey, whence Owsney, Ruley, Ely; + examinare, to scan; namely, by rejecting from the beginning and end e + and o, according to the usual manner, the remainder xamin, which the + Saxons, who did not use x, writ csamen, or scamen, is contracted into + scan: as from dominus, don; nomine, noun; abomino, ban; and indeed apum + examen; they turned into sciame; for which we say swarme, by inserting + r to denote the murmuring; thesaurus, store; sedile, stool; ‛υετος, + wet; sudo, sweat; gaudium, gay; jocus, joy; succus, juice; catena, + chain; caliga, calga; chause, chausse, French, hose; extinguo, stand, + squench, quench, stint; foras, forth; species, spice; recito, read; + adjuvo, aid; αιων, ævum, ay, age, ever; floccus, lock; excerpo, scrape, + scrabble, scrawl; extravagus, stray, straggle; collectum, clot, clutch; + colligo, coil: recolligo, recoil; severo, swear; stridulus, shrill; + procurator, proxy; pulso, to push; calamus, a quill; impetere, to + impeach; augeo, auxi, wax; and vanesco, vanui, wane; syllabare, to + spell; puteus, pit; granum, corn; comprimo, cramp, crump, crumple, + crinkle. + + Some may seem harsher, yet may not be rejected, for it at least + appears, that some of them are derived from proper names, and there are + others whose etymology is acknowledged by every body; as, Alexander, + Elick, Scander, Sander, Sandy, Sanny; Elizabetha, Elizabeth, Elisabeth, + Betty, Bess; Margareta, Margaret, Marget, Meg, Peg; Maria, Mary, Mal, + Pal, Malkin, Mawkin, Mawkes; Mathæus, Mattha, Matthew; Martha, Mat, + Pat; Gulielmus, Wilhelmus, Girolamo, Guillaume, William, Will, Bill, + Wilkin, Wicken, Wicks, Weeks. + + Thus cariophyllus, flos; gerofilo, Italian, giriflee, gilofer, French, + gilliflower, which the vulgar call julyflower, as if derived from the + month July; petroselinum, parsley; portulaca, purslain; cydonium, + quince; cydoniatum, quiddeny; persicum, peach; eruca, eruke, which they + corrupt to earwig, as if it took its name from the ear; annulus + geminus, a gimmal, or gimbal-ring; and thus the word gimbal or jumbal + is transferred to other things thus interwoven; quelques choses, + kickshaws. Since the origin of these, and many others, however forced, + is evident, it ought to appear no wonder to any one if the ancients + have thus disfigured many, especially as they so much affected + monosyllables; and, to make the sound the softer, took this liberty of + maiming, taking away, changing, transposing, and softening them. + + But while we derive these from the Latin, I do not mean to say, that + many of them did not immediately come to us from the Saxon, Danish, + Dutch, and Teutonick languages, and other dialects; and some taken more + lately from the French or Italians, or Spaniards. + + The same word, according to its different significations, often has a + different origin; as, to bear a burden, from fero; but to bear, whence + birth, born, bairn, comes from pario; and a bear, at least if it be of + Latin original, from fera. Thus perch, a fish, from perca; but perch, a + measure, from pertica, and likewise to perch. To spell is from syllaba; + but spell, an inchantment, by which it is believed that the boundaries + are so fixed in lands that none can pass them against the master's + will, from expello; and spell, a messenger, from epistola; whence + gospel, good-spell, or god-spell. Thus freese, or freeze, from + frigesco; but freeze, an architectonick word, from zophorus; but + freeze, for cloth, from Frisia, or perhaps from frigesco, as being more + fit than any other for keeping out the cold. + + There are many words among us, even monosyllables, compounded of two or + more words, at least serving instead of compounds, and comprising the + signification of more words that one; as, from scrip and roll comes + scroll; from proud and dance, prance; from st of the verb stay or stand + and out, is made stout; from stout and hardy, sturdy; from sp of spit + or spew, and out, comes spout; from the same sp with the termination + in, is spin; and adding out, spin out: and from the same sp, with it, + is spit, which only differs from spout in that it is smaller, and with + less noise and force; but sputter is, because of the obscure u, + something between spit and spout: and by reason of adding r, it + intimates a frequent iteration and noise, but obscurely confused; + whereas spatter, on account of the sharper and clearer vowel a, + intimates a more distinct poise, in which it chiefly differs from + sputter. From the same sp and the termination ark, comes spark, + signifying a single emission of fire with a noise; namely sp, the + emission, ar, the more acute noise, and k, the mute consonant, + intimates its being suddenly terminated; but adding l, is made the + frequentative sparkle. The same sp, by adding r, that is spr, implies a + more lively impetus of diffusing or expanding itself; to which adding + the termination ing, it becomes spring: its vigour spr imports; its + sharpness the termination ing; and lastly in acute and tremulous, + ending in the mute consonant g, denotes the sudden ending of any + motion, that it is meant in its primary signification, of a single, not + a complicated exilition. Hence we call spring whatever has an elastick + force; as also a fountain of water, and thence the origin of any thing: + and to spring, to germinate, and spring, one of the four seasons. From + the same spr and out, is formed sprout, and wit the termination ig, + sprig; of which the following, for the most part, is the difference: + sprout, of a grosser sound, imports a fatter or grosser bud; sprig, of + a slenderer sound, denotes a smaller shoot. In like manner, from str of + the verb strive, and out, comes strout, and strut. From the same str, + and the termination uggle, is made struggle; and this gl imports, but + without any great noise, by reason of the obscure sound of the vowel u. + In like manner, from throw and roll is made troll, and almost in the + same sense is trundle, from throw or thrust, and rundle. Thus graff or + grough is compounded of grave and rough; and trudge from tread or trot, + and drudge. + +In these observations it is easy to discover great sagacity and great +extravagance, an ability to do much defeated by the desire of doing more +than enough. It may be remarked, + +1. That Wallis's derivations are often so made, that by the same license +any language may be deduced from any other. + +2. That he makes no distinction between words immediately derived by us +from the Latin, and those which being copied from other languages, can +therefore afford no example of the genius of the English language, or its +laws of derivation. + +3. That he derives from the Latin, often with great harshness and violence, +words apparently Teutonick; and therefore, according to his own +declaration, probably older than the tongue to which he refers them. + +4. That some of his derivations are apparently erroneous. + + * * * * * + +SYNTAX. + + The established practice of grammarians requires that I should here + treat of the Syntax; but our language has so little inflection, or + variety of terminations, that its construction neither requires nor + admits many rules. Wallis, therefore, has totally neglected it; and + Jonson, whose desire of following the writers upon the learned + languages made him think a syntax indispensably necessary, has + published such petty observations as were better omitted. + +The verb, as in other languages, agrees with the nominative in number and +person; as, Thou fliest from good; He runs to death. + +Our adjectives and pronouns are invariable. + +Of two substantives the noun possessive is in the genitive; as, His +father's glory; The sun's heat. + +Verbs transitive require an oblique case; as, He loves me; You fear him. + +All prepositions require an oblique case: as, He gave this to me; He took +this from me; He says this of me; He came with me. + + * * * * * + +PROSODY. + + It is common for those that deliver the grammar of modern languages, to + omit the Prosody. So that of the Italians is neglected by Buomattei; + that of the French by Desmarais; aad that of the English by Wallis, + Cooper, and even by Jonson, though a poet. But as the laws of metre are + included in the idea of grammar, I have thought proper to insert them. + +PROSODY comprises orthoepy, or the rules of pronunciation; and orthometry, +or the laws of versification. + +Pronunciation is just, when every letter has its proper sound, and every +syllable has its proper accent, or, which in English versification is the +same, its proper quantity. + + The sounds of the letters have been already explained; and rules for + the accent or quantity are not easily to be given, being subject to + innumerable exceptions. Such, however, as I have read or formed, I + shall here propose. + +1. Of dissyllables, formed by affixing a termination, the former syllable +is commonly accented, as chíldish, kíngdom, áctest, ácted, tóilsome, lóver, +scóffer, faírer, fóremost, zéalous, fúlness, gódly, meékly, ártist. + +2. Dissyllables formed by prefixing a syllable to the radical word, have +commonly the accent on the latter; as to begét, to beseém, to bestów. + +3. Of dissyllables, which are at once nouns and verbs, the verb has +commonly the accent on the latter, and the noun on the former syllable; as, +to descánt, a déscant; to cemént, a cément; to contráct, a cóntract. + + This rule has many exceptions. Though verbs seldom have their accent on + the former, yet nouns often have it on the latter syllable; as delíght, + perfúme. + +4. All dissyllables ending in y, as cránny; in our, as lábour, fávour; in +ow, as wíllow, wállow, except allów; in le, as báttle, bíble; in ish, as +bánish; in ck, as cámbrick, cássock; in ter, as to bátter; in age, as +coúrage, in en, as fásten; in et, as quíet; accent the former syllable. + +5. Dissyllable nouns in er, as cánker, bútter, have the accent on the +former syllable. + +6. Dissyllable verbs terminating in a consonant and e final, as compríse, +escápe; or having a diphthong in the last syllable, as appéase, revéal; or +ending in two consonants, as atténd; have the accent on the latter +syllable. + +7. Dissyllable nouns having a diphthong in the latter syllable, have +commonly their accent on the latter syllable, as appláuse; except words in +ain, cértain, moúntain. + +8. Trissyllables formed by adding a termination, or prefixing a syllable, +retain the accent of the radical word; as, lóveliness, ténderness, +contémner, wágonner, phýsical, bespátter, cómmenting, comménding, +assúrance. + +9. Trissyllables ending in ous, as grácious, árduous; in al, as cápital; in +ion, as méntion; accent the first. + +10. Trissyllables ending in ce, ent, and ate, accent the first syllable, as +cóuntenance, cóntinence, ármament, ímminent, élegant, própagate, except +they be derived from words having the accent on the last, as connívance, +acquáintance; or the middle syllable hath a vowel before two consonants, as +promúlgate. + +11. Trissyllables ending in y, as éntity, spécify, líberty, víctory, +súbsidy, commonly accent the first syllable. + +12. Trissyllables in re or le accent the first syllable, as légible, +théatre, except discíple, and some words which have a position, as exámple, +epístle. + +13. Trissyllables in ude commonly accent the first syllable, as plénitude. + +14. Trissyllables ending in ator or atour, as creátour; or having in the +middle syllable a diphthong, as endeávour; or a vowel before two +consonants, as doméstick; accent the middle syllable. + +15. Trissyllables that have their accent on the last syllable are commonly +French, as acquiésce, repartée, magazíne, or words formed by prefixing one +or two syllables to an acute syllable, as immatúre, overchárge. + +16. Polysyllables, or words of more than three syllables, follow the accent +of the words from which they are derived, as árrogating, cóntinency, +incóntinently, comméndable, commúnicableness. We should therefore say +dispútable, indispútable; rather than dísputable, indísputable; and +advertísement, rather than advértisement. + +17. Words in ion have the accent upon the antepenult, as salvátion, +perturbátion, concóction; words in atour or ator on the penult, as +dedicátor. + +18. Words ending in le commonly have the accent on the first syllable, as +ámicable, unless the second syllable have a vowel before two consonants, as +combústible. + +19. Words ending in ous have the accents on the antepenult, as uxórious, +volúptuous. + +20. Words ending in ty have their accent on the antepenult, as +pusillanímity, actívity. + + These rules are not advanced as complete or infallible, but proposed as + useful. Almost every rule of every language has its exceptions; and in + English, as in other tongues, much must be learned by example and + authority. Perhaps more and better rules may be given that have escaped + my observation. + +VERSIFICATION is the arrangement of a certain number of syllables according +to certain laws. + +The feet of our verses are either iambick, as alóft, creáte; or trochaick, +as hóly, lófty. + +Our iambick measure comprises verses + +Of four syllables, + + Most good, most fair, + Or things as rare, + To call you's lost; + For all the cost + Words can bestow, + So poorly show + Upon your praise, + That all the ways + Sense hath, come short. Drayton. + + With ravish'd ears + The monarch hears. Dryden. + +Of six, + + This while we are abroad, + Shall we not touch our lyre? + Shall we not sing an ode? + Or shall that holy fire, + In us that strongly glow'd, + In this cold air expire? + + Though in the utmost peak, + A while we do remain, + Amongst the mountains bleak, + Expos'd to sleet and rain, + No sport our hours shall break, + To exercise our vein. + + What though bright Phœbus' beams + Refresh the southern ground, + And though the princely Thames + With beauteous nymphs abound, + And by old Camber's streams + Be many wonders found: + + Yet many rivers clear + Here glide in silver swathes, + And what of all most dear, + Buxton's delicious baths, + Strong ale and noble chear, + T' asswage breem winters scathes. + + In places far or near, + Or famous, or obscure, + Where wholsom is the air, + Or where the most impure, + All times, and every where, + The muse is still in ure. Drayton. + +Of eight, which is the usual measure for short poems, + + And may at last my weary age + Find out the peaceful hermitage, + The hairy gown, and mossy cell, + Where I may sit, and nightly spell + Of ev'ry star the sky doth shew, + And ev'ry herb that sips the dew. Milton. + +Of ten, which is the common measure of heroick and tragick poetry, + + Full in the midst of this created space, + Betwixt heav'n, earth, and skies, there stands a place + Confining on all three; with triple bound; + Whence all things, though remote, are view'd around, + And thither bring their undulating sound. + The palace of loud Fame, her seat of pow'r, + Plac'd on the summit of a lofty tow'r; + A thousand winding entries long and wide + Receive of fresh reports a flowing tide. + A thousand crannies in the walls are made; + Nor gate nor bars exclude the busy trade. + Tis built of brass, the better to diffuse + The spreading sounds, and multiply the news; + Where echoes in repeated echoes play: + A mart for ever full; and open night and day. + Nor silence is within, nor voice express, + But a deaf noise of sounds that never cease; + Confus'd and chiding, like the hollow roar + Of tides, receding from th' insulted shore; + Or like the broken thunder heard from far, + When Jove to distance drives the rolling war. + The courts are fill'd with a tumultuous din, + Of crouds, or issuing forth, or ent'ring in: + A thorough-fare of news; where some devise + Things never heard, some mingle truth with lies: + The troubled air with empty sounds they beat, + Intent to hear, and eager to repeat. Dryden. + +In all these measures the accents are to be placed on even syllables; and +every line considered by itself is more harmonious, as this rule is more +strictly observed. The variations necessary to pleasure belong to the art +of poetry, not the rules of grammar. + +Our trochaick measures are Of three syllables, + + Here we may + Think and pray, + Before death + Stops our breath: + Other joys + Are but toys. Walton's Angler. + +Of five, + + In the days of old, + Stories plainly told, + Lovers felt annoy. Old Ballad. + +Of seven, + + Fairest piece of well form'd earth, + Urge not thus your haughty birth. Waller. + +In these measures the accent is to be placed on the odd syllables. + +These are the measures which are now in use, and above the rest those of +seven, eight, and ten syllables. Our ancient poets wrote verses sometimes +of twelve syllables, as Drayton's Polyolbion. + + Of all the Cambrian shires their heads that bear so high, + And farth'st survey their soils with an ambitious eye, + Mervinia for her hills, as for their matchless crouds, + The nearest that are said to kiss the wand'ring clouds, + Especial audience craves, offended with the throng, + That she of all the rest neglected was so long; + Alledging for herself, when, through the Saxons' pride, + The godlike race of Brute to Severn's setting side + Were cruelly inforc'd, her mountains did relieve + Those whom devouring war else every where did grieve. + And when all Wales beside (by fortune or by might) + Unto her ancient foe resign'd her ancient right, + A constant maiden still she only did remain, + The last her genuine laws which stoutly did retain. + And as each one is prais'd for her peculiar things; + So only she is rich, in mountains, meres and springs, + And holds herself as great in her superfluous waste, + As others by their towns, and fruitful tillage grac'd. + +And of fourteen, as Chapman's Homer. + + And as the mind of such a man, that hath a long way gone, + And either knoweth not his way, or else would let alone, + His purpos'd journey, is distract. + +The measures of twelve and fourteen syllables were often mingled by our old +poets, sometimes in alternate lines, and sometimes in alternate couplets. + +The verse of twelve syllables, called an Alexandrine, is now only used to +diversify heroick lines. + + Waller was smooth, but Dryden taught to join + The varying verse, the full resounding line, + The long majestick march, and energy divine. Pope. + +The pause in the Alexandrine must be at the sixth syllable. + +The verse of fourteen syllables is now broken into a soft lyrick measure of +verses, consisting alternately of eight syllables and six. + + She to receive thy radiant name, + Selects a whiter space. Fenton. + + When all shall praise, and ev'ry lay + Devote a wreath to thee, + That day, for come it will, that day + Shall I lament to see. Lewis to Pope. + + Beneath this tomb an infant lies + To earth whose body lent, + Hereafter shall more glorious rise, + But not more innocent. + When the Archangel's trump shall blow, + And souls to bodies join, + What crowds shall wish their lives below + Had been as short as thine! Wesley. + +We have another measure very quick and lively, and therefore much used in +songs, which may be called the anapestick, in which the accent rests upon +every third syllable. + + May I góvern my pássions with ábsolute swáy, + And grow wíser and bétter as lífe wears awáy. Dr. Pope. + +In this measure a syllable is often retrenched from the first foot, as + + Diógenes súrly and próud. Dr. Pope. + + When présent, we lóve, and when ábsent agrée, + I thínk not of Íris, nor Íris of me. Dryden. + +These measures are varied by many combinations, and sometimes by double +endings, either with or without rhyme, as in the heroick measure. + + 'Tis the divinity that stirs within us, + 'Tis heaven itself that points out an hereafter, + And intimates eternity to man. Addison. + +So in that of eight syllables, + + They neither added nor confounded, + They neither wanted nor abounded. Prior. + +In that of seven, + + For resistance I could fear none, + But with twenty ships had done, + What thou, brave and happy Vernon, + Hast atchiev'd with six alone. Glover. + +In that of six, + + 'Twas when the seas were roaring, + With hollow blasts of wind, + A damsel lay deploring, + All on a rock reclin'd. Gay. + +In the anapestick, + + When terrible tempests assail us. + And mountainous billows affright, + Nor power nor wealth can avail us, + But skilful industry steers right. Ballad. + +To these measures and their laws, may be reduced every species of English +verse. + +Our versification admits of few licences, except a synalœpha, or elision of +e in the before a vowel, as th' eternal; and more rarely of o in to, as t' +accept; and a synaresis, by which two short vowels coalesce into one +syllable, as question, special; or a word is contracted by the expulsion of +a short vowel before a liquid, as av'rice, temp'rance. + +Thus have I collected rules and examples, by which the English language may +be learned, if the reader be already acquainted with grammatical terms, or +taught by a master to those that are more ignorant. To have written a +grammar for such as are not yet initiated in the schools, would have been +tedious, and perhaps at last ineffectual. + + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's A Grammar of the English Tongue, by Samuel Johnson + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE *** + +***** This file should be named 15097-0.txt or 15097-0.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/1/5/0/9/15097/ + +Produced by Jonathan Ingram, Keith Edkins and the PG Online +Distributed Proofreading Team. + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: A Grammar of the English Tongue + +Author: Samuel Johnson + +Release Date: February 18, 2005 [EBook #15097] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE *** + + + + +Produced by Jonathan Ingram, Keith Edkins and the PG Online +Distributed Proofreading Team. + + + + + +A + +DICTIONARY + +OF THE + +ENGLISH LANGUAGE: + +IN WHICH + +THE WORDS ARE DEDUCED FROM THEIR ORIGINALS, +EXPLAINED IN THEIR DIFFERENT MEANINGS, + +AND + +AUTHORIZED BY THE NAMES OF THE WRITERS IN WHOSE WORKS +THEY ARE FOUND. + +ABSTRACTED FROM THE FOLIO EDITION, + +BY THE AUTHOR, + +SAMUEL JOHNSON, LL.D. + + * * * * * + +TO WHICH IS PREFIXED, + +DR. JOHNSON'S PREFACE TO THE ORIGINAL FOLIO EDITION, + +AND + +HIS GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. + +1812. + + * * * * * + +A GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE. + +GRAMMAR, which is the art of using words properly, comprises four parts: +Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody. + + In this division and order of the parts of grammar I follow the common + grammarians, without inquiring whether a fitter distribution might not + be found. Experience has long shown this method to be so distinct as to + obviate confusion, and so comprehensive as to prevent any inconvenient + omissions. I likewise use the terms already received, and already + understood, though perhaps others more proper might sometimes be + invented. Sylburgius, and other innovators, whose new terms have sunk + their learning into neglect, have left sufficient warning against the + trifling ambition of teaching arts in a new language. + +ORTHOGRAPHY is the art of combining letters into syllables, and syllables +into words. It therefore teaches previously the form and sound of letters. + +The letters of the English language are, + +Roman. Italick. Name. + +A a A a a + +B b B b be + +C c C c see + +D d D d dee + +E e E e e + +F f F f eff + +G g G g jee + +H h H h aitch + +I i I i i (or ja) + +J j J j j conson. + +K k K k ka + +L l L l el + +M m M m em + +N n N n en + +O o O o o + +P P P p pee + +Q q Q q cue + +R r R r ar + +S s S s ess + +T t T t tee + +U u U u u (or va) + +V v V v v conson. + +W w W w double u + +X x X x ex + +Y y Y y wy + +Z z Z z zed + +To these may be added certain combinations of letters universally used in +printing; as, fl, ff, fi, ffi, ffl, and &, or and per se, and. + + Our letters are commonly reckoned twenty-four, because anciently i and + j as well as u and v were expressed by the same character; but as those + letters, which had always different powers, have now different forms, + our alphabet may be properly said to consist of twenty-six letters + +Vowels are five, a, e, i, o, u. + +Such is the number generally received; but for i it is the practice to +write y in the end of words, as thy, holy; before i, as from die, dying; +from beautify, beautifying; in the words says, days, eyes; and in words +derived from the Greek, and written originally with [Greek: y], as +sympathy, [Greek: sympatheia], system, [Greek: systma]. + +For u we often write w after a vowel, to make a diphthong; as, raw, grew, +view, vow, flowing; lowness. + +The sounds of all the letters are various. + + In treating on the letters, I shall not, like some other grammarians, + inquire into the original of their form, as an antiquarian; nor into + their formation and prolation by the organs of speech, as a mechanick, + anatomist, or physiologist; nor into the properties and gradation of + sounds, or the elegance or harshness of particular combinations, as a + writer of universal and transcendental grammar. I consider the English + alphabet only as it is English; and even in this narrow disquisition I + follow the example of former grammarians, perhaps with more reverence + than judgment, because by writing in English I suppose my reader + already acquainted with the English language, and consequently able to + pronounce the letters of which I teach the pronunciation; and because + of sounds in general it may be observed, that words are unable to + describe them. An account, therefore, of the primitive and simple + letters, is useless, almost alike to those who know their sound, and + those who know it not. + +OF VOWELS + +A. + +A has three sounds, the slender, open, and broad. + +A slender is found in most words, as face, mane, and in words ending in +ation, as creation, salvation, generation. + + The a slender is the proper English a, called very justly by Erpenius, + in his Arabick Grammar, a Anglicum cum e mistum, as having a middle + sound between the open a and the e. The French have a similar sound in + the word pais, and in their e masculine. + +A open is the a of the Italian, or nearly resembles it; as father, rather, +congratulate, fancy, glass. + +A broad resembles the a of the German; as all, wall, call. + + Many words pronounced with a broad were anciently written with au; as + sault, mault; and we still say, fault, vault. This was probably the + Saxon sound, for it is yet retained in the northern dialects, and in + the rustick pronunciation; as maun for man, haund for hand. + +The short a approaches to the a open, as grass. + +The long a, if prolonged by e at the end of the word, is always slender, as +graze, fame. + +A forms a diphthong only with i or y, and u or w. Ai or ay, as in plain, +wain, gay, clay, has only the sound of the long and slender a, and differs +not in the pronunciation from plane, wane. + +Au or aw has the sound of the German a, as raw, naughty. + + Ae is sometimes found in Latin words not completely naturalized or + assimilated, but is no English diphthong; and is more properly + expressed by single e, as Cesar, Eneas. + +E. + + E is the letter which occurs most frequently in the English language. + +E is long, as in sc[=e]ne; or short, as in c[)e]llar, s[)e]parate, +c[)e]lebrate, m[)e]n, th[)e]n. + +It is always short before a double consonant, or two consonants, as in +v[)e]x, p[)e]rplexity, rel[)e]nt, m[)e]dlar, r[)e]ptile, s[)e]rpent, +c[)e]llar, c[)e]ssation, bl[)e]ssing, f[)e]ll, f[)e]lling, d[)e]bt. + +E is always mute at the end of a word, except in monosyllables that have no +other vowel, as the; or proper names, as Penelope, Phebe, Derbe; being used +to modify the foregoing consonants, as since, once, hedge, oblige; or to +lengthen the preceding vowel, as b[)a]n, b[=a]ne; c[)a]n, c[=a]ne; p[)i]n, +p[=i]ne; t[)u]n, t[=u]ne; r[)u]b, r[=u]be; p[)o]p, p[=o]pe; f[)i]r, +f[=i]re; c[)u]r, c[=u]re; t[)u]b, t[=u]be. + + Almost all words which now terminate in consonants ended anciently in + e, as year, yeare; wildness, wildnesse; which e probably had the force + of the French e feminine, and constituted a syllable with its associate + consonant; for in old editions words are sometimes divided thus, + clea-re, fel-le, knowled-ge. This e was perhaps for a time vocal or + silent in poetry as convenience required; but it has been long wholly + mute. Camden in his Remains calls it the silent e. + +It does not always lengthen the foregoing vowel, as gl[)o]ve, l[)i]ve, +g[)i]ve. + +It has sometimes in the end of words a sound obscure, and scarcely +perceptible, as open, shapen, shotten, thistle, participle, metre, lucre. + + This faintness of sound is found when e separates a mute from a liquid, + as in rotten, or follows a mute and liquid, as in cattle. + +E forms a diphthong with a, as near; with i, as deign, receive; and with u +or w, as new, stew. + +Ea sounds like e long, as mean; or like ee, as dear, clear, near. + +Ei is sounded like e long, as seize, perceiving. + +Eu sounds as u long and soft. + +E, a, u, are combined in beauty and its derivatives, but have only the +sound of u. + +E may be said to form a diphthong by reduplication, as agree, sleeping. + + Eo is found in yeoman, where it is sounded as o short; and in people, + where it is pronounced like ee. + +I. + +I has a sound long, as f[=i]ne; and short as f[)i]n. + + That is eminently observable in i, which may be likewise remarkable in + other letters, that the short sound is not the long sound contracted, + but a sound wholly different. + +The long sound in monosyllables is always marked by the e final, as +th[)i]n, th[=i]ne. + +I is often sounded before r, as a short u; as flirt, first, shirt. + +It forms a diphthong only with e, as field, shield, which is sounded as the +double ee; except friend, which is sounded as fr[)e]nd. + + I is joined with eu in lieu, and ew in view; which triphthongs are + sounded as the open u. + +O. + +O is long, as b[=o]ne, [=o]bedient, corr[=o]ding; or short, as bl[)o]ck, +kn[)o]ck, [)o]blique, l[)o]ll. + +Women is pronounced wimen. + + The short o has sometimes the sound of close u, as son, come. + +O coalesces into a diphthong with a, as moan, groan, approach: oa has the +sound of o long. + + O is united to e in some words derived from Greek, as oeconomy; but as + being not an English diphthong, they are better written as they are + sounded, with only e, economy. + +With i, as oil, soil, moil, noisome. + + This coalition of letters seems to unite the sounds of the two letters, + as far as two sounds can be united without being destroyed, and + therefore approaches more nearly than any combination in our tongue to + the notion of a diphthong. + +With o, as boot, hoot, cooler; oo has the sound of the Italian u. + +With u or w, as our, power, flower; but in some words has only the sound of +o long, as in soul, bowl, sow, grow. These different sounds are used to +distinguish different significations: as bow an instrument for shooting; +bow, a depression of the head; sow, the she of a boar; sow, to scatter +seed; bowl, an orbicular body; bowl, a wooden vessel. + +Ou is sometimes pronounced like o soft, as court; sometimes like o short, +as cough; sometimes like u close, as could; or u open, as rough, tough, +which use only can teach. + + Ou is frequently used in the last syllable of words which in Latin end + in or and are made English, as honour, labour, favour, from honor, + labor, favor. + + Some late innovators have ejected the u, without considering that the + last syllable gives the sound neither of or nor ur, but a sound between + them, if not compounded of both; besides that they are probably derived + to us from the French nouns in eur, as honeur, faveur. + +U. + +U is long in [=u]se, conf[=u]sion; or short, as [)u]s, conc[)u]ssion. + +It coalesces with a, e, i, o; but has rather in these combinations the +force of the w consonant, as quaff, quest, quit, quite, languish; sometimes +in ui the i loses its sound, as in juice. It is sometimes mute before a, e, +i, y, as guard, guest, guise, buy. + + U is followed by e in virtue, but the e has no sound. + + Ue is sometimes mute at the end of a word, in imitation of the French, + as prorogue, synagogue, plague, vague, harangue. + +Y. + +Y is a vowel, which, as Quintilian observes of one of the Roman letters, we +might want without inconvenience, but that we have it. It supplies the +place of i at the end of words, as thy, before an i, as dying; and is +commonly retained in derivative words where it was part of a diphthong, in +the primitive; as, destroy, destroyer; betray, betrayed, betrayer; pray, +prayer; say, sayer; day, days. + + Y being the Saxon vowel y, which was commonly used where i is now put, + occurs very frequently in all old books. + +GENERAL RULES. + +A vowel in the beginning or middle syllable, before two consonants, is +commonly short, as [)o]pp[)o]rtunity. + +In monosyllables a single vowel before a single consonant is short; as +stag, frog. + + Many is pronounced as if it were written manny. + + * * * * * + +OF CONSONANTS. + +B. + +B has one unvaried sound, such as it obtains in other languages. + +It is mute in debt, debtor, subtle, doubt, lamb, limb, dumb, thumb, climb, +comb, womb. + + It is used before l and r, as black, brown. + +C. + +C has before e and i the sound of s; as sincerely, centrick, century, +circular, cistern, city, siccity: before a, o, and u, it sounds like k, as +calm, concavity, copper, incorporate, curiosity, concupiscence. + + C might be omitted in the language without loss, since one of its + sounds might be supplied by, s, and the other by k, but that it + preserves to the eye the etymology of words, as face from facies, + captive from captivus. + +Ch has a sound which is analyzed into tsh, as church, chin, crutch. It is +the same sound which the Italians give to the c simple before i and e, as +citta, cerro. + +Ch is sounded like k in words derived from the Greek, as chymist, scheme, +choler. Arch is commonly sounded ark before a vowel, as archangel, and with +the English sound of ch before a consonant, as archbishop. + + Ch, in some French words not yet assimilated, sounds like sh, as + machine, chaise. + + C, according to English orthography, never ends a word; therefore we + write stick, block, which were originally, sticke, blocke. In such + words c is now mute. + + It is used before l and r, as clock, cross. + +D. + +Is uniform in its sound, as death, diligent. + + It is used before r, as draw, dross; and w as dwell. + +F. + +F, though having a name beginning with a vowel, is numbered by the +grammarians among the semivowels, yet has this quality of a mute, that it +is commodiously sounded before a liquid, as flask, fry, freckle. It has an +unvariable sound, except that of is sometimes spoken nearly as ov. + +G. + +G has two sounds; one hard, as in gay, go, gun; the other soft, as in gem, +giant. + +At the end of a word it is always hard, as ring, snug, song, frog. + +Before e and i the sound is uncertain. + +G before e is soft, as gem, generation, except in gear, geld, geese, get, +gewgaw, and derivatives from words ending in g, as singing, stronger, and +generally before er at the ends of words, as finger. + +G is mute before n, as gnash, sign, foreign. + +G before i is hard, as give, except in giant, gigantick, gibbet, gibe, +giblets, Giles, gill, gilliflower, gin, ginger, gingle, to which may be +added Egypt and gypsy. + +Gh in the beginning of a word has the sound of the hard g, as ghostly; in +the middle, and sometimes at the end, it is quite silent, as though, right, +sought, spoken tho', rite, soute. + +It has often at the end the sound of f, as laugh; whence laughter retains +the same sound in the middle; cough, trough, sough, tough, enough, slough. + + It is not to be doubted, but that in the original pronunciation gh has + the force of a consonant deeply guttural, which is still continued + among the Scotch. + + G is used before h, l, and r. + +H. + +H is a note of aspiration, and shows that the following vowel must be +pronounced with a strong emission of breath, as hat, horse. + +It seldom begins any but the first syllable, in which it is always sounded +with a full breath, except in heir, herb, hostler, honour, humble, honest, +humour and their derivatives. + + It sometimes begins middle or final syllables in words compounded, as + blockhead; or derived from the Latin, as comprehend. + +J. + +J consonant sounds uniformly like the soft g, and is therefore a letter +useless, except in etymology, as ejaculation, jester, jocund, juice. + +K. + +K has the sound of hard c, and is used before e and i, where, according to +English analogy, c would be soft, as kept, king, skirt, skeptick, for so it +should be written, not sceptick, because sc is sounded like s, as in scene. + + It is used before n, as knell, knot, but totally loses its sound in + modern pronunciation. + +K is never doubled; but c is used before it to shorten the vowel by a +double consonant, as cockle, pickle. + +L. + +L has in English the same liquid sound as in other languages. + + The custom is to double the l at the end of monosyllables, as kill, + will, full. These words were originally written kille, wille, fulle; + and when the e first grew silent, and was afterward omitted, the ll was + retained, to give force, according to the analogy of our language, to + the foregoing vowel. + +L, is sometimes mute, as in calf, half, halves, calves, could, would, +should, psalm, talk, salmon, falcon. + + The Saxons, who delighted in guttural sounds, sometimes aspirated the l + at the beginning of words, as hlaf, a loaf, or bread; hlaford, a lord; + but this pronunciation is now disused. + +Le at the end of words is pronounced like a weak el, in which the e is +almost mute, as table, shuttle. + +M. + +M has always the same sound, as murmur, monumental. + +N. + +N has always, the same sound, as noble, manners. + +N is sometimes mute after m, as damn, condemn, hymn. + +P. + +P has always the same sound which the Welsh and Germans confound with b. + +P is sometimes mute, as in psalm, and between m and t, as tempt. + +Ph is used for f in words derived from the Greek, as philosopher, +philanthropy, Philip. + +Q. + +Q, as in other languages, is always followed by u, and has a sound which +our Saxon ancestors well expressed by cw, as quadrant, queen, equestrian, +quilt, inquiry, quire, quotidian. Qu is never followed by u. + +Qu is sometimes sounded, in words derived from the French, like k, as +conquer, liquor, risque, chequer. + +R. + +R has the same rough snarling sound as in the other tongues. + + The Saxons used often to put h before it, as before l at the beginning + of words. + + Rh is used in words derived from the Greek, as myrrh, myrrhine, + catarrhous, rheum, rheumatick, rhyme. + +Re, at the end of some words derived from the Latin or French, is +pronounced like a weak er, as theatre, sepulchre. + +S. + +S has a hissing sound, as sibilation, sister. + + A single s seldom ends any word, except in the third person of verbs, + as loves, grows; and the plurals of nouns, as trees, bushes, + distresses; the pronouns this, his, ours, yours, us; the adverb thus; + and words derived from Latin, as rebus, surplus; the close being always + either in se, as house, horse, or in ss, as grass, dress, bliss, less, + anciently grasse, dresse. + +S, single at the end of words, has a grosser sound, like that of z, as +trees, eyes, except this, thus, us, rebus, surplus. + +It sounds like z before ion, if a vowel goes before it, as intrusion; and +like s, if it follows a consonant, as conversion. + +It sounds like z before e mute, as refuse, and before y final, as rosy; and +in those words, bosom, desire, wisdom, prison, prisoner, present, present, +damsel, casement. + + It is the peculiar quality of s, that it may be sounded before all + consonants, except x and z, in which s is comprised, x being only ks, + and z a hard or gross s. This s is therefore termed by grammarians su + potestatis litera; the reason of which the learned Dr. Clarke + erroneously supposed to be, that in some words it might be doubled at + pleasure. Thus we find in several languages. + +[Greek: Sbennymi], scatter, sdegno, sdrucciolo, sfavellare, [Greek: +sphinx], sgombrare, sgranare, shake, slumber, smell, snipe, space, +splendour, spring, squeeze, shrew, step, strength, stramen, stripe, +sventura, swell. + +S is mute in isle, island, demesne, viscount. + +T. + +T has its customary sound; as take, temptation. + +Ti before a vowel has the sound of si as salvation, except an s goes +before, as question; excepting likewise derivatives from words ending in +ty, as mighty, mightier. + +Th has two sounds; the one soft, as thus, whether; the other hard, as +thing, think. The sound is soft in these words, then, thence, and there, +with their derivatives and compounds, and in that, these, thou, thee, thy, +thine, their, they, this, those, them, though, thus; and in all words +between two vowels, as, father, whether; and between r and a vowel, as +burthen. + +In other words it is hard, as thick, thunder, faith, faithful. Where it is +softened at the end of a word, an e silent must be added, as breath, +breathe; cloth, clothe. + +V. + +V has a sound of near affinity to that of f, as vain, vanity. + + From f in the Islandick alphabet, v is only distinguished by a + diacritical point. + +W. + +Of w, which in diphthongs is often an undoubted vowel, some grammarians +have doubted whether it ever be a consonant; and not rather as it is called +a double u, or ou, as water may be resolved into ouater; but letters of the +same sound are always reckoned consonants in other alphabets: and it may be +observed, that w follows a vowel without any hiatus or difficulty of +utterance, as frosty winter. + +Wh has a sound accounted peculiar to the English, which the Saxons better +expressed by hw, as, what, whence, whiting; in whore only, and sometimes in +wholesome, wh is sounded like a simple h. + +X. + +X begins no English word: it has the sound of ks, as axle, extraneous. + +Y. + +Y, when it follows a consonant, is a vowel; when it precedes either a vowel +or a diphthong, is a consonant, as ye, young. It is thought by some to be +in all cases a vowel. But it may be observed of y as of w, that it follows +a vowel without any hiatus, as rosy youth. + + The chief argument by which w and y appear to be always vowels is, that + the sounds which they are supposed to have as consonants, cannot be + uttered after a vowel, like that of all other consonants; thus we say + tu, ut; do, odd; but in wed, dew; the two sounds of w have no + resemblance to each other. + +Z. + +Z begins no word originally English; it has the sound, as its name izzard +or s hard expresses, of an s uttered with a closer compression of the +palate by the tongue, as freeze, froze. + + In orthography I have supposed orthoepy, or just utterance of words, to + be included; orthography being only the art of expressing certain + sounds by proper characters. I have therefore observed in what words + any of the letters are mute. + + Most of the writers of English grammar have given long tables of words + pronounced otherwise than they are written, and seem not sufficiently + to have considered, that of English, as of all living tongues, there is + a double pronunciation, one cursory and colloquial, the other regular + and solemn. The cursory pronunciation is always vague and uncertain, + being made different in different mouths by negligence, unskilfulness, + or affectation. The solemn pronunciation, though by no means immutable + and permanent, is yet always less remote from the orthography, and less + liable to capricious innovation. They have however generally formed + their tables according to the cursory speech of those with whom they + happened to converse; and concluding that the whole nation combines to + vitiate language in one manner, have often established the jargon of + the lowest of the people as the model of speech. + + For pronunciation the best general rule is, to consider those as the + most elegant speakers who deviate least from the written words. + + There have been many schemes offered for the emendation and settlement + of our orthography, which, like that of other nations, being formed by + chance, or according to the fancy of the earliest writers in rude ages, + was at first very various and uncertain, and is yet sufficiently + irregular. Of these reformers some have endeavoured to accommodate + orthography better to the pronunciation, without considering that this + is to measure by a shadow, to take that for a model or standard which + is changing while they apply it. Others, less absurdly indeed, but with + equal unlikelihood of success, have endeavoured to proportion the + number of letters to that of sounds, that every sound may have its own + character, and every character a single sound. Such would be the + orthography of a new language, to be formed by a synod of grammarians + upon principles of science. But who can hope to prevail on nations to + change their practice, and make all their old books useless? or what + advantage would a new orthography procure equivalent to the confusion + and perplexity of such an alteration? + + Some ingenious men, indeed, have endeavoured to deserve well of their + country, by writing honor and labor for honour and labour, red for read + in the preter-tense, sais for says, repete tor repeat, explane for + explain, or declame for declaim. Of these it may be said, that as they + have done no good they have done little harm; both because they have + innovated little, and because few have followed them. + + The English language has properly no dialects; the style of writers has + no professed diversity in the use of words, or of their flexions and + terminations, nor differs but by different degrees of skill or care. + The oral diction is uniform in no spacious country, but has less + variation in England than in most other nations of equal extent. The + language of the northern counties retains many words now out of use, + but which are commonly of the genuine Teutonick race, and is uttered + with a pronunciation which now seems harsh and rough, but was probably + used by our ancestors. The northern speech is therefore not barbarous, + but obsolete. The speech in the western provinces seems to differ from + the general diction rather by a depraved pronunciation, than by any + real difference which letters would express. + + * * * * * + +ETYMOLOGY. + +Etymology teaches the deduction of one word from another, and the various +modifications by which the sense of the same word is diversified; as horse, +horses; I love, I loved. + +Of the ARTICLE. + +The English have two articles, an or a, and the. + +AN, A. + +A has an indefinite signification, and means one, with some reference to +more; as This is a good book; that is, one among the books that are good; +He was killed by a sword; that is, some sword; This is a better book for a +man than a boy; that is, for one of those that are men than one of those +that are boys; An army might enter without resistance; that is, any army. + +In the senses in which we use a or an in the singular, we speak in the +plural without an article; as these are good books. + + I have made an the original article, because it is only the Saxon an, + or n, one, applied to a new use, as the German ein, and the French un; + the n being cut off before a consonant in the speed of utterance. + +Grammarians of the last age direct, that an should be used before h; whence +it appears that the English anciently asperated less. An is still used +before the silent h; as an herb, an honest man; but otherwise a; as + + A horse, a horse, my kingdom for a horse. Shakespeare. + +An or a can only be joined with a singular: the correspondent plural is the +noun without an article, as, I want a pen, I want pens; or with the +pronominal adjective some, as, I want some pens. + +THE. + +The has a particular and definite signification. + + The fruit + Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste + Brought death into the world. Milton. + +That is, that particular fruit, and this world in which we live. So, He +giveth fodder for the cattle, and green herbs for the use of man; that is, +for those beings that are cattle, and his use that is man. + +The is used in both numbers. + + I am as free as Nature first made man, + Ere the base laws of servitude began, + When wild in woods the noble savage ran. Dryden. + +Many words are used without articles; as + +1. Proper names, as John, Alexander, Longinus, Aristarchus, Jerusalem, +Athens, Rome, London. GOD is used as a proper name. + +2. Abstract names, as blackness, witch-craft, virtue, vice, beauty, +ugliness, love, hatred, anger, good-nature, kindness. + +3. Words in which nothing but the mere being of any thing is implied: This +is not beer, but water; this is not brass, but steel. + + * * * * * + +Of NOUNS SUBSTANTIVE. + +The relations of English nouns to words going before or following are not +expressed by cases, or changes of termination, but, as in most of the other +European languages, by prepositions, unless we may be said to have a +genitive case. + +Singular. + +Nom. Magister, a Master, the Master. + +Gen. Magistri, of a Master, of the Master, + or Master's, the Master's. + +Dat. Magistro, to a Master, to the Master. + +Acc. Magistrum, a Master, the Master. + +Voc. Magister, Master, O Master. + +Abl. Magistro, from a Master, from the Master. + +Plural. + +Nom. Magistri, Masters, the Masters. + +Gen. Magistrorum, of Masters, of the Masters. + +Dat. Magistris, to Masters, to the Masters. + +Acc. Magistros, Masters, the Masters. + +Voc. Magistri, Masters, O Masters. + +Abl. Magistris, from Masters, from the Masters. + +Our nouns are therefore only declined thus: + +Master, Gen. Master's. Plur. Masters. + +Scholar, Gen. Scholar's. Plur. Scholars. + + These genitives are always written with a mark of elision, master's, + scholar's, according to an opinion long received, that the 's is a + contraction of his, as the soldier's valour, for the soldier his + valour: but this cannot be the true original, because 's is put to + female nouns, Woman's beauty; the Virgin's delicacy; Haughty Juno's + unrelenting hate; and collective nouns, as Women's passions; the + rabble's insolence; the multitude's folly: in all these cases it is + apparent that his cannot be understood. We say likewise the + foundation's strength; the diamond's lustre; the winter's severity: but + in these cases his may be understood, he and his having formerly been + applied to neuters in the place now supplied by it and its. + + The learned and sagacious Wallis, to whom every English grammarian owes + a tribute of reverence, calls this modification of the noun an + adjective possessive; I think with no more propriety than he might have + applied the same to the genitive in equitum decus, Troj oris, or any + other Latin genitive. Dr. Lowth, on the other part, supposes the + possessive pronouns mine and thine to be genitive cases. + + This termination of the noun seems to constitute a real genitive + indicating possession. It is derived to us from the Saxon's who + declined smith, a smith; Gen. smither, of a smith; Plur. smither or + smithar, smiths; and so in two other of their seven declensions. + + It is a further confirmation of this opinion, that in the old poets + both the genitive and plural were longer by a syllable than the + original word: knitis for knight's, in Chaucer; leavis for leaves, in + Spenser. + + When a word ends in s, the genitive may be the same with the + nominative, as Venus temple. + +The plural is formed by adding s, as table, tables; fly, flies; sister, +sisters; wood, woods; or es where s could not otherwise be sounded, as +after ch, s, sh, x, z; after c sounded like s, and g like j; the mute e is +vocal before s, as lance, lances; outrage, outrages. + + The formation of the plural and genitive singular is the same. + + A few words still make the plural in n, as men, women, oxen, swine, and + more anciently eyen, shoon. This formation is that which generally + prevails in the Teutonick dialects. + +Words that end in f commonly form their plural by ves, as loaf, loaves; +calf, calves. + + Except a few, muff, muffs; chief, chiefs. So hoof, roof, proof, relief, + mischief, puff, cuff, dwarf, handkerchief, grief. + + Irregular plurals are teeth from tooth, lice from louse, mice from + mouse, geese from goose, feet from foot, dice from die, pence from + penny, brethren from brother, children from child. + +Plurals ending in s have no genitives; but we say, Womens excellencies, and +Weigh the mens wits against the ladies hairs. + + Dr. Willis thinks the Lords' house may he said for the house of Lords; + but such phrases are not now in use; and surely an English ear rebels + against them. They would commonly produce a troublesome ambiguity, as + the Lord's house may be the house of Lords, or the house of a Lord. + Besides that the mark of elision is improper, for in the Lords' house + nothing is cut off. + + Some English substantives, like those of many other languages, change + their termination as they express different sexes; as prince, princess; + actor, actress; lion, lioness; hero, heroine. To these mentioned by Dr. + Lowth may be added arbitress, poetess, chauntress, duchess, tigress, + governess, tutress, peeress, authoress, traytress, and perhaps othets. + Of these variable terminations we have only a sufficient number to make + us feel our want; for when we say of a woman that she is a philosopher, + an astronomer, a builder, a weaver, a dancer, we perceive an + impropriety in the termination which we cannot avoid; but we can say + that she is an architect, a botanist, a student. because these + terminations have not annexed to them the notion of sex. In words which + the necessities of life are often requiring, the sex is distinguished + not by different terminations but by different names, as a bull, a cow; + a horse, a mare; equus, equa; a cock, a hen; and sometimes by pronouns + prefixed, as a he-goat, a, she-goat. + + * * * * * + +Of ADJECTIVES. + +Adjectives in the English language are wholly indeclinable; having neither +case, gender, nor number, and being added to substantives in all relations +without any change; as, a good woman, good women, of a good woman; a good +man, good men, of good men. + +The Comparison of Adjectives. + +The comparative degree of adjectives is formed by adding er, the +superlative by adding est, to the positive; as, fair, fairer, fairest; +lovely, lovelier, loveliest; sweet, sweeter, sweetest; low, lower, lowest; +high, higher, highest. + +Some words are irregularly compared; as, good, better, best; bad, worse, +worst; little, less, least; near, nearer, next; much, more, most; many (for +moe), more (for moer) most (for moest); late, later, latest or last. + +Some comparatives form a superlative by adding, most, as nether, +nethermost; outer, outermost; under, undermost; up, upper, uppermost; fore, +former, foremost. + +Most is sometimes added to a substantive, as, topmost, southmost. + +Many adjectives do not admit of comparison by terminations, and are only +compared by more and most, as, benevolent, more benevolent, most +benevolent. + +All adjectives may be compared by more and most, even when they have +comparatives and superlatives regularly formed; as, fair, fairer, or more +fair; fairest, or most fair. + + In adjectives that admit a regular comparison, the comparative more is + oftener used than the superlative most, as more fair is oftener written + for fairer, than most fair for fairest. + +The comparison of adjectives is very uncertain; and being much regulated by +commodiousness of utterance, or agreeableness of sound, is not easily +reduced to rules. + +Monosyllables are commonly compared. + +Polysyllables, or words of more than two syllables, are seldom compared +otherwise than by more and most, as, deplorable, more deplorable, most +deplorable. + +Dissyllables are seldom compared if they terminate in some, as fulsome, +toilsome; in ful, as, careful, spleenful, dreadful; in ing, as trifling, +charming; in ous, as porous; in less, as, careless, harmless; in ed, as +wretched; in id, as candid; in al, as mortal; in ent, as recent, fervent; +in ain, as certain; in ive, as missive; in dy, as woody; in fy, as puffy; +in ky, as rocky, except lucky; in my, as roomy; in ny, as skinny; in py, as +ropy, except happy; in ry, as hoary. + + Some comparatives and superlatives are yet found in good writers formed + without regard to the foregoing rules; but in a language subjected so + little and so lately to grammar, such anomalies must frequently occur. + +So shady is compared by Milton. + + She in shadiest covert hid, + Tun'd her nocturnal note. Par. Lost. + +And virtuous. + + What she wills to say or do, + Seems wisest, virtuousest, discreetest, best. Par. Lost. + +So trifling by Ray, who is indeed of no great authority. + + It is not so decorous, in respect of God, that he should immediately do + all the meanest and triflingest things himself, without making use of + any inferior or subordinate minister. Ray on the Creation. + +Famous, by Milton. + + I shall be nam'd among the famousest + Of women, sung at solemn festivals. Milton's Agonistes. + +Inventive, by Ascham. + + Those have the inventivest heads for all purposes, and roundest tongues + in all matters. Ascham's Schoolmaster. + +Mortal, by Bacon. + + The mortalest poisons practised by the West Indians, have some mixture + of the blood, fat, or flesh of man. Bacon. + +Natural, by Wotton. + + I will now deliver a few of the properest and naturalest considerations + that belong to this piece. Wotton's Architecture. + +Wretched, by Jonson. + + The wretcheder are the contemners of all helps; such as presuming on + their own naturals, deride diligence, and mock at terms when they + understand not things. Ben Jonson. + +Powerful, by Milton. + + We have sustain'd one day in doubtful fight, + What heav'n's great king hath pow'rfullest to send + Against us from about his throne. Par. Lost. + + The termination in ish may be accounted in some sort a degree of + comparison, by which the signification is diminished below the + positive, as black, blackish, or tending to blackness; salt, saltish, + or having a little taste of salt; they therefore admit no comparison. + This termination is seldom added but to words expressing sensible + qualities, nor often to words of above one syllable, and is scarcely + used in the solemn or sublime style. + + * * * * * + +Of PRONOUNS. + +Pronouns, in the English language, are, I, thou, he, with their plurals, +we, ye, they; it, who, which, what, whether, whosoever, whatsoever, my, +mine, our, ours, thy, thine, your, yours, his, her, hers, theirs, this, +that, other, another, the same, some. + +The pronouns personal are irregularly inflected. + + Singular. Plural. + +Nom. I, We. + +Accus. and Me, Us. +other oblique +cases. + +Nom. Thou, Ye. + +Oblique. Thee, You. + +You is commonly used in modern writers for ye, particularly in the language +of ceremony, where the second person plural is used for the second person +singular, You are my friend. + + Singular. Plural. + +Nom. He, They, Applied to masculines. + +Oblique. Him, Them. + +Nom. She, They, Applied to feminines. + +Oblique. Her, Them. + +Nom. It, They, Applied to neuters or things. + +Oblique. Its, Them. + +For it the practice of ancient writers was to use he, and for its, his. + +The possessive pronouns, like other adjectives, are without cases or change +of termination. + +The possessive of the first person is my, mine, our, ours; of the second, +thy, thine, your, yours; of the third, from he, his; from she, her, and +hers; and in the plural, their, theirs, for both sexes. + + Ours, yours, hers, theirs, are used when the substantive preceding is + separated by a verb, as These are our books. These books are ours. Your + children excel ours in stature, but ours surpass yours in learning. + + Ours, yours, hers, theirs, notwithstanding their seeming plural + termination, are applied equally to singular and plural substantives, + as, This book is ours. These books are ours. + + Mine and thine were formerly used before a vowel, as mine amiable lady: + which though now disused in prose, might be still properly continued in + poetry: they are used as ours and yours, when they are referred to a + substantive preceding, as thy house is larger than mine, but my garden + is more spacious than thine. + +Their and theirs are the possessives likewise of they, when they is the +plural of it, and are therefore applied to things. + +Pronouns relative are, who, which, what, whether, whosoever, whatsoever. + +Nom. Who. + +Gen. Whose. + +Other oblique cases. Whom. + +Nom. Which. + +Gen. Of which, or whose. + +Other oblique cases. Which. + + Who is now used in relation to persons, and which in relation to + things; but they were anciently confounded. At least it was common to + say, the man which, though I remember no example of the thing who. + + Whose is rather the poetical than regular genitive of which. + + The fruit + Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste + Brought death into the world. Milton. + +Whether is only used in the nominative and accusative cases; and has no +plural, being applied only to one of a number, commonly to one of two, as +Whether of these is left I know not. Whether shall I choose? It is now +almost obsolete. + +What, whether relative or interrogative, is without variation. + +Whosoever, whatsoever, being compounded of who or what, and soever, follow +the rule of their primitives. + + Singular. Plural. + + This These + +In all cases. That Those. + + Other, Others. + + Whether. + + The plural others is not used but when it is referred to a substantive + preceding, as I have sent other horses. I have not sent the same + horses, but others. + +Another, being only an other, has no plural. + +Here, there, and where, joined with certain particles, have a relative and +pronominal use. Hereof, herein, hereby, hereafter, herewith, thereof, +therein, thereby, thereupon, therewith, whereof, wherein, whereby, +whereupon, wherewith, which signify, of this, in this, &c. of that, in +that, &c. of which, in which, &c. + +Therefore and wherefore, which are properly there for and where for, for +that, for which, are now reckoned conjunctions, and continued in use. The +rest seem to be passing by degrees into neglect, though proper, useful, and +analogous. They are referred both to singular and plural antecedents. + +There are two more words used only in conjunction with pronouns, own and +self. + +Own is added to possessives, both singular and plural, as my own hand, our +own house. It is emphatical, and implies a silent contrariety, or +opposition; as, I live in my own house, that is, not in a hired house. This +I did with my own hand, that is, without help or not by proxy. + +Self is added to possessives, as myself, yourselves; and sometimes to +personal pronouns, as himself, itself, themselves. It then, like own, +expresses emphasis and opposition, as I did this myself, that is, not +another; or it forms a reciprocal pronoun, as We hurt ourselves by vain +rage. + + Himself, itself, themselves, are supposed by Wallis to be put by + corruption, for his self, it self, their selves; so that self is always + a substantive. This seems justly observed, for we say, He came himself; + Himself shall do this; where himself cannot be an accusative. + + * * * * * + +Of the VERB. + +English verbs are active, as I love; or neuter, as I languish. The neuters +are formed like the actives. + + Most verbs signifying action may likewise signify condition or habit, + and become neuters; as I love, I am in love; I strike, I am now + striking. + +Verbs have only two tenses inflected in their terminations, the present, +and simple preterit; the other tenses are compounded of the auxiliary +verbs, have, shall, will, let, may, can, and the infinitive of the active +or neuter verb. + +The passive voice is formed by joining the participle preterit to the +substantive verb, as I am loved. + +To have. Indicative Mood. + +Present Tense. + + Sing. I have, thou hast, he hath or has, + Plur. We have, ye have, they have. + + Has is a termination connoted from hath, but now more frequently used + both in verse and prose. + +Simple Preterit. + + Sing. I had, thou hadst, he had + Plur. We had, ye had, they had. + +Compound Preterit. + + Sing. I have had, thou hast had, he has or hath had; + Plur. We have had, ye have had, they have had. + +Preterpluperfect. + + Sing. I had had, thou hadst had, he had had. + Plur. We had had, ye had had, they had had. + +Future. + + Sing. I shall have, thou shalt have, he shall have; + Plur. We shall have, ye shall have, they shall have. + +Second Future. + + Sing. I will have, thou wilt have, he will have; + Plur. We will have, ye wilt have, they will have. + + By reading these future tenses may be observed the variations of shall + and will. + +Imperative Mood. + + Sing. Have, or have thou, let him have; + Plur. Let us have, have or have ye, let them have. + +Conjunctive Mood. + +Present. + + Sing. I have, thou have, he have; + Plur. We have, ye have, they have. + +Preterit simple as in the Indicative. + +Preterit compound. + + Sing. I have had, thou have had, he have had; + Plur. We have had, ye have had, they have had. + +Future. + + Sing. I shall have, as in the Indicative. + +Second Future. + + Sing. I shall have had, thou shalt have had, he shall have had; + Plur. We shall have had, ye shall have had, they shall have had. + +Potential. + +The potential form of speaking is expressed by may, can, in the present; +and might, could, or should, in the preterit, joined with the infinitive +mood of the verb. + +Present. + + Sing. I may have, thou mayst have, he may have; + Plur. We may have, ye may have, they may have. + +Preterit. + + Sing. I might have, thou mightst have, he might have; + Plur. We might have, ye might have, they might have. + +Present. + + Sing. I can have, thou canst have, he can have; + Plur. We can have, ye can have, they can have. + +Preterit. + + Sing. I could have, thou couldst have, he could have; + Plur. We could have, ye could have, they could have. + +In like manner should is united to the verb. + +There is likewise a double Preterit. + + Sing. I should have had, thou shouldst have had, he should have had; + Plur. We should have had, ye should have had, they should have had. + +In like manner we use, I might have had; I could have had, &c. + +Infinitive Mood. + + Present. To have. + Preterit. To have had. + Participle present. Having. + Participle preterit. Had. + +Verb Active. To love. + +Indicative. Present. + + Sing. I love, thou lovest, he loveth or loves; + Plur. We love, ye love, they love. + +Preterit simple. + + Sing. I loved, thou lovedst, he loved; + Plur. We loved, ye loved, they loved. + Preterperfect compound. I have loved, &c. + Preterpluperfect. I had loved, &c. + Future. I shall love, &c. I will love, &c. + +Imperative. + + Sing. Love or love thou, let him love; + Plur. Let us love, love or love ye, let them love. + +Conjunctive. Present. + + Sing. I love, thou love, he love; + Plur. We love, ye love, they love. + Preterit simple, as in the indicative. + Preterit compound. I have loved, &c. + Future. I shall love, &c. + Second Future. I shall have loved, &c. + +Potential. + + Present. I may or can love, &c. + Preterit. I might, could, or should love, &c. + Double Preterit. I might, could, or should have + loved, &c. + +Infinitive. + + Present. To love. + Preterit. To have loved. + Participle present. Loving. + Participle past. Loved. + +The passive is formed by the addition of the participle preterit to the +different tenses of the verb to be, which must therefore be here exhibited. + +Indicative. Present. + + Sing. I am, thou art, he is; + Plur. We are or be, ye are or be, they are or be. + The plural be is now little in use. + +Preterit. + + Sing. I was, thou wast or wert, he was; + Plur. We were, ye were, they were. + +Wert is properly of the conjunctive mood, and ought not to be used in the +indicative. + + Preterit compound. I have been, &c. + Preterpluperfect. I had been, &c. + Future. I shall or will be, &c. + +Imperative. + + Sing. Be thou; let him be; + Plur. Let us be; be ye; let them be. + +Conjunctive. Present. + + Sing. I be, thou beest, he be; + Plur. We be, ye be, they be. + +Preterit. + + Sing. I were, thou wert, he were; + Plur. We were, ye were, they were. + Preterit compound. I have been, &c. + Future. I shall have been, &c. + +Potential. + + I may or can; would, could, or should be; could, + would, or should have been, &c. + +Infinitive. + + Present. To be. + Preterit. To have been. + Participle present. Being. + Participle preterit. Having been. + +Passive Voice. Indicative Mood. + + I am loved, &c. I was loved, &c. I have been + loved, &c. + +Conjunctive Mood. + + If I be loved, &c. If I were loved, &c. If I shall + have been loved, &c. + +Potential Mood. + + I may or can be loved, &c. I might, could, or + should be loved, &c. I might, could, or should + have been loved, &c. + +Infinitive. + + Present. To be loved. + Preterit. To have been loved. + Participle. Loved. + +There is another form of English verbs, in which the infinitive mood is +joined to the verb do in its various inflections, which are therefore to be +learned in this place. + +To do. + +Indicative. Present. + + Sing. I do, thou dost, he doth; + Plur. We do, ye do, they do. + +Preterit. + + Sing. I did, thou didst, he did; + Plur. We did, ye did, they did. + Preterit., &c. I have done, &c. I had done, &c. + Future. I shall or will do, &c. + +Imperative. + + Sing. Do thou, let him do; + Plur. Let us do, do ye, let them do. + +Conjunctive. Present. + + Sing. I do, thou do, he do; + Plur. We do, ye do, they do. + +The rest are as in the Indicative. + + Infinite. To do, to have done. + Participle present. Doing. + Participle preterit. Done. + +Do is sometimes used superfluously, as I do love, I did love; simply for I +love, or I loved; but this is considered as a vitious mode of speech. + +It is sometimes used emphatically; as, + + I do love thee, and when I love thee not, + Chaos is come again. Shakespeare. + +It is frequently joined with a negative; as, I like her, but I do not love +her; I wished him success, but did not help him. This, by custom at least, +appears more easy than the other form of expressing the same sense by a +negative adverb after the verb, I like her, but love her not. + +The imperative prohibitory is seldom applied in the second person, at least +in prose, without the word do; as, Stop him, but do not hurt him; Praise +beauty, but do not dote on it. + +Its chief use is in interrogative forms of speech, in which it is used +through all the persons; as, Do I live? Dost thou strike me? Do they rebel? +Did I complain? Didst thou love her? Did she die? So likewise in negative +interrogations; Do I not yet grieve? Did she not die? + +Do and did are thus used only for the present and simple preterit. + +There is another manner of conjugating neuter verbs, which, when it is +used, may not improperly denominate them neuter passives, as they are +inflected according to the passive form by the help of the verb substantive +to be. They answer nearly to the reciprocal verbs in French; as, I am +risen, surrexi, Latin; Je me suis lev, French. I was walked out, exieram: +Je m'tois promen. + +In like manner we commonly express the present tense; as, I am going, eo. I +am grieving, doleo, She is dying, illa moritur. The tempest is raging, +furit procella. I am pursuing an enemy, hostem insequor. So the other +tenses, as, We were walking, [Greek: etynchanomen peripatountes], I have +been walking, I had been walking, I shall or will be walking. + +There is another manner of using the active participle, which gives it a +passive signification: as, The grammar is now printing, grammatica jam nunc +chartis imprimitur. The brass is forging, ara excuduntur. This is, in my +opinion, a vitious expression, probably corrupted from a phrase more pure, +but now somewhat obsolete: The book is a printing, The brass is a forging; +a being properly at, and printing and forging verbal nouns signifying +action, according to the analogy of this language. + +The indicative and conjunctive moods are by modern writers frequently +confounded, or rather the conjunctive is wholly neglected, when some +convenience of versification docs not invite its revival. It is used among +the purer writers of former times after if, though, ere, before, till or +until, whether, except, unless, whatsoever, whomsoever, and words of +wishing; as, Doubtless thou art our father, though Abraham be ignorant of +us, and Israel acknowledge us not. + + * * * * * + +Of IRREGULAR VERBS. + +The English verbs were divided by Ben Jonson into four conjugations, +without any reason arising from the nature of the language, which has +properly but one conjugation, such as has been exemplified: from which all +deviations are to be considered as anomalies, which are indeed, in our +monosyllable Saxon verbs, and the verbs derived from them, very frequent; +but almost all the verbs which have been adopted from other languages, +follow the regular form. + + Our verbs are observed by Dr. Wallis to be irregular only in the + formation of the preterit, and its participle. Indeed, in the + scantiness of our conjugations, there is scarcely any other place for + irregularity. + +The first irregularity is a slight deviation from the regular form, by +rapid utterance or poetical contraction: the last syllable ed is often +joined with the former by suppression of e; as lov'd for loved; after c, +ch, sh, f, k, x, and after the consonants s, th, when more strongly +pronounced, and sometimes after m, n, r, if preceded by a short vowel, t is +used in pronunciation, but very seldom in writing rather than d; as plac't, +snatch't, fish't, wak't, dwel't, smel't for plac'd, snatch'd, fish'd, +wak'd, dwel'd, smel'd; or placed, snatched, fished, waked, dwelled, +smelled. + +Those words which terminate in l or ll, or p, make their preterit in t, +even in solemn language; as crept, felt, dwelt; Sometimes after x, ed is +changed into t; as vext: this is not constant. + +A long vowel is often changed into a short one; thus kept, slept, wept, +crept, swept; from the verbs to keep, to sleep, to weep, to creep, to +sweep. + +Where d or t go before, the additional letter d or t, in this contracted +form, coalesce into one letter with the radical d or t: if t were the +radical, they coalesce into t; but if d were the radical, then into d or t, +as the one or the other letter may be more easily pronounced; as read, led, +spread, shed, shred, bid, hid, chid, fed, bled, bred, sped, strid, slid, +rid; from the verbs to read, to lead, to spread, to shed, to shread, to +bid, to hide, to chide, to feed, to bleed, to breed, to speed, to stride, +to slide, to ride. And thus cast, hurt, cost, burst, eat, beat, sweat, sit, +quit, smit, writ, bit, hit, met, shot; from the verbs to cast, to hurt, to +cost, to burst, to eat, to beat, to sweat, to sit, to quit, to smite, to +write, to bite, to hit, to meet, to shoot. And in like manner, lent, sent, +rent, girt; from the verbs to lend, to send, to rend, to gird. + +The participle preterit or passive is often formed in en instead of ed; as, +been, taken, given, slain, known, from the verbs to be, to take, to give, +to slay, to know. + +Many words have two or more participles, as not only written, bitten, +eaten, beaten, hidden, chidden, shotten, chosen, broken; but likewise writ, +bit, eat, beat, hid, chid, shot, chose, broke, are promiscuously used in +the participle, from the verbs to write, to bite, to eat, to beat, to hide, +to chide, to shoot, to choose, to break, and many such like. + +In the same manner, sown, shewn, hewn, mown, loaden, laden, as well as +sow'd, show'd, hew'd, mow'd, loaded, laded, from the verbs to sow, to show, +to hew, to mow, to load, to lade. + +Concerning these double participles it is difficult to give any rule; but +he shall seldom err who remembers, that when a verb has a participle +distinct from its preterit, as write, wrote, written, that distinct +participle is more proper and elegant, as The book is written, is better +than The book is wrote. Wrote however may be used in poetry; at least, if +we allow any authority to poets, who, in the exultation of genius, think +themselves perhaps entitled to trample on grammarians. + +There are other anomalies in the preterit. + +1. Win, spin, begin, swim, strike, stick, sing, sting, fling, ring, wring, +spring, swing, drink, sink, shrink, stink, come, run, find, bind, grind, +wind, both in the preterit imperfect and participle passive, give won, +spun, begun, swum, struck, stuck, sung, stung, flung, rung, wrung, sprung, +swung, drunk, sunk, shrunk, stunk, come, run, found, bound, ground, wound. +And most of them are also formed in the preterit by a, as began, sang, +rang, sprang, drank, came, ran, and some others; but most of these are now +obsolete. Some in the participle passive likewise take en, as stricken, +strucken, drunken, bounden. + +2. Fight, teach, reach, seek, beseech, catch, buy, bring, think, work, make +fought, taught, raught, sought, besought, caught, bought, brought, thought, +wrought. + +But a great many of these retain likewise the regular form, as teached, +reached, beseeched, catched, worked. + +3. Take, shake, forsake, wake, awake, stand, break, speak, bear, shear, +swear, tear, wear, weave, cleave, strive, thrive, drive, shine, rise, +arise, smite, write, bide, abide, ride, choose, chuse, tread, get, beget, +forget, seethe, make in both preterit and participle took, shook, forsook, +woke, awoke, stood, broke, spoke, bore, shore, swore, tore, wore, wove, +clove, strove, throve, drove, shone, rose, arose, smote, wrote, bode, +abode, rode, chose, trode, got, begot, forgot, sod. But we say likewise, +thrive, rise, smit, writ, abid, rid. In the preterit some are likewise +formed by a, as brake, spake, bare, share, sware, tare, ware, clave, gat, +begat, forgat, and perhaps some others, but more rarely. In the participle +passive many of them are formed by en, as taken, shaken, forsaken, broken, +spoken, born, shorn, sworn, torn, worn, woven, cloven, thriven, driven, +risen, smitten, ridden, chosen, trodden, gotten, begotten, forgotten, +sodden. And many do likewise retain the analogy in both, as waked, awaked, +sheared, weaved, cleaved, abided, seethed. + +4. Give, bid, sit, make in the preterit gave, bade, sate; in the participle +passive given, bidden, sitten; but in both bid. + +5. Draw, know, grow, throw, blow, crow like a cock, fly, slay, see, ly, +make their preterit drew, knew, grew, threw, blew, crew, flew, slew, saw, +lay; their participles passive by n, drawn, known, grown, thrown, blown, +flown, slain, seen, lien, lain. Yet from flee is made fled; from go, went, +(from the old wend) the participle is gone. + + * * * * * + +Of DERIVATION. + + That the English language may be more easily understood, it is + necessary to inquire how its derivative words are deduced from their + primitives, and how the primitives are borrowed from other languages. + In this inquiry I shall sometimes copy Dr. Wallis, and sometimes + endeavour to supply his detects, and rectify his errours. + +Nouns are derived from verbs. + +The thing implied in the verb, as done or produced, is commonly either the +present of the verb; as to love, love; to fright, a fright; to fight, a +fight; or the preterit of the verb, as to strike, I strick or strook, a +stroke. + +The action is the same with the participle present, as loving, frighting, +fighting, striking. + +The agent, or person acting, is denoted by the syllable er added to the +verb, as lover, frighter, striker. + +Substantives, adjectives, and sometimes other parts of speech, are changed +into verbs: in which case the vowel is often lengthened, or the consonant +softened; as, a house, to house; brass, to braze; glass, to glaze; grass, +to graze; price, to prize; breath, to breathe; a fish, to fish; oil, to +oil; further, to further; forward, to forward; hinder, to hinder. + +Sometimes the termination en is added, especially to adjectives; as, haste, +to hasten; length, to lengthen; strength, to strengthen; short, to shorten; +fast, to fasten; white, to whiten; black, to blacken; hard, to harden; +soft, to soften. + +From substantives are formed adjectives of plenty, by adding the +termination y: as a louse, lousy; wealth, wealthy; health, healthy; might, +mighty; worth, worthy; wit, witty; lust, lusty; water, watery, earth, +earthy; wood, (a wood) woody; air, airy; a heart, hearty; a hand, handy. + +From substantives are formed adjectives of plenty, by adding the +termination ful, denoting abundance; as, joy, joyful; fruit, fruitful; +youth, youthful; care, careful; use, useful; delight, delightful; plenty, +plentiful; help, helpful. + +Sometimes in almost the same sense, but with some kind of diminution +thereof, the termination some is added, denoting something, or in some +degree; as delight, delightsome; game, gamesome; irk, irksome; burden, +burdensome; trouble, troublesome; light, lightsome; hand, handsome; alone, +lonesome; toil, toilsome. + +On the contrary, the termination less added to substantives, makes +adjectives signifying want; as, worthless, witless, heartless, joyless, +careless, helpless. Thus comfort, comfortless; sap, sapless. + +Privation or contrariety is very often denoted by the participle un +prefixed to many adjectives, or in before words derived from the Latin; as +pleasant, unpleasant; wise, unwise; profitable, unprofitable, patient, +impatient. Thus unworthy, unhealthy, unfruitful, unuseful, and many more. + + The original English privative is un; but as we often borrow trom the + Latin, or its descendants, words already signifying privation, as + inefficacious, impious, indiscreet, the inseparable particles un and in + have fallen into confusion, from which it is not easy to disentangle + them. + + Un is prefixed to all words originally English, as untrue, untruth, + untaught, unhandsome. + + Un is prefixed to all participles made privative adjectives, as + unfeeling, unassisting, unaided, undelighted, unendeared. + + Un ought never to be prefixed to a participle present to mark a + forbearance of action, as unsighing, but a privation of habit, as + unpitying. + + Un is prefixed to most substantives which have an English termination, + as unfertileness, unperfectness, which, if they have borrowed + terminations, take in or im, as infertility, imperfection; uncivil, + incivility; unactive, inactivity. + + In borrowing adjectives, if we receive them already compounded, it is + usual to retain the particle prefixed, as indecent, inelegant, + improper; but if we borrow the adjective, and add the privative + particle, we commonly prefix un, as unpolite, ungallant. + +The prepositive particles dis and mis, derived from the des and mes of the +French, signify almost the same as un; yet dis rather imports contrariety +than privation, since it answers to the Latin preposition de. Mis +insinuates some errour, and for the most part may be rendered by the Latin +words male or perperam. To like, to dislike; honour, dishonour; to honour, +to grace, to dishonour, to disgrace; to deign, to disdeign; chance, hap, +mischance, mishap; to take, to mistake; deed, misdeed; to use, to misuse; +to employ, to misemploy, to apply, to misapply. + +Words derived from Latin written with de or dis retain the same +signification; as distinguish, distinguo; detract, detraho; defame, defamo; +detain, detineo. + +The termination ly added to substantives, and sometimes to adjectives, +forms adjectives that import some kind of similitude or agreement, being +formed by contraction of lick or like. A giant, giantly, giantlike; earth, +earthly; heaven, heavenly; world, worldly; God, godly; good, goodly. + +The same termination ly, added to adjectives, forms adverbs of like +signification; as, beautiful, beautifully; sweet, sweetly; that is, in a +beautiful manner; with some degree of sweetness. + +The termination ish added to adjectives, imports diminution; and added to +substantives, imports similitude or tendency to a character; as green, +greenish; white, whitish; soft, softish; a thief, thievish; a wolf, +wolfish; a child, childish. + +We have forms of diminutives in substantives, though not frequent; as a +hill, a hillock; a cock, a cockrel; a pike, a pickrel; this is a French +termination: a goose, a gosling; this is a German termination: a lamb, a +lambkin; a chick, a chicken; a man, a manikin; a pipe, a pipkin; and thus +Halkin, whence the patronymick, Hawkins; Wilkin, Thomkin, and others. + + Yet still there is another form of diminution among the English, by + lessening the sound itself, especially of vowels, as there is a form of + augmenting them by enlarging or even lengthening it; and that sometimes + not so much by change of the letters, as of their pronunciation; as, + sup, sip, soop, sop, sippet, where, besides the extenuation of the + vowel, there is added the French termination et; top, tip; spit, spout; + babe, baby; booby, [Greek: Boupais]; great pronounced long, especially + if with a stronger sound, grea-t; little, pronounced long lee-tle; + ting, tang, tong, imports a succession of smaller and then greater + sounds; and so in jingle, jangle, tingle, tangle, and many other made + words. + + Much however of this is arbitrary and fanciful, depending wholly on + oral utterance, and therefore scarcely worthy the notice of Wallis. + +Of concrete adjectives are made abstract substantives, by adding the +termination ness; and a few in hood or head, noting character or qualities: +as white, whiteness; hard, hardness; great, greatness; skilful, +skilfulness, unskilfulness; godhead, manhood, maidenhead, widowhood, +knighthood, priesthood, likelihood, falsehood. + +There are other abstracts, partly derived from adjectives, and partly from +verbs, which are formed by the addition of the termination th, a small +change being sometimes made; as long, length; strong, strength; broad, +breadth; wide, width, deep, depth; true, truth; warm, warmth; dear, dearth; +slow, slowth; merry, mirth; heal, health; well, weal, wealth; dry, drought; +young, youth; and so moon, month. + +Like these are some words derived from verbs; die, death; till, tilth; +grow, growth; mow, later mowth, after mowth; commonly spoken and written +later math, after math; steal, stealth; bear, birth, rue, ruth; and +probably earth, from to ear or plow; fly, flight; weigh, weight; fray, +fright; draw, draught. + + These should rather be written flighth, frighth, only that custom will + not suffer h to be twice repeated. + + The same form retain faith, spight, wreathe, wrath, broth, froth, + breath, sooth, worth, light, wight, and the like, whose primitives are + either entirely obsolete, or seldom occur. Perhaps they are derived + from fey or foy, spry, wry, wreak, brew, mow, fry, bray, say, work. + +Some ending in ship, imply an office, employment, or condition; as, +kingship, wardship, guardianship, partnership, stewardship, headship, +lordship. + + Thus worship, that is, worthship; whence worshipful, and to worship. + +Some few ending in dom, rick, wick, do especially denote dominion, at least +state or condition; as, kingdom, dukedom, earldom, princedom, popedom, +Christendom, freedom, wisdom, whoredom, bishoprick, bailiwick. + +Ment and age are plainly French terminations and are of the same import +with us as among them, scarcely ever occurring, except in words derived +from the French, as commandment, usage. + + There are in English often long trains of words allied by their meaning + and derivation; as, to beat, a bat, batoon, a battle, a beetle, a + battledore, to batter, batter, a kind of glutinous composition for + food, made by beating different bodies into one mass. All these are of + similar signification, and perhaps derived from the Latin batuo. Thus + take, touch, tickle, tack, tackle; all imply a local conjunction from + the Latin tango, tetigi, tactum. + + From two are formed twain, twice, twenty, twelve, twins, twine, twist, + twirl, twig, twitch, twinge, between, betwixt, twilight, twibil. + + The following remarks, extracted from Wallis, are ingenious but of more + subtlety than solidity, and such as perhaps might in every language be + enlarged without end. + + Sn usually imply the nose, and what relates to it. From the Latin nasus + are derived the French nez and the English nose; and nesse, a + promontory, as projecting like a nose. But as if from the consonants ns + taken from nasus, and transposed that they may the better correspond, + sn denote nasus; and thence are derived many words that relate to the + nose, as snout, sneeze, snore, snort,snear, snicker, snot, snivel, + snite, snuff, snuffle, snaffle, snarl, snudge. + + There is another sn which may perhaps be derived from the Latin sinuo, + as snake, sneak, snail, snare; so likewise snap and snatch, snib, snub. + Bl imply a blast; as blow, blast, to blast, to blight, and, + metaphorically, to blast one's reputation; bleat, bleak, a bleak place, + to look bleak, or weather-beaten, black, blay, bleach, bluster, blurt, + blister, blab, bladder, blew, blabber lip't, blubber-cheek't, bloted, + blote-herrings, blast, blaze, to blow, that is, blossom, bloom; and + perhaps blood and blush. + + In the native words of our tongue is to be found a great agreement + between the letters and the thing signified; and therefore the sounds + of the letters smaller, sharper, louder, closer, softer, stronger, + clearer, more obscure, and more stridulous, do very often intimate the + like effects in the things signified. + + Thus words that begin with str intimate the force and effect of the + thing signified, as if probably derived from [Greek: strnnymi], or + strenuous; as strong, strength, strew, strike, streak, stroke, stripe, + strive, strife, struggle, strout, strut, stretch, strait, strict, + streight, that is, narrow, distrain, stress, distress, string, strap, + stream, streamer, strand, strip, stray, struggle, strange, stride, + stradale. + + St in like manner imply strength, but in a less degree, so much only as + is sufficient to preserve what has been already communicated, rather + than acquire any new degree; as if it were derived from the Latin sto; + for example, stand, stay, that is, to remain, or to prop; staff, stay, + that is, to oppose; stop, to stuff, stifle, to stay, that is, to stop; + a stay, that is, an obstacle; stick, stut, stutter, stammer, stagger, + stickle, stick, stake, a sharp, pale, and any thing deposited at play; + stock, stem, sting, to sting, stink, stitch, stud, stuncheon, stub, + stubble, to stub up, stump, whence stumble, stalk, to stalk, step, to + stamp with the feet, whence to stamp, that is, to make an impression + and a stamp; stow, to stow, to bestow, steward, or stoward; stead, + steady, stedfast, stable, a stable, a stall, to stall, stool, stall, + still, stall, stallage, stage, still, adjective, and still, adverb: + stale, stout, sturdy, stead, stoat, stallion, stiff, stark-dead, to + starve with hunger or cold; stone, steel, stern, stanch, to stanch + blood, to stare, steep, steeple, stair, standard, a stated measure, + stately. In all these, and perhaps some others, st denote something + firm and fixed. + + Thr imply a more violent degree of motion, as throw, thrust, throng, + throb, through, threat, threaten, thrall, throws. + + Wr imply some sort of obliquity or distortion, as wry, to wreathe, + wrest, wrestle, wring, wrong, wrinch, wrench, wrangle, wrinkle, wrath, + wreak, wrack, wretch, wrist, wrap. + + Sw imply a silent agitation, or a softer kind of lateral motion; as + sway, swag, to sway, swagger, swerve, sweat, sweep, swill, swim, swing, + swift, sweet, switch, swinge. + + Nor is there much difference of sm in smooth, smug, smile, smirk, + smite; which signifies the same as to strike, but is a softer word; + small, smell, smack, smother, smart, a smart blow properly signifies + such a kind of stroke as with an originally silent motion, implied in + sm, proceeds to a quick violence, denoted by ar suddenly ended, as is + shown by t. + + Cl denote a kind of adhesion or tenacity, as in cleave, clay, cling, + climb, clamber, clammy, clasp, to clasp, to clip, to clinch, cloak, + clog, close, to close, a clod, a clot, as a clot of blood, clouted + cream, a clutter, a cluster. + + Sp imply a kind of dissipation or expansion, especially a quick one, + particularly if there be an r, as if it were from spargo or separo: for + example, spread, spring, sprig, sprout, sprinkle, split, splinter, + spill, spit, sputter, spatter. + + Sl denote a kind of silent fall, or a less observable motion; as in + slime, slide, slip, slipper, sly, sleight, slit, slow, slack, slight, + sling, slap. + + And so likewise ash, in crash, rash, gash, flash, clash, lash, slash, + plash, trash, indicate something acting more nimbly and sharply. But + ush, in crush, rush, gush, flush, blush, brush, hush, push, imply + something as acting more obtusely and dully. Yet in both there is + indicated a swift and sudden motion not instantaneous, but gradual, by + the continued sound, sh. + + Thus in fling, sling, ding, swing, cling, sing, wring, sting, the + tingling of the termination ng, and the sharpness of the vowel i, imply + the continuation of a very slender motion or tremor, at length indeed + vanishing, but not suddenly interrupted. But in tink, wink, sink, + clink, chink, think, that end in a mute consonant, there is also + indicated a sudden ending. + + If there be an l, as in jingle, tingle, tinkle, mingle, sprinkle, + twinkle, there is implied a frequency, or iteration of small acts. And + the same frequency of acts, but less subtile by reason of the clearer + vowel a, is indicated in jangle, tangle, spangle, mangle, wrangle, + brangle, dangle; as also in mumble, grumble, jumble. But at the same + time the close u implies something obscure or obtunded; and a congeries + of consonants mbl, denotes a confused kind of rolling or tumbling, as + in ramble, scamble, scramble, wamble, amble; but in these there is + something acute. + + In nimble, the acuteness of the vowel denotes celerity. In sparkle, sp + denotes dissipation, ar an acute crackling, k a sudden interruption, l + a frequent iteration; and in like manner in sprinkle, unless in may + imply the subtilty of the dissipated guttules. Thick and thin differ in + that the former ends with an obtuse consonant, and the latter with an + acute. + + In like manner, in squeek, squeak, squeal, squall, brawl, wraul, yaul, + spaul, screek, shriek, shrill, sharp, shrivel, wrinkle, crack, crash, + clash, gnash, plash, crush, hush, hisse, fisse, whist, soft, jar, hurl, + curl, whirl, buz, bustle, spindle, dwindle, twine, twist, and in many + more, we may observe the agreement of such sort of sounds with the + things signified; and this so frequently happens, that scarce any + language which I know can be compared with ours. So that one + monosyllable word, of which kind are almost all ours, emphatically + expresses what in other languages can scarce be explained but by + compounds, or decompounds, or sometimes a tedious circumlocution. + +We have many words borrowed from the Latin; but the greatest part of them +were communicated by the intervention of the French; as, grace, face, +elegant, elegance, resemble. + +Some verbs which seem borrowed from the Latin, are formed from the present +tense, and some from the supines. + +From the present are formed spend, expend, expendo; conduce, conduco; +despise, despicio; approve, approbo; conceive, concipio. + +From the supines, supplicate, supplico; demonstrate, demonstro; dispose, +dispono; expatiate, expatior; suppress, supprimo; exempt, eximo. + + Nothing is more apparent than that Wallis goes too far in quest of + originals. Many of these which seem selected as immediate descendants + from the Latin, are apparently French, as, conceive, approve, expose, + exempt. + +Some words purely French, not derived from the Latin, we have transferred +into our language; as, garden, garter, buckler, to advance, to cry, to +plead, from the French jardin, jartier, bouclier, avancer, crier, plaider; +though, indeed, even of these part is of Latin original. + + As to many words which we have in common with the Germans, it is + doubtful whether the old Teutons borrowed them from the Latins, or the + Latins from the Teutons, or both had them from some common original; as + wine, vinum; wind, ventus; went, veni; way, via, wall, vallum; wallow, + volvo; wool, vellus; will, volo; worm, vermis; worth, virtus; wasp, + vespa; day, dies; draw, traho; tame, domo, [Greek: dama]; yoke, jugum, + [Greek: zeugos]; over, upper, super, [Greek: hyper]; am, sum, [Greek: + eimi]; break, frango; fly, volo; blow, flo. I make no doubt but the + Teutonick is more ancient than the Latin: and it is no less certain, + that the Latin, which borrowed a great number of words not only from + the Greek, especially the olick, but from other neighbouring + languages, as the Oscan and others, which have long become obsolete, + received not a few from the Teutonick. It is certain, that the English, + German, and other Teutonick languages, retained some derived from the + Greek, which the Latin has not; as, ax, achs, mit, ford, pfurd, + daughter, tochter, mickle, mingle, moon, sear, oar, grave, graff, to + grave, to scrape, whole, from [Greek: axin], [Greek: meta], [Greek: + porthmos], [Greek: thygatr], [Greek: megalos], [Greek: migny], + [Greek: mn], [Greek: xros], [Greek: graph], [Greek: holos]. Since + they received these immediately from the Greeks, without the + intervention of the Latin language, why may not other words be derived + immediately from the same fountain, though they be likewise found among + the Latins? + +Our ancestors were studious to form borrowed words, however long, into +monosyllables; and not only cut off the formative terminations, but cropped +the first syllable, especially in words beginning with a vowel; and +rejected not only vowels in the middle, but likewise consonants of a weaker +sound, retaining the stronger, which seem the bones of words, or changing +them for others of the same organ, in order that the sound might become the +softer; but especially transposing their order, that they might the more +readily be pronounced without the intermediate vowels. For example in +expendo, spend; exemplum, sample; excipio, scape; extraneus, strange; +extractum, stretch'd; excrucio, to screw; exscorio, to scour; excorio, to +scourge; excortico, to scratch; and others beginning with ex: as also, +emendo, to mend; episcopus, bishop, in Danish bisp; epistola, epistle; +hospitale, spittle; Hispania, Spain; historia, story. + + Many of these etymologies are doubtful, and some evidently mistaken. + + The following are somewhat harder, Alexander, Sander; Elisabetha, + Betty; apis, bee; aper, bar; p passing into b, as in bishop; and by + cutting off a from the beginning, which is restored in the middle; but + for the old bar or bare, we now say boar; as for lang, long, for bain, + bane; for stane, stone; aprugna, brawn, p, being changed into b and a + transposed, as in aper, and g changed into w, as in pignus, pawn; lege, + law; [Greek: alpx], fox, cutting off the beginning, and changing p + into f, as in pellis, a fell; pullus, a foal; pater, father; pavor, + fear; polio, file; pleo, impleo, fill, full; piscis, fish; and + transposing o into the middle, which was taken from the beginning; + apex, a piece; peak, pike; zophorus, freese; mustum, stum; defensio, + fence; dispensator, spencer; asculto, escouter, Fr. scout; exscalpo, + scrape; restoring l instead of r, and hence scrap, scrabble, scrawl; + exculpo, scoop; exterritus, start; extonitus, attonitus, stonn'd; + stomachus, maw; offendo, fined; obstipo, stop; audere, dare; cavere, + ware; whence, a-ware, beware, wary, warn, warning; for the Latin v + consonant formerly sounded like our w, and the modern sound of the v + consonant was formerly that of the letter f, that is, the olick + digamma, which had the sound of [Greek: ph], and the modern sound of + the letter f was that of the Greek [Greek: ph] or ph; ulcus, ulcere, + ulcer, sore, and hence sorry, sorrow, sorrowful; ingenium, engine, gin, + scalenus, leaning, unless you would rather derive it from [Greek: + klin], whence inclino; infundibulum, funnel; gagates, jett, projectum, + to jett forth, a jetty; cucullus, a cowl. + + There are syncopes somewhat harder; from tempore, time; from nomine, + name, domina, dame; as the French homme, femme, nom, from homine, + foemina, nomine. Thus pagna, page; [Greek: potrion], pot; [Greek: + kypella], cup; cantharus, can; tentorium, tent; precor, pray; preda, + prey; specio, speculor, spy; plico, ply; implico, imply; replico, + reply; complico, comply; sedes episcopalis, see. + + A vowel is also cut off in the middle, that the number of the syllables + may be lessened; as amita, aunt; spiritus, spright; debitum, debt; + dubito, doubt; comes, comitis, count; clericus, clerk; quietus, quit, + quite; acquieto, to acquit; separo, to spare; stabilis, stable; + stabulum, stable; pallacium, palace, place; rabula, rail, rawl, wrawl, + brawl, rable, brable; qusito, quest. + + As also a consonant, or at least one of a softer sound, or even a whole + syllable, rotundus, round; fragilis, frail; securus, sure; regula, + rule; tegula, tile; subtilis, subtle; nomen, noun; decanus, dean; + computo, count; subitaneus, sudden, soon; superare, to soar; periculum, + peril; mirabile, marvel; as magnus, main; dignor, deign; tingo, stain; + tinctum, taint; pingo, paint; prdari, reach. + + The contractions may seem harder, where many of them meet, as [Greek: + kyriakos], kyrk, church; presbyter, priest; sacristanus, sexton; + frango, fregi, break, breach; fagus, [Greek: phga], beech, f changed + into b, and g into ch, which are letters near akin; frigesco, freeze, + frigesco, fresh, sc into sh, as above in bishop, fish, so in scapha, + skiff, skip, and refrigesco, refresh; but viresco, fresh; phlebotamus, + fleam; bovina, beef; vitulina, veal; scutifer, squire; poenitentia, + penance; sanctuarium, sanctuary, sentry; qusitio, chase; perquisitio, + purchase; anguilla, eel; insula, isle, ile, island, iland; insuletta, + islet, ilet, eyght, and more contractedly ey, whence Owsney, Ruley, + Ely; examinare, to scan; namely, by rejecting from the beginning and + end e and o, according to the usual manner, the remainder xamin, which + the Saxons, who did not use x, writ csamen, or scamen, is contracted + into scan: as from dominus, don; nomine, noun; abomino, ban; and indeed + apum examen; they turned into sciame; for which we say swarme, by + inserting r to denote the murmuring; thesaurus, store; sedile, stool; + [Greek: hyetos], wet; sudo, sweat; gaudium, gay; jocus, joy; succus, + juice; catena, chain; caliga, calga; chause, chausse, French, hose; + extinguo, stand, squench, quench, stint; foras, forth; species, spice; + recito, read; adjuvo, aid; [Greek: ain], vum, ay, age, ever; floccus, + lock; excerpo, scrape, scrabble, scrawl; extravagus, stray, straggle; + collectum, clot, clutch; colligo, coil: recolligo, recoil; severo, + swear; stridulus, shrill; procurator, proxy; pulso, to push; calamus, a + quill; impetere, to impeach; augeo, auxi, wax; and vanesco, vanui, + wane; syllabare, to spell; puteus, pit; granum, corn; comprimo, cramp, + crump, crumple, crinkle. + + Some may seem harsher, yet may not be rejected, for it at least + appears, that some of them are derived from proper names, and there are + others whose etymology is acknowledged by every body; as, Alexander, + Elick, Scander, Sander, Sandy, Sanny; Elizabetha, Elizabeth, Elisabeth, + Betty, Bess; Margareta, Margaret, Marget, Meg, Peg; Maria, Mary, Mal, + Pal, Malkin, Mawkin, Mawkes; Mathus, Mattha, Matthew; Martha, Mat, + Pat; Gulielmus, Wilhelmus, Girolamo, Guillaume, William, Will, Bill, + Wilkin, Wicken, Wicks, Weeks. + + Thus cariophyllus, flos; gerofilo, Italian, giriflee, gilofer, French, + gilliflower, which the vulgar call julyflower, as if derived from the + month July; petroselinum, parsley; portulaca, purslain; cydonium, + quince; cydoniatum, quiddeny; persicum, peach; eruca, eruke, which they + corrupt to earwig, as if it took its name from the ear; annulus + geminus, a gimmal, or gimbal-ring; and thus the word gimbal or jumbal + is transferred to other things thus interwoven; quelques choses, + kickshaws. Since the origin of these, and many others, however forced, + is evident, it ought to appear no wonder to any one if the ancients + have thus disfigured many, especially as they so much affected + monosyllables; and, to make the sound the softer, took this liberty of + maiming, taking away, changing, transposing, and softening them. + + But while we derive these from the Latin, I do not mean to say, that + many of them did not immediately come to us from the Saxon, Danish, + Dutch, and Teutonick languages, and other dialects; and some taken more + lately from the French or Italians, or Spaniards. + + The same word, according to its different significations, often has a + different origin; as, to bear a burden, from fero; but to bear, whence + birth, born, bairn, comes from pario; and a bear, at least if it be of + Latin original, from fera. Thus perch, a fish, from perca; but perch, a + measure, from pertica, and likewise to perch. To spell is from syllaba; + but spell, an inchantment, by which it is believed that the boundaries + are so fixed in lands that none can pass them against the master's + will, from expello; and spell, a messenger, from epistola; whence + gospel, good-spell, or god-spell. Thus freese, or freeze, from + frigesco; but freeze, an architectonick word, from zophorus; but + freeze, for cloth, from Frisia, or perhaps from frigesco, as being more + fit than any other for keeping out the cold. + + There are many words among us, even monosyllables, compounded of two or + more words, at least serving instead of compounds, and comprising the + signification of more words that one; as, from scrip and roll comes + scroll; from proud and dance, prance; from st of the verb stay or stand + and out, is made stout; from stout and hardy, sturdy; from sp of spit + or spew, and out, comes spout; from the same sp with the termination + in, is spin; and adding out, spin out: and from the same sp, with it, + is spit, which only differs from spout in that it is smaller, and with + less noise and force; but sputter is, because of the obscure u, + something between spit and spout: and by reason of adding r, it + intimates a frequent iteration and noise, but obscurely confused; + whereas spatter, on account of the sharper and clearer vowel a, + intimates a more distinct poise, in which it chiefly differs from + sputter. From the same sp and the termination ark, comes spark, + signifying a single emission of fire with a noise; namely sp, the + emission, ar, the more acute noise, and k, the mute consonant, + intimates its being suddenly terminated; but adding l, is made the + frequentative sparkle. The same sp, by adding r, that is spr, implies a + more lively impetus of diffusing or expanding itself; to which adding + the termination ing, it becomes spring: its vigour spr imports; its + sharpness the termination ing; and lastly in acute and tremulous, + ending in the mute consonant g, denotes the sudden ending of any + motion, that it is meant in its primary signification, of a single, not + a complicated exilition. Hence we call spring whatever has an elastick + force; as also a fountain of water, and thence the origin of any thing: + and to spring, to germinate, and spring, one of the four seasons. From + the same spr and out, is formed sprout, and wit the termination ig, + sprig; of which the following, for the most part, is the difference: + sprout, of a grosser sound, imports a fatter or grosser bud; sprig, of + a slenderer sound, denotes a smaller shoot. In like manner, from str of + the verb strive, and out, comes strout, and strut. From the same str, + and the termination uggle, is made struggle; and this gl imports, but + without any great noise, by reason of the obscure sound of the vowel u. + In like manner, from throw and roll is made troll, and almost in the + same sense is trundle, from throw or thrust, and rundle. Thus graff or + grough is compounded of grave and rough; and trudge from tread or trot, + and drudge. + +In these observations it is easy to discover great sagacity and great +extravagance, an ability to do much defeated by the desire of doing more +than enough. It may be remarked, + +1. That Wallis's derivations are often so made, that by the same license +any language may be deduced from any other. + +2. That he makes no distinction between words immediately derived by us +from the Latin, and those which being copied from other languages, can +therefore afford no example of the genius of the English language, or its +laws of derivation. + +3. That he derives from the Latin, often with great harshness and violence, +words apparently Teutonick; and therefore, according to his own +declaration, probably older than the tongue to which he refers them. + +4. That some of his derivations are apparently erroneous. + + * * * * * + +SYNTAX. + + The established practice of grammarians requires that I should here + treat of the Syntax; but our language has so little inflection, or + variety of terminations, that its construction neither requires nor + admits many rules. Wallis, therefore, has totally neglected it; and + Jonson, whose desire of following the writers upon the learned + languages made him think a syntax indispensably necessary, has + published such petty observations as were better omitted. + +The verb, as in other languages, agrees with the nominative in number and +person; as, Thou fliest from good; He runs to death. + +Our adjectives and pronouns are invariable. + +Of two substantives the noun possessive is in the genitive; as, His +father's glory; The sun's heat. + +Verbs transitive require an oblique case; as, He loves me; You fear him. + +All prepositions require an oblique case: as, He gave this to me; He took +this from me; He says this of me; He came with me. + + * * * * * + +PROSODY. + + It is common for those that deliver the grammar of modern languages, to + omit the Prosody. So that of the Italians is neglected by Buomattei; + that of the French by Desmarais; aad that of the English by Wallis, + Cooper, and even by Jonson, though a poet. But as the laws of metre are + included in the idea of grammar, I have thought proper to insert them. + +PROSODY comprises orthoepy, or the rules of pronunciation; and orthometry, +or the laws of versification. + +Pronunciation is just, when every letter has its proper sound, and every +syllable has its proper accent, or, which in English versification is the +same, its proper quantity. + + The sounds of the letters have been already explained; and rules for + the accent or quantity are not easily to be given, being subject to + innumerable exceptions. Such, however, as I have read or formed, I + shall here propose. + +1. Of dissyllables, formed by affixing a termination, the former syllable +is commonly accented, as chldish, kngdom, ctest, cted, tilsome, lver, +scffer, farer, fremost, zalous, flness, gdly, mekly, rtist. + +2. Dissyllables formed by prefixing a syllable to the radical word, have +commonly the accent on the latter; as to begt, to besem, to bestw. + +3. Of dissyllables, which are at once nouns and verbs, the verb has +commonly the accent on the latter, and the noun on the former syllable; as, +to descnt, a dscant; to cemnt, a cment; to contrct, a cntract. + + This rule has many exceptions. Though verbs seldom have their accent on + the former, yet nouns often have it on the latter syllable; as delght, + perfme. + +4. All dissyllables ending in y, as crnny; in our, as lbour, fvour; in +ow, as wllow, wllow, except allw; in le, as bttle, bble; in ish, as +bnish; in ck, as cmbrick, cssock; in ter, as to btter; in age, as +corage, in en, as fsten; in et, as quet; accent the former syllable. + +5. Dissyllable nouns in er, as cnker, btter, have the accent on the +former syllable. + +6. Dissyllable verbs terminating in a consonant and e final, as comprse, +escpe; or having a diphthong in the last syllable, as appase, reval; or +ending in two consonants, as attnd; have the accent on the latter +syllable. + +7. Dissyllable nouns having a diphthong in the latter syllable, have +commonly their accent on the latter syllable, as appluse; except words in +ain, crtain, montain. + +8. Trissyllables formed by adding a termination, or prefixing a syllable, +retain the accent of the radical word; as, lveliness, tnderness, +contmner, wgonner, phsical, besptter, cmmenting, commnding, +assrance. + +9. Trissyllables ending in ous, as grcious, rduous; in al, as cpital; in +ion, as mntion; accent the first. + +10. Trissyllables ending in ce, ent, and ate, accent the first syllable, as +cuntenance, cntinence, rmament, mminent, legant, prpagate, except +they be derived from words having the accent on the last, as connvance, +acquintance; or the middle syllable hath a vowel before two consonants, as +promlgate. + +11. Trissyllables ending in y, as ntity, spcify, lberty, vctory, +sbsidy, commonly accent the first syllable. + +12. Trissyllables in re or le accent the first syllable, as lgible, +thatre, except discple, and some words which have a position, as exmple, +epstle. + +13. Trissyllables in ude commonly accent the first syllable, as plnitude. + +14. Trissyllables ending in ator or atour, as cretour; or having in the +middle syllable a diphthong, as endevour; or a vowel before two +consonants, as domstick; accent the middle syllable. + +15. Trissyllables that have their accent on the last syllable are commonly +French, as acquisce, reparte, magazne, or words formed by prefixing one +or two syllables to an acute syllable, as immatre, overchrge. + +16. Polysyllables, or words of more than three syllables, follow the accent +of the words from which they are derived, as rrogating, cntinency, +incntinently, commndable, commnicableness. We should therefore say +disptable, indisptable; rather than dsputable, indsputable; and +advertsement, rather than advrtisement. + +17. Words in ion have the accent upon the antepenult, as salvtion, +perturbtion, concction; words in atour or ator on the penult, as +dedictor. + +18. Words ending in le commonly have the accent on the first syllable, as +micable, unless the second syllable have a vowel before two consonants, as +combstible. + +19. Words ending in ous have the accents on the antepenult, as uxrious, +volptuous. + +20. Words ending in ty have their accent on the antepenult, as +pusillanmity, actvity. + + These rules are not advanced as complete or infallible, but proposed as + useful. Almost every rule of every language has its exceptions; and in + English, as in other tongues, much must be learned by example and + authority. Perhaps more and better rules may be given that have escaped + my observation. + +VERSIFICATION is the arrangement of a certain number of syllables according +to certain laws. + +The feet of our verses are either iambick, as alft, crete; or trochaick, +as hly, lfty. + +Our iambick measure comprises verses + +Of four syllables, + + Most good, most fair, + Or things as rare, + To call you's lost; + For all the cost + Words can bestow, + So poorly show + Upon your praise, + That all the ways + Sense hath, come short. Drayton. + + With ravish'd ears + The monarch hears. Dryden. + +Of six, + + This while we are abroad, + Shall we not touch our lyre? + Shall we not sing an ode? + Or shall that holy fire, + In us that strongly glow'd, + In this cold air expire? + + Though in the utmost peak, + A while we do remain, + Amongst the mountains bleak, + Expos'd to sleet and rain, + No sport our hours shall break, + To exercise our vein. + + What though bright Phoebus' beams + Refresh the southern ground, + And though the princely Thames + With beauteous nymphs abound, + And by old Camber's streams + Be many wonders found: + + Yet many rivers clear + Here glide in silver swathes, + And what of all most dear, + Buxton's delicious baths, + Strong ale and noble chear, + T' asswage breem winters scathes. + + In places far or near, + Or famous, or obscure, + Where wholsom is the air, + Or where the most impure, + All times, and every where, + The muse is still in ure. Drayton. + +Of eight, which is the usual measure for short poems, + + And may at last my weary age + Find out the peaceful hermitage, + The hairy gown, and mossy cell, + Where I may sit, and nightly spell + Of ev'ry star the sky doth shew, + And ev'ry herb that sips the dew. Milton. + +Of ten, which is the common measure of heroick and tragick poetry, + + Full in the midst of this created space, + Betwixt heav'n, earth, and skies, there stands a place + Confining on all three; with triple bound; + Whence all things, though remote, are view'd around, + And thither bring their undulating sound. + The palace of loud Fame, her seat of pow'r, + Plac'd on the summit of a lofty tow'r; + A thousand winding entries long and wide + Receive of fresh reports a flowing tide. + A thousand crannies in the walls are made; + Nor gate nor bars exclude the busy trade. + Tis built of brass, the better to diffuse + The spreading sounds, and multiply the news; + Where echoes in repeated echoes play: + A mart for ever full; and open night and day. + Nor silence is within, nor voice express, + But a deaf noise of sounds that never cease; + Confus'd and chiding, like the hollow roar + Of tides, receding from th' insulted shore; + Or like the broken thunder heard from far, + When Jove to distance drives the rolling war. + The courts are fill'd with a tumultuous din, + Of crouds, or issuing forth, or ent'ring in: + A thorough-fare of news; where some devise + Things never heard, some mingle truth with lies: + The troubled air with empty sounds they beat, + Intent to hear, and eager to repeat. Dryden. + +In all these measures the accents are to be placed on even syllables; and +every line considered by itself is more harmonious, as this rule is more +strictly observed. The variations necessary to pleasure belong to the art +of poetry, not the rules of grammar. + +Our trochaick measures are Of three syllables, + + Here we may + Think and pray, + Before death + Stops our breath: + Other joys + Are but toys. Walton's Angler. + +Of five, + + In the days of old, + Stories plainly told, + Lovers felt annoy. Old Ballad. + +Of seven, + + Fairest piece of well form'd earth, + Urge not thus your haughty birth. Waller. + +In these measures the accent is to be placed on the odd syllables. + +These are the measures which are now in use, and above the rest those of +seven, eight, and ten syllables. Our ancient poets wrote verses sometimes +of twelve syllables, as Drayton's Polyolbion. + + Of all the Cambrian shires their heads that bear so high, + And farth'st survey their soils with an ambitious eye, + Mervinia for her hills, as for their matchless crouds, + The nearest that are said to kiss the wand'ring clouds, + Especial audience craves, offended with the throng, + That she of all the rest neglected was so long; + Alledging for herself, when, through the Saxons' pride, + The godlike race of Brute to Severn's setting side + Were cruelly inforc'd, her mountains did relieve + Those whom devouring war else every where did grieve. + And when all Wales beside (by fortune or by might) + Unto her ancient foe resign'd her ancient right, + A constant maiden still she only did remain, + The last her genuine laws which stoutly did retain. + And as each one is prais'd for her peculiar things; + So only she is rich, in mountains, meres and springs, + And holds herself as great in her superfluous waste, + As others by their towns, and fruitful tillage grac'd. + +And of fourteen, as Chapman's Homer. + + And as the mind of such a man, that hath a long way gone, + And either knoweth not his way, or else would let alone, + His purpos'd journey, is distract. + +The measures of twelve and fourteen syllables were often mingled by our old +poets, sometimes in alternate lines, and sometimes in alternate couplets. + +The verse of twelve syllables, called an Alexandrine, is now only used to +diversify heroick lines. + + Waller was smooth, but Dryden taught to join + The varying verse, the full resounding line, + The long majestick march, and energy divine. Pope. + +The pause in the Alexandrine must be at the sixth syllable. + +The verse of fourteen syllables is now broken into a soft lyrick measure of +verses, consisting alternately of eight syllables and six. + + She to receive thy radiant name, + Selects a whiter space. Fenton. + + When all shall praise, and ev'ry lay + Devote a wreath to thee, + That day, for come it will, that day + Shall I lament to see. Lewis to Pope. + + Beneath this tomb an infant lies + To earth whose body lent, + Hereafter shall more glorious rise, + But not more innocent. + When the Archangel's trump shall blow, + And souls to bodies join, + What crowds shall wish their lives below + Had been as short as thine! Wesley. + +We have another measure very quick and lively, and therefore much used in +songs, which may be called the anapestick, in which the accent rests upon +every third syllable. + + May I gvern my pssions with bsolute swy, + And grow wser and btter as lfe wears awy. Dr. Pope. + +In this measure a syllable is often retrenched from the first foot, as + + Digenes srly and prud. Dr. Pope. + + When prsent, we lve, and when bsent agre, + I thnk not of ris, nor ris of me. Dryden. + +These measures are varied by many combinations, and sometimes by double +endings, either with or without rhyme, as in the heroick measure. + + 'Tis the divinity that stirs within us, + 'Tis heaven itself that points out an hereafter, + And intimates eternity to man. Addison. + +So in that of eight syllables, + + They neither added nor confounded, + They neither wanted nor abounded. Prior. + +In that of seven, + + For resistance I could fear none, + But with twenty ships had done, + What thou, brave and happy Vernon, + Hast atchiev'd with six alone. Glover. + +In that of six, + + 'Twas when the seas were roaring, + With hollow blasts of wind, + A damsel lay deploring, + All on a rock reclin'd. Gay. + +In the anapestick, + + When terrible tempests assail us. + And mountainous billows affright, + Nor power nor wealth can avail us, + But skilful industry steers right. Ballad. + +To these measures and their laws, may be reduced every species of English +verse. + +Our versification admits of few licences, except a synaloepha, or elision +of e in the before a vowel, as th' eternal; and more rarely of o in to, as +t' accept; and a synaresis, by which two short vowels coalesce into one +syllable, as question, special; or a word is contracted by the expulsion of +a short vowel before a liquid, as av'rice, temp'rance. + +Thus have I collected rules and examples, by which the English language may +be learned, if the reader be already acquainted with grammatical terms, or +taught by a master to those that are more ignorant. To have written a +grammar for such as are not yet initiated in the schools, would have been +tedious, and perhaps at last ineffectual. + + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's A Grammar of the English Tongue, by Samuel Johnson + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE *** + +***** This file should be named 15097-8.txt or 15097-8.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/1/5/0/9/15097/ + +Produced by Jonathan Ingram, Keith Edkins and the PG Online +Distributed Proofreading Team. + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: A Grammar of the English Tongue + +Author: Samuel Johnson + +Release Date: February 18, 2005 [EBook #15097] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE *** + + + + +Produced by Jonathan Ingram, Keith Edkins and the PG Online +Distributed Proofreading Team. + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<p class="center">A</p> + +<h2>DICTIONARY</h2> + +<p class="center">OF THE</p> + +<h2>ENGLISH LANGUAGE:</h2> + +<p class="center">IN WHICH</p> + +<h4>THE WORDS ARE DEDUCED FROM THEIR ORIGINALS,<br /> +EXPLAINED IN THEIR DIFFERENT MEANINGS,</h4> + +<p class="center">AND</p> + +<h4>AUTHORIZED BY THE NAMES OF THE WRITERS IN WHOSE WORKS<br /> +THEY ARE FOUND.</h4> + +<h4><i>ABSTRACTED FROM THE FOLIO EDITION</i>,</h4> + +<p class="center">BY THE AUTHOR,</p> + +<h3>SAMUEL JOHNSON, LL.D.</h3> + + <br clear="all" /> +<hr /> + +<p class="center">TO WHICH IS PREFIXED,</p> + +<h4><i>DR. JOHNSON'S PREFACE TO THE ORIGINAL FOLIO EDITION</i>,</h4> + +<p class="center">AND</p> + +<h4>HIS GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.</h4> + +<h3>1812.</h3> + + <br clear="all" /> +<hr /> + +<h3>A GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE.</h3> + + <p><!-- Page 17 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page17"></a>[17]</span> + <b>Grammar</b>, which is the <i>art of using words properly</i>, + comprises four parts: Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>In this division and order of the parts of grammar I follow the common + grammarians, without inquiring whether a fitter distribution might not be + found. Experience has long shown this method to be so distinct as to + obviate confusion, and so comprehensive as to prevent any inconvenient + omissions. I likewise use the terms already received, and already + understood, though perhaps others more proper might sometimes be + invented. Sylburgius, and other innovators, whose new terms have sunk + their learning into neglect, have left sufficient warning against the + trifling ambition of teaching arts in a new language.</p> + + </blockquote> + <p><b>Orthography</b> is <i>the art of combining letters into syllables, + and syllables into words</i>. It therefore teaches previously the form + and sound of letters.</p> + + <p>The letters of the English language are,</p> + + +<table border="1" width="37%" title="Table of letters"> +<tr><td class="t" width="33%"> + <p>Roman.</p> +</td> +<td class="t" width="33%"> + <p>Italick.</p> +</td> +<td class="t" width="33%"> + <p>Name.</p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p>A a</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>A a</i></p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>a</i></p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p>B b</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>B b</i></p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>be</i></p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p>C c</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>C c</i></p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>see</i></p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p>D d</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>D d</i></p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>dee</i></p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p>E e</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>E e</i></p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>e</i></p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p>F f</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>F f</i></p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>eff</i></p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p>G g</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>G g</i></p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>jee</i></p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p>H h</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>H h</i></p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>aitch</i></p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p>I i</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>I i</i></p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>i</i> (or <i>ja</i>)</p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p>J j</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>J j</i></p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>j</i> conson.</p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p>K k</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>K k</i></p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>ka</i></p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p>L l</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>L l</i></p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>el</i></p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p>M m</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>M m</i></p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>em</i></p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p>N n</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>N n</i></p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>en</i></p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p>O o</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>O o</i></p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>o</i></p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p>P P</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>P p</i></p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>pee</i></p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p>Q q</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>Q q</i></p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>cue</i></p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p>R r</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>R r</i></p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>ar</i></p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p>S s</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>S s</i></p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>ess</i></p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p>T t</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>T t</i></p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>tee</i></p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p>U u</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>U u</i></p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>u</i> (or <i>va</i>)</p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p>V v</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>V v</i></p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>v</i> conson.</p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p>W w</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>W w</i></p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p>double <i>u</i></p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p>X x</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>X x</i></p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>ex</i></p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p>Y y</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>Y y</i></p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>wy</i></p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p>Z z</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>Z z</i></p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>zed</i></p> +</td></tr></table> + + <p>To these may be added certain combinations of letters universally used + in printing; as, <i>fl</i>, <i>ff</i>, <i>fi</i>, <i>ffi</i>, <i>ffl</i>, + and <i>&</i>, or <i>and per se, and</i>.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>Our letters are commonly reckoned twenty-four, because anciently + <i>i</i> and <i>j</i> as well as <i>u</i> and <i>v</i> were expressed by + the same character; but as those letters, which had always different + powers, have now different forms, our alphabet may be properly said to + consist of twenty-six letters</p> + + </blockquote> + <p>Vowels are five, <i>a</i>, <i>e</i>, <i>i</i>, <i>o</i>, <i>u</i>.</p> + + <p>Such is the number generally received; but for <i>i</i> it is the + practice to write <i>y</i> in the end of words, as <i>thy</i>, + <i>holy</i>; before <i>i</i>, as from <i>die</i>, <i>dying</i>; from + <i>beautify</i>, <i>beautifying</i>; in the words <i>says</i>, + <i>days</i>, <i>eyes</i>; and in words derived from the Greek, and + written originally with <span lang="el" title="y" >υ</span>, as + <i>sympathy</i>, <span lang="el" title="sympatheia" + >συμπαθεια</span>, + <i>system</i>, <span lang="el" title="systma" + >συστημα</span>.</p> + + <p>For <i>u</i> we often write <i>w</i> after a vowel, to make a + diphthong; as, <i>raw</i>, <i>grew</i>, <i>view</i>, <i>vow</i>, + <i>flowing</i>; <i>lowness</i>.</p> + + <p>The sounds of all the letters are various.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>In treating on the letters, I shall not, like some other grammarians, + inquire into the original of their form, as an antiquarian; nor into + their formation and prolation by the organs of speech, as a mechanick, + anatomist, or physiologist; nor into the properties and gradation of + sounds, or the elegance or harshness of particular combinations, as a + writer of universal and transcendental grammar. I consider the English + alphabet only as it is English; and even in this narrow disquisition I + follow the example of former grammarians, perhaps with more reverence + than judgment, because by writing in English I suppose my reader already + acquainted with the English language, and consequently able to pronounce + the letters of which I teach the pronunciation; and because of sounds in + general it may be observed, that words are unable to describe them. An + account, therefore, of the primitive and simple letters, is useless, + almost alike to those who know their sound, and those who know it + not.</p> + + </blockquote> +<h3>OF VOWELS</h3> + +<h3>A.</h3> + + <p><i>A</i> has three sounds, the slender, open, and broad.</p> + + <p><i>A</i> slender is found in most words, as <i>face</i>, <i>mane</i>, + and in words ending in <i>ation</i>, as <i>creation</i>, + <i>salvation</i>, <i>generation</i>.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>The <i>a</i> slender is the proper English <i>a</i>, called very + justly by Erpenius, in his Arabick Grammar, <i>a Anglicum cum e + mistum</i>, as having a middle sound between the open <i>a</i> and the + <i>e</i>. The French have a similar sound in the word <i>pais</i>, and in + their <i>e</i> masculine.</p> + + </blockquote> + <p><i>A</i> open is the <i>a</i> of the Italian, or nearly resembles it; + as <i>father</i>, <i>rather</i>, <i>congratulate</i>, <i>fancy</i>, + <i>glass</i>.</p> + + <p><i>A</i> broad resembles the <i>a</i> of the German; as <i>all</i>, + <i>wall</i>, <i>call</i>.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>Many words pronounced with <i>a</i> broad were anciently written with + <i>au</i>; as <i>sault</i>, <i>mault</i>; and we still say, <i>fault</i>, + <i>vault</i>. This was probably the Saxon sound, for it is yet retained + in the northern dialects, and in the rustick pronunciation; as + <i>maun</i> for <i>man</i>, <i>haund</i> for <i>hand</i>.</p> + + </blockquote> + <p>The short <i>a</i> approaches to the <i>a</i> open, as + <i>grass</i>.</p> + + <p>The long <i>a</i>, if prolonged by <i>e</i> at the end of the word, is + always slender, as <i>graze</i>, <i>fame</i>.</p> + + <p><!-- Page 18 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page18"></a>[18]</span> + <i>A</i> forms a diphthong only with <i>i</i> or <i>y</i>, and <i>u</i> + or <i>w</i>. <i>Ai</i> or <i>ay</i>, as in <i>plain</i>, <i>wain</i>, + <i>gay</i>, <i>clay</i>, has only the sound of the long and slender + <i>a</i>, and differs not in the pronunciation from <i>plane</i>, + <i>wane</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Au</i> or <i>aw</i> has the sound of the German a, as <i>raw</i>, + <i>naughty</i>.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p><i>Ae</i> is sometimes found in Latin words not completely naturalized + or assimilated, but is no English diphthong; and is more properly + expressed by single <i>e</i>, as <i>Cesar</i>, <i>Eneas</i>.</p> + + </blockquote> +<h3>E.</h3> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p><i>E</i> is the letter which occurs most frequently in the English + language.</p> + + </blockquote> + <p><i>E</i> is long, as in scēne; or short, as in + <i>cĕllar</i>, <i>sĕparate</i>, <i>cĕlebrate</i>, + <i>mĕn</i>, <i>thĕn</i>.</p> + + <p>It is always short before a double consonant, or two consonants, as in + <i>vĕx</i>, <i>pĕrplexity</i>, <i>relĕnt</i>, + <i>mĕdlar</i>, <i>rĕptile</i>, <i>sĕrpent</i>, + <i>cĕllar</i>, <i>cĕssation</i>, <i>blĕssing</i>, + <i>fĕll</i>, <i>fĕlling</i>, <i>dĕbt</i>.</p> + + <p><i>E</i> is always mute at the end of a word, except in monosyllables + that have no other vowel, as <i>the</i>; or proper names, as + <i>Penelope</i>, <i>Phebe</i>, <i>Derbe</i>; being used to modify the + foregoing consonants, as <i>since</i>, <i>once</i>, <i>hedge</i>, + <i>oblige</i>; or to lengthen the preceding vowel, as <i>băn</i>, + <i>bāne</i>; <i>căn</i>, <i>cāne</i>; <i>pĭn</i>, + <i>pīne</i>; <i>tŭn</i>, <i>tūne</i>; <i>rŭb</i>, + <i>rūbe</i>; <i>pŏp</i>, <i>pōpe</i>; <i>fĭr</i>, + <i>fīre</i>; <i>cŭr</i>, <i>cūre</i>; <i>tŭb</i>, + <i>tūbe</i>.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>Almost all words which now terminate in consonants ended anciently in + <i>e</i>, as <i>year</i>, <i>yeare</i>; <i>wildness</i>, + <i>wildnesse</i>; which <i>e</i> probably had the force of the French + <i>e</i> feminine, and constituted a syllable with its associate + consonant; for in old editions words are sometimes divided thus, + <i>clea-re</i>, <i>fel-le</i>, <i>knowled-ge</i>. This <i>e</i> was + perhaps for a time vocal or silent in poetry as convenience required; but + it has been long wholly mute. Camden in his <i>Remains</i> calls it the + silent <i>e</i>.</p> + + </blockquote> + <p>It does not always lengthen the foregoing vowel, as <i>glŏve</i>, + <i>lĭve</i>, <i>gĭve</i>.</p> + + <p>It has sometimes in the end of words a sound obscure, and scarcely + perceptible, as <i>open</i>, <i>shapen</i>, <i>shotten</i>, + <i>thistle</i>, <i>participle</i>, <i>metre</i>, <i>lucre</i>.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>This faintness of sound is found when <i>e</i> separates a mute from a + liquid, as in <i>rotten</i>, or follows a mute and liquid, as in + <i>cattle</i>.</p> + + </blockquote> + <p><i>E</i> forms a diphthong with <i>a</i>, as <i>near</i>; with + <i>i</i>, as <i>deign</i>, <i>receive</i>; and with <i>u</i> or <i>w</i>, + as <i>new</i>, <i>stew</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Ea</i> sounds like <i>e</i> long, as <i>mean</i>; or like + <i>ee</i>, as <i>dear</i>, <i>clear</i>, <i>near</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Ei</i> is sounded like <i>e</i> long, as <i>seize</i>, + <i>perceiving</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Eu</i> sounds as <i>u</i> long and soft.</p> + + <p><i>E</i>, <i>a</i>, <i>u</i>, are combined in <i>beauty</i> and its + derivatives, but have only the sound of <i>u</i>.</p> + + <p><i>E</i> may be said to form a diphthong by reduplication, as + <i>agree</i>, <i>sleeping</i>.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p><i>Eo</i> is found in <i>yeoman</i>, where it is sounded as <i>o</i> + short; and in <i>people</i>, where it is pronounced like <i>ee</i>.</p> + + </blockquote> +<h3>I.</h3> + + <p><i>I</i> has a sound long, as <i>fīne</i>; and short as + <i>fĭn</i>.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>That is eminently observable in <i>i</i>, which may be likewise + remarkable in other letters, that the short sound is not the long sound + contracted, but a sound wholly different.</p> + + </blockquote> + <p>The long sound in monosyllables is always marked by the <i>e</i> + final, as <i>thĭn</i>, <i>thīne</i>.</p> + + <p><i>I</i> is often sounded before <i>r</i>, as a short <i>u</i>; as + <i>flirt</i>, <i>first</i>, <i>shirt</i>.</p> + + <p>It forms a diphthong only with <i>e</i>, as <i>field</i>, + <i>shield</i>, which is sounded as the double <i>ee</i>; except + <i>friend</i>, which is sounded as <i>frĕnd</i>.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p><i>I</i> is joined with <i>eu</i> in <i>lieu</i>, and <i>ew</i> in + <i>view</i>; which triphthongs are sounded as the open <i>u</i>.</p> + + </blockquote> +<h3>O.</h3> + + <p><i>O</i> is long, as <i>bōne</i>, <i>ōbedient</i>, + <i>corrōding</i>; or short, as <i>blŏck</i>, <i>knŏck</i>, + <i>ŏblique</i>, <i>lŏll</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Women</i> is pronounced <i>wimen</i>.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>The short o has sometimes the sound of close <i>u</i>, as <i>son</i>, + <i>come</i>.</p> + + </blockquote> + <p><i>O</i> coalesces into a diphthong with <i>a</i>, as <i>moan</i>, + <i>groan</i>, <i>approach</i>: <i>oa</i> has the sound of <i>o</i> + long.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p><i>O</i> is united to <i>e</i> in some words derived from Greek, as + <i>œconomy</i>; but as being not an English diphthong, they are + better written as they are sounded, with only <i>e</i>, + <i>economy</i>.</p> + + </blockquote> + <p>With <i>i</i>, as <i>oil</i>, <i>soil</i>, <i>moil</i>, + <i>noisome</i>.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>This coalition of letters seems to unite the sounds of the two + letters, as far as two sounds can be united without being destroyed, and + therefore approaches more nearly than any combination in our tongue to + the notion of a diphthong.</p> + + </blockquote> + <p>With <i>o</i>, as <i>boot</i>, <i>hoot</i>, <i>cooler</i>; <i>oo</i> + has the sound of the Italian <i>u</i>.</p> + + <p>With <i>u</i> or <i>w</i>, as <i>our</i>, <i>power</i>, <i>flower</i>; + but in some words has only the sound of <i>o</i> long, as in <i>soul</i>, + <i>bowl</i>, <i>sow</i>, <i>grow</i>. These different sounds are used to + distinguish different significations: as <i>bow</i> an instrument for + shooting; <i>bow</i>, a depression of the head; <i>sow</i>, the she of a + boar; <i>sow</i>, to scatter seed; <i>bowl</i>, an orbicular body; + <i>bowl</i>, a wooden vessel.</p> + + <p><i>Ou</i> is sometimes pronounced like <i>o</i> soft, as <i>court</i>; + sometimes like <i>o</i> short, as <i>cough</i>; sometimes like <i>u</i> + close, as <i>could</i>; or <i>u</i> open, as <i>rough</i>, <i>tough</i>, + which use only can teach.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p><i>Ou</i> is frequently used in the last syllable of words which in + Latin end in <i>or</i> and are made English, as <i>honour</i>, + <i>labour</i>, <i>favour</i>, from <i>honor</i>, <i>labor</i>, + <i>favor</i>.</p> + + <p>Some late innovators have ejected the <i>u</i>, without considering + that the last syllable gives the sound neither of <i>or</i> nor + <i>ur</i>, but a sound between them, if not compounded of both; besides + that they are probably derived to us from the French nouns in <i>eur</i>, + as <i>honeur</i>, <i>faveur</i>.</p> + + </blockquote> + <p><!-- Page 19 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page19"></a>[19]</span></p> + +<h3>U.</h3> + + <p>U is long in <i>ūse</i>, <i>confūsion</i>; or short, as + <i>ŭs</i>, <i>concŭssion</i>.</p> + + <p>It coalesces with <i>a</i>, <i>e</i>, <i>i</i>, <i>o</i>; but has + rather in these combinations the force of the <i>w</i> consonant, as + <i>quaff</i>, <i>quest</i>, <i>quit</i>, <i>quite</i>, <i>languish</i>; + sometimes in <i>ui</i> the <i>i</i> loses its sound, as in <i>juice</i>. + It is sometimes mute before <i>a</i>, <i>e</i>, <i>i</i>, <i>y</i>, as + <i>guard</i>, <i>guest</i>, <i>guise</i>, <i>buy</i>.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p><i>U</i> is followed by <i>e</i> in <i>virtue</i>, but the <i>e</i> + has no sound.</p> + + <p><i>Ue</i> is sometimes mute at the end of a word, in imitation of the + French, as <i>prorogue</i>, <i>synagogue</i>, <i>plague</i>, + <i>vague</i>, <i>harangue</i>.</p> + + </blockquote> +<h3>Y.</h3> + + <p><i>Y</i> is a vowel, which, as Quintilian observes of one of the Roman + letters, we might want without inconvenience, but that we have it. It + supplies the place of <i>i</i> at the end of words, as <i>thy</i>, before + an <i>i</i>, as <i>dying</i>; and is commonly retained in derivative + words where it was part of a diphthong, in the primitive; as, + <i>destroy</i>, <i>destroyer</i>; <i>betray</i>, <i>betrayed</i>, + <i>betrayer</i>; <i>pray</i>, <i>prayer</i>; <i>say</i>, <i>sayer</i>; + <i>day</i>, <i>days</i>.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p><i>Y</i> being the Saxon vowel <i>y</i>, which was commonly used where + <i>i</i> is now put, occurs very frequently in all old books.</p> + + </blockquote> +<h3>GENERAL RULES.</h3> + + <p>A vowel in the beginning or middle syllable, before two consonants, is + commonly short, as <i>ŏppŏrtunity</i>.</p> + + <p>In monosyllables a single vowel before a single consonant is short; as + <i>stag</i>, <i>frog</i>.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p><i>Many</i> is pronounced as if it were written <i>manny</i>.</p> + + </blockquote> + <br clear="all" /> +<hr /> + +<h3>OF CONSONANTS.</h3> + +<h3>B.</h3> + + <p><i>B</i> has one unvaried sound, such as it obtains in other + languages.</p> + + <p>It is mute in <i>debt</i>, <i>debtor</i>, <i>subtle</i>, <i>doubt</i>, + <i>lamb</i>, <i>limb</i>, <i>dumb</i>, <i>thumb</i>, <i>climb</i>, + <i>comb</i>, <i>womb</i>.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>It is used before <i>l</i> and <i>r</i>, as <i>black</i>, + <i>brown</i>.</p> + + </blockquote> +<h3>C.</h3> + + <p><i>C</i> has before <i>e</i> and <i>i</i> the sound of <i>s</i>; as + <i>sincerely</i>, <i>centrick</i>, <i>century</i>, <i>circular</i>, + <i>cistern</i>, <i>city</i>, <i>siccity</i>: before <i>a</i>, <i>o</i>, + and <i>u</i>, it sounds like <i>k</i>, as <i>calm</i>, <i>concavity</i>, + <i>copper</i>, <i>incorporate</i>, <i>curiosity</i>, + <i>concupiscence</i>.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p><i>C</i> might be omitted in the language without loss, since one of + its sounds might be supplied by, <i>s</i>, and the other by <i>k</i>, but + that it preserves to the eye the etymology of words, as <i>face</i> from + <i>facies</i>, <i>captive</i> from <i>captivus</i>.</p> + + </blockquote> + <p><i>Ch</i> has a sound which is analyzed into <i>tsh</i>, as + <i>church</i>, <i>chin</i>, <i>crutch</i>. It is the same sound which the + Italians give to the <i>c</i> simple before <i>i</i> and <i>e</i>, as + <i>citta</i>, <i>cerro</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Ch</i> is sounded like <i>k</i> in words derived from the Greek, as + <i>chymist</i>, <i>scheme</i>, <i>choler</i>. <i>Arch</i> is commonly + sounded <i>ark</i> before a vowel, as <i>archangel</i>, and with the + English sound of <i>ch</i> before a consonant, as <i>archbishop</i>.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p><i>Ch</i>, in some French words not yet assimilated, sounds like + <i>sh</i>, as <i>machine</i>, <i>chaise</i>.</p> + + <p><i>C</i>, according to English orthography, never ends a word; + therefore we write <i>stick</i>, <i>block</i>, which were originally, + <i>sticke</i>, <i>blocke</i>. In such words <i>c</i> is now mute.</p> + + <p>It is used before <i>l</i> and <i>r</i>, as <i>clock</i>, + <i>cross</i>.</p> + + </blockquote> +<h3>D.</h3> + + <p>Is uniform in its sound, as <i>death</i>, <i>diligent</i>.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>It is used before <i>r</i>, as <i>draw</i>, <i>dross</i>; and <i>w</i> + as <i>dwell</i>.</p> + + </blockquote> +<h3>F.</h3> + + <p><i>F</i>, though having a name beginning with a vowel, is numbered by + the grammarians among the semivowels, yet has this quality of a mute, + that it is commodiously sounded before a liquid, as <i>flask</i>, + <i>fry</i>, <i>freckle</i>. It has an unvariable sound, except that + <i>of</i> is sometimes spoken nearly as <i>ov</i>.</p> + +<h3>G.</h3> + + <p><i>G</i> has two sounds; one hard, as in <i>gay</i>, <i>go</i>, + <i>gun</i>; the other soft, as in <i>gem</i>, <i>giant</i>.</p> + + <p>At the end of a word it is always hard, as <i>ring</i>, <i>snug</i>, + <i>song</i>, <i>frog</i>.</p> + + <p>Before <i>e</i> and <i>i</i> the sound is uncertain.</p> + + <p><i>G</i> before <i>e</i> is soft, as <i>gem</i>, <i>generation</i>, + except in <i>gear</i>, <i>geld</i>, <i>geese</i>, <i>get</i>, + <i>gewgaw</i>, and derivatives from words ending in <i>g</i>, as + <i>singing</i>, <i>stronger</i>, and generally before <i>er</i> at the + ends of words, as <i>finger</i>.</p> + + <p><i>G</i> is mute before <i>n</i>, as <i>gnash</i>, <i>sign</i>, + <i>foreign</i>.</p> + + <p><i>G</i> before <i>i</i> is hard, as <i>give</i>, except in + <i>giant</i>, <i>gigantick</i>, <i>gibbet</i>, <i>gibe</i>, + <i>giblets</i>, <i>Giles</i>, <i>gill</i>, <i>gilliflower</i>, + <i>gin</i>, <i>ginger</i>, <i>gingle</i>, to which may be added + <i>Egypt</i> and <i>gypsy</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Gh</i> in the beginning of a word has the sound of the hard + <i>g</i>, as <i>ghostly</i>; in the middle, and sometimes at the end, it + is quite silent, as <i>though</i>, <i>right</i>, <i>sought</i>, spoken + <i>tho'</i>, <i>rite</i>, <i>soute</i>.</p> + + <p>It has often at the end the sound of <i>f</i>, as <i>laugh</i>; whence + laughter retains the same sound in the middle; <i>cough</i>, + <i>trough</i>, <i>sough</i>, <i>tough</i>, <i>enough</i>, + <i>slough</i>.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>It is not to be doubted, but that in the original pronunciation + <i>gh</i> has the force of a consonant deeply guttural, which is still + continued among the Scotch.</p> + + <p><i>G</i> is used before <i>h</i>, <i>l</i>, and <i>r</i>.</p> + + </blockquote> +<h3>H.</h3> + + <p><i>H</i> is a note of aspiration, and shows that the following vowel + must be pronounced <!-- Page 20 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page20"></a>[20]</span> with a strong emission of breath, as + <i>hat</i>, <i>horse</i>.</p> + + <p>It seldom begins any but the first syllable, in which it is always + sounded with a full breath, except in <i>heir</i>, <i>herb</i>, + <i>hostler</i>, <i>honour</i>, <i>humble</i>, <i>honest</i>, + <i>humour</i> and their derivatives.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>It sometimes begins middle or final syllables in words compounded, as + <i>blockhead</i>; or derived from the Latin, as <i>comprehend</i>.</p> + + </blockquote> +<h3>J.</h3> + + <p><i>J</i> consonant sounds uniformly like the soft <i>g</i>, and is + therefore a letter useless, except in etymology, as <i>ejaculation</i>, + <i>jester</i>, <i>jocund</i>, <i>juice</i>.</p> + +<h3>K.</h3> + + <p><i>K</i> has the sound of hard <i>c</i>, and is used before <i>e</i> + and <i>i</i>, where, according to English analogy, <i>c</i> would be + soft, as <i>kept</i>, <i>king</i>, <i>skirt</i>, <i>skeptick</i>, for so + it should be written, not <i>sceptick</i>, because <i>sc</i> is sounded + like <i>s</i>, as in <i>scene</i>.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>It is used before <i>n</i>, as <i>knell</i>, <i>knot</i>, but totally + loses its sound in modern pronunciation.</p> + + </blockquote> + <p><i>K</i> is never doubled; but <i>c</i> is used before it to shorten + the vowel by a double consonant, as <i>cockle</i>, <i>pickle</i>.</p> + +<h3>L.</h3> + + <p><i>L</i> has in English the same liquid sound as in other + languages.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>The custom is to double the <i>l</i> at the end of monosyllables, as + <i>kill</i>, <i>will</i>, <i>full</i>. These words were originally + written <i>kille</i>, <i>wille</i>, <i>fulle</i>; and when the <i>e</i> + first grew silent, and was afterward omitted, the <i>ll</i> was retained, + to give force, according to the analogy of our language, to the foregoing + vowel.</p> + + </blockquote> + <p><i>L</i>, is sometimes mute, as in <i>calf</i>, <i>half</i>, + <i>halves</i>, <i>calves</i>, <i>could</i>, <i>would</i>, <i>should</i>, + <i>psalm</i>, <i>talk</i>, <i>salmon</i>, <i>falcon</i>.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>The Saxons, who delighted in guttural sounds, sometimes aspirated the + <i>l</i> at the beginning of words, as <i>hlaf</i>, <i>a loaf</i>, or + <i>bread</i>; <i>hlaford</i>, <i>a lord</i>; but this pronunciation is + now disused.</p> + + </blockquote> + <p><i>Le</i> at the end of words is pronounced like a weak <i>el</i>, in + which the <i>e</i> is almost mute, as <i>table</i>, <i>shuttle</i>.</p> + +<h3>M.</h3> + + <p><i>M</i> has always the same sound, as <i>murmur</i>, + <i>monumental</i>.</p> + +<h3>N.</h3> + + <p><i>N</i> has always, the same sound, as <i>noble</i>, + <i>manners</i>.</p> + + <p><i>N</i> is sometimes mute after <i>m</i>, as <i>damn</i>, + <i>condemn</i>, <i>hymn</i>.</p> + +<h3>P.</h3> + + <p><i>P</i> has always the same sound which the Welsh and Germans + confound with <i>b</i>.</p> + + <p><i>P</i> is sometimes mute, as in <i>psalm</i>, and between <i>m</i> + and <i>t</i>, as <i>tempt</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Ph</i> is used for <i>f</i> in words derived from the Greek, as + <i>philosopher</i>, <i>philanthropy</i>, <i>Philip</i>.</p> + +<h3>Q.</h3> + + <p><i>Q</i>, as in other languages, is always followed by <i>u</i>, and + has a sound which our Saxon ancestors well expressed by <i>cw</i>, as + <i>quadrant</i>, <i>queen</i>, <i>equestrian</i>, <i>quilt</i>, + <i>inquiry</i>, <i>quire</i>, <i>quotidian</i>. <i>Qu</i> is never + followed by <i>u</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Qu</i> is sometimes sounded, in words derived from the French, like + <i>k</i>, as <i>conquer</i>, <i>liquor</i>, <i>risque</i>, + <i>chequer</i>.</p> + +<h3>R.</h3> + + <p><i>R</i> has the same rough snarling sound as in the other + tongues.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>The Saxons used often to put <i>h</i> before it, as before <i>l</i> at + the beginning of words.</p> + + <p><i>Rh</i> is used in words derived from the Greek, as <i>myrrh</i>, + <i>myrrhine</i>, <i>catarrhous</i>, <i>rheum</i>, <i>rheumatick</i>, + <i>rhyme</i>.</p> + + </blockquote> + <p><i>Re</i>, at the end of some words derived from the Latin or French, + is pronounced like a weak <i>er</i>, as <i>theatre</i>, + <i>sepulchre</i>.</p> + +<h3>S.</h3> + + <p><i>S</i> has a hissing sound, as <i>sibilation</i>, <i>sister</i>.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>A single <i>s</i> seldom ends any word, except in the third person of + verbs, as <i>loves</i>, <i>grows</i>; and the plurals of nouns, as + <i>trees</i>, <i>bushes</i>, <i>distresses</i>; the pronouns <i>this</i>, + <i>his</i>, <i>ours</i>, <i>yours</i>, <i>us</i>; the adverb <i>thus</i>; + and words derived from Latin, as <i>rebus</i>, <i>surplus</i>; the close + being always either in <i>se</i>, as <i>house</i>, <i>horse</i>, or in + <i>ss</i>, as <i>grass</i>, <i>dress</i>, <i>bliss</i>, <i>less</i>, + anciently <i>grasse</i>, <i>dresse</i>.</p> + + </blockquote> + <p><i>S</i>, single at the end of words, has a grosser sound, like that + of <i>z</i>, as <i>trees</i>, <i>eyes</i>, except <i>this</i>, + <i>thus</i>, <i>us</i>, <i>rebus</i>, <i>surplus</i>.</p> + + <p>It sounds like <i>z</i> before <i>ion</i>, if a vowel goes before it, + as <i>intrusion</i>; and like <i>s</i>, if it follows a consonant, as + <i>conversion</i>.</p> + + <p>It sounds like <i>z</i> before <i>e</i> mute, as <i>refuse</i>, and + before <i>y</i> final, as <i>rosy</i>; and in those words, <i>bosom</i>, + <i>desire</i>, <i>wisdom</i>, <i>prison</i>, <i>prisoner</i>, + <i>present</i>, <i>present</i>, <i>damsel</i>, <i>casement</i>.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>It is the peculiar quality of <i>s</i>, that it may be sounded before + all consonants, except <i>x</i> and <i>z</i>, in which <i>s</i> is + comprised, <i>x</i> being only <i>ks</i>, and <i>z</i> a hard or gross + <i>s</i>. This <i>s</i> is therefore termed by grammarians <i>su + potestatis litera</i>; the reason of which the learned Dr. Clarke + erroneously supposed to be, that in some words it might be doubled at + pleasure. Thus we find in several languages.</p> + + </blockquote> + <p><span lang="el" title="Sbennymi" + >Σβεννυμι</span>, + <i>scatter</i>, <i>sdegno</i>, <i>sdrucciolo</i>, <i>sfavellare</i>, + <span lang="el" title="sphinx" + >σφιγξ</span>, <i>sgombrare</i>, + <i>sgranare</i>, <i>shake</i>, <i>slumber</i>, <i>smell</i>, + <i>snipe</i>, <i>space</i>, <i>splendour</i>, <i>spring</i>, + <i>squeeze</i>, <i>shrew</i>, <i>step</i>, <i>strength</i>, + <i>stramen</i>, <i>stripe</i>, <i>sventura</i>, <i>swell</i>.</p> + + <p><i>S</i> is mute in <i>isle</i>, <i>island</i>, <i>demesne</i>, + <i>viscount</i>.</p> + +<h3>T.</h3> + + <p><i>T</i> has its customary sound; as <i>take</i>, + <i>temptation</i>.</p> + + <p><!-- Page 21 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page21"></a>[21]</span> + <i>Ti</i> before a vowel has the sound of <i>si</i> as <i>salvation</i>, + except an <i>s</i> goes before, as <i>question</i>; excepting likewise + derivatives from words ending in <i>ty</i>, as <i>mighty</i>, + <i>mightier</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Th</i> has two sounds; the one soft, as <i>thus</i>, + <i>whether</i>; the other hard, as <i>thing</i>, <i>think</i>. The sound + is soft in these words, <i>then</i>, <i>thence</i>, and <i>there</i>, + with their derivatives and compounds, and in <i>that</i>, <i>these</i>, + <i>thou</i>, <i>thee</i>, <i>thy</i>, <i>thine</i>, <i>their</i>, + <i>they</i>, <i>this</i>, <i>those</i>, <i>them</i>, <i>though</i>, + <i>thus</i>; and in all words between two vowels, as, <i>father</i>, + <i>whether</i>; and between <i>r</i> and a vowel, as <i>burthen</i>.</p> + + <p>In other words it is hard, as <i>thick</i>, <i>thunder</i>, + <i>faith</i>, <i>faithful</i>. Where it is softened at the end of a word, + an <i>e</i> silent must be added, as <i>breath</i>, <i>breathe</i>; + <i>cloth</i>, <i>clothe</i>.</p> + +<h3>V.</h3> + + <p><i>V</i> has a sound of near affinity to that of <i>f</i>, as + <i>vain</i>, <i>vanity</i>.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>From <i>f</i> in the Islandick alphabet, <i>v</i> is only + distinguished by a diacritical point.</p> + + </blockquote> +<h3>W.</h3> + + <p>Of <i>w</i>, which in diphthongs is often an undoubted vowel, some + grammarians have doubted whether it ever be a consonant; and not rather + as it is called a double <i>u</i>, or <i>ou</i>, as <i>water</i> may be + resolved into <i>ouater</i>; but letters of the same sound are always + reckoned consonants in other alphabets: and it may be observed, that + <i>w</i> follows a vowel without any hiatus or difficulty of utterance, + as <i>frosty winter</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Wh</i> has a sound accounted peculiar to the English, which the + Saxons better expressed by <i>hw</i>, as, <i>what</i>, <i>whence</i>, + <i>whiting</i>; in <i>whore</i> only, and sometimes in <i>wholesome</i>, + <i>wh</i> is sounded like a simple <i>h</i>.</p> + +<h3>X.</h3> + + <p><i>X</i> begins no English word: it has the sound of <i>ks</i>, as + <i>axle</i>, <i>extraneous</i>.</p> + +<h3>Y.</h3> + + <p><i>Y</i>, when it follows a consonant, is a vowel; when it precedes + either a vowel or a diphthong, is a consonant, as <i>ye</i>, + <i>young</i>. It is thought by some to be in all cases a vowel. But it + may be observed of <i>y</i> as of <i>w</i>, that it follows a vowel + without any hiatus, as <i>rosy youth</i>.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>The chief argument by which <i>w</i> and <i>y</i> appear to be always + vowels is, that the sounds which they are supposed to have as consonants, + cannot be uttered after a vowel, like that of all other consonants; thus + we say <i>tu</i>, <i>ut</i>; <i>do</i>, <i>odd</i>; but in <i>wed</i>, + <i>dew</i>; the two sounds of <i>w</i> have no resemblance to each + other.</p> + + </blockquote> +<h3>Z.</h3> + + <p><i>Z</i> begins no word originally English; it has the sound, as its + name <i>izzard</i> or <i>s hard</i> expresses, of an <i>s</i> uttered + with a closer compression of the palate by the tongue, as <i>freeze</i>, + <i>froze</i>.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>In orthography I have supposed <i>orthoepy</i>, or <i>just utterance + of words</i>, to be included; orthography being only the art of + expressing certain sounds by proper characters. I have therefore observed + in what words any of the letters are mute.</p> + + <p>Most of the writers of English grammar have given long tables of words + pronounced otherwise than they are written, and seem not sufficiently to + have considered, that of English, as of all living tongues, there is a + double pronunciation, one cursory and colloquial, the other regular and + solemn. The cursory pronunciation is always vague and uncertain, being + made different in different mouths by negligence, unskilfulness, or + affectation. The solemn pronunciation, though by no means immutable and + permanent, is yet always less remote from the orthography, and less + liable to capricious innovation. They have however generally formed their + tables according to the cursory speech of those with whom they happened + to converse; and concluding that the whole nation combines to vitiate + language in one manner, have often established the jargon of the lowest + of the people as the model of speech.</p> + + <p>For pronunciation the best general rule is, to consider those as the + most elegant speakers who deviate least from the written words.</p> + + <p>There have been many schemes offered for the emendation and settlement + of our orthography, which, like that of other nations, being formed by + chance, or according to the fancy of the earliest writers in rude ages, + was at first very various and uncertain, and is yet sufficiently + irregular. Of these reformers some have endeavoured to accommodate + orthography better to the pronunciation, without considering that this is + to measure by a shadow, to take that for a model or standard which is + changing while they apply it. Others, less absurdly indeed, but with + equal unlikelihood of success, have endeavoured to proportion the number + of letters to that of sounds, that every sound may have its own + character, and every character a single sound. Such would be the + orthography of a new language, to be formed by a synod of grammarians + upon principles of science. But who can hope to prevail on nations to + change their practice, and make all their old books useless? or what + advantage would a new orthography procure equivalent to the confusion and + perplexity of such an alteration?</p> + + <p>Some ingenious men, indeed, have endeavoured to deserve well of their + country, by writing <i>honor</i> and <i>labor</i> for <i>honour</i> and + <i>labour</i>, <i>red</i> for <i>read</i> in the preter-tense, + <i>sais</i> for <i>says</i>, <i>repete</i> tor <i>repeat</i>, + <i>explane</i> for <i>explain</i>, or <i>declame</i> for <i>declaim</i>. + Of these it may be said, that as they have done no good they have done + little harm; both because they have innovated little, and because few + have followed them.</p> + + <p>The English language has properly no dialects; the style of writers + has no professed diversity in the use of words, or of their flexions and + terminations, nor differs but by different degrees of skill or care. The + oral diction is uniform in no spacious country, but has less variation in + England than in most other nations of equal extent. The language of the + northern counties retains many words now out of use, but which are + commonly of the genuine Teutonick race, and is uttered with a + pronunciation which now seems harsh and rough, but was probably used by + our ancestors. The northern speech is therefore not barbarous, but + obsolete. The speech in the western provinces seems to differ from the + general diction rather by a depraved pronunciation, than by any real + difference which letters would express.</p> + + </blockquote> + <br clear="all" /> +<hr /> + + <p><!-- Page 22 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page22"></a>[22]</span></p> + +<h3>ETYMOLOGY.</h3> + + <p>Etymology teaches the deduction of one word from another, and the + various modifications by which the sense of the same word is diversified; + as <i>horse</i>, <i>horses</i>; I <i>love</i>, I <i>loved</i>.</p> + +<h3><i>Of the</i> ARTICLE.</h3> + + <p>The English have two articles, <i>an</i> or <i>a</i>, and + <i>the</i>.</p> + +<h3>AN, A.</h3> + + <p><i>A</i> has an indefinite signification, and means <i>one</i>, with + some reference to more; as <i>This is a good book</i>; that is, <i>one + among the books that are good</i>; <i>He was killed by a sword</i>; that + is, <i>some sword</i>; <i>This is a better book for a man than a boy</i>; + that is, <i>for one of those that are men than one of those that are + boys</i>; <i>An army might enter without resistance</i>; that is, <i>any + army</i>.</p> + + <p>In the senses in which we use <i>a</i> or <i>an</i> in the singular, + we speak in the plural without an article; as <i>these are good + books</i>.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>I have made <i>an</i> the original article, because it is only the + Saxon <i>an</i>, or <i>n</i>, one, applied to a new use, as the German + <i>ein</i>, and the French <i>un</i>; the <i>n</i> being cut off before a + consonant in the speed of utterance.</p> + + </blockquote> + <p>Grammarians of the last age direct, that <i>an</i> should be used + before <i>h</i>; whence it appears that the English anciently asperated + less. <i>An</i> is still used before the silent <i>h</i>; as <i>an + herb</i>, <i>an honest man</i>; but otherwise <i>a</i>; as</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>A</i> horse, <i>a</i> horse, my kingdom for <i>a</i> horse. <i>Shakespeare.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + <p><i>An</i> or <i>a</i> can only be joined with a singular: the + correspondent plural is the noun without an article, as, <i>I want a + pen</i>, <i>I want pens</i>; or with the pronominal adjective + <i>some</i>, as, <i>I want</i> some <i>pens</i>.</p> + +<h3>THE.</h3> + + <p><i>The</i> has a particular and definite signification.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p style="margin-left: 8em"><i>The</i> fruit</p> + <p>Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste</p> + <p>Brought death into <i>the</i> world. <i>Milton.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + <p>That is, <i>that particular fruit</i>, and <i>this world in which we + live</i>. So, <i>He giveth fodder for</i> the <i>cattle, and green herbs + for</i> the <i>use of man</i>; that is, for <i>those beings that are + cattle</i>, and <i>his use that is man</i>.</p> + + <p><i>The</i> is used in both numbers.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>I am as free as Nature first made man,</p> + <p>Ere <i>the</i> base laws of servitude began,</p> + <p>When wild in woods <i>the</i> noble savage ran. <i>Dryden.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + <p>Many words are used without articles; as</p> + + <p>1. Proper names, as <i>John</i>, <i>Alexander</i>, <i>Longinus</i>, + <i>Aristarchus</i>, <i>Jerusalem</i>, <i>Athens</i>, <i>Rome</i>, + <i>London</i>. GOD is used as a proper name.</p> + + <p>2. Abstract names, as <i>blackness</i>, <i>witch-craft</i>, + <i>virtue</i>, <i>vice</i>, <i>beauty</i>, <i>ugliness</i>, <i>love</i>, + <i>hatred</i>, <i>anger</i>, <i>good-nature</i>, <i>kindness</i>.</p> + + <p>3. Words in which nothing but the mere being of any thing is implied: + This is not <i>beer</i>, but <i>water</i>; this is not <i>brass</i>, but + <i>steel</i>.</p> + + <br clear="all" /> +<hr /> + +<h3><i>Of</i> NOUNS SUBSTANTIVE.</h3> + + <p>The relations of English nouns to words going before or following are + not expressed by <i>cases</i>, or changes of termination, but, as in most + of the other European languages, by prepositions, unless we may be said + to have a genitive case.</p> + + <p>Singular.</p> + + +<table border="1" width="68%" title="Cases of Latin and English nouns (singular)"> +<tr><td class="t" width="36%"> + <p>Nom. Magister,</p> +</td> +<td class="t" width="63%"> + <p><i>a</i> Master, <i>the</i> Master.</p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p>Gen. Magistri,</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>of a</i> Master, <i>of the</i> Master,<br /> <i>or</i> Master's, + <i>the</i> Master's.</p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p>Dat. Magistro,</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>to a</i> Master, <i>to the</i> Master.</p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p>Acc. Magistrum,</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>a</i> Master, <i>the</i> Master.</p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p>Voc. Magister,</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p>Master, <i>O</i> Master.</p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p>Abl. Magistro,</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>from a</i> Master, <i>from the</i> Master.</p> +</td></tr></table> + + <p>Plural.</p> + + +<table border="1" width="68%" title="Cases of Latin and English nouns (plural)"> +<tr><td class="t" width="36%"> + <p>Nom. Magistri,</p> +</td> +<td class="t" width="63%"> + <p>Masters, <i>the</i> Masters.</p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p>Gen. Magistrorum,</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>of</i> Masters, <i>of the</i> Masters.</p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p>Dat. Magistris,</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>to</i> Masters, <i>to the</i> Masters.</p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p>Acc. Magistros,</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p>Masters, <i>the</i> Masters.</p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p>Voc. Magistri,</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p>Masters, <i>O</i> Masters.</p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p>Abl. Magistris,</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>from</i> Masters, <i>from the</i> Masters.</p> +</td></tr></table> + + <p>Our nouns are therefore only declined thus:</p> + + +<table border="1" width="62%" title="Cases of English nouns"> +<tr><td class="t" width="20%"> + <p>Master,</p> +</td> +<td class="t" width="40%"> + <p><i>Gen.</i> Master's.</p> +</td> +<td class="t" width="40%"> + <p><i>Plur.</i> Masters.</p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p>Scholar,</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>Gen.</i> Scholar's.</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>Plur.</i> Scholars.</p> +</td></tr></table> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>These genitives are always written with a mark of elision, + <i>master's</i>, <i>scholar's</i>, according to an opinion long received, + that the <i>'s</i> is a contraction of <i>his</i>, as the <i>soldier's + valour</i>, for <i>the soldier</i> his <i>valour</i>: but this cannot be + the true original, because <i>'s</i> is put to female nouns, <i>Woman's + beauty</i>; the <i>Virgin's delicacy</i>; <i>Haughty Juno's unrelenting + hate</i>; and collective nouns, as <i>Women's passions</i>; <i>the + rabble's insolence</i>; <i>the multitude's folly</i>: in all these cases + it is apparent that <i>his</i> cannot be understood. We say likewise + <i>the foundation's strength</i>; <i>the diamond's lustre</i>; <i>the + winter's severity</i>: but in these cases <i>his</i> may be understood, + <i>he</i> and <i>his</i> having formerly been applied to neuters in the + place now supplied by <i>it</i> and <i>its</i>.</p> + + <p>The learned and sagacious <i>Wallis</i>, to whom every English + grammarian owes a tribute of reverence, calls this modification of the + noun an <i>adjective possessive</i>; I think with no more propriety than + he might have applied the same to the genitive in <i>equitum decus</i>, + <i>Troj oris</i>, or any other Latin genitive. Dr. Lowth, on the other + part, supposes the possessive pronouns <i>mine</i> and <i>thine</i> to be + genitive cases.</p> + + <p>This termination of the noun seems to constitute a real genitive + indicating possession. It is derived to us from the Saxon's who declined + <i>smith</i>, a smith; Gen. <i>smither</i>, of a smith; Plur. + <i>smither</i> or <i>smithar</i>, smiths; and so in two other of their + seven declensions.</p> + + <p>It is a further confirmation of this opinion, that in the old poets + both the genitive and plural were longer by a syllable than the original + word: <i>knitis</i> for <i>knight's</i>, in Chaucer; <i>leavis</i> for + <i>leaves</i>, in Spenser.</p> + + <p><!-- Page 23 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page23"></a>[23]</span></p> + + <p>When a word ends in <i>s</i>, the genitive may be the same with the + nominative, as <i>Venus temple</i>.</p> + + </blockquote> + <p>The plural is formed by adding <i>s</i>, as <i>table</i>, + <i>tables</i>; <i>fly</i>, <i>flies</i>; <i>sister</i>, <i>sisters</i>; + <i>wood</i>, <i>woods</i>; or <i>es</i> where <i>s</i> could not + otherwise be sounded, as after <i>ch</i>, <i>s</i>, <i>sh</i>, <i>x</i>, + <i>z</i>; after <i>c</i> sounded like <i>s</i>, and <i>g</i> like + <i>j</i>; the mute <i>e</i> is vocal before <i>s</i>, as <i>lance</i>, + <i>lances</i>; <i>outrage</i>, <i>outrages</i>.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>The formation of the plural and genitive singular is the same.</p> + + <p>A few words still make the plural in <i>n</i>, as <i>men</i>, + <i>women</i>, <i>oxen</i>, <i>swine</i>, and more anciently <i>eyen, + shoon</i>. This formation is that which generally prevails in the + Teutonick dialects.</p> + + </blockquote> + <p>Words that end in <i>f</i> commonly form their plural by <i>ves</i>, + as <i>loaf</i>, <i>loaves</i>; <i>calf</i>, <i>calves</i>.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>Except a few, <i>muff</i>, <i>muffs</i>; <i>chief</i>, <i>chiefs</i>. + So <i>hoof</i>, <i>roof</i>, <i>proof</i>, <i>relief</i>, + <i>mischief</i>, <i>puff</i>, <i>cuff</i>, <i>dwarf</i>, + <i>handkerchief</i>, <i>grief</i>.</p> + + <p>Irregular plurals are <i>teeth</i> from <i>tooth</i>, <i>lice</i> from + <i>louse</i>, <i>mice</i> from <i>mouse</i>, <i>geese</i> from + <i>goose</i>, <i>feet</i> from <i>foot</i>, <i>dice</i> from <i>die</i>, + <i>pence</i> from <i>penny</i>, <i>brethren</i> from <i>brother</i>, + <i>children</i> from <i>child</i>.</p> + + </blockquote> + <p>Plurals ending in <i>s</i> have no genitives; but we say, Womens + <i>excellencies</i>, and <i>Weigh the</i> mens <i>wits against the</i> + ladies <i>hairs</i>.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>Dr. Willis thinks <i>the Lords' house</i> may he said for <i>the house + of Lords</i>; but such phrases are not now in use; and surely an English + ear rebels against them. They would commonly produce a troublesome + ambiguity, as <i>the Lord's house</i> may be the <i>house of Lords</i>, + or the <i>house of a Lord</i>. Besides that the mark of elision is + improper, for in the <i>Lords' house</i> nothing is cut off.</p> + + <p>Some English substantives, like those of many other languages, change + their termination as they express different sexes; as <i>prince</i>, + <i>princess</i>; <i>actor</i>, <i>actress</i>; <i>lion</i>, + <i>lioness</i>; <i>hero</i>, <i>heroine</i>. To these mentioned by Dr. + Lowth may be added <i>arbitress</i>, <i>poetess</i>, <i>chauntress</i>, + <i>duchess</i>, <i>tigress</i>, <i>governess</i>, <i>tutress</i>, + <i>peeress</i>, <i>authoress</i>, <i>traytress</i>, and perhaps othets. + Of these variable terminations we have only a sufficient number to make + us feel our want; for when we say of a woman that she is a + <i>philosopher</i>, an <i>astronomer</i>, a <i>builder</i>, a + <i>weaver</i>, a <i>dancer</i>, we perceive an impropriety in the + termination which we cannot avoid; but we can say that she is an + <i>architect</i>, a <i>botanist</i>, a <i>student</i>. because these + terminations have not annexed to them the notion of sex. In words which + the necessities of life are often requiring, the sex is distinguished not + by different terminations but by different names, as a <i>bull</i>, a + <i>cow</i>; a <i>horse</i>, a <i>mare</i>; <i>equus</i>, <i>equa</i>; a + <i>cock</i>, a <i>hen</i>; and sometimes by pronouns prefixed, as + <i>a</i> he-<i>goat</i>, <i>a</i>, she-<i>goat</i>.</p> + + </blockquote> + <br clear="all" /> +<hr /> + +<h3><i>Of</i> ADJECTIVES.</h3> + + <p>Adjectives in the English language are wholly indeclinable; having + neither case, gender, nor number, and being added to substantives in all + relations without any change; as, <i>a good woman</i>, <i>good women</i>, + <i>of a good woman</i>; <i>a good man</i>, <i>good men</i>, <i>of good + men</i>.</p> + +<h3><i>The Comparison of Adjectives.</i></h3> + + <p>The comparative degree of adjectives is formed by adding <i>er</i>, + the superlative by adding <i>est</i>, to the positive; as, <i>fair</i>, + fair<i>er</i>, fair<i>est</i>; <i>lovely</i>, loveli<i>er</i>, + loveli<i>est</i>; <i>sweet</i>, sweet<i>er</i>, sweet<i>est</i>; + <i>low</i>, low<i>er</i>, low<i>est</i>; <i>high</i>, high<i>er</i>, + high<i>est</i>.</p> + + <p>Some words are irregularly compared; as, <i>good</i>, <i>better</i>, + <i>best</i>; <i>bad</i>, <i>worse</i>, <i>worst</i>; <i>little</i>, + <i>less</i>, <i>least</i>; <i>near</i>, <i>nearer</i>, <i>next</i>; + <i>much</i>, <i>more</i>, <i>most</i>; <i>many</i> (for <i>moe</i>), + <i>more</i> (for <i>moer</i>) <i>most</i> (for <i>moest</i>); + <i>late</i>, <i>later</i>, <i>latest</i> or <i>last</i>.</p> + + <p>Some comparatives form a superlative by adding, <i>most</i>, as + <i>nether</i>, <i>nethermost</i>; <i>outer</i>, <i>outermost</i>; + <i>under</i>, <i>undermost</i>; <i>up</i>, <i>upper</i>, + <i>uppermost</i>; <i>fore</i>, <i>former</i>, <i>foremost</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Most</i> is sometimes added to a substantive, as, <i>topmost</i>, + <i>southmost</i>.</p> + + <p>Many adjectives do not admit of comparison by terminations, and are + only compared by <i>more</i> and <i>most</i>, as, <i>benevolent</i>, + <i>more benevolent</i>, <i>most benevolent</i>.</p> + + <p>All adjectives may be compared by <i>more</i> and <i>most</i>, even + when they have comparatives and superlatives regularly formed; as, + <i>fair</i>, <i>fairer</i>, or <i>more fair</i>; <i>fairest</i>, or + <i>most fair</i>.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>In adjectives that admit a regular comparison, the comparative + <i>more</i> is oftener used than the superlative <i>most</i>, as <i>more + fair</i> is oftener written for <i>fairer</i>, than <i>most fair</i> for + <i>fairest</i>.</p> + + </blockquote> + <p>The comparison of adjectives is very uncertain; and being much + regulated by commodiousness of utterance, or agreeableness of sound, is + not easily reduced to rules.</p> + + <p>Monosyllables are commonly compared.</p> + + <p>Polysyllables, or words of more than two syllables, are seldom + compared otherwise than by <i>more</i> and <i>most</i>, as, + <i>deplorable</i>, <i>more deplorable</i>, <i>most deplorable</i>.</p> + + <p>Dissyllables are seldom compared if they terminate in <i>some</i>, as + <i>fulsome</i>, <i>toilsome</i>; in <i>ful</i>, as, <i>careful</i>, + <i>spleenful</i>, <i>dreadful</i>; in <i>ing</i>, as <i>trifling</i>, + <i>charming</i>; in <i>ous</i>, as <i>porous</i>; in <i>less</i>, as, + <i>careless</i>, <i>harmless</i>; in <i>ed</i>, as <i>wretched</i>; in + <i>id</i>, as <i>candid</i>; in <i>al</i>, as <i>mortal</i>; in + <i>ent</i>, as <i>recent</i>, <i>fervent</i>; in <i>ain</i>, as + <i>certain</i>; in <i>ive</i>, as <i>missive</i>; in <i>dy</i>, as + <i>woody</i>; in <i>fy</i>, as <i>puffy</i>; in <i>ky</i>, as + <i>rocky</i>, except <i>lucky</i>; in <i>my</i>, as <i>roomy</i>; in + <i>ny</i>, as <i>skinny</i>; in <i>py</i>, as <i>ropy</i>, except + <i>happy</i>; in <i>ry</i>, as <i>hoary</i>.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>Some comparatives and superlatives are yet found in good writers + formed without regard to the foregoing rules; but in a language subjected + so little and so lately to grammar, such anomalies must frequently + occur.</p> + + </blockquote> + <p>So <i>shady</i> is compared by <i>Milton</i>.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p style="margin-left: 1em">She in <i>shadiest</i> covert hid,</p> + <p>Tun'd her nocturnal note. <i>Par. Lost.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + <p>And <i>virtuous</i>.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p style="margin-left: 1em">What she wills to say or do,</p> + <p>Seems wisest, <i>virtuousest</i>, discreetest, best. <i>Par. Lost.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + <p>So <i>trifling</i> by <i>Ray</i>, who is indeed of no great + authority.</p> + + <p><!-- Page 24 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page24"></a>[24]</span></p> + + <blockquote> + <p>It is not so decorous, in respect of God, that he should immediately + do all the meanest and <i>triflingest</i> things himself, without making + use of any inferior or subordinate minister. + <i>Ray on the Creation.</i></p> + + </blockquote> + <p><i>Famous</i>, by <i>Milton</i>.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p style="margin-left: 1em">I shall be nam'd among the <i>famousest</i></p> + <p>Of women, sung at solemn festivals. <i>Milton's Agonistes.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + <p><i>Inventive</i>, by <i>Ascham</i>.</p> + + <blockquote> + <p>Those have the <i>inventivest</i> heads for all purposes, and roundest + tongues in all matters. <i>Ascham's + Schoolmaster.</i></p> + + </blockquote> + <p><i>Mortal</i>, by <i>Bacon</i>.</p> + + <blockquote> + <p>The <i>mortalest</i> poisons practised by the West Indians, have some + mixture of the blood, fat, or flesh of man. + <i>Bacon.</i></p> + + </blockquote> + <p><i>Natural</i>, by <i>Wotton</i>.</p> + + <blockquote> + <p>I will now deliver a few of the properest and <i>naturalest</i> + considerations that belong to this piece. + <i>Wotton's Architecture.</i></p> + + </blockquote> + <p><i>Wretched</i>, by <i>Jonson</i>.</p> + + <blockquote> + <p>The <i>wretcheder</i> are the contemners of all helps; such as + presuming on their own naturals, deride diligence, and mock at terms when + they understand not things. <i>Ben + Jonson.</i></p> + + </blockquote> + <p><i>Powerful</i>, by <i>Milton</i>.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>We have sustain'd one day in doubtful fight,</p> + <p>What heav'n's great king hath <i>pow'rfullest</i> to send</p> + <p>Against us from about his throne. <i>Par. Lost.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>The termination in <i>ish</i> may be accounted in some sort a degree + of comparison, by which the signification is diminished below the + positive, as <i>black</i>, <i>blackish</i>, or tending to blackness; + <i>salt</i>, <i>saltish</i>, or having a little taste of salt; they + therefore admit no comparison. This termination is seldom added but to + words expressing sensible qualities, nor often to words of above one + syllable, and is scarcely used in the solemn or sublime style.</p> + + </blockquote> + <br clear="all" /> +<hr /> + +<h3><i>Of</i> PRONOUNS.</h3> + + <p>Pronouns, in the English language, are, <i>I</i>, <i>thou</i>, + <i>he</i>, with their plurals, <i>we</i>, <i>ye</i>, <i>they</i>; + <i>it</i>, <i>who</i>, <i>which</i>, <i>what</i>, <i>whether</i>, + <i>whosoever</i>, <i>whatsoever</i>, <i>my</i>, <i>mine</i>, <i>our</i>, + <i>ours</i>, <i>thy</i>, <i>thine</i>, <i>your</i>, <i>yours</i>, + <i>his</i>, <i>her</i>, <i>hers</i>, <i>theirs</i>, <i>this</i>, + <i>that</i>, <i>other</i>, <i>another</i>, the <i>same</i>, + <i>some</i>.</p> + + <p>The pronouns personal are irregularly inflected.</p> + + +<table border="1" width="43%" title="Inflection of pronouns"> +<tr><td class="t" width="42%"> +</td> +<td class="t" width="28%"> + <p>Singular.</p> +</td> +<td class="t" width="28%"> + <p>Plural.</p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p><i>Nom.</i></p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p>I,</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p>We.</p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p><i>Accus.</i> and other oblique cases.</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p>Me,</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p>Us.</p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p><i>Nom.</i></p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p>Thou,</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p>Ye.</p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p><i>Oblique.</i></p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p>Thee,</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p>You.</p> +</td></tr></table> + + <p><i>You</i> is commonly used in modern writers for <i>ye</i>, + particularly in the language of ceremony, where the second person plural + is used for the second person singular, <i>You are my friend</i>.</p> + + +<table border="1" width="83%" title="Inflection of pronouns continued"> +<tr><td class="t" width="22%"> +</td> +<td class="t" width="14%"> + <p>Singular.</p> +</td> +<td class="t" width="14%"> + <p>Plural.</p> +</td> +<td class="t" width="47%"> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p><i>Nom.</i></p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p>He,</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p>They,</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p>Applied to masculines.</p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p><i>Oblique.</i></p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p>Him,</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p>Them.</p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p><i>Nom.</i></p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p>She,</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p>They,</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p>Applied to feminines.</p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p><i>Oblique.</i></p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p>Her,</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p>Them.</p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p><i>Nom.</i></p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p>It,</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p>They,</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p>Applied to neuters or things.</p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p><i>Oblique.</i></p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p>Its,</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p>Them.</p> +</td></tr></table> + + <p>For <i>it</i> the practice of ancient writers was to use <i>he</i>, + and for <i>its</i>, <i>his</i>.</p> + + <p>The possessive pronouns, like other adjectives, are without cases or + change of termination.</p> + + <p>The possessive of the first person is <i>my</i>, <i>mine</i>, + <i>our</i>, <i>ours</i>; of the second, <i>thy</i>, <i>thine</i>, + <i>your</i>, <i>yours</i>; of the third, from <i>he</i>, <i>his</i>; from + <i>she</i>, <i>her</i>, and <i>hers</i>; and in the plural, <i>their</i>, + <i>theirs</i>, for both sexes.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p><i>Ours</i>, <i>yours</i>, <i>hers</i>, <i>theirs</i>, are used when + the substantive preceding is separated by a verb, as <i>These are</i> our + <i>books</i>. <i>These books</i> are <i>ours</i>. <i>Your children + excel</i> ours <i>in stature, but</i> ours <i>surpass</i> yours <i>in + learning</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Ours</i>, <i>yours</i>, <i>hers</i>, <i>theirs</i>, notwithstanding + their seeming plural termination, are applied equally to singular and + plural substantives, as, <i>This book is</i> ours. <i>These books are</i> + ours.</p> + + <p><i>Mine</i> and <i>thine</i> were formerly used before a vowel, as + <i>mine amiable lady</i>: which though now disused in prose, might be + still properly continued in poetry: they are used as <i>ours</i> and + <i>yours</i>, when they are referred to a substantive preceding, as + <i>thy</i> house is larger than <i>mine</i>, but <i>my</i> garden is more + spacious than <i>thine</i>.</p> + + </blockquote> + <p><i>Their</i> and <i>theirs</i> are the possessives likewise of + <i>they</i>, when <i>they</i> is the plural of <i>it</i>, and are + therefore applied to things.</p> + + <p>Pronouns relative are, <i>who</i>, <i>which</i>, <i>what</i>, + <i>whether</i>, <i>whosoever</i>, <i>whatsoever</i>.</p> + + +<table border="1" width="53%" title="Inflection of relative pronouns (1)"> +<tr><td class="t" width="53%"> + <p><i>Nom.</i></p> +</td> +<td class="t" width="46%"> + <p>Who.</p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p><i>Gen.</i></p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p>Whose.</p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p><i>Other oblique cases.</i></p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p>Whom.</p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p><i>Nom.</i></p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p>Which.</p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p><i>Gen.</i></p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p>Of which, or whose.</p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p><i>Other oblique cases.</i></p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p>Which.</p> +</td></tr></table> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p><i>Who</i> is now used in relation to persons, and <i>which</i> in + relation to things; but they were anciently confounded. At least it was + common to say, the man <i>which</i>, though I remember no example of the + thing <i>who</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Whose</i> is rather the poetical than regular genitive of + <i>which</i>.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p style="margin-left: 8em">The fruit</p> + <p>Of that forbidden tree, <i>whose</i> mortal taste</p> + <p>Brought death into the world. <i>Milton.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + <p><i>Whether</i> is only used in the nominative and accusative cases; + and has no plural, being applied only to <i>one</i> of a number, commonly + to one of two, as Whether <i>of these is left I know not</i>. Whether + <i>shall I choose?</i> It is now almost obsolete.</p> + + </blockquote> + <p><i>What</i>, whether relative or interrogative, is without + variation.</p> + + <p><i>Whosoever</i>, <i>whatsoever</i>, being compounded of <i>who</i> or + <i>what</i>, and <i>soever</i>, follow the rule of their primitives.</p> + + +<table border="1" width="43%" title="Inflection of relative pronouns (2)"> +<tr><td class="t" width="42%"> +</td> +<td class="t" width="28%"> + <p>Singular.</p> +</td> +<td class="t" width="28%"> + <p>Plural.</p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p>This</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p>These</p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p><i>In all cases.</i></p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p>That</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p>Those.</p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p>Other,</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p>Others.</p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p>Whether.</p> +</td></tr></table> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>The plural <i>others</i> is not used but when it is referred to a + substantive preceding, as <i>I have sent </i>other<i> horses</i>. <i>I + have not sent the same </i>horses<i>, but </i>others.</p> + + </blockquote> + <p><!-- Page 25 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page25"></a>[25]</span> + <i>Another</i>, being only <i>an other</i>, has no plural.</p> + + <p><i>Here</i>, <i>there</i>, and <i>where</i>, joined with certain + particles, have a relative and pronominal use. <i>Hereof</i>, + <i>herein</i>, <i>hereby</i>, <i>hereafter</i>, <i>herewith</i>, + <i>thereof</i>, <i>therein</i>, <i>thereby</i>, <i>thereupon</i>, + <i>therewith</i>, <i>whereof</i>, <i>wherein</i>, <i>whereby</i>, + <i>whereupon</i>, <i>wherewith</i>, which signify, <i>of this</i>, <i>in + this</i>, &c. <i>of that</i>, <i>in that</i>, &c. <i>of + which</i>, <i>in which</i>, &c.</p> + + <p><i>Therefore</i> and <i>wherefore</i>, which are properly <i>there + for</i> and <i>where for</i>, <i>for that</i>, <i>for which</i>, are now + reckoned conjunctions, and continued in use. The rest seem to be passing + by degrees into neglect, though proper, useful, and analogous. They are + referred both to singular and plural antecedents.</p> + + <p>There are two more words used only in conjunction with pronouns, + <i>own</i> and <i>self</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Own</i> is added to possessives, both singular and plural, as my + <i>own</i> hand, our <i>own</i> house. It is emphatical, and implies a + silent contrariety, or opposition; as, <i>I live in my own house</i>, + that is, <i>not in a hired house</i>. <i>This I did with my own hand</i>, + that is, <i>without help</i> or <i>not by proxy</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Self</i> is added to possessives, as <i>myself</i>, + <i>yourselves</i>; and sometimes to personal pronouns, as <i>himself</i>, + <i>itself</i>, <i>themselves</i>. It then, like <i>own</i>, expresses + emphasis and opposition, as <i>I did this myself</i>, that is, <i>not + another</i>; or it forms a reciprocal pronoun, as <i>We hurt ourselves by + vain rage</i>.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p><i>Himself</i>, <i>itself</i>, <i>themselves</i>, are supposed by + Wallis to be put by corruption, for <i>his self</i>, <i>it self</i>, + <i>their selves</i>; so that <i>self</i> is always a substantive. This + seems justly observed, for we say, <i>He came himself</i>; <i>Himself + shall do this</i>; where <i>himself</i> cannot be an accusative.</p> + + </blockquote> + <br clear="all" /> +<hr /> + +<h3><i>Of the</i> VERB.</h3> + + <p>English verbs are active, as <i>I love</i>; or neuter, as <i>I + languish</i>. The neuters are formed like the actives.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>Most verbs signifying <i>action</i> may likewise signify + <i>condition</i> or <i>habit</i>, and become <i>neuters</i>; as <i>I + love</i>, I am in love; <i>I strike</i>, I am now striking.</p> + + </blockquote> + <p>Verbs have only two tenses inflected in their terminations, the + present, and simple preterit; the other tenses are compounded of the + auxiliary verbs, <i>have</i>, <i>shall</i>, <i>will</i>, <i>let</i>, + <i>may</i>, <i>can</i>, and the infinitive of the active or neuter + verb.</p> + + <p>The passive voice is formed by joining the participle preterit to the + substantive verb, as <i>I am loved</i>.</p> + +<p class="center"><i>To have</i>. Indicative Mood.</p> + +<p class="center"><i>Present Tense.</i></p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Sing.</i> <i>I</i> have, <i>thou</i> hast, <i>he</i> hath <i>or</i> has,</p> + <p><i>Plur.</i> <i>We</i> have, <i>ye</i> have, <i>they</i> have.</p> + </div> + </div> + <blockquote class="small"> + <p><i>Has</i> is a termination connoted from <i>hath</i>, but now more + frequently used both in verse and prose.</p> + + </blockquote> +<p class="center"><i>Simple Preterit.</i></p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Sing.</i> <i>I</i> had, <i>thou</i> hadst, <i>he</i> had</p> + <p><i>Plur.</i> <i>We</i> had, <i>ye</i> had, <i>they</i> had.</p> + </div> + </div> +<p class="center"><i>Compound Preterit.</i></p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Sing.</i> <i>I</i> have had, <i>thou</i> hast had, <i>he</i> has <i>or</i> hath had;</p> + <p><i>Plur.</i> <i>We</i> have had, <i>ye</i> have had, <i>they</i> have had.</p> + </div> + </div> +<p class="center"><i>Preterpluperfect.</i></p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Sing.</i> <i>I</i> had had, <i>thou</i> hadst had, <i>he</i> had had.</p> + <p><i>Plur.</i> <i>We</i> had had, <i>ye</i> had had, <i>they</i> had had.</p> + </div> + </div> +<p class="center"><i>Future.</i></p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Sing.</i> <i>I</i> shall have, <i>thou</i> shalt have, <i>he</i> shall have;</p> + <p><i>Plur.</i> <i>We</i> shall have, <i>ye</i> shall have, <i>they</i> shall have.</p> + </div> + </div> +<p class="center"><i>Second Future.</i></p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Sing.</i> <i>I</i> will have, <i>thou</i> wilt have, <i>he</i> will have;</p> + <p><i>Plur.</i> <i>We</i> will have, <i>ye</i> wilt have, <i>they</i> will have.</p> + </div> + </div> + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>By reading these future tenses may be observed the variations of + <i>shall</i> and <i>will</i>.</p> + + </blockquote> +<p class="center">Imperative Mood.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Sing.</i> Have, <i>or</i> have <i>thou</i>, let <i>him</i> have;</p> + <p><i>Plur.</i> Let <i>us</i> have, have <i>or</i> have <i>ye</i>, let <i>them</i> have.</p> + </div> + </div> +<p class="center">Conjunctive Mood.</p> + +<p class="center"><i>Present.</i></p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Sing.</i> <i>I</i> have, <i>thou</i> have, <i>he</i> have;</p> + <p><i>Plur.</i> <i>We</i> have, <i>ye</i> have, <i>they</i> have.</p> + </div> + </div> +<p class="center"><i>Preterit simple</i> as in the Indicative.</p> + +<p class="center"><i>Preterit compound.</i></p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Sing.</i> <i>I</i> have had, <i>thou</i> have had, <i>he</i> have had;</p> + <p><i>Plur.</i> <i>We</i> have had, <i>ye</i> have had, <i>they</i> have had.</p> + </div> + </div> +<p class="center"><i>Future.</i></p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Sing.</i> <i>I</i> shall have, as in the Indicative.</p> + </div> + </div> +<p class="center"><i>Second Future.</i></p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Sing.</i> <i>I</i> shall have had, <i>thou</i> shalt have had, <i>he</i> shall have had;</p> + <p><i>Plur.</i> <i>We</i> shall have had, <i>ye</i> shall have had, <i>they</i> shall have had.</p> + </div> + </div> +<p class="center">Potential.</p> + + <p>The potential form of speaking is expressed by <i>may</i>, <i>can</i>, + in the present; and <i>might</i>, <i>could</i>, or <i>should</i>, in the + preterit, joined with the infinitive mood of the verb.</p> + +<p class="center"><i>Present.</i></p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Sing.</i> <i>I</i> may have, <i>thou</i> mayst have, <i>he</i> may have;</p> + <p><i>Plur.</i> <i>We</i> may have, <i>ye</i> may have, <i>they</i> may have.</p> + </div> + </div> +<p class="center"><i>Preterit.</i></p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Sing.</i> <i>I</i> might have, <i>thou</i> mightst have, <i>he</i> might have;</p> + <p><i>Plur.</i> <i>We</i> might have, <i>ye</i> might have, <i>they</i> might have.</p> + </div> + </div> +<p class="center"><i>Present.</i></p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Sing.</i> <i>I</i> can have, <i>thou</i> canst have, <i>he</i> can have;</p> + <p><i>Plur.</i> <i>We</i> can have, <i>ye</i> can have, <i>they</i> can have.</p> + </div> + </div> + <p><!-- Page 26 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page26"></a>[26]</span></p> + +<p class="center"><i>Preterit.</i></p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Sing.</i> <i>I</i> could have, <i>thou</i> couldst have, <i>he</i> could have;</p> + <p><i>Plur.</i> <i>We</i> could have, <i>ye</i> could have, <i>they</i> could have.</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>In like manner <i>should</i> is united to the verb.</p> + + <p>There is likewise a double <i>Preterit</i>.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Sing.</i> <i>I</i> should have had, <i>thou</i> shouldst have had, <i>he</i> should have had;</p> + <p><i>Plur.</i> <i>We</i> should have had, <i>ye</i> should have had, <i>they</i> should have had.</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>In like manner we use, <i>I might</i> have had; I <i>could</i> have + had, <i>&c.</i></p> + +<p class="center">Infinitive Mood.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Present.</i> To have.</p> + <p><i>Preterit.</i> To have had.</p> + <p><i>Participle present.</i> Having.</p> + <p><i>Participle preterit.</i> Had.</p> + </div> + </div> +<p class="center">Verb Active. <i>To love.</i></p> + +<p class="center">Indicative. <i>Present.</i></p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Sing.</i> <i>I</i> love, <i>thou</i> lovest, <i>he</i> loveth or loves;</p> + <p><i>Plur.</i> <i>We</i> love, <i>ye</i> love, <i>they</i> love.</p> + </div> + </div> +<p class="center"><i>Preterit simple.</i></p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Sing.</i> <i>I</i> loved, <i>thou</i> lovedst, <i>he</i> loved;</p> + <p><i>Plur.</i> <i>We</i> loved, <i>ye</i> loved, <i>they</i> loved.</p> + <p><i>Preterperfect compound.</i> <i>I</i> have loved, <i>&c.</i></p> + <p><i>Preterpluperfect.</i> <i>I</i> had loved, <i>&c.</i></p> + <p><i>Future.</i> <i>I</i> shall love, <i>&c.</i> <i>I</i> will love, <i>&c.</i></p> + </div> + </div> +<p class="center">Imperative.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Sing.</i> Love <i>or</i> love <i>thou</i>, let <i>him</i> love;</p> + <p><i>Plur.</i> Let <i>us</i> love, love <i>or</i> love <i>ye</i>, let <i>them</i> love.</p> + </div> + </div> +<p class="center">Conjunctive. <i>Present.</i></p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Sing.</i> <i>I</i> love, <i>thou</i> love, <i>he</i> love;</p> + <p><i>Plur.</i> <i>We</i> love, <i>ye</i> love, <i>they</i> love.</p> + <p><i>Preterit simple</i>, as in the indicative.</p> + <p><i>Preterit compound.</i> <i>I</i> have loved, <i>&c.</i></p> + <p><i>Future.</i> <i>I</i> shall love, <i>&c.</i></p> + <p><i>Second Future.</i> <i>I</i> shall have loved, <i>&c.</i></p> + </div> + </div> +<p class="center">Potential.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Present.</i> <i>I</i> may <i>or</i> can love, <i>&c.</i></p> + <p><i>Preterit.</i> <i>I</i> might, could, <i>or</i> should love, <i>&c.</i></p> + <p><i>Double Preterit.</i> <i>I</i> might, could, <i>or</i> should have</p> + <p>loved, <i>&c.</i></p> + </div> + </div> +<p class="center">Infinitive.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Present.</i> To love.</p> + <p><i>Preterit.</i> To have loved.</p> + <p><i>Participle present.</i> Loving.</p> + <p><i>Participle past.</i> Loved.</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>The passive is formed by the addition of the participle preterit to + the different tenses of the verb <i>to be</i>, which must therefore be + here exhibited.</p> + +<p class="center">Indicative. <i>Present.</i></p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Sing.</i> <i>I</i> am, <i>thou</i> art, <i>he</i> is;</p> + <p><i>Plur.</i> <i>We</i> are <i>or</i> be, <i>ye</i> are <i>or</i> be, <i>they</i> are <i>or</i> be.</p> + <p style="margin-left: 4em">The plural <i>be</i> is now little in use.</p> + </div> + </div> +<p class="center"><i>Preterit.</i></p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Sing.</i> <i>I</i> was, <i>thou</i> wast <i>or</i> wert, <i>he</i> was;</p> + <p><i>Plur.</i> <i>We</i> were, <i>ye</i> were, <i>they</i> were.</p> + </div> + </div> + <p><i>Wert</i> is properly of the conjunctive mood, and ought not to be + used in the indicative.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Preterit compound.</i> <i>I</i> have been, <i>&c.</i></p> + <p><i>Preterpluperfect.</i> <i>I</i> had been, <i>&c.</i></p> + <p><i>Future.</i> <i>I</i> shall <i>or</i> will be, <i>&c.</i></p> + </div> + </div> +<p class="center">Imperative.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Sing.</i> Be <i>thou</i>; let <i>him</i> be;</p> + <p><i>Plur.</i> Let <i>us</i> be; be <i>ye</i>; let <i>them</i> be.</p> + </div> + </div> +<p class="center">Conjunctive. <i>Present.</i></p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Sing.</i> <i>I</i> be, <i>thou</i> beest, <i>he</i> be;</p> + <p><i>Plur.</i> <i>We</i> be, <i>ye</i> be, <i>they</i> be.</p> + </div> + </div> +<p class="center"><i>Preterit.</i></p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Sing.</i> <i>I</i> were, <i>thou</i> wert, <i>he</i> were;</p> + <p><i>Plur.</i> <i>We</i> were, <i>ye</i> were, <i>they</i> were.</p> + <p><i>Preterit compound.</i> <i>I</i> have been, <i>&c.</i></p> + <p><i>Future.</i> <i>I</i> shall have been, <i>&c.</i></p> + </div> + </div> +<p class="center">Potential.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>I</i> may <i>or</i> can; would, could, <i>or</i> should be; could,</p> + <p>would, <i>or</i> should have been, <i>&c.</i></p> + </div> + </div> +<p class="center">Infinitive.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Present.</i> To be.</p> + <p><i>Preterit.</i> To have been.</p> + <p><i>Participle present.</i> Being.</p> + <p><i>Participle preterit.</i> Having been.</p> + </div> + </div> +<p class="center">Passive Voice. Indicative Mood.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>I</i> am loved, <i>&c.</i> <i>I</i> was loved, <i>&c.</i> <i>I</i> have been</p> + <p>loved, <i>&c.</i></p> + </div> + </div> +<p class="center">Conjunctive Mood.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>If <i>I</i> be loved, <i>&c.</i> If <i>I</i> were loved, <i>&c.</i> If <i>I</i> shall</p> + <p>have been loved, <i>&c.</i></p> + </div> + </div> +<p class="center">Potential Mood.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>I</i> may <i>or</i> can be loved, <i>&c.</i> <i>I</i> might, could, <i>or</i></p> + <p>should be loved, <i>&c.</i> <i>I</i> might, could, <i>or</i> should</p> + <p>have been loved, <i>&c.</i></p> + </div> + </div> +<p class="center">Infinitive.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Present.</i> To be loved.</p> + <p><i>Preterit.</i> To have been loved.</p> + <p><i>Participle.</i> Loved.</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>There is another form of English verbs, in which the infinitive mood + is joined to the verb <i>do</i> in its various inflections, which are + therefore to be learned in this place.</p> + +<p class="center"><i>To do.</i></p> + +<p class="center">Indicative. <i>Present.</i></p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Sing.</i> <i>I</i> do, <i>thou</i> dost, <i>he</i> doth;</p> + <p><i>Plur.</i> <i>We</i> do, <i>ye</i> do, <i>they</i> do.</p> + </div> + </div> +<p class="center"><i>Preterit.</i></p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Sing.</i> <i>I</i> did, <i>thou</i> didst, <i>he</i> did;</p> + <p><i>Plur.</i> <i>We</i> did, <i>ye</i> did, <i>they</i> did.</p> + <p><i>Preterit.</i>, <i>&c.</i> <i>I</i> have done, <i>&c.</i> <i>I</i> had done, <i>&c.</i></p> + <p><i>Future.</i> <i>I</i> shall <i>or</i> will do, <i>&c.</i></p> + </div> + </div> +<p class="center">Imperative.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Sing.</i> Do <i>thou</i>, let <i>him</i> do;</p> + <p><i>Plur.</i> Let <i>us</i> do, do <i>ye</i>, let <i>them</i> do.</p> + </div> + </div> +<p class="center">Conjunctive. <i>Present.</i></p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Sing.</i> <i>I</i> do, <i>thou</i> do, <i>he</i> do;</p> + <p><i>Plur.</i> <i>We</i> do, <i>ye</i> do, <i>they</i> do.</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>The rest are as in the Indicative.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Infinite.</i> To do, to have done.</p> + <p><i>Participle present.</i> Doing.</p> + <p><i>Participle preterit.</i> Done.</p> + </div> + </div> + <p><!-- Page 27 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page27"></a>[27]</span></p> + + <p>Do is sometimes used superfluously, as <i>I</i> do <i>love, I</i> did + <i>love</i>; simply for <i>I love</i>, or <i>I loved</i>; but this is + considered as a vitious mode of speech.</p> + + <p>It is sometimes used emphatically; as,</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>I do love thee, and when I love thee not,</p> + <p>Chaos is come again. <i>Shakespeare.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + <p>It is frequently joined with a negative; as, <i>I like her, but I</i> + do <i>not love her; I wished him success, but</i> did <i>not help + him</i>. This, by custom at least, appears more easy than the other form + of expressing the same sense by a negative adverb after the verb, <i>I + like her, but</i> love <i>her</i> not.</p> + + <p>The imperative prohibitory is seldom applied in the second person, at + least in prose, without the word <i>do</i>; as, <i>Stop him, but do not + hurt him</i>; <i>Praise beauty, but do not dote on it</i>.</p> + + <p>Its chief use is in interrogative forms of speech, in which it is used + through all the persons; as, Do <i>I live</i>? Dost <i>thou strike + me</i>? Do <i>they rebel</i>? Did <i>I complain</i>? Didst <i>thou love + her</i>? Did <i>she die</i>? So likewise in negative interrogations; Do + <i>I not yet grieve</i>? Did <i>she not die</i>?</p> + + <p><i>Do</i> and <i>did</i> are thus used only for the present and simple + preterit.</p> + + <p>There is another manner of conjugating neuter verbs, which, when it is + used, may not improperly denominate them <i>neuter passives</i>, as they + are inflected according to the passive form by the help of the verb + substantive <i>to be</i>. They answer nearly to the reciprocal verbs in + French; as, <i>I am risen</i>, surrexi, <i>Latin</i>; Je me suis lev, + <i>French</i>. <i>I was walked out</i>, exieram: Je m'tois promen.</p> + + <p>In like manner we commonly express the present tense; as, I am going, + <i>eo</i>. I am grieving, <i>doleo</i>, She is dying, <i>illa + moritur</i>. The tempest is raging, <i>furit procella</i>. I am pursuing + an enemy, <i>hostem insequor</i>. So the other tenses, as, <i>We were + walking</i>, <span lang="el" title="etynchanomen peripatountes" + >ετυγχανομεν + περιπατουντες</span>, + <i>I have been walking</i>, <i>I had been walking</i>, <i>I shall</i> or + <i>will be walking.</i></p> + + <p>There is another manner of using the active participle, which gives it + a passive signification: as, The grammar is now printing, <i>grammatica + jam nunc chartis imprimitur</i>. The brass is forging, <i>ara + excuduntur</i>. This is, in my opinion, a vitious expression, probably + corrupted from a phrase more pure, but now somewhat obsolete: <i>The book + is</i> a <i>printing</i>, <i>The brass is</i> a <i>forging</i>; a being + properly at, and <i>printing</i> and <i>forging</i> verbal nouns + signifying action, according to the analogy of this language.</p> + + <p>The indicative and conjunctive moods are by modern writers frequently + confounded, or rather the conjunctive is wholly neglected, when some + convenience of versification docs not invite its revival. It is used + among the purer writers of former times after <i>if</i>, <i>though</i>, + <i>ere</i>, <i>before</i>, <i>till</i> or <i>until</i>, <i>whether</i>, + <i>except</i>, <i>unless</i>, <i>whatsoever</i>, <i>whomsoever</i>, and + words of wishing; as, <i>Doubtless thou art our father</i>, though + <i>Abraham</i> be <i>ignorant of us, and Israel</i> acknowledge <i>us + not</i>.</p> + + <br clear="all" /> +<hr /> + +<h3><i>Of</i> IRREGULAR VERBS.</h3> + + <p>The English verbs were divided by Ben Jonson into four conjugations, + without any reason arising from the nature of the language, which has + properly but one conjugation, such as has been exemplified: from which + all deviations are to be considered as anomalies, which are indeed, in + our monosyllable Saxon verbs, and the verbs derived from them, very + frequent; but almost all the verbs which have been adopted from other + languages, follow the regular form.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>Our verbs are observed by Dr. Wallis to be irregular only in the + formation of the preterit, and its participle. Indeed, in the scantiness + of our conjugations, there is scarcely any other place for + irregularity.</p> + + </blockquote> + <p>The first irregularity is a slight deviation from the regular form, by + rapid utterance or poetical contraction: the last syllable <i>ed</i> is + often joined with the former by suppression of <i>e</i>; as <i>lov'd</i> + for <i>loved</i>; after <i>c</i>, <i>ch</i>, <i>sh</i>, <i>f</i>, + <i>k</i>, <i>x</i>, and after the consonants <i>s</i>, <i>th</i>, when + more strongly pronounced, and sometimes after <i>m</i>, <i>n</i>, + <i>r</i>, if preceded by a short vowel, <i>t</i> is used in + pronunciation, but very seldom in writing rather than d; as + <i>plac't</i>, <i>snatch't</i>, <i>fish't</i>, <i>wak't</i>, + <i>dwel't</i>, <i>smel't</i> for <i>plac'd</i>, <i>snatch'd</i>, + <i>fish'd</i>, <i>wak'd</i>, <i>dwel'd</i>, <i>smel'd</i>; or + <i>placed</i>, <i>snatched</i>, <i>fished</i>, <i>waked</i>, + <i>dwelled</i>, <i>smelled</i>.</p> + + <p>Those words which terminate in <i>l</i> or <i>ll</i>, or <i>p</i>, + make their preterit in <i>t</i>, even in solemn language; as + <i>crept</i>, <i>felt</i>, <i>dwelt</i>; Sometimes after <i>x</i>, + <i>ed</i> is changed into <i>t</i>; as <i>vext</i>: this is not + constant.</p> + + <p>A long vowel is often changed into a short one; thus <i>kept</i>, + <i>slept</i>, <i>wept</i>, <i>crept</i>, <i>swept</i>; from the verbs to + <i>keep</i>, to <i>sleep</i>, to <i>weep</i>, to <i>creep</i>, to + <i>sweep</i>.</p> + + <p>Where <i>d</i> or <i>t</i> go before, the additional letter <i>d</i> + or <i>t</i>, in this contracted form, coalesce into one letter with the + radical <i>d</i> or <i>t</i>: if <i>t</i> were the radical, they coalesce + into <i>t</i>; but if <i>d</i> were the radical, then into <i>d</i> or + <i>t</i>, as the one or the other letter may be more easily pronounced; + as <i>read</i>, <i>led</i>, <i>spread</i>, <i>shed</i>, <i>shred</i>, + <i>bid</i>, <i>hid</i>, <i>chid</i>, <i>fed</i>, <i>bled</i>, + <i>bred</i>, <i>sped</i>, <i>strid</i>, <i>slid</i>, <i>rid</i>; from the + verbs to <i>read</i>, to <i>lead</i>, to <i>spread</i>, to <i>shed</i>, + to <i>shread</i>, to <i>bid</i>, to <i>hide</i>, to <i>chide</i>, to + <i>feed</i>, to <i>bleed</i>, to <i>breed</i>, to <i>speed</i>, to + <i>stride</i>, to <i>slide</i>, to <i>ride</i>. And thus <i>cast</i>, + <i>hurt</i>, <i>cost</i>, <i>burst</i>, <i>eat</i>, <i>beat</i>, + <i>sweat</i>, <i>sit</i>, <i>quit</i>, <i>smit</i>, <i>writ</i>, + <i>bit</i>, <i>hit</i>, <i>met</i>, <i>shot</i>; from the verbs to + <i>cast</i>, to <i>hurt</i>, to <i>cost</i>, to <i>burst</i>, to + <i>eat</i>, to <i>beat</i>, to <i>sweat</i>, to <i>sit</i>, to + <i>quit</i>, to <i>smite</i>, to <i>write</i>, to <i>bite</i>, to + <i>hit</i>, to <i>meet</i>, to <i>shoot</i>. And in like manner, + <i>lent</i>, <i>sent</i>, <i>rent</i>, <i>girt</i>; from the verbs to + <i>lend</i>, to <i>send</i>, to <i>rend</i>, to <i>gird</i>.</p> + + <p>The participle preterit or passive is often formed in <i>en</i> + instead of <i>ed</i>; as, <i>been</i>, <i>taken</i>, <i>given</i>, + <i>slain</i>, <i>known</i>, from the verbs to <i>be</i>, to <i>take</i>, + to <i>give</i>, to <i>slay</i>, to <i>know</i>.</p> + + <p>Many words have two or more participles, <!-- Page 28 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page28"></a>[28]</span> as not only + <i>written</i>, <i>bitten</i>, <i>eaten</i>, <i>beaten</i>, + <i>hidden</i>, <i>chidden</i>, <i>shotten</i>, <i>chosen</i>, + <i>broken</i>; but likewise <i>writ</i>, <i>bit</i>, <i>eat</i>, + <i>beat</i>, <i>hid</i>, <i>chid</i>, <i>shot</i>, <i>chose</i>, + <i>broke</i>, are promiscuously used in the participle, from the verbs to + <i>write</i>, to <i>bite</i>, to <i>eat</i>, to <i>beat</i>, to + <i>hide</i>, to <i>chide</i>, to <i>shoot</i>, to <i>choose</i>, to + <i>break</i>, and many such like.</p> + + <p>In the same manner, <i>sown</i>, <i>shewn</i>, <i>hewn</i>, + <i>mown</i>, <i>loaden</i>, <i>laden</i>, as well as <i>sow'd</i>, + <i>show'd</i>, <i>hew'd</i>, <i>mow'd</i>, <i>loaded</i>, <i>laded</i>, + from the verbs to <i>sow</i>, to <i>show</i>, to <i>hew</i>, to + <i>mow</i>, to <i>load</i>, to <i>lade</i>.</p> + + <p>Concerning these double participles it is difficult to give any rule; + but he shall seldom err who remembers, that when a verb has a participle + distinct from its preterit, as <i>write</i>, <i>wrote</i>, + <i>written</i>, that distinct participle is more proper and elegant, as + <i>The book is written</i>, is better than <i>The book is wrote</i>. + <i>Wrote</i> however may be used in poetry; at least, if we allow any + authority to poets, who, in the exultation of genius, think themselves + perhaps entitled to trample on grammarians.</p> + + <p>There are other anomalies in the preterit.</p> + + <p>1. <i>Win</i>, <i>spin</i>, <i>begin</i>, <i>swim</i>, <i>strike</i>, + <i>stick</i>, <i>sing</i>, <i>sting</i>, <i>fling</i>, <i>ring</i>, + <i>wring</i>, <i>spring</i>, <i>swing</i>, <i>drink</i>, <i>sink</i>, + <i>shrink</i>, <i>stink</i>, <i>come</i>, <i>run</i>, <i>find</i>, + <i>bind</i>, <i>grind</i>, <i>wind</i>, both in the preterit imperfect + and participle passive, give <i>won</i>, <i>spun</i>, <i>begun</i>, + <i>swum</i>, <i>struck</i>, <i>stuck</i>, <i>sung</i>, <i>stung</i>, + <i>flung</i>, <i>rung</i>, <i>wrung</i>, <i>sprung</i>, <i>swung</i>, + <i>drunk</i>, <i>sunk</i>, <i>shrunk</i>, <i>stunk</i>, <i>come</i>, + <i>run</i>, <i>found</i>, <i>bound</i>, <i>ground</i>, <i>wound</i>. And + most of them are also formed in the preterit by <i>a</i>, as + <i>began</i>, <i>sang</i>, <i>rang</i>, <i>sprang</i>, <i>drank</i>, + <i>came</i>, <i>ran</i>, and some others; but most of these are now + obsolete. Some in the participle passive likewise take <i>en</i>, as + <i>stricken</i>, <i>strucken</i>, <i>drunken</i>, <i>bounden</i>.</p> + + <p>2. <i>Fight</i>, <i>teach</i>, <i>reach</i>, <i>seek</i>, + <i>beseech</i>, <i>catch</i>, <i>buy</i>, <i>bring</i>, <i>think</i>, + <i>work</i>, make <i>fought</i>, <i>taught</i>, <i>raught</i>, + <i>sought</i>, <i>besought</i>, <i>caught</i>, <i>bought</i>, + <i>brought</i>, <i>thought</i>, <i>wrought</i>.</p> + + <p>But a great many of these retain likewise the regular form, as + <i>teached</i>, <i>reached</i>, <i>beseeched</i>, <i>catched</i>, + <i>worked</i>.</p> + + <p>3. <i>Take</i>, <i>shake</i>, <i>forsake</i>, <i>wake</i>, + <i>awake</i>, <i>stand</i>, <i>break</i>, <i>speak</i>, <i>bear</i>, + <i>shear</i>, <i>swear</i>, <i>tear</i>, <i>wear</i>, <i>weave</i>, + <i>cleave</i>, <i>strive</i>, <i>thrive</i>, <i>drive</i>, <i>shine</i>, + <i>rise</i>, <i>arise</i>, <i>smite</i>, <i>write</i>, <i>bide</i>, + <i>abide</i>, <i>ride</i>, <i>choose</i>, <i>chuse</i>, <i>tread</i>, + <i>get</i>, <i>beget</i>, <i>forget</i>, <i>seethe</i>, make in both + preterit and participle <i>took</i>, <i>shook</i>, <i>forsook</i>, + <i>woke</i>, <i>awoke</i>, <i>stood</i>, <i>broke</i>, <i>spoke</i>, + <i>bore</i>, <i>shore</i>, <i>swore</i>, <i>tore</i>, <i>wore</i>, + <i>wove</i>, <i>clove</i>, <i>strove</i>, <i>throve</i>, <i>drove</i>, + <i>shone</i>, <i>rose</i>, <i>arose</i>, <i>smote</i>, <i>wrote</i>, + <i>bode</i>, <i>abode</i>, <i>rode</i>, <i>chose</i>, <i>trode</i>, + <i>got</i>, <i>begot</i>, <i>forgot</i>, <i>sod</i>. But we say likewise, + <i>thrive</i>, <i>rise</i>, <i>smit</i>, <i>writ</i>, <i>abid</i>, + <i>rid</i>. In the preterit some are likewise formed by <i>a</i>, as + <i>brake</i>, <i>spake</i>, <i>bare</i>, <i>share</i>, <i>sware</i>, + <i>tare</i>, <i>ware</i>, <i>clave</i>, <i>gat</i>, <i>begat</i>, + <i>forgat</i>, and perhaps some others, but more rarely. In the + participle passive many of them are formed by <i>en</i>, as <i>taken</i>, + <i>shaken</i>, <i>forsaken</i>, <i>broken</i>, <i>spoken</i>, + <i>born</i>, <i>shorn</i>, <i>sworn</i>, <i>torn</i>, <i>worn</i>, + <i>woven</i>, <i>cloven</i>, <i>thriven</i>, <i>driven</i>, <i>risen</i>, + <i>smitten</i>, <i>ridden</i>, <i>chosen</i>, <i>trodden</i>, + <i>gotten</i>, <i>begotten</i>, <i>forgotten</i>, <i>sodden</i>. And many + do likewise retain the analogy in both, as <i>waked</i>, <i>awaked</i>, + <i>sheared</i>, <i>weaved</i>, <i>cleaved</i>, <i>abided</i>, + <i>seethed</i>.</p> + + <p>4. <i>Give</i>, <i>bid</i>, <i>sit</i>, make in the preterit + <i>gave</i>, <i>bade</i>, <i>sate</i>; in the participle passive + <i>given</i>, <i>bidden</i>, <i>sitten</i>; but in both <i>bid</i>.</p> + + <p>5. <i>Draw</i>, <i>know</i>, <i>grow</i>, <i>throw</i>, <i>blow</i>, + <i>crow</i> like a cock, <i>fly</i>, <i>slay</i>, <i>see</i>, <i>ly</i>, + make their preterit <i>drew</i>, <i>knew</i>, <i>grew</i>, <i>threw</i>, + <i>blew</i>, <i>crew</i>, <i>flew</i>, <i>slew</i>, <i>saw</i>, + <i>lay</i>; their participles passive by <i>n</i>, <i>drawn</i>, + <i>known</i>, <i>grown</i>, <i>thrown</i>, <i>blown</i>, <i>flown</i>, + <i>slain</i>, <i>seen</i>, <i>lien</i>, <i>lain</i>. Yet from <i>flee</i> + is made <i>fled</i>; from <i>go</i>, <i>went</i>, (from the old + <i>wend</i>) the participle is <i>gone</i>.</p> + + <br clear="all" /> +<hr /> + +<h3><i>Of</i> DERIVATION.</h3> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>That the English language may be more easily understood, it is + necessary to inquire how its derivative words are deduced from their + primitives, and how the primitives are borrowed from other languages. In + this inquiry I shall sometimes copy Dr. Wallis, and sometimes endeavour + to supply his detects, and rectify his errours.</p> + + </blockquote> + <p>Nouns are derived from verbs.</p> + + <p>The thing implied in the verb, as done or produced, is commonly either + the present of the verb; as to love, <i>love</i>; to fright, a + <i>fright</i>; to fight, a <i>fight</i>; or the preterit of the verb, as + to strike, I strick <i>or</i> strook, a <i>stroke</i>.</p> + + <p>The action is the same with the participle present, as <i>loving</i>, + <i>frighting</i>, <i>fighting</i>, <i>striking</i>.</p> + + <p>The agent, or person acting, is denoted by the syllable <i>er</i> + added to the verb, as <i>lover</i>, <i>frighter</i>, <i>striker</i>.</p> + + <p>Substantives, adjectives, and sometimes other parts of speech, are + changed into verbs: in which case the vowel is often lengthened, or the + consonant softened; as, a house, <i>to house</i>; brass, <i>to braze</i>; + glass, <i>to glaze</i>; grass, <i>to graze</i>; price, <i>to prize</i>; + breath, <i>to breathe</i>; a fish, <i>to fish</i>; oil, <i>to oil</i>; + further, <i>to further</i>; forward, <i>to forward</i>; hinder, <i>to + hinder</i>.</p> + + <p>Sometimes the termination <i>en</i> is added, especially to + adjectives; as, haste, <i>to hasten</i>; length, <i>to lengthen</i>; + strength, <i>to strengthen</i>; short, <i>to shorten</i>; fast, <i>to + fasten</i>; white, <i>to whiten</i>; black, <i>to blacken</i>; hard, + <i>to harden</i>; soft, <i>to soften</i>.</p> + + <p>From substantives are formed adjectives <!-- Page 29 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page29"></a>[29]</span> of plenty, by adding the + termination <i>y</i>: as a louse, <i>lousy</i>; wealth, <i>wealthy</i>; + health, <i>healthy</i>; might, <i>mighty</i>; worth, <i>worthy</i>; wit, + <i>witty</i>; lust, <i>lusty</i>; water, <i>watery</i>, earth, + <i>earthy</i>; wood, (a wood) <i>woody</i>; air, <i>airy</i>; a heart, + <i>hearty</i>; a hand, <i>handy</i>.</p> + + <p>From substantives are formed adjectives of plenty, by adding the + termination <i>ful</i>, denoting abundance; as, joy, <i>joyful</i>; + fruit, <i>fruitful</i>; youth, <i>youthful</i>; care, <i>careful</i>; + use, <i>useful</i>; delight, <i>delightful</i>; plenty, <i>plentiful</i>; + help, <i>helpful</i>.</p> + + <p>Sometimes in almost the same sense, but with some kind of diminution + thereof, the termination <i>some</i> is added, denoting something, or in + some degree; as delight, <i>delightsome</i>; game, <i>gamesome</i>; irk, + <i>irksome</i>; burden, <i>burdensome</i>; trouble, <i>troublesome</i>; + light, <i>lightsome</i>; hand, <i>handsome</i>; alone, <i>lonesome</i>; + toil, <i>toilsome</i>.</p> + + <p>On the contrary, the termination less added to substantives, makes + adjectives signifying want; as, <i>worthless</i>, <i>witless</i>, + <i>heartless</i>, <i>joyless</i>, <i>careless</i>, <i>helpless</i>. Thus + comfort, <i>comfortless</i>; sap, <i>sapless</i>.</p> + + <p>Privation or contrariety is very often denoted by the participle + <i>un</i> prefixed to many adjectives, or <i>in</i> before words derived + from the Latin; as pleasant, <i>unpleasant</i>; wise, <i>unwise</i>; + profitable, <i>unprofitable</i>, patient, <i>impatient</i>. Thus + <i>unworthy</i>, <i>unhealthy</i>, <i>unfruitful</i>, <i>unuseful</i>, + and many more.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>The original English privative is <i>un</i>; but as we often borrow + trom the Latin, or its descendants, words already signifying privation, + as <i>inefficacious</i>, <i>impious</i>, <i>indiscreet</i>, the + inseparable particles <i>un</i> and <i>in</i> have fallen into confusion, + from which it is not easy to disentangle them.</p> + + <p><i>Un</i> is prefixed to all words originally English, as + <i>untrue</i>, <i>untruth</i>, <i>untaught</i>, <i>unhandsome</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Un</i> is prefixed to all participles made privative adjectives, as + <i>unfeeling</i>, <i>unassisting</i>, <i>unaided</i>, <i>undelighted</i>, + <i>unendeared</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Un</i> ought never to be prefixed to a participle present to mark a + forbearance of action, as <i>unsighing</i>, but a privation of habit, as + <i>unpitying</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Un</i> is prefixed to most substantives which have an English + termination, as <i>unfertileness</i>, <i>unperfectness</i>, which, if + they have borrowed terminations, take <i>in</i> or <i>im</i>, as + <i>infertility</i>, <i>imperfection</i>; <i>uncivil</i>, + <i>incivility</i>; <i>unactive</i>, <i>inactivity</i>.</p> + + <p>In borrowing adjectives, if we receive them already compounded, it is + usual to retain the particle prefixed, as <i>indecent</i>, + <i>inelegant</i>, <i>improper</i>; but if we borrow the adjective, and + add the privative particle, we commonly prefix <i>un</i>, as + <i>unpolite</i>, <i>ungallant</i>.</p> + + </blockquote> + <p>The prepositive particles <i>dis</i> and <i>mis</i>, derived from the + <i>des</i> and <i>mes</i> of the French, signify almost the same as + <i>un</i>; yet <i>dis</i> rather imports contrariety than privation, + since it answers to the Latin preposition <i>de</i>. <i>Mis</i> + insinuates some errour, and for the most part may be rendered by the + Latin words <i>male</i> or <i>perperam</i>. To like, <i>to dislike</i>; + honour, <i>dishonour</i>; to honour, to grace, <i>to dishonour</i>, <i>to + disgrace</i>; to deign, <i>to disdeign</i>; chance, hap, + <i>mischance</i>, <i>mishap</i>; to take, <i>to mistake</i>; deed, + <i>misdeed</i>; to use, <i>to misuse</i>; to employ, <i>to misemploy</i>, + to apply, <i>to misapply</i>.</p> + + <p>Words derived from Latin written with <i>de</i> or <i>dis</i> retain + the same signification; as <i>distinguish</i>, distinguo; <i>detract</i>, + detraho; <i>defame</i>, defamo; <i>detain</i>, detineo.</p> + + <p>The termination <i>ly</i> added to substantives, and sometimes to + adjectives, forms adjectives that import some kind of similitude or + agreement, being formed by contraction of <i>lick</i> or <i>like</i>. A + giant, <i>giantly</i>, <i>giantlike</i>; earth, <i>earthly</i>; heaven, + <i>heavenly</i>; world, <i>worldly</i>; God, <i>godly</i>; good, + <i>goodly</i>.</p> + + <p>The same termination <i>ly</i>, added to adjectives, forms adverbs of + like signification; as, beautiful, <i>beautifully</i>; sweet, + <i>sweetly</i>; that is, <i>in a beautiful manner</i>; <i>with some + degree of sweetness</i>.</p> + + <p>The termination <i>ish</i> added to adjectives, imports diminution; + and added to substantives, imports similitude or tendency to a character; + as green, <i>greenish</i>; white, <i>whitish</i>; soft, <i>softish</i>; a + thief, <i>thievish</i>; a wolf, <i>wolfish</i>; a child, + <i>childish</i>.</p> + + <p>We have forms of diminutives in substantives, though not frequent; as + a hill, <i>a hillock</i>; a cock, <i>a cockrel</i>; a pike, <i>a + pickrel</i>; this is a French termination: a goose, <i>a gosling</i>; + this is a German termination: a lamb, <i>a lambkin</i>; a chick, <i>a + chicken</i>; a man, <i>a manikin</i>; a pipe, <i>a pipkin</i>; and thus + <i>Halkin</i>, whence the patronymick, <i>Hawkins</i>; <i>Wilkin</i>, + <i>Thomkin</i>, and others.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>Yet still there is another form of diminution among the English, by + lessening the sound itself, especially of vowels, as there is a form of + augmenting them by enlarging or even lengthening it; and that sometimes + not so much by change of the letters, as of their pronunciation; as, + <i>sup</i>, <i>sip</i>, <i>soop</i>, <i>sop</i>, <i>sippet</i>, where, + besides the extenuation of the vowel, there is added the French + termination <i>et</i>; <i>top</i>, <i>tip</i>; <i>spit</i>, <i>spout</i>; + <i>babe</i>, <i>baby</i>; <i>booby</i>, <span lang="el" title="Boupais" + >Βουπαις</span>; <i>great</i> + pronounced long, especially if with a stronger sound, <i>grea-t</i>; + little, pronounced long <i>lee-tle</i>; <i>ting</i>, <i>tang</i>, + <i>tong</i>, imports a succession of smaller and then greater sounds; and + so in <i>jingle</i>, <i>jangle</i>, <i>tingle</i>, <i>tangle</i>, and + many other made words.</p> + + <p>Much however of this is arbitrary and fanciful, depending wholly on + oral utterance, and therefore scarcely worthy the notice of Wallis.</p> + + </blockquote> + <p>Of concrete adjectives are made abstract substantives, by adding the + termination <i>ness</i>; and a few in <i>hood</i> or <i>head</i>, noting + character or qualities: as white, <i>whiteness</i>; hard, + <i>hardness</i>; great, <i>greatness</i>; skilful, <i>skilfulness</i>, + <i>unskilfulness</i>; <i>godhead</i>, <i>manhood</i>, <i>maidenhead</i>, + <i>widowhood</i>, <i>knighthood</i>, <i>priesthood</i>, + <i>likelihood</i>, <i>falsehood</i>.</p> + + <p>There are other abstracts, partly derived from adjectives, and partly + from <!-- Page 30 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page30"></a>[30]</span> verbs, which are formed by the addition of + the termination <i>th</i>, a small change being sometimes made; as long, + <i>length</i>; strong, <i>strength</i>; broad, <i>breadth</i>; wide, + <i>width</i>, deep, <i>depth</i>; true, <i>truth</i>; warm, + <i>warmth</i>; dear, <i>dearth</i>; slow, <i>slowth</i>; merry, + <i>mirth</i>; heal, <i>health</i>; well, weal, <i>wealth</i>; dry, + <i>drought</i>; young, <i>youth</i>; and so moon, <i>month</i>.</p> + + <p>Like these are some words derived from verbs; die, <i>death</i>; till, + <i>tilth</i>; grow, <i>growth</i>; mow, later <i>mowth</i>, after + <i>mowth</i>; commonly spoken and written later <i>math</i>, after + <i>math</i>; steal, <i>stealth</i>; bear, <i>birth</i>, rue, <i>ruth</i>; + and probably earth, from <i>to ear</i> or <i>plow</i>; fly, + <i>flight</i>; weigh, <i>weight</i>; fray, <i>fright</i>; draw, + <i>draught</i>.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>These should rather be written <i>flighth</i>, <i>frighth</i>, only + that custom will not suffer <i>h</i> to be twice repeated.</p> + + <p>The same form retain <i>faith</i>, <i>spight</i>, <i>wreathe</i>, + <i>wrath</i>, <i>broth</i>, <i>froth</i>, <i>breath</i>, <i>sooth</i>, + <i>worth</i>, <i>light</i>, <i>wight</i>, and the like, whose primitives + are either entirely obsolete, or seldom occur. Perhaps they are derived + from <i>fey</i> or <i>foy</i>, <i>spry</i>, <i>wry</i>, <i>wreak</i>, + <i>brew</i>, <i>mow</i>, <i>fry</i>, <i>bray</i>, <i>say</i>, + <i>work</i>.</p> + + </blockquote> + <p>Some ending in <i>ship</i>, imply an office, employment, or condition; + as, <i>kingship</i>, <i>wardship</i>, <i>guardianship</i>, + <i>partnership</i>, <i>stewardship</i>, <i>headship</i>, + <i>lordship</i>.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>Thus <i>worship</i>, that is, <i>worthship</i>; whence + <i>worshipful</i>, and <i>to worship</i>.</p> + + </blockquote> + <p>Some few ending in <i>dom</i>, <i>rick</i>, <i>wick</i>, do especially + denote dominion, at least state or condition; as, <i>kingdom</i>, + <i>dukedom</i>, <i>earldom</i>, <i>princedom</i>, <i>popedom</i>, + <i>Christendom</i>, <i>freedom</i>, <i>wisdom</i>, <i>whoredom</i>, + <i>bishoprick</i>, <i>bailiwick</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Ment</i> and <i>age</i> are plainly French terminations and are of + the same import with us as among them, scarcely ever occurring, except in + words derived from the French, as <i>commandment</i>, <i>usage</i>.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>There are in English often long trains of words allied by their + meaning and derivation; as, <i>to beat</i>, <i>a bat</i>, <i>batoon</i>, + <i>a battle</i>, <i>a beetle</i>, <i>a battledore</i>, <i>to batter</i>, + <i>batter</i>, a kind of glutinous composition for food, made by + <i>beating</i> different bodies into one mass. All these are of similar + signification, and perhaps derived from the Latin <i>batuo</i>. Thus + <i>take</i>, <i>touch</i>, <i>tickle</i>, <i>tack</i>, <i>tackle</i>; all + imply a local conjunction from the Latin <i>tango</i>, <i>tetigi</i>, + <i>tactum</i>.</p> + + <p>From <i>two</i> are formed <i>twain</i>, <i>twice</i>, <i>twenty</i>, + <i>twelve</i>, <i>twins</i>, <i>twine</i>, <i>twist</i>, <i>twirl</i>, + <i>twig</i>, <i>twitch</i>, <i>twinge</i>, <i>between</i>, + <i>betwixt</i>, <i>twilight</i>, <i>twibil</i>.</p> + + <p>The following remarks, extracted from Wallis, are ingenious but of + more subtlety than solidity, and such as perhaps might in every language + be enlarged without end.</p> + + <p><i>Sn</i> usually imply the <i>nose</i>, and what relates to it. From + the Latin <i>nasus</i> are derived the French <i>nez</i> and the English + <i>nose</i>; and <i>nesse</i>, a promontory, as projecting like a nose. + But as if from the consonants <i>ns</i> taken from <i>nasus</i>, and + transposed that they may the better correspond, <i>sn</i> denote + <i>nasus</i>; and thence are derived many words that relate to the nose, + as <i>snout</i>, <i>sneeze</i>, <i>snore</i>, <i>snort</i>,<i>snear</i>, + <i>snicker</i>, <i>snot</i>, <i>snivel</i>, <i>snite</i>, <i>snuff</i>, + <i>snuffle</i>, <i>snaffle</i>, <i>snarl</i>, <i>snudge</i>.</p> + + <p>There is another <i>sn</i> which may perhaps be derived from the Latin + <i>sinuo</i>, as <i>snake</i>, <i>sneak</i>, <i>snail</i>, <i>snare</i>; + so likewise <i>snap</i> and <i>snatch</i>, <i>snib</i>, <i>snub</i>. + <i>Bl</i> imply a <i>blast</i>; as <i>blow</i>, <i>blast</i>, <i>to + blast</i>, <i>to blight</i>, and, metaphorically, <i>to blast</i> one's + reputation; <i>bleat</i>, <i>bleak</i>, a <i>bleak</i> place, to look + <i>bleak</i>, or weather-beaten, <i>black</i>, <i>blay</i>, + <i>bleach</i>, <i>bluster</i>, <i>blurt</i>, <i>blister</i>, <i>blab</i>, + <i>bladder</i>, <i>blew</i>, <i>blabber lip't</i>, + <i>blubber-cheek't</i>, <i>bloted</i>, <i>blote-herrings</i>, + <i>blast</i>, <i>blaze</i>, <i>to blow</i>, that is, <i>blossom</i>, + <i>bloom</i>; and perhaps <i>blood</i> and <i>blush</i>.</p> + + <p>In the native words of our tongue is to be found a great agreement + between the letters and the thing signified; and therefore the sounds of + the letters smaller, sharper, louder, closer, softer, stronger, clearer, + more obscure, and more stridulous, do very often intimate the like + effects in the things signified.</p> + + <p>Thus words that begin with <i>str</i> intimate the force and effect of + the thing signified, as if probably derived from <span lang="el" + title="strnnymi" + >στρωννυμι</span>, + or <i>strenuous</i>; as <i>strong</i>, <i>strength</i>, <i>strew</i>, + <i>strike</i>, <i>streak</i>, <i>stroke</i>, <i>stripe</i>, + <i>strive</i>, <i>strife</i>, <i>struggle</i>, <i>strout</i>, + <i>strut</i>, <i>stretch</i>, <i>strait</i>, <i>strict</i>, + <i>streight</i>, that is, narrow, <i>distrain</i>, <i>stress</i>, + <i>distress</i>, <i>string</i>, <i>strap</i>, <i>stream</i>, + <i>streamer</i>, <i>strand</i>, <i>strip</i>, <i>stray</i>, + <i>struggle</i>, <i>strange</i>, <i>stride</i>, <i>stradale</i>.</p> + + <p><i>St</i> in like manner imply strength, but in a less degree, so much + only as is sufficient to preserve what has been already communicated, + rather than acquire any new degree; as if it were derived from the Latin + <i>sto</i>; for example, <i>stand</i>, <i>stay</i>, that is, to remain, + or to prop; <i>staff</i>, <i>stay</i>, that is, to oppose; <i>stop</i>, + <i>to stuff</i>, <i>stifle</i>, <i>to stay</i>, that is, to stop; a + <i>stay</i>, that is, an obstacle; <i>stick</i>, <i>stut</i>, + <i>stutter</i>, <i>stammer</i>, <i>stagger</i>, <i>stickle</i>, + <i>stick</i>, <i>stake</i>, a sharp, pale, and any thing deposited at + play; <i>stock</i>, <i>stem</i>, <i>sting</i>, <i>to sting</i>, + <i>stink</i>, <i>stitch</i>, <i>stud</i>, <i>stuncheon</i>, <i>stub</i>, + <i>stubble</i>, to <i>stub</i> up, <i>stump</i>, whence <i>stumble</i>, + <i>stalk</i>, <i>to stalk</i>, <i>step</i>, <i>to stamp</i> with the + feet, whence to <i>stamp</i>, that is, to make an impression and a stamp; + <i>stow</i>, <i>to stow</i>, <i>to bestow</i>, <i>steward</i>, or + <i>stoward</i>; <i>stead</i>, <i>steady</i>, <i>stedfast</i>, + <i>stable</i>, <i>a stable</i>, <i>a stall</i>, <i>to stall</i>, + <i>stool</i>, <i>stall</i>, <i>still</i>, <i>stall</i>, <i>stallage</i>, + <i>stage</i>, <i>still</i>, adjective, and <i>still</i>, adverb: + <i>stale</i>, <i>stout</i>, <i>sturdy</i>, <i>stead</i>, <i>stoat</i>, + <i>stallion</i>, <i>stiff</i>, <i>stark-dead</i>, <i>to starve</i> with + hunger or cold; <i>stone</i>, <i>steel</i>, <i>stern</i>, <i>stanch</i>, + <i>to stanch</i> blood, <i>to stare</i>, <i>steep</i>, <i>steeple</i>, + <i>stair</i>, <i>standard</i>, a stated measure, <i>stately</i>. In all + these, and perhaps some others, <i>st</i> denote something firm and + fixed.</p> + + <p><i>Thr</i> imply a more violent degree of motion, as <i>throw</i>, + <i>thrust</i>, <i>throng</i>, <i>throb</i>, <i>through</i>, + <i>threat</i>, <i>threaten</i>, <i>thrall</i>, <i>throws</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Wr</i> imply some sort of obliquity or distortion, as <i>wry</i>, + <i>to wreathe</i>, <i>wrest</i>, <i>wrestle</i>, <i>wring</i>, + <i>wrong</i>, <i>wrinch</i>, <i>wrench</i>, <i>wrangle</i>, + <i>wrinkle</i>, <i>wrath</i>, <i>wreak</i>, <i>wrack</i>, <i>wretch</i>, + <i>wrist</i>, <i>wrap</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Sw</i> imply a silent agitation, or a softer kind of lateral + motion; as <i>sway</i>, <i>swag</i>, <i>to sway</i>, <i>swagger</i>, + <i>swerve</i>, <i>sweat</i>, <i>sweep</i>, <i>swill</i>, <i>swim</i>, + <i>swing</i>, <i>swift</i>, <i>sweet</i>, <i>switch</i>, + <i>swinge</i>.</p> + + <p>Nor is there much difference of <i>sm</i> in <i>smooth</i>, + <i>smug</i>, <i>smile</i>, <i>smirk</i>, <i>smite</i>; which signifies + the same as to <i>strike</i>, but is a softer word; <i>small</i>, + <i>smell</i>, <i>smack</i>, <i>smother</i>, <i>smart</i>, a <i>smart</i> + blow properly signifies such a kind of stroke as with an originally + silent motion, implied in <i>sm</i>, proceeds to a quick violence, + denoted by <i>ar</i> suddenly ended, as is shown by <i>t</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Cl</i> denote a kind of adhesion or tenacity, as in <i>cleave</i>, + <i>clay</i>, <i>cling</i>, <i>climb</i>, <i>clamber</i>, <i>clammy</i>, + <i>clasp</i>, <i>to clasp</i>, <i>to clip</i>, <i>to clinch</i>, + <i>cloak</i>, <i>clog</i>, <i>close</i>, <i>to close</i>, <i>a clod</i>, + <i>a clot</i>, as a <i>clot</i> of blood, <i>clouted</i> cream, <i>a + clutter</i>, <i>a cluster</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Sp</i> imply a kind of dissipation or expansion, especially a quick + one, particularly if there be an <i>r</i>, as if it were from + <i>spargo</i> or <i>separo</i>: for example, <i>spread</i>, + <i>spring</i>, <i>sprig</i>, <i>sprout</i>, <i>sprinkle</i>, + <i>split</i>, <i>splinter</i>, <i>spill</i>, <i>spit</i>, <i>sputter</i>, + <i>spatter</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Sl</i> denote a kind of silent fall, or a less observable motion; + as in <i>slime</i>, <i>slide</i>, <i>slip</i>, <i>slipper</i>, + <i>sly</i>, <i>sleight</i>, <i>slit</i>, <i>slow</i>, <i>slack</i>, + <i>slight</i>, <i>sling</i>, <i>slap</i>.</p> + + <p>And so likewise <i>ash</i>, in <i>crash</i>, <i>rash</i>, <i>gash</i>, + <i>flash</i>, <i>clash</i>, <i>lash</i>, <i>slash</i>, <i>plash</i>, + <i>trash</i>, indicate something acting more nimbly and sharply. But + <i>ush</i>, in <i>crush</i>, <i>rush</i>, <i>gush</i>, <i>flush</i>, + <i>blush</i>, <i>brush</i>, <i>hush</i>, <i>push</i>, imply something as + acting more obtusely and dully. Yet in both there is indicated a swift + and sudden motion not instantaneous, but gradual, by the continued sound, + <i>sh</i>.</p> + + <p>Thus in <i>fling</i>, <i>sling</i>, <i>ding</i>, <i>swing</i>, + <i>cling</i>, <i>sing</i>, <i>wring</i>, <i>sting</i>, the tingling of + the termination <i>ng</i>, and the sharpness of the vowel <i>i</i>, imply + the continuation of a very slender motion or tremor, at length indeed + vanishing, but not suddenly interrupted. <!-- Page 31 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page31"></a>[31]</span> But in <i>tink</i>, + <i>wink</i>, <i>sink</i>, <i>clink</i>, <i>chink</i>, <i>think</i>, that + end in a mute consonant, there is also indicated a sudden ending.</p> + + <p>If there be an <i>l</i>, as in <i>jingle</i>, <i>tingle</i>, + <i>tinkle</i>, <i>mingle</i>, <i>sprinkle</i>, <i>twinkle</i>, there is + implied a frequency, or iteration of small acts. And the same frequency + of acts, but less subtile by reason of the clearer vowel <i>a</i>, is + indicated in <i>jangle</i>, <i>tangle</i>, <i>spangle</i>, <i>mangle</i>, + <i>wrangle</i>, <i>brangle</i>, <i>dangle</i>; as also in <i>mumble</i>, + <i>grumble</i>, <i>jumble</i>. But at the same time the close <i>u</i> + implies something obscure or obtunded; and a congeries of consonants + <i>mbl</i>, denotes a confused kind of rolling or tumbling, as in + <i>ramble</i>, <i>scamble</i>, <i>scramble</i>, <i>wamble</i>, + <i>amble</i>; but in these there is something acute.</p> + + <p>In <i>nimble</i>, the acuteness of the vowel denotes celerity. In + <i>sparkle</i>, <i>sp</i> denotes dissipation, <i>ar</i> an acute + crackling, <i>k</i> a sudden interruption, <i>l</i> a frequent iteration; + and in like manner in <i>sprinkle</i>, unless <i>in</i> may imply the + subtilty of the dissipated guttules. <i>Thick</i> and <i>thin</i> differ + in that the former ends with an obtuse consonant, and the latter with an + acute.</p> + + <p>In like manner, in <i>squeek</i>, <i>squeak</i>, <i>squeal</i>, + <i>squall</i>, <i>brawl</i>, <i>wraul</i>, <i>yaul</i>, <i>spaul</i>, + <i>screek</i>, <i>shriek</i>, <i>shrill</i>, <i>sharp</i>, + <i>shrivel</i>, <i>wrinkle</i>, <i>crack</i>, <i>crash</i>, <i>clash</i>, + <i>gnash</i>, <i>plash</i>, <i>crush</i>, <i>hush</i>, <i>hisse</i>, + <i>fisse</i>, <i>whist</i>, <i>soft</i>, <i>jar</i>, <i>hurl</i>, + <i>curl</i>, <i>whirl</i>, <i>buz</i>, <i>bustle</i>, <i>spindle</i>, + <i>dwindle</i>, <i>twine</i>, <i>twist</i>, and in many more, we may + observe the agreement of such sort of sounds with the things signified; + and this so frequently happens, that scarce any language which I know can + be compared with ours. So that one monosyllable word, of which kind are + almost all ours, emphatically expresses what in other languages can + scarce be explained but by compounds, or decompounds, or sometimes a + tedious circumlocution.</p> + + </blockquote> + <p>We have many words borrowed from the Latin; but the greatest part of + them were communicated by the intervention of the French; as, + <i>grace</i>, <i>face</i>, <i>elegant</i>, <i>elegance</i>, + <i>resemble</i>.</p> + + <p>Some verbs which seem borrowed from the Latin, are formed from the + present tense, and some from the supines.</p> + + <p>From the present are formed <i>spend</i>, <i>expend</i>, expendo; + <i>conduce</i>, conduco; <i>despise</i>, despicio; <i>approve</i>, + approbo; <i>conceive</i>, concipio.</p> + + <p>From the supines, <i>supplicate</i>, supplico; <i>demonstrate</i>, + demonstro; <i>dispose</i>, dispono; <i>expatiate</i>, expatior; + <i>suppress</i>, supprimo; <i>exempt</i>, eximo.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>Nothing is more apparent than that Wallis goes too far in quest of + originals. Many of these which seem selected as immediate descendants + from the Latin, are apparently French, as, <i>conceive</i>, + <i>approve</i>, <i>expose</i>, <i>exempt</i>.</p> + + </blockquote> + <p>Some words purely French, not derived from the Latin, we have + transferred into our language; as, <i>garden</i>, <i>garter</i>, + <i>buckler</i>, <i>to advance</i>, <i>to cry</i>, <i>to plead</i>, from + the French <i>jardin</i>, <i>jartier</i>, <i>bouclier</i>, + <i>avancer</i>, <i>crier</i>, <i>plaider</i>; though, indeed, even of + these part is of Latin original.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>As to many words which we have in common with the Germans, it is + doubtful whether the old Teutons borrowed them from the Latins, or the + Latins from the Teutons, or both had them from some common original; as + <i>wine</i>, vinum; <i>wind</i>, ventus; <i>went</i>, veni; <i>way</i>, + via, <i>wall</i>, vallum; <i>wallow</i>, volvo; <i>wool</i>, vellus; + <i>will</i>, volo; <i>worm</i>, vermis; <i>worth</i>, virtus; + <i>wasp</i>, vespa; <i>day</i>, dies; <i>draw</i>, traho; <i>tame</i>, + domo, <span lang="el" title="dama" + >δαμαω</span>; <i>yoke</i>, jugum, <span + lang="el" title="zeugos" + >ζευγος</span>; <i>over</i>, + <i>upper</i>, super, <span lang="el" title="hyper" + >‛υπερ</span>; <i>am</i>, sum, <span + lang="el" title="eimi" >ειμι</span>; + <i>break</i>, frango; <i>fly</i>, volo; <i>blow</i>, flo. I make no doubt + but the Teutonick is more ancient than the Latin: and it is no less + certain, that the Latin, which borrowed a great number of words not only + from the Greek, especially the olick, but from other neighbouring + languages, as the Oscan and others, which have long become obsolete, + received not a few from the Teutonick. It is certain, that the English, + German, and other Teutonick languages, retained some derived from the + Greek, which the Latin has not; as, <i>ax</i>, <i>achs</i>, <i>mit</i>, + <i>ford</i>, <i>pfurd</i>, <i>daughter</i>, <i>tochter</i>, + <i>mickle</i>, <i>mingle</i>, <i>moon</i>, <i>sear</i>, <i>oar</i>, + <i>grave</i>, <i>graff</i>, <i>to grave</i>, <i>to scrape</i>, + <i>whole</i>, from <span lang="el" title="axin" + >αξινη</span>, <span lang="el" title="meta" + >μετα</span>, <span lang="el" title="porthmos" + >πορθμος</span>, <span + lang="el" title="thygatr" + >θυγατηρ</span>, <span + lang="el" title="megalos" + >μεγαλος</span>, <span + lang="el" title="migny" + >μιγνυω</span>, <span lang="el" + title="mn" >μηνη</span>, <span lang="el" + title="xros" >ξηρος</span>, <span + lang="el" title="graph" >γραφω</span>, + <span lang="el" title="holos" + >‛ολος</span>. Since they received these + immediately from the Greeks, without the intervention of the Latin + language, why may not other words be derived immediately from the same + fountain, though they be likewise found among the Latins?</p> + + </blockquote> + <p>Our ancestors were studious to form borrowed words, however long, into + monosyllables; and not only cut off the formative terminations, but + cropped the first syllable, especially in words beginning with a vowel; + and rejected not only vowels in the middle, but likewise consonants of a + weaker sound, retaining the stronger, which seem the bones of words, or + changing them for others of the same organ, in order that the sound might + become the softer; but especially transposing their order, that they + might the more readily be pronounced without the intermediate vowels. For + example in expendo, <i>spend</i>; exemplum, <i>sample</i>; excipio, + <i>scape</i>; extraneus, <i>strange</i>; extractum, <i>stretch'd</i>; + excrucio, <i>to screw</i>; exscorio, <i>to scour</i>; excorio, <i>to + scourge</i>; excortico, <i>to scratch</i>; and others beginning with + <i>ex</i>: as also, emendo, <i>to mend</i>; episcopus, <i>bishop</i>, in + Danish <i>bisp</i>; epistola, <i>epistle</i>; hospitale, <i>spittle</i>; + Hispania, <i>Spain</i>; historia, <i>story</i>.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>Many of these etymologies are doubtful, and some evidently + mistaken.</p> + + <p>The following are somewhat harder, <i>Alexander</i>, <i>Sander</i>; + <i>Elisabetha</i>, <i>Betty</i>; apis, <i>bee</i>; aper, <i>bar</i>; + <i>p</i> passing into <i>b</i>, as in <i>bishop</i>; and by cutting off + <i>a</i> from the beginning, which is restored in the middle; but for the + old <i>bar</i> or <i>bare</i>, we now say <i>boar</i>; as for + <i>lang</i>, <i>long</i>, for <i>bain</i>, <i>bane</i>; for <i>stane</i>, + <i>stone</i>; aprugna, <i>brawn</i>, <i>p</i>, being changed into + <i>b</i> and <i>a</i> transposed, as in <i>aper</i>, and <i>g</i> changed + into <i>w</i>, as in pignus, <i>pawn</i>; lege, <i>law</i>; <span + lang="el" title="alpx" + >αλωπηξ</span>, <i>fox</i>, cutting + off the beginning, and changing <i>p</i> into <i>f</i>, as in pellis, + <i>a fell</i>; pullus, <i>a foal</i>; pater, <i>father</i>; pavor, + <i>fear</i>; polio, <i>file</i>; pleo, impleo, <i>fill</i>, <i>full</i>; + piscis, <i>fish</i>; and transposing <i>o</i> into the middle, which was + taken from the beginning; apex, <i>a piece</i>; peak, <i>pike</i>; + zophorus, <i>freese</i>; mustum, <i>stum</i>; defensio, <i>fence</i>; + dispensator, <i>spencer</i>; asculto, escouter, Fr. <i>scout</i>; + exscalpo, <i>scrape</i>; restoring <i>l</i> instead of <i>r</i>, and + hence <i>scrap</i>, <i>scrabble</i>, <i>scrawl</i>; exculpo, + <i>scoop</i>; exterritus, <i>start</i>; extonitus, attonitus, + <i>stonn'd</i>; stomachus, <i>maw</i>; offendo, <i>fined</i>; obstipo, + <i>stop</i>; audere, <i>dare</i>; cavere, <i>ware</i>; whence, + <i>a-ware</i>, <i>beware</i>, <i>wary</i>, <i>warn</i>, <i>warning</i>; + for the Latin <i>v</i> consonant formerly sounded like our <i>w</i>, and + the modern sound of the <i>v</i> consonant was formerly that of the + letter <i>f</i>, that is, the olick digamma, which had the sound of + <span lang="el" title="ph" >φ</span>, and the modern sound of the + letter <i>f</i> was that of the Greek <span lang="el" title="ph" + >φ</span> or <i>ph</i>; ulcus, ulcere, <i>ulcer</i>, <i>sore</i>, + and hence <i>sorry</i>, <i>sorrow</i>, <i>sorrowful</i>; ingenium, + <i>engine</i>, <i>gin</i>, scalenus, <i>leaning</i>, unless you would + rather derive it from <span lang="el" title="klin" + >κλινω</span>, whence inclino; + infundibulum, <i>funnel</i>; gagates, <i>jett</i>, projectum, <i>to jett + forth</i>, <i>a jetty</i>; cucullus, <i>a cowl</i>.</p> + + <p>There are syncopes somewhat harder; from tempore, <i>time</i>; from + nomine, <i>name</i>, domina, <i>dame</i>; <!-- Page 32 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page32"></a>[32]</span> as the French + <i>homme</i>, <i>femme</i>, <i>nom</i>, from homine, fœmina, nomine. + Thus pagna, <i>page</i>; <span lang="el" title="potrion" + >ποτηριον</span>, + <i>pot</i>; <span lang="el" title="kypella" + >κυπελλα</span>, <i>cup</i>; + cantharus, <i>can</i>; tentorium, <i>tent</i>; precor, <i>pray</i>; + preda, <i>prey</i>; specio, speculor, <i>spy</i>; plico, <i>ply</i>; + implico, <i>imply</i>; replico, <i>reply</i>; complico, <i>comply</i>; + sedes episcopalis, <i>see</i>.</p> + + <p>A vowel is also cut off in the middle, that the number of the + syllables may be lessened; as amita, <i>aunt</i>; spiritus, + <i>spright</i>; debitum, <i>debt</i>; dubito, <i>doubt</i>; comes, + comitis, <i>count</i>; clericus, <i>clerk</i>; quietus, <i>quit, + quite</i>; acquieto, <i>to acquit</i>; separo, <i>to spare</i>; stabilis, + <i>stable</i>; stabulum, <i>stable</i>; pallacium, <i>palace</i>, + <i>place</i>; rabula, <i>rail</i>, <i>rawl</i>, <i>wrawl</i>, + <i>brawl</i>, <i>rable</i>, <i>brable</i>; qusito, <i>quest</i>.</p> + + <p>As also a consonant, or at least one of a softer sound, or even a + whole syllable, rotundus, <i>round</i>; fragilis, <i>frail</i>; securus, + <i>sure</i>; regula, <i>rule</i>; tegula, <i>tile</i>; subtilis, + <i>subtle</i>; nomen, <i>noun</i>; decanus, <i>dean</i>; computo, + <i>count</i>; subitaneus, <i>sudden</i>, <i>soon</i>; superare, <i>to + soar</i>; periculum, <i>peril</i>; mirabile, <i>marvel</i>; as magnus, + <i>main</i>; dignor, <i>deign</i>; tingo, <i>stain</i>; tinctum, + <i>taint</i>; pingo, <i>paint</i>; prdari, <i>reach</i>.</p> + + <p>The contractions may seem harder, where many of them meet, as <span + lang="el" title="kyriakos" + >κυριακος</span>, + <i>kyrk</i>, <i>church</i>; presbyter, <i>priest</i>; sacristanus, + <i>sexton</i>; frango, fregi, <i>break</i>, <i>breach</i>; fagus, <span + lang="el" title="phga" >φηγα</span>, + <i>beech</i>, <i>f</i> changed into <i>b</i>, and <i>g</i> into + <i>ch</i>, which are letters near akin; frigesco, <i>freeze</i>, + frigesco, <i>fresh</i>, <i>sc</i> into <i>sh</i>, as above in + <i>bishop</i>, <i>fish</i>, so in scapha, <i>skiff</i>, <i>skip</i>, and + refrigesco, <i>refresh</i>; but viresco, <i>fresh</i>; phlebotamus, + <i>fleam</i>; bovina, <i>beef</i>; vitulina, <i>veal</i>; scutifer, + <i>squire</i>; pœnitentia, <i>penance</i>; sanctuarium, + <i>sanctuary</i>, <i>sentry</i>; qusitio, <i>chase</i>; perquisitio, + <i>purchase</i>; anguilla, <i>eel</i>; insula, <i>isle</i>, <i>ile</i>, + <i>island</i>, <i>iland</i>; insuletta, <i>islet</i>, <i>ilet</i>, + <i>eyght</i>, and more contractedly <i>ey</i>, whence <i>Owsney</i>, + <i>Ruley</i>, <i>Ely</i>; examinare, <i>to scan</i>; namely, by rejecting + from the beginning and end <i>e</i> and <i>o</i>, according to the usual + manner, the remainder <i>xamin</i>, which the Saxons, who did not use + <i>x</i>, writ <i>csamen</i>, or <i>scamen</i>, is contracted into + <i>scan</i>: as from dominus, <i>don</i>; nomine, <i>noun</i>; abomino, + <i>ban</i>; and indeed <i>apum examen</i>; they turned into + <i>sciame</i>; for which we say <i>swarme</i>, by inserting <i>r</i> to + denote the murmuring; thesaurus, <i>store</i>; sedile, <i>stool</i>; + <span lang="el" title="hyetos" + >‛υετος</span>, <i>wet</i>; sudo, + <i>sweat</i>; gaudium, <i>gay</i>; jocus, <i>joy</i>; succus, + <i>juice</i>; catena, <i>chain</i>; caliga, calga; chause, chausse, + French, <i>hose</i>; extinguo, <i>stand</i>, <i>squench</i>, + <i>quench</i>, <i>stint</i>; foras, <i>forth</i>; species, <i>spice</i>; + recito, <i>read</i>; adjuvo, <i>aid</i>; <span lang="el" title="ain" + >αιων</span>, vum, <i>ay</i>, <i>age</i>, + <i>ever</i>; floccus, <i>lock</i>; excerpo, <i>scrape</i>, + <i>scrabble</i>, <i>scrawl</i>; extravagus, <i>stray</i>, + <i>straggle</i>; collectum, <i>clot</i>, <i>clutch</i>; colligo, + <i>coil</i>: recolligo, <i>recoil</i>; severo, <i>swear</i>; stridulus, + <i>shrill</i>; procurator, <i>proxy</i>; pulso, <i>to push</i>; calamus, + <i>a quill</i>; impetere, <i>to impeach</i>; augeo, auxi, <i>wax</i>; and + vanesco, vanui, <i>wane</i>; syllabare, <i>to spell</i>; puteus, + <i>pit</i>; granum, <i>corn</i>; comprimo, <i>cramp</i>, <i>crump</i>, + <i>crumple</i>, <i>crinkle</i>.</p> + + <p>Some may seem harsher, yet may not be rejected, for it at least + appears, that some of them are derived from proper names, and there are + others whose etymology is acknowledged by every body; as, Alexander, + <i>Elick</i>, <i>Scander</i>, <i>Sander</i>, <i>Sandy</i>, <i>Sanny</i>; + Elizabetha, <i>Elizabeth</i>, <i>Elisabeth</i>, <i>Betty</i>, + <i>Bess</i>; Margareta, <i>Margaret</i>, <i>Marget</i>, <i>Meg</i>, + <i>Peg</i>; Maria, <i>Mary</i>, <i>Mal</i>, <i>Pal</i>, <i>Malkin</i>, + <i>Mawkin</i>, <i>Mawkes</i>; Mathus, <i>Mattha</i>, <i>Matthew</i>; + Martha, <i>Mat</i>, <i>Pat</i>; Gulielmus, <i>Wilhelmus</i>, + <i>Girolamo</i>, <i>Guillaume</i>, <i>William</i>, <i>Will</i>, + <i>Bill</i>, <i>Wilkin</i>, <i>Wicken</i>, <i>Wicks</i>, + <i>Weeks</i>.</p> + + <p>Thus cariophyllus, flos; gerofilo, Italian, giriflee, gilofer, French, + <i>gilliflower</i>, which the vulgar call <i>julyflower</i>, as if + derived from the month <i>July</i>; petroselinum, <i>parsley</i>; + portulaca, <i>purslain</i>; cydonium, <i>quince</i>; cydoniatum, + <i>quiddeny</i>; persicum, <i>peach</i>; eruca, <i>eruke</i>, which they + corrupt to <i>earwig</i>, as if it took its name from the ear; annulus + geminus, <i>a gimmal</i>, or <i>gimbal-ring</i>; and thus the word + <i>gimbal</i> or <i>jumbal</i> is transferred to other things thus + interwoven; quelques choses, <i>kickshaws</i>. Since the origin of these, + and many others, however forced, is evident, it ought to appear no wonder + to any one if the ancients have thus disfigured many, especially as they + so much affected monosyllables; and, to make the sound the softer, took + this liberty of maiming, taking away, changing, transposing, and + softening them.</p> + + <p>But while we derive these from the Latin, I do not mean to say, that + many of them did not immediately come to us from the Saxon, Danish, + Dutch, and Teutonick languages, and other dialects; and some taken more + lately from the French or Italians, or Spaniards.</p> + + <p>The same word, according to its different significations, often has a + different origin; as, <i>to bear a burden</i>, from <i>fero</i>; but + <i>to bear</i>, whence <i>birth</i>, <i>born</i>, <i>bairn</i>, comes + from <i>pario</i>; and <i>a bear</i>, at least if it be of Latin + original, from <i>fera</i>. Thus <i>perch</i>, a fish, from <i>perca</i>; + but <i>perch</i>, a measure, from <i>pertica</i>, and likewise <i>to + perch</i>. To <i>spell</i> is from <i>syllaba</i>; but <i>spell</i>, an + inchantment, by which it is believed that the boundaries are so fixed in + lands that none can pass them against the master's will, from + <i>expello</i>; and <i>spell</i>, a messenger, from <i>epistola</i>; + whence <i>gospel</i>, <i>good-spell</i>, or <i>god-spell</i>. Thus + <i>freese</i>, or <i>freeze</i>, from <i>frigesco</i>; but <i>freeze</i>, + an architectonick word, from <i>zophorus</i>; but <i>freeze</i>, for + <i>cloth</i>, from <i>Frisia</i>, or perhaps from <i>frigesco</i>, as + being more fit than any other for keeping out the cold.</p> + + <p>There are many words among us, even monosyllables, compounded of two + or more words, at least serving instead of compounds, and comprising the + signification of more words that one; as, from <i>scrip</i> and + <i>roll</i> comes <i>scroll</i>; from <i>proud</i> and <i>dance</i>, + <i>prance</i>; from <i>st</i> of the verb <i>stay</i> or <i>stand</i> and + <i>out</i>, is made <i>stout</i>; from <i>stout</i> and <i>hardy</i>, + <i>sturdy</i>; from <i>sp</i> of <i>spit</i> or <i>spew</i>, and + <i>out</i>, comes <i>spout</i>; from the same <i>sp</i> with the + termination <i>in</i>, is <i>spin</i>; and adding <i>out</i>, <i>spin + out</i>: and from the same <i>sp</i>, with it, is <i>spit</i>, which only + differs from <i>spout</i> in that it is smaller, and with less noise and + force; but <i>sputter</i> is, because of the obscure <i>u</i>, something + between <i>spit</i> and <i>spout</i>: and by reason of adding <i>r</i>, + it intimates a frequent iteration and noise, but obscurely confused; + whereas <i>spatter</i>, on account of the sharper and clearer vowel + <i>a</i>, intimates a more distinct poise, in which it chiefly differs + from <i>sputter</i>. From the same <i>sp</i> and the termination + <i>ark</i>, comes <i>spark</i>, signifying a single emission of fire with + a noise; namely <i>sp</i>, the emission, <i>ar</i>, the more acute noise, + and <i>k</i>, the mute consonant, intimates its being suddenly + terminated; but adding <i>l</i>, is made the frequentative + <i>sparkle</i>. The same <i>sp</i>, by adding <i>r</i>, that is + <i>spr</i>, implies a more lively impetus of diffusing or expanding + itself; to which adding the termination <i>ing</i>, it becomes + <i>spring</i>: its vigour <i>spr</i> imports; its sharpness the + termination <i>ing</i>; and lastly <i>in</i> acute and tremulous, ending + in the mute consonant <i>g</i>, denotes the sudden ending of any motion, + that it is meant in its primary signification, of a single, not a + complicated exilition. Hence we call <i>spring</i> whatever has an + elastick force; as also a fountain of water, and thence the origin of any + thing: and to <i>spring</i>, to germinate, and <i>spring</i>, one of the + four seasons. From the same <i>spr</i> and <i>out</i>, is formed sprout, + and wit the termination <i>ig</i>, <i>sprig</i>; of which the following, + for the most part, is the difference: <i>sprout</i>, of a grosser sound, + imports a fatter or grosser bud; <i>sprig</i>, of a slenderer sound, + denotes a smaller shoot. In like manner, from <i>str</i> of the verb + <i>strive</i>, and <i>out</i>, comes <i>strout</i>, and <i>strut</i>. + From the same <i>str</i>, and the termination <i>uggle</i>, is made + <i>struggle</i>; and this <i>gl</i> imports, but without any great noise, + by reason of the obscure sound of the vowel <i>u</i>. In like manner, + from <i>throw</i> and <i>roll</i> is made <i>troll</i>, and almost in the + same sense is <i>trundle</i>, from <i>throw</i> or <i>thrust</i>, and + <i>rundle</i>. Thus <i>graff</i> or <i>grough</i> is compounded of + <i>grave</i> and <i>rough</i>; and <i>trudge</i> from <i>tread</i> or + <i>trot</i>, and <i>drudge</i>.</p> + + </blockquote> + <p>In these observations it is easy to discover great sagacity and great + extravagance, an ability to do much defeated by the desire of doing more + than enough. It may be remarked,</p> + + <p>1. That Wallis's derivations are often so made, that by the same + license any language may be deduced from any other.</p> + + <p>2. That he makes no distinction between words immediately derived by + us from the Latin, and those which being copied from other languages, can + therefore afford no example of the genius of <!-- Page 33 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page33"></a>[33]</span> the English language, or + its laws of derivation.</p> + + <p>3. That he derives from the Latin, often with great harshness and + violence, words apparently Teutonick; and therefore, according to his own + declaration, probably older than the tongue to which he refers them.</p> + + <p>4. That some of his derivations are apparently erroneous.</p> + + <br clear="all" /> +<hr /> + +<h3>SYNTAX.</h3> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>The established practice of grammarians requires that I should here + treat of the Syntax; but our language has so little inflection, or + variety of terminations, that its construction neither requires nor + admits many rules. Wallis, therefore, has totally neglected it; and + Jonson, whose desire of following the writers upon the learned languages + made him think a syntax indispensably necessary, has published such petty + observations as were better omitted.</p> + + </blockquote> + <p>The verb, as in other languages, agrees with the nominative in number + and person; as, <i>Thou fliest from good</i>; <i>He runs to + death</i>.</p> + + <p>Our adjectives and pronouns are invariable.</p> + + <p>Of two substantives the noun possessive is in the genitive; as, <i>His + father's glory</i>; <i>The sun's heat</i>.</p> + + <p>Verbs transitive require an oblique case; as, <i>He loves me</i>; + <i>You fear him</i>.</p> + + <p>All prepositions require an oblique case: as, <i>He gave this</i> to + <i>me</i>; <i>He took this</i> from <i>me</i>; <i>He says this</i> of + <i>me</i>; <i>He came</i> with <i>me</i>.</p> + + <br clear="all" /> +<hr /> + +<h3>PROSODY.</h3> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>It is common for those that deliver the grammar of modern languages, + to omit the Prosody. So that of the Italians is neglected by Buomattei; + that of the French by Desmarais; aad that of the English by Wallis, + Cooper, and even by Jonson, though a poet. But as the laws of metre are + included in the idea of grammar, I have thought proper to insert + them.</p> + + </blockquote> + <p>PROSODY comprises <i>orthoepy</i>, or the rules of pronunciation; and + <i>orthometry</i>, or the laws of versification.</p> + + <p><i>Pronunciation</i> is just, when every letter has its proper sound, + and every syllable has its proper accent, or, which in English + versification is the same, its proper quantity.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>The sounds of the letters have been already explained; and rules for + the accent or quantity are not easily to be given, being subject to + innumerable exceptions. Such, however, as I have read or formed, I shall + here propose.</p> + + </blockquote> + <p>1. Of dissyllables, formed by affixing a termination, the former + syllable is commonly accented, as <i>chldish</i>, <i>kngdom</i>, + <i>ctest</i>, <i>cted</i>, <i>tilsome</i>, <i>lver</i>, + <i>scffer</i>, <i>farer</i>, <i>fremost</i>, <i>zalous</i>, + <i>flness</i>, <i>gdly</i>, <i>mekly</i>, <i>rtist</i>.</p> + + <p>2. Dissyllables formed by prefixing a syllable to the radical word, + have commonly the accent on the latter; as to <i>begt</i>, to + <i>besem</i>, to <i>bestw</i>.</p> + + <p>3. Of dissyllables, which are at once nouns and verbs, the verb has + commonly the accent on the latter, and the noun on the former syllable; + as, <i>to descnt</i>, <i>a dscant</i>; <i>to cemnt</i>, <i>a + cment</i>; <i>to contrct</i>, <i>a cntract</i>.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>This rule has many exceptions. Though verbs seldom have their accent + on the former, yet nouns often have it on the latter syllable; as + <i>delght</i>, <i>perfme</i>.</p> + + </blockquote> + <p>4. All dissyllables ending in <i>y</i>, as <i>crnny</i>; in + <i>our</i>, as <i>lbour</i>, <i>fvour</i>; in <i>ow</i>, as + <i>wllow</i>, <i>wllow</i>, except <i>allw</i>; in <i>le</i>, as + <i>bttle</i>, <i>bble</i>; in <i>ish</i>, as <i>bnish</i>; in + <i>ck</i>, as <i>cmbrick</i>, <i>cssock</i>; in <i>ter</i>, as <i>to + btter</i>; in <i>age</i>, as <i>corage</i>, in <i>en</i>, as + <i>fsten</i>; in <i>et</i>, as <i>quet</i>; accent the former + syllable.</p> + + <p>5. Dissyllable nouns in <i>er</i>, as <i>cnker</i>, <i>btter</i>, + have the accent on the former syllable.</p> + + <p>6. Dissyllable verbs terminating in a consonant and <i>e</i> final, as + <i>comprse</i>, <i>escpe</i>; or having a diphthong in the last + syllable, as <i>appase</i>, <i>reval</i>; or ending in two consonants, + as <i>attnd</i>; have the accent on the latter syllable.</p> + + <p>7. Dissyllable nouns having a diphthong in the latter syllable, have + commonly their accent on the latter syllable, as <i>appluse</i>; except + words in <i>ain</i>, <i>crtain</i>, <i>montain</i>.</p> + + <p>8. Trissyllables formed by adding a termination, or prefixing a + syllable, retain the accent of the radical word; as, <i>lveliness</i>, + <i>tnderness</i>, <i>contmner</i>, <i>wgonner</i>, <i>phsical</i>, + <i>besptter</i>, <i>cmmenting</i>, <i>commnding</i>, + <i>assrance</i>.</p> + + <p>9. Trissyllables ending in <i>ous</i>, as <i>grcious</i>, + <i>rduous</i>; in <i>al</i>, as <i>cpital</i>; in <i>ion</i>, as + <i>mntion</i>; accent the first.</p> + + <p>10. Trissyllables ending in <i>ce</i>, <i>ent</i>, and <i>ate</i>, + accent the first syllable, as <i>cuntenance</i>, <i>cntinence</i>, + <i>rmament</i>, <i>mminent</i>, <i>legant</i>, <i>prpagate</i>, + except they be derived from words having the accent on the last, as + <i>connvance</i>, <i>acquintance</i>; or the middle syllable hath a + vowel before two consonants, as <i>promlgate</i>.</p> + + <p>11. Trissyllables ending in <i>y</i>, as <i>ntity</i>, + <i>spcify</i>, <i>lberty</i>, <i>vctory</i>, <i>sbsidy</i>, commonly + accent the first syllable.</p> + + <p>12. Trissyllables in <i>re</i> or <i>le</i> accent the <!-- Page 34 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page34"></a>[34]</span> first syllable, + as <i>lgible</i>, <i>thatre</i>, except <i>discple</i>, and some words + which have a position, as <i>exmple</i>, <i>epstle</i>.</p> + + <p>13. Trissyllables in <i>ude</i> commonly accent the first syllable, as + <i>plnitude</i>.</p> + + <p>14. Trissyllables ending in <i>ator</i> or <i>atour</i>, as + <i>cretour</i>; or having in the middle syllable a diphthong, as + <i>endevour</i>; or a vowel before two consonants, as <i>domstick</i>; + accent the middle syllable.</p> + + <p>15. Trissyllables that have their accent on the last syllable are + commonly French, as <i>acquisce</i>, <i>reparte</i>, <i>magazne</i>, + or words formed by prefixing one or two syllables to an acute syllable, + as <i>immatre</i>, <i>overchrge</i>.</p> + + <p>16. Polysyllables, or words of more than three syllables, follow the + accent of the words from which they are derived, as <i>rrogating</i>, + <i>cntinency</i>, <i>incntinently</i>, <i>commndable</i>, + <i>commnicableness</i>. We should therefore say <i>disptable</i>, + <i>indisptable</i>; rather than <i>dsputable</i>, <i>indsputable</i>; + and <i>advertsement</i>, rather than <i>advrtisement</i>.</p> + + <p>17. Words in <i>ion</i> have the accent upon the antepenult, as + <i>salvtion</i>, <i>perturbtion</i>, <i>concction</i>; words in + <i>atour</i> or <i>ator</i> on the penult, as <i>dedictor</i>.</p> + + <p>18. Words ending in <i>le</i> commonly have the accent on the first + syllable, as <i>micable</i>, unless the second syllable have a vowel + before two consonants, as <i>combstible</i>.</p> + + <p>19. Words ending in <i>ous</i> have the accents on the antepenult, as + <i>uxrious</i>, <i>volptuous</i>.</p> + + <p>20. Words ending in <i>ty</i> have their accent on the antepenult, as + <i>pusillanmity</i>, <i>actvity</i>.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>These rules are not advanced as complete or infallible, but proposed + as useful. Almost every rule of every language has its exceptions; and in + English, as in other tongues, much must be learned by example and + authority. Perhaps more and better rules may be given that have escaped + my observation.</p> + + </blockquote> + <p>VERSIFICATION is the arrangement of a certain number of syllables + according to certain laws.</p> + + <p>The feet of our verses are either iambick, as <i>alft</i>, + <i>crete</i>; or trochaick, as <i>hly</i>, <i>lfty</i>.</p> + + <p>Our iambick measure comprises verses</p> + + <p>Of four syllables,</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Most good, most fair,</p> + <p>Or things as rare,</p> + <p>To call you's lost;</p> + <p>For all the cost</p> + <p>Words can bestow,</p> + <p>So poorly show</p> + <p>Upon your praise,</p> + <p>That all the ways</p> + <p>Sense hath, come short. <i>Drayton.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>With ravish'd ears</p> + <p>The monarch hears. <i>Dryden.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + <p>Of six,</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>This while we are abroad,</p> + <p style="margin-left: 1em">Shall we not touch our lyre?</p> + <p>Shall we not sing an ode?</p> + <p style="margin-left: 1em">Or shall that holy fire,</p> + <p>In us that strongly glow'd,</p> + <p style="margin-left: 1em">In this cold air expire?</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Though in the utmost peak,</p> + <p style="margin-left: 1em">A while we do remain,</p> + <p>Amongst the mountains bleak,</p> + <p style="margin-left: 1em">Expos'd to sleet and rain,</p> + <p>No sport our hours shall break,</p> + <p style="margin-left: 1em">To exercise our vein.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>What though bright Phœbus' beams</p> + <p style="margin-left: 1em">Refresh the southern ground,</p> + <p>And though the princely Thames</p> + <p style="margin-left: 1em">With beauteous nymphs abound,</p> + <p>And by old Camber's streams</p> + <p style="margin-left: 1em">Be many wonders found:</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Yet many rivers clear</p> + <p style="margin-left: 1em">Here glide in silver swathes,</p> + <p>And what of all most dear,</p> + <p style="margin-left: 1em">Buxton's delicious baths,</p> + <p>Strong ale and noble chear,</p> + <p style="margin-left: 1em">T' asswage breem winters scathes.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>In places far or near,</p> + <p style="margin-left: 1em">Or famous, or obscure,</p> + <p>Where wholsom is the air,</p> + <p style="margin-left: 1em">Or where the most impure,</p> + <p>All times, and every where,</p> + <p style="margin-left: 1em">The muse is still in ure. <i>Drayton.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + <p>Of eight, which is the usual measure for short poems,</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>And may at last my weary age</p> + <p>Find out the peaceful hermitage,</p> + <p>The hairy gown, and mossy cell,</p> + <p>Where I may sit, and nightly spell</p> + <p>Of ev'ry star the sky doth shew,</p> + <p>And ev'ry herb that sips the dew. <i>Milton.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + <p>Of ten, which is the common measure of heroick and tragick poetry,</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Full in the midst of this created space,</p> + <p>Betwixt heav'n, earth, and skies, there stands a place</p> + <p>Confining on all three; with triple bound;</p> + <p>Whence all things, though remote, are view'd around,</p> + <p>And thither bring their undulating sound.</p> + <p>The palace of loud Fame, her seat of pow'r,</p> + <p>Plac'd on the summit of a lofty tow'r;</p> + <p>A thousand winding entries long and wide</p> + <p>Receive of fresh reports a flowing tide.</p> + <p>A thousand crannies in the walls are made;</p> + <p>Nor gate nor bars exclude the busy trade.</p> + <p>Tis built of brass, the better to diffuse</p> + <p>The spreading sounds, and multiply the news;</p> + <p>Where echoes in repeated echoes play:</p> + <p>A mart for ever full; and open night and day.</p> + <p>Nor silence is within, nor voice express,</p> + <p>But a deaf noise of sounds that never cease;</p> + <p>Confus'd and chiding, like the hollow roar</p> + <p>Of tides, receding from th' insulted shore;</p> + <p>Or like the broken thunder heard from far,</p> + <p>When Jove to distance drives the rolling war.</p> + <p>The courts are fill'd with a tumultuous din,</p> + <p>Of crouds, or issuing forth, or ent'ring in:</p> + <p>A thorough-fare of news; where some devise</p> + <p>Things never heard, some mingle truth with lies:</p> + <p>The troubled air with empty sounds they beat,</p> + <p>Intent to hear, and eager to repeat. <i>Dryden.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + <p>In all these measures the accents are to be placed on even syllables; + and every line considered by itself is more harmonious, as this rule is + more strictly observed. The variations necessary to pleasure belong to + the art of poetry, not the rules of grammar.</p> + + <p><!-- Page 35 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page35"></a>[35]</span> + Our trochaick measures are Of three syllables,</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Here we may</p> + <p>Think and pray,</p> + <p>Before death</p> + <p>Stops our breath:</p> + <p>Other joys</p> + <p>Are but toys. <i>Walton's Angler.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + <p>Of five,</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>In the days of old,</p> + <p>Stories plainly told,</p> + <p>Lovers felt annoy. <i>Old Ballad.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + <p>Of seven,</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Fairest piece of well form'd earth,</p> + <p>Urge not thus your haughty birth. <i>Waller.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + <p>In these measures the accent is to be placed on the odd syllables.</p> + + <p>These are the measures which are now in use, and above the rest those + of seven, eight, and ten syllables. Our ancient poets wrote verses + sometimes of twelve syllables, as Drayton's Polyolbion.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Of all the Cambrian shires their heads that bear so high,</p> + <p>And farth'st survey their soils with an ambitious eye,</p> + <p>Mervinia for her hills, as for their matchless crouds,</p> + <p>The nearest that are said to kiss the wand'ring clouds,</p> + <p>Especial audience craves, offended with the throng,</p> + <p>That she of all the rest neglected was so long;</p> + <p>Alledging for herself, when, through the Saxons' pride,</p> + <p>The godlike race of Brute to Severn's setting side</p> + <p>Were cruelly inforc'd, her mountains did relieve</p> + <p>Those whom devouring war else every where did grieve.</p> + <p>And when all Wales beside (by fortune or by might)</p> + <p>Unto her ancient foe resign'd her ancient right,</p> + <p>A constant maiden still she only did remain,</p> + <p>The last her genuine laws which stoutly did retain.</p> + <p>And as each one is prais'd for her peculiar things;</p> + <p>So only she is rich, in mountains, meres and springs,</p> + <p>And holds herself as great in her superfluous waste,</p> + <p>As others by their towns, and fruitful tillage grac'd.</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>And of fourteen, as Chapman's Homer.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>And as the mind of such a man, that hath a long way gone,</p> + <p>And either knoweth not his way, or else would let alone,</p> + <p>His purpos'd journey, is distract.</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>The measures of twelve and fourteen syllables were often mingled by + our old poets, sometimes in alternate lines, and sometimes in alternate + couplets.</p> + + <p>The verse of twelve syllables, called an <i>Alexandrine</i>, is now + only used to diversify heroick lines.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Waller was smooth, but Dryden taught to join</p> + <p>The varying verse, the full resounding line,</p> + <p>The long majestick march, and energy divine. <i>Pope.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + <p>The pause in the Alexandrine must be at the sixth syllable.</p> + + <p>The verse of fourteen syllables is now broken into a soft lyrick + measure of verses, consisting alternately of eight syllables and six.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>She to receive thy radiant name,</p> + <p style="margin-left: 1em">Selects a whiter space. <i>Fenton.</i></p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>When all shall praise, and ev'ry lay</p> + <p style="margin-left: 1em">Devote a wreath to thee,</p> + <p>That day, for come it will, that day</p> + <p style="margin-left: 1em">Shall I lament to see. <i>Lewis to Pope.</i></p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Beneath this tomb an infant lies</p> + <p style="margin-left: 1em">To earth whose body lent,</p> + <p>Hereafter shall more glorious rise,</p> + <p style="margin-left: 1em">But not more innocent.</p> + <p>When the Archangel's trump shall blow,</p> + <p style="margin-left: 1em">And souls to bodies join,</p> + <p>What crowds shall wish their lives below</p> + <p style="margin-left: 1em">Had been as short as thine! <i>Wesley.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + <p>We have another measure very quick and lively, and therefore much used + in songs, which may be called the <i>anapestick</i>, in which the accent + rests upon every third syllable.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>May I gvern my pssions with bsolute swy,</p> + <p>And grow wser and btter as lfe wears awy. <i>Dr. Pope.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + <p>In this measure a syllable is often retrenched from the first foot, + as</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Digenes srly and prud. <i>Dr. Pope.</i></p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>When prsent, we lve, and when bsent agre,</p> + <p>I thnk not of ris, nor ris of me. <i>Dryden.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + <p>These measures are varied by many combinations, and sometimes by + double endings, either with or without rhyme, as in the heroick + measure.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>'Tis the divinity that stirs <i>within us</i>,</p> + <p>'Tis heaven itself that points out <i>an hereafter</i>,</p> + <p>And intimates eternity to man. <i>Addison.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + <p>So in that of eight syllables,</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>They neither added nor confounded,</p> + <p>They neither wanted nor abounded. <i>Prior.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + <p>In that of seven,</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>For resistance I could fear none,</p> + <p style="margin-left: 1em">But with twenty ships had done,</p> + <p>What thou, brave and happy Vernon,</p> + <p style="margin-left: 1em">Hast atchiev'd with six alone. <i>Glover.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + <p>In that of six,</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>'Twas when the seas were roaring,</p> + <p style="margin-left: 1em">With hollow blasts of wind,</p> + <p>A damsel lay deploring,</p> + <p style="margin-left: 1em">All on a rock reclin'd. <i>Gay.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + <p>In the anapestick,</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>When terrible tempests assail us.</p> + <p style="margin-left: 1em">And mountainous billows affright,</p> + <p>Nor power nor wealth can avail us,</p> + <p style="margin-left: 1em">But skilful industry steers right. <i>Ballad.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + <p>To these measures and their laws, may be reduced every species of + English verse.</p> + + <p>Our versification admits of few licences, except a + <i>synalœpha</i>, or elision of <i>e</i> in <i>the</i> before a + vowel, as <i>th' eternal</i>; and more rarely of <i>o</i> in <i>to</i>, + as <i>t' accept</i>; and a <i>synaresis</i>, by which two short vowels + coalesce into one syllable, as <i>question</i>, <i>special</i>; or a word + is contracted by the expulsion of a short vowel before a liquid, as + <i>av'rice</i>, <i>temp'rance</i>.</p> + + <p>Thus have I collected rules and examples, by which the English + language may be learned, if the reader be already acquainted with + grammatical terms, or taught by a master to those that are more ignorant. + To have written a grammar for such as are not yet initiated in the + schools, would have been tedious, and perhaps at last ineffectual.</p> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's A Grammar of the English Tongue, by Samuel Johnson + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE *** + +***** This file should be named 15097-h.htm or 15097-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/1/5/0/9/15097/ + +Produced by Jonathan Ingram, Keith Edkins and the PG Online +Distributed Proofreading Team. + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: A Grammar of the English Tongue + +Author: Samuel Johnson + +Release Date: February 18, 2005 [EBook #15097] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE *** + + + + +Produced by Jonathan Ingram, Keith Edkins and the PG Online +Distributed Proofreading Team. + + + + + +A + +DICTIONARY + +OF THE + +ENGLISH LANGUAGE: + +IN WHICH + +THE WORDS ARE DEDUCED FROM THEIR ORIGINALS, +EXPLAINED IN THEIR DIFFERENT MEANINGS, + +AND + +AUTHORIZED BY THE NAMES OF THE WRITERS IN WHOSE WORKS +THEY ARE FOUND. + +ABSTRACTED FROM THE FOLIO EDITION, + +BY THE AUTHOR, + +SAMUEL JOHNSON, LL.D. + + * * * * * + +TO WHICH IS PREFIXED, + +DR. JOHNSON'S PREFACE TO THE ORIGINAL FOLIO EDITION, + +AND + +HIS GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. + +1812. + + * * * * * + +A GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE. + +GRAMMAR, which is the art of using words properly, comprises four parts: +Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody. + + In this division and order of the parts of grammar I follow the common + grammarians, without inquiring whether a fitter distribution might not + be found. Experience has long shown this method to be so distinct as to + obviate confusion, and so comprehensive as to prevent any inconvenient + omissions. I likewise use the terms already received, and already + understood, though perhaps others more proper might sometimes be + invented. Sylburgius, and other innovators, whose new terms have sunk + their learning into neglect, have left sufficient warning against the + trifling ambition of teaching arts in a new language. + +ORTHOGRAPHY is the art of combining letters into syllables, and syllables +into words. It therefore teaches previously the form and sound of letters. + +The letters of the English language are, + +Roman. Italick. Name. + +A a A a a + +B b B b be + +C c C c see + +D d D d dee + +E e E e e + +F f F f eff + +G g G g jee + +H h H h aitch + +I i I i i (or ja) + +J j J j j conson. + +K k K k ka + +L l L l el + +M m M m em + +N n N n en + +O o O o o + +P P P p pee + +Q q Q q cue + +R r R r ar + +S s S s ess + +T t T t tee + +U u U u u (or va) + +V v V v v conson. + +W w W w double u + +X x X x ex + +Y y Y y wy + +Z z Z z zed + +To these may be added certain combinations of letters universally used in +printing; as, fl, ff, fi, ffi, ffl, and &, or and per se, and. + + Our letters are commonly reckoned twenty-four, because anciently i and + j as well as u and v were expressed by the same character; but as those + letters, which had always different powers, have now different forms, + our alphabet may be properly said to consist of twenty-six letters + +Vowels are five, a, e, i, o, u. + +Such is the number generally received; but for i it is the practice to +write y in the end of words, as thy, holy; before i, as from die, dying; +from beautify, beautifying; in the words says, days, eyes; and in words +derived from the Greek, and written originally with [Greek: y], as +sympathy, [Greek: sympatheia], system, [Greek: systema]. + +For u we often write w after a vowel, to make a diphthong; as, raw, grew, +view, vow, flowing; lowness. + +The sounds of all the letters are various. + + In treating on the letters, I shall not, like some other grammarians, + inquire into the original of their form, as an antiquarian; nor into + their formation and prolation by the organs of speech, as a mechanick, + anatomist, or physiologist; nor into the properties and gradation of + sounds, or the elegance or harshness of particular combinations, as a + writer of universal and transcendental grammar. I consider the English + alphabet only as it is English; and even in this narrow disquisition I + follow the example of former grammarians, perhaps with more reverence + than judgment, because by writing in English I suppose my reader + already acquainted with the English language, and consequently able to + pronounce the letters of which I teach the pronunciation; and because + of sounds in general it may be observed, that words are unable to + describe them. An account, therefore, of the primitive and simple + letters, is useless, almost alike to those who know their sound, and + those who know it not. + +OF VOWELS + +A. + +A has three sounds, the slender, open, and broad. + +A slender is found in most words, as face, mane, and in words ending in +ation, as creation, salvation, generation. + + The a slender is the proper English a, called very justly by Erpenius, + in his Arabick Grammar, a Anglicum cum e mistum, as having a middle + sound between the open a and the e. The French have a similar sound in + the word pais, and in their e masculine. + +A open is the a of the Italian, or nearly resembles it; as father, rather, +congratulate, fancy, glass. + +A broad resembles the a of the German; as all, wall, call. + + Many words pronounced with a broad were anciently written with au; as + sault, mault; and we still say, fault, vault. This was probably the + Saxon sound, for it is yet retained in the northern dialects, and in + the rustick pronunciation; as maun for man, haund for hand. + +The short a approaches to the a open, as grass. + +The long a, if prolonged by e at the end of the word, is always slender, as +graze, fame. + +A forms a diphthong only with i or y, and u or w. Ai or ay, as in plain, +wain, gay, clay, has only the sound of the long and slender a, and differs +not in the pronunciation from plane, wane. + +Au or aw has the sound of the German a, as raw, naughty. + + Ae is sometimes found in Latin words not completely naturalized or + assimilated, but is no English diphthong; and is more properly + expressed by single e, as Cesar, Eneas. + +E. + + E is the letter which occurs most frequently in the English language. + +E is long, as in sc[=e]ne; or short, as in c[)e]llar, s[)e]parate, +c[)e]lebrate, m[)e]n, th[)e]n. + +It is always short before a double consonant, or two consonants, as in +v[)e]x, p[)e]rplexity, rel[)e]nt, m[)e]dlar, r[)e]ptile, s[)e]rpent, +c[)e]llar, c[)e]ssation, bl[)e]ssing, f[)e]ll, f[)e]lling, d[)e]bt. + +E is always mute at the end of a word, except in monosyllables that have no +other vowel, as the; or proper names, as Penelope, Phebe, Derbe; being used +to modify the foregoing consonants, as since, once, hedge, oblige; or to +lengthen the preceding vowel, as b[)a]n, b[=a]ne; c[)a]n, c[=a]ne; p[)i]n, +p[=i]ne; t[)u]n, t[=u]ne; r[)u]b, r[=u]be; p[)o]p, p[=o]pe; f[)i]r, +f[=i]re; c[)u]r, c[=u]re; t[)u]b, t[=u]be. + + Almost all words which now terminate in consonants ended anciently in + e, as year, yeare; wildness, wildnesse; which e probably had the force + of the French e feminine, and constituted a syllable with its associate + consonant; for in old editions words are sometimes divided thus, + clea-re, fel-le, knowled-ge. This e was perhaps for a time vocal or + silent in poetry as convenience required; but it has been long wholly + mute. Camden in his Remains calls it the silent e. + +It does not always lengthen the foregoing vowel, as gl[)o]ve, l[)i]ve, +g[)i]ve. + +It has sometimes in the end of words a sound obscure, and scarcely +perceptible, as open, shapen, shotten, thistle, participle, metre, lucre. + + This faintness of sound is found when e separates a mute from a liquid, + as in rotten, or follows a mute and liquid, as in cattle. + +E forms a diphthong with a, as near; with i, as deign, receive; and with u +or w, as new, stew. + +Ea sounds like e long, as mean; or like ee, as dear, clear, near. + +Ei is sounded like e long, as seize, perceiving. + +Eu sounds as u long and soft. + +E, a, u, are combined in beauty and its derivatives, but have only the +sound of u. + +E may be said to form a diphthong by reduplication, as agree, sleeping. + + Eo is found in yeoman, where it is sounded as o short; and in people, + where it is pronounced like ee. + +I. + +I has a sound long, as f[=i]ne; and short as f[)i]n. + + That is eminently observable in i, which may be likewise remarkable in + other letters, that the short sound is not the long sound contracted, + but a sound wholly different. + +The long sound in monosyllables is always marked by the e final, as +th[)i]n, th[=i]ne. + +I is often sounded before r, as a short u; as flirt, first, shirt. + +It forms a diphthong only with e, as field, shield, which is sounded as the +double ee; except friend, which is sounded as fr[)e]nd. + + I is joined with eu in lieu, and ew in view; which triphthongs are + sounded as the open u. + +O. + +O is long, as b[=o]ne, [=o]bedient, corr[=o]ding; or short, as bl[)o]ck, +kn[)o]ck, [)o]blique, l[)o]ll. + +Women is pronounced wimen. + + The short o has sometimes the sound of close u, as son, come. + +O coalesces into a diphthong with a, as moan, groan, approach: oa has the +sound of o long. + + O is united to e in some words derived from Greek, as oeconomy; but as + being not an English diphthong, they are better written as they are + sounded, with only e, economy. + +With i, as oil, soil, moil, noisome. + + This coalition of letters seems to unite the sounds of the two letters, + as far as two sounds can be united without being destroyed, and + therefore approaches more nearly than any combination in our tongue to + the notion of a diphthong. + +With o, as boot, hoot, cooler; oo has the sound of the Italian u. + +With u or w, as our, power, flower; but in some words has only the sound of +o long, as in soul, bowl, sow, grow. These different sounds are used to +distinguish different significations: as bow an instrument for shooting; +bow, a depression of the head; sow, the she of a boar; sow, to scatter +seed; bowl, an orbicular body; bowl, a wooden vessel. + +Ou is sometimes pronounced like o soft, as court; sometimes like o short, +as cough; sometimes like u close, as could; or u open, as rough, tough, +which use only can teach. + + Ou is frequently used in the last syllable of words which in Latin end + in or and are made English, as honour, labour, favour, from honor, + labor, favor. + + Some late innovators have ejected the u, without considering that the + last syllable gives the sound neither of or nor ur, but a sound between + them, if not compounded of both; besides that they are probably derived + to us from the French nouns in eur, as honeur, faveur. + +U. + +U is long in [=u]se, conf[=u]sion; or short, as [)u]s, conc[)u]ssion. + +It coalesces with a, e, i, o; but has rather in these combinations the +force of the w consonant, as quaff, quest, quit, quite, languish; sometimes +in ui the i loses its sound, as in juice. It is sometimes mute before a, e, +i, y, as guard, guest, guise, buy. + + U is followed by e in virtue, but the e has no sound. + + Ue is sometimes mute at the end of a word, in imitation of the French, + as prorogue, synagogue, plague, vague, harangue. + +Y. + +Y is a vowel, which, as Quintilian observes of one of the Roman letters, we +might want without inconvenience, but that we have it. It supplies the +place of i at the end of words, as thy, before an i, as dying; and is +commonly retained in derivative words where it was part of a diphthong, in +the primitive; as, destroy, destroyer; betray, betrayed, betrayer; pray, +prayer; say, sayer; day, days. + + Y being the Saxon vowel y, which was commonly used where i is now put, + occurs very frequently in all old books. + +GENERAL RULES. + +A vowel in the beginning or middle syllable, before two consonants, is +commonly short, as [)o]pp[)o]rtunity. + +In monosyllables a single vowel before a single consonant is short; as +stag, frog. + + Many is pronounced as if it were written manny. + + * * * * * + +OF CONSONANTS. + +B. + +B has one unvaried sound, such as it obtains in other languages. + +It is mute in debt, debtor, subtle, doubt, lamb, limb, dumb, thumb, climb, +comb, womb. + + It is used before l and r, as black, brown. + +C. + +C has before e and i the sound of s; as sincerely, centrick, century, +circular, cistern, city, siccity: before a, o, and u, it sounds like k, as +calm, concavity, copper, incorporate, curiosity, concupiscence. + + C might be omitted in the language without loss, since one of its + sounds might be supplied by, s, and the other by k, but that it + preserves to the eye the etymology of words, as face from facies, + captive from captivus. + +Ch has a sound which is analyzed into tsh, as church, chin, crutch. It is +the same sound which the Italians give to the c simple before i and e, as +citta, cerro. + +Ch is sounded like k in words derived from the Greek, as chymist, scheme, +choler. Arch is commonly sounded ark before a vowel, as archangel, and with +the English sound of ch before a consonant, as archbishop. + + Ch, in some French words not yet assimilated, sounds like sh, as + machine, chaise. + + C, according to English orthography, never ends a word; therefore we + write stick, block, which were originally, sticke, blocke. In such + words c is now mute. + + It is used before l and r, as clock, cross. + +D. + +Is uniform in its sound, as death, diligent. + + It is used before r, as draw, dross; and w as dwell. + +F. + +F, though having a name beginning with a vowel, is numbered by the +grammarians among the semivowels, yet has this quality of a mute, that it +is commodiously sounded before a liquid, as flask, fry, freckle. It has an +unvariable sound, except that of is sometimes spoken nearly as ov. + +G. + +G has two sounds; one hard, as in gay, go, gun; the other soft, as in gem, +giant. + +At the end of a word it is always hard, as ring, snug, song, frog. + +Before e and i the sound is uncertain. + +G before e is soft, as gem, generation, except in gear, geld, geese, get, +gewgaw, and derivatives from words ending in g, as singing, stronger, and +generally before er at the ends of words, as finger. + +G is mute before n, as gnash, sign, foreign. + +G before i is hard, as give, except in giant, gigantick, gibbet, gibe, +giblets, Giles, gill, gilliflower, gin, ginger, gingle, to which may be +added Egypt and gypsy. + +Gh in the beginning of a word has the sound of the hard g, as ghostly; in +the middle, and sometimes at the end, it is quite silent, as though, right, +sought, spoken tho', rite, soute. + +It has often at the end the sound of f, as laugh; whence laughter retains +the same sound in the middle; cough, trough, sough, tough, enough, slough. + + It is not to be doubted, but that in the original pronunciation gh has + the force of a consonant deeply guttural, which is still continued + among the Scotch. + + G is used before h, l, and r. + +H. + +H is a note of aspiration, and shows that the following vowel must be +pronounced with a strong emission of breath, as hat, horse. + +It seldom begins any but the first syllable, in which it is always sounded +with a full breath, except in heir, herb, hostler, honour, humble, honest, +humour and their derivatives. + + It sometimes begins middle or final syllables in words compounded, as + blockhead; or derived from the Latin, as comprehend. + +J. + +J consonant sounds uniformly like the soft g, and is therefore a letter +useless, except in etymology, as ejaculation, jester, jocund, juice. + +K. + +K has the sound of hard c, and is used before e and i, where, according to +English analogy, c would be soft, as kept, king, skirt, skeptick, for so it +should be written, not sceptick, because sc is sounded like s, as in scene. + + It is used before n, as knell, knot, but totally loses its sound in + modern pronunciation. + +K is never doubled; but c is used before it to shorten the vowel by a +double consonant, as cockle, pickle. + +L. + +L has in English the same liquid sound as in other languages. + + The custom is to double the l at the end of monosyllables, as kill, + will, full. These words were originally written kille, wille, fulle; + and when the e first grew silent, and was afterward omitted, the ll was + retained, to give force, according to the analogy of our language, to + the foregoing vowel. + +L, is sometimes mute, as in calf, half, halves, calves, could, would, +should, psalm, talk, salmon, falcon. + + The Saxons, who delighted in guttural sounds, sometimes aspirated the l + at the beginning of words, as hlaf, a loaf, or bread; hlaford, a lord; + but this pronunciation is now disused. + +Le at the end of words is pronounced like a weak el, in which the e is +almost mute, as table, shuttle. + +M. + +M has always the same sound, as murmur, monumental. + +N. + +N has always, the same sound, as noble, manners. + +N is sometimes mute after m, as damn, condemn, hymn. + +P. + +P has always the same sound which the Welsh and Germans confound with b. + +P is sometimes mute, as in psalm, and between m and t, as tempt. + +Ph is used for f in words derived from the Greek, as philosopher, +philanthropy, Philip. + +Q. + +Q, as in other languages, is always followed by u, and has a sound which +our Saxon ancestors well expressed by cw, as quadrant, queen, equestrian, +quilt, inquiry, quire, quotidian. Qu is never followed by u. + +Qu is sometimes sounded, in words derived from the French, like k, as +conquer, liquor, risque, chequer. + +R. + +R has the same rough snarling sound as in the other tongues. + + The Saxons used often to put h before it, as before l at the beginning + of words. + + Rh is used in words derived from the Greek, as myrrh, myrrhine, + catarrhous, rheum, rheumatick, rhyme. + +Re, at the end of some words derived from the Latin or French, is +pronounced like a weak er, as theatre, sepulchre. + +S. + +S has a hissing sound, as sibilation, sister. + + A single s seldom ends any word, except in the third person of verbs, + as loves, grows; and the plurals of nouns, as trees, bushes, + distresses; the pronouns this, his, ours, yours, us; the adverb thus; + and words derived from Latin, as rebus, surplus; the close being always + either in se, as house, horse, or in ss, as grass, dress, bliss, less, + anciently grasse, dresse. + +S, single at the end of words, has a grosser sound, like that of z, as +trees, eyes, except this, thus, us, rebus, surplus. + +It sounds like z before ion, if a vowel goes before it, as intrusion; and +like s, if it follows a consonant, as conversion. + +It sounds like z before e mute, as refuse, and before y final, as rosy; and +in those words, bosom, desire, wisdom, prison, prisoner, present, present, +damsel, casement. + + It is the peculiar quality of s, that it may be sounded before all + consonants, except x and z, in which s is comprised, x being only ks, + and z a hard or gross s. This s is therefore termed by grammarians suae + potestatis litera; the reason of which the learned Dr. Clarke + erroneously supposed to be, that in some words it might be doubled at + pleasure. Thus we find in several languages. + +[Greek: Sbennymi], scatter, sdegno, sdrucciolo, sfavellare, [Greek: +sphinx], sgombrare, sgranare, shake, slumber, smell, snipe, space, +splendour, spring, squeeze, shrew, step, strength, stramen, stripe, +sventura, swell. + +S is mute in isle, island, demesne, viscount. + +T. + +T has its customary sound; as take, temptation. + +Ti before a vowel has the sound of si as salvation, except an s goes +before, as question; excepting likewise derivatives from words ending in +ty, as mighty, mightier. + +Th has two sounds; the one soft, as thus, whether; the other hard, as +thing, think. The sound is soft in these words, then, thence, and there, +with their derivatives and compounds, and in that, these, thou, thee, thy, +thine, their, they, this, those, them, though, thus; and in all words +between two vowels, as, father, whether; and between r and a vowel, as +burthen. + +In other words it is hard, as thick, thunder, faith, faithful. Where it is +softened at the end of a word, an e silent must be added, as breath, +breathe; cloth, clothe. + +V. + +V has a sound of near affinity to that of f, as vain, vanity. + + From f in the Islandick alphabet, v is only distinguished by a + diacritical point. + +W. + +Of w, which in diphthongs is often an undoubted vowel, some grammarians +have doubted whether it ever be a consonant; and not rather as it is called +a double u, or ou, as water may be resolved into ouater; but letters of the +same sound are always reckoned consonants in other alphabets: and it may be +observed, that w follows a vowel without any hiatus or difficulty of +utterance, as frosty winter. + +Wh has a sound accounted peculiar to the English, which the Saxons better +expressed by hw, as, what, whence, whiting; in whore only, and sometimes in +wholesome, wh is sounded like a simple h. + +X. + +X begins no English word: it has the sound of ks, as axle, extraneous. + +Y. + +Y, when it follows a consonant, is a vowel; when it precedes either a vowel +or a diphthong, is a consonant, as ye, young. It is thought by some to be +in all cases a vowel. But it may be observed of y as of w, that it follows +a vowel without any hiatus, as rosy youth. + + The chief argument by which w and y appear to be always vowels is, that + the sounds which they are supposed to have as consonants, cannot be + uttered after a vowel, like that of all other consonants; thus we say + tu, ut; do, odd; but in wed, dew; the two sounds of w have no + resemblance to each other. + +Z. + +Z begins no word originally English; it has the sound, as its name izzard +or s hard expresses, of an s uttered with a closer compression of the +palate by the tongue, as freeze, froze. + + In orthography I have supposed orthoepy, or just utterance of words, to + be included; orthography being only the art of expressing certain + sounds by proper characters. I have therefore observed in what words + any of the letters are mute. + + Most of the writers of English grammar have given long tables of words + pronounced otherwise than they are written, and seem not sufficiently + to have considered, that of English, as of all living tongues, there is + a double pronunciation, one cursory and colloquial, the other regular + and solemn. The cursory pronunciation is always vague and uncertain, + being made different in different mouths by negligence, unskilfulness, + or affectation. The solemn pronunciation, though by no means immutable + and permanent, is yet always less remote from the orthography, and less + liable to capricious innovation. They have however generally formed + their tables according to the cursory speech of those with whom they + happened to converse; and concluding that the whole nation combines to + vitiate language in one manner, have often established the jargon of + the lowest of the people as the model of speech. + + For pronunciation the best general rule is, to consider those as the + most elegant speakers who deviate least from the written words. + + There have been many schemes offered for the emendation and settlement + of our orthography, which, like that of other nations, being formed by + chance, or according to the fancy of the earliest writers in rude ages, + was at first very various and uncertain, and is yet sufficiently + irregular. Of these reformers some have endeavoured to accommodate + orthography better to the pronunciation, without considering that this + is to measure by a shadow, to take that for a model or standard which + is changing while they apply it. Others, less absurdly indeed, but with + equal unlikelihood of success, have endeavoured to proportion the + number of letters to that of sounds, that every sound may have its own + character, and every character a single sound. Such would be the + orthography of a new language, to be formed by a synod of grammarians + upon principles of science. But who can hope to prevail on nations to + change their practice, and make all their old books useless? or what + advantage would a new orthography procure equivalent to the confusion + and perplexity of such an alteration? + + Some ingenious men, indeed, have endeavoured to deserve well of their + country, by writing honor and labor for honour and labour, red for read + in the preter-tense, sais for says, repete tor repeat, explane for + explain, or declame for declaim. Of these it may be said, that as they + have done no good they have done little harm; both because they have + innovated little, and because few have followed them. + + The English language has properly no dialects; the style of writers has + no professed diversity in the use of words, or of their flexions and + terminations, nor differs but by different degrees of skill or care. + The oral diction is uniform in no spacious country, but has less + variation in England than in most other nations of equal extent. The + language of the northern counties retains many words now out of use, + but which are commonly of the genuine Teutonick race, and is uttered + with a pronunciation which now seems harsh and rough, but was probably + used by our ancestors. The northern speech is therefore not barbarous, + but obsolete. The speech in the western provinces seems to differ from + the general diction rather by a depraved pronunciation, than by any + real difference which letters would express. + + * * * * * + +ETYMOLOGY. + +Etymology teaches the deduction of one word from another, and the various +modifications by which the sense of the same word is diversified; as horse, +horses; I love, I loved. + +Of the ARTICLE. + +The English have two articles, an or a, and the. + +AN, A. + +A has an indefinite signification, and means one, with some reference to +more; as This is a good book; that is, one among the books that are good; +He was killed by a sword; that is, some sword; This is a better book for a +man than a boy; that is, for one of those that are men than one of those +that are boys; An army might enter without resistance; that is, any army. + +In the senses in which we use a or an in the singular, we speak in the +plural without an article; as these are good books. + + I have made an the original article, because it is only the Saxon an, + or aen, one, applied to a new use, as the German ein, and the French un; + the n being cut off before a consonant in the speed of utterance. + +Grammarians of the last age direct, that an should be used before h; whence +it appears that the English anciently asperated less. An is still used +before the silent h; as an herb, an honest man; but otherwise a; as + + A horse, a horse, my kingdom for a horse. Shakespeare. + +An or a can only be joined with a singular: the correspondent plural is the +noun without an article, as, I want a pen, I want pens; or with the +pronominal adjective some, as, I want some pens. + +THE. + +The has a particular and definite signification. + + The fruit + Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste + Brought death into the world. Milton. + +That is, that particular fruit, and this world in which we live. So, He +giveth fodder for the cattle, and green herbs for the use of man; that is, +for those beings that are cattle, and his use that is man. + +The is used in both numbers. + + I am as free as Nature first made man, + Ere the base laws of servitude began, + When wild in woods the noble savage ran. Dryden. + +Many words are used without articles; as + +1. Proper names, as John, Alexander, Longinus, Aristarchus, Jerusalem, +Athens, Rome, London. GOD is used as a proper name. + +2. Abstract names, as blackness, witch-craft, virtue, vice, beauty, +ugliness, love, hatred, anger, good-nature, kindness. + +3. Words in which nothing but the mere being of any thing is implied: This +is not beer, but water; this is not brass, but steel. + + * * * * * + +Of NOUNS SUBSTANTIVE. + +The relations of English nouns to words going before or following are not +expressed by cases, or changes of termination, but, as in most of the other +European languages, by prepositions, unless we may be said to have a +genitive case. + +Singular. + +Nom. Magister, a Master, the Master. + +Gen. Magistri, of a Master, of the Master, + or Master's, the Master's. + +Dat. Magistro, to a Master, to the Master. + +Acc. Magistrum, a Master, the Master. + +Voc. Magister, Master, O Master. + +Abl. Magistro, from a Master, from the Master. + +Plural. + +Nom. Magistri, Masters, the Masters. + +Gen. Magistrorum, of Masters, of the Masters. + +Dat. Magistris, to Masters, to the Masters. + +Acc. Magistros, Masters, the Masters. + +Voc. Magistri, Masters, O Masters. + +Abl. Magistris, from Masters, from the Masters. + +Our nouns are therefore only declined thus: + +Master, Gen. Master's. Plur. Masters. + +Scholar, Gen. Scholar's. Plur. Scholars. + + These genitives are always written with a mark of elision, master's, + scholar's, according to an opinion long received, that the 's is a + contraction of his, as the soldier's valour, for the soldier his + valour: but this cannot be the true original, because 's is put to + female nouns, Woman's beauty; the Virgin's delicacy; Haughty Juno's + unrelenting hate; and collective nouns, as Women's passions; the + rabble's insolence; the multitude's folly: in all these cases it is + apparent that his cannot be understood. We say likewise the + foundation's strength; the diamond's lustre; the winter's severity: but + in these cases his may be understood, he and his having formerly been + applied to neuters in the place now supplied by it and its. + + The learned and sagacious Wallis, to whom every English grammarian owes + a tribute of reverence, calls this modification of the noun an + adjective possessive; I think with no more propriety than he might have + applied the same to the genitive in equitum decus, Trojae oris, or any + other Latin genitive. Dr. Lowth, on the other part, supposes the + possessive pronouns mine and thine to be genitive cases. + + This termination of the noun seems to constitute a real genitive + indicating possession. It is derived to us from the Saxon's who + declined smith, a smith; Gen. smither, of a smith; Plur. smither or + smithar, smiths; and so in two other of their seven declensions. + + It is a further confirmation of this opinion, that in the old poets + both the genitive and plural were longer by a syllable than the + original word: knitis for knight's, in Chaucer; leavis for leaves, in + Spenser. + + When a word ends in s, the genitive may be the same with the + nominative, as Venus temple. + +The plural is formed by adding s, as table, tables; fly, flies; sister, +sisters; wood, woods; or es where s could not otherwise be sounded, as +after ch, s, sh, x, z; after c sounded like s, and g like j; the mute e is +vocal before s, as lance, lances; outrage, outrages. + + The formation of the plural and genitive singular is the same. + + A few words still make the plural in n, as men, women, oxen, swine, and + more anciently eyen, shoon. This formation is that which generally + prevails in the Teutonick dialects. + +Words that end in f commonly form their plural by ves, as loaf, loaves; +calf, calves. + + Except a few, muff, muffs; chief, chiefs. So hoof, roof, proof, relief, + mischief, puff, cuff, dwarf, handkerchief, grief. + + Irregular plurals are teeth from tooth, lice from louse, mice from + mouse, geese from goose, feet from foot, dice from die, pence from + penny, brethren from brother, children from child. + +Plurals ending in s have no genitives; but we say, Womens excellencies, and +Weigh the mens wits against the ladies hairs. + + Dr. Willis thinks the Lords' house may he said for the house of Lords; + but such phrases are not now in use; and surely an English ear rebels + against them. They would commonly produce a troublesome ambiguity, as + the Lord's house may be the house of Lords, or the house of a Lord. + Besides that the mark of elision is improper, for in the Lords' house + nothing is cut off. + + Some English substantives, like those of many other languages, change + their termination as they express different sexes; as prince, princess; + actor, actress; lion, lioness; hero, heroine. To these mentioned by Dr. + Lowth may be added arbitress, poetess, chauntress, duchess, tigress, + governess, tutress, peeress, authoress, traytress, and perhaps othets. + Of these variable terminations we have only a sufficient number to make + us feel our want; for when we say of a woman that she is a philosopher, + an astronomer, a builder, a weaver, a dancer, we perceive an + impropriety in the termination which we cannot avoid; but we can say + that she is an architect, a botanist, a student. because these + terminations have not annexed to them the notion of sex. In words which + the necessities of life are often requiring, the sex is distinguished + not by different terminations but by different names, as a bull, a cow; + a horse, a mare; equus, equa; a cock, a hen; and sometimes by pronouns + prefixed, as a he-goat, a, she-goat. + + * * * * * + +Of ADJECTIVES. + +Adjectives in the English language are wholly indeclinable; having neither +case, gender, nor number, and being added to substantives in all relations +without any change; as, a good woman, good women, of a good woman; a good +man, good men, of good men. + +The Comparison of Adjectives. + +The comparative degree of adjectives is formed by adding er, the +superlative by adding est, to the positive; as, fair, fairer, fairest; +lovely, lovelier, loveliest; sweet, sweeter, sweetest; low, lower, lowest; +high, higher, highest. + +Some words are irregularly compared; as, good, better, best; bad, worse, +worst; little, less, least; near, nearer, next; much, more, most; many (for +moe), more (for moer) most (for moest); late, later, latest or last. + +Some comparatives form a superlative by adding, most, as nether, +nethermost; outer, outermost; under, undermost; up, upper, uppermost; fore, +former, foremost. + +Most is sometimes added to a substantive, as, topmost, southmost. + +Many adjectives do not admit of comparison by terminations, and are only +compared by more and most, as, benevolent, more benevolent, most +benevolent. + +All adjectives may be compared by more and most, even when they have +comparatives and superlatives regularly formed; as, fair, fairer, or more +fair; fairest, or most fair. + + In adjectives that admit a regular comparison, the comparative more is + oftener used than the superlative most, as more fair is oftener written + for fairer, than most fair for fairest. + +The comparison of adjectives is very uncertain; and being much regulated by +commodiousness of utterance, or agreeableness of sound, is not easily +reduced to rules. + +Monosyllables are commonly compared. + +Polysyllables, or words of more than two syllables, are seldom compared +otherwise than by more and most, as, deplorable, more deplorable, most +deplorable. + +Dissyllables are seldom compared if they terminate in some, as fulsome, +toilsome; in ful, as, careful, spleenful, dreadful; in ing, as trifling, +charming; in ous, as porous; in less, as, careless, harmless; in ed, as +wretched; in id, as candid; in al, as mortal; in ent, as recent, fervent; +in ain, as certain; in ive, as missive; in dy, as woody; in fy, as puffy; +in ky, as rocky, except lucky; in my, as roomy; in ny, as skinny; in py, as +ropy, except happy; in ry, as hoary. + + Some comparatives and superlatives are yet found in good writers formed + without regard to the foregoing rules; but in a language subjected so + little and so lately to grammar, such anomalies must frequently occur. + +So shady is compared by Milton. + + She in shadiest covert hid, + Tun'd her nocturnal note. Par. Lost. + +And virtuous. + + What she wills to say or do, + Seems wisest, virtuousest, discreetest, best. Par. Lost. + +So trifling by Ray, who is indeed of no great authority. + + It is not so decorous, in respect of God, that he should immediately do + all the meanest and triflingest things himself, without making use of + any inferior or subordinate minister. Ray on the Creation. + +Famous, by Milton. + + I shall be nam'd among the famousest + Of women, sung at solemn festivals. Milton's Agonistes. + +Inventive, by Ascham. + + Those have the inventivest heads for all purposes, and roundest tongues + in all matters. Ascham's Schoolmaster. + +Mortal, by Bacon. + + The mortalest poisons practised by the West Indians, have some mixture + of the blood, fat, or flesh of man. Bacon. + +Natural, by Wotton. + + I will now deliver a few of the properest and naturalest considerations + that belong to this piece. Wotton's Architecture. + +Wretched, by Jonson. + + The wretcheder are the contemners of all helps; such as presuming on + their own naturals, deride diligence, and mock at terms when they + understand not things. Ben Jonson. + +Powerful, by Milton. + + We have sustain'd one day in doubtful fight, + What heav'n's great king hath pow'rfullest to send + Against us from about his throne. Par. Lost. + + The termination in ish may be accounted in some sort a degree of + comparison, by which the signification is diminished below the + positive, as black, blackish, or tending to blackness; salt, saltish, + or having a little taste of salt; they therefore admit no comparison. + This termination is seldom added but to words expressing sensible + qualities, nor often to words of above one syllable, and is scarcely + used in the solemn or sublime style. + + * * * * * + +Of PRONOUNS. + +Pronouns, in the English language, are, I, thou, he, with their plurals, +we, ye, they; it, who, which, what, whether, whosoever, whatsoever, my, +mine, our, ours, thy, thine, your, yours, his, her, hers, theirs, this, +that, other, another, the same, some. + +The pronouns personal are irregularly inflected. + + Singular. Plural. + +Nom. I, We. + +Accus. and Me, Us. +other oblique +cases. + +Nom. Thou, Ye. + +Oblique. Thee, You. + +You is commonly used in modern writers for ye, particularly in the language +of ceremony, where the second person plural is used for the second person +singular, You are my friend. + + Singular. Plural. + +Nom. He, They, Applied to masculines. + +Oblique. Him, Them. + +Nom. She, They, Applied to feminines. + +Oblique. Her, Them. + +Nom. It, They, Applied to neuters or things. + +Oblique. Its, Them. + +For it the practice of ancient writers was to use he, and for its, his. + +The possessive pronouns, like other adjectives, are without cases or change +of termination. + +The possessive of the first person is my, mine, our, ours; of the second, +thy, thine, your, yours; of the third, from he, his; from she, her, and +hers; and in the plural, their, theirs, for both sexes. + + Ours, yours, hers, theirs, are used when the substantive preceding is + separated by a verb, as These are our books. These books are ours. Your + children excel ours in stature, but ours surpass yours in learning. + + Ours, yours, hers, theirs, notwithstanding their seeming plural + termination, are applied equally to singular and plural substantives, + as, This book is ours. These books are ours. + + Mine and thine were formerly used before a vowel, as mine amiable lady: + which though now disused in prose, might be still properly continued in + poetry: they are used as ours and yours, when they are referred to a + substantive preceding, as thy house is larger than mine, but my garden + is more spacious than thine. + +Their and theirs are the possessives likewise of they, when they is the +plural of it, and are therefore applied to things. + +Pronouns relative are, who, which, what, whether, whosoever, whatsoever. + +Nom. Who. + +Gen. Whose. + +Other oblique cases. Whom. + +Nom. Which. + +Gen. Of which, or whose. + +Other oblique cases. Which. + + Who is now used in relation to persons, and which in relation to + things; but they were anciently confounded. At least it was common to + say, the man which, though I remember no example of the thing who. + + Whose is rather the poetical than regular genitive of which. + + The fruit + Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste + Brought death into the world. Milton. + +Whether is only used in the nominative and accusative cases; and has no +plural, being applied only to one of a number, commonly to one of two, as +Whether of these is left I know not. Whether shall I choose? It is now +almost obsolete. + +What, whether relative or interrogative, is without variation. + +Whosoever, whatsoever, being compounded of who or what, and soever, follow +the rule of their primitives. + + Singular. Plural. + + This These + +In all cases. That Those. + + Other, Others. + + Whether. + + The plural others is not used but when it is referred to a substantive + preceding, as I have sent other horses. I have not sent the same + horses, but others. + +Another, being only an other, has no plural. + +Here, there, and where, joined with certain particles, have a relative and +pronominal use. Hereof, herein, hereby, hereafter, herewith, thereof, +therein, thereby, thereupon, therewith, whereof, wherein, whereby, +whereupon, wherewith, which signify, of this, in this, &c. of that, in +that, &c. of which, in which, &c. + +Therefore and wherefore, which are properly there for and where for, for +that, for which, are now reckoned conjunctions, and continued in use. The +rest seem to be passing by degrees into neglect, though proper, useful, and +analogous. They are referred both to singular and plural antecedents. + +There are two more words used only in conjunction with pronouns, own and +self. + +Own is added to possessives, both singular and plural, as my own hand, our +own house. It is emphatical, and implies a silent contrariety, or +opposition; as, I live in my own house, that is, not in a hired house. This +I did with my own hand, that is, without help or not by proxy. + +Self is added to possessives, as myself, yourselves; and sometimes to +personal pronouns, as himself, itself, themselves. It then, like own, +expresses emphasis and opposition, as I did this myself, that is, not +another; or it forms a reciprocal pronoun, as We hurt ourselves by vain +rage. + + Himself, itself, themselves, are supposed by Wallis to be put by + corruption, for his self, it self, their selves; so that self is always + a substantive. This seems justly observed, for we say, He came himself; + Himself shall do this; where himself cannot be an accusative. + + * * * * * + +Of the VERB. + +English verbs are active, as I love; or neuter, as I languish. The neuters +are formed like the actives. + + Most verbs signifying action may likewise signify condition or habit, + and become neuters; as I love, I am in love; I strike, I am now + striking. + +Verbs have only two tenses inflected in their terminations, the present, +and simple preterit; the other tenses are compounded of the auxiliary +verbs, have, shall, will, let, may, can, and the infinitive of the active +or neuter verb. + +The passive voice is formed by joining the participle preterit to the +substantive verb, as I am loved. + +To have. Indicative Mood. + +Present Tense. + + Sing. I have, thou hast, he hath or has, + Plur. We have, ye have, they have. + + Has is a termination connoted from hath, but now more frequently used + both in verse and prose. + +Simple Preterit. + + Sing. I had, thou hadst, he had + Plur. We had, ye had, they had. + +Compound Preterit. + + Sing. I have had, thou hast had, he has or hath had; + Plur. We have had, ye have had, they have had. + +Preterpluperfect. + + Sing. I had had, thou hadst had, he had had. + Plur. We had had, ye had had, they had had. + +Future. + + Sing. I shall have, thou shalt have, he shall have; + Plur. We shall have, ye shall have, they shall have. + +Second Future. + + Sing. I will have, thou wilt have, he will have; + Plur. We will have, ye wilt have, they will have. + + By reading these future tenses may be observed the variations of shall + and will. + +Imperative Mood. + + Sing. Have, or have thou, let him have; + Plur. Let us have, have or have ye, let them have. + +Conjunctive Mood. + +Present. + + Sing. I have, thou have, he have; + Plur. We have, ye have, they have. + +Preterit simple as in the Indicative. + +Preterit compound. + + Sing. I have had, thou have had, he have had; + Plur. We have had, ye have had, they have had. + +Future. + + Sing. I shall have, as in the Indicative. + +Second Future. + + Sing. I shall have had, thou shalt have had, he shall have had; + Plur. We shall have had, ye shall have had, they shall have had. + +Potential. + +The potential form of speaking is expressed by may, can, in the present; +and might, could, or should, in the preterit, joined with the infinitive +mood of the verb. + +Present. + + Sing. I may have, thou mayst have, he may have; + Plur. We may have, ye may have, they may have. + +Preterit. + + Sing. I might have, thou mightst have, he might have; + Plur. We might have, ye might have, they might have. + +Present. + + Sing. I can have, thou canst have, he can have; + Plur. We can have, ye can have, they can have. + +Preterit. + + Sing. I could have, thou couldst have, he could have; + Plur. We could have, ye could have, they could have. + +In like manner should is united to the verb. + +There is likewise a double Preterit. + + Sing. I should have had, thou shouldst have had, he should have had; + Plur. We should have had, ye should have had, they should have had. + +In like manner we use, I might have had; I could have had, &c. + +Infinitive Mood. + + Present. To have. + Preterit. To have had. + Participle present. Having. + Participle preterit. Had. + +Verb Active. To love. + +Indicative. Present. + + Sing. I love, thou lovest, he loveth or loves; + Plur. We love, ye love, they love. + +Preterit simple. + + Sing. I loved, thou lovedst, he loved; + Plur. We loved, ye loved, they loved. + Preterperfect compound. I have loved, &c. + Preterpluperfect. I had loved, &c. + Future. I shall love, &c. I will love, &c. + +Imperative. + + Sing. Love or love thou, let him love; + Plur. Let us love, love or love ye, let them love. + +Conjunctive. Present. + + Sing. I love, thou love, he love; + Plur. We love, ye love, they love. + Preterit simple, as in the indicative. + Preterit compound. I have loved, &c. + Future. I shall love, &c. + Second Future. I shall have loved, &c. + +Potential. + + Present. I may or can love, &c. + Preterit. I might, could, or should love, &c. + Double Preterit. I might, could, or should have + loved, &c. + +Infinitive. + + Present. To love. + Preterit. To have loved. + Participle present. Loving. + Participle past. Loved. + +The passive is formed by the addition of the participle preterit to the +different tenses of the verb to be, which must therefore be here exhibited. + +Indicative. Present. + + Sing. I am, thou art, he is; + Plur. We are or be, ye are or be, they are or be. + The plural be is now little in use. + +Preterit. + + Sing. I was, thou wast or wert, he was; + Plur. We were, ye were, they were. + +Wert is properly of the conjunctive mood, and ought not to be used in the +indicative. + + Preterit compound. I have been, &c. + Preterpluperfect. I had been, &c. + Future. I shall or will be, &c. + +Imperative. + + Sing. Be thou; let him be; + Plur. Let us be; be ye; let them be. + +Conjunctive. Present. + + Sing. I be, thou beest, he be; + Plur. We be, ye be, they be. + +Preterit. + + Sing. I were, thou wert, he were; + Plur. We were, ye were, they were. + Preterit compound. I have been, &c. + Future. I shall have been, &c. + +Potential. + + I may or can; would, could, or should be; could, + would, or should have been, &c. + +Infinitive. + + Present. To be. + Preterit. To have been. + Participle present. Being. + Participle preterit. Having been. + +Passive Voice. Indicative Mood. + + I am loved, &c. I was loved, &c. I have been + loved, &c. + +Conjunctive Mood. + + If I be loved, &c. If I were loved, &c. If I shall + have been loved, &c. + +Potential Mood. + + I may or can be loved, &c. I might, could, or + should be loved, &c. I might, could, or should + have been loved, &c. + +Infinitive. + + Present. To be loved. + Preterit. To have been loved. + Participle. Loved. + +There is another form of English verbs, in which the infinitive mood is +joined to the verb do in its various inflections, which are therefore to be +learned in this place. + +To do. + +Indicative. Present. + + Sing. I do, thou dost, he doth; + Plur. We do, ye do, they do. + +Preterit. + + Sing. I did, thou didst, he did; + Plur. We did, ye did, they did. + Preterit., &c. I have done, &c. I had done, &c. + Future. I shall or will do, &c. + +Imperative. + + Sing. Do thou, let him do; + Plur. Let us do, do ye, let them do. + +Conjunctive. Present. + + Sing. I do, thou do, he do; + Plur. We do, ye do, they do. + +The rest are as in the Indicative. + + Infinite. To do, to have done. + Participle present. Doing. + Participle preterit. Done. + +Do is sometimes used superfluously, as I do love, I did love; simply for I +love, or I loved; but this is considered as a vitious mode of speech. + +It is sometimes used emphatically; as, + + I do love thee, and when I love thee not, + Chaos is come again. Shakespeare. + +It is frequently joined with a negative; as, I like her, but I do not love +her; I wished him success, but did not help him. This, by custom at least, +appears more easy than the other form of expressing the same sense by a +negative adverb after the verb, I like her, but love her not. + +The imperative prohibitory is seldom applied in the second person, at least +in prose, without the word do; as, Stop him, but do not hurt him; Praise +beauty, but do not dote on it. + +Its chief use is in interrogative forms of speech, in which it is used +through all the persons; as, Do I live? Dost thou strike me? Do they rebel? +Did I complain? Didst thou love her? Did she die? So likewise in negative +interrogations; Do I not yet grieve? Did she not die? + +Do and did are thus used only for the present and simple preterit. + +There is another manner of conjugating neuter verbs, which, when it is +used, may not improperly denominate them neuter passives, as they are +inflected according to the passive form by the help of the verb substantive +to be. They answer nearly to the reciprocal verbs in French; as, I am +risen, surrexi, Latin; Je me suis leve, French. I was walked out, exieram: +Je m'etois promene. + +In like manner we commonly express the present tense; as, I am going, eo. I +am grieving, doleo, She is dying, illa moritur. The tempest is raging, +furit procella. I am pursuing an enemy, hostem insequor. So the other +tenses, as, We were walking, [Greek: etynchanomen peripatountes], I have +been walking, I had been walking, I shall or will be walking. + +There is another manner of using the active participle, which gives it a +passive signification: as, The grammar is now printing, grammatica jam nunc +chartis imprimitur. The brass is forging, ara excuduntur. This is, in my +opinion, a vitious expression, probably corrupted from a phrase more pure, +but now somewhat obsolete: The book is a printing, The brass is a forging; +a being properly at, and printing and forging verbal nouns signifying +action, according to the analogy of this language. + +The indicative and conjunctive moods are by modern writers frequently +confounded, or rather the conjunctive is wholly neglected, when some +convenience of versification docs not invite its revival. It is used among +the purer writers of former times after if, though, ere, before, till or +until, whether, except, unless, whatsoever, whomsoever, and words of +wishing; as, Doubtless thou art our father, though Abraham be ignorant of +us, and Israel acknowledge us not. + + * * * * * + +Of IRREGULAR VERBS. + +The English verbs were divided by Ben Jonson into four conjugations, +without any reason arising from the nature of the language, which has +properly but one conjugation, such as has been exemplified: from which all +deviations are to be considered as anomalies, which are indeed, in our +monosyllable Saxon verbs, and the verbs derived from them, very frequent; +but almost all the verbs which have been adopted from other languages, +follow the regular form. + + Our verbs are observed by Dr. Wallis to be irregular only in the + formation of the preterit, and its participle. Indeed, in the + scantiness of our conjugations, there is scarcely any other place for + irregularity. + +The first irregularity is a slight deviation from the regular form, by +rapid utterance or poetical contraction: the last syllable ed is often +joined with the former by suppression of e; as lov'd for loved; after c, +ch, sh, f, k, x, and after the consonants s, th, when more strongly +pronounced, and sometimes after m, n, r, if preceded by a short vowel, t is +used in pronunciation, but very seldom in writing rather than d; as plac't, +snatch't, fish't, wak't, dwel't, smel't for plac'd, snatch'd, fish'd, +wak'd, dwel'd, smel'd; or placed, snatched, fished, waked, dwelled, +smelled. + +Those words which terminate in l or ll, or p, make their preterit in t, +even in solemn language; as crept, felt, dwelt; Sometimes after x, ed is +changed into t; as vext: this is not constant. + +A long vowel is often changed into a short one; thus kept, slept, wept, +crept, swept; from the verbs to keep, to sleep, to weep, to creep, to +sweep. + +Where d or t go before, the additional letter d or t, in this contracted +form, coalesce into one letter with the radical d or t: if t were the +radical, they coalesce into t; but if d were the radical, then into d or t, +as the one or the other letter may be more easily pronounced; as read, led, +spread, shed, shred, bid, hid, chid, fed, bled, bred, sped, strid, slid, +rid; from the verbs to read, to lead, to spread, to shed, to shread, to +bid, to hide, to chide, to feed, to bleed, to breed, to speed, to stride, +to slide, to ride. And thus cast, hurt, cost, burst, eat, beat, sweat, sit, +quit, smit, writ, bit, hit, met, shot; from the verbs to cast, to hurt, to +cost, to burst, to eat, to beat, to sweat, to sit, to quit, to smite, to +write, to bite, to hit, to meet, to shoot. And in like manner, lent, sent, +rent, girt; from the verbs to lend, to send, to rend, to gird. + +The participle preterit or passive is often formed in en instead of ed; as, +been, taken, given, slain, known, from the verbs to be, to take, to give, +to slay, to know. + +Many words have two or more participles, as not only written, bitten, +eaten, beaten, hidden, chidden, shotten, chosen, broken; but likewise writ, +bit, eat, beat, hid, chid, shot, chose, broke, are promiscuously used in +the participle, from the verbs to write, to bite, to eat, to beat, to hide, +to chide, to shoot, to choose, to break, and many such like. + +In the same manner, sown, shewn, hewn, mown, loaden, laden, as well as +sow'd, show'd, hew'd, mow'd, loaded, laded, from the verbs to sow, to show, +to hew, to mow, to load, to lade. + +Concerning these double participles it is difficult to give any rule; but +he shall seldom err who remembers, that when a verb has a participle +distinct from its preterit, as write, wrote, written, that distinct +participle is more proper and elegant, as The book is written, is better +than The book is wrote. Wrote however may be used in poetry; at least, if +we allow any authority to poets, who, in the exultation of genius, think +themselves perhaps entitled to trample on grammarians. + +There are other anomalies in the preterit. + +1. Win, spin, begin, swim, strike, stick, sing, sting, fling, ring, wring, +spring, swing, drink, sink, shrink, stink, come, run, find, bind, grind, +wind, both in the preterit imperfect and participle passive, give won, +spun, begun, swum, struck, stuck, sung, stung, flung, rung, wrung, sprung, +swung, drunk, sunk, shrunk, stunk, come, run, found, bound, ground, wound. +And most of them are also formed in the preterit by a, as began, sang, +rang, sprang, drank, came, ran, and some others; but most of these are now +obsolete. Some in the participle passive likewise take en, as stricken, +strucken, drunken, bounden. + +2. Fight, teach, reach, seek, beseech, catch, buy, bring, think, work, make +fought, taught, raught, sought, besought, caught, bought, brought, thought, +wrought. + +But a great many of these retain likewise the regular form, as teached, +reached, beseeched, catched, worked. + +3. Take, shake, forsake, wake, awake, stand, break, speak, bear, shear, +swear, tear, wear, weave, cleave, strive, thrive, drive, shine, rise, +arise, smite, write, bide, abide, ride, choose, chuse, tread, get, beget, +forget, seethe, make in both preterit and participle took, shook, forsook, +woke, awoke, stood, broke, spoke, bore, shore, swore, tore, wore, wove, +clove, strove, throve, drove, shone, rose, arose, smote, wrote, bode, +abode, rode, chose, trode, got, begot, forgot, sod. But we say likewise, +thrive, rise, smit, writ, abid, rid. In the preterit some are likewise +formed by a, as brake, spake, bare, share, sware, tare, ware, clave, gat, +begat, forgat, and perhaps some others, but more rarely. In the participle +passive many of them are formed by en, as taken, shaken, forsaken, broken, +spoken, born, shorn, sworn, torn, worn, woven, cloven, thriven, driven, +risen, smitten, ridden, chosen, trodden, gotten, begotten, forgotten, +sodden. And many do likewise retain the analogy in both, as waked, awaked, +sheared, weaved, cleaved, abided, seethed. + +4. Give, bid, sit, make in the preterit gave, bade, sate; in the participle +passive given, bidden, sitten; but in both bid. + +5. Draw, know, grow, throw, blow, crow like a cock, fly, slay, see, ly, +make their preterit drew, knew, grew, threw, blew, crew, flew, slew, saw, +lay; their participles passive by n, drawn, known, grown, thrown, blown, +flown, slain, seen, lien, lain. Yet from flee is made fled; from go, went, +(from the old wend) the participle is gone. + + * * * * * + +Of DERIVATION. + + That the English language may be more easily understood, it is + necessary to inquire how its derivative words are deduced from their + primitives, and how the primitives are borrowed from other languages. + In this inquiry I shall sometimes copy Dr. Wallis, and sometimes + endeavour to supply his detects, and rectify his errours. + +Nouns are derived from verbs. + +The thing implied in the verb, as done or produced, is commonly either the +present of the verb; as to love, love; to fright, a fright; to fight, a +fight; or the preterit of the verb, as to strike, I strick or strook, a +stroke. + +The action is the same with the participle present, as loving, frighting, +fighting, striking. + +The agent, or person acting, is denoted by the syllable er added to the +verb, as lover, frighter, striker. + +Substantives, adjectives, and sometimes other parts of speech, are changed +into verbs: in which case the vowel is often lengthened, or the consonant +softened; as, a house, to house; brass, to braze; glass, to glaze; grass, +to graze; price, to prize; breath, to breathe; a fish, to fish; oil, to +oil; further, to further; forward, to forward; hinder, to hinder. + +Sometimes the termination en is added, especially to adjectives; as, haste, +to hasten; length, to lengthen; strength, to strengthen; short, to shorten; +fast, to fasten; white, to whiten; black, to blacken; hard, to harden; +soft, to soften. + +From substantives are formed adjectives of plenty, by adding the +termination y: as a louse, lousy; wealth, wealthy; health, healthy; might, +mighty; worth, worthy; wit, witty; lust, lusty; water, watery, earth, +earthy; wood, (a wood) woody; air, airy; a heart, hearty; a hand, handy. + +From substantives are formed adjectives of plenty, by adding the +termination ful, denoting abundance; as, joy, joyful; fruit, fruitful; +youth, youthful; care, careful; use, useful; delight, delightful; plenty, +plentiful; help, helpful. + +Sometimes in almost the same sense, but with some kind of diminution +thereof, the termination some is added, denoting something, or in some +degree; as delight, delightsome; game, gamesome; irk, irksome; burden, +burdensome; trouble, troublesome; light, lightsome; hand, handsome; alone, +lonesome; toil, toilsome. + +On the contrary, the termination less added to substantives, makes +adjectives signifying want; as, worthless, witless, heartless, joyless, +careless, helpless. Thus comfort, comfortless; sap, sapless. + +Privation or contrariety is very often denoted by the participle un +prefixed to many adjectives, or in before words derived from the Latin; as +pleasant, unpleasant; wise, unwise; profitable, unprofitable, patient, +impatient. Thus unworthy, unhealthy, unfruitful, unuseful, and many more. + + The original English privative is un; but as we often borrow trom the + Latin, or its descendants, words already signifying privation, as + inefficacious, impious, indiscreet, the inseparable particles un and in + have fallen into confusion, from which it is not easy to disentangle + them. + + Un is prefixed to all words originally English, as untrue, untruth, + untaught, unhandsome. + + Un is prefixed to all participles made privative adjectives, as + unfeeling, unassisting, unaided, undelighted, unendeared. + + Un ought never to be prefixed to a participle present to mark a + forbearance of action, as unsighing, but a privation of habit, as + unpitying. + + Un is prefixed to most substantives which have an English termination, + as unfertileness, unperfectness, which, if they have borrowed + terminations, take in or im, as infertility, imperfection; uncivil, + incivility; unactive, inactivity. + + In borrowing adjectives, if we receive them already compounded, it is + usual to retain the particle prefixed, as indecent, inelegant, + improper; but if we borrow the adjective, and add the privative + particle, we commonly prefix un, as unpolite, ungallant. + +The prepositive particles dis and mis, derived from the des and mes of the +French, signify almost the same as un; yet dis rather imports contrariety +than privation, since it answers to the Latin preposition de. Mis +insinuates some errour, and for the most part may be rendered by the Latin +words male or perperam. To like, to dislike; honour, dishonour; to honour, +to grace, to dishonour, to disgrace; to deign, to disdeign; chance, hap, +mischance, mishap; to take, to mistake; deed, misdeed; to use, to misuse; +to employ, to misemploy, to apply, to misapply. + +Words derived from Latin written with de or dis retain the same +signification; as distinguish, distinguo; detract, detraho; defame, defamo; +detain, detineo. + +The termination ly added to substantives, and sometimes to adjectives, +forms adjectives that import some kind of similitude or agreement, being +formed by contraction of lick or like. A giant, giantly, giantlike; earth, +earthly; heaven, heavenly; world, worldly; God, godly; good, goodly. + +The same termination ly, added to adjectives, forms adverbs of like +signification; as, beautiful, beautifully; sweet, sweetly; that is, in a +beautiful manner; with some degree of sweetness. + +The termination ish added to adjectives, imports diminution; and added to +substantives, imports similitude or tendency to a character; as green, +greenish; white, whitish; soft, softish; a thief, thievish; a wolf, +wolfish; a child, childish. + +We have forms of diminutives in substantives, though not frequent; as a +hill, a hillock; a cock, a cockrel; a pike, a pickrel; this is a French +termination: a goose, a gosling; this is a German termination: a lamb, a +lambkin; a chick, a chicken; a man, a manikin; a pipe, a pipkin; and thus +Halkin, whence the patronymick, Hawkins; Wilkin, Thomkin, and others. + + Yet still there is another form of diminution among the English, by + lessening the sound itself, especially of vowels, as there is a form of + augmenting them by enlarging or even lengthening it; and that sometimes + not so much by change of the letters, as of their pronunciation; as, + sup, sip, soop, sop, sippet, where, besides the extenuation of the + vowel, there is added the French termination et; top, tip; spit, spout; + babe, baby; booby, [Greek: Boupais]; great pronounced long, especially + if with a stronger sound, grea-t; little, pronounced long lee-tle; + ting, tang, tong, imports a succession of smaller and then greater + sounds; and so in jingle, jangle, tingle, tangle, and many other made + words. + + Much however of this is arbitrary and fanciful, depending wholly on + oral utterance, and therefore scarcely worthy the notice of Wallis. + +Of concrete adjectives are made abstract substantives, by adding the +termination ness; and a few in hood or head, noting character or qualities: +as white, whiteness; hard, hardness; great, greatness; skilful, +skilfulness, unskilfulness; godhead, manhood, maidenhead, widowhood, +knighthood, priesthood, likelihood, falsehood. + +There are other abstracts, partly derived from adjectives, and partly from +verbs, which are formed by the addition of the termination th, a small +change being sometimes made; as long, length; strong, strength; broad, +breadth; wide, width, deep, depth; true, truth; warm, warmth; dear, dearth; +slow, slowth; merry, mirth; heal, health; well, weal, wealth; dry, drought; +young, youth; and so moon, month. + +Like these are some words derived from verbs; die, death; till, tilth; +grow, growth; mow, later mowth, after mowth; commonly spoken and written +later math, after math; steal, stealth; bear, birth, rue, ruth; and +probably earth, from to ear or plow; fly, flight; weigh, weight; fray, +fright; draw, draught. + + These should rather be written flighth, frighth, only that custom will + not suffer h to be twice repeated. + + The same form retain faith, spight, wreathe, wrath, broth, froth, + breath, sooth, worth, light, wight, and the like, whose primitives are + either entirely obsolete, or seldom occur. Perhaps they are derived + from fey or foy, spry, wry, wreak, brew, mow, fry, bray, say, work. + +Some ending in ship, imply an office, employment, or condition; as, +kingship, wardship, guardianship, partnership, stewardship, headship, +lordship. + + Thus worship, that is, worthship; whence worshipful, and to worship. + +Some few ending in dom, rick, wick, do especially denote dominion, at least +state or condition; as, kingdom, dukedom, earldom, princedom, popedom, +Christendom, freedom, wisdom, whoredom, bishoprick, bailiwick. + +Ment and age are plainly French terminations and are of the same import +with us as among them, scarcely ever occurring, except in words derived +from the French, as commandment, usage. + + There are in English often long trains of words allied by their meaning + and derivation; as, to beat, a bat, batoon, a battle, a beetle, a + battledore, to batter, batter, a kind of glutinous composition for + food, made by beating different bodies into one mass. All these are of + similar signification, and perhaps derived from the Latin batuo. Thus + take, touch, tickle, tack, tackle; all imply a local conjunction from + the Latin tango, tetigi, tactum. + + From two are formed twain, twice, twenty, twelve, twins, twine, twist, + twirl, twig, twitch, twinge, between, betwixt, twilight, twibil. + + The following remarks, extracted from Wallis, are ingenious but of more + subtlety than solidity, and such as perhaps might in every language be + enlarged without end. + + Sn usually imply the nose, and what relates to it. From the Latin nasus + are derived the French nez and the English nose; and nesse, a + promontory, as projecting like a nose. But as if from the consonants ns + taken from nasus, and transposed that they may the better correspond, + sn denote nasus; and thence are derived many words that relate to the + nose, as snout, sneeze, snore, snort,snear, snicker, snot, snivel, + snite, snuff, snuffle, snaffle, snarl, snudge. + + There is another sn which may perhaps be derived from the Latin sinuo, + as snake, sneak, snail, snare; so likewise snap and snatch, snib, snub. + Bl imply a blast; as blow, blast, to blast, to blight, and, + metaphorically, to blast one's reputation; bleat, bleak, a bleak place, + to look bleak, or weather-beaten, black, blay, bleach, bluster, blurt, + blister, blab, bladder, blew, blabber lip't, blubber-cheek't, bloted, + blote-herrings, blast, blaze, to blow, that is, blossom, bloom; and + perhaps blood and blush. + + In the native words of our tongue is to be found a great agreement + between the letters and the thing signified; and therefore the sounds + of the letters smaller, sharper, louder, closer, softer, stronger, + clearer, more obscure, and more stridulous, do very often intimate the + like effects in the things signified. + + Thus words that begin with str intimate the force and effect of the + thing signified, as if probably derived from [Greek: stronnymi], or + strenuous; as strong, strength, strew, strike, streak, stroke, stripe, + strive, strife, struggle, strout, strut, stretch, strait, strict, + streight, that is, narrow, distrain, stress, distress, string, strap, + stream, streamer, strand, strip, stray, struggle, strange, stride, + stradale. + + St in like manner imply strength, but in a less degree, so much only as + is sufficient to preserve what has been already communicated, rather + than acquire any new degree; as if it were derived from the Latin sto; + for example, stand, stay, that is, to remain, or to prop; staff, stay, + that is, to oppose; stop, to stuff, stifle, to stay, that is, to stop; + a stay, that is, an obstacle; stick, stut, stutter, stammer, stagger, + stickle, stick, stake, a sharp, pale, and any thing deposited at play; + stock, stem, sting, to sting, stink, stitch, stud, stuncheon, stub, + stubble, to stub up, stump, whence stumble, stalk, to stalk, step, to + stamp with the feet, whence to stamp, that is, to make an impression + and a stamp; stow, to stow, to bestow, steward, or stoward; stead, + steady, stedfast, stable, a stable, a stall, to stall, stool, stall, + still, stall, stallage, stage, still, adjective, and still, adverb: + stale, stout, sturdy, stead, stoat, stallion, stiff, stark-dead, to + starve with hunger or cold; stone, steel, stern, stanch, to stanch + blood, to stare, steep, steeple, stair, standard, a stated measure, + stately. In all these, and perhaps some others, st denote something + firm and fixed. + + Thr imply a more violent degree of motion, as throw, thrust, throng, + throb, through, threat, threaten, thrall, throws. + + Wr imply some sort of obliquity or distortion, as wry, to wreathe, + wrest, wrestle, wring, wrong, wrinch, wrench, wrangle, wrinkle, wrath, + wreak, wrack, wretch, wrist, wrap. + + Sw imply a silent agitation, or a softer kind of lateral motion; as + sway, swag, to sway, swagger, swerve, sweat, sweep, swill, swim, swing, + swift, sweet, switch, swinge. + + Nor is there much difference of sm in smooth, smug, smile, smirk, + smite; which signifies the same as to strike, but is a softer word; + small, smell, smack, smother, smart, a smart blow properly signifies + such a kind of stroke as with an originally silent motion, implied in + sm, proceeds to a quick violence, denoted by ar suddenly ended, as is + shown by t. + + Cl denote a kind of adhesion or tenacity, as in cleave, clay, cling, + climb, clamber, clammy, clasp, to clasp, to clip, to clinch, cloak, + clog, close, to close, a clod, a clot, as a clot of blood, clouted + cream, a clutter, a cluster. + + Sp imply a kind of dissipation or expansion, especially a quick one, + particularly if there be an r, as if it were from spargo or separo: for + example, spread, spring, sprig, sprout, sprinkle, split, splinter, + spill, spit, sputter, spatter. + + Sl denote a kind of silent fall, or a less observable motion; as in + slime, slide, slip, slipper, sly, sleight, slit, slow, slack, slight, + sling, slap. + + And so likewise ash, in crash, rash, gash, flash, clash, lash, slash, + plash, trash, indicate something acting more nimbly and sharply. But + ush, in crush, rush, gush, flush, blush, brush, hush, push, imply + something as acting more obtusely and dully. Yet in both there is + indicated a swift and sudden motion not instantaneous, but gradual, by + the continued sound, sh. + + Thus in fling, sling, ding, swing, cling, sing, wring, sting, the + tingling of the termination ng, and the sharpness of the vowel i, imply + the continuation of a very slender motion or tremor, at length indeed + vanishing, but not suddenly interrupted. But in tink, wink, sink, + clink, chink, think, that end in a mute consonant, there is also + indicated a sudden ending. + + If there be an l, as in jingle, tingle, tinkle, mingle, sprinkle, + twinkle, there is implied a frequency, or iteration of small acts. And + the same frequency of acts, but less subtile by reason of the clearer + vowel a, is indicated in jangle, tangle, spangle, mangle, wrangle, + brangle, dangle; as also in mumble, grumble, jumble. But at the same + time the close u implies something obscure or obtunded; and a congeries + of consonants mbl, denotes a confused kind of rolling or tumbling, as + in ramble, scamble, scramble, wamble, amble; but in these there is + something acute. + + In nimble, the acuteness of the vowel denotes celerity. In sparkle, sp + denotes dissipation, ar an acute crackling, k a sudden interruption, l + a frequent iteration; and in like manner in sprinkle, unless in may + imply the subtilty of the dissipated guttules. Thick and thin differ in + that the former ends with an obtuse consonant, and the latter with an + acute. + + In like manner, in squeek, squeak, squeal, squall, brawl, wraul, yaul, + spaul, screek, shriek, shrill, sharp, shrivel, wrinkle, crack, crash, + clash, gnash, plash, crush, hush, hisse, fisse, whist, soft, jar, hurl, + curl, whirl, buz, bustle, spindle, dwindle, twine, twist, and in many + more, we may observe the agreement of such sort of sounds with the + things signified; and this so frequently happens, that scarce any + language which I know can be compared with ours. So that one + monosyllable word, of which kind are almost all ours, emphatically + expresses what in other languages can scarce be explained but by + compounds, or decompounds, or sometimes a tedious circumlocution. + +We have many words borrowed from the Latin; but the greatest part of them +were communicated by the intervention of the French; as, grace, face, +elegant, elegance, resemble. + +Some verbs which seem borrowed from the Latin, are formed from the present +tense, and some from the supines. + +From the present are formed spend, expend, expendo; conduce, conduco; +despise, despicio; approve, approbo; conceive, concipio. + +From the supines, supplicate, supplico; demonstrate, demonstro; dispose, +dispono; expatiate, expatior; suppress, supprimo; exempt, eximo. + + Nothing is more apparent than that Wallis goes too far in quest of + originals. Many of these which seem selected as immediate descendants + from the Latin, are apparently French, as, conceive, approve, expose, + exempt. + +Some words purely French, not derived from the Latin, we have transferred +into our language; as, garden, garter, buckler, to advance, to cry, to +plead, from the French jardin, jartier, bouclier, avancer, crier, plaider; +though, indeed, even of these part is of Latin original. + + As to many words which we have in common with the Germans, it is + doubtful whether the old Teutons borrowed them from the Latins, or the + Latins from the Teutons, or both had them from some common original; as + wine, vinum; wind, ventus; went, veni; way, via, wall, vallum; wallow, + volvo; wool, vellus; will, volo; worm, vermis; worth, virtus; wasp, + vespa; day, dies; draw, traho; tame, domo, [Greek: damao]; yoke, jugum, + [Greek: zeugos]; over, upper, super, [Greek: hyper]; am, sum, [Greek: + eimi]; break, frango; fly, volo; blow, flo. I make no doubt but the + Teutonick is more ancient than the Latin: and it is no less certain, + that the Latin, which borrowed a great number of words not only from + the Greek, especially the AEolick, but from other neighbouring + languages, as the Oscan and others, which have long become obsolete, + received not a few from the Teutonick. It is certain, that the English, + German, and other Teutonick languages, retained some derived from the + Greek, which the Latin has not; as, ax, achs, mit, ford, pfurd, + daughter, tochter, mickle, mingle, moon, sear, oar, grave, graff, to + grave, to scrape, whole, from [Greek: axine], [Greek: meta], [Greek: + porthmos], [Greek: thygater], [Greek: megalos], [Greek: mignyo], + [Greek: mene], [Greek: xeros], [Greek: grapho], [Greek: holos]. Since + they received these immediately from the Greeks, without the + intervention of the Latin language, why may not other words be derived + immediately from the same fountain, though they be likewise found among + the Latins? + +Our ancestors were studious to form borrowed words, however long, into +monosyllables; and not only cut off the formative terminations, but cropped +the first syllable, especially in words beginning with a vowel; and +rejected not only vowels in the middle, but likewise consonants of a weaker +sound, retaining the stronger, which seem the bones of words, or changing +them for others of the same organ, in order that the sound might become the +softer; but especially transposing their order, that they might the more +readily be pronounced without the intermediate vowels. For example in +expendo, spend; exemplum, sample; excipio, scape; extraneus, strange; +extractum, stretch'd; excrucio, to screw; exscorio, to scour; excorio, to +scourge; excortico, to scratch; and others beginning with ex: as also, +emendo, to mend; episcopus, bishop, in Danish bisp; epistola, epistle; +hospitale, spittle; Hispania, Spain; historia, story. + + Many of these etymologies are doubtful, and some evidently mistaken. + + The following are somewhat harder, Alexander, Sander; Elisabetha, + Betty; apis, bee; aper, bar; p passing into b, as in bishop; and by + cutting off a from the beginning, which is restored in the middle; but + for the old bar or bare, we now say boar; as for lang, long, for bain, + bane; for stane, stone; aprugna, brawn, p, being changed into b and a + transposed, as in aper, and g changed into w, as in pignus, pawn; lege, + law; [Greek: alopex], fox, cutting off the beginning, and changing p + into f, as in pellis, a fell; pullus, a foal; pater, father; pavor, + fear; polio, file; pleo, impleo, fill, full; piscis, fish; and + transposing o into the middle, which was taken from the beginning; + apex, a piece; peak, pike; zophorus, freese; mustum, stum; defensio, + fence; dispensator, spencer; asculto, escouter, Fr. scout; exscalpo, + scrape; restoring l instead of r, and hence scrap, scrabble, scrawl; + exculpo, scoop; exterritus, start; extonitus, attonitus, stonn'd; + stomachus, maw; offendo, fined; obstipo, stop; audere, dare; cavere, + ware; whence, a-ware, beware, wary, warn, warning; for the Latin v + consonant formerly sounded like our w, and the modern sound of the v + consonant was formerly that of the letter f, that is, the AEolick + digamma, which had the sound of [Greek: ph], and the modern sound of + the letter f was that of the Greek [Greek: ph] or ph; ulcus, ulcere, + ulcer, sore, and hence sorry, sorrow, sorrowful; ingenium, engine, gin, + scalenus, leaning, unless you would rather derive it from [Greek: + klino], whence inclino; infundibulum, funnel; gagates, jett, projectum, + to jett forth, a jetty; cucullus, a cowl. + + There are syncopes somewhat harder; from tempore, time; from nomine, + name, domina, dame; as the French homme, femme, nom, from homine, + foemina, nomine. Thus pagina, page; [Greek: poterion], pot; [Greek: + kypella], cup; cantharus, can; tentorium, tent; precor, pray; preda, + prey; specio, speculor, spy; plico, ply; implico, imply; replico, + reply; complico, comply; sedes episcopalis, see. + + A vowel is also cut off in the middle, that the number of the syllables + may be lessened; as amita, aunt; spiritus, spright; debitum, debt; + dubito, doubt; comes, comitis, count; clericus, clerk; quietus, quit, + quite; acquieto, to acquit; separo, to spare; stabilis, stable; + stabulum, stable; pallacium, palace, place; rabula, rail, rawl, wrawl, + brawl, rable, brable; quaesito, quest. + + As also a consonant, or at least one of a softer sound, or even a whole + syllable, rotundus, round; fragilis, frail; securus, sure; regula, + rule; tegula, tile; subtilis, subtle; nomen, noun; decanus, dean; + computo, count; subitaneus, sudden, soon; superare, to soar; periculum, + peril; mirabile, marvel; as magnus, main; dignor, deign; tingo, stain; + tinctum, taint; pingo, paint; praedari, reach. + + The contractions may seem harder, where many of them meet, as [Greek: + kyriakos], kyrk, church; presbyter, priest; sacristanus, sexton; + frango, fregi, break, breach; fagus, [Greek: phega], beech, f changed + into b, and g into ch, which are letters near akin; frigesco, freeze, + frigesco, fresh, sc into sh, as above in bishop, fish, so in scapha, + skiff, skip, and refrigesco, refresh; but viresco, fresh; phlebotamus, + fleam; bovina, beef; vitulina, veal; scutifer, squire; poenitentia, + penance; sanctuarium, sanctuary, sentry; quaesitio, chase; perquisitio, + purchase; anguilla, eel; insula, isle, ile, island, iland; insuletta, + islet, ilet, eyght, and more contractedly ey, whence Owsney, Ruley, + Ely; examinare, to scan; namely, by rejecting from the beginning and + end e and o, according to the usual manner, the remainder xamin, which + the Saxons, who did not use x, writ csamen, or scamen, is contracted + into scan: as from dominus, don; nomine, noun; abomino, ban; and indeed + apum examen; they turned into sciame; for which we say swarme, by + inserting r to denote the murmuring; thesaurus, store; sedile, stool; + [Greek: hyetos], wet; sudo, sweat; gaudium, gay; jocus, joy; succus, + juice; catena, chain; caliga, calga; chause, chausse, French, hose; + extinguo, stand, squench, quench, stint; foras, forth; species, spice; + recito, read; adjuvo, aid; [Greek: aion], aevum, ay, age, ever; floccus, + lock; excerpo, scrape, scrabble, scrawl; extravagus, stray, straggle; + collectum, clot, clutch; colligo, coil: recolligo, recoil; severo, + swear; stridulus, shrill; procurator, proxy; pulso, to push; calamus, a + quill; impetere, to impeach; augeo, auxi, wax; and vanesco, vanui, + wane; syllabare, to spell; puteus, pit; granum, corn; comprimo, cramp, + crump, crumple, crinkle. + + Some may seem harsher, yet may not be rejected, for it at least + appears, that some of them are derived from proper names, and there are + others whose etymology is acknowledged by every body; as, Alexander, + Elick, Scander, Sander, Sandy, Sanny; Elizabetha, Elizabeth, Elisabeth, + Betty, Bess; Margareta, Margaret, Marget, Meg, Peg; Maria, Mary, Mal, + Pal, Malkin, Mawkin, Mawkes; Mathaeus, Mattha, Matthew; Martha, Mat, + Pat; Gulielmus, Wilhelmus, Girolamo, Guillaume, William, Will, Bill, + Wilkin, Wicken, Wicks, Weeks. + + Thus cariophyllus, flos; gerofilo, Italian, giriflee, gilofer, French, + gilliflower, which the vulgar call julyflower, as if derived from the + month July; petroselinum, parsley; portulaca, purslain; cydonium, + quince; cydoniatum, quiddeny; persicum, peach; eruca, eruke, which they + corrupt to earwig, as if it took its name from the ear; annulus + geminus, a gimmal, or gimbal-ring; and thus the word gimbal or jumbal + is transferred to other things thus interwoven; quelques choses, + kickshaws. Since the origin of these, and many others, however forced, + is evident, it ought to appear no wonder to any one if the ancients + have thus disfigured many, especially as they so much affected + monosyllables; and, to make the sound the softer, took this liberty of + maiming, taking away, changing, transposing, and softening them. + + But while we derive these from the Latin, I do not mean to say, that + many of them did not immediately come to us from the Saxon, Danish, + Dutch, and Teutonick languages, and other dialects; and some taken more + lately from the French or Italians, or Spaniards. + + The same word, according to its different significations, often has a + different origin; as, to bear a burden, from fero; but to bear, whence + birth, born, bairn, comes from pario; and a bear, at least if it be of + Latin original, from fera. Thus perch, a fish, from perca; but perch, a + measure, from pertica, and likewise to perch. To spell is from syllaba; + but spell, an inchantment, by which it is believed that the boundaries + are so fixed in lands that none can pass them against the master's + will, from expello; and spell, a messenger, from epistola; whence + gospel, good-spell, or god-spell. Thus freese, or freeze, from + frigesco; but freeze, an architectonick word, from zophorus; but + freeze, for cloth, from Frisia, or perhaps from frigesco, as being more + fit than any other for keeping out the cold. + + There are many words among us, even monosyllables, compounded of two or + more words, at least serving instead of compounds, and comprising the + signification of more words that one; as, from scrip and roll comes + scroll; from proud and dance, prance; from st of the verb stay or stand + and out, is made stout; from stout and hardy, sturdy; from sp of spit + or spew, and out, comes spout; from the same sp with the termination + in, is spin; and adding out, spin out: and from the same sp, with it, + is spit, which only differs from spout in that it is smaller, and with + less noise and force; but sputter is, because of the obscure u, + something between spit and spout: and by reason of adding r, it + intimates a frequent iteration and noise, but obscurely confused; + whereas spatter, on account of the sharper and clearer vowel a, + intimates a more distinct poise, in which it chiefly differs from + sputter. From the same sp and the termination ark, comes spark, + signifying a single emission of fire with a noise; namely sp, the + emission, ar, the more acute noise, and k, the mute consonant, + intimates its being suddenly terminated; but adding l, is made the + frequentative sparkle. The same sp, by adding r, that is spr, implies a + more lively impetus of diffusing or expanding itself; to which adding + the termination ing, it becomes spring: its vigour spr imports; its + sharpness the termination ing; and lastly in acute and tremulous, + ending in the mute consonant g, denotes the sudden ending of any + motion, that it is meant in its primary signification, of a single, not + a complicated exilition. Hence we call spring whatever has an elastick + force; as also a fountain of water, and thence the origin of any thing: + and to spring, to germinate, and spring, one of the four seasons. From + the same spr and out, is formed sprout, and wit the termination ig, + sprig; of which the following, for the most part, is the difference: + sprout, of a grosser sound, imports a fatter or grosser bud; sprig, of + a slenderer sound, denotes a smaller shoot. In like manner, from str of + the verb strive, and out, comes strout, and strut. From the same str, + and the termination uggle, is made struggle; and this gl imports, but + without any great noise, by reason of the obscure sound of the vowel u. + In like manner, from throw and roll is made troll, and almost in the + same sense is trundle, from throw or thrust, and rundle. Thus graff or + grough is compounded of grave and rough; and trudge from tread or trot, + and drudge. + +In these observations it is easy to discover great sagacity and great +extravagance, an ability to do much defeated by the desire of doing more +than enough. It may be remarked, + +1. That Wallis's derivations are often so made, that by the same license +any language may be deduced from any other. + +2. That he makes no distinction between words immediately derived by us +from the Latin, and those which being copied from other languages, can +therefore afford no example of the genius of the English language, or its +laws of derivation. + +3. That he derives from the Latin, often with great harshness and violence, +words apparently Teutonick; and therefore, according to his own +declaration, probably older than the tongue to which he refers them. + +4. That some of his derivations are apparently erroneous. + + * * * * * + +SYNTAX. + + The established practice of grammarians requires that I should here + treat of the Syntax; but our language has so little inflection, or + variety of terminations, that its construction neither requires nor + admits many rules. Wallis, therefore, has totally neglected it; and + Jonson, whose desire of following the writers upon the learned + languages made him think a syntax indispensably necessary, has + published such petty observations as were better omitted. + +The verb, as in other languages, agrees with the nominative in number and +person; as, Thou fliest from good; He runs to death. + +Our adjectives and pronouns are invariable. + +Of two substantives the noun possessive is in the genitive; as, His +father's glory; The sun's heat. + +Verbs transitive require an oblique case; as, He loves me; You fear him. + +All prepositions require an oblique case: as, He gave this to me; He took +this from me; He says this of me; He came with me. + + * * * * * + +PROSODY. + + It is common for those that deliver the grammar of modern languages, to + omit the Prosody. So that of the Italians is neglected by Buomattei; + that of the French by Desmarais; aad that of the English by Wallis, + Cooper, and even by Jonson, though a poet. But as the laws of metre are + included in the idea of grammar, I have thought proper to insert them. + +PROSODY comprises orthoepy, or the rules of pronunciation; and orthometry, +or the laws of versification. + +Pronunciation is just, when every letter has its proper sound, and every +syllable has its proper accent, or, which in English versification is the +same, its proper quantity. + + The sounds of the letters have been already explained; and rules for + the accent or quantity are not easily to be given, being subject to + innumerable exceptions. Such, however, as I have read or formed, I + shall here propose. + +1. Of dissyllables, formed by affixing a termination, the former syllable +is commonly accented, as childish, kingdom, actest, acted, toilsome, lover, +scoffer, fairer, foremost, zealous, fulness, godly, meekly, artist. + +2. Dissyllables formed by prefixing a syllable to the radical word, have +commonly the accent on the latter; as to beget, to beseem, to bestow. + +3. Of dissyllables, which are at once nouns and verbs, the verb has +commonly the accent on the latter, and the noun on the former syllable; as, +to descant, a descant; to cement, a cement; to contract, a contract. + + This rule has many exceptions. Though verbs seldom have their accent on + the former, yet nouns often have it on the latter syllable; as delight, + perfume. + +4. All dissyllables ending in y, as cranny; in our, as labour, favour; in +ow, as willow, wallow, except allow; in le, as battle, bible; in ish, as +banish; in ck, as cambrick, cassock; in ter, as to batter; in age, as +courage, in en, as fasten; in et, as quiet; accent the former syllable. + +5. Dissyllable nouns in er, as canker, butter, have the accent on the +former syllable. + +6. Dissyllable verbs terminating in a consonant and e final, as comprise, +escape; or having a diphthong in the last syllable, as appease, reveal; or +ending in two consonants, as attend; have the accent on the latter +syllable. + +7. Dissyllable nouns having a diphthong in the latter syllable, have +commonly their accent on the latter syllable, as applause; except words in +ain, certain, mountain. + +8. Trissyllables formed by adding a termination, or prefixing a syllable, +retain the accent of the radical word; as, loveliness, tenderness, +contemner, wagonner, physical, bespatter, commenting, commending, +assurance. + +9. Trissyllables ending in ous, as gracious, arduous; in al, as capital; in +ion, as mention; accent the first. + +10. Trissyllables ending in ce, ent, and ate, accent the first syllable, as +countenance, continence, armament, imminent, elegant, propagate, except +they be derived from words having the accent on the last, as connivance, +acquaintance; or the middle syllable hath a vowel before two consonants, as +promulgate. + +11. Trissyllables ending in y, as entity, specify, liberty, victory, +subsidy, commonly accent the first syllable. + +12. Trissyllables in re or le accent the first syllable, as legible, +theatre, except disciple, and some words which have a position, as example, +epistle. + +13. Trissyllables in ude commonly accent the first syllable, as plenitude. + +14. Trissyllables ending in ator or atour, as creatour; or having in the +middle syllable a diphthong, as endeavour; or a vowel before two +consonants, as domestick; accent the middle syllable. + +15. Trissyllables that have their accent on the last syllable are commonly +French, as acquiesce, repartee, magazine, or words formed by prefixing one +or two syllables to an acute syllable, as immature, overcharge. + +16. Polysyllables, or words of more than three syllables, follow the accent +of the words from which they are derived, as arrogating, continency, +incontinently, commendable, communicableness. We should therefore say +disputable, indisputable; rather than disputable, indisputable; and +advertisement, rather than advertisement. + +17. Words in ion have the accent upon the antepenult, as salvation, +perturbation, concoction; words in atour or ator on the penult, as +dedicator. + +18. Words ending in le commonly have the accent on the first syllable, as +amicable, unless the second syllable have a vowel before two consonants, as +combustible. + +19. Words ending in ous have the accents on the antepenult, as uxorious, +voluptuous. + +20. Words ending in ty have their accent on the antepenult, as +pusillanimity, activity. + + These rules are not advanced as complete or infallible, but proposed as + useful. Almost every rule of every language has its exceptions; and in + English, as in other tongues, much must be learned by example and + authority. Perhaps more and better rules may be given that have escaped + my observation. + +VERSIFICATION is the arrangement of a certain number of syllables according +to certain laws. + +The feet of our verses are either iambick, as aloft, create; or trochaick, +as holy, lofty. + +Our iambick measure comprises verses + +Of four syllables, + + Most good, most fair, + Or things as rare, + To call you's lost; + For all the cost + Words can bestow, + So poorly show + Upon your praise, + That all the ways + Sense hath, come short. Drayton. + + With ravish'd ears + The monarch hears. Dryden. + +Of six, + + This while we are abroad, + Shall we not touch our lyre? + Shall we not sing an ode? + Or shall that holy fire, + In us that strongly glow'd, + In this cold air expire? + + Though in the utmost peak, + A while we do remain, + Amongst the mountains bleak, + Expos'd to sleet and rain, + No sport our hours shall break, + To exercise our vein. + + What though bright Phoebus' beams + Refresh the southern ground, + And though the princely Thames + With beauteous nymphs abound, + And by old Camber's streams + Be many wonders found: + + Yet many rivers clear + Here glide in silver swathes, + And what of all most dear, + Buxton's delicious baths, + Strong ale and noble chear, + T' asswage breem winters scathes. + + In places far or near, + Or famous, or obscure, + Where wholsom is the air, + Or where the most impure, + All times, and every where, + The muse is still in ure. Drayton. + +Of eight, which is the usual measure for short poems, + + And may at last my weary age + Find out the peaceful hermitage, + The hairy gown, and mossy cell, + Where I may sit, and nightly spell + Of ev'ry star the sky doth shew, + And ev'ry herb that sips the dew. Milton. + +Of ten, which is the common measure of heroick and tragick poetry, + + Full in the midst of this created space, + Betwixt heav'n, earth, and skies, there stands a place + Confining on all three; with triple bound; + Whence all things, though remote, are view'd around, + And thither bring their undulating sound. + The palace of loud Fame, her seat of pow'r, + Plac'd on the summit of a lofty tow'r; + A thousand winding entries long and wide + Receive of fresh reports a flowing tide. + A thousand crannies in the walls are made; + Nor gate nor bars exclude the busy trade. + Tis built of brass, the better to diffuse + The spreading sounds, and multiply the news; + Where echoes in repeated echoes play: + A mart for ever full; and open night and day. + Nor silence is within, nor voice express, + But a deaf noise of sounds that never cease; + Confus'd and chiding, like the hollow roar + Of tides, receding from th' insulted shore; + Or like the broken thunder heard from far, + When Jove to distance drives the rolling war. + The courts are fill'd with a tumultuous din, + Of crouds, or issuing forth, or ent'ring in: + A thorough-fare of news; where some devise + Things never heard, some mingle truth with lies: + The troubled air with empty sounds they beat, + Intent to hear, and eager to repeat. Dryden. + +In all these measures the accents are to be placed on even syllables; and +every line considered by itself is more harmonious, as this rule is more +strictly observed. The variations necessary to pleasure belong to the art +of poetry, not the rules of grammar. + +Our trochaick measures are Of three syllables, + + Here we may + Think and pray, + Before death + Stops our breath: + Other joys + Are but toys. Walton's Angler. + +Of five, + + In the days of old, + Stories plainly told, + Lovers felt annoy. Old Ballad. + +Of seven, + + Fairest piece of well form'd earth, + Urge not thus your haughty birth. Waller. + +In these measures the accent is to be placed on the odd syllables. + +These are the measures which are now in use, and above the rest those of +seven, eight, and ten syllables. Our ancient poets wrote verses sometimes +of twelve syllables, as Drayton's Polyolbion. + + Of all the Cambrian shires their heads that bear so high, + And farth'st survey their soils with an ambitious eye, + Mervinia for her hills, as for their matchless crouds, + The nearest that are said to kiss the wand'ring clouds, + Especial audience craves, offended with the throng, + That she of all the rest neglected was so long; + Alledging for herself, when, through the Saxons' pride, + The godlike race of Brute to Severn's setting side + Were cruelly inforc'd, her mountains did relieve + Those whom devouring war else every where did grieve. + And when all Wales beside (by fortune or by might) + Unto her ancient foe resign'd her ancient right, + A constant maiden still she only did remain, + The last her genuine laws which stoutly did retain. + And as each one is prais'd for her peculiar things; + So only she is rich, in mountains, meres and springs, + And holds herself as great in her superfluous waste, + As others by their towns, and fruitful tillage grac'd. + +And of fourteen, as Chapman's Homer. + + And as the mind of such a man, that hath a long way gone, + And either knoweth not his way, or else would let alone, + His purpos'd journey, is distract. + +The measures of twelve and fourteen syllables were often mingled by our old +poets, sometimes in alternate lines, and sometimes in alternate couplets. + +The verse of twelve syllables, called an Alexandrine, is now only used to +diversify heroick lines. + + Waller was smooth, but Dryden taught to join + The varying verse, the full resounding line, + The long majestick march, and energy divine. Pope. + +The pause in the Alexandrine must be at the sixth syllable. + +The verse of fourteen syllables is now broken into a soft lyrick measure of +verses, consisting alternately of eight syllables and six. + + She to receive thy radiant name, + Selects a whiter space. Fenton. + + When all shall praise, and ev'ry lay + Devote a wreath to thee, + That day, for come it will, that day + Shall I lament to see. Lewis to Pope. + + Beneath this tomb an infant lies + To earth whose body lent, + Hereafter shall more glorious rise, + But not more innocent. + When the Archangel's trump shall blow, + And souls to bodies join, + What crowds shall wish their lives below + Had been as short as thine! Wesley. + +We have another measure very quick and lively, and therefore much used in +songs, which may be called the anapestick, in which the accent rests upon +every third syllable. + + May I govern my passions with absolute sway, + And grow wiser and better as life wears away. Dr. Pope. + +In this measure a syllable is often retrenched from the first foot, as + + Diogenes surly and proud. Dr. Pope. + + When present, we love, and when absent agree, + I think not of Iris, nor Iris of me. Dryden. + +These measures are varied by many combinations, and sometimes by double +endings, either with or without rhyme, as in the heroick measure. + + 'Tis the divinity that stirs within us, + 'Tis heaven itself that points out an hereafter, + And intimates eternity to man. Addison. + +So in that of eight syllables, + + They neither added nor confounded, + They neither wanted nor abounded. Prior. + +In that of seven, + + For resistance I could fear none, + But with twenty ships had done, + What thou, brave and happy Vernon, + Hast atchiev'd with six alone. Glover. + +In that of six, + + 'Twas when the seas were roaring, + With hollow blasts of wind, + A damsel lay deploring, + All on a rock reclin'd. Gay. + +In the anapestick, + + When terrible tempests assail us. + And mountainous billows affright, + Nor power nor wealth can avail us, + But skilful industry steers right. Ballad. + +To these measures and their laws, may be reduced every species of English +verse. + +Our versification admits of few licences, except a synaloepha, or elision +of e in the before a vowel, as th' eternal; and more rarely of o in to, as +t' accept; and a synaresis, by which two short vowels coalesce into one +syllable, as question, special; or a word is contracted by the expulsion of +a short vowel before a liquid, as av'rice, temp'rance. + +Thus have I collected rules and examples, by which the English language may +be learned, if the reader be already acquainted with grammatical terms, or +taught by a master to those that are more ignorant. To have written a +grammar for such as are not yet initiated in the schools, would have been +tedious, and perhaps at last ineffectual. + + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's A Grammar of the English Tongue, by Samuel Johnson + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE *** + +***** This file should be named 15097.txt or 15097.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/1/5/0/9/15097/ + +Produced by Jonathan Ingram, Keith Edkins and the PG Online +Distributed Proofreading Team. + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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