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diff --git a/15097-h/15097-h.htm b/15097-h/15097-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..2c9822d --- /dev/null +++ b/15097-h/15097-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,4337 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content= + "text/html; charset=iso-8859-1" /> + <title> + The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Grammar of the English Tongue + </title> + + <style type="text/css"> + +<!-- + p { margin-top: .75em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .75em; + } + H1,H2,H3,H4,H5,H6 { + text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ + } + hr {text-align: center; width: 50%;} + hr.full {width: 100%;} + hr.short {text-align: center; width: 20%;} + body { margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; + } + + table { border-collapse: collapse; border: none } + td { padding-left: 1em; padding-right: 1em; border: none } + td.tbar { border-left : thin solid black; vertical-align: top; } + td.mbar { border-left : thin solid black; vertical-align: middle; } + table.allb { border : thin solid black; border-collapse: collapse } + td.allb { border : thin solid black; padding-left: 1em; padding-right: 1em; } + td p {margin: 0;} + + .contents + {margin-left:30%; margin-right:10%; margin-bottom: 1em; text-align: left;} + .contents .stanza {margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em;} + .contents p {margin: 0; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} + + .poem + {margin-left:10%; margin-right:10%; margin-bottom: 1em; text-align: left;} + .poem .stanza {margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em;} + .poem p {margin: 0; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} + p.i2 {margin-left: 1em;} + p.i4 {margin-left: 2em;} + p.i6 {margin-left: 3em;} + p.i8 {margin-left: 4em;} + p.z8 {margin-left: 4em; font-style: italic;} + p.i10 {margin-left: 5em;} + p.z10 {margin-left: 5em; font-style: italic;} + p.i12 {margin-left: 6em;} + p.i16 {margin-left: 8em;} + p.i20 {margin-left: 10em;} + + a:link {color:blue; text-decoration:none} + a:visited {color:blue; text-decoration:none} + a:hover {color:red} + link {color:blue; text-decoration:none} + + .noflo + {margin-bottom: 1em; text-align: left;} + .noflo .stanza {margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em;} + .noflo p {margin: 0; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} + .noflo p.i2 {margin-left: 1em;} + .noflo p.i16 {margin-left: 8em;} + + .author {text-align: right; margin-top: -1em; margin-right: 5%;} + .center {text-align: center; } + .right {text-align: right; } + .t {vertical-align: top; } + .m {vertical-align: middle; } + .b {font-weight: bold; } + .vol {/*font-weight: bold;*/ font-size: small;} + /* .grk {font-weight: bold; font-style: italic; } */ + .grk {font-style: normal; } + .linenum {position: absolute; top: auto; left: 60%;} /* poetry number */ + blockquote {margin-left: 2em; margin-right: 2em; } + blockquote.small {font-size: small; } + .pagenum {position: absolute; left: 92%; font-size: smaller; text-align: right;} /* page numbers */ + .sidenote {position: absolute; left: 92%; font-size: smaller; text-align: left;} /* sidenotes */ + .note {margin-left: 2em; margin-right: 2em; + font-size: small; } /* footnote */ + + .figure, .figcenter, .figright, .figleft + {padding: 1em; margin: 0; text-align: center; font-size: 0.8em;} + .figure img, .figcenter img, .figright img, .figleft img + {border: none;} + .figure p, .figcenter p, .figright p, .figleft p + {margin: 0; text-indent: 1em;} + .figure p.in, .figcenter p.in, .figright p.in, .figleft p.in + {margin: 0; text-indent: 8em;} + .figcenter {margin: auto;} + .figright {float: right;} + .figleft {float: left;} + // --> + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +Project Gutenberg's A Grammar of the English Tongue, by Samuel Johnson + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: A Grammar of the English Tongue + +Author: Samuel Johnson + +Release Date: February 18, 2005 [EBook #15097] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE *** + + + + +Produced by Jonathan Ingram, Keith Edkins and the PG Online +Distributed Proofreading Team. + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<p class="center">A</p> + +<h2>DICTIONARY</h2> + +<p class="center">OF THE</p> + +<h2>ENGLISH LANGUAGE:</h2> + +<p class="center">IN WHICH</p> + +<h4>THE WORDS ARE DEDUCED FROM THEIR ORIGINALS,<br /> +EXPLAINED IN THEIR DIFFERENT MEANINGS,</h4> + +<p class="center">AND</p> + +<h4>AUTHORIZED BY THE NAMES OF THE WRITERS IN WHOSE WORKS<br /> +THEY ARE FOUND.</h4> + +<h4><i>ABSTRACTED FROM THE FOLIO EDITION</i>,</h4> + +<p class="center">BY THE AUTHOR,</p> + +<h3>SAMUEL JOHNSON, LL.D.</h3> + + <br clear="all" /> +<hr /> + +<p class="center">TO WHICH IS PREFIXED,</p> + +<h4><i>DR. JOHNSON'S PREFACE TO THE ORIGINAL FOLIO EDITION</i>,</h4> + +<p class="center">AND</p> + +<h4>HIS GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.</h4> + +<h3>1812.</h3> + + <br clear="all" /> +<hr /> + +<h3>A GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE.</h3> + + <p><!-- Page 17 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page17"></a>[17]</span> + <b>Grammar</b>, which is the <i>art of using words properly</i>, + comprises four parts: Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>In this division and order of the parts of grammar I follow the common + grammarians, without inquiring whether a fitter distribution might not be + found. Experience has long shown this method to be so distinct as to + obviate confusion, and so comprehensive as to prevent any inconvenient + omissions. I likewise use the terms already received, and already + understood, though perhaps others more proper might sometimes be + invented. Sylburgius, and other innovators, whose new terms have sunk + their learning into neglect, have left sufficient warning against the + trifling ambition of teaching arts in a new language.</p> + + </blockquote> + <p><b>Orthography</b> is <i>the art of combining letters into syllables, + and syllables into words</i>. It therefore teaches previously the form + and sound of letters.</p> + + <p>The letters of the English language are,</p> + + +<table border="1" width="37%" title="Table of letters"> +<tr><td class="t" width="33%"> + <p>Roman.</p> +</td> +<td class="t" width="33%"> + <p>Italick.</p> +</td> +<td class="t" width="33%"> + <p>Name.</p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p>A a</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>A a</i></p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>a</i></p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p>B b</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>B b</i></p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>be</i></p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p>C c</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>C c</i></p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>see</i></p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p>D d</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>D d</i></p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>dee</i></p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p>E e</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>E e</i></p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>e</i></p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p>F f</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>F f</i></p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>eff</i></p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p>G g</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>G g</i></p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>jee</i></p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p>H h</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>H h</i></p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>aitch</i></p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p>I i</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>I i</i></p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>i</i> (or <i>ja</i>)</p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p>J j</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>J j</i></p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>j</i> conson.</p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p>K k</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>K k</i></p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>ka</i></p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p>L l</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>L l</i></p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>el</i></p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p>M m</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>M m</i></p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>em</i></p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p>N n</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>N n</i></p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>en</i></p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p>O o</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>O o</i></p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>o</i></p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p>P P</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>P p</i></p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>pee</i></p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p>Q q</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>Q q</i></p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>cue</i></p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p>R r</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>R r</i></p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>ar</i></p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p>S s</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>S s</i></p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>ess</i></p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p>T t</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>T t</i></p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>tee</i></p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p>U u</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>U u</i></p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>u</i> (or <i>va</i>)</p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p>V v</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>V v</i></p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>v</i> conson.</p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p>W w</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>W w</i></p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p>double <i>u</i></p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p>X x</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>X x</i></p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>ex</i></p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p>Y y</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>Y y</i></p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>wy</i></p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p>Z z</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>Z z</i></p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>zed</i></p> +</td></tr></table> + + <p>To these may be added certain combinations of letters universally used + in printing; as, <i>fl</i>, <i>ff</i>, <i>fi</i>, <i>ffi</i>, <i>ffl</i>, + and <i>&</i>, or <i>and per se, and</i>.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>Our letters are commonly reckoned twenty-four, because anciently + <i>i</i> and <i>j</i> as well as <i>u</i> and <i>v</i> were expressed by + the same character; but as those letters, which had always different + powers, have now different forms, our alphabet may be properly said to + consist of twenty-six letters</p> + + </blockquote> + <p>Vowels are five, <i>a</i>, <i>e</i>, <i>i</i>, <i>o</i>, <i>u</i>.</p> + + <p>Such is the number generally received; but for <i>i</i> it is the + practice to write <i>y</i> in the end of words, as <i>thy</i>, + <i>holy</i>; before <i>i</i>, as from <i>die</i>, <i>dying</i>; from + <i>beautify</i>, <i>beautifying</i>; in the words <i>says</i>, + <i>days</i>, <i>eyes</i>; and in words derived from the Greek, and + written originally with <span lang="el" title="y" >υ</span>, as + <i>sympathy</i>, <span lang="el" title="sympatheia" + >συμπαθεια</span>, + <i>system</i>, <span lang="el" title="systêma" + >συστημα</span>.</p> + + <p>For <i>u</i> we often write <i>w</i> after a vowel, to make a + diphthong; as, <i>raw</i>, <i>grew</i>, <i>view</i>, <i>vow</i>, + <i>flowing</i>; <i>lowness</i>.</p> + + <p>The sounds of all the letters are various.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>In treating on the letters, I shall not, like some other grammarians, + inquire into the original of their form, as an antiquarian; nor into + their formation and prolation by the organs of speech, as a mechanick, + anatomist, or physiologist; nor into the properties and gradation of + sounds, or the elegance or harshness of particular combinations, as a + writer of universal and transcendental grammar. I consider the English + alphabet only as it is English; and even in this narrow disquisition I + follow the example of former grammarians, perhaps with more reverence + than judgment, because by writing in English I suppose my reader already + acquainted with the English language, and consequently able to pronounce + the letters of which I teach the pronunciation; and because of sounds in + general it may be observed, that words are unable to describe them. An + account, therefore, of the primitive and simple letters, is useless, + almost alike to those who know their sound, and those who know it + not.</p> + + </blockquote> +<h3>OF VOWELS</h3> + +<h3>A.</h3> + + <p><i>A</i> has three sounds, the slender, open, and broad.</p> + + <p><i>A</i> slender is found in most words, as <i>face</i>, <i>mane</i>, + and in words ending in <i>ation</i>, as <i>creation</i>, + <i>salvation</i>, <i>generation</i>.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>The <i>a</i> slender is the proper English <i>a</i>, called very + justly by Erpenius, in his Arabick Grammar, <i>a Anglicum cum e + mistum</i>, as having a middle sound between the open <i>a</i> and the + <i>e</i>. The French have a similar sound in the word <i>pais</i>, and in + their <i>e</i> masculine.</p> + + </blockquote> + <p><i>A</i> open is the <i>a</i> of the Italian, or nearly resembles it; + as <i>father</i>, <i>rather</i>, <i>congratulate</i>, <i>fancy</i>, + <i>glass</i>.</p> + + <p><i>A</i> broad resembles the <i>a</i> of the German; as <i>all</i>, + <i>wall</i>, <i>call</i>.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>Many words pronounced with <i>a</i> broad were anciently written with + <i>au</i>; as <i>sault</i>, <i>mault</i>; and we still say, <i>fault</i>, + <i>vault</i>. This was probably the Saxon sound, for it is yet retained + in the northern dialects, and in the rustick pronunciation; as + <i>maun</i> for <i>man</i>, <i>haund</i> for <i>hand</i>.</p> + + </blockquote> + <p>The short <i>a</i> approaches to the <i>a</i> open, as + <i>grass</i>.</p> + + <p>The long <i>a</i>, if prolonged by <i>e</i> at the end of the word, is + always slender, as <i>graze</i>, <i>fame</i>.</p> + + <p><!-- Page 18 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page18"></a>[18]</span> + <i>A</i> forms a diphthong only with <i>i</i> or <i>y</i>, and <i>u</i> + or <i>w</i>. <i>Ai</i> or <i>ay</i>, as in <i>plain</i>, <i>wain</i>, + <i>gay</i>, <i>clay</i>, has only the sound of the long and slender + <i>a</i>, and differs not in the pronunciation from <i>plane</i>, + <i>wane</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Au</i> or <i>aw</i> has the sound of the German a, as <i>raw</i>, + <i>naughty</i>.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p><i>Ae</i> is sometimes found in Latin words not completely naturalized + or assimilated, but is no English diphthong; and is more properly + expressed by single <i>e</i>, as <i>Cesar</i>, <i>Eneas</i>.</p> + + </blockquote> +<h3>E.</h3> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p><i>E</i> is the letter which occurs most frequently in the English + language.</p> + + </blockquote> + <p><i>E</i> is long, as in scēne; or short, as in + <i>cĕllar</i>, <i>sĕparate</i>, <i>cĕlebrate</i>, + <i>mĕn</i>, <i>thĕn</i>.</p> + + <p>It is always short before a double consonant, or two consonants, as in + <i>vĕx</i>, <i>pĕrplexity</i>, <i>relĕnt</i>, + <i>mĕdlar</i>, <i>rĕptile</i>, <i>sĕrpent</i>, + <i>cĕllar</i>, <i>cĕssation</i>, <i>blĕssing</i>, + <i>fĕll</i>, <i>fĕlling</i>, <i>dĕbt</i>.</p> + + <p><i>E</i> is always mute at the end of a word, except in monosyllables + that have no other vowel, as <i>the</i>; or proper names, as + <i>Penelope</i>, <i>Phebe</i>, <i>Derbe</i>; being used to modify the + foregoing consonants, as <i>since</i>, <i>once</i>, <i>hedge</i>, + <i>oblige</i>; or to lengthen the preceding vowel, as <i>băn</i>, + <i>bāne</i>; <i>căn</i>, <i>cāne</i>; <i>pĭn</i>, + <i>pīne</i>; <i>tŭn</i>, <i>tūne</i>; <i>rŭb</i>, + <i>rūbe</i>; <i>pŏp</i>, <i>pōpe</i>; <i>fĭr</i>, + <i>fīre</i>; <i>cŭr</i>, <i>cūre</i>; <i>tŭb</i>, + <i>tūbe</i>.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>Almost all words which now terminate in consonants ended anciently in + <i>e</i>, as <i>year</i>, <i>yeare</i>; <i>wildness</i>, + <i>wildnesse</i>; which <i>e</i> probably had the force of the French + <i>e</i> feminine, and constituted a syllable with its associate + consonant; for in old editions words are sometimes divided thus, + <i>clea-re</i>, <i>fel-le</i>, <i>knowled-ge</i>. This <i>e</i> was + perhaps for a time vocal or silent in poetry as convenience required; but + it has been long wholly mute. Camden in his <i>Remains</i> calls it the + silent <i>e</i>.</p> + + </blockquote> + <p>It does not always lengthen the foregoing vowel, as <i>glŏve</i>, + <i>lĭve</i>, <i>gĭve</i>.</p> + + <p>It has sometimes in the end of words a sound obscure, and scarcely + perceptible, as <i>open</i>, <i>shapen</i>, <i>shotten</i>, + <i>thistle</i>, <i>participle</i>, <i>metre</i>, <i>lucre</i>.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>This faintness of sound is found when <i>e</i> separates a mute from a + liquid, as in <i>rotten</i>, or follows a mute and liquid, as in + <i>cattle</i>.</p> + + </blockquote> + <p><i>E</i> forms a diphthong with <i>a</i>, as <i>near</i>; with + <i>i</i>, as <i>deign</i>, <i>receive</i>; and with <i>u</i> or <i>w</i>, + as <i>new</i>, <i>stew</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Ea</i> sounds like <i>e</i> long, as <i>mean</i>; or like + <i>ee</i>, as <i>dear</i>, <i>clear</i>, <i>near</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Ei</i> is sounded like <i>e</i> long, as <i>seize</i>, + <i>perceiving</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Eu</i> sounds as <i>u</i> long and soft.</p> + + <p><i>E</i>, <i>a</i>, <i>u</i>, are combined in <i>beauty</i> and its + derivatives, but have only the sound of <i>u</i>.</p> + + <p><i>E</i> may be said to form a diphthong by reduplication, as + <i>agree</i>, <i>sleeping</i>.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p><i>Eo</i> is found in <i>yeoman</i>, where it is sounded as <i>o</i> + short; and in <i>people</i>, where it is pronounced like <i>ee</i>.</p> + + </blockquote> +<h3>I.</h3> + + <p><i>I</i> has a sound long, as <i>fīne</i>; and short as + <i>fĭn</i>.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>That is eminently observable in <i>i</i>, which may be likewise + remarkable in other letters, that the short sound is not the long sound + contracted, but a sound wholly different.</p> + + </blockquote> + <p>The long sound in monosyllables is always marked by the <i>e</i> + final, as <i>thĭn</i>, <i>thīne</i>.</p> + + <p><i>I</i> is often sounded before <i>r</i>, as a short <i>u</i>; as + <i>flirt</i>, <i>first</i>, <i>shirt</i>.</p> + + <p>It forms a diphthong only with <i>e</i>, as <i>field</i>, + <i>shield</i>, which is sounded as the double <i>ee</i>; except + <i>friend</i>, which is sounded as <i>frĕnd</i>.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p><i>I</i> is joined with <i>eu</i> in <i>lieu</i>, and <i>ew</i> in + <i>view</i>; which triphthongs are sounded as the open <i>u</i>.</p> + + </blockquote> +<h3>O.</h3> + + <p><i>O</i> is long, as <i>bōne</i>, <i>ōbedient</i>, + <i>corrōding</i>; or short, as <i>blŏck</i>, <i>knŏck</i>, + <i>ŏblique</i>, <i>lŏll</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Women</i> is pronounced <i>wimen</i>.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>The short o has sometimes the sound of close <i>u</i>, as <i>son</i>, + <i>come</i>.</p> + + </blockquote> + <p><i>O</i> coalesces into a diphthong with <i>a</i>, as <i>moan</i>, + <i>groan</i>, <i>approach</i>: <i>oa</i> has the sound of <i>o</i> + long.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p><i>O</i> is united to <i>e</i> in some words derived from Greek, as + <i>œconomy</i>; but as being not an English diphthong, they are + better written as they are sounded, with only <i>e</i>, + <i>economy</i>.</p> + + </blockquote> + <p>With <i>i</i>, as <i>oil</i>, <i>soil</i>, <i>moil</i>, + <i>noisome</i>.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>This coalition of letters seems to unite the sounds of the two + letters, as far as two sounds can be united without being destroyed, and + therefore approaches more nearly than any combination in our tongue to + the notion of a diphthong.</p> + + </blockquote> + <p>With <i>o</i>, as <i>boot</i>, <i>hoot</i>, <i>cooler</i>; <i>oo</i> + has the sound of the Italian <i>u</i>.</p> + + <p>With <i>u</i> or <i>w</i>, as <i>our</i>, <i>power</i>, <i>flower</i>; + but in some words has only the sound of <i>o</i> long, as in <i>soul</i>, + <i>bowl</i>, <i>sow</i>, <i>grow</i>. These different sounds are used to + distinguish different significations: as <i>bow</i> an instrument for + shooting; <i>bow</i>, a depression of the head; <i>sow</i>, the she of a + boar; <i>sow</i>, to scatter seed; <i>bowl</i>, an orbicular body; + <i>bowl</i>, a wooden vessel.</p> + + <p><i>Ou</i> is sometimes pronounced like <i>o</i> soft, as <i>court</i>; + sometimes like <i>o</i> short, as <i>cough</i>; sometimes like <i>u</i> + close, as <i>could</i>; or <i>u</i> open, as <i>rough</i>, <i>tough</i>, + which use only can teach.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p><i>Ou</i> is frequently used in the last syllable of words which in + Latin end in <i>or</i> and are made English, as <i>honour</i>, + <i>labour</i>, <i>favour</i>, from <i>honor</i>, <i>labor</i>, + <i>favor</i>.</p> + + <p>Some late innovators have ejected the <i>u</i>, without considering + that the last syllable gives the sound neither of <i>or</i> nor + <i>ur</i>, but a sound between them, if not compounded of both; besides + that they are probably derived to us from the French nouns in <i>eur</i>, + as <i>honeur</i>, <i>faveur</i>.</p> + + </blockquote> + <p><!-- Page 19 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page19"></a>[19]</span></p> + +<h3>U.</h3> + + <p>U is long in <i>ūse</i>, <i>confūsion</i>; or short, as + <i>ŭs</i>, <i>concŭssion</i>.</p> + + <p>It coalesces with <i>a</i>, <i>e</i>, <i>i</i>, <i>o</i>; but has + rather in these combinations the force of the <i>w</i> consonant, as + <i>quaff</i>, <i>quest</i>, <i>quit</i>, <i>quite</i>, <i>languish</i>; + sometimes in <i>ui</i> the <i>i</i> loses its sound, as in <i>juice</i>. + It is sometimes mute before <i>a</i>, <i>e</i>, <i>i</i>, <i>y</i>, as + <i>guard</i>, <i>guest</i>, <i>guise</i>, <i>buy</i>.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p><i>U</i> is followed by <i>e</i> in <i>virtue</i>, but the <i>e</i> + has no sound.</p> + + <p><i>Ue</i> is sometimes mute at the end of a word, in imitation of the + French, as <i>prorogue</i>, <i>synagogue</i>, <i>plague</i>, + <i>vague</i>, <i>harangue</i>.</p> + + </blockquote> +<h3>Y.</h3> + + <p><i>Y</i> is a vowel, which, as Quintilian observes of one of the Roman + letters, we might want without inconvenience, but that we have it. It + supplies the place of <i>i</i> at the end of words, as <i>thy</i>, before + an <i>i</i>, as <i>dying</i>; and is commonly retained in derivative + words where it was part of a diphthong, in the primitive; as, + <i>destroy</i>, <i>destroyer</i>; <i>betray</i>, <i>betrayed</i>, + <i>betrayer</i>; <i>pray</i>, <i>prayer</i>; <i>say</i>, <i>sayer</i>; + <i>day</i>, <i>days</i>.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p><i>Y</i> being the Saxon vowel <i>y</i>, which was commonly used where + <i>i</i> is now put, occurs very frequently in all old books.</p> + + </blockquote> +<h3>GENERAL RULES.</h3> + + <p>A vowel in the beginning or middle syllable, before two consonants, is + commonly short, as <i>ŏppŏrtunity</i>.</p> + + <p>In monosyllables a single vowel before a single consonant is short; as + <i>stag</i>, <i>frog</i>.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p><i>Many</i> is pronounced as if it were written <i>manny</i>.</p> + + </blockquote> + <br clear="all" /> +<hr /> + +<h3>OF CONSONANTS.</h3> + +<h3>B.</h3> + + <p><i>B</i> has one unvaried sound, such as it obtains in other + languages.</p> + + <p>It is mute in <i>debt</i>, <i>debtor</i>, <i>subtle</i>, <i>doubt</i>, + <i>lamb</i>, <i>limb</i>, <i>dumb</i>, <i>thumb</i>, <i>climb</i>, + <i>comb</i>, <i>womb</i>.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>It is used before <i>l</i> and <i>r</i>, as <i>black</i>, + <i>brown</i>.</p> + + </blockquote> +<h3>C.</h3> + + <p><i>C</i> has before <i>e</i> and <i>i</i> the sound of <i>s</i>; as + <i>sincerely</i>, <i>centrick</i>, <i>century</i>, <i>circular</i>, + <i>cistern</i>, <i>city</i>, <i>siccity</i>: before <i>a</i>, <i>o</i>, + and <i>u</i>, it sounds like <i>k</i>, as <i>calm</i>, <i>concavity</i>, + <i>copper</i>, <i>incorporate</i>, <i>curiosity</i>, + <i>concupiscence</i>.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p><i>C</i> might be omitted in the language without loss, since one of + its sounds might be supplied by, <i>s</i>, and the other by <i>k</i>, but + that it preserves to the eye the etymology of words, as <i>face</i> from + <i>facies</i>, <i>captive</i> from <i>captivus</i>.</p> + + </blockquote> + <p><i>Ch</i> has a sound which is analyzed into <i>tsh</i>, as + <i>church</i>, <i>chin</i>, <i>crutch</i>. It is the same sound which the + Italians give to the <i>c</i> simple before <i>i</i> and <i>e</i>, as + <i>citta</i>, <i>cerro</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Ch</i> is sounded like <i>k</i> in words derived from the Greek, as + <i>chymist</i>, <i>scheme</i>, <i>choler</i>. <i>Arch</i> is commonly + sounded <i>ark</i> before a vowel, as <i>archangel</i>, and with the + English sound of <i>ch</i> before a consonant, as <i>archbishop</i>.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p><i>Ch</i>, in some French words not yet assimilated, sounds like + <i>sh</i>, as <i>machine</i>, <i>chaise</i>.</p> + + <p><i>C</i>, according to English orthography, never ends a word; + therefore we write <i>stick</i>, <i>block</i>, which were originally, + <i>sticke</i>, <i>blocke</i>. In such words <i>c</i> is now mute.</p> + + <p>It is used before <i>l</i> and <i>r</i>, as <i>clock</i>, + <i>cross</i>.</p> + + </blockquote> +<h3>D.</h3> + + <p>Is uniform in its sound, as <i>death</i>, <i>diligent</i>.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>It is used before <i>r</i>, as <i>draw</i>, <i>dross</i>; and <i>w</i> + as <i>dwell</i>.</p> + + </blockquote> +<h3>F.</h3> + + <p><i>F</i>, though having a name beginning with a vowel, is numbered by + the grammarians among the semivowels, yet has this quality of a mute, + that it is commodiously sounded before a liquid, as <i>flask</i>, + <i>fry</i>, <i>freckle</i>. It has an unvariable sound, except that + <i>of</i> is sometimes spoken nearly as <i>ov</i>.</p> + +<h3>G.</h3> + + <p><i>G</i> has two sounds; one hard, as in <i>gay</i>, <i>go</i>, + <i>gun</i>; the other soft, as in <i>gem</i>, <i>giant</i>.</p> + + <p>At the end of a word it is always hard, as <i>ring</i>, <i>snug</i>, + <i>song</i>, <i>frog</i>.</p> + + <p>Before <i>e</i> and <i>i</i> the sound is uncertain.</p> + + <p><i>G</i> before <i>e</i> is soft, as <i>gem</i>, <i>generation</i>, + except in <i>gear</i>, <i>geld</i>, <i>geese</i>, <i>get</i>, + <i>gewgaw</i>, and derivatives from words ending in <i>g</i>, as + <i>singing</i>, <i>stronger</i>, and generally before <i>er</i> at the + ends of words, as <i>finger</i>.</p> + + <p><i>G</i> is mute before <i>n</i>, as <i>gnash</i>, <i>sign</i>, + <i>foreign</i>.</p> + + <p><i>G</i> before <i>i</i> is hard, as <i>give</i>, except in + <i>giant</i>, <i>gigantick</i>, <i>gibbet</i>, <i>gibe</i>, + <i>giblets</i>, <i>Giles</i>, <i>gill</i>, <i>gilliflower</i>, + <i>gin</i>, <i>ginger</i>, <i>gingle</i>, to which may be added + <i>Egypt</i> and <i>gypsy</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Gh</i> in the beginning of a word has the sound of the hard + <i>g</i>, as <i>ghostly</i>; in the middle, and sometimes at the end, it + is quite silent, as <i>though</i>, <i>right</i>, <i>sought</i>, spoken + <i>tho'</i>, <i>rite</i>, <i>soute</i>.</p> + + <p>It has often at the end the sound of <i>f</i>, as <i>laugh</i>; whence + laughter retains the same sound in the middle; <i>cough</i>, + <i>trough</i>, <i>sough</i>, <i>tough</i>, <i>enough</i>, + <i>slough</i>.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>It is not to be doubted, but that in the original pronunciation + <i>gh</i> has the force of a consonant deeply guttural, which is still + continued among the Scotch.</p> + + <p><i>G</i> is used before <i>h</i>, <i>l</i>, and <i>r</i>.</p> + + </blockquote> +<h3>H.</h3> + + <p><i>H</i> is a note of aspiration, and shows that the following vowel + must be pronounced <!-- Page 20 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page20"></a>[20]</span> with a strong emission of breath, as + <i>hat</i>, <i>horse</i>.</p> + + <p>It seldom begins any but the first syllable, in which it is always + sounded with a full breath, except in <i>heir</i>, <i>herb</i>, + <i>hostler</i>, <i>honour</i>, <i>humble</i>, <i>honest</i>, + <i>humour</i> and their derivatives.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>It sometimes begins middle or final syllables in words compounded, as + <i>blockhead</i>; or derived from the Latin, as <i>comprehend</i>.</p> + + </blockquote> +<h3>J.</h3> + + <p><i>J</i> consonant sounds uniformly like the soft <i>g</i>, and is + therefore a letter useless, except in etymology, as <i>ejaculation</i>, + <i>jester</i>, <i>jocund</i>, <i>juice</i>.</p> + +<h3>K.</h3> + + <p><i>K</i> has the sound of hard <i>c</i>, and is used before <i>e</i> + and <i>i</i>, where, according to English analogy, <i>c</i> would be + soft, as <i>kept</i>, <i>king</i>, <i>skirt</i>, <i>skeptick</i>, for so + it should be written, not <i>sceptick</i>, because <i>sc</i> is sounded + like <i>s</i>, as in <i>scene</i>.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>It is used before <i>n</i>, as <i>knell</i>, <i>knot</i>, but totally + loses its sound in modern pronunciation.</p> + + </blockquote> + <p><i>K</i> is never doubled; but <i>c</i> is used before it to shorten + the vowel by a double consonant, as <i>cockle</i>, <i>pickle</i>.</p> + +<h3>L.</h3> + + <p><i>L</i> has in English the same liquid sound as in other + languages.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>The custom is to double the <i>l</i> at the end of monosyllables, as + <i>kill</i>, <i>will</i>, <i>full</i>. These words were originally + written <i>kille</i>, <i>wille</i>, <i>fulle</i>; and when the <i>e</i> + first grew silent, and was afterward omitted, the <i>ll</i> was retained, + to give force, according to the analogy of our language, to the foregoing + vowel.</p> + + </blockquote> + <p><i>L</i>, is sometimes mute, as in <i>calf</i>, <i>half</i>, + <i>halves</i>, <i>calves</i>, <i>could</i>, <i>would</i>, <i>should</i>, + <i>psalm</i>, <i>talk</i>, <i>salmon</i>, <i>falcon</i>.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>The Saxons, who delighted in guttural sounds, sometimes aspirated the + <i>l</i> at the beginning of words, as <i>hlaf</i>, <i>a loaf</i>, or + <i>bread</i>; <i>hlaford</i>, <i>a lord</i>; but this pronunciation is + now disused.</p> + + </blockquote> + <p><i>Le</i> at the end of words is pronounced like a weak <i>el</i>, in + which the <i>e</i> is almost mute, as <i>table</i>, <i>shuttle</i>.</p> + +<h3>M.</h3> + + <p><i>M</i> has always the same sound, as <i>murmur</i>, + <i>monumental</i>.</p> + +<h3>N.</h3> + + <p><i>N</i> has always, the same sound, as <i>noble</i>, + <i>manners</i>.</p> + + <p><i>N</i> is sometimes mute after <i>m</i>, as <i>damn</i>, + <i>condemn</i>, <i>hymn</i>.</p> + +<h3>P.</h3> + + <p><i>P</i> has always the same sound which the Welsh and Germans + confound with <i>b</i>.</p> + + <p><i>P</i> is sometimes mute, as in <i>psalm</i>, and between <i>m</i> + and <i>t</i>, as <i>tempt</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Ph</i> is used for <i>f</i> in words derived from the Greek, as + <i>philosopher</i>, <i>philanthropy</i>, <i>Philip</i>.</p> + +<h3>Q.</h3> + + <p><i>Q</i>, as in other languages, is always followed by <i>u</i>, and + has a sound which our Saxon ancestors well expressed by <i>cw</i>, as + <i>quadrant</i>, <i>queen</i>, <i>equestrian</i>, <i>quilt</i>, + <i>inquiry</i>, <i>quire</i>, <i>quotidian</i>. <i>Qu</i> is never + followed by <i>u</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Qu</i> is sometimes sounded, in words derived from the French, like + <i>k</i>, as <i>conquer</i>, <i>liquor</i>, <i>risque</i>, + <i>chequer</i>.</p> + +<h3>R.</h3> + + <p><i>R</i> has the same rough snarling sound as in the other + tongues.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>The Saxons used often to put <i>h</i> before it, as before <i>l</i> at + the beginning of words.</p> + + <p><i>Rh</i> is used in words derived from the Greek, as <i>myrrh</i>, + <i>myrrhine</i>, <i>catarrhous</i>, <i>rheum</i>, <i>rheumatick</i>, + <i>rhyme</i>.</p> + + </blockquote> + <p><i>Re</i>, at the end of some words derived from the Latin or French, + is pronounced like a weak <i>er</i>, as <i>theatre</i>, + <i>sepulchre</i>.</p> + +<h3>S.</h3> + + <p><i>S</i> has a hissing sound, as <i>sibilation</i>, <i>sister</i>.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>A single <i>s</i> seldom ends any word, except in the third person of + verbs, as <i>loves</i>, <i>grows</i>; and the plurals of nouns, as + <i>trees</i>, <i>bushes</i>, <i>distresses</i>; the pronouns <i>this</i>, + <i>his</i>, <i>ours</i>, <i>yours</i>, <i>us</i>; the adverb <i>thus</i>; + and words derived from Latin, as <i>rebus</i>, <i>surplus</i>; the close + being always either in <i>se</i>, as <i>house</i>, <i>horse</i>, or in + <i>ss</i>, as <i>grass</i>, <i>dress</i>, <i>bliss</i>, <i>less</i>, + anciently <i>grasse</i>, <i>dresse</i>.</p> + + </blockquote> + <p><i>S</i>, single at the end of words, has a grosser sound, like that + of <i>z</i>, as <i>trees</i>, <i>eyes</i>, except <i>this</i>, + <i>thus</i>, <i>us</i>, <i>rebus</i>, <i>surplus</i>.</p> + + <p>It sounds like <i>z</i> before <i>ion</i>, if a vowel goes before it, + as <i>intrusion</i>; and like <i>s</i>, if it follows a consonant, as + <i>conversion</i>.</p> + + <p>It sounds like <i>z</i> before <i>e</i> mute, as <i>refuse</i>, and + before <i>y</i> final, as <i>rosy</i>; and in those words, <i>bosom</i>, + <i>desire</i>, <i>wisdom</i>, <i>prison</i>, <i>prisoner</i>, + <i>present</i>, <i>present</i>, <i>damsel</i>, <i>casement</i>.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>It is the peculiar quality of <i>s</i>, that it may be sounded before + all consonants, except <i>x</i> and <i>z</i>, in which <i>s</i> is + comprised, <i>x</i> being only <i>ks</i>, and <i>z</i> a hard or gross + <i>s</i>. This <i>s</i> is therefore termed by grammarians <i>suæ + potestatis litera</i>; the reason of which the learned Dr. Clarke + erroneously supposed to be, that in some words it might be doubled at + pleasure. Thus we find in several languages.</p> + + </blockquote> + <p><span lang="el" title="Sbennymi" + >Σβεννυμι</span>, + <i>scatter</i>, <i>sdegno</i>, <i>sdrucciolo</i>, <i>sfavellare</i>, + <span lang="el" title="sphinx" + >σφιγξ</span>, <i>sgombrare</i>, + <i>sgranare</i>, <i>shake</i>, <i>slumber</i>, <i>smell</i>, + <i>snipe</i>, <i>space</i>, <i>splendour</i>, <i>spring</i>, + <i>squeeze</i>, <i>shrew</i>, <i>step</i>, <i>strength</i>, + <i>stramen</i>, <i>stripe</i>, <i>sventura</i>, <i>swell</i>.</p> + + <p><i>S</i> is mute in <i>isle</i>, <i>island</i>, <i>demesne</i>, + <i>viscount</i>.</p> + +<h3>T.</h3> + + <p><i>T</i> has its customary sound; as <i>take</i>, + <i>temptation</i>.</p> + + <p><!-- Page 21 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page21"></a>[21]</span> + <i>Ti</i> before a vowel has the sound of <i>si</i> as <i>salvation</i>, + except an <i>s</i> goes before, as <i>question</i>; excepting likewise + derivatives from words ending in <i>ty</i>, as <i>mighty</i>, + <i>mightier</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Th</i> has two sounds; the one soft, as <i>thus</i>, + <i>whether</i>; the other hard, as <i>thing</i>, <i>think</i>. The sound + is soft in these words, <i>then</i>, <i>thence</i>, and <i>there</i>, + with their derivatives and compounds, and in <i>that</i>, <i>these</i>, + <i>thou</i>, <i>thee</i>, <i>thy</i>, <i>thine</i>, <i>their</i>, + <i>they</i>, <i>this</i>, <i>those</i>, <i>them</i>, <i>though</i>, + <i>thus</i>; and in all words between two vowels, as, <i>father</i>, + <i>whether</i>; and between <i>r</i> and a vowel, as <i>burthen</i>.</p> + + <p>In other words it is hard, as <i>thick</i>, <i>thunder</i>, + <i>faith</i>, <i>faithful</i>. Where it is softened at the end of a word, + an <i>e</i> silent must be added, as <i>breath</i>, <i>breathe</i>; + <i>cloth</i>, <i>clothe</i>.</p> + +<h3>V.</h3> + + <p><i>V</i> has a sound of near affinity to that of <i>f</i>, as + <i>vain</i>, <i>vanity</i>.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>From <i>f</i> in the Islandick alphabet, <i>v</i> is only + distinguished by a diacritical point.</p> + + </blockquote> +<h3>W.</h3> + + <p>Of <i>w</i>, which in diphthongs is often an undoubted vowel, some + grammarians have doubted whether it ever be a consonant; and not rather + as it is called a double <i>u</i>, or <i>ou</i>, as <i>water</i> may be + resolved into <i>ouater</i>; but letters of the same sound are always + reckoned consonants in other alphabets: and it may be observed, that + <i>w</i> follows a vowel without any hiatus or difficulty of utterance, + as <i>frosty winter</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Wh</i> has a sound accounted peculiar to the English, which the + Saxons better expressed by <i>hw</i>, as, <i>what</i>, <i>whence</i>, + <i>whiting</i>; in <i>whore</i> only, and sometimes in <i>wholesome</i>, + <i>wh</i> is sounded like a simple <i>h</i>.</p> + +<h3>X.</h3> + + <p><i>X</i> begins no English word: it has the sound of <i>ks</i>, as + <i>axle</i>, <i>extraneous</i>.</p> + +<h3>Y.</h3> + + <p><i>Y</i>, when it follows a consonant, is a vowel; when it precedes + either a vowel or a diphthong, is a consonant, as <i>ye</i>, + <i>young</i>. It is thought by some to be in all cases a vowel. But it + may be observed of <i>y</i> as of <i>w</i>, that it follows a vowel + without any hiatus, as <i>rosy youth</i>.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>The chief argument by which <i>w</i> and <i>y</i> appear to be always + vowels is, that the sounds which they are supposed to have as consonants, + cannot be uttered after a vowel, like that of all other consonants; thus + we say <i>tu</i>, <i>ut</i>; <i>do</i>, <i>odd</i>; but in <i>wed</i>, + <i>dew</i>; the two sounds of <i>w</i> have no resemblance to each + other.</p> + + </blockquote> +<h3>Z.</h3> + + <p><i>Z</i> begins no word originally English; it has the sound, as its + name <i>izzard</i> or <i>s hard</i> expresses, of an <i>s</i> uttered + with a closer compression of the palate by the tongue, as <i>freeze</i>, + <i>froze</i>.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>In orthography I have supposed <i>orthoepy</i>, or <i>just utterance + of words</i>, to be included; orthography being only the art of + expressing certain sounds by proper characters. I have therefore observed + in what words any of the letters are mute.</p> + + <p>Most of the writers of English grammar have given long tables of words + pronounced otherwise than they are written, and seem not sufficiently to + have considered, that of English, as of all living tongues, there is a + double pronunciation, one cursory and colloquial, the other regular and + solemn. The cursory pronunciation is always vague and uncertain, being + made different in different mouths by negligence, unskilfulness, or + affectation. The solemn pronunciation, though by no means immutable and + permanent, is yet always less remote from the orthography, and less + liable to capricious innovation. They have however generally formed their + tables according to the cursory speech of those with whom they happened + to converse; and concluding that the whole nation combines to vitiate + language in one manner, have often established the jargon of the lowest + of the people as the model of speech.</p> + + <p>For pronunciation the best general rule is, to consider those as the + most elegant speakers who deviate least from the written words.</p> + + <p>There have been many schemes offered for the emendation and settlement + of our orthography, which, like that of other nations, being formed by + chance, or according to the fancy of the earliest writers in rude ages, + was at first very various and uncertain, and is yet sufficiently + irregular. Of these reformers some have endeavoured to accommodate + orthography better to the pronunciation, without considering that this is + to measure by a shadow, to take that for a model or standard which is + changing while they apply it. Others, less absurdly indeed, but with + equal unlikelihood of success, have endeavoured to proportion the number + of letters to that of sounds, that every sound may have its own + character, and every character a single sound. Such would be the + orthography of a new language, to be formed by a synod of grammarians + upon principles of science. But who can hope to prevail on nations to + change their practice, and make all their old books useless? or what + advantage would a new orthography procure equivalent to the confusion and + perplexity of such an alteration?</p> + + <p>Some ingenious men, indeed, have endeavoured to deserve well of their + country, by writing <i>honor</i> and <i>labor</i> for <i>honour</i> and + <i>labour</i>, <i>red</i> for <i>read</i> in the preter-tense, + <i>sais</i> for <i>says</i>, <i>repete</i> tor <i>repeat</i>, + <i>explane</i> for <i>explain</i>, or <i>declame</i> for <i>declaim</i>. + Of these it may be said, that as they have done no good they have done + little harm; both because they have innovated little, and because few + have followed them.</p> + + <p>The English language has properly no dialects; the style of writers + has no professed diversity in the use of words, or of their flexions and + terminations, nor differs but by different degrees of skill or care. The + oral diction is uniform in no spacious country, but has less variation in + England than in most other nations of equal extent. The language of the + northern counties retains many words now out of use, but which are + commonly of the genuine Teutonick race, and is uttered with a + pronunciation which now seems harsh and rough, but was probably used by + our ancestors. The northern speech is therefore not barbarous, but + obsolete. The speech in the western provinces seems to differ from the + general diction rather by a depraved pronunciation, than by any real + difference which letters would express.</p> + + </blockquote> + <br clear="all" /> +<hr /> + + <p><!-- Page 22 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page22"></a>[22]</span></p> + +<h3>ETYMOLOGY.</h3> + + <p>Etymology teaches the deduction of one word from another, and the + various modifications by which the sense of the same word is diversified; + as <i>horse</i>, <i>horses</i>; I <i>love</i>, I <i>loved</i>.</p> + +<h3><i>Of the</i> ARTICLE.</h3> + + <p>The English have two articles, <i>an</i> or <i>a</i>, and + <i>the</i>.</p> + +<h3>AN, A.</h3> + + <p><i>A</i> has an indefinite signification, and means <i>one</i>, with + some reference to more; as <i>This is a good book</i>; that is, <i>one + among the books that are good</i>; <i>He was killed by a sword</i>; that + is, <i>some sword</i>; <i>This is a better book for a man than a boy</i>; + that is, <i>for one of those that are men than one of those that are + boys</i>; <i>An army might enter without resistance</i>; that is, <i>any + army</i>.</p> + + <p>In the senses in which we use <i>a</i> or <i>an</i> in the singular, + we speak in the plural without an article; as <i>these are good + books</i>.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>I have made <i>an</i> the original article, because it is only the + Saxon <i>an</i>, or <i>æn</i>, one, applied to a new use, as the German + <i>ein</i>, and the French <i>un</i>; the <i>n</i> being cut off before a + consonant in the speed of utterance.</p> + + </blockquote> + <p>Grammarians of the last age direct, that <i>an</i> should be used + before <i>h</i>; whence it appears that the English anciently asperated + less. <i>An</i> is still used before the silent <i>h</i>; as <i>an + herb</i>, <i>an honest man</i>; but otherwise <i>a</i>; as</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>A</i> horse, <i>a</i> horse, my kingdom for <i>a</i> horse. <i>Shakespeare.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + <p><i>An</i> or <i>a</i> can only be joined with a singular: the + correspondent plural is the noun without an article, as, <i>I want a + pen</i>, <i>I want pens</i>; or with the pronominal adjective + <i>some</i>, as, <i>I want</i> some <i>pens</i>.</p> + +<h3>THE.</h3> + + <p><i>The</i> has a particular and definite signification.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p style="margin-left: 8em"><i>The</i> fruit</p> + <p>Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste</p> + <p>Brought death into <i>the</i> world. <i>Milton.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + <p>That is, <i>that particular fruit</i>, and <i>this world in which we + live</i>. So, <i>He giveth fodder for</i> the <i>cattle, and green herbs + for</i> the <i>use of man</i>; that is, for <i>those beings that are + cattle</i>, and <i>his use that is man</i>.</p> + + <p><i>The</i> is used in both numbers.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>I am as free as Nature first made man,</p> + <p>Ere <i>the</i> base laws of servitude began,</p> + <p>When wild in woods <i>the</i> noble savage ran. <i>Dryden.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + <p>Many words are used without articles; as</p> + + <p>1. Proper names, as <i>John</i>, <i>Alexander</i>, <i>Longinus</i>, + <i>Aristarchus</i>, <i>Jerusalem</i>, <i>Athens</i>, <i>Rome</i>, + <i>London</i>. GOD is used as a proper name.</p> + + <p>2. Abstract names, as <i>blackness</i>, <i>witch-craft</i>, + <i>virtue</i>, <i>vice</i>, <i>beauty</i>, <i>ugliness</i>, <i>love</i>, + <i>hatred</i>, <i>anger</i>, <i>good-nature</i>, <i>kindness</i>.</p> + + <p>3. Words in which nothing but the mere being of any thing is implied: + This is not <i>beer</i>, but <i>water</i>; this is not <i>brass</i>, but + <i>steel</i>.</p> + + <br clear="all" /> +<hr /> + +<h3><i>Of</i> NOUNS SUBSTANTIVE.</h3> + + <p>The relations of English nouns to words going before or following are + not expressed by <i>cases</i>, or changes of termination, but, as in most + of the other European languages, by prepositions, unless we may be said + to have a genitive case.</p> + + <p>Singular.</p> + + +<table border="1" width="68%" title="Cases of Latin and English nouns (singular)"> +<tr><td class="t" width="36%"> + <p>Nom. Magister,</p> +</td> +<td class="t" width="63%"> + <p><i>a</i> Master, <i>the</i> Master.</p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p>Gen. Magistri,</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>of a</i> Master, <i>of the</i> Master,<br /> <i>or</i> Master's, + <i>the</i> Master's.</p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p>Dat. Magistro,</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>to a</i> Master, <i>to the</i> Master.</p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p>Acc. Magistrum,</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>a</i> Master, <i>the</i> Master.</p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p>Voc. Magister,</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p>Master, <i>O</i> Master.</p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p>Abl. Magistro,</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>from a</i> Master, <i>from the</i> Master.</p> +</td></tr></table> + + <p>Plural.</p> + + +<table border="1" width="68%" title="Cases of Latin and English nouns (plural)"> +<tr><td class="t" width="36%"> + <p>Nom. Magistri,</p> +</td> +<td class="t" width="63%"> + <p>Masters, <i>the</i> Masters.</p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p>Gen. Magistrorum,</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>of</i> Masters, <i>of the</i> Masters.</p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p>Dat. Magistris,</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>to</i> Masters, <i>to the</i> Masters.</p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p>Acc. Magistros,</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p>Masters, <i>the</i> Masters.</p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p>Voc. Magistri,</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p>Masters, <i>O</i> Masters.</p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p>Abl. Magistris,</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>from</i> Masters, <i>from the</i> Masters.</p> +</td></tr></table> + + <p>Our nouns are therefore only declined thus:</p> + + +<table border="1" width="62%" title="Cases of English nouns"> +<tr><td class="t" width="20%"> + <p>Master,</p> +</td> +<td class="t" width="40%"> + <p><i>Gen.</i> Master's.</p> +</td> +<td class="t" width="40%"> + <p><i>Plur.</i> Masters.</p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p>Scholar,</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>Gen.</i> Scholar's.</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p><i>Plur.</i> Scholars.</p> +</td></tr></table> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>These genitives are always written with a mark of elision, + <i>master's</i>, <i>scholar's</i>, according to an opinion long received, + that the <i>'s</i> is a contraction of <i>his</i>, as the <i>soldier's + valour</i>, for <i>the soldier</i> his <i>valour</i>: but this cannot be + the true original, because <i>'s</i> is put to female nouns, <i>Woman's + beauty</i>; the <i>Virgin's delicacy</i>; <i>Haughty Juno's unrelenting + hate</i>; and collective nouns, as <i>Women's passions</i>; <i>the + rabble's insolence</i>; <i>the multitude's folly</i>: in all these cases + it is apparent that <i>his</i> cannot be understood. We say likewise + <i>the foundation's strength</i>; <i>the diamond's lustre</i>; <i>the + winter's severity</i>: but in these cases <i>his</i> may be understood, + <i>he</i> and <i>his</i> having formerly been applied to neuters in the + place now supplied by <i>it</i> and <i>its</i>.</p> + + <p>The learned and sagacious <i>Wallis</i>, to whom every English + grammarian owes a tribute of reverence, calls this modification of the + noun an <i>adjective possessive</i>; I think with no more propriety than + he might have applied the same to the genitive in <i>equitum decus</i>, + <i>Trojæ oris</i>, or any other Latin genitive. Dr. Lowth, on the other + part, supposes the possessive pronouns <i>mine</i> and <i>thine</i> to be + genitive cases.</p> + + <p>This termination of the noun seems to constitute a real genitive + indicating possession. It is derived to us from the Saxon's who declined + <i>smith</i>, a smith; Gen. <i>smither</i>, of a smith; Plur. + <i>smither</i> or <i>smithar</i>, smiths; and so in two other of their + seven declensions.</p> + + <p>It is a further confirmation of this opinion, that in the old poets + both the genitive and plural were longer by a syllable than the original + word: <i>knitis</i> for <i>knight's</i>, in Chaucer; <i>leavis</i> for + <i>leaves</i>, in Spenser.</p> + + <p><!-- Page 23 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page23"></a>[23]</span></p> + + <p>When a word ends in <i>s</i>, the genitive may be the same with the + nominative, as <i>Venus temple</i>.</p> + + </blockquote> + <p>The plural is formed by adding <i>s</i>, as <i>table</i>, + <i>tables</i>; <i>fly</i>, <i>flies</i>; <i>sister</i>, <i>sisters</i>; + <i>wood</i>, <i>woods</i>; or <i>es</i> where <i>s</i> could not + otherwise be sounded, as after <i>ch</i>, <i>s</i>, <i>sh</i>, <i>x</i>, + <i>z</i>; after <i>c</i> sounded like <i>s</i>, and <i>g</i> like + <i>j</i>; the mute <i>e</i> is vocal before <i>s</i>, as <i>lance</i>, + <i>lances</i>; <i>outrage</i>, <i>outrages</i>.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>The formation of the plural and genitive singular is the same.</p> + + <p>A few words still make the plural in <i>n</i>, as <i>men</i>, + <i>women</i>, <i>oxen</i>, <i>swine</i>, and more anciently <i>eyen, + shoon</i>. This formation is that which generally prevails in the + Teutonick dialects.</p> + + </blockquote> + <p>Words that end in <i>f</i> commonly form their plural by <i>ves</i>, + as <i>loaf</i>, <i>loaves</i>; <i>calf</i>, <i>calves</i>.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>Except a few, <i>muff</i>, <i>muffs</i>; <i>chief</i>, <i>chiefs</i>. + So <i>hoof</i>, <i>roof</i>, <i>proof</i>, <i>relief</i>, + <i>mischief</i>, <i>puff</i>, <i>cuff</i>, <i>dwarf</i>, + <i>handkerchief</i>, <i>grief</i>.</p> + + <p>Irregular plurals are <i>teeth</i> from <i>tooth</i>, <i>lice</i> from + <i>louse</i>, <i>mice</i> from <i>mouse</i>, <i>geese</i> from + <i>goose</i>, <i>feet</i> from <i>foot</i>, <i>dice</i> from <i>die</i>, + <i>pence</i> from <i>penny</i>, <i>brethren</i> from <i>brother</i>, + <i>children</i> from <i>child</i>.</p> + + </blockquote> + <p>Plurals ending in <i>s</i> have no genitives; but we say, Womens + <i>excellencies</i>, and <i>Weigh the</i> mens <i>wits against the</i> + ladies <i>hairs</i>.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>Dr. Willis thinks <i>the Lords' house</i> may he said for <i>the house + of Lords</i>; but such phrases are not now in use; and surely an English + ear rebels against them. They would commonly produce a troublesome + ambiguity, as <i>the Lord's house</i> may be the <i>house of Lords</i>, + or the <i>house of a Lord</i>. Besides that the mark of elision is + improper, for in the <i>Lords' house</i> nothing is cut off.</p> + + <p>Some English substantives, like those of many other languages, change + their termination as they express different sexes; as <i>prince</i>, + <i>princess</i>; <i>actor</i>, <i>actress</i>; <i>lion</i>, + <i>lioness</i>; <i>hero</i>, <i>heroine</i>. To these mentioned by Dr. + Lowth may be added <i>arbitress</i>, <i>poetess</i>, <i>chauntress</i>, + <i>duchess</i>, <i>tigress</i>, <i>governess</i>, <i>tutress</i>, + <i>peeress</i>, <i>authoress</i>, <i>traytress</i>, and perhaps othets. + Of these variable terminations we have only a sufficient number to make + us feel our want; for when we say of a woman that she is a + <i>philosopher</i>, an <i>astronomer</i>, a <i>builder</i>, a + <i>weaver</i>, a <i>dancer</i>, we perceive an impropriety in the + termination which we cannot avoid; but we can say that she is an + <i>architect</i>, a <i>botanist</i>, a <i>student</i>. because these + terminations have not annexed to them the notion of sex. In words which + the necessities of life are often requiring, the sex is distinguished not + by different terminations but by different names, as a <i>bull</i>, a + <i>cow</i>; a <i>horse</i>, a <i>mare</i>; <i>equus</i>, <i>equa</i>; a + <i>cock</i>, a <i>hen</i>; and sometimes by pronouns prefixed, as + <i>a</i> he-<i>goat</i>, <i>a</i>, she-<i>goat</i>.</p> + + </blockquote> + <br clear="all" /> +<hr /> + +<h3><i>Of</i> ADJECTIVES.</h3> + + <p>Adjectives in the English language are wholly indeclinable; having + neither case, gender, nor number, and being added to substantives in all + relations without any change; as, <i>a good woman</i>, <i>good women</i>, + <i>of a good woman</i>; <i>a good man</i>, <i>good men</i>, <i>of good + men</i>.</p> + +<h3><i>The Comparison of Adjectives.</i></h3> + + <p>The comparative degree of adjectives is formed by adding <i>er</i>, + the superlative by adding <i>est</i>, to the positive; as, <i>fair</i>, + fair<i>er</i>, fair<i>est</i>; <i>lovely</i>, loveli<i>er</i>, + loveli<i>est</i>; <i>sweet</i>, sweet<i>er</i>, sweet<i>est</i>; + <i>low</i>, low<i>er</i>, low<i>est</i>; <i>high</i>, high<i>er</i>, + high<i>est</i>.</p> + + <p>Some words are irregularly compared; as, <i>good</i>, <i>better</i>, + <i>best</i>; <i>bad</i>, <i>worse</i>, <i>worst</i>; <i>little</i>, + <i>less</i>, <i>least</i>; <i>near</i>, <i>nearer</i>, <i>next</i>; + <i>much</i>, <i>more</i>, <i>most</i>; <i>many</i> (for <i>moe</i>), + <i>more</i> (for <i>moer</i>) <i>most</i> (for <i>moest</i>); + <i>late</i>, <i>later</i>, <i>latest</i> or <i>last</i>.</p> + + <p>Some comparatives form a superlative by adding, <i>most</i>, as + <i>nether</i>, <i>nethermost</i>; <i>outer</i>, <i>outermost</i>; + <i>under</i>, <i>undermost</i>; <i>up</i>, <i>upper</i>, + <i>uppermost</i>; <i>fore</i>, <i>former</i>, <i>foremost</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Most</i> is sometimes added to a substantive, as, <i>topmost</i>, + <i>southmost</i>.</p> + + <p>Many adjectives do not admit of comparison by terminations, and are + only compared by <i>more</i> and <i>most</i>, as, <i>benevolent</i>, + <i>more benevolent</i>, <i>most benevolent</i>.</p> + + <p>All adjectives may be compared by <i>more</i> and <i>most</i>, even + when they have comparatives and superlatives regularly formed; as, + <i>fair</i>, <i>fairer</i>, or <i>more fair</i>; <i>fairest</i>, or + <i>most fair</i>.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>In adjectives that admit a regular comparison, the comparative + <i>more</i> is oftener used than the superlative <i>most</i>, as <i>more + fair</i> is oftener written for <i>fairer</i>, than <i>most fair</i> for + <i>fairest</i>.</p> + + </blockquote> + <p>The comparison of adjectives is very uncertain; and being much + regulated by commodiousness of utterance, or agreeableness of sound, is + not easily reduced to rules.</p> + + <p>Monosyllables are commonly compared.</p> + + <p>Polysyllables, or words of more than two syllables, are seldom + compared otherwise than by <i>more</i> and <i>most</i>, as, + <i>deplorable</i>, <i>more deplorable</i>, <i>most deplorable</i>.</p> + + <p>Dissyllables are seldom compared if they terminate in <i>some</i>, as + <i>fulsome</i>, <i>toilsome</i>; in <i>ful</i>, as, <i>careful</i>, + <i>spleenful</i>, <i>dreadful</i>; in <i>ing</i>, as <i>trifling</i>, + <i>charming</i>; in <i>ous</i>, as <i>porous</i>; in <i>less</i>, as, + <i>careless</i>, <i>harmless</i>; in <i>ed</i>, as <i>wretched</i>; in + <i>id</i>, as <i>candid</i>; in <i>al</i>, as <i>mortal</i>; in + <i>ent</i>, as <i>recent</i>, <i>fervent</i>; in <i>ain</i>, as + <i>certain</i>; in <i>ive</i>, as <i>missive</i>; in <i>dy</i>, as + <i>woody</i>; in <i>fy</i>, as <i>puffy</i>; in <i>ky</i>, as + <i>rocky</i>, except <i>lucky</i>; in <i>my</i>, as <i>roomy</i>; in + <i>ny</i>, as <i>skinny</i>; in <i>py</i>, as <i>ropy</i>, except + <i>happy</i>; in <i>ry</i>, as <i>hoary</i>.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>Some comparatives and superlatives are yet found in good writers + formed without regard to the foregoing rules; but in a language subjected + so little and so lately to grammar, such anomalies must frequently + occur.</p> + + </blockquote> + <p>So <i>shady</i> is compared by <i>Milton</i>.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p style="margin-left: 1em">She in <i>shadiest</i> covert hid,</p> + <p>Tun'd her nocturnal note. <i>Par. Lost.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + <p>And <i>virtuous</i>.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p style="margin-left: 1em">What she wills to say or do,</p> + <p>Seems wisest, <i>virtuousest</i>, discreetest, best. <i>Par. Lost.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + <p>So <i>trifling</i> by <i>Ray</i>, who is indeed of no great + authority.</p> + + <p><!-- Page 24 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page24"></a>[24]</span></p> + + <blockquote> + <p>It is not so decorous, in respect of God, that he should immediately + do all the meanest and <i>triflingest</i> things himself, without making + use of any inferior or subordinate minister. + <i>Ray on the Creation.</i></p> + + </blockquote> + <p><i>Famous</i>, by <i>Milton</i>.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p style="margin-left: 1em">I shall be nam'd among the <i>famousest</i></p> + <p>Of women, sung at solemn festivals. <i>Milton's Agonistes.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + <p><i>Inventive</i>, by <i>Ascham</i>.</p> + + <blockquote> + <p>Those have the <i>inventivest</i> heads for all purposes, and roundest + tongues in all matters. <i>Ascham's + Schoolmaster.</i></p> + + </blockquote> + <p><i>Mortal</i>, by <i>Bacon</i>.</p> + + <blockquote> + <p>The <i>mortalest</i> poisons practised by the West Indians, have some + mixture of the blood, fat, or flesh of man. + <i>Bacon.</i></p> + + </blockquote> + <p><i>Natural</i>, by <i>Wotton</i>.</p> + + <blockquote> + <p>I will now deliver a few of the properest and <i>naturalest</i> + considerations that belong to this piece. + <i>Wotton's Architecture.</i></p> + + </blockquote> + <p><i>Wretched</i>, by <i>Jonson</i>.</p> + + <blockquote> + <p>The <i>wretcheder</i> are the contemners of all helps; such as + presuming on their own naturals, deride diligence, and mock at terms when + they understand not things. <i>Ben + Jonson.</i></p> + + </blockquote> + <p><i>Powerful</i>, by <i>Milton</i>.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>We have sustain'd one day in doubtful fight,</p> + <p>What heav'n's great king hath <i>pow'rfullest</i> to send</p> + <p>Against us from about his throne. <i>Par. Lost.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>The termination in <i>ish</i> may be accounted in some sort a degree + of comparison, by which the signification is diminished below the + positive, as <i>black</i>, <i>blackish</i>, or tending to blackness; + <i>salt</i>, <i>saltish</i>, or having a little taste of salt; they + therefore admit no comparison. This termination is seldom added but to + words expressing sensible qualities, nor often to words of above one + syllable, and is scarcely used in the solemn or sublime style.</p> + + </blockquote> + <br clear="all" /> +<hr /> + +<h3><i>Of</i> PRONOUNS.</h3> + + <p>Pronouns, in the English language, are, <i>I</i>, <i>thou</i>, + <i>he</i>, with their plurals, <i>we</i>, <i>ye</i>, <i>they</i>; + <i>it</i>, <i>who</i>, <i>which</i>, <i>what</i>, <i>whether</i>, + <i>whosoever</i>, <i>whatsoever</i>, <i>my</i>, <i>mine</i>, <i>our</i>, + <i>ours</i>, <i>thy</i>, <i>thine</i>, <i>your</i>, <i>yours</i>, + <i>his</i>, <i>her</i>, <i>hers</i>, <i>theirs</i>, <i>this</i>, + <i>that</i>, <i>other</i>, <i>another</i>, the <i>same</i>, + <i>some</i>.</p> + + <p>The pronouns personal are irregularly inflected.</p> + + +<table border="1" width="43%" title="Inflection of pronouns"> +<tr><td class="t" width="42%"> +</td> +<td class="t" width="28%"> + <p>Singular.</p> +</td> +<td class="t" width="28%"> + <p>Plural.</p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p><i>Nom.</i></p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p>I,</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p>We.</p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p><i>Accus.</i> and other oblique cases.</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p>Me,</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p>Us.</p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p><i>Nom.</i></p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p>Thou,</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p>Ye.</p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p><i>Oblique.</i></p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p>Thee,</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p>You.</p> +</td></tr></table> + + <p><i>You</i> is commonly used in modern writers for <i>ye</i>, + particularly in the language of ceremony, where the second person plural + is used for the second person singular, <i>You are my friend</i>.</p> + + +<table border="1" width="83%" title="Inflection of pronouns continued"> +<tr><td class="t" width="22%"> +</td> +<td class="t" width="14%"> + <p>Singular.</p> +</td> +<td class="t" width="14%"> + <p>Plural.</p> +</td> +<td class="t" width="47%"> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p><i>Nom.</i></p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p>He,</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p>They,</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p>Applied to masculines.</p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p><i>Oblique.</i></p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p>Him,</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p>Them.</p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p><i>Nom.</i></p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p>She,</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p>They,</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p>Applied to feminines.</p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p><i>Oblique.</i></p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p>Her,</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p>Them.</p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p><i>Nom.</i></p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p>It,</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p>They,</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p>Applied to neuters or things.</p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p><i>Oblique.</i></p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p>Its,</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p>Them.</p> +</td></tr></table> + + <p>For <i>it</i> the practice of ancient writers was to use <i>he</i>, + and for <i>its</i>, <i>his</i>.</p> + + <p>The possessive pronouns, like other adjectives, are without cases or + change of termination.</p> + + <p>The possessive of the first person is <i>my</i>, <i>mine</i>, + <i>our</i>, <i>ours</i>; of the second, <i>thy</i>, <i>thine</i>, + <i>your</i>, <i>yours</i>; of the third, from <i>he</i>, <i>his</i>; from + <i>she</i>, <i>her</i>, and <i>hers</i>; and in the plural, <i>their</i>, + <i>theirs</i>, for both sexes.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p><i>Ours</i>, <i>yours</i>, <i>hers</i>, <i>theirs</i>, are used when + the substantive preceding is separated by a verb, as <i>These are</i> our + <i>books</i>. <i>These books</i> are <i>ours</i>. <i>Your children + excel</i> ours <i>in stature, but</i> ours <i>surpass</i> yours <i>in + learning</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Ours</i>, <i>yours</i>, <i>hers</i>, <i>theirs</i>, notwithstanding + their seeming plural termination, are applied equally to singular and + plural substantives, as, <i>This book is</i> ours. <i>These books are</i> + ours.</p> + + <p><i>Mine</i> and <i>thine</i> were formerly used before a vowel, as + <i>mine amiable lady</i>: which though now disused in prose, might be + still properly continued in poetry: they are used as <i>ours</i> and + <i>yours</i>, when they are referred to a substantive preceding, as + <i>thy</i> house is larger than <i>mine</i>, but <i>my</i> garden is more + spacious than <i>thine</i>.</p> + + </blockquote> + <p><i>Their</i> and <i>theirs</i> are the possessives likewise of + <i>they</i>, when <i>they</i> is the plural of <i>it</i>, and are + therefore applied to things.</p> + + <p>Pronouns relative are, <i>who</i>, <i>which</i>, <i>what</i>, + <i>whether</i>, <i>whosoever</i>, <i>whatsoever</i>.</p> + + +<table border="1" width="53%" title="Inflection of relative pronouns (1)"> +<tr><td class="t" width="53%"> + <p><i>Nom.</i></p> +</td> +<td class="t" width="46%"> + <p>Who.</p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p><i>Gen.</i></p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p>Whose.</p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p><i>Other oblique cases.</i></p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p>Whom.</p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p><i>Nom.</i></p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p>Which.</p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p><i>Gen.</i></p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p>Of which, or whose.</p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p><i>Other oblique cases.</i></p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p>Which.</p> +</td></tr></table> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p><i>Who</i> is now used in relation to persons, and <i>which</i> in + relation to things; but they were anciently confounded. At least it was + common to say, the man <i>which</i>, though I remember no example of the + thing <i>who</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Whose</i> is rather the poetical than regular genitive of + <i>which</i>.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p style="margin-left: 8em">The fruit</p> + <p>Of that forbidden tree, <i>whose</i> mortal taste</p> + <p>Brought death into the world. <i>Milton.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + <p><i>Whether</i> is only used in the nominative and accusative cases; + and has no plural, being applied only to <i>one</i> of a number, commonly + to one of two, as Whether <i>of these is left I know not</i>. Whether + <i>shall I choose?</i> It is now almost obsolete.</p> + + </blockquote> + <p><i>What</i>, whether relative or interrogative, is without + variation.</p> + + <p><i>Whosoever</i>, <i>whatsoever</i>, being compounded of <i>who</i> or + <i>what</i>, and <i>soever</i>, follow the rule of their primitives.</p> + + +<table border="1" width="43%" title="Inflection of relative pronouns (2)"> +<tr><td class="t" width="42%"> +</td> +<td class="t" width="28%"> + <p>Singular.</p> +</td> +<td class="t" width="28%"> + <p>Plural.</p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p>This</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p>These</p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> + <p><i>In all cases.</i></p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p>That</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p>Those.</p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p>Other,</p> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p>Others.</p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="t"> +</td> +<td class="t"> + <p>Whether.</p> +</td></tr></table> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>The plural <i>others</i> is not used but when it is referred to a + substantive preceding, as <i>I have sent </i>other<i> horses</i>. <i>I + have not sent the same </i>horses<i>, but </i>others.</p> + + </blockquote> + <p><!-- Page 25 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page25"></a>[25]</span> + <i>Another</i>, being only <i>an other</i>, has no plural.</p> + + <p><i>Here</i>, <i>there</i>, and <i>where</i>, joined with certain + particles, have a relative and pronominal use. <i>Hereof</i>, + <i>herein</i>, <i>hereby</i>, <i>hereafter</i>, <i>herewith</i>, + <i>thereof</i>, <i>therein</i>, <i>thereby</i>, <i>thereupon</i>, + <i>therewith</i>, <i>whereof</i>, <i>wherein</i>, <i>whereby</i>, + <i>whereupon</i>, <i>wherewith</i>, which signify, <i>of this</i>, <i>in + this</i>, &c. <i>of that</i>, <i>in that</i>, &c. <i>of + which</i>, <i>in which</i>, &c.</p> + + <p><i>Therefore</i> and <i>wherefore</i>, which are properly <i>there + for</i> and <i>where for</i>, <i>for that</i>, <i>for which</i>, are now + reckoned conjunctions, and continued in use. The rest seem to be passing + by degrees into neglect, though proper, useful, and analogous. They are + referred both to singular and plural antecedents.</p> + + <p>There are two more words used only in conjunction with pronouns, + <i>own</i> and <i>self</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Own</i> is added to possessives, both singular and plural, as my + <i>own</i> hand, our <i>own</i> house. It is emphatical, and implies a + silent contrariety, or opposition; as, <i>I live in my own house</i>, + that is, <i>not in a hired house</i>. <i>This I did with my own hand</i>, + that is, <i>without help</i> or <i>not by proxy</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Self</i> is added to possessives, as <i>myself</i>, + <i>yourselves</i>; and sometimes to personal pronouns, as <i>himself</i>, + <i>itself</i>, <i>themselves</i>. It then, like <i>own</i>, expresses + emphasis and opposition, as <i>I did this myself</i>, that is, <i>not + another</i>; or it forms a reciprocal pronoun, as <i>We hurt ourselves by + vain rage</i>.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p><i>Himself</i>, <i>itself</i>, <i>themselves</i>, are supposed by + Wallis to be put by corruption, for <i>his self</i>, <i>it self</i>, + <i>their selves</i>; so that <i>self</i> is always a substantive. This + seems justly observed, for we say, <i>He came himself</i>; <i>Himself + shall do this</i>; where <i>himself</i> cannot be an accusative.</p> + + </blockquote> + <br clear="all" /> +<hr /> + +<h3><i>Of the</i> VERB.</h3> + + <p>English verbs are active, as <i>I love</i>; or neuter, as <i>I + languish</i>. The neuters are formed like the actives.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>Most verbs signifying <i>action</i> may likewise signify + <i>condition</i> or <i>habit</i>, and become <i>neuters</i>; as <i>I + love</i>, I am in love; <i>I strike</i>, I am now striking.</p> + + </blockquote> + <p>Verbs have only two tenses inflected in their terminations, the + present, and simple preterit; the other tenses are compounded of the + auxiliary verbs, <i>have</i>, <i>shall</i>, <i>will</i>, <i>let</i>, + <i>may</i>, <i>can</i>, and the infinitive of the active or neuter + verb.</p> + + <p>The passive voice is formed by joining the participle preterit to the + substantive verb, as <i>I am loved</i>.</p> + +<p class="center"><i>To have</i>. Indicative Mood.</p> + +<p class="center"><i>Present Tense.</i></p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Sing.</i> <i>I</i> have, <i>thou</i> hast, <i>he</i> hath <i>or</i> has,</p> + <p><i>Plur.</i> <i>We</i> have, <i>ye</i> have, <i>they</i> have.</p> + </div> + </div> + <blockquote class="small"> + <p><i>Has</i> is a termination connoted from <i>hath</i>, but now more + frequently used both in verse and prose.</p> + + </blockquote> +<p class="center"><i>Simple Preterit.</i></p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Sing.</i> <i>I</i> had, <i>thou</i> hadst, <i>he</i> had</p> + <p><i>Plur.</i> <i>We</i> had, <i>ye</i> had, <i>they</i> had.</p> + </div> + </div> +<p class="center"><i>Compound Preterit.</i></p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Sing.</i> <i>I</i> have had, <i>thou</i> hast had, <i>he</i> has <i>or</i> hath had;</p> + <p><i>Plur.</i> <i>We</i> have had, <i>ye</i> have had, <i>they</i> have had.</p> + </div> + </div> +<p class="center"><i>Preterpluperfect.</i></p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Sing.</i> <i>I</i> had had, <i>thou</i> hadst had, <i>he</i> had had.</p> + <p><i>Plur.</i> <i>We</i> had had, <i>ye</i> had had, <i>they</i> had had.</p> + </div> + </div> +<p class="center"><i>Future.</i></p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Sing.</i> <i>I</i> shall have, <i>thou</i> shalt have, <i>he</i> shall have;</p> + <p><i>Plur.</i> <i>We</i> shall have, <i>ye</i> shall have, <i>they</i> shall have.</p> + </div> + </div> +<p class="center"><i>Second Future.</i></p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Sing.</i> <i>I</i> will have, <i>thou</i> wilt have, <i>he</i> will have;</p> + <p><i>Plur.</i> <i>We</i> will have, <i>ye</i> wilt have, <i>they</i> will have.</p> + </div> + </div> + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>By reading these future tenses may be observed the variations of + <i>shall</i> and <i>will</i>.</p> + + </blockquote> +<p class="center">Imperative Mood.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Sing.</i> Have, <i>or</i> have <i>thou</i>, let <i>him</i> have;</p> + <p><i>Plur.</i> Let <i>us</i> have, have <i>or</i> have <i>ye</i>, let <i>them</i> have.</p> + </div> + </div> +<p class="center">Conjunctive Mood.</p> + +<p class="center"><i>Present.</i></p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Sing.</i> <i>I</i> have, <i>thou</i> have, <i>he</i> have;</p> + <p><i>Plur.</i> <i>We</i> have, <i>ye</i> have, <i>they</i> have.</p> + </div> + </div> +<p class="center"><i>Preterit simple</i> as in the Indicative.</p> + +<p class="center"><i>Preterit compound.</i></p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Sing.</i> <i>I</i> have had, <i>thou</i> have had, <i>he</i> have had;</p> + <p><i>Plur.</i> <i>We</i> have had, <i>ye</i> have had, <i>they</i> have had.</p> + </div> + </div> +<p class="center"><i>Future.</i></p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Sing.</i> <i>I</i> shall have, as in the Indicative.</p> + </div> + </div> +<p class="center"><i>Second Future.</i></p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Sing.</i> <i>I</i> shall have had, <i>thou</i> shalt have had, <i>he</i> shall have had;</p> + <p><i>Plur.</i> <i>We</i> shall have had, <i>ye</i> shall have had, <i>they</i> shall have had.</p> + </div> + </div> +<p class="center">Potential.</p> + + <p>The potential form of speaking is expressed by <i>may</i>, <i>can</i>, + in the present; and <i>might</i>, <i>could</i>, or <i>should</i>, in the + preterit, joined with the infinitive mood of the verb.</p> + +<p class="center"><i>Present.</i></p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Sing.</i> <i>I</i> may have, <i>thou</i> mayst have, <i>he</i> may have;</p> + <p><i>Plur.</i> <i>We</i> may have, <i>ye</i> may have, <i>they</i> may have.</p> + </div> + </div> +<p class="center"><i>Preterit.</i></p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Sing.</i> <i>I</i> might have, <i>thou</i> mightst have, <i>he</i> might have;</p> + <p><i>Plur.</i> <i>We</i> might have, <i>ye</i> might have, <i>they</i> might have.</p> + </div> + </div> +<p class="center"><i>Present.</i></p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Sing.</i> <i>I</i> can have, <i>thou</i> canst have, <i>he</i> can have;</p> + <p><i>Plur.</i> <i>We</i> can have, <i>ye</i> can have, <i>they</i> can have.</p> + </div> + </div> + <p><!-- Page 26 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page26"></a>[26]</span></p> + +<p class="center"><i>Preterit.</i></p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Sing.</i> <i>I</i> could have, <i>thou</i> couldst have, <i>he</i> could have;</p> + <p><i>Plur.</i> <i>We</i> could have, <i>ye</i> could have, <i>they</i> could have.</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>In like manner <i>should</i> is united to the verb.</p> + + <p>There is likewise a double <i>Preterit</i>.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Sing.</i> <i>I</i> should have had, <i>thou</i> shouldst have had, <i>he</i> should have had;</p> + <p><i>Plur.</i> <i>We</i> should have had, <i>ye</i> should have had, <i>they</i> should have had.</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>In like manner we use, <i>I might</i> have had; I <i>could</i> have + had, <i>&c.</i></p> + +<p class="center">Infinitive Mood.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Present.</i> To have.</p> + <p><i>Preterit.</i> To have had.</p> + <p><i>Participle present.</i> Having.</p> + <p><i>Participle preterit.</i> Had.</p> + </div> + </div> +<p class="center">Verb Active. <i>To love.</i></p> + +<p class="center">Indicative. <i>Present.</i></p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Sing.</i> <i>I</i> love, <i>thou</i> lovest, <i>he</i> loveth or loves;</p> + <p><i>Plur.</i> <i>We</i> love, <i>ye</i> love, <i>they</i> love.</p> + </div> + </div> +<p class="center"><i>Preterit simple.</i></p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Sing.</i> <i>I</i> loved, <i>thou</i> lovedst, <i>he</i> loved;</p> + <p><i>Plur.</i> <i>We</i> loved, <i>ye</i> loved, <i>they</i> loved.</p> + <p><i>Preterperfect compound.</i> <i>I</i> have loved, <i>&c.</i></p> + <p><i>Preterpluperfect.</i> <i>I</i> had loved, <i>&c.</i></p> + <p><i>Future.</i> <i>I</i> shall love, <i>&c.</i> <i>I</i> will love, <i>&c.</i></p> + </div> + </div> +<p class="center">Imperative.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Sing.</i> Love <i>or</i> love <i>thou</i>, let <i>him</i> love;</p> + <p><i>Plur.</i> Let <i>us</i> love, love <i>or</i> love <i>ye</i>, let <i>them</i> love.</p> + </div> + </div> +<p class="center">Conjunctive. <i>Present.</i></p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Sing.</i> <i>I</i> love, <i>thou</i> love, <i>he</i> love;</p> + <p><i>Plur.</i> <i>We</i> love, <i>ye</i> love, <i>they</i> love.</p> + <p><i>Preterit simple</i>, as in the indicative.</p> + <p><i>Preterit compound.</i> <i>I</i> have loved, <i>&c.</i></p> + <p><i>Future.</i> <i>I</i> shall love, <i>&c.</i></p> + <p><i>Second Future.</i> <i>I</i> shall have loved, <i>&c.</i></p> + </div> + </div> +<p class="center">Potential.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Present.</i> <i>I</i> may <i>or</i> can love, <i>&c.</i></p> + <p><i>Preterit.</i> <i>I</i> might, could, <i>or</i> should love, <i>&c.</i></p> + <p><i>Double Preterit.</i> <i>I</i> might, could, <i>or</i> should have</p> + <p>loved, <i>&c.</i></p> + </div> + </div> +<p class="center">Infinitive.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Present.</i> To love.</p> + <p><i>Preterit.</i> To have loved.</p> + <p><i>Participle present.</i> Loving.</p> + <p><i>Participle past.</i> Loved.</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>The passive is formed by the addition of the participle preterit to + the different tenses of the verb <i>to be</i>, which must therefore be + here exhibited.</p> + +<p class="center">Indicative. <i>Present.</i></p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Sing.</i> <i>I</i> am, <i>thou</i> art, <i>he</i> is;</p> + <p><i>Plur.</i> <i>We</i> are <i>or</i> be, <i>ye</i> are <i>or</i> be, <i>they</i> are <i>or</i> be.</p> + <p style="margin-left: 4em">The plural <i>be</i> is now little in use.</p> + </div> + </div> +<p class="center"><i>Preterit.</i></p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Sing.</i> <i>I</i> was, <i>thou</i> wast <i>or</i> wert, <i>he</i> was;</p> + <p><i>Plur.</i> <i>We</i> were, <i>ye</i> were, <i>they</i> were.</p> + </div> + </div> + <p><i>Wert</i> is properly of the conjunctive mood, and ought not to be + used in the indicative.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Preterit compound.</i> <i>I</i> have been, <i>&c.</i></p> + <p><i>Preterpluperfect.</i> <i>I</i> had been, <i>&c.</i></p> + <p><i>Future.</i> <i>I</i> shall <i>or</i> will be, <i>&c.</i></p> + </div> + </div> +<p class="center">Imperative.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Sing.</i> Be <i>thou</i>; let <i>him</i> be;</p> + <p><i>Plur.</i> Let <i>us</i> be; be <i>ye</i>; let <i>them</i> be.</p> + </div> + </div> +<p class="center">Conjunctive. <i>Present.</i></p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Sing.</i> <i>I</i> be, <i>thou</i> beest, <i>he</i> be;</p> + <p><i>Plur.</i> <i>We</i> be, <i>ye</i> be, <i>they</i> be.</p> + </div> + </div> +<p class="center"><i>Preterit.</i></p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Sing.</i> <i>I</i> were, <i>thou</i> wert, <i>he</i> were;</p> + <p><i>Plur.</i> <i>We</i> were, <i>ye</i> were, <i>they</i> were.</p> + <p><i>Preterit compound.</i> <i>I</i> have been, <i>&c.</i></p> + <p><i>Future.</i> <i>I</i> shall have been, <i>&c.</i></p> + </div> + </div> +<p class="center">Potential.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>I</i> may <i>or</i> can; would, could, <i>or</i> should be; could,</p> + <p>would, <i>or</i> should have been, <i>&c.</i></p> + </div> + </div> +<p class="center">Infinitive.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Present.</i> To be.</p> + <p><i>Preterit.</i> To have been.</p> + <p><i>Participle present.</i> Being.</p> + <p><i>Participle preterit.</i> Having been.</p> + </div> + </div> +<p class="center">Passive Voice. Indicative Mood.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>I</i> am loved, <i>&c.</i> <i>I</i> was loved, <i>&c.</i> <i>I</i> have been</p> + <p>loved, <i>&c.</i></p> + </div> + </div> +<p class="center">Conjunctive Mood.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>If <i>I</i> be loved, <i>&c.</i> If <i>I</i> were loved, <i>&c.</i> If <i>I</i> shall</p> + <p>have been loved, <i>&c.</i></p> + </div> + </div> +<p class="center">Potential Mood.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>I</i> may <i>or</i> can be loved, <i>&c.</i> <i>I</i> might, could, <i>or</i></p> + <p>should be loved, <i>&c.</i> <i>I</i> might, could, <i>or</i> should</p> + <p>have been loved, <i>&c.</i></p> + </div> + </div> +<p class="center">Infinitive.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Present.</i> To be loved.</p> + <p><i>Preterit.</i> To have been loved.</p> + <p><i>Participle.</i> Loved.</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>There is another form of English verbs, in which the infinitive mood + is joined to the verb <i>do</i> in its various inflections, which are + therefore to be learned in this place.</p> + +<p class="center"><i>To do.</i></p> + +<p class="center">Indicative. <i>Present.</i></p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Sing.</i> <i>I</i> do, <i>thou</i> dost, <i>he</i> doth;</p> + <p><i>Plur.</i> <i>We</i> do, <i>ye</i> do, <i>they</i> do.</p> + </div> + </div> +<p class="center"><i>Preterit.</i></p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Sing.</i> <i>I</i> did, <i>thou</i> didst, <i>he</i> did;</p> + <p><i>Plur.</i> <i>We</i> did, <i>ye</i> did, <i>they</i> did.</p> + <p><i>Preterit.</i>, <i>&c.</i> <i>I</i> have done, <i>&c.</i> <i>I</i> had done, <i>&c.</i></p> + <p><i>Future.</i> <i>I</i> shall <i>or</i> will do, <i>&c.</i></p> + </div> + </div> +<p class="center">Imperative.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Sing.</i> Do <i>thou</i>, let <i>him</i> do;</p> + <p><i>Plur.</i> Let <i>us</i> do, do <i>ye</i>, let <i>them</i> do.</p> + </div> + </div> +<p class="center">Conjunctive. <i>Present.</i></p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Sing.</i> <i>I</i> do, <i>thou</i> do, <i>he</i> do;</p> + <p><i>Plur.</i> <i>We</i> do, <i>ye</i> do, <i>they</i> do.</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>The rest are as in the Indicative.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Infinite.</i> To do, to have done.</p> + <p><i>Participle present.</i> Doing.</p> + <p><i>Participle preterit.</i> Done.</p> + </div> + </div> + <p><!-- Page 27 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page27"></a>[27]</span></p> + + <p>Do is sometimes used superfluously, as <i>I</i> do <i>love, I</i> did + <i>love</i>; simply for <i>I love</i>, or <i>I loved</i>; but this is + considered as a vitious mode of speech.</p> + + <p>It is sometimes used emphatically; as,</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>I do love thee, and when I love thee not,</p> + <p>Chaos is come again. <i>Shakespeare.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + <p>It is frequently joined with a negative; as, <i>I like her, but I</i> + do <i>not love her; I wished him success, but</i> did <i>not help + him</i>. This, by custom at least, appears more easy than the other form + of expressing the same sense by a negative adverb after the verb, <i>I + like her, but</i> love <i>her</i> not.</p> + + <p>The imperative prohibitory is seldom applied in the second person, at + least in prose, without the word <i>do</i>; as, <i>Stop him, but do not + hurt him</i>; <i>Praise beauty, but do not dote on it</i>.</p> + + <p>Its chief use is in interrogative forms of speech, in which it is used + through all the persons; as, Do <i>I live</i>? Dost <i>thou strike + me</i>? Do <i>they rebel</i>? Did <i>I complain</i>? Didst <i>thou love + her</i>? Did <i>she die</i>? So likewise in negative interrogations; Do + <i>I not yet grieve</i>? Did <i>she not die</i>?</p> + + <p><i>Do</i> and <i>did</i> are thus used only for the present and simple + preterit.</p> + + <p>There is another manner of conjugating neuter verbs, which, when it is + used, may not improperly denominate them <i>neuter passives</i>, as they + are inflected according to the passive form by the help of the verb + substantive <i>to be</i>. They answer nearly to the reciprocal verbs in + French; as, <i>I am risen</i>, surrexi, <i>Latin</i>; Je me suis levé, + <i>French</i>. <i>I was walked out</i>, exieram: Je m'étois promené.</p> + + <p>In like manner we commonly express the present tense; as, I am going, + <i>eo</i>. I am grieving, <i>doleo</i>, She is dying, <i>illa + moritur</i>. The tempest is raging, <i>furit procella</i>. I am pursuing + an enemy, <i>hostem insequor</i>. So the other tenses, as, <i>We were + walking</i>, <span lang="el" title="etynchanomen peripatountes" + >ετυγχανομεν + περιπατουντες</span>, + <i>I have been walking</i>, <i>I had been walking</i>, <i>I shall</i> or + <i>will be walking.</i></p> + + <p>There is another manner of using the active participle, which gives it + a passive signification: as, The grammar is now printing, <i>grammatica + jam nunc chartis imprimitur</i>. The brass is forging, <i>ara + excuduntur</i>. This is, in my opinion, a vitious expression, probably + corrupted from a phrase more pure, but now somewhat obsolete: <i>The book + is</i> a <i>printing</i>, <i>The brass is</i> a <i>forging</i>; a being + properly at, and <i>printing</i> and <i>forging</i> verbal nouns + signifying action, according to the analogy of this language.</p> + + <p>The indicative and conjunctive moods are by modern writers frequently + confounded, or rather the conjunctive is wholly neglected, when some + convenience of versification docs not invite its revival. It is used + among the purer writers of former times after <i>if</i>, <i>though</i>, + <i>ere</i>, <i>before</i>, <i>till</i> or <i>until</i>, <i>whether</i>, + <i>except</i>, <i>unless</i>, <i>whatsoever</i>, <i>whomsoever</i>, and + words of wishing; as, <i>Doubtless thou art our father</i>, though + <i>Abraham</i> be <i>ignorant of us, and Israel</i> acknowledge <i>us + not</i>.</p> + + <br clear="all" /> +<hr /> + +<h3><i>Of</i> IRREGULAR VERBS.</h3> + + <p>The English verbs were divided by Ben Jonson into four conjugations, + without any reason arising from the nature of the language, which has + properly but one conjugation, such as has been exemplified: from which + all deviations are to be considered as anomalies, which are indeed, in + our monosyllable Saxon verbs, and the verbs derived from them, very + frequent; but almost all the verbs which have been adopted from other + languages, follow the regular form.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>Our verbs are observed by Dr. Wallis to be irregular only in the + formation of the preterit, and its participle. Indeed, in the scantiness + of our conjugations, there is scarcely any other place for + irregularity.</p> + + </blockquote> + <p>The first irregularity is a slight deviation from the regular form, by + rapid utterance or poetical contraction: the last syllable <i>ed</i> is + often joined with the former by suppression of <i>e</i>; as <i>lov'd</i> + for <i>loved</i>; after <i>c</i>, <i>ch</i>, <i>sh</i>, <i>f</i>, + <i>k</i>, <i>x</i>, and after the consonants <i>s</i>, <i>th</i>, when + more strongly pronounced, and sometimes after <i>m</i>, <i>n</i>, + <i>r</i>, if preceded by a short vowel, <i>t</i> is used in + pronunciation, but very seldom in writing rather than d; as + <i>plac't</i>, <i>snatch't</i>, <i>fish't</i>, <i>wak't</i>, + <i>dwel't</i>, <i>smel't</i> for <i>plac'd</i>, <i>snatch'd</i>, + <i>fish'd</i>, <i>wak'd</i>, <i>dwel'd</i>, <i>smel'd</i>; or + <i>placed</i>, <i>snatched</i>, <i>fished</i>, <i>waked</i>, + <i>dwelled</i>, <i>smelled</i>.</p> + + <p>Those words which terminate in <i>l</i> or <i>ll</i>, or <i>p</i>, + make their preterit in <i>t</i>, even in solemn language; as + <i>crept</i>, <i>felt</i>, <i>dwelt</i>; Sometimes after <i>x</i>, + <i>ed</i> is changed into <i>t</i>; as <i>vext</i>: this is not + constant.</p> + + <p>A long vowel is often changed into a short one; thus <i>kept</i>, + <i>slept</i>, <i>wept</i>, <i>crept</i>, <i>swept</i>; from the verbs to + <i>keep</i>, to <i>sleep</i>, to <i>weep</i>, to <i>creep</i>, to + <i>sweep</i>.</p> + + <p>Where <i>d</i> or <i>t</i> go before, the additional letter <i>d</i> + or <i>t</i>, in this contracted form, coalesce into one letter with the + radical <i>d</i> or <i>t</i>: if <i>t</i> were the radical, they coalesce + into <i>t</i>; but if <i>d</i> were the radical, then into <i>d</i> or + <i>t</i>, as the one or the other letter may be more easily pronounced; + as <i>read</i>, <i>led</i>, <i>spread</i>, <i>shed</i>, <i>shred</i>, + <i>bid</i>, <i>hid</i>, <i>chid</i>, <i>fed</i>, <i>bled</i>, + <i>bred</i>, <i>sped</i>, <i>strid</i>, <i>slid</i>, <i>rid</i>; from the + verbs to <i>read</i>, to <i>lead</i>, to <i>spread</i>, to <i>shed</i>, + to <i>shread</i>, to <i>bid</i>, to <i>hide</i>, to <i>chide</i>, to + <i>feed</i>, to <i>bleed</i>, to <i>breed</i>, to <i>speed</i>, to + <i>stride</i>, to <i>slide</i>, to <i>ride</i>. And thus <i>cast</i>, + <i>hurt</i>, <i>cost</i>, <i>burst</i>, <i>eat</i>, <i>beat</i>, + <i>sweat</i>, <i>sit</i>, <i>quit</i>, <i>smit</i>, <i>writ</i>, + <i>bit</i>, <i>hit</i>, <i>met</i>, <i>shot</i>; from the verbs to + <i>cast</i>, to <i>hurt</i>, to <i>cost</i>, to <i>burst</i>, to + <i>eat</i>, to <i>beat</i>, to <i>sweat</i>, to <i>sit</i>, to + <i>quit</i>, to <i>smite</i>, to <i>write</i>, to <i>bite</i>, to + <i>hit</i>, to <i>meet</i>, to <i>shoot</i>. And in like manner, + <i>lent</i>, <i>sent</i>, <i>rent</i>, <i>girt</i>; from the verbs to + <i>lend</i>, to <i>send</i>, to <i>rend</i>, to <i>gird</i>.</p> + + <p>The participle preterit or passive is often formed in <i>en</i> + instead of <i>ed</i>; as, <i>been</i>, <i>taken</i>, <i>given</i>, + <i>slain</i>, <i>known</i>, from the verbs to <i>be</i>, to <i>take</i>, + to <i>give</i>, to <i>slay</i>, to <i>know</i>.</p> + + <p>Many words have two or more participles, <!-- Page 28 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page28"></a>[28]</span> as not only + <i>written</i>, <i>bitten</i>, <i>eaten</i>, <i>beaten</i>, + <i>hidden</i>, <i>chidden</i>, <i>shotten</i>, <i>chosen</i>, + <i>broken</i>; but likewise <i>writ</i>, <i>bit</i>, <i>eat</i>, + <i>beat</i>, <i>hid</i>, <i>chid</i>, <i>shot</i>, <i>chose</i>, + <i>broke</i>, are promiscuously used in the participle, from the verbs to + <i>write</i>, to <i>bite</i>, to <i>eat</i>, to <i>beat</i>, to + <i>hide</i>, to <i>chide</i>, to <i>shoot</i>, to <i>choose</i>, to + <i>break</i>, and many such like.</p> + + <p>In the same manner, <i>sown</i>, <i>shewn</i>, <i>hewn</i>, + <i>mown</i>, <i>loaden</i>, <i>laden</i>, as well as <i>sow'd</i>, + <i>show'd</i>, <i>hew'd</i>, <i>mow'd</i>, <i>loaded</i>, <i>laded</i>, + from the verbs to <i>sow</i>, to <i>show</i>, to <i>hew</i>, to + <i>mow</i>, to <i>load</i>, to <i>lade</i>.</p> + + <p>Concerning these double participles it is difficult to give any rule; + but he shall seldom err who remembers, that when a verb has a participle + distinct from its preterit, as <i>write</i>, <i>wrote</i>, + <i>written</i>, that distinct participle is more proper and elegant, as + <i>The book is written</i>, is better than <i>The book is wrote</i>. + <i>Wrote</i> however may be used in poetry; at least, if we allow any + authority to poets, who, in the exultation of genius, think themselves + perhaps entitled to trample on grammarians.</p> + + <p>There are other anomalies in the preterit.</p> + + <p>1. <i>Win</i>, <i>spin</i>, <i>begin</i>, <i>swim</i>, <i>strike</i>, + <i>stick</i>, <i>sing</i>, <i>sting</i>, <i>fling</i>, <i>ring</i>, + <i>wring</i>, <i>spring</i>, <i>swing</i>, <i>drink</i>, <i>sink</i>, + <i>shrink</i>, <i>stink</i>, <i>come</i>, <i>run</i>, <i>find</i>, + <i>bind</i>, <i>grind</i>, <i>wind</i>, both in the preterit imperfect + and participle passive, give <i>won</i>, <i>spun</i>, <i>begun</i>, + <i>swum</i>, <i>struck</i>, <i>stuck</i>, <i>sung</i>, <i>stung</i>, + <i>flung</i>, <i>rung</i>, <i>wrung</i>, <i>sprung</i>, <i>swung</i>, + <i>drunk</i>, <i>sunk</i>, <i>shrunk</i>, <i>stunk</i>, <i>come</i>, + <i>run</i>, <i>found</i>, <i>bound</i>, <i>ground</i>, <i>wound</i>. And + most of them are also formed in the preterit by <i>a</i>, as + <i>began</i>, <i>sang</i>, <i>rang</i>, <i>sprang</i>, <i>drank</i>, + <i>came</i>, <i>ran</i>, and some others; but most of these are now + obsolete. Some in the participle passive likewise take <i>en</i>, as + <i>stricken</i>, <i>strucken</i>, <i>drunken</i>, <i>bounden</i>.</p> + + <p>2. <i>Fight</i>, <i>teach</i>, <i>reach</i>, <i>seek</i>, + <i>beseech</i>, <i>catch</i>, <i>buy</i>, <i>bring</i>, <i>think</i>, + <i>work</i>, make <i>fought</i>, <i>taught</i>, <i>raught</i>, + <i>sought</i>, <i>besought</i>, <i>caught</i>, <i>bought</i>, + <i>brought</i>, <i>thought</i>, <i>wrought</i>.</p> + + <p>But a great many of these retain likewise the regular form, as + <i>teached</i>, <i>reached</i>, <i>beseeched</i>, <i>catched</i>, + <i>worked</i>.</p> + + <p>3. <i>Take</i>, <i>shake</i>, <i>forsake</i>, <i>wake</i>, + <i>awake</i>, <i>stand</i>, <i>break</i>, <i>speak</i>, <i>bear</i>, + <i>shear</i>, <i>swear</i>, <i>tear</i>, <i>wear</i>, <i>weave</i>, + <i>cleave</i>, <i>strive</i>, <i>thrive</i>, <i>drive</i>, <i>shine</i>, + <i>rise</i>, <i>arise</i>, <i>smite</i>, <i>write</i>, <i>bide</i>, + <i>abide</i>, <i>ride</i>, <i>choose</i>, <i>chuse</i>, <i>tread</i>, + <i>get</i>, <i>beget</i>, <i>forget</i>, <i>seethe</i>, make in both + preterit and participle <i>took</i>, <i>shook</i>, <i>forsook</i>, + <i>woke</i>, <i>awoke</i>, <i>stood</i>, <i>broke</i>, <i>spoke</i>, + <i>bore</i>, <i>shore</i>, <i>swore</i>, <i>tore</i>, <i>wore</i>, + <i>wove</i>, <i>clove</i>, <i>strove</i>, <i>throve</i>, <i>drove</i>, + <i>shone</i>, <i>rose</i>, <i>arose</i>, <i>smote</i>, <i>wrote</i>, + <i>bode</i>, <i>abode</i>, <i>rode</i>, <i>chose</i>, <i>trode</i>, + <i>got</i>, <i>begot</i>, <i>forgot</i>, <i>sod</i>. But we say likewise, + <i>thrive</i>, <i>rise</i>, <i>smit</i>, <i>writ</i>, <i>abid</i>, + <i>rid</i>. In the preterit some are likewise formed by <i>a</i>, as + <i>brake</i>, <i>spake</i>, <i>bare</i>, <i>share</i>, <i>sware</i>, + <i>tare</i>, <i>ware</i>, <i>clave</i>, <i>gat</i>, <i>begat</i>, + <i>forgat</i>, and perhaps some others, but more rarely. In the + participle passive many of them are formed by <i>en</i>, as <i>taken</i>, + <i>shaken</i>, <i>forsaken</i>, <i>broken</i>, <i>spoken</i>, + <i>born</i>, <i>shorn</i>, <i>sworn</i>, <i>torn</i>, <i>worn</i>, + <i>woven</i>, <i>cloven</i>, <i>thriven</i>, <i>driven</i>, <i>risen</i>, + <i>smitten</i>, <i>ridden</i>, <i>chosen</i>, <i>trodden</i>, + <i>gotten</i>, <i>begotten</i>, <i>forgotten</i>, <i>sodden</i>. And many + do likewise retain the analogy in both, as <i>waked</i>, <i>awaked</i>, + <i>sheared</i>, <i>weaved</i>, <i>cleaved</i>, <i>abided</i>, + <i>seethed</i>.</p> + + <p>4. <i>Give</i>, <i>bid</i>, <i>sit</i>, make in the preterit + <i>gave</i>, <i>bade</i>, <i>sate</i>; in the participle passive + <i>given</i>, <i>bidden</i>, <i>sitten</i>; but in both <i>bid</i>.</p> + + <p>5. <i>Draw</i>, <i>know</i>, <i>grow</i>, <i>throw</i>, <i>blow</i>, + <i>crow</i> like a cock, <i>fly</i>, <i>slay</i>, <i>see</i>, <i>ly</i>, + make their preterit <i>drew</i>, <i>knew</i>, <i>grew</i>, <i>threw</i>, + <i>blew</i>, <i>crew</i>, <i>flew</i>, <i>slew</i>, <i>saw</i>, + <i>lay</i>; their participles passive by <i>n</i>, <i>drawn</i>, + <i>known</i>, <i>grown</i>, <i>thrown</i>, <i>blown</i>, <i>flown</i>, + <i>slain</i>, <i>seen</i>, <i>lien</i>, <i>lain</i>. Yet from <i>flee</i> + is made <i>fled</i>; from <i>go</i>, <i>went</i>, (from the old + <i>wend</i>) the participle is <i>gone</i>.</p> + + <br clear="all" /> +<hr /> + +<h3><i>Of</i> DERIVATION.</h3> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>That the English language may be more easily understood, it is + necessary to inquire how its derivative words are deduced from their + primitives, and how the primitives are borrowed from other languages. In + this inquiry I shall sometimes copy Dr. Wallis, and sometimes endeavour + to supply his detects, and rectify his errours.</p> + + </blockquote> + <p>Nouns are derived from verbs.</p> + + <p>The thing implied in the verb, as done or produced, is commonly either + the present of the verb; as to love, <i>love</i>; to fright, a + <i>fright</i>; to fight, a <i>fight</i>; or the preterit of the verb, as + to strike, I strick <i>or</i> strook, a <i>stroke</i>.</p> + + <p>The action is the same with the participle present, as <i>loving</i>, + <i>frighting</i>, <i>fighting</i>, <i>striking</i>.</p> + + <p>The agent, or person acting, is denoted by the syllable <i>er</i> + added to the verb, as <i>lover</i>, <i>frighter</i>, <i>striker</i>.</p> + + <p>Substantives, adjectives, and sometimes other parts of speech, are + changed into verbs: in which case the vowel is often lengthened, or the + consonant softened; as, a house, <i>to house</i>; brass, <i>to braze</i>; + glass, <i>to glaze</i>; grass, <i>to graze</i>; price, <i>to prize</i>; + breath, <i>to breathe</i>; a fish, <i>to fish</i>; oil, <i>to oil</i>; + further, <i>to further</i>; forward, <i>to forward</i>; hinder, <i>to + hinder</i>.</p> + + <p>Sometimes the termination <i>en</i> is added, especially to + adjectives; as, haste, <i>to hasten</i>; length, <i>to lengthen</i>; + strength, <i>to strengthen</i>; short, <i>to shorten</i>; fast, <i>to + fasten</i>; white, <i>to whiten</i>; black, <i>to blacken</i>; hard, + <i>to harden</i>; soft, <i>to soften</i>.</p> + + <p>From substantives are formed adjectives <!-- Page 29 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page29"></a>[29]</span> of plenty, by adding the + termination <i>y</i>: as a louse, <i>lousy</i>; wealth, <i>wealthy</i>; + health, <i>healthy</i>; might, <i>mighty</i>; worth, <i>worthy</i>; wit, + <i>witty</i>; lust, <i>lusty</i>; water, <i>watery</i>, earth, + <i>earthy</i>; wood, (a wood) <i>woody</i>; air, <i>airy</i>; a heart, + <i>hearty</i>; a hand, <i>handy</i>.</p> + + <p>From substantives are formed adjectives of plenty, by adding the + termination <i>ful</i>, denoting abundance; as, joy, <i>joyful</i>; + fruit, <i>fruitful</i>; youth, <i>youthful</i>; care, <i>careful</i>; + use, <i>useful</i>; delight, <i>delightful</i>; plenty, <i>plentiful</i>; + help, <i>helpful</i>.</p> + + <p>Sometimes in almost the same sense, but with some kind of diminution + thereof, the termination <i>some</i> is added, denoting something, or in + some degree; as delight, <i>delightsome</i>; game, <i>gamesome</i>; irk, + <i>irksome</i>; burden, <i>burdensome</i>; trouble, <i>troublesome</i>; + light, <i>lightsome</i>; hand, <i>handsome</i>; alone, <i>lonesome</i>; + toil, <i>toilsome</i>.</p> + + <p>On the contrary, the termination less added to substantives, makes + adjectives signifying want; as, <i>worthless</i>, <i>witless</i>, + <i>heartless</i>, <i>joyless</i>, <i>careless</i>, <i>helpless</i>. Thus + comfort, <i>comfortless</i>; sap, <i>sapless</i>.</p> + + <p>Privation or contrariety is very often denoted by the participle + <i>un</i> prefixed to many adjectives, or <i>in</i> before words derived + from the Latin; as pleasant, <i>unpleasant</i>; wise, <i>unwise</i>; + profitable, <i>unprofitable</i>, patient, <i>impatient</i>. Thus + <i>unworthy</i>, <i>unhealthy</i>, <i>unfruitful</i>, <i>unuseful</i>, + and many more.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>The original English privative is <i>un</i>; but as we often borrow + trom the Latin, or its descendants, words already signifying privation, + as <i>inefficacious</i>, <i>impious</i>, <i>indiscreet</i>, the + inseparable particles <i>un</i> and <i>in</i> have fallen into confusion, + from which it is not easy to disentangle them.</p> + + <p><i>Un</i> is prefixed to all words originally English, as + <i>untrue</i>, <i>untruth</i>, <i>untaught</i>, <i>unhandsome</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Un</i> is prefixed to all participles made privative adjectives, as + <i>unfeeling</i>, <i>unassisting</i>, <i>unaided</i>, <i>undelighted</i>, + <i>unendeared</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Un</i> ought never to be prefixed to a participle present to mark a + forbearance of action, as <i>unsighing</i>, but a privation of habit, as + <i>unpitying</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Un</i> is prefixed to most substantives which have an English + termination, as <i>unfertileness</i>, <i>unperfectness</i>, which, if + they have borrowed terminations, take <i>in</i> or <i>im</i>, as + <i>infertility</i>, <i>imperfection</i>; <i>uncivil</i>, + <i>incivility</i>; <i>unactive</i>, <i>inactivity</i>.</p> + + <p>In borrowing adjectives, if we receive them already compounded, it is + usual to retain the particle prefixed, as <i>indecent</i>, + <i>inelegant</i>, <i>improper</i>; but if we borrow the adjective, and + add the privative particle, we commonly prefix <i>un</i>, as + <i>unpolite</i>, <i>ungallant</i>.</p> + + </blockquote> + <p>The prepositive particles <i>dis</i> and <i>mis</i>, derived from the + <i>des</i> and <i>mes</i> of the French, signify almost the same as + <i>un</i>; yet <i>dis</i> rather imports contrariety than privation, + since it answers to the Latin preposition <i>de</i>. <i>Mis</i> + insinuates some errour, and for the most part may be rendered by the + Latin words <i>male</i> or <i>perperam</i>. To like, <i>to dislike</i>; + honour, <i>dishonour</i>; to honour, to grace, <i>to dishonour</i>, <i>to + disgrace</i>; to deign, <i>to disdeign</i>; chance, hap, + <i>mischance</i>, <i>mishap</i>; to take, <i>to mistake</i>; deed, + <i>misdeed</i>; to use, <i>to misuse</i>; to employ, <i>to misemploy</i>, + to apply, <i>to misapply</i>.</p> + + <p>Words derived from Latin written with <i>de</i> or <i>dis</i> retain + the same signification; as <i>distinguish</i>, distinguo; <i>detract</i>, + detraho; <i>defame</i>, defamo; <i>detain</i>, detineo.</p> + + <p>The termination <i>ly</i> added to substantives, and sometimes to + adjectives, forms adjectives that import some kind of similitude or + agreement, being formed by contraction of <i>lick</i> or <i>like</i>. A + giant, <i>giantly</i>, <i>giantlike</i>; earth, <i>earthly</i>; heaven, + <i>heavenly</i>; world, <i>worldly</i>; God, <i>godly</i>; good, + <i>goodly</i>.</p> + + <p>The same termination <i>ly</i>, added to adjectives, forms adverbs of + like signification; as, beautiful, <i>beautifully</i>; sweet, + <i>sweetly</i>; that is, <i>in a beautiful manner</i>; <i>with some + degree of sweetness</i>.</p> + + <p>The termination <i>ish</i> added to adjectives, imports diminution; + and added to substantives, imports similitude or tendency to a character; + as green, <i>greenish</i>; white, <i>whitish</i>; soft, <i>softish</i>; a + thief, <i>thievish</i>; a wolf, <i>wolfish</i>; a child, + <i>childish</i>.</p> + + <p>We have forms of diminutives in substantives, though not frequent; as + a hill, <i>a hillock</i>; a cock, <i>a cockrel</i>; a pike, <i>a + pickrel</i>; this is a French termination: a goose, <i>a gosling</i>; + this is a German termination: a lamb, <i>a lambkin</i>; a chick, <i>a + chicken</i>; a man, <i>a manikin</i>; a pipe, <i>a pipkin</i>; and thus + <i>Halkin</i>, whence the patronymick, <i>Hawkins</i>; <i>Wilkin</i>, + <i>Thomkin</i>, and others.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>Yet still there is another form of diminution among the English, by + lessening the sound itself, especially of vowels, as there is a form of + augmenting them by enlarging or even lengthening it; and that sometimes + not so much by change of the letters, as of their pronunciation; as, + <i>sup</i>, <i>sip</i>, <i>soop</i>, <i>sop</i>, <i>sippet</i>, where, + besides the extenuation of the vowel, there is added the French + termination <i>et</i>; <i>top</i>, <i>tip</i>; <i>spit</i>, <i>spout</i>; + <i>babe</i>, <i>baby</i>; <i>booby</i>, <span lang="el" title="Boupais" + >Βουπαις</span>; <i>great</i> + pronounced long, especially if with a stronger sound, <i>grea-t</i>; + little, pronounced long <i>lee-tle</i>; <i>ting</i>, <i>tang</i>, + <i>tong</i>, imports a succession of smaller and then greater sounds; and + so in <i>jingle</i>, <i>jangle</i>, <i>tingle</i>, <i>tangle</i>, and + many other made words.</p> + + <p>Much however of this is arbitrary and fanciful, depending wholly on + oral utterance, and therefore scarcely worthy the notice of Wallis.</p> + + </blockquote> + <p>Of concrete adjectives are made abstract substantives, by adding the + termination <i>ness</i>; and a few in <i>hood</i> or <i>head</i>, noting + character or qualities: as white, <i>whiteness</i>; hard, + <i>hardness</i>; great, <i>greatness</i>; skilful, <i>skilfulness</i>, + <i>unskilfulness</i>; <i>godhead</i>, <i>manhood</i>, <i>maidenhead</i>, + <i>widowhood</i>, <i>knighthood</i>, <i>priesthood</i>, + <i>likelihood</i>, <i>falsehood</i>.</p> + + <p>There are other abstracts, partly derived from adjectives, and partly + from <!-- Page 30 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page30"></a>[30]</span> verbs, which are formed by the addition of + the termination <i>th</i>, a small change being sometimes made; as long, + <i>length</i>; strong, <i>strength</i>; broad, <i>breadth</i>; wide, + <i>width</i>, deep, <i>depth</i>; true, <i>truth</i>; warm, + <i>warmth</i>; dear, <i>dearth</i>; slow, <i>slowth</i>; merry, + <i>mirth</i>; heal, <i>health</i>; well, weal, <i>wealth</i>; dry, + <i>drought</i>; young, <i>youth</i>; and so moon, <i>month</i>.</p> + + <p>Like these are some words derived from verbs; die, <i>death</i>; till, + <i>tilth</i>; grow, <i>growth</i>; mow, later <i>mowth</i>, after + <i>mowth</i>; commonly spoken and written later <i>math</i>, after + <i>math</i>; steal, <i>stealth</i>; bear, <i>birth</i>, rue, <i>ruth</i>; + and probably earth, from <i>to ear</i> or <i>plow</i>; fly, + <i>flight</i>; weigh, <i>weight</i>; fray, <i>fright</i>; draw, + <i>draught</i>.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>These should rather be written <i>flighth</i>, <i>frighth</i>, only + that custom will not suffer <i>h</i> to be twice repeated.</p> + + <p>The same form retain <i>faith</i>, <i>spight</i>, <i>wreathe</i>, + <i>wrath</i>, <i>broth</i>, <i>froth</i>, <i>breath</i>, <i>sooth</i>, + <i>worth</i>, <i>light</i>, <i>wight</i>, and the like, whose primitives + are either entirely obsolete, or seldom occur. Perhaps they are derived + from <i>fey</i> or <i>foy</i>, <i>spry</i>, <i>wry</i>, <i>wreak</i>, + <i>brew</i>, <i>mow</i>, <i>fry</i>, <i>bray</i>, <i>say</i>, + <i>work</i>.</p> + + </blockquote> + <p>Some ending in <i>ship</i>, imply an office, employment, or condition; + as, <i>kingship</i>, <i>wardship</i>, <i>guardianship</i>, + <i>partnership</i>, <i>stewardship</i>, <i>headship</i>, + <i>lordship</i>.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>Thus <i>worship</i>, that is, <i>worthship</i>; whence + <i>worshipful</i>, and <i>to worship</i>.</p> + + </blockquote> + <p>Some few ending in <i>dom</i>, <i>rick</i>, <i>wick</i>, do especially + denote dominion, at least state or condition; as, <i>kingdom</i>, + <i>dukedom</i>, <i>earldom</i>, <i>princedom</i>, <i>popedom</i>, + <i>Christendom</i>, <i>freedom</i>, <i>wisdom</i>, <i>whoredom</i>, + <i>bishoprick</i>, <i>bailiwick</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Ment</i> and <i>age</i> are plainly French terminations and are of + the same import with us as among them, scarcely ever occurring, except in + words derived from the French, as <i>commandment</i>, <i>usage</i>.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>There are in English often long trains of words allied by their + meaning and derivation; as, <i>to beat</i>, <i>a bat</i>, <i>batoon</i>, + <i>a battle</i>, <i>a beetle</i>, <i>a battledore</i>, <i>to batter</i>, + <i>batter</i>, a kind of glutinous composition for food, made by + <i>beating</i> different bodies into one mass. All these are of similar + signification, and perhaps derived from the Latin <i>batuo</i>. Thus + <i>take</i>, <i>touch</i>, <i>tickle</i>, <i>tack</i>, <i>tackle</i>; all + imply a local conjunction from the Latin <i>tango</i>, <i>tetigi</i>, + <i>tactum</i>.</p> + + <p>From <i>two</i> are formed <i>twain</i>, <i>twice</i>, <i>twenty</i>, + <i>twelve</i>, <i>twins</i>, <i>twine</i>, <i>twist</i>, <i>twirl</i>, + <i>twig</i>, <i>twitch</i>, <i>twinge</i>, <i>between</i>, + <i>betwixt</i>, <i>twilight</i>, <i>twibil</i>.</p> + + <p>The following remarks, extracted from Wallis, are ingenious but of + more subtlety than solidity, and such as perhaps might in every language + be enlarged without end.</p> + + <p><i>Sn</i> usually imply the <i>nose</i>, and what relates to it. From + the Latin <i>nasus</i> are derived the French <i>nez</i> and the English + <i>nose</i>; and <i>nesse</i>, a promontory, as projecting like a nose. + But as if from the consonants <i>ns</i> taken from <i>nasus</i>, and + transposed that they may the better correspond, <i>sn</i> denote + <i>nasus</i>; and thence are derived many words that relate to the nose, + as <i>snout</i>, <i>sneeze</i>, <i>snore</i>, <i>snort</i>,<i>snear</i>, + <i>snicker</i>, <i>snot</i>, <i>snivel</i>, <i>snite</i>, <i>snuff</i>, + <i>snuffle</i>, <i>snaffle</i>, <i>snarl</i>, <i>snudge</i>.</p> + + <p>There is another <i>sn</i> which may perhaps be derived from the Latin + <i>sinuo</i>, as <i>snake</i>, <i>sneak</i>, <i>snail</i>, <i>snare</i>; + so likewise <i>snap</i> and <i>snatch</i>, <i>snib</i>, <i>snub</i>. + <i>Bl</i> imply a <i>blast</i>; as <i>blow</i>, <i>blast</i>, <i>to + blast</i>, <i>to blight</i>, and, metaphorically, <i>to blast</i> one's + reputation; <i>bleat</i>, <i>bleak</i>, a <i>bleak</i> place, to look + <i>bleak</i>, or weather-beaten, <i>black</i>, <i>blay</i>, + <i>bleach</i>, <i>bluster</i>, <i>blurt</i>, <i>blister</i>, <i>blab</i>, + <i>bladder</i>, <i>blew</i>, <i>blabber lip't</i>, + <i>blubber-cheek't</i>, <i>bloted</i>, <i>blote-herrings</i>, + <i>blast</i>, <i>blaze</i>, <i>to blow</i>, that is, <i>blossom</i>, + <i>bloom</i>; and perhaps <i>blood</i> and <i>blush</i>.</p> + + <p>In the native words of our tongue is to be found a great agreement + between the letters and the thing signified; and therefore the sounds of + the letters smaller, sharper, louder, closer, softer, stronger, clearer, + more obscure, and more stridulous, do very often intimate the like + effects in the things signified.</p> + + <p>Thus words that begin with <i>str</i> intimate the force and effect of + the thing signified, as if probably derived from <span lang="el" + title="strônnymi" + >στρωννυμι</span>, + or <i>strenuous</i>; as <i>strong</i>, <i>strength</i>, <i>strew</i>, + <i>strike</i>, <i>streak</i>, <i>stroke</i>, <i>stripe</i>, + <i>strive</i>, <i>strife</i>, <i>struggle</i>, <i>strout</i>, + <i>strut</i>, <i>stretch</i>, <i>strait</i>, <i>strict</i>, + <i>streight</i>, that is, narrow, <i>distrain</i>, <i>stress</i>, + <i>distress</i>, <i>string</i>, <i>strap</i>, <i>stream</i>, + <i>streamer</i>, <i>strand</i>, <i>strip</i>, <i>stray</i>, + <i>struggle</i>, <i>strange</i>, <i>stride</i>, <i>stradale</i>.</p> + + <p><i>St</i> in like manner imply strength, but in a less degree, so much + only as is sufficient to preserve what has been already communicated, + rather than acquire any new degree; as if it were derived from the Latin + <i>sto</i>; for example, <i>stand</i>, <i>stay</i>, that is, to remain, + or to prop; <i>staff</i>, <i>stay</i>, that is, to oppose; <i>stop</i>, + <i>to stuff</i>, <i>stifle</i>, <i>to stay</i>, that is, to stop; a + <i>stay</i>, that is, an obstacle; <i>stick</i>, <i>stut</i>, + <i>stutter</i>, <i>stammer</i>, <i>stagger</i>, <i>stickle</i>, + <i>stick</i>, <i>stake</i>, a sharp, pale, and any thing deposited at + play; <i>stock</i>, <i>stem</i>, <i>sting</i>, <i>to sting</i>, + <i>stink</i>, <i>stitch</i>, <i>stud</i>, <i>stuncheon</i>, <i>stub</i>, + <i>stubble</i>, to <i>stub</i> up, <i>stump</i>, whence <i>stumble</i>, + <i>stalk</i>, <i>to stalk</i>, <i>step</i>, <i>to stamp</i> with the + feet, whence to <i>stamp</i>, that is, to make an impression and a stamp; + <i>stow</i>, <i>to stow</i>, <i>to bestow</i>, <i>steward</i>, or + <i>stoward</i>; <i>stead</i>, <i>steady</i>, <i>stedfast</i>, + <i>stable</i>, <i>a stable</i>, <i>a stall</i>, <i>to stall</i>, + <i>stool</i>, <i>stall</i>, <i>still</i>, <i>stall</i>, <i>stallage</i>, + <i>stage</i>, <i>still</i>, adjective, and <i>still</i>, adverb: + <i>stale</i>, <i>stout</i>, <i>sturdy</i>, <i>stead</i>, <i>stoat</i>, + <i>stallion</i>, <i>stiff</i>, <i>stark-dead</i>, <i>to starve</i> with + hunger or cold; <i>stone</i>, <i>steel</i>, <i>stern</i>, <i>stanch</i>, + <i>to stanch</i> blood, <i>to stare</i>, <i>steep</i>, <i>steeple</i>, + <i>stair</i>, <i>standard</i>, a stated measure, <i>stately</i>. In all + these, and perhaps some others, <i>st</i> denote something firm and + fixed.</p> + + <p><i>Thr</i> imply a more violent degree of motion, as <i>throw</i>, + <i>thrust</i>, <i>throng</i>, <i>throb</i>, <i>through</i>, + <i>threat</i>, <i>threaten</i>, <i>thrall</i>, <i>throws</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Wr</i> imply some sort of obliquity or distortion, as <i>wry</i>, + <i>to wreathe</i>, <i>wrest</i>, <i>wrestle</i>, <i>wring</i>, + <i>wrong</i>, <i>wrinch</i>, <i>wrench</i>, <i>wrangle</i>, + <i>wrinkle</i>, <i>wrath</i>, <i>wreak</i>, <i>wrack</i>, <i>wretch</i>, + <i>wrist</i>, <i>wrap</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Sw</i> imply a silent agitation, or a softer kind of lateral + motion; as <i>sway</i>, <i>swag</i>, <i>to sway</i>, <i>swagger</i>, + <i>swerve</i>, <i>sweat</i>, <i>sweep</i>, <i>swill</i>, <i>swim</i>, + <i>swing</i>, <i>swift</i>, <i>sweet</i>, <i>switch</i>, + <i>swinge</i>.</p> + + <p>Nor is there much difference of <i>sm</i> in <i>smooth</i>, + <i>smug</i>, <i>smile</i>, <i>smirk</i>, <i>smite</i>; which signifies + the same as to <i>strike</i>, but is a softer word; <i>small</i>, + <i>smell</i>, <i>smack</i>, <i>smother</i>, <i>smart</i>, a <i>smart</i> + blow properly signifies such a kind of stroke as with an originally + silent motion, implied in <i>sm</i>, proceeds to a quick violence, + denoted by <i>ar</i> suddenly ended, as is shown by <i>t</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Cl</i> denote a kind of adhesion or tenacity, as in <i>cleave</i>, + <i>clay</i>, <i>cling</i>, <i>climb</i>, <i>clamber</i>, <i>clammy</i>, + <i>clasp</i>, <i>to clasp</i>, <i>to clip</i>, <i>to clinch</i>, + <i>cloak</i>, <i>clog</i>, <i>close</i>, <i>to close</i>, <i>a clod</i>, + <i>a clot</i>, as a <i>clot</i> of blood, <i>clouted</i> cream, <i>a + clutter</i>, <i>a cluster</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Sp</i> imply a kind of dissipation or expansion, especially a quick + one, particularly if there be an <i>r</i>, as if it were from + <i>spargo</i> or <i>separo</i>: for example, <i>spread</i>, + <i>spring</i>, <i>sprig</i>, <i>sprout</i>, <i>sprinkle</i>, + <i>split</i>, <i>splinter</i>, <i>spill</i>, <i>spit</i>, <i>sputter</i>, + <i>spatter</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Sl</i> denote a kind of silent fall, or a less observable motion; + as in <i>slime</i>, <i>slide</i>, <i>slip</i>, <i>slipper</i>, + <i>sly</i>, <i>sleight</i>, <i>slit</i>, <i>slow</i>, <i>slack</i>, + <i>slight</i>, <i>sling</i>, <i>slap</i>.</p> + + <p>And so likewise <i>ash</i>, in <i>crash</i>, <i>rash</i>, <i>gash</i>, + <i>flash</i>, <i>clash</i>, <i>lash</i>, <i>slash</i>, <i>plash</i>, + <i>trash</i>, indicate something acting more nimbly and sharply. But + <i>ush</i>, in <i>crush</i>, <i>rush</i>, <i>gush</i>, <i>flush</i>, + <i>blush</i>, <i>brush</i>, <i>hush</i>, <i>push</i>, imply something as + acting more obtusely and dully. Yet in both there is indicated a swift + and sudden motion not instantaneous, but gradual, by the continued sound, + <i>sh</i>.</p> + + <p>Thus in <i>fling</i>, <i>sling</i>, <i>ding</i>, <i>swing</i>, + <i>cling</i>, <i>sing</i>, <i>wring</i>, <i>sting</i>, the tingling of + the termination <i>ng</i>, and the sharpness of the vowel <i>i</i>, imply + the continuation of a very slender motion or tremor, at length indeed + vanishing, but not suddenly interrupted. <!-- Page 31 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page31"></a>[31]</span> But in <i>tink</i>, + <i>wink</i>, <i>sink</i>, <i>clink</i>, <i>chink</i>, <i>think</i>, that + end in a mute consonant, there is also indicated a sudden ending.</p> + + <p>If there be an <i>l</i>, as in <i>jingle</i>, <i>tingle</i>, + <i>tinkle</i>, <i>mingle</i>, <i>sprinkle</i>, <i>twinkle</i>, there is + implied a frequency, or iteration of small acts. And the same frequency + of acts, but less subtile by reason of the clearer vowel <i>a</i>, is + indicated in <i>jangle</i>, <i>tangle</i>, <i>spangle</i>, <i>mangle</i>, + <i>wrangle</i>, <i>brangle</i>, <i>dangle</i>; as also in <i>mumble</i>, + <i>grumble</i>, <i>jumble</i>. But at the same time the close <i>u</i> + implies something obscure or obtunded; and a congeries of consonants + <i>mbl</i>, denotes a confused kind of rolling or tumbling, as in + <i>ramble</i>, <i>scamble</i>, <i>scramble</i>, <i>wamble</i>, + <i>amble</i>; but in these there is something acute.</p> + + <p>In <i>nimble</i>, the acuteness of the vowel denotes celerity. In + <i>sparkle</i>, <i>sp</i> denotes dissipation, <i>ar</i> an acute + crackling, <i>k</i> a sudden interruption, <i>l</i> a frequent iteration; + and in like manner in <i>sprinkle</i>, unless <i>in</i> may imply the + subtilty of the dissipated guttules. <i>Thick</i> and <i>thin</i> differ + in that the former ends with an obtuse consonant, and the latter with an + acute.</p> + + <p>In like manner, in <i>squeek</i>, <i>squeak</i>, <i>squeal</i>, + <i>squall</i>, <i>brawl</i>, <i>wraul</i>, <i>yaul</i>, <i>spaul</i>, + <i>screek</i>, <i>shriek</i>, <i>shrill</i>, <i>sharp</i>, + <i>shrivel</i>, <i>wrinkle</i>, <i>crack</i>, <i>crash</i>, <i>clash</i>, + <i>gnash</i>, <i>plash</i>, <i>crush</i>, <i>hush</i>, <i>hisse</i>, + <i>fisse</i>, <i>whist</i>, <i>soft</i>, <i>jar</i>, <i>hurl</i>, + <i>curl</i>, <i>whirl</i>, <i>buz</i>, <i>bustle</i>, <i>spindle</i>, + <i>dwindle</i>, <i>twine</i>, <i>twist</i>, and in many more, we may + observe the agreement of such sort of sounds with the things signified; + and this so frequently happens, that scarce any language which I know can + be compared with ours. So that one monosyllable word, of which kind are + almost all ours, emphatically expresses what in other languages can + scarce be explained but by compounds, or decompounds, or sometimes a + tedious circumlocution.</p> + + </blockquote> + <p>We have many words borrowed from the Latin; but the greatest part of + them were communicated by the intervention of the French; as, + <i>grace</i>, <i>face</i>, <i>elegant</i>, <i>elegance</i>, + <i>resemble</i>.</p> + + <p>Some verbs which seem borrowed from the Latin, are formed from the + present tense, and some from the supines.</p> + + <p>From the present are formed <i>spend</i>, <i>expend</i>, expendo; + <i>conduce</i>, conduco; <i>despise</i>, despicio; <i>approve</i>, + approbo; <i>conceive</i>, concipio.</p> + + <p>From the supines, <i>supplicate</i>, supplico; <i>demonstrate</i>, + demonstro; <i>dispose</i>, dispono; <i>expatiate</i>, expatior; + <i>suppress</i>, supprimo; <i>exempt</i>, eximo.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>Nothing is more apparent than that Wallis goes too far in quest of + originals. Many of these which seem selected as immediate descendants + from the Latin, are apparently French, as, <i>conceive</i>, + <i>approve</i>, <i>expose</i>, <i>exempt</i>.</p> + + </blockquote> + <p>Some words purely French, not derived from the Latin, we have + transferred into our language; as, <i>garden</i>, <i>garter</i>, + <i>buckler</i>, <i>to advance</i>, <i>to cry</i>, <i>to plead</i>, from + the French <i>jardin</i>, <i>jartier</i>, <i>bouclier</i>, + <i>avancer</i>, <i>crier</i>, <i>plaider</i>; though, indeed, even of + these part is of Latin original.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>As to many words which we have in common with the Germans, it is + doubtful whether the old Teutons borrowed them from the Latins, or the + Latins from the Teutons, or both had them from some common original; as + <i>wine</i>, vinum; <i>wind</i>, ventus; <i>went</i>, veni; <i>way</i>, + via, <i>wall</i>, vallum; <i>wallow</i>, volvo; <i>wool</i>, vellus; + <i>will</i>, volo; <i>worm</i>, vermis; <i>worth</i>, virtus; + <i>wasp</i>, vespa; <i>day</i>, dies; <i>draw</i>, traho; <i>tame</i>, + domo, <span lang="el" title="damaô" + >δαμαω</span>; <i>yoke</i>, jugum, <span + lang="el" title="zeugos" + >ζευγος</span>; <i>over</i>, + <i>upper</i>, super, <span lang="el" title="hyper" + >‛υπερ</span>; <i>am</i>, sum, <span + lang="el" title="eimi" >ειμι</span>; + <i>break</i>, frango; <i>fly</i>, volo; <i>blow</i>, flo. I make no doubt + but the Teutonick is more ancient than the Latin: and it is no less + certain, that the Latin, which borrowed a great number of words not only + from the Greek, especially the Æolick, but from other neighbouring + languages, as the Oscan and others, which have long become obsolete, + received not a few from the Teutonick. It is certain, that the English, + German, and other Teutonick languages, retained some derived from the + Greek, which the Latin has not; as, <i>ax</i>, <i>achs</i>, <i>mit</i>, + <i>ford</i>, <i>pfurd</i>, <i>daughter</i>, <i>tochter</i>, + <i>mickle</i>, <i>mingle</i>, <i>moon</i>, <i>sear</i>, <i>oar</i>, + <i>grave</i>, <i>graff</i>, <i>to grave</i>, <i>to scrape</i>, + <i>whole</i>, from <span lang="el" title="axinê" + >αξινη</span>, <span lang="el" title="meta" + >μετα</span>, <span lang="el" title="porthmos" + >πορθμος</span>, <span + lang="el" title="thygatêr" + >θυγατηρ</span>, <span + lang="el" title="megalos" + >μεγαλος</span>, <span + lang="el" title="mignyô" + >μιγνυω</span>, <span lang="el" + title="mênê" >μηνη</span>, <span lang="el" + title="xêros" >ξηρος</span>, <span + lang="el" title="graphô" >γραφω</span>, + <span lang="el" title="holos" + >‛ολος</span>. Since they received these + immediately from the Greeks, without the intervention of the Latin + language, why may not other words be derived immediately from the same + fountain, though they be likewise found among the Latins?</p> + + </blockquote> + <p>Our ancestors were studious to form borrowed words, however long, into + monosyllables; and not only cut off the formative terminations, but + cropped the first syllable, especially in words beginning with a vowel; + and rejected not only vowels in the middle, but likewise consonants of a + weaker sound, retaining the stronger, which seem the bones of words, or + changing them for others of the same organ, in order that the sound might + become the softer; but especially transposing their order, that they + might the more readily be pronounced without the intermediate vowels. For + example in expendo, <i>spend</i>; exemplum, <i>sample</i>; excipio, + <i>scape</i>; extraneus, <i>strange</i>; extractum, <i>stretch'd</i>; + excrucio, <i>to screw</i>; exscorio, <i>to scour</i>; excorio, <i>to + scourge</i>; excortico, <i>to scratch</i>; and others beginning with + <i>ex</i>: as also, emendo, <i>to mend</i>; episcopus, <i>bishop</i>, in + Danish <i>bisp</i>; epistola, <i>epistle</i>; hospitale, <i>spittle</i>; + Hispania, <i>Spain</i>; historia, <i>story</i>.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>Many of these etymologies are doubtful, and some evidently + mistaken.</p> + + <p>The following are somewhat harder, <i>Alexander</i>, <i>Sander</i>; + <i>Elisabetha</i>, <i>Betty</i>; apis, <i>bee</i>; aper, <i>bar</i>; + <i>p</i> passing into <i>b</i>, as in <i>bishop</i>; and by cutting off + <i>a</i> from the beginning, which is restored in the middle; but for the + old <i>bar</i> or <i>bare</i>, we now say <i>boar</i>; as for + <i>lang</i>, <i>long</i>, for <i>bain</i>, <i>bane</i>; for <i>stane</i>, + <i>stone</i>; aprugna, <i>brawn</i>, <i>p</i>, being changed into + <i>b</i> and <i>a</i> transposed, as in <i>aper</i>, and <i>g</i> changed + into <i>w</i>, as in pignus, <i>pawn</i>; lege, <i>law</i>; <span + lang="el" title="alôpêx" + >αλωπηξ</span>, <i>fox</i>, cutting + off the beginning, and changing <i>p</i> into <i>f</i>, as in pellis, + <i>a fell</i>; pullus, <i>a foal</i>; pater, <i>father</i>; pavor, + <i>fear</i>; polio, <i>file</i>; pleo, impleo, <i>fill</i>, <i>full</i>; + piscis, <i>fish</i>; and transposing <i>o</i> into the middle, which was + taken from the beginning; apex, <i>a piece</i>; peak, <i>pike</i>; + zophorus, <i>freese</i>; mustum, <i>stum</i>; defensio, <i>fence</i>; + dispensator, <i>spencer</i>; asculto, escouter, Fr. <i>scout</i>; + exscalpo, <i>scrape</i>; restoring <i>l</i> instead of <i>r</i>, and + hence <i>scrap</i>, <i>scrabble</i>, <i>scrawl</i>; exculpo, + <i>scoop</i>; exterritus, <i>start</i>; extonitus, attonitus, + <i>stonn'd</i>; stomachus, <i>maw</i>; offendo, <i>fined</i>; obstipo, + <i>stop</i>; audere, <i>dare</i>; cavere, <i>ware</i>; whence, + <i>a-ware</i>, <i>beware</i>, <i>wary</i>, <i>warn</i>, <i>warning</i>; + for the Latin <i>v</i> consonant formerly sounded like our <i>w</i>, and + the modern sound of the <i>v</i> consonant was formerly that of the + letter <i>f</i>, that is, the Æolick digamma, which had the sound of + <span lang="el" title="ph" >φ</span>, and the modern sound of the + letter <i>f</i> was that of the Greek <span lang="el" title="ph" + >φ</span> or <i>ph</i>; ulcus, ulcere, <i>ulcer</i>, <i>sore</i>, + and hence <i>sorry</i>, <i>sorrow</i>, <i>sorrowful</i>; ingenium, + <i>engine</i>, <i>gin</i>, scalenus, <i>leaning</i>, unless you would + rather derive it from <span lang="el" title="klinô" + >κλινω</span>, whence inclino; + infundibulum, <i>funnel</i>; gagates, <i>jett</i>, projectum, <i>to jett + forth</i>, <i>a jetty</i>; cucullus, <i>a cowl</i>.</p> + + <p>There are syncopes somewhat harder; from tempore, <i>time</i>; from + nomine, <i>name</i>, domina, <i>dame</i>; <!-- Page 32 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page32"></a>[32]</span> as the French + <i>homme</i>, <i>femme</i>, <i>nom</i>, from homine, fœmina, nomine. + Thus pagína, <i>page</i>; <span lang="el" title="potêrion" + >ποτηριον</span>, + <i>pot</i>; <span lang="el" title="kypella" + >κυπελλα</span>, <i>cup</i>; + cantharus, <i>can</i>; tentorium, <i>tent</i>; precor, <i>pray</i>; + preda, <i>prey</i>; specio, speculor, <i>spy</i>; plico, <i>ply</i>; + implico, <i>imply</i>; replico, <i>reply</i>; complico, <i>comply</i>; + sedes episcopalis, <i>see</i>.</p> + + <p>A vowel is also cut off in the middle, that the number of the + syllables may be lessened; as amita, <i>aunt</i>; spiritus, + <i>spright</i>; debitum, <i>debt</i>; dubito, <i>doubt</i>; comes, + comitis, <i>count</i>; clericus, <i>clerk</i>; quietus, <i>quit, + quite</i>; acquieto, <i>to acquit</i>; separo, <i>to spare</i>; stabilis, + <i>stable</i>; stabulum, <i>stable</i>; pallacium, <i>palace</i>, + <i>place</i>; rabula, <i>rail</i>, <i>rawl</i>, <i>wrawl</i>, + <i>brawl</i>, <i>rable</i>, <i>brable</i>; quæsito, <i>quest</i>.</p> + + <p>As also a consonant, or at least one of a softer sound, or even a + whole syllable, rotundus, <i>round</i>; fragilis, <i>frail</i>; securus, + <i>sure</i>; regula, <i>rule</i>; tegula, <i>tile</i>; subtilis, + <i>subtle</i>; nomen, <i>noun</i>; decanus, <i>dean</i>; computo, + <i>count</i>; subitaneus, <i>sudden</i>, <i>soon</i>; superare, <i>to + soar</i>; periculum, <i>peril</i>; mirabile, <i>marvel</i>; as magnus, + <i>main</i>; dignor, <i>deign</i>; tingo, <i>stain</i>; tinctum, + <i>taint</i>; pingo, <i>paint</i>; prædari, <i>reach</i>.</p> + + <p>The contractions may seem harder, where many of them meet, as <span + lang="el" title="kyriakos" + >κυριακος</span>, + <i>kyrk</i>, <i>church</i>; presbyter, <i>priest</i>; sacristanus, + <i>sexton</i>; frango, fregi, <i>break</i>, <i>breach</i>; fagus, <span + lang="el" title="phêga" >φηγα</span>, + <i>beech</i>, <i>f</i> changed into <i>b</i>, and <i>g</i> into + <i>ch</i>, which are letters near akin; frigesco, <i>freeze</i>, + frigesco, <i>fresh</i>, <i>sc</i> into <i>sh</i>, as above in + <i>bishop</i>, <i>fish</i>, so in scapha, <i>skiff</i>, <i>skip</i>, and + refrigesco, <i>refresh</i>; but viresco, <i>fresh</i>; phlebotamus, + <i>fleam</i>; bovina, <i>beef</i>; vitulina, <i>veal</i>; scutifer, + <i>squire</i>; pœnitentia, <i>penance</i>; sanctuarium, + <i>sanctuary</i>, <i>sentry</i>; quæsitio, <i>chase</i>; perquisitio, + <i>purchase</i>; anguilla, <i>eel</i>; insula, <i>isle</i>, <i>ile</i>, + <i>island</i>, <i>iland</i>; insuletta, <i>islet</i>, <i>ilet</i>, + <i>eyght</i>, and more contractedly <i>ey</i>, whence <i>Owsney</i>, + <i>Ruley</i>, <i>Ely</i>; examinare, <i>to scan</i>; namely, by rejecting + from the beginning and end <i>e</i> and <i>o</i>, according to the usual + manner, the remainder <i>xamin</i>, which the Saxons, who did not use + <i>x</i>, writ <i>csamen</i>, or <i>scamen</i>, is contracted into + <i>scan</i>: as from dominus, <i>don</i>; nomine, <i>noun</i>; abomino, + <i>ban</i>; and indeed <i>apum examen</i>; they turned into + <i>sciame</i>; for which we say <i>swarme</i>, by inserting <i>r</i> to + denote the murmuring; thesaurus, <i>store</i>; sedile, <i>stool</i>; + <span lang="el" title="hyetos" + >‛υετος</span>, <i>wet</i>; sudo, + <i>sweat</i>; gaudium, <i>gay</i>; jocus, <i>joy</i>; succus, + <i>juice</i>; catena, <i>chain</i>; caliga, calga; chause, chausse, + French, <i>hose</i>; extinguo, <i>stand</i>, <i>squench</i>, + <i>quench</i>, <i>stint</i>; foras, <i>forth</i>; species, <i>spice</i>; + recito, <i>read</i>; adjuvo, <i>aid</i>; <span lang="el" title="aiôn" + >αιων</span>, ævum, <i>ay</i>, <i>age</i>, + <i>ever</i>; floccus, <i>lock</i>; excerpo, <i>scrape</i>, + <i>scrabble</i>, <i>scrawl</i>; extravagus, <i>stray</i>, + <i>straggle</i>; collectum, <i>clot</i>, <i>clutch</i>; colligo, + <i>coil</i>: recolligo, <i>recoil</i>; severo, <i>swear</i>; stridulus, + <i>shrill</i>; procurator, <i>proxy</i>; pulso, <i>to push</i>; calamus, + <i>a quill</i>; impetere, <i>to impeach</i>; augeo, auxi, <i>wax</i>; and + vanesco, vanui, <i>wane</i>; syllabare, <i>to spell</i>; puteus, + <i>pit</i>; granum, <i>corn</i>; comprimo, <i>cramp</i>, <i>crump</i>, + <i>crumple</i>, <i>crinkle</i>.</p> + + <p>Some may seem harsher, yet may not be rejected, for it at least + appears, that some of them are derived from proper names, and there are + others whose etymology is acknowledged by every body; as, Alexander, + <i>Elick</i>, <i>Scander</i>, <i>Sander</i>, <i>Sandy</i>, <i>Sanny</i>; + Elizabetha, <i>Elizabeth</i>, <i>Elisabeth</i>, <i>Betty</i>, + <i>Bess</i>; Margareta, <i>Margaret</i>, <i>Marget</i>, <i>Meg</i>, + <i>Peg</i>; Maria, <i>Mary</i>, <i>Mal</i>, <i>Pal</i>, <i>Malkin</i>, + <i>Mawkin</i>, <i>Mawkes</i>; Mathæus, <i>Mattha</i>, <i>Matthew</i>; + Martha, <i>Mat</i>, <i>Pat</i>; Gulielmus, <i>Wilhelmus</i>, + <i>Girolamo</i>, <i>Guillaume</i>, <i>William</i>, <i>Will</i>, + <i>Bill</i>, <i>Wilkin</i>, <i>Wicken</i>, <i>Wicks</i>, + <i>Weeks</i>.</p> + + <p>Thus cariophyllus, flos; gerofilo, Italian, giriflee, gilofer, French, + <i>gilliflower</i>, which the vulgar call <i>julyflower</i>, as if + derived from the month <i>July</i>; petroselinum, <i>parsley</i>; + portulaca, <i>purslain</i>; cydonium, <i>quince</i>; cydoniatum, + <i>quiddeny</i>; persicum, <i>peach</i>; eruca, <i>eruke</i>, which they + corrupt to <i>earwig</i>, as if it took its name from the ear; annulus + geminus, <i>a gimmal</i>, or <i>gimbal-ring</i>; and thus the word + <i>gimbal</i> or <i>jumbal</i> is transferred to other things thus + interwoven; quelques choses, <i>kickshaws</i>. Since the origin of these, + and many others, however forced, is evident, it ought to appear no wonder + to any one if the ancients have thus disfigured many, especially as they + so much affected monosyllables; and, to make the sound the softer, took + this liberty of maiming, taking away, changing, transposing, and + softening them.</p> + + <p>But while we derive these from the Latin, I do not mean to say, that + many of them did not immediately come to us from the Saxon, Danish, + Dutch, and Teutonick languages, and other dialects; and some taken more + lately from the French or Italians, or Spaniards.</p> + + <p>The same word, according to its different significations, often has a + different origin; as, <i>to bear a burden</i>, from <i>fero</i>; but + <i>to bear</i>, whence <i>birth</i>, <i>born</i>, <i>bairn</i>, comes + from <i>pario</i>; and <i>a bear</i>, at least if it be of Latin + original, from <i>fera</i>. Thus <i>perch</i>, a fish, from <i>perca</i>; + but <i>perch</i>, a measure, from <i>pertica</i>, and likewise <i>to + perch</i>. To <i>spell</i> is from <i>syllaba</i>; but <i>spell</i>, an + inchantment, by which it is believed that the boundaries are so fixed in + lands that none can pass them against the master's will, from + <i>expello</i>; and <i>spell</i>, a messenger, from <i>epistola</i>; + whence <i>gospel</i>, <i>good-spell</i>, or <i>god-spell</i>. Thus + <i>freese</i>, or <i>freeze</i>, from <i>frigesco</i>; but <i>freeze</i>, + an architectonick word, from <i>zophorus</i>; but <i>freeze</i>, for + <i>cloth</i>, from <i>Frisia</i>, or perhaps from <i>frigesco</i>, as + being more fit than any other for keeping out the cold.</p> + + <p>There are many words among us, even monosyllables, compounded of two + or more words, at least serving instead of compounds, and comprising the + signification of more words that one; as, from <i>scrip</i> and + <i>roll</i> comes <i>scroll</i>; from <i>proud</i> and <i>dance</i>, + <i>prance</i>; from <i>st</i> of the verb <i>stay</i> or <i>stand</i> and + <i>out</i>, is made <i>stout</i>; from <i>stout</i> and <i>hardy</i>, + <i>sturdy</i>; from <i>sp</i> of <i>spit</i> or <i>spew</i>, and + <i>out</i>, comes <i>spout</i>; from the same <i>sp</i> with the + termination <i>in</i>, is <i>spin</i>; and adding <i>out</i>, <i>spin + out</i>: and from the same <i>sp</i>, with it, is <i>spit</i>, which only + differs from <i>spout</i> in that it is smaller, and with less noise and + force; but <i>sputter</i> is, because of the obscure <i>u</i>, something + between <i>spit</i> and <i>spout</i>: and by reason of adding <i>r</i>, + it intimates a frequent iteration and noise, but obscurely confused; + whereas <i>spatter</i>, on account of the sharper and clearer vowel + <i>a</i>, intimates a more distinct poise, in which it chiefly differs + from <i>sputter</i>. From the same <i>sp</i> and the termination + <i>ark</i>, comes <i>spark</i>, signifying a single emission of fire with + a noise; namely <i>sp</i>, the emission, <i>ar</i>, the more acute noise, + and <i>k</i>, the mute consonant, intimates its being suddenly + terminated; but adding <i>l</i>, is made the frequentative + <i>sparkle</i>. The same <i>sp</i>, by adding <i>r</i>, that is + <i>spr</i>, implies a more lively impetus of diffusing or expanding + itself; to which adding the termination <i>ing</i>, it becomes + <i>spring</i>: its vigour <i>spr</i> imports; its sharpness the + termination <i>ing</i>; and lastly <i>in</i> acute and tremulous, ending + in the mute consonant <i>g</i>, denotes the sudden ending of any motion, + that it is meant in its primary signification, of a single, not a + complicated exilition. Hence we call <i>spring</i> whatever has an + elastick force; as also a fountain of water, and thence the origin of any + thing: and to <i>spring</i>, to germinate, and <i>spring</i>, one of the + four seasons. From the same <i>spr</i> and <i>out</i>, is formed sprout, + and wit the termination <i>ig</i>, <i>sprig</i>; of which the following, + for the most part, is the difference: <i>sprout</i>, of a grosser sound, + imports a fatter or grosser bud; <i>sprig</i>, of a slenderer sound, + denotes a smaller shoot. In like manner, from <i>str</i> of the verb + <i>strive</i>, and <i>out</i>, comes <i>strout</i>, and <i>strut</i>. + From the same <i>str</i>, and the termination <i>uggle</i>, is made + <i>struggle</i>; and this <i>gl</i> imports, but without any great noise, + by reason of the obscure sound of the vowel <i>u</i>. In like manner, + from <i>throw</i> and <i>roll</i> is made <i>troll</i>, and almost in the + same sense is <i>trundle</i>, from <i>throw</i> or <i>thrust</i>, and + <i>rundle</i>. Thus <i>graff</i> or <i>grough</i> is compounded of + <i>grave</i> and <i>rough</i>; and <i>trudge</i> from <i>tread</i> or + <i>trot</i>, and <i>drudge</i>.</p> + + </blockquote> + <p>In these observations it is easy to discover great sagacity and great + extravagance, an ability to do much defeated by the desire of doing more + than enough. It may be remarked,</p> + + <p>1. That Wallis's derivations are often so made, that by the same + license any language may be deduced from any other.</p> + + <p>2. That he makes no distinction between words immediately derived by + us from the Latin, and those which being copied from other languages, can + therefore afford no example of the genius of <!-- Page 33 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page33"></a>[33]</span> the English language, or + its laws of derivation.</p> + + <p>3. That he derives from the Latin, often with great harshness and + violence, words apparently Teutonick; and therefore, according to his own + declaration, probably older than the tongue to which he refers them.</p> + + <p>4. That some of his derivations are apparently erroneous.</p> + + <br clear="all" /> +<hr /> + +<h3>SYNTAX.</h3> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>The established practice of grammarians requires that I should here + treat of the Syntax; but our language has so little inflection, or + variety of terminations, that its construction neither requires nor + admits many rules. Wallis, therefore, has totally neglected it; and + Jonson, whose desire of following the writers upon the learned languages + made him think a syntax indispensably necessary, has published such petty + observations as were better omitted.</p> + + </blockquote> + <p>The verb, as in other languages, agrees with the nominative in number + and person; as, <i>Thou fliest from good</i>; <i>He runs to + death</i>.</p> + + <p>Our adjectives and pronouns are invariable.</p> + + <p>Of two substantives the noun possessive is in the genitive; as, <i>His + father's glory</i>; <i>The sun's heat</i>.</p> + + <p>Verbs transitive require an oblique case; as, <i>He loves me</i>; + <i>You fear him</i>.</p> + + <p>All prepositions require an oblique case: as, <i>He gave this</i> to + <i>me</i>; <i>He took this</i> from <i>me</i>; <i>He says this</i> of + <i>me</i>; <i>He came</i> with <i>me</i>.</p> + + <br clear="all" /> +<hr /> + +<h3>PROSODY.</h3> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>It is common for those that deliver the grammar of modern languages, + to omit the Prosody. So that of the Italians is neglected by Buomattei; + that of the French by Desmarais; aad that of the English by Wallis, + Cooper, and even by Jonson, though a poet. But as the laws of metre are + included in the idea of grammar, I have thought proper to insert + them.</p> + + </blockquote> + <p>PROSODY comprises <i>orthoepy</i>, or the rules of pronunciation; and + <i>orthometry</i>, or the laws of versification.</p> + + <p><i>Pronunciation</i> is just, when every letter has its proper sound, + and every syllable has its proper accent, or, which in English + versification is the same, its proper quantity.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>The sounds of the letters have been already explained; and rules for + the accent or quantity are not easily to be given, being subject to + innumerable exceptions. Such, however, as I have read or formed, I shall + here propose.</p> + + </blockquote> + <p>1. Of dissyllables, formed by affixing a termination, the former + syllable is commonly accented, as <i>chíldish</i>, <i>kíngdom</i>, + <i>áctest</i>, <i>ácted</i>, <i>tóilsome</i>, <i>lóver</i>, + <i>scóffer</i>, <i>faírer</i>, <i>fóremost</i>, <i>zéalous</i>, + <i>fúlness</i>, <i>gódly</i>, <i>meékly</i>, <i>ártist</i>.</p> + + <p>2. Dissyllables formed by prefixing a syllable to the radical word, + have commonly the accent on the latter; as to <i>begét</i>, to + <i>beseém</i>, to <i>bestów</i>.</p> + + <p>3. Of dissyllables, which are at once nouns and verbs, the verb has + commonly the accent on the latter, and the noun on the former syllable; + as, <i>to descánt</i>, <i>a déscant</i>; <i>to cemént</i>, <i>a + cément</i>; <i>to contráct</i>, <i>a cóntract</i>.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>This rule has many exceptions. Though verbs seldom have their accent + on the former, yet nouns often have it on the latter syllable; as + <i>delíght</i>, <i>perfúme</i>.</p> + + </blockquote> + <p>4. All dissyllables ending in <i>y</i>, as <i>cránny</i>; in + <i>our</i>, as <i>lábour</i>, <i>fávour</i>; in <i>ow</i>, as + <i>wíllow</i>, <i>wállow</i>, except <i>allów</i>; in <i>le</i>, as + <i>báttle</i>, <i>bíble</i>; in <i>ish</i>, as <i>bánish</i>; in + <i>ck</i>, as <i>cámbrick</i>, <i>cássock</i>; in <i>ter</i>, as <i>to + bátter</i>; in <i>age</i>, as <i>coúrage</i>, in <i>en</i>, as + <i>fásten</i>; in <i>et</i>, as <i>quíet</i>; accent the former + syllable.</p> + + <p>5. Dissyllable nouns in <i>er</i>, as <i>cánker</i>, <i>bútter</i>, + have the accent on the former syllable.</p> + + <p>6. Dissyllable verbs terminating in a consonant and <i>e</i> final, as + <i>compríse</i>, <i>escápe</i>; or having a diphthong in the last + syllable, as <i>appéase</i>, <i>revéal</i>; or ending in two consonants, + as <i>atténd</i>; have the accent on the latter syllable.</p> + + <p>7. Dissyllable nouns having a diphthong in the latter syllable, have + commonly their accent on the latter syllable, as <i>appláuse</i>; except + words in <i>ain</i>, <i>cértain</i>, <i>moúntain</i>.</p> + + <p>8. Trissyllables formed by adding a termination, or prefixing a + syllable, retain the accent of the radical word; as, <i>lóveliness</i>, + <i>ténderness</i>, <i>contémner</i>, <i>wágonner</i>, <i>phýsical</i>, + <i>bespátter</i>, <i>cómmenting</i>, <i>comménding</i>, + <i>assúrance</i>.</p> + + <p>9. Trissyllables ending in <i>ous</i>, as <i>grácious</i>, + <i>árduous</i>; in <i>al</i>, as <i>cápital</i>; in <i>ion</i>, as + <i>méntion</i>; accent the first.</p> + + <p>10. Trissyllables ending in <i>ce</i>, <i>ent</i>, and <i>ate</i>, + accent the first syllable, as <i>cóuntenance</i>, <i>cóntinence</i>, + <i>ármament</i>, <i>ímminent</i>, <i>élegant</i>, <i>própagate</i>, + except they be derived from words having the accent on the last, as + <i>connívance</i>, <i>acquáintance</i>; or the middle syllable hath a + vowel before two consonants, as <i>promúlgate</i>.</p> + + <p>11. Trissyllables ending in <i>y</i>, as <i>éntity</i>, + <i>spécify</i>, <i>líberty</i>, <i>víctory</i>, <i>súbsidy</i>, commonly + accent the first syllable.</p> + + <p>12. Trissyllables in <i>re</i> or <i>le</i> accent the <!-- Page 34 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page34"></a>[34]</span> first syllable, + as <i>légible</i>, <i>théatre</i>, except <i>discíple</i>, and some words + which have a position, as <i>exámple</i>, <i>epístle</i>.</p> + + <p>13. Trissyllables in <i>ude</i> commonly accent the first syllable, as + <i>plénitude</i>.</p> + + <p>14. Trissyllables ending in <i>ator</i> or <i>atour</i>, as + <i>creátour</i>; or having in the middle syllable a diphthong, as + <i>endeávour</i>; or a vowel before two consonants, as <i>doméstick</i>; + accent the middle syllable.</p> + + <p>15. Trissyllables that have their accent on the last syllable are + commonly French, as <i>acquiésce</i>, <i>repartée</i>, <i>magazíne</i>, + or words formed by prefixing one or two syllables to an acute syllable, + as <i>immatúre</i>, <i>overchárge</i>.</p> + + <p>16. Polysyllables, or words of more than three syllables, follow the + accent of the words from which they are derived, as <i>árrogating</i>, + <i>cóntinency</i>, <i>incóntinently</i>, <i>comméndable</i>, + <i>commúnicableness</i>. We should therefore say <i>dispútable</i>, + <i>indispútable</i>; rather than <i>dísputable</i>, <i>indísputable</i>; + and <i>advertísement</i>, rather than <i>advértisement</i>.</p> + + <p>17. Words in <i>ion</i> have the accent upon the antepenult, as + <i>salvátion</i>, <i>perturbátion</i>, <i>concóction</i>; words in + <i>atour</i> or <i>ator</i> on the penult, as <i>dedicátor</i>.</p> + + <p>18. Words ending in <i>le</i> commonly have the accent on the first + syllable, as <i>ámicable</i>, unless the second syllable have a vowel + before two consonants, as <i>combústible</i>.</p> + + <p>19. Words ending in <i>ous</i> have the accents on the antepenult, as + <i>uxórious</i>, <i>volúptuous</i>.</p> + + <p>20. Words ending in <i>ty</i> have their accent on the antepenult, as + <i>pusillanímity</i>, <i>actívity</i>.</p> + + <blockquote class="small"> + <p>These rules are not advanced as complete or infallible, but proposed + as useful. Almost every rule of every language has its exceptions; and in + English, as in other tongues, much must be learned by example and + authority. Perhaps more and better rules may be given that have escaped + my observation.</p> + + </blockquote> + <p>VERSIFICATION is the arrangement of a certain number of syllables + according to certain laws.</p> + + <p>The feet of our verses are either iambick, as <i>alóft</i>, + <i>creáte</i>; or trochaick, as <i>hóly</i>, <i>lófty</i>.</p> + + <p>Our iambick measure comprises verses</p> + + <p>Of four syllables,</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Most good, most fair,</p> + <p>Or things as rare,</p> + <p>To call you's lost;</p> + <p>For all the cost</p> + <p>Words can bestow,</p> + <p>So poorly show</p> + <p>Upon your praise,</p> + <p>That all the ways</p> + <p>Sense hath, come short. <i>Drayton.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>With ravish'd ears</p> + <p>The monarch hears. <i>Dryden.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + <p>Of six,</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>This while we are abroad,</p> + <p style="margin-left: 1em">Shall we not touch our lyre?</p> + <p>Shall we not sing an ode?</p> + <p style="margin-left: 1em">Or shall that holy fire,</p> + <p>In us that strongly glow'd,</p> + <p style="margin-left: 1em">In this cold air expire?</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Though in the utmost peak,</p> + <p style="margin-left: 1em">A while we do remain,</p> + <p>Amongst the mountains bleak,</p> + <p style="margin-left: 1em">Expos'd to sleet and rain,</p> + <p>No sport our hours shall break,</p> + <p style="margin-left: 1em">To exercise our vein.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>What though bright Phœbus' beams</p> + <p style="margin-left: 1em">Refresh the southern ground,</p> + <p>And though the princely Thames</p> + <p style="margin-left: 1em">With beauteous nymphs abound,</p> + <p>And by old Camber's streams</p> + <p style="margin-left: 1em">Be many wonders found:</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Yet many rivers clear</p> + <p style="margin-left: 1em">Here glide in silver swathes,</p> + <p>And what of all most dear,</p> + <p style="margin-left: 1em">Buxton's delicious baths,</p> + <p>Strong ale and noble chear,</p> + <p style="margin-left: 1em">T' asswage breem winters scathes.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>In places far or near,</p> + <p style="margin-left: 1em">Or famous, or obscure,</p> + <p>Where wholsom is the air,</p> + <p style="margin-left: 1em">Or where the most impure,</p> + <p>All times, and every where,</p> + <p style="margin-left: 1em">The muse is still in ure. <i>Drayton.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + <p>Of eight, which is the usual measure for short poems,</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>And may at last my weary age</p> + <p>Find out the peaceful hermitage,</p> + <p>The hairy gown, and mossy cell,</p> + <p>Where I may sit, and nightly spell</p> + <p>Of ev'ry star the sky doth shew,</p> + <p>And ev'ry herb that sips the dew. <i>Milton.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + <p>Of ten, which is the common measure of heroick and tragick poetry,</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Full in the midst of this created space,</p> + <p>Betwixt heav'n, earth, and skies, there stands a place</p> + <p>Confining on all three; with triple bound;</p> + <p>Whence all things, though remote, are view'd around,</p> + <p>And thither bring their undulating sound.</p> + <p>The palace of loud Fame, her seat of pow'r,</p> + <p>Plac'd on the summit of a lofty tow'r;</p> + <p>A thousand winding entries long and wide</p> + <p>Receive of fresh reports a flowing tide.</p> + <p>A thousand crannies in the walls are made;</p> + <p>Nor gate nor bars exclude the busy trade.</p> + <p>Tis built of brass, the better to diffuse</p> + <p>The spreading sounds, and multiply the news;</p> + <p>Where echoes in repeated echoes play:</p> + <p>A mart for ever full; and open night and day.</p> + <p>Nor silence is within, nor voice express,</p> + <p>But a deaf noise of sounds that never cease;</p> + <p>Confus'd and chiding, like the hollow roar</p> + <p>Of tides, receding from th' insulted shore;</p> + <p>Or like the broken thunder heard from far,</p> + <p>When Jove to distance drives the rolling war.</p> + <p>The courts are fill'd with a tumultuous din,</p> + <p>Of crouds, or issuing forth, or ent'ring in:</p> + <p>A thorough-fare of news; where some devise</p> + <p>Things never heard, some mingle truth with lies:</p> + <p>The troubled air with empty sounds they beat,</p> + <p>Intent to hear, and eager to repeat. <i>Dryden.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + <p>In all these measures the accents are to be placed on even syllables; + and every line considered by itself is more harmonious, as this rule is + more strictly observed. The variations necessary to pleasure belong to + the art of poetry, not the rules of grammar.</p> + + <p><!-- Page 35 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page35"></a>[35]</span> + Our trochaick measures are Of three syllables,</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Here we may</p> + <p>Think and pray,</p> + <p>Before death</p> + <p>Stops our breath:</p> + <p>Other joys</p> + <p>Are but toys. <i>Walton's Angler.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + <p>Of five,</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>In the days of old,</p> + <p>Stories plainly told,</p> + <p>Lovers felt annoy. <i>Old Ballad.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + <p>Of seven,</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Fairest piece of well form'd earth,</p> + <p>Urge not thus your haughty birth. <i>Waller.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + <p>In these measures the accent is to be placed on the odd syllables.</p> + + <p>These are the measures which are now in use, and above the rest those + of seven, eight, and ten syllables. Our ancient poets wrote verses + sometimes of twelve syllables, as Drayton's Polyolbion.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Of all the Cambrian shires their heads that bear so high,</p> + <p>And farth'st survey their soils with an ambitious eye,</p> + <p>Mervinia for her hills, as for their matchless crouds,</p> + <p>The nearest that are said to kiss the wand'ring clouds,</p> + <p>Especial audience craves, offended with the throng,</p> + <p>That she of all the rest neglected was so long;</p> + <p>Alledging for herself, when, through the Saxons' pride,</p> + <p>The godlike race of Brute to Severn's setting side</p> + <p>Were cruelly inforc'd, her mountains did relieve</p> + <p>Those whom devouring war else every where did grieve.</p> + <p>And when all Wales beside (by fortune or by might)</p> + <p>Unto her ancient foe resign'd her ancient right,</p> + <p>A constant maiden still she only did remain,</p> + <p>The last her genuine laws which stoutly did retain.</p> + <p>And as each one is prais'd for her peculiar things;</p> + <p>So only she is rich, in mountains, meres and springs,</p> + <p>And holds herself as great in her superfluous waste,</p> + <p>As others by their towns, and fruitful tillage grac'd.</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>And of fourteen, as Chapman's Homer.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>And as the mind of such a man, that hath a long way gone,</p> + <p>And either knoweth not his way, or else would let alone,</p> + <p>His purpos'd journey, is distract.</p> + </div> + </div> + <p>The measures of twelve and fourteen syllables were often mingled by + our old poets, sometimes in alternate lines, and sometimes in alternate + couplets.</p> + + <p>The verse of twelve syllables, called an <i>Alexandrine</i>, is now + only used to diversify heroick lines.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Waller was smooth, but Dryden taught to join</p> + <p>The varying verse, the full resounding line,</p> + <p>The long majestick march, and energy divine. <i>Pope.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + <p>The pause in the Alexandrine must be at the sixth syllable.</p> + + <p>The verse of fourteen syllables is now broken into a soft lyrick + measure of verses, consisting alternately of eight syllables and six.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>She to receive thy radiant name,</p> + <p style="margin-left: 1em">Selects a whiter space. <i>Fenton.</i></p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>When all shall praise, and ev'ry lay</p> + <p style="margin-left: 1em">Devote a wreath to thee,</p> + <p>That day, for come it will, that day</p> + <p style="margin-left: 1em">Shall I lament to see. <i>Lewis to Pope.</i></p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Beneath this tomb an infant lies</p> + <p style="margin-left: 1em">To earth whose body lent,</p> + <p>Hereafter shall more glorious rise,</p> + <p style="margin-left: 1em">But not more innocent.</p> + <p>When the Archangel's trump shall blow,</p> + <p style="margin-left: 1em">And souls to bodies join,</p> + <p>What crowds shall wish their lives below</p> + <p style="margin-left: 1em">Had been as short as thine! <i>Wesley.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + <p>We have another measure very quick and lively, and therefore much used + in songs, which may be called the <i>anapestick</i>, in which the accent + rests upon every third syllable.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>May I góvern my pássions with ábsolute swáy,</p> + <p>And grow wíser and bétter as lífe wears awáy. <i>Dr. Pope.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + <p>In this measure a syllable is often retrenched from the first foot, + as</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Diógenes súrly and próud. <i>Dr. Pope.</i></p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>When présent, we lóve, and when ábsent agrée,</p> + <p>I thínk not of Íris, nor Íris of me. <i>Dryden.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + <p>These measures are varied by many combinations, and sometimes by + double endings, either with or without rhyme, as in the heroick + measure.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>'Tis the divinity that stirs <i>within us</i>,</p> + <p>'Tis heaven itself that points out <i>an hereafter</i>,</p> + <p>And intimates eternity to man. <i>Addison.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + <p>So in that of eight syllables,</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>They neither added nor confounded,</p> + <p>They neither wanted nor abounded. <i>Prior.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + <p>In that of seven,</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>For resistance I could fear none,</p> + <p style="margin-left: 1em">But with twenty ships had done,</p> + <p>What thou, brave and happy Vernon,</p> + <p style="margin-left: 1em">Hast atchiev'd with six alone. <i>Glover.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + <p>In that of six,</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>'Twas when the seas were roaring,</p> + <p style="margin-left: 1em">With hollow blasts of wind,</p> + <p>A damsel lay deploring,</p> + <p style="margin-left: 1em">All on a rock reclin'd. <i>Gay.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + <p>In the anapestick,</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>When terrible tempests assail us.</p> + <p style="margin-left: 1em">And mountainous billows affright,</p> + <p>Nor power nor wealth can avail us,</p> + <p style="margin-left: 1em">But skilful industry steers right. <i>Ballad.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + <p>To these measures and their laws, may be reduced every species of + English verse.</p> + + <p>Our versification admits of few licences, except a + <i>synalœpha</i>, or elision of <i>e</i> in <i>the</i> before a + vowel, as <i>th' eternal</i>; and more rarely of <i>o</i> in <i>to</i>, + as <i>t' accept</i>; and a <i>synaresis</i>, by which two short vowels + coalesce into one syllable, as <i>question</i>, <i>special</i>; or a word + is contracted by the expulsion of a short vowel before a liquid, as + <i>av'rice</i>, <i>temp'rance</i>.</p> + + <p>Thus have I collected rules and examples, by which the English + language may be learned, if the reader be already acquainted with + grammatical terms, or taught by a master to those that are more ignorant. + To have written a grammar for such as are not yet initiated in the + schools, would have been tedious, and perhaps at last ineffectual.</p> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's A Grammar of the English Tongue, by Samuel Johnson + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE *** + +***** This file should be named 15097-h.htm or 15097-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/1/5/0/9/15097/ + +Produced by Jonathan Ingram, Keith Edkins and the PG Online +Distributed Proofreading Team. + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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