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diff --git a/15051.txt b/15051.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..11019e1 --- /dev/null +++ b/15051.txt @@ -0,0 +1,4770 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No. 829, +November 21, 1891, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 829, November 21, 1891 + +Author: Various + +Release Date: February 14, 2005 [EBook #15051] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN *** + + + + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland and the PG Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at www.pgdp.net. + + + + + +[Illustration] + + + + +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 829 + + + + +NEW YORK, November 21, 1891. + +Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XXXII, No. 829. + +Scientific American established 1845 + +Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year. + +Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year. + + * * * * * + + + + +TABLE OF CONTENTS. + +I. ASTRONOMY.--The Sun's Motion in Space.--By A.M. CLERKE.-- + A very interesting article on the determination of this hitherto + uncertain factor. + +II. BOTANY.--Hemlock and Parsley.--By W.W. BAILEY.--Economic + botany of Umbelliferae. + + Raphides--the Cause of the Acridity of Certain Plants.--By + R.A. WEBER.--Effect of these crystals on the expressed juice + from calla and Indian turnip and other plants. + + The Eremuri.--A very attractive flower plant for + gardens.--1 illustration. + +III. DECORATIVE ART.--The Decorative Treatment of Natural + Foliage.--By HUGH STANNUS. The first of a series of lectures + before the London Society of Arts, giving an elaborate + classification of the principles of the subject.--5 + illustrations. + +IV. ELECTRICITY.--The Independent--Storage or Primary Battery--System + of Electric Motive Power.--By KNIGHT NEFTEL.--Abstract of a + recent paper read before the American Street Railway Association + on the present aspect of battery car traction. + +V. GEOGRAPHY.--The Colorado Desert Lake.--A description of the new + overflow into the Colorado Desert, with the prognosis of its + future. + +VI. GEOLOGY.--Animal Origin of Petroleum and Paraffine.--A plea + for the animal origin of geological hydrocarbons based on + chemical and geological reasons. + + The Origin of Petroleum.--By O.C.D. Ross.--A further and more + lengthy discussion in regard to petroleum and theory of its + production by volcanic action. + +VII. GUNNERY.--Weldon's Range Finder.--An instrument for determining + distances, with description of its use.--3 illustrations. + +VIII. MECHANICAL ENGINEERING.--Mercury Weighing Machine.--A + type of weighing machine depending on the displacement + of mercury.--1 illustration. + + Wheels Linked with a Bell Crank.--Curious examples of + mechanical constructions in the communication of motion + between wheels.--3 illustrations. + +IX. MEDICINE AND HYGIENE.--Cold and Mortality.--By Dr. B.W. + RICHARDSON.--The effect of cold upon the operation of the + animal system, with practical rules. + + On the Occurrence of Tin in Canned Food.--By H.A. WEBER.--A + very valuable and important series of analyses of American and + other food products for tin and copper. + + The Treatment of Glaucoma.--Note on the treatment of this + disease fatal to vision. + +X. METALLURGY.--On the Elimination of Sulphur from Pig Iron. + By J. MASSENEZ.--The desulphurization of pig iron by treatment + with manganese, with apparatus employed.--5 illustrations. + +XI. MISCELLANEOUS.--The California Raisin Industry.--How raisins + are grown and packed in California, with valuable figures + and data. + + The Recent Battles in Chile.--The recent battles of Concon and + Vina del Mar.--2 illustrations. + +XII. NATURAL HISTORY.--The Whale-headed Stork.--A curious bird, + a habitant of Africa and of great rarity.--1 illustration. + +XIII. NAVAL ENGINEERING.--A Twin Screw Launch Run by a Compound + Engine.--The application of a single compound tandem + engine to driving twin screws.--2 illustrations. + + Improvements in the Construction of River and Canal + Barges.--By M. RITTER.--A very peculiar and ingenious system of + construction, enabling the same vessel to be used at greater or + less draught according to the requirements and conditions of the + water.--5 illustrations. + + Reefing Sails from the Deck--An effective method of reefing, + one which has been subjected to actual trial repeatedly in bad + weather off Cape Horn.--3 illustrations. + +XIV. PHYSICS.--The Cyclostat.--An apparatus for observing + bodies in rapid rotary motion.--5 illustrations. + +XV. TECHNOLOGY.--A New Process for the Bleaching of Jute.--By + Messrs. LEYKAM and TOSEFOTHAL.--A method of rendering + the fiber of jute perfectly white, with full details. + + A Violet Coloring Matter from Morphine.--The first true + coloring matter obtained from a natural alkaloid. + + Liquid Blue for Dyeing.--Treatment of the "Dornemann" + liquid blue. + + New Process for the Manufacture of Chromates.--By J. MASSIGNON + and E. VATEL.--Manufacture of chromates from chromic + iron ore by a new process. + + * * * * * + + + + +[Illustration: THE BATTLE OF CONCON, CHILE. August 21, 1891. + +The Congressional troops advancing. +The river Aconcagua. +Balmaceda's troops retreating. +The Esmeralda. +Concon Point. +The Magellanes. ] + +[Illustration: THE BATTLE OF VINA DEL MAR, CHILE, AUGUST 1891. + +Esmeralda firing shell at Fort Callao. +Almirante Cochrane firing at Balmaceda's artillery behind Fort Callao. +Battery of Congress artillery trying to silence government troops at + Vina del Mar. +Balmaceda's field batteries at back of Fort Callao. +Fort Callao. +Congress infantry firing at troops at Vina del Mar, Balmaceda's + infantry returning fire of Congress troops opposite. +English, American, German, and French men-of-war watching the battle + of Vina del Mar.] + + +THE RECENT BATTLES IN CHILE. + + +The battle of Concon took place Aug. 21, 1891. Nine thousand +Congressional troops advancing toward Valparaiso from Quinteros Bay, +where they had landed the day previous, were met by Balmaceda's troops +on the other side of the river Aconcagua. The Esmeralda and the +Magellanes, co-operating from the sea, made fearful havoc among the +Balmacedists with their machine guns and shell. After a stubborn fight +the Balmacedists were totally defeated, and were pursued by the +victorious cavalry, losing 4,000 out of 12,000 in killed, wounded and +deserters. All their field pieces were captured, and thus the road was +left open for the Congressionalists to advance on Vina del Mar. + + +THE BATTLE OF VINA DEL MAR, CHILE. + +A general engagement took place on Aug. 23, 1891, between divisions of +Balmaceda's and the Congressional troops, with the Esmeralda and the +Almirante Cochrane aiding the latter by firing at Fort Callao, +endeavoring to silence the field batteries at the back. The +Congressional troops failed to capture Vina del Mar, but eventually +cut the railway line a few miles out, and crossed over to the back of +Valparaiso, which was soon captured.--_The Graphic._ + + * * * * * + + + + +THE SUN'S MOTION IN SPACE. + +By A.M. CLERKE. + + +Science needed two thousand years to disentangle the earth's orbital +movement from the revolutions of the other planets, and the +incomparably more arduous problem of distinguishing the solar share in +the confused multitude of stellar displacements first presented itself +as possibly tractable a little more than a century ago. In the lack +for it as yet of a definite solution there is, then, no ground for +surprise, but much for satisfaction in the large measure of success +attending the strenuous attacks of which it has so often been made the +object. + +Approximately correct knowledge as to the direction and velocity of +the sun's translation is indispensable to a profitable study of +sidereal construction; but apart from some acquaintance with the +nature of sidereal construction, it is difficult, if not impossible, +of attainment. One, in fact, presupposes the other. To separate a +common element of motion from the heterogeneous shiftings upon the +sphere of three or four thousand stars is a task practicable only +under certain conditions. To begin with, the proper motions +investigated must be established with _general_ exactitude. The errors +inevitably affecting them must be such as pretty nearly, in the total +upshot, to neutralize one another. For should they run mainly in one +direction, the result will be falsified in a degree enormously +disproportionate to their magnitude. The adoption, for instance, of +system of declinations as much as 1" of arc astray might displace to +the extent of 10 deg. north or south the point fixed upon as the apex of +the sun's way (see L. Boss _Astr. Jour._, No. 213). Risks on this +score, however, will become less formidable with the further advance +of practical astronomy along a track definable as an asymptote of +ideal perfection. + +Besides this obstacle to be overcome, there is another which it will +soon be possible to evade. Hitherto, inquiries into the solar movement +have been hampered by the necessity for preliminary assumptions of +some kind as to the relative distances of classes of stars. But all +such assumptions, especially when applied to selected lists, are +highly insecure; and any fabric reared upon them must be considered to +stand upon treacherous ground. The spectrographic method, however, +here fortunately comes into play. "Proper motions" are only angular +velocities. They tell nothing as to the value of the perspective +element they may be supposed to include, or as to the real rate of +going of the bodies they are attributed to, until the size of the +sphere upon which they are measured has been otherwise ascertained. +But the displacement of lines in stellar spectra give directly the +actual velocities relative to the earth of the observed stars. The +question of their distances is, therefore, at once eliminated. Now the +radial component of stellar motion is mixed up, precisely in the same +way as the tangential component, with the solar movement; and since +complete knowledge of it, in a sufficient number of cases, is rapidly +becoming accessible, while knowledge of tangential velocity must for a +long time remain partial or uncertain, the advantage of replacing the +discussion of proper motions by that of motions in line of sight is +obvious and immediate. And the admirable work carried on at Potsdam +during the last three years will soon afford the means of doing so in +the first, if only a preliminary investigation of the solar +translation based upon measurements of photographed stellar spectra. + +The difficulties, then, caused either by inaccuracies in star +catalogues or by ignorance of star distances may be overcome; but +there is a third, impossible at present to be surmounted, and not +without misgiving to be passed by. All inquiries upon the subject of +the advance of our system through space start with an hypothesis most +unlikely to be true. The method uniformly adopted in them--and no +other is available--is to treat the _inherent_ motions of the stars +(their so-called _motus peculiares_) as pursued indifferently in all +directions. The steady drift extricable from them by rules founded +upon the science of probabilities is presumed to be solar motion +visually transferred to them in proportions varying with their +remoteness in space, and their situations on the sphere. If this +presumption be in any degree baseless, the result of the inquiry is +_pro tanto_ falsified. Unless the deviations from the parallactic line +of the stellar motions balance one another on the whole, their +discussion may easily be as fruitless as that of observations tainted +with systematic errors. It is scarcely, however, doubtful that law, +and not chance, governs the sidereal revolutions. The point open to +question is whether the workings of law may not be so exceedingly +intricate as to produce a grand sum total of results which, from the +geometrical side, may justifiably be regarded as casual. + +The search for evidence of a general plan in the wanderings of the +stars over the face of the sky has so far proved fruitless. Local +concert can be traced, but no widely diffused preference for one +direction over any other makes itself definitely felt. Some regard, +nevertheless, _must_ be paid by them to the plane of the Milky Way; +since it is altogether incredible that the actual construction of the +heavens is without dependence upon the method of their revolutions. + +The apparent anomaly vanishes upon the consideration of the +profundities of space and time in which the fundamental design of the +sidereal universe lies buried. Its composition out of an indefinite +number of partial systems is more than probable; but the inconceivable +leisureliness with which their mutual relations develop renders the +harmony of those relations inappreciable by short-lived terrestrial +denizens. "Proper motions," if this be so, are of a subordinate kind; +they are indexes simply to the mechanism of particular aggregations, +and have no definable connection with the mechanism of the whole. No +considerable error may then be involved in treating them, for purposes +of calculation, as indifferently directed, and the elicited solar +movement may genuinely represent the displacement of our system +relative to its more immediate stellar environment. This is perhaps +the utmost to be hoped for until sidereal astronomy has reached +another stadium of progress. + +Unless, indeed, effect should be given to Clerk Maxwell's suggestion +for deriving the absolute longitude of the solar apex from +observations of the eclipses of Jupiter's satellites (Proc. Roy. Soc., +vol. xxx., p. 109). But this is far from likely. In the first place, +the revolutions of the Jovian system cannot be predicted with anything +like the required accuracy. In the second place, there is no certainty +that the postulated phenomena have any real existence. If, however, it +be safe to assume that the solar system, cutting its way through +space, virtually raises an ethereal counter-current, and if it be +further granted that light travels less _with_ than _against_ such a +current, then indeed it becomes speculatively possible, through slight +alternate accelerations and retardations of eclipses taking place +respectively ahead of and in the wake of the sun, to determine his +absolute path in space as projected upon the ecliptic. That is to say, +the longitude of the apex could be deduced together with the resolved +part of the solar velocity; the latitude of the apex, as well as the +component of velocity perpendicular to the plane of the ecliptic, +remaining, however, unknown. + +The beaten track, meanwhile, has conducted two recent inquirers to +results of some interest. The chief aim of each was the detection of +systematic peculiarities in the motions of stellar assemblages after +the subtraction from them of their common perspective element. By +varying the materials and method of analysis, Prof. Lewis Boss, +Director of the Albany Observatory, hopes that corresponding +variations in the upshot may betray a significant character. Thus, if +stars selected on different principles give notably and consistently +different results, the cause of the difference may with some show of +reason be supposed to reside in specialties of movement appertaining +to the several groups. Prof. Boss broke ground in this direction by +investigating 284 proper motions, few of which had been similarly +employed before (_Astr. Jour._, No. 213). They were all taken from an +equatorial zone 4 deg. 20' in breadth, with a mean declination of +3 deg., +observed at Albany for the catalogue of the Astronomische +Gesellschaft, and furnished data accordingly for a virtually +independent research of a somewhat distinctive kind. It was carried +out to three separate conclusions. Setting aside five stars with +secular movements ranging above 100", Prof. Boss divided the 279 left +available into two sets--one of 185 stars brighter, the other of 144 +stars fainter than the eighth magnitude. The first collection gave for +the goal of solar translation a point about 4 deg. north of [alpha] Lyrae, +in R.A. 280 deg., Decl. +43 deg.; the second, one some thirty-seven minutes of +time to the west of [delta] Cygni, in R.A. 286 deg., Decl. +45 deg.. For a +third and final solution, twenty-six stars moving 40"-100" were +rejected, and the remaining 253 classed in a single series. The upshot +of their discussion was to shift the apex of movement to R.A. 289 deg., +Decl. +51 deg.. So far as the difference from the previous pair of results +is capable of interpretation, it would seem to imply a predominant set +toward the northeast of the twenty-six swifter motions subsequently +dismissed as prejudicial, but in truth the data employed were not +accurate enough to warrant so definite an inference. The Albany proper +motions, as Prof. Boss was careful to explain, depend for the most +part upon the right ascensions of Bessel's and Lalande's zones, and +are hence subject to large errors. Their study must be regarded as +suggestive rather than decisive. + +A better quality and a larger quantity of material was disposed of by +the latest and perhaps the most laborious investigator of this +intricate problem. M. Oscar Stumpe, of Bonn (_Astr. Nach._, Nos. +2,999, 3,000), took his stars, to the number of 1,054, from various +quarters, if chiefly from Auwers' and Argelander's lists, critically +testing, however, the movement attributed to each of not less than 16" +a century. This he fixed as the limit of secure determination, unless +for stars observed with exceptional constancy and care. His discussion +of them is instructive in more ways than one. Adopting, the additional +computative burden imposed by it notwithstanding, Schonfeld's +modification of Airy's formulae, he introduced into his equations a +fifth unknown quantity expressive of a possible stellar drift in +galactic longitude. A negative result was obtained. No symptom came to +light of "rotation" in the plane of the Milky Way. + +M. Stumpe's intrepid industry was further shown in disregard of +customary "scamping" subterfuges. Expedients for abbreviation vainly +spread their allurements; every one of his 2,108 equations was +separately and resolutely solved. A more important innovation was his +substitution of proper motion for magnitude as a criterion of +remoteness. Dividing his stars on this principle into four groups, he +obtained an apex for the sun's translation corresponding to each as +follows: + + Number of Proper motion. Apex. +Group included stars. " " deg. deg. + I. 551 0.16 to 0.32 R.A. 287.4 Decl. +42. + II. 340 0.32 to 0.64 " 279.7 " 40.5 +III. 105 0.64 to 1.28 " 287.9 " 32.1 + IV. 58 1.28 and upward " 285.2 " 30.4 + +Here again we find a marked and progressive descent of the apex toward +the equator with the increasing swiftness of the objects serving for +its determination, leading to the suspicion that the most northerly +may be the most genuine position, because the one least affected by +stellar individualities of movement. + +By nearly all recent investigations, moreover, the solar _point de +mire_ has been placed considerably further to the east and nearer to +the Milky Way than seemed admissible to their predecessors; so that +the constellation Lyra may now be said to have a stronger claim than +Hercules to include it; and the necessity has almost disappeared for +attributing to the solar orbit a high inclination to the medial +galactic plane. + +From both the Albany and the Bonn discussions there emerged with +singular clearness a highly significant relation. The mean magnitudes +of the two groups into which Prof. Boss divided his 279 stars were +respectively 6.6 and 8.6, the corresponding mean proper motions 21".9 +and 20".9. In other words, a set of stars on the whole six times +brighter than another set owned a scarcely larger sum total of +apparent displacement. And that this approximate equality of movement +really denoted approximate equality of mean distance was made manifest +by the further circumstance that the secular journey of the sun proved +to subtend nearly the same angle whichever of the groups was made the +standpoint for its survey. Indeed, the fainter collection actually +gave the larger angle (13".73 as against 12".39), and so far an +indication that the stars composing it were, on an average, nearer to +the earth than the much brighter ones considered apart. + +A result similar in character was reached by M. Stumpe. Between the +mobility of his star groups, and the values derived from them for the +angular movement of the sun, the conformity proved so close as +materially to strengthen the inference that apparent movement measures +real distance. The mean brilliancy of his classified stars seemed, on +the contrary, quite independent of their mobility. Indeed, its changes +tended in an opposite direction. The mean magnitude of the slowest +group was 6.0, of the swiftest 6.5, of the intermediate pair 6.7 and +6.1. And these are not isolated facts. Comparisons of the same kind, +and leading to identical conclusions, were made by Prof. Eastman at +Washington in 1889 (Phil. Society Bulletin, vol. xii, p. 143; +Proceedings Amer. Association, 1889, p. 71). + +What meaning can we attribute to them? Uncritically considered, they +seem to assert two things, one reasonable, the other palpably absurd. +The first--that the average angular velocity of the stars varies +inversely with their distance from ourselves--few will be disposed to +doubt; the second--that their average apparent luster has nothing to +do with greater or less remoteness--few will be disposed to admit. +But, in order to interpret truly, well ascertained if unexpected +relationships, we must remember that the sensibly moving stars used to +determine the solar translation are chosen from a multitude sensibly +fixed; and that the proportion of stationary to traveling stars rises +rapidly with descent down the scale of magnitude. Hence a mean struck +in disregard of the zeros is totally misleading; while the account is +no sooner made exhaustive than its anomalous character becomes largely +modified. Yet it does not wholly disappear. There is some warrant for +it in nature. And its warrant may perhaps consist in a preponderance, +among suns endowed with high _physical_ speed, of small or slightly +luminous over powerfully radiative bodies. Why this should be so, it +would be futile, even by conjecture, to attempt to explain.--_Nature._ + + * * * * * + + + + +ANIMAL ORIGIN OF PETROLEUM AND PARAFFIN. + + +R. Zaloziecki, in _Dingl. Polyt. Jour._, gives a lengthy physical and +chemical argument in favor of the modern view that petroleum and +paraffin owe their origin to animal sources; that they are formed from +animal remains in a manner strictly analogous to that of the formation +of ordinary coal from wood and other vegetable debris. For geological +as well as chemical reasons, the author holds that Mendeleeff's theory +of their igneous origin is untenable, pointing out that the +hydrocarbons could not have been formed by the action of water +percolating through clefts in the gradually solidifying crust until it +reached the molten metallic carbides, as these clefts could only occur +where complete solidification had taken place, and between this point +and the metallic stratum a considerable space would be taken up by +semi-solid, slag-like material which would be quite impervious to +water. Under the conditions, too, existing beneath the surface of the +earth, such polymerization as is necessary to account for the presence +of the different classes of hydrocarbons found in petroleum is +scarcely credible. + +On the other hand it is to be specially noticed that, with a few +unimportant exceptions, all bituminous deposits are found in the +sedimentary rocks, and that just as these are constantly changing in +composition, so the organic matter present changes, there being a +definite relationship between the chemical constitution of the +petroleum and the age of the strata in which it is found. It is almost +certain that in the most recent alluvial formations no oil is ever +found, its latest appearance being in the rocks of the tertiary +period, the place where the solid paraffin is almost exclusively met +with; thus helping to show that the latter has been formed from the +decomposition of the oil, and is not a residue remaining after the oil +has been distilled off. To this conclusion the fact also strongly +points, that the paraffin is much simpler in constitution, purer, and +often of far lighter color than the crude oil, which could not be the +case if it were the original substance. + +On examining by the aid of a map the position of the chief oil-bearing +localities it will be noticed that the most prolific spots follow +fairly accurately the contour lines of the country, so that at one +time they formed in all probability a coast line whereon would be +concentrated for climatic reasons most of the animal life both of the +land and sea. During succeeding generations their dead bodies would +accumulate in enormous quantities and be buried in the slowly +depositing sand and mud, till, owing to the gradual alterations of +level, the sea no longer reached the same point. This theory is borne +out by the fact that oil deposits are usually found in marine +sediments, sea fossils being frequently met with. The first process of +the decomposition of the animal remains would consist in the formation +of ammonia and nitrogenous bases, the action being aided by the +presence of air, moisture, and micro-organisms, at the same time, +owing to the well known antiseptic properties of salt, the +decomposition would go on slowly, allowing time for more sand and +inorganic matter to be deposited. In this way the decomposing matter +would be gradually protected from the action of the air, and finally +the various fatty substances would be found mixed with large amounts +of salt, under considerable pressure, and at a somewhat high +temperature. From this adipocere, fatty acids would be gradually +formed, the glycerol being washed away, and finally the acids would be +decomposed by the pressure into hydrocarbons and free carbonic acid +gas. That many of these hydrocarbons would be solid at ordinary +temperatures, forming the so-called mineral wax, which exists in many +places in large quantities, is much easier to imagine, in the light of +modern chemical knowledge, than that the fatty acids were at once +split up into the simpler liquid hydrocarbons, to be afterward +condensed into the more complex molecular forms of the solid +substance. + +In this way from animal matter are in all probability formed the vast +petroleum deposits, the three substances, adipocere, ozokerite, and +petroleum oil being produced in chronological order, just as lignite, +brown coal and coal are formed by the gradual decomposition of +vegetable remains. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE ORIGIN OF PETROLEUM.[1] + + [Footnote 1: Abstract of a paper read before the British + Association, Cardiff meeting, 1891, Section G.] + +By O.C.D. Ross, M.Inst.C.E. + + +Petroleum is one of the most widely distributed substances in nature, +but the question how it was originally produced has never yet been +satisfactorily determined, and continues a problem for philosophers. +In 1889 the total production exceeded 2,600,000,000 gallons, or about +10,000,000 tons, and, at fourpence per gallon, was worth about +L44,000,000, while the recognition of its superior utility as an +economical source of light, heat, and power steadily increases; but, +notwithstanding its importance in industry, the increasing abundance +of the foreign supply, and the ever-widening area of production, +practical men in England continue to distrust its permanence, and +owing to the mystery surrounding its origin, and the paucity of +indications where and how to undertake the boring of wells, they +hesitate to seek for it in this country, or even to extend the use of +it whenever that would involve alterations of existing machinery. The +object of this paper is to suggest an explanation of the mystery which +seems calculated to dissipate that distrust, since it points to very +abundant stores, both native and foreign, yet undiscovered, and even +in some localities to daily renovated provisions of this remarkable +oil. + +The theories of its origin suggested by Reichenbach, Berthelot, +Mendeleeff, Peckham, and others, made no attempt to account for the +exceeding variety in its chemical composition, in its specific +gravity, its boiling points, etc., and are all founded on some +hypothetical process which differs from any with which we are +acquainted; but modern geologists are agreed that, as a rule, the +records of the earth's history should be read in accordance with those +laws of nature which continue in force at the present day, e.g., the +decomposition of fish and cetaceous animals could not now produce oil +containing paraffin. Hence we can hardly believe it was possible +thousands or millions of years ago, if it can be proved that any of +the processes of nature with which we are familiar is calculated to +produce it. + +The chief characteristics of petroleum strata are enumerated as: + + I. The existence of adjoining beds of limestone, gypsum, etc. + + II. The evidence of volcanic action in close proximity to + them. + + III. The presence of salt water in the wells. + +I. All writers have noticed the presence of limestone close to +petroleum fields in the United States and Canada, in the Caucasus, in +Burma, etc., but they have been most impressed by its being +"fossiliferous," or shell limestone, and have drawn the erroneous +inference that the animal matter once contained in those shells +originated petroleum; but no fish oil ever contained paraffin. On the +other hand, the fossil shells are carbonate of lime, and, as such, +capable of producing petroleum under conditions such as many limestone +beds have been subjected to in all ages of the earth's history. All +limestone rocks were formed under water, and are mainly composed of +calcareous shells, corals, encrinites, and foraminfera--the latter +similar to the foraminfera of "Atlantic ooze" and of English chalk +beds. Everywhere, under the microscope, the original connection of +limestone with organic matter--its organic parentage, so to speak, and +cousinship with the animal and vegetable kingdoms--is conspicuous. +When pure it contains 12 per cent. of carbon. + +Now petroleum consists largely of carbon, its average composition +being 85 per cent. of carbon and 15 per cent. of hydrogen, and in the +limestone rocks of the United Kingdom alone there is a far larger +accumulation of carbon than in all the coal measures the world +contains. A range of limestone rock 100 miles in length by 10 miles in +width, and 1,000 yards in depth, would contain 743,000 million tons of +carbon, or sufficient to provide carbon for 875,000 million tons of +petroleum. Deposits of oil-bearing shale have also limestone close at +hand; e.g., coral rag underlies Kimmeridge clay, as it also underlies +the famous black shale in Kentucky, which is extraordinarily rich in +oil. + +II. As evidence of volcanic action in close proximity to petroleum +strata, the mud volcanoes at Baku and in Burma are described, and a +sulphur mine in Spain is mentioned (with which the writer is well +acquainted), situated near an extinct volcano, where a perpetual gas +flame in a neighboring chapel and other symptoms indicate that +petroleum is not far off. While engaged in studying the geological +conditions of this mine, the author observed that Dr. Christoff +Bischoff records in his writings that he had produced sulphur in his +own laboratory by passing hot volcanic gases through chalk, which, +when expressed in a chemical formula, leads at once to the postulate +that, in addition to sulphur, _ethylene_, and all its homologues +(C_{n}H_{2n}), which are the oils predominating at Baku, would be +produced by treating: + + 2, 3, 4, 5 equivs. of carbonate of lime (limestone) with + 2, 3, 4, 5 " sulphurous acid (SO_{2}) and + 4, 6, 8, 10 " sulphureted hydrogen (H_{2}S); + +and that marsh gas and its homologues, which are the oils +predominating in Pennsylvania, would be produced by treating: + + 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 equivs. of carbonate of lime with + 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 " sulphurous acid and + 3, 5, 7, 9, 11 " sulphureted hydrogen. + +Thus we find that: + + Carbonate of lime, 2CaCO_{3}, } { 2(CaSO.H_{2}O) (gypsum), + Sulphurous acid, 2SO_{2}, and } yield { 4S (sulphur), and + Sulphureted hydrogen, 4H_{2}S, } { C_{2}H_{4}, which is + { _ethylene_. + +And that: + + Carbonate of lime, CaCO_{3} } { (CaSO_{4}.H_{2}O) (gypsum), + Sulphurous acid, SO_{2}, and } yield { 3S (sulphur) and + Sulphureted hydrogen, 3H_{2}S, } { CH4, which is marsh gas. + +So that these and all their homologues, in fact petroleum in all its +varieties, would be produced in nature by the action of volcanic gases +on limestone. + +But much the most abundant of the volcanic gases appear at the surface +as steam, and petroleum seems to have been more usually produced +without sulphurous acid, and with part of the sulphureted hydrogen +(H_{2}S) replaced by H_{2}O (steam) or H_{2}O_{2} (peroxide of +hydrogen), which is the product that results from the combination of +sulphureted hydrogen and sulphurous acid: + + (H_{2}S + SO_{2} == H_{2}O_{2} + 2S). + +It is a powerful oxidizing agent, and it converts sulphurous into +sulphuric acid. Thus: + + CaCO_{3} } { CaSO_{4}.H_{2}O (gypsum) + H_{2}S, } yield { and + 2H_{2}O, } { CH_{4}, which is marsh gas. + +And + + 2CaCO_{3}, } { 2CaSO_{4}.H_{2}O + 2H_{2}S, } yield { and + 2H_{2}O_{2}, } { C_{2}H_{4}, which is _ethylene._ + +Tables are given showing the formulae for the homologues of ethylene +and marsh gas resulting from the increase in regular gradation of the +same constituents. + + _Formulae Showing how Ethylene and its Homologues + (C_{n}H_{2}{n}) are Produced by the Action of the Volcanic + Gases H_{2}S and H_{2}O_{2} on Limestone._ + +Carbonate Sulphureted Peroxide of Ethylene and + of lime. hydrogen. hydrogen. Gypsum. its homologues. + + 2CaCO3 + 2H2S + 2H2O2 yield 2(CaSO4.H2O) + C2H4 ethylene + (gaseous). + 3CaCO3 + 3H2S + 3H2O2 " 3(CaSO4.H2O) + C3H6 + 4CaCO3 + 4H2S + 4H2O2 " 4(CaSO4.H2O) + C4H8 + 5CaCO3 + 5H2S + 5H2O2 " 5(CaSO4.H2O) + C5H10 + 6CaCO3 + 6H2S + 6H2O2 " 6(CaSO4.H2O) + C6H12 + Boiling + point. + 7CaCO3 + 7H2S + 7H2O2 " 7(CaSO4.H2O) + C7H14 -- + 8CaCO3 + 8H2S + 8H2O2 " 8(CaSO4.H2O) + C8H16 189 deg.C. + 9CaCO3 + 9H2S + 9H2O2 " 9(CaSO4.H2O) + C9H18 136 deg.C. +10CaCO3 + 10H2S + 10H2O2 " 10(CaSO4.H2O) + C10H20 160 deg.C. +11CaCO3 + 11H2S + 11H2O2 " 11(CaSO4.H2O) + C11H22 180 deg.C. +12CaCO3 + 12H2S + 12H2O2 " 12(CaSO4.H2O) + C12H24 196 deg.C. +13CaCO3 + 13H2S + 13H2O2 " 13(CaSO4.H2O) + C13H26 240 deg.C. +14CaCO3 + 14H2S + 14H2O2 " 14(CaSO4.H2O) + C14H28 247 deg.C. +15CaCO3 + 15H2S + 15H2O2 " 15(CaSO4.H2O) + C15H30 -- + +It is explained that these effects must have occurred, not at periods +of acute volcanic eruptions, but in conditions which maybe, and have +been, observed at the present time, wherever there are active +solfataras or mud volcanoes at work. Descriptions of the action of +solfataras by the late Sir Richard Burton and by a British consul in +Iceland are quoted, and also a paragraph from Lyall's "Principles of +Geology," in which he remarks of the mud volcanoes at Girgenti +(Sicily) that _carbureted hydrogen_ is discharged from them, sometimes +with great violence, and that they are known to have been casting out +water, mixed with mud and _bitumen_, with the same activity as now for +the last fifteen centuries. Probably at all these solfataras, if the +gases traverse limestone, fresh deposits of oil-bearing strata are +accumulating, and the same volcanic action has been occurring during +many successive geological periods and millions of years; so that it +is difficult to conceive limits to the magnitude of the stores of +petroleum which may be awaiting discovery in the subterranean +depths.[2] + + [Footnote 2: Professor J. Le Conte, when presiding recently at the + International Geological Congress at Washington, mentioned that in + the United States extensive lava floods have been observed, + covering areas from 10,000 to 100,000 square miles in extent and + from 2,000 to 4,000 feet deep. We have similar lava flows and + ashes in the North of England, in Scotland, and in Ireland, + varying from 3,000 to 6,000 feet in depth. In the Lake District + they are nearly 12,000 feet deep. Solfataras are active during the + intermediate, or so-called "dormant," periods which occur between + acute volcanic eruptions.] + +Gypsum may also be an indication of oil-bearing strata, for the +substitution in limestone of sulphuric for carbonic acid can only be +accounted for by the action of these hot sulphurous gases. Gypsum is +found extensively in the petroleum districts of the United States, and +it underlies the rock salt beds at Middlesboro, where, on being +pierced, it has given passage to oil gas, which issues abundantly, +mixed with brine, from a great depth. + +III. Besides the space occupied by "natural gas," which is very +extensive, 17,000 million gallons of petroleum have been raised in +America since 1860, and that quantity must have occupied more than +100,000,000 cubic yards, a space equal to a subterranean cavern 100 +yards wide by 20 feet deep, and 82 miles in length, and it is +suggested that beds of "porous sandstone" could hardly have contained +so much; while vast receptacles may exist, carved by volcanic water +out of former beds of rock salt adjoining the limestone, which would +account for the brine that usually accompanies petroleum. It is +further suggested that when no such vacant spaces were available, the +hydrocarbon vapors would be absorbed into, and condensed in, +contiguous clays and shales, and perhaps also in beds of coal, only +partially consolidated at the time. + +There is an extensive bituminous limestone formation in Persia, +containing 20 per cent. of bitumen, and the theory elaborated in the +paper would account for bitumen and oil having been found in Canada +and Tennessee embedded in limestone, which fact is cited by Mr. +Peckham as favoring his belief that some petroleums are a "product of +the decomposition of animal remains." + +Above all, this theory accounts for the many varieties in the chemical +composition of paraffin oils in accordance with ordinary operations of +nature during successive geological periods.--_Chem. News._ + + * * * * * + + + + +THE COLORADO DESERT LAKE. + + +Mr. J.J. Mcgillivray, who has been for many years in the United States +mineral survey service, has some interesting things to say about the +overflow of the Colorado desert, which has excited so much comment, +and about which so many different stories have been told: + +"None of the papers, so far as I know," said Mr. McGillivray, "have +described with much accuracy or detail the interesting thing which has +happened in the Colorado desert or have stated how it happened. The +Colorado desert lies a short distance northwest of the upper end of +the Gulf of California, and contains not far from 2,500 square miles. +The Colorado River, which has now flooded it, has been flowing along +to the east of it, emptying into the Gulf of California. The surface +of the desert is almost all level and low, some of it below the sea +level. Some few hundreds of years ago it was a bay making in from the +Gulf of California, and then served as the outlet of the Colorado +River. But the river carried a good deal of sediment, and in time made +a bar, which slowly and surely shut off the sea on the south, leaving +only a narrow channel for the escape of the river, which cut its way +out, probably at some time when it was not carrying much sediment. +Then the current became more rapid and cut its way back into the land, +and, in doing this, did not necessarily choose the lowest place, but +rather the place where the formation of the land was soft and easily +cut away by the action of the water. + +"While the river was cutting its way back it was, of course, carrying +more or less sediment, and this was left along the banks, building +them all the time higher, and confining the river more securely in its +bounds. That is the Colorado River as we have known it ever since its +discovery. Meantime, the water left in the shallow lake, cut off from +the flow of the river, gradually evaporated--a thing that would take +but a few years in that country, where the heat is intense and the +humidity very low. That left somewhere about 2,000 miles of desert +land, covered with a deposit of salt from the sea water which had +evaporated, and most of it below the level of the sea. That is the +Colorado desert as it has been known since its discovery. + +"Then, last spring, came the overflow which has brought about the +present state of affairs. The river was high and carrying an enormous +amount of sediment in proportion to the quantity of water. This +gradually filled up the bed of the stream and caused it to overflow +its banks, breaking through into the dry lake where it had formerly +flowed. The fact that the water is salt, which excited much comment at +the time the overflow was first discovered, is, of course, due to the +fact that the salt in the sea water which evaporated hundreds of years +ago has remained there all the time, and is now once more in solution. + +"The desert will, no doubt, continue to be a lake and the outlet of +the river unless the breaks in the banks of the river are dammed by +artificial means, which seems hardly possible, as the river has been +flowing through the break in the stream 200 feet wide, four feet deep, +and flowing at a velocity of five feet a second. + +"It is an interesting fact to note that the military survey made in +1853 went over this ground and predicted the very thing which has now +happened. The flooding of the desert will be a good thing for the +surrounding country, for it does away with a large tract of absolutely +useless land, so barren that it is impossible to raise there what the +man in Texas said they mostly raised in his town, and it will increase +the humidity of the surrounding territory. Nature has done with this +piece of waste land what it has often been proposed to do by private +enterprise or by public appropriation. Congress has often been asked +to make an appropriation for that purpose." + +Mr. McGillivray had also some interesting things to say about Death +Valley, which he surveyed. + +"It has been called a _terra incognita_ and a place where no human +being could live. Well, it is bad enough, but perhaps not quite so bad +as that. The great trouble is the scarcity of water and the intense +heat. But many prospecting parties go there looking for veins of ore +and to take out borax. The richest borax mines in the world are found +there. The valley is about 75 miles long by 10 miles wide. The lowest +point is near the center, where it is about 150 ft. below the level of +the sea. Just 15 miles west of this central point is Telescope peak, +11,000 ft. above the sea, and 15 miles east is Mt. Le Count, in the +Funeral mountains, 8,000 ft. high. The valley runs almost due north +and south, which is one reason for the extreme heat. The only stream +of water in or near the valley flows into its upper end and forms a +marsh in the bed of the valley. This marsh gives out a horrible odor +of sulphureted hydrogen, the gas which makes a rotten egg so +offensive. Where the water of this stream comes from is not very +definitely known, but in my opinion it comes from Owen's lake, beyond +the Telescope mountains to the west, flowing down into the valley by +some subterranean passage. The same impurities found in the stream are +also found in the lake, where the water is so saturated with salt, +boracic acid, etc., that one can no more sink in it than in the water +of the Great Salt lake; and I found it so saturated that after +swimming in it a little while the skin all over my body was gnawed and +made very sore by the acids. Another reason why I think the water of +the stream enters the valley by some fixed subterranean source is the +fact that, no matter what the season, the flow from the springs that +feed the marsh is always exactly the same. + +"The heat there is intense. A man cannot go an hour without water +without becoming insane. While we were surveying there, we had the +same wooden cased thermometer that is used by the signal service. It +was hung in the shade on the side of our shed, with the only stream in +the country flowing directly under it, and it repeatedly registered +130 deg.; and for 48 hours in 1883, when I was surveying there, the +thermometer never once went below 104 deg.."--_Boston Herald._ + + * * * * * + + + + +HEMLOCK AND PARSLEY. + +By W.W. BAILEY. + + +The study of the order Umbelliferae presents peculiar difficulties to +the beginner, for the flowers are uniformly small and strikingly +similar throughout the large and very natural group. The family +distinctions or features are quite pronounced and unmistakable, and it +is the determination of the genera which presents obstacles--serious, +indeed, but not insurmountable. "By their fruits shall ye know them." + +The Umbelliferae, as we see them here, are herbaceous, with hollow, +often striated stems, usually more or less divided leaves, and no +stipules. Occasionally we meet a genus, like Eryngium or Hydrocotyle, +with leaves merely toothed or lobed. The petioles are expanded into +sheaths; hence the leaves wither on the stem. The flowers are usually +arranged in simple or compound umbels, and the main and subordinate +clusters may or may not be provided with involucres and involucels. To +this mode of arrangement there are exceptions. In marsh-penny-wort +(Hydrocotyle) the umbels are in the axils of the leaves, and scarcely +noticeable; in Eryngium and Sanicula they are in heads. The calyx is +coherent with the two-celled ovary, and the border is either obsolete +or much reduced. There are five petals inserted on the ovary, and +external to a fleshy disk. Each petal has its tip inflexed, giving it +an obcordate appearance. The common colors of the corolla are white, +yellow, or some shade of blue. Alternating with the petals, and +inserted with them, are the five stamens. + +The fruit, upon which so much stress is laid in the study of the +family, is compound, of two similar parts or carpels, each of which +contains a seed. In ripening the parts separate, and hang divergent +from a hair-like prolongation of the receptacle known as the +gynophore. Each half fruit (mericarp) is tipped by a persistent style, +and marked by vertical ribs, between or under which lie, in many +genera, the oil tubes or vittae. These are channels containing aromatic +and volatile oil. In examination the botanist makes delicate cross +sections of these fruits under a dissecting microscope, and by the +shape of the fruit and seed within, and by the number and position of +the ribs and oil tubes, is able to locate the genus. It, of course, +requires skill and experience to do this, but any commonly intelligent +class can learn the process. It goes without saying, and as a +corollary to what has already been stated, that these plants should +always be collected in full fruit; the flowers are comparatively +unimportant. Any botanist would be justified in declining to name one +of the family not in fruit. An attempt would often be mere guesswork. + +In this family is found the poison hemlock (Conium) used by the +ancient Greeks for the elimination of politicians. It is a powerful +poison. The whole plant has a curious mousy odor. It is of European +origin. Our water hemlock is equally poisonous, and much more common. +It is the _Cicuta maculata_ of the swamps--a tall, coarse plant which +has given rise to many sad accidents. _AEthusa cynapium_, another +poisonous plant, known as "fool's parsley," is not uncommon, and +certainly looks much like parsley. This only goes to show how +difficult it is for any but the trained botanist to detect differences +in this group of plants. Side by side may be growing two specimens, to +the ordinary eye precisely alike, yet the one will be innocent and the +other poisonous. + +The drug asafetida is a product of this order. All the plants appear +to "form three different principles: the first, a watery acid matter; +the second, a gum-resinous milky substance; and the third, an +aromatic, oily secretion. When the first of these predominates they +are poisonous; the second in excess converts them into stimulants; the +absence of the two renders them useful as esculents; the third causes +them to be pleasant condiments." So that besides the noxious plants +there is a long range of useful vegetables, as parsnips, parsley, +carrots, fennel, dill, anise, caraway, cummin, coriander, and celery. +The last, in its wild state, is said to be pernicious, but etiolation +changes the products and renders them harmless. The flowers of all are +too minute to be individually pretty, but every one knows how charming +are the umbels of our wild carrot, resembling as they do the choicest +old lace. Frequently the carrot has one central maroon colored floret. + +Though most of the plants are herbs, Dr. Welwitsch found in Africa a +tree-like one, with a stem one to two feet thick, much prized by the +natives for its medicinal properties, and also valuable for its +timber. In Kamschatka also they assume a sub-arboreous type, as well +as on the steppes of Afghanistan. + +As mistakes often occur by confounding the roots of Umbelliferae with +those of horse radish or other esculents, it is well, when in doubt, +to send the plants, _always in fruit_, if possible, for +identification. None of them are poisonous to the touch--at least to +ordinary people. Cases of rather doubtful authenticity are reported +from time to time of injury from the handling of wild carrot. We have +always suspected the proximity of poison ivy; still, it is unwise to +dogmatize on such matters. Some people cannot eat strawberries--more's +the pity!--while the rest of us get along with them very happily. +Lately the _Primula obconica_ has acquired an evil reputation as an +irritant, so there is no telling what may not happen with certain +constitutions. + +Difficult as is the study of Umbelliferae, it becomes fascinating on +acquaintance. To hunt up a plant and name it by so scientific a +process brings to the student a sufficient reward.--_American +Naturalist._ + + * * * * * + + + + +THE EREMURI. + +[Illustration: EREMURUS HIMALAICUS. (Flowers white.)] + + +It has often been a matter of astonishment to me that eremuri are not +more frequently seen in our gardens. There are certainly very few +plants which have a statelier or more handsome appearance during the +summer months. Both in point of brightness of color and their general +habit and manner of growth they are very much to be recommended. For +some reason or other they have the character of being difficult +plants, but they do not deserve it at all, and a very slight attention +to their requirements is enough to ensure success. They can stand a +good many degrees of frost, and they ask for little more than a soil +which has been deeply worked and well enriched with old rotten manure. +Give them this, and they are certain to be contented with it, and the +cultivator will be well rewarded for his pains. Only one thing should +perhaps be added by way of precaution. If an eremurus appears too soon +above ground, it is well just to cover it over with loose litter of +some sort, so that it may not be nipped by spring frosts; and one +experienced grower has said that it answers to lift them after +blossoming, and to keep them out of the ground for a few weeks, so +that they may be sufficiently retarded. But I have not yet been able +to try this plan myself, and I do not speak from experience about it. +My favorite is Eremurus Bungei, which I think is one of the handsomest +plants I have in my garden. The clear yellow color of the blossom is +so very good, and I like the foliage also; but of course it is not the +most imposing by any means and if height and stateliness are +especially regarded, E. robustus or E. robustus nobilis would carry +off the palm. This commonly rises to the height of eight or nine feet +above the ground, and on one occasion I have known it to be greatly in +excess even of that; but such an elevation cannot be attained for more +than a single year, and it afterward is contented with more moderate +efforts. E. Himalaicus is of the purest possible white, and the spike +is very much to be admired when it is seen at its best. It can be very +easily raised from seed, but a good deal of patience is needed before +its full glory has come. E. Olgae is the last of all, and it shows by +its arrival that summer is hastening on. It is of a peach-colored hue, +and very pretty indeed. Altogether it is a pity that eremuri are not +more commonly grown. I think they are certain to give great +satisfaction, if only a moderate degree of attention and care be +bestowed upon them.--_H. Ewbank, in The Gardeners' Magazine._ + + * * * * * + + + + +RAPHIDES, THE CAUSE OF THE ACRIDITY OF CERTAIN PLANTS. + +By R.A. WEBER, Ph.D. + + +At the last meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of +Science, Prof. W.R. Lazenby reported his studies on the occurrence of +crystals in plants. In this report he expressed the opinion that the +acridity of the Indian turnip was due to the presence of these +crystals or raphides. This opinion was opposed by Prof. Burrill and +other eminent botanists, who claimed that other plants, as the +fuchsia, are not at all acrid, although they contain raphides as +plentifully as the Indian turnip. Here the matter was allowed to rest. + +The United States Dispensatory and other works on pharmacy ascribe the +acridity of the Indian turnip to an acrid, extremely volatile +principle insoluble in water, and alcohol, but soluble in ether. +Heating and drying the bulbs dissipates the volatiles principle, and +the acridity is destroyed. + +At a recent meeting of Ohio State Microscopical Society this subject +was again brought up for discussion. It was thought by some that the +raphides in the different plants might vary in chemical composition, +and thus the difference in their action be accounted for. This +question the writer volunteered to answer. + +Accordingly, four plants containing raphides were selected, two of +which, the _Calla cassia_ and Indian turnip, were highly acrid, and +two, the _Fuchsia_ and _Tradescantia_, or Wandering Jew, were +perfectly bland to the taste. + +A portion of each plant was crushed in a mortar, water or dilute +alcohol was added, the mixture was stirred thoroughly and thrown upon +a fine sieve. By repeated washing with water and decanting a +sufficient amount of the crystals was obtained for examination. From +the calla the crystals were readily secured by this means in a +comparatively pure state. In the case of the Indian turnip the +crystals were contaminated with starch, while the crystals from the +fuschia and tradescantia were embedded in an insoluble mucilage from +which it was found impossible to separate them. The crystals were all +found to be calcium oxalate. + +Having determined the identity in chemical composition of the +crystals, it was thought that there might be a difference of form of +the crystals in the various plants, from the fact that calcium oxalate +crystallizes both in the tetragonal and the monoclinic systems. A +laborious microscopic examination, however, showed that this theory +also had to be abandoned. The fuchsia and tradescantia contained +bundles of raphides of the same form and equally as fine as those of +the acrid plants. At this point in the investigation the writer was +inclined to the opinion that the acridity of the Indian turnip and +calla was due to the presence of an acrid principle. + +Since the works on pharmacy claimed that the active principle of the +Indian turnip was soluble in ether, the investigation was continued in +this direction. A large stem of the calla was cut into slices, and the +juice expressed by means of a tincture press. The expressed juice was +limpid and filled with raphides. A portion of the juice was placed +into a cylinder and violently shaken with an equal volume of ether. +When the ether had separated a drop was placed upon the tongue. As +soon as the effects of the ether had passed away, the same painful +acridity was experienced as is produced when the plant itself is +tasted. This experiment seemed to corroborate the assumption of an +acrid principle soluble in ether. The supernatant ether, however, was +slightly turbid in appearance, a fact which was at first ignored. +Wishing to learn the cause of this turbidity, a drop of the ether was +allowed to evaporate on a glass slide. Under the microscope the slide +was found to be covered with a mass of raphides. A portion of the +ether was run through a Munktell filter. The filtered ether was clear, +entirely free from raphides, and had also lost every trace of its +acridity. + +The same operations were repeated upon the Indian turnip with exactly +similar results. + +These experiments show conclusively that the acridity of the Indian +turnip and calla is due to the raphides of calcium oxalate only. + +The question of the absence of acridity in the other two plants still +remained to be settled. For this purpose some recent twigs and leaves +of the fuchsia were subjected to pressure in a tincture press. The +expressed juice was not limpid, but thick, mucilaginous and ropy. +Under the microscope the raphides seemed as plentiful as in the case +of the two acrid plants. When diluted with water and shaken with +ether, there was no visible turbidity in the supernatant ether, and +when a drop of the ether was allowed to evaporate on a glass slide, +only a few isolated crystals could be seen. From this it will be seen +that in this case the raphides did not separate from the mucilaginous +juice to be held in suspension in the ether. A great deal of time and +labor were spent in endeavoring to separate the crystals completely +from this insoluble mucilage, but without avail. With the tradescantia +similar results were obtained. + +From these experiments the absence of acridity in these two plants, in +spite of the abundance of raphides, may readily be explained by the +fact that the minute crystals are surrounded with and embedded in an +insoluble mucilage, which prevents their free movement into the tongue +and surface of the mouth, when portions of the plants are tasted. + +The reason why the Indian turnip loses its acridity on being heated +can be explained by the production of starch paste from the abundance +of starch present in the bulbs. This starch paste would evidently act +in a manner similar to the insoluble mucilage of the other two plants. + +So also it can readily be seen that when the bulbs of the Indian +turnip have been dried, the crystals can no longer separate from the +hard mass which surrounds them, and consequently can exert no irritant +action when the dried bulbs are placed against the tongue.--_Jour. Am. +Chem. Soc._ + + * * * * * + + + + +THE WHALE-HEADED STORK. + + +[Illustration: THE WHALE-HEADED STORK--BALAENICEPS REX.] + +Of all the wonders that inhabit the vast continent of Africa, the most +singular one is undoubtedly the _Balaeniceps_, or whale-headed stork. +It is of relatively recent discovery, and the first description of it +was given by Gould in the early part of 1851. It is at present still +extremely rare. The Paris Museum possesses three specimens of it, and +the Boulogne Museum possesses one. These birds always excite the +curiosity of the public by their strange aspect. At first sight, says +W.P. Parker, in his notes upon the osteology of the balaeniceps, this +bird recalls the boatbill, the heron, and the adjutant. Other birds, +too, suggest themselves to the mind, such as the pelican, the toucan, +the hornbills, and the podarges. The curious form of the bill, in +fact, explains this comparison with birds belonging to so different +groups, and the balaeniceps would merit the name of boatbill equally +well with the bird so called, since its bill recalls the small fishing +boats that we observe keel upward high and dry on our seashores. This +bill is ten inches in length, and four inches in breadth at the base. +The upper mandible, which is strongly convex, exhibits upon its median +line a slight ridge, which is quite wide at its origin, and then +continues to decrease and becomes sensibly depressed as far as to the +center of its length, and afterward rises on approaching the anterior +extremity, where it terminates in a powerful hook, which seems to form +a separate part, as in the albatrosses. Throughout its whole extent, +up to the beginning of the hook, this mandible presents a strong +convexity over its edge, which is turned slightly inward. The lower +mandible, which is powerful, and is indented at its point to receive +the hook, has a very sharp edge, which, with that of the upper +mandible, constitutes a pair of formidable shears. The color of the +bill is pale yellow, passing to horn color toward the median ridge, +and the whole surface is sprinkled with dark brown blotches. The +nostrils are scarcely visible, and are situated in a narrow cleft at +the base of the bill, and against the median ridge. The tongue is very +small and entirely out of proportion to the vast buccal capacity. This +is a character that might assimilate the balaeniceps to the pelican. +The robust head, the neck, and the throat, are covered with +slate-colored feathers verging on green, and not presenting the +repulsive aspect of the naked skin of the adjutant. As in the latter, +the skin of the throat is capable of being dilated so as to form a +voluminous pouch. Upon the occiput the feathers are elongated and +form a small crest. The body is robust and covered upon the back with +slate-colored feathers bordered with ashen gray. Upon the breast the +feathers are lanceolate, and marked with a dark median stripe. +Finally, the lower parts, abdomen, sides, and thighs, are pale gray, +and the remiges and retrices are black. According to Verreaux, the +feathers of the under side of the tail are soft and decompounded, but +at a distance they only recall the beautiful plumes of the adjutant. +The well-developed wings indicate a bird of lofty flight, yet of all +the bones of the limbs, anterior as well as posterior, the humerus +alone is pneumatized. The strong feet terminate in four very long toes +deprived at the interdigital membrane observed in most of the +Ciconidae. The claws are powerful and but slightly curved, and that of +the median toe is not pectinated as in the herons. + +The balaeniceps is met with only in or near water, but it prefers +marshes to rivers. It is abundant upon the banks of the Nile only +during the hot season which precedes the rains and when the entire +interior is dried up. During the rest of the year it inhabits natural +ponds and swamps, where the shallow water covers vast areas and +presents numerous small islands, of easier access than the banks of +the Nile, which always slope more or less abruptly into deep water. In +such localities it is met with in pairs or in flocks of a hundred or +more, seeking its food with tireless energy, or else standing +immovable upon one leg, the neck curved and the head resting upon the +shoulder. When disturbed, the birds fly just above the surface of the +water and stop at a short distance. But when they are startled by the +firing of a gun, they ascend to a great height, fly around in a circle +and hover for a short time, and then descend upon the loftiest trees, +where they remain until the enemy has gone. + +Water turtles, fish, frogs and lizards form the basis of their food. +According to Petherick, they do not disdain dead animals, whose +carcasses they disembowel with their powerful hooked beak. They pass +the night upon the ground, upon trees and upon high rocks. As regards +nest-making and egg-laying, opinions are most contradictory. According +to Verreaux, the balaeniceps builds its nest of earth, vegetable +debris, reeds, grass, etc., upon large trees. The female lays two eggs +similar to those of the adjutant. It is quite difficult to reconcile +this opinion with that of Petherick, who expresses himself as follows: +"The balaeniceps lays in July and August, and chooses for that purpose +the tall reeds or grasses that border the water or some small and +slightly elevated island. They dig a hole in the ground, and the +female deposits her eggs therein. I have found as many as twelve eggs +in the same nest." + +The whale-headed stork is still so little known that there is nothing +in these contradictions that ought to surprise us. Authors are no more +in accord on the subject of the affinities of this strange bird. Gould +claims that it presents the closest affinities with the pelican and is +the wading type of the Pelicanidae. Verreaux believes that its nearest +relative is the adjutant, whose ways it has, and that it represents in +this group what the boatbill represents in the heron genus. Bonaparte +regards it as intermediate between the pelican and the boatbill. If we +listen to Reinhurdt, we must place it, not alongside of the boatbill, +but alongside of the African genus Scopus. The boatbill, says he, is +merely a heron provided with a singular bill, which has but little +analogy with that of the balaeniceps, and not a true resemblance. The +nostrils differ in form and position in those two birds, and in the +boatbill there exists beneath the lower mandible a dilatable pouch +that we do not find in the balaeniceps. An osteological examination +leads Parker to place the balaeniceps near the boatbill, and the +present classification is based upon that opinion. The family of +Ardeidae is, therefore, divided into five sub-families, the three last +of which each comprises a single genus. + +Ardeidae.--Ardeineae (herons). + Botaurineae (bitterns). + Scopineae (ombrette). + Cancomineae (boatbill). + Balaenicepineae (whale-headed stork). + +All the whale-headed storks that have been received up to the present +have come from the region of the White Nile; but Mr. H. Johnston, who +traveled in Congo in 1882, asserts that he met with the bird on the +River Cunene between Benguela and Angola, where it was even very +common. Mr. Johnston's assertion has been confirmed by other travelers +worthy of credence, but, unfortunately, the best of all confirmations +is wanting, and that is a skin of this magnificent wader. We can, +therefore, only make a note of Mr. Johnston's statement, and hope that +some traveler may one day enrich our museums with some balaeniceps from +these regions. The presence of this bird in the southwest of Africa +is, after all, not impossible; yet there is one question that arises: +Was the balaeniceps observed by Mr. Johnston of the same species as +that of the White Nile, or was it a new type that will increase this +family, which as yet comprises but one genus and one species--the +_Balaeniceps rex_?--_Le Naturaliste_. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE CALIFORNIA RAISIN INDUSTRY. + + +Fresno County, for ten miles about Fresno, furnishes the best example +of the enormous increase in values which follows the conversion of +wheat fields and grazing land into vineyards and orchards. Not even +Riverside can compare with it in the rapid evolution of a great source +of wealth which ten years ago was almost unknown. What has transformed +Fresno from a shambling, dirty resort of cowboys and wheat ranchers +into one of the prettiest cities in California is the raisin grape. +Though nearly all fruits may be grown here, yet this is pre-eminently +the home of the raisin industry, and it is the raisin which in a +single decade has converted 50,000 acres of wheat fields into +vineyards. No other crop in California promises such speedy returns or +such large profits as the raisin grape, and as the work on the +vineyards is not heavy, the result has been a remarkable growth of the +infant industry. It is estimated that in this county, which contains +5,000,000 acres and is nearly as large as Massachusetts, there are +400,000 acres that may be irrigated and are specially adapted to the +grape. As the present crop on about 25,000 acres in full bearing is +valued at $6,000,000, some idea may be formed of the revenue that will +come to the Fresno vineyardists when all this choice valley land is +planted and in full bearing. And what makes the prospect of permanent +prosperity surer is the fact that nine out of ten new settlers are +content with twenty-acre tracts, as one of these is all which a man +can well care for, while the income from this little vineyard will +average $4,000 above all expenses, a larger income than is enjoyed by +three-quarters of the professional men throughout the country. + +The raisin industry in California is very young. To be sure, dried +grapes have been known since the time of the Mission Fathers, but the +dried mission grape is not a raisin. The men who thirty years ago sent +over to Europe for the choicest varieties of wine grapes imported +among other cuttings the Muscatel, the Muscat of Alexandria, and the +Feher Zagos; the three finest raisin grapes of Spain. But the raisin, +like the fig, requires skillful treatment, and for years the +California grower made no headway. He read all that had been written +on the curing of the raisin; several enterprising men went to Spain to +study the subject at first hand; but despite all this no progress was +made. Finally several of the pioneer raisin men of Fresno cut loose +from all precedent, dried their grapes in the simple and natural +manner and made a success of it. From that time, not over ten years +ago, the growth of the industry has eclipsed that of every other +branch of horticulture in the State, and the total value of the +product promises soon to exceed the value of the orange crop or the +yield of wine and brandy. + +It required a good deal of nerve for the pioneers of Fresno County to +spend hundreds of thousands of dollars in bringing water upon what the +old settlers regarded as a desert, fit only to grow wheat in a very +wet season. In other parts of the State the Mission Fathers had dug +ditches and built aqueducts, so that the settlers who came after them +found a well devised water system, which they merely followed. But in +Fresno no one had ever tried to grow crops by irrigation. When Fremont +came through there from the mountains he found many wild cattle +feeding on the rank grass that grew as high as the head of a man on +horseback. The herds of the native Californians were almost equally +wild. The country was one vast plain which in summer glowed under a +sun that was tropical in its intensity. As late as 1860 one could +travel for a day without seeing a house or any sign of habitation. The +country was owned by great cattle growers, who seldom rode over their +immense ranches, except at the time of the annual "round-up" of stock. +About thirty years ago a number of large wheat growers secured big +tracts of land around Fresno. At their head was Isaac Friedlander, +known as the wheat king of the Pacific Coast. Friedlander would have +transformed this country had not financial ruin overcome him. His +place was taken by others, like Chapman, Easterby, Eisen and +Hughes--men who believed in fruit growing and who had the courage to +carry on their operations in the face of repeated failures. + +The great development of Fresno has been due entirely to the colony +system, which has also built up most of the flourishing cities of +Southern California. In 1874 the first Fresno colony was started by +W.S. Chapman. He cut up six sections of land into 20-acre tracts, and +brought water from King's River. The colonists represented all classes +of people, and though they made many disastrous experiments, with poor +varieties of grapes and fruit, still there is no instance of failure +recorded, and all who have held on to their land are now in +comfortable circumstances. Some of the settlers in this colony were +San Francisco school teachers. They obtained their 20-acre tracts for +$400, and many of them retired on their little vineyards at the end of +five or six years. One lady, named Miss Austen, had the foresight to +plant all her property in the best raisin grapes, and for many years +drew a larger annual revenue from the property than the whole place +cost her. The central colony now has an old established look. The +broad avenues are lined with enormous trees; many of the houses are +exceedingly beautiful country villas. What a transformation has been +wrought here may be appreciated when it is said that 150 families now +produce $400,000 a year on the same land which twenty years ago +supported but one family, which had a return of only $35,000 from +wheat. The history of this one colony of six sections of old wheat +land is the key to Fresno's prosperity. It proves better than columns +of argument, or facts or figures, the immense return that careful, +patient cultivation may command in this home of the grape. Near this +colony are a half-dozen others which were established on the same +general plan. The most noteworthy is the Malaga colony, founded by +G.G. Briggs, to whom belongs the credit of introducing the raisin +grape into Fresno. + +Fresno City is the center from which one may drive in three directions +and pass through mile after mile of these colonies, all showing signs +of the wealth and comfort that raisin making has brought. Only toward +the west is the land still undeveloped, but another five years promise +to see this great tract, stretching away for twenty miles, also laid +out in small vineyards and fruit farms. Fresno is the natural railroad +center of the great San Joaquin Valley. It is on the main line of the +Southern Pacific and is the most important shipping point between San +Francisco and Los Angeles. The new line of the Santa Fe, which has +been surveyed from Mojave up through the valley, passes through +Fresno. Then there are three local lines that have the place for a +terminus, notably the mountain railway, which climbs into the Sierra, +and which it is expected will one day connect with the Rio Grande +system and give a new transcontinental line. Here are also building +round houses and machine shops of the Southern Pacific Company. These, +with new factories, packing houses, and other improvements, go far to +justify the sanguine expectations of the residents. There has never +been a boom in Fresno, but a high railroad official recently, in +speaking of the growth of the city, said: "Fresno in five years will +be the second city in California." This prediction he based on the +wonderful expansion of its resources in the last decade and the +substantial character of all the improvements made. It is a pretty +town, with wide, well-paved streets, handsome modern business blocks, +and residence avenues that would do credit to any old-settled town of +the East. The favorite shade tree is the umbrella tree, which has the +graceful, rounded form of the horse chestnut, but with so thick a +foliage that its shadow is not dappled with sunlight. Above it is an +intensely dark green, while viewed from below it is the most delicate +shade of pea green. Rivaling this in popularity is the pepper tree, +also an evergreen, and the magnolia, fan palm, eucalyptus, or +Australian blue gum, and the poplar. All these trees grow luxuriantly. +It has also become the custom in planting a vineyard to put a row of +the white Adriatic fig trees around the place, and to mark off ten or +twenty acre tracts in the same way. The dark green foliage of the fig +is a great relief to the eye when the sun beats down on the sandy +soil. Leading out of Fresno are five driveways. The soil makes a +natural macadam, which dries in a few hours. Throughout the year these +roads are in good condition for trotting, and nearly every raisin +grower is also an expert in horseflesh, and has a team that will do a +mile in less than 2:30. The new race course is one of the finest in +the State. Toward the west from Fresno has recently been opened a +magnificent driveway, which promises in a few years to rival the +Magnolia ave. of Riverside. This is called Chateau Fresno ave. It has +two driveways separated by fan palms and magnolias, while along the +outer borders are the same trees with other choice tropical growths, +that will one day make this avenue well worth traveling many miles to +see. This is the private enterprise of Mr. Theodore Kearney, who made +a fortune in real estate, and it is noteworthy as an illustration of +the large way in which the rich Californian goes about any work in +which he takes an interest. Probably the finest avenue in Fresno is +the poplar-lined main driveway through the Barton vineyard. It is a +mile in length, and the trees, fully fifty feet high, stand so thickly +together that when in full leaf they form a solid wall of green. The +vineyard, which is a mile square, is also surrounded by a single row +of these superb poplars. + +A visit to one of the great raisin vineyards near Fresno is a +revelation in regard to the system that is necessary in handling large +quantities of grapes. The largest raisin vineyard in the State, if not +in the world, is that of A.B. Butler. It comprises 640 acres, of which +a trifle over 600 acres is planted to the best raisin grapes. Butler +was a Texas cowboy, and came to Fresno with very little capital. He +secured possession of a section of land, planted it to grapes; he read +everything he could buy on raisin making, but found little in the +books that was of any value. So he made a trip to Spain, and inspected +all the processes in the Malaga district. He gathered many new ideas. +One of the most valuable suggestions was in regard to prunings and +keeping the vine free from the suckers that sap its vitality. When he +returned from this trip and passed through Los Angeles County he saw +that the strange disease which was killing many hundred acres of vines +was nothing else than the result of faulty prunings--the retention of +suckers until they gained such lusty growth that their removal proved +fatal to the vine. His vineyard is as free from weeds and grass as a +corner of a well kept kitchen garden. The vine leaves have that deep +glossy look which betrays perfect health. When my visit was made the +whole crop was on trays spread out in the vineyard. These trays had +been piled up in layers of a dozen--what is technically known as +boxed--as a shower had fallen the previous night, and Mr. Butler was +uncertain whether he would have a crop of the choicest raisins or +whether he would have to put his dried grapes in bags, and sell them +for one-third of the top price. Fortunately the rain clouds cleared +away. The crop was saved and the extreme hot weather that followed +made the second crop almost as valuable as the first. + +The method of drying and packing the raisin is peculiar and well worth +a brief description. When the grape reaches a certain degree of +ripeness and develops the requisite amount of saccharine matter a +large force is put into the vineyard and the picking begins. The +bunches of ripe grapes are placed carefully on wooden trays and are +left in the field to cure. The process requires from seven days to +three weeks, according to the amount of sunshine. This climate is so +entirely free from dew at night that there is no danger of must. The +grape cures perfectly in this way and makes a far sweeter raisin than +when dried by artificial heat. When the grapes are dried sufficiently +the trays are gathered and stacked in piles about as high as a man's +waist. Then begins the tedious but necessary process of sorting into +the sweat boxes. These boxes are about eight inches deep and hold 125 +pounds of grapes. Around the sorter are three sweat boxes for the +three grades of grapes. In each box are three layers of manila paper +which are used at equal intervals to prevent the stems of the grapes +from becoming entangled, thus breaking the fine large bunches when +removed. The sorter must be an expert. He takes the bunches by the +stem, placing the largest and finest in the first grade box, those +which are medium sized in the second grade, and all broken and ragged +bunches in the third class. When the boxes are filled they are hauled +to the brick building known as the equalizer. This is constructed so +as to permit ventilation at the top, but to exclude light and air as +much as possible from the grapes. The boxes are piled in tiers in this +house and allowed to remain in darkness for from ten to twenty days. +Here they undergo a sweating process, which diffuses moisture equally +throughout the contents of each box. This prevents some grapes from +retaining undue moisture, and it also softens the stems and makes them +pliable. + +From the equalizing room the sweat boxes are taken to the packing +room. Here they are first weighed. The first and second grades are +passed to the sorter, while the third grade raisins are placed in a +big machine that strips off the stems and grades the loose raisins in +three or four sizes. These are placed in sacks and sold as loose +raisins. The higher grades are carefully sorted into first and second +class clusters. After this sorting the boxes are passed to women and +girls, who arrange the clusters neatly in small five pound boxes with +movable bottoms. These boxes are placed under slight pressure, and +four of them fill one of the regular twenty pound boxes of commerce. +The work of placing the raisins in the small boxes requires much +practice, but women are found to be much swifter than men at this +labor, and, as they are paid by the box, the more skillful earn from +$2 to $3 a day. It is light, pleasant work, as the room is large, cool +and well ventilated, and there is no mixing of the sexes, such as may +be found in many of the San Francisco canneries. For this reason the +work attracts nice girls, and one may see many attractive faces in a +trip through a large packing house. One heavy shouldered, +masculine-looking German woman, who, however, had long, slender +fingers, was pointed out as the swiftest sorter in the room. She made +regularly $3 a day. The assurance of steady work of this kind for +three months draws many people to Fresno, and the regular disbursement +of a large sum as wages every week goes far to explain the thrift and +comfort seen on every hand. + +The five pound boxes of grapes are passed to the pressing machine, +where four of them are deftly transferred to a twenty pound box. The +two highest grades of raisins are the Dehesa and the London layers. It +has always been the ambition of California's raisin makers to produce +the Dehesa brand. They know that their best raisins are equal in size +and quality to the best Spanish raisins, but heretofore they have +found the cost of preparing the top layer in the Spanish style very +costly, as the raisins had to be flattened out (or thumbed, as it is +technically called) by hand. In Spain, where women work for 20 cents a +day, this hand labor cuts no figure in the cost of production, but +here, with the cheapest labor at $1.50 a day, it has proved a bar to +competition. American ingenuity, however, is likely to overcome this +handicap of high wages. T.C. White, an old raisin grower, has invented +a packing plate of metal, with depressions at regular intervals just +the size of a big raisin. This plate is put at the bottom of the +preliminary packing box, and when the work of packing is complete the +box is reversed and the top layer, pressed into the depressions of the +plate, bears every mark of the most careful hand manipulation. Mr. +Butler used this plate for the first time this season, and found it a +success, and there is no question of its general adoption. Every year +sees more attention paid to the careful grading of raisins, as upon +this depends much of their marketable value. The large packing houses +have done good work in enforcing this rule, and the chief sinners who +still indulge in careless packing are small growers with poor +facilities. Probably the next few years will see a great increase in +the number and size of the packing houses which will prepare and +market most of Fresno's raisin crop. The growers also will avail +themselves of the co-operative plan, for which the colony system +offers peculiar advantages. + +Geometrical progression is the only thing which equals the increase of +Fresno's raisin product. Eighteen years ago it was less than 3,000 +boxes. Last year it amounted to 1,050,000 boxes, while this year the +product cannot fall below 1,250,000 boxes. New vineyards are coming +into bearing every year, and this season has seen a larger planting of +new vineyards than ever before. This was due mainly to the stimulus +and encouragement of the McKinley bill, which was worth an +incalculable sum to those who are developing the raisin industry in +California. Besides raisins, Fresno produced last year 2,500,000 +gallons of wine, a large part of which was shipped to the East. The +railroad figures show the wealth that is produced here every year from +these old wheat fields. The dried fruit crop last year was valued at +$1,123,520; raisins, $1,245,768; and the total exports were +$8,957,899. + +The largest bearing raisin vineyard in Fresno is that of A.B. Butler, +who has over 600 acres in eight year-old vines. The pack this year +will be fully 120,000 boxes. As each box sells for an average of +$1.75, the revenue from this vineyard will not fall far below a +quarter of a million. One of the finest places in the county is +Colonel Forsythe's 160-acre vineyard, from which 40,000 boxes are +packed. Forsythe has paid so much attention to the packing of his +raisins that his output commands a fancy price. This year he wanted to +go to Europe, so he sold his crop on the vines to a packing house, +receiving a check for $20,000. These, of course, are the great +successes, but nearly every small raisin grower has made money, for it +costs not over 11/2 cents per pound to produce the raisin, and the price +seldom falls below 6 cents per pound. Good land can be secured in +Fresno at from $50 to $200 per acre. The average is $75 an acre for +first-class raisin land that is within ten miles of any large place. +It costs $75 an acre to get a raisin vineyard into bearing. In the +third year the vines pay for cultivation, and from that time on the +ratio of increase is very large. Much of the work of pruning, picking, +and curing grapes is light, and may be done by women and children. The +only heavy labor about the vineyard is the plowing and cultivating. +Fresno is a hot place in the summer, the mercury running up to 110 +degrees in the shade, but this is a dry heat, which does not enervate, +and, with proper protection for the head, one may work in the sun all +day, without any danger of sunstroke. + +The colony system, which has been brought to great perfection around +Fresno, permits a family of small means to secure a good home without +much capital to start with. Where no money is paid for labor, a +vineyard may be brought to productiveness with very small outlay. At +the same time there is so great a demand for labor in the large +vineyards, that the man who has a five or ten acre tract may be sure +of work nearly all the year. In some places special inducements have +been held out to people of small means to secure a five-acre vineyard +while they are at work in other business. One colony of this sort was +started eighteen months ago near Madera, in Fresno County. A tract of +3,000 acres was planted to Muscat grapes, and then sold out in five +and ten acre vineyards, on five years' time, the purchaser paying only +one-fifth cash. The price of the land was $75 an acre, and it was +estimated that an equal sum per acre would put the vineyard into full +bearing. Thus, for $750, or, with interest, for $1,000, a man working +on a small salary in San Francisco will have in five years a vineyard +which should yield him a yearly revenue of $500. From the present +outlook there can be no danger of over-production of raisins, any more +than of California wine or dried fruits. The grower is assured of a +good market for every pound of raisins he produces, and the more care +he puts into the growing and packing of his crop, the larger his +returns will be. For those who love life in the open air, there is +nothing in California with greater attractions than raisin growing in +Fresno County.--_N.Y. Tribune._ + + * * * * * + + + + +COLD AND MORTALITY. + +By Dr. B.W. RICHARDSON. + + +During the seven weeks of extreme atmospheric cold in which the last +year ended and with which the present year opened, every one has been +startled by the mortality that has prevailed among the enfeebled and +aged population. Friends have been swept away in a manner most painful +to recall, under the influence of an external agency, as natural as it +is fatal in its course, and over which science, as yet, holds the most +limited control. + +In the presence of these facts questions occur to the mind which have +the most practical bearing. Why should a community wake up one day +with catarrh or with the back of the throat unduly red and the tonsils +large? Why, in a particular village or town, shall the medical men be +summoned on some particular day to a number of places to visit +children with croup? What is the reason that cases of sudden death, by +so-called "apoplexy," crowd together into a few hours? Why, in a given +day or week, are shoals of the aged swept away, while the young live +as before? These are questions which curative and preventive medicine +have not yet mastered as might be desired. Curative medicine, at the +name of them, too often stands abashed, if her interpreter be honest; +and preventive medicine says, if her interpreter be honest, "The +questions wait as yet for full interpretation." + +Still, we are not altogether ignorant; some circumstances appear to be +followed by effects so definite, that we may almost consider we have +before us, in true position, cause and effect. Let us look at this +position in reference to _the simple influence of temperature on the +value of life_. + +If we observe the fluctuation of the thermometer by the side of the +mortality of the nation at large, no calculable relationship seems, at +first sight, to be traceable between the one and the other. But if, in +connection with the mortality, care be taken to isolate cases, and to +divide them into groups according to the ages of those who die, a +singular and significant series of facts follow, which show that after +a given age a sudden decline of the temperature influences mortality +by what may be considered a definite law. The law is, that variations +of temperature exert no marked influence on the mortality of the +population under the age of thirty years; but after the age of thirty +is reached, a fall of temperature, sufficient to cause an increased +number of deaths, acts in a regular manner, as it may be said, in +waves or lines of intensity, according to the ages of the people. If +we make these lines nine years long, we discover that they double in +effect at each successive point. Thus, if the, fall in the temperature +be sufficient to increase the mortality at the rate of one person of +the age of thirty, the increase will run as follows: 1 death at 30 +years of age will become 2 deaths at 39 years of age, 4 at 48 years, 8 +at 57 years, 16 at 66 years, 33 at 75 years, and 64 at 84 years. + +In these calculations nothing seems to be wanting that should render +them trustworthy; they resulted from inquiries conducted on the +largest scale; they were computed by one of our greatest authorities +in vital statistics, the late Dr. William Farr, and they accord with +what we gather from common daily observation. They supply, in a word, +the scientific details and refinements of a rough estimate founded on +universal experience, and they lead us to think very gravely on many +subjects which may not have occurred to us before, and which are as +curious as they are important. + +We often hear persons who know little about vital phenomena, by which +term I mean nothing mysterious, but simply the physics embraced in +those phenomena which we connect with form and motion under the term +life, harping on the one string, that man knows nothing of the laws of +life and death. But what an answer to such presumption do the facts +rendered above supply. Life and death are here reduced, on given +conditions, to reasonings as clear and positive as are the reasonings +on the development of heat by the combustion of fuel. It is not +necessary for the vital philosopher to go out into the towns and +villages to take a new census of deaths to enable him to give us his +readings of the general mortality under the conditions specified. He +may sit in his cabinet, and, as he reads his thermometer day by day, +predict results. There is a fall of temperature that shall be known by +experience to be sufficiently deep and prolonged to cause an increase +of one death among those members of the community who have reached +thirty years. Then, rising by a definite rule, there have died +sixty-four, in proportion to that one, of those who have reached +eighty-four years. This is sound calculation, and it leads to +reflection. It leads one to ask, what, if the law be so definite, are +curative and preventive medicine doing meanwhile, that they shall not +disturb it? I fear that they hardly produce perturbations, and I do +not see why they should; because, as the truth opens itself to the +mind, the tremendous external change in the forces of the universe +that leads to the result, is not to be grappled with nor interfered +with by any specific method of human invention. The cause is too +general, too overwhelming, too grasping. It is like the lightning +stroke in its distance from our command; but it is widely spread, not +pointed and concentrate; prolonged, not instantaneous; and, by virtue +of these properties, is so much the more subtile and devastating. + +At first it seems easy to explain the reason why a sudden fall in +temperature should lead to an increase in the number of deaths, and it +is to be admitted that, to a certain extent, the reason is clear. + + +ANIMAL POWER AT DIFFERENT PERIODS OF LIFE. + +Without entering on the question whether heat is the animating +principle of all living organisms, we may accept that in the evolution +of heat in the body we have a measurement of the capacity of the body +to sustain motion, which is only another phrase for expressing the +resistance of the body to death. For example, if we assume that a +healthy man of thirty respires sufficient air per day to produce as +much heat as would raise fifty pounds of water at 32 deg. Fahr. to 212 deg. +Fahr., and if we assume that a man of sixty in the same temperature is +only able to respire so much air as shall cause him to evolve so much +heat as would raise forty pounds of water from 32 deg. to 212 deg., we see a +general reason why the older man should feel an effect from a sudden +change in the temperature of the air which the younger would not feel; +and if we assume, further, that a man of eighty could in the same time +produce as much heat as would raise only twenty pounds of water from +32 deg. to 212 deg., we see a good reason why the oldest should suffer more +from a decrease of external temperature than the other two. It is +necessary, however, to know more than this general statement of an +approximate fact; we ought to understand the method by which the +reduction of temperature influences, and the details of the +physiological process connected with the phenomena. When a human body +is living after the age when the period of its growth is completed and +before the period of its decay has commenced, it produces, when it is +quite healthy, by its own chemical processes, so much heat or force as +shall enable it, within given bounds, (1) to move its own machinery; +(2) to call forth, at will, a limited measure of extra force which has +been lying latent in its organism; and (3) to supply a fluctuating +loss that must be conveyed away by contact with the surrounding air, +by the earth, and by other bodies that it may touch, and which are +colder than itself. There is thus produced in the body, _applied_ +force, _reserve_ force, and _waste_ force, and these distributions of +the whole force generated, when correctly applied, maintain the +perfect organism in such balance that life is true and steady. So much +active force carries with it the power to perform so much labor; so +much reserve force carries with it the power to perform a measure of +new or extra labor to meet emergencies; so much waste force enables +the body to resist the external vicissitudes without trenching on the +supply that is always wanted to keep the heart pulsating, the chest +breathing, the glands secreting or excreting, the digestive apparatus +moving, and the brain thinking or absorbing. + +Let us, even in the prime of manhood, disturb the distribution of +force ever so little, and straightway our life, which is the resultant +of force, is disturbed. If we use the active force too long, we become +exhausted, and call on the reserve; if we continue the process, the +result is failure more or less perfect, sleep, and, in the end, the +last long sleep. Let us, instead of exhausting the force, cut it off +at the sources where it is generated; let us remove the carbon or coal +that should go in as fuel food, and we create prostration, and in +continuance a waning animal fire, sleep, and death; or let us, instead +of removing or withdrawing the supply of fuel, cut off the supply of +air, as by immersion of the body in water, or by making it breathe a +vapor that weakens the combination of oxygen with carbon--such a vapor +as chloroform--and again we produce, at once, prostration, sleep, or +death, according to the extent to which we have conducted the process. +Lastly, if instead of using up unduly the active and reserve force, or +of suppressing the evolution of force by the withdrawal of its +sources, we expose the body to such an external temperature that it is +robbed of its heat faster than it can generate it; if to supply the +waste heat we draw upon the active and reserve forces, we call forth +immediately the same condition as would follow extreme over-exertion, +or suppression of the development of force; we call forth exhaustion +and sleep, and, if we go far enough, death. + +We have had in view, in the above description, a man in the prime of +life, in the center of growth, and decay. In regard to the force of +animation in him, let us look at him now retrospectively and +prospectively. In the past his has been a growing, developing body, +and in the course of development he has produced an excess of force +commensurate with the demands of his growth; this has enabled him +gradually to bear more fatigue and more exposure, without exhaustion, +and even with ease, until he has reached his maximum. When he has +stopped in development, when he stands on a fair level with the +external forces that are opposed to him, then his own force, for a +short time balanced, soon stands second in command. He feels cold more +tenderly; if his rest be broken, the demand for artificial heat is +more urgent; if he lose or miss food, he sinks quickly; and, returning +to our facts, as to the influence of the external temperature on +mortality, these are the reasons why a fall in the thermometer sweeps +away our population according to age so ruthlessly and decisively. + +If we analyze the facts further by the side of the diseases which kill +the old, we find those diseases to be numerous in name, but all of two +types. They are diseases which of themselves tend either to produce +undue loss of force, or that tend to prevent the development of force +at its origin. Thus affections which are accompanied with exhaustive +loss of fluids from the body, such as diabetes, dropsies, and +haemorrhages, are of the first class; affections in which due supply of +air to the lungs is prevented are of the second class, especially +bronchitis, a disease so commonly assigned as the cause of the deaths +among the members of the aged and enfeebled population, that succeed +immediately on an extreme fall of the thermometer. + + +FALL OF TEMPERATURE--MODE OF ACTION. + +In what has been written above I have stated simply and in open terms +the fact that the fall of temperature produces a specified series of +results, by reducing the force of the living organism, and disposing +it to die. We may from this point investigate, from a physiological +point of view, the mode by which the effect is produced in the +economy. How does the decline of temperature act? Is the process +simple or compound? + + +EXTRACTION OF HEAT. + +The process is compound, and into it there enter three elements. In +the first place, the body is robbed rapidly of its waste force, and +the reserve and active elements of force are, consequently, called +upon to the depression of the organism altogether. This obtains +because the medium surrounding the body, the air, unless it be +artificially heated, removes from its contact with the body a larger +proportion of heat than can be spared; and it might be possible to +produce such an influence on the body by sudden extraction of its heat +as to destroy it at once by the mere act. If a man could be surrounded +with frozen mercury he would die instantaneously, as from shock, by +the immediate extraction of his heat. But in ordinary cases, and under +ordinary circumstances, the mere rapid extraction of waste heat is not +sufficient to account for all the mischief produced by a low +temperature; for by artificial warmth and non-conducting garments, we +counteract the influence, and that, too, in a manner which proves +pretty successful. We may, therefore, leave this element of extraction +of heat as a most important, but not as the sole, agent of evil. + + +SUPPRESSED OXIDATION. + +The second element is the effect on the process of oxidation of blood +under the influence of cold. We all are aware that if a portion of +dead animal or vegetable matter be placed at a low temperature, it +keeps for a considerable time; and we have evidence of dead animals +which, clothed in thick ribbed ice, have been retained from +putrefaction for centuries. Hence we say that cold is an antiseptic as +alcohol is, and chloroform, and ammonia, and other similar bodies. +Cold is an antiseptic then, but why? Because it prevents, even in the +presence of a ferment, the union of oxygen gas with combustible +matter. The molecules of oxygen, in order that they shall combine, and +in their combination evolve heat, require to be distributed, and to be +distributed by the form of motion known as heat; deprive them of this +activity, and they come into communion with themselves, are attracted +to each other, and lose to the extent of this attraction their power +of combining with the molecules of other bodies for which they have an +affinity. In an analogous, but more obvious way, we may see the same +effect of motion in the microscopic examination of blood. In the +blood, while it is circulating briskly in its vessels, there are +distributed through it, without contact with each other, the millions +of oxygen carriers called blood corpuscles. In the circulation in the +free channels of the body, the arteries and veins, it is motion that +keeps these corpuscles apart; we draw a drop of blood and let it come +to rest on the microscope glass, and as the motion ceases the +separated corpuscles run together, and adhere so firmly that we cannot +easily separate them without their disintegration. If we were able to +drive them in this state round the body, through the vessels, they +would not combine readily with the tissues; they have, in fact, +forfeited the condition necessary for such combination. So with the +oxygen they carry; when its invisible molecules are deprived of the +force called heat, which is motion, they do not readily combine with +new matter. But perfect combination of oxygen and carbon in the blood +is essential to every act of life. In the constant clash of molecule +of oxygen with molecule of carbon in the blood lies the mainspring of +all animal motion; the motion of the heart itself is secondary to +that. Destroy that union, however slightly, and the balance is lost, +and the animal body is, in a plain word, _ill_. + +Cold or decreased temperature, below a given standard, which for sake +of comparison we may take at a mean of 40 deg. Fahr., reduces this +combination of oxygen and carbon in blood. In my Lettsomian lectures +to the Medical Society of London, delivered in 1860, I entered very +fully into this subject, and illustrated points of it largely by +experiment. Since then I have done more, and although I have not time +here to state the details of these researches, I will epitomize the +principal facts. I found then that, by exposing blood in chambers into +which air can pass in and out, the blood could be oxidized at +temperatures of 70 deg. if the distribution of air and blood were +effectually secured, and I also found a proper standard of oxidation +from a proper temperature. Afterward I proceeded to test for +combination at lower temperatures, and discovered a gradually +decreasing scale until I arrived at 40 deg. Fahr., when efficient +combination ceased. Of course, my method was a very crude imitation of +nature, but it was sufficient to show this fair and reliable result, +that the oxidation of blood decreases as the temperature of the oxygen +decreases. + +From this point I went to animal life itself. I exposed animals to +pure cold oxygen and to cold atmospheric air, and compared the results +with other experiments in which animals of similar weight were exposed +to warm air and warm oxygen. The facts gleaned were most important, +for they proved conclusively that the products of combustion, that is +to say, the products resulting from the union of oxygen and carbon, +were reduced in proportion as the temperature of the oxygen was +reduced. In the course of this inquiry another singular and +instructive fact was elicited. It has been long known that at ordinary +temperature, say 60 deg., pure neutral oxygen does not support animal life +so well as oxygen that is diluted with nitrogen. In the nitrogen the +molecules of oxygen are more freely distributed under the influence of +motion, that is the meaning of the observed fact. What, then, would be +the respective influence of low and high temperatures on the +respiration of pure oxygen? To settle this question, animals of the +same size and weight were placed in equal measures of oxygen gas and +common air at a temperature of 30 deg. Fahr., and with the inevitable +result that the animal in the pure oxygen ceased to respire one-third +sooner than did the animal in common air. Carrying the inquiry +further, I found that if the oxygen gas were warmed to 50 deg. Fahr., the +respiration was continued six times as long as in the previous +experiment, while if the warming were carried to 70 deg., it was sustained +twenty-four times as long. I reversed the experiment; I made oxygen +with cold produce anaesthetic sleep in a warm-blooded animal. + +I need not carry this argument further; it is the easiest of the +demonstrative facts of physiological science that reduction of +temperature lessens the combining power of oxygen for blood, and +therewith causes a reduction of animal force, and a tendency to arrest +of that force, which, in the end, means _death_. + + +MECHANICAL COLD. + +The third element in the action of cold is more purely mechanical, and +this, though in a sense secondary, is of immense import. When any +body, capable of expansion by heat, that is to say, by radiant motion +of its own particles, is reduced in temperature, it loses volume, +contracts, or shrinks. The animal body is no exception to this rule; a +ring that will fit tightly to the warm finger will fall off the same +finger after exposure to cold. The whole of the soft parts shrink, and +the vessels contract and empty themselves of their blood. Cold applied +to the skin in an extreme degree blanches the skin, and renders it +insensible and bloodless, so that if you prick it it does not bleed, +neither does it feel. In cases where the body altogether is exposed to +extreme cold this shrinking of the external parts is universal; the +whole surface becomes pale and insensible; the blood in the small +vessels superficially placed is forced inward upon the heart and +vessels of the interior organs; the brain is oppressed with blood; +sleep, or coma, as it is technically called, follows, and at last life +is suspended. + +In exposure to the lowest wave of temperature in this country these +extreme effects are not commonly developed; but minor effects are +brought out which are most significant. In particular, the effect on +the lungs is strongly marked. The capillary vessels of the lungs, +making up that fine network which plays over the computed six hundred +millions of air vesicles, undergo paralysis when the cold air enters, +and in proportion as such obstruction from this cause is decisive, the +blood that should be brought to the air vesicles is impeded, and the +process of oxidation is mechanically as well as chemically suppressed. +The same contraction is also exerted on the vessels of the skin, +driving the blood into the interior and better protected organs. Hence +the reason why on leaving a warm room to enter a cold frosty air there +is an immediate action of the visceral organs from pressure of blood +on them, and not unfrequently a tendency to diarrhoea from temporary +congestion of the digestive tract. Three factors are at work, in fact, +whenever the low wave of temperature affects the animal body; +abstraction of heat from the body, beyond what is natural; arrest of +chemical action and of combustion; paralysis of the minute vessels +exposed to the cold. + + +COMBINED EFFECTS. + +We cannot view the extent of change in the organic life induced by the +low wave of heat without seeing at once the sweep of mischief which +exposure to the wave may effect. It exerts an influence on healthy +life in the middle-aged man, and I know of no disease which it does +not influence disastrously. Is the healthy man exhausted, it favors +internal congestion; has he a weak point in the vascular system of his +brain, it renders that point liable to pressure and rupture, with +apoplexy as the sequence; is he suffering from bronchial disease, and +obstruction, already, in his air passages, here is a means by which +the evils are doubled; has he a feeble, worn-out heart, it is unable +to bear the pressure that is put upon it; has he partial obstruction +of the kidney circulation, he is threatened with complete obstruction; +is he indifferently fed, he is weakened generally. It is from this +extent of action that the mortality of all diseases runs up so fast +when the low wave of heat rolls over the population, affecting, as we +have seen, the feeblest first. + +Another danger sometimes follows which is remote, but may be fatal, +even to persons who are in health. It is one of the best known facts +in science that when a part of the surface of the body has been +exposed long to cold, the greatest risk is run in trying suddenly to +warm it. The vessels become rapidly dilated, their coats relax, and +extreme congestion follows. But what is true of the skin is true +equally, and with more practical force, of the lungs. A man, a little +below par, goes out when the wave of temperature is low, and feels +oppressed, cold, weak, and miserable; the circulation through his +lungs has been suppressed, and he is not duly oxidizing; he returns to +a warm place, he rushes to the fire, breathes eagerly and long the +heated air, and adds to the warmth by taking perchance a cup of +stimulant; then he goes to bed and wakes in a few hours with what is +called pneumonia, or with bronchitis, or with both diseases. What has +happened? The simple physical fact of reaction under too sudden an +exposure to heat after exposure to cold. The capillaries of the lungs +have become engorged, and the circulation static, so that there must +be reaction of heat, inflammation, before recovery can occur. Nearly +all bronchial affections are induced in this manner, not always nor +necessarily in the acute form, but more frequently by slow degrees, by +repetition and repetition of the evil. Colds are often taken in this +same way, from the exposed mucous surfaces of the nose and throat +being subjected first to a chill, then to heat. + +The wave of low temperature affecting a mixed population finds +inevitably a certain number of persons of all ages and conditions on +whom to exert its power. It catches them too often when they least +expect it. An aged man, with sluggish heart, goes to bed and reclines +to sleep in a temperature, say, of 50 deg. or 55 deg.. In his sleep, were it +quite uninfluenced from without, his heart and his breathing would +naturally decline. Gradually, as the night advances, the low wave of +heat steals over the sleeper, and the air he was breathing at 55 deg. +falls and falls to 40 deg., or it may be to 35 deg. or 30 deg.. What may naturally +follow less than a deeper sleep? Is it not natural that the sleep so +profound shall stop the laboring heart? Certainly. The great narcotic +never travels without fastening on some victims in this wise, removing +them, imperceptibly to themselves, into sleep ending in absolute +death. + + +SOME SIMPLE RULES. + +The study of the physiological influence of the wave of low +temperature, and of its relation to the wave of mortality, suggests a +few rules, simple, and easily remembered. + +1. Clothing is the first thing to attend to. To have the body, during +variable weather, such as now obtains, well enveloped from head to +foot in non-conducting substance is essential. Who neglects this +precaution is guilty of a grievous error, and who helps the poor to +clothe effectively does more for them than can readily be conceived +without careful attention to the subject we have discussed. + +2. In sitting-rooms and in bedrooms it is equally essential to +maintain an equable temperature; a fire in a bedroom is of first value +at this season. The fire sustains the external warmth, encourages +ventilation, and gives health not less than comfort. + +3. In going from a warm into a cold atmosphere, in breasting the wave +of low temperature, no one can harm by starting forth thoroughly warm. +But in returning from the cold into the warm the act should always be +accomplished gradually. This important rule may readily be carried in +mind by connecting it with the fact that the only safe mode of curing +a frozen part is to rub it with ice, so as to restore the temperature +slowly. + +4. The wave of low temperature requires to be met by good, nutritious, +warm food. Heat-forming foods, such as bread, sugar, butter, oatmeal +porridge, and potatoes, are of special use now. It would be against +science and instinct alike to omit such foods when the body requires +heat. + +5. It is an entire mistake to suppose that the wave of cold is +neutralized in any sense by the use of alcoholics. When a glass of hot +brandy and water warms the cold man, the credit belongs to the hot +water, and any discredit that may follow to the brandy. So far from +alcohol checking the cold in action, it goes with it, and therewith +aids in arresting the motion of the heart in the living animal, +because it reduces oxidation. + +6. Excessive exercise of the body, and overwork either of body or of +mind, should be avoided, especially during those seasons when a sudden +fall of temperature is of frequent occurrence. For exhaustion, whether +physical or mental, means loss of motion in the organism; and loss of +motion is the same as loss of heat. + +One further consideration, suggested by the subject of this paper, has +reference to the bearing of the public toward the labors of the +medical man in meeting the effects of the low wave of heat. The +public, looking on the doctor as a sort of mystical high priest who +ought to save, may often be dissatisfied with his work. Let the +dissatisfied think of what is meant by saving when there is a sudden +fall in the thermometer. Let them recall that it is not bronchitis as +a cause of death, nor apoplexy, nor heart disease, as such, that the +doctor is called on to meet; but an all-pervading influence which +overwhelms like the sea, and against which, in the mass, individual +effort stands paralyzed and helpless. When the doctor is summoned the +mischief has at least commenced, and, it may be, is so far over that +treatment by mere medicines sinks into secondary significance. Then +he, true minister of health, candid enough to bow humbly before the +great and inevitable truth, and professing no specific cure by nostrum +or symbol, can only try to avert further danger by teaching elementary +principles, and by making the unlearned the participators in his own +learning.--_The Asclepiad._ + + * * * * * + + +THE TREATMENT OF GLAUCOMA. + +As this disease is so fatal to vision, any remedy that may be +suggested to diminish the frequency of its termination in blindness +cannot fail to be read of with interest. M. Nicati, in the _Revue +generate de clinique et de therapeutique_, has had marked success in +the treatment of glaucoma by drainage of the posterior chamber, either +by sclerotomy or by sclero-iritomy, as the conditions of the +individual case may require.--_N.Y. Med. Jour._ + + * * * * * + + + + +A TWIN SCREW LAUNCH RUN BY A COMPOUND ENGINE. + + +[Illustration: TWIN SCREW STEAM LAUNCH GEMINI.] + +The launch shown in our illustration was built in New Westminster, +British Columbia, Canada. She is 42 ft. keel and 7 ft. beam, and has 4 +ft. depth of hold. She has an improved Clarke compound engine, also +shown in an accompanying illustration, with a high pressure piston +four inches in diameter, and a low pressure piston eight inches in +diameter, the stroke being six inches, and the engine driving two +twenty-six inch screws. With 130 pounds of steam, and making 275 +revolutions per minute, the launch attains a speed of nine miles per +hour, thus fully demonstrating the adaptability of this engine to the +successful working of twin screws. + +[Illustration: THE CLARKE COMPOUND TWIN-SCREW OPERATING ENGINE.] + +In the Clarke engine, the exhaust pipe from the high pressure cylinder +leads to the steam chest of the low pressure cylinder, while the +piston in the upper cylinder is secured on a piston rod extending +downward and connected with a piston operating in the lower cylinder, +the exhaust pipe from the latter leading to the outside. On the piston +rod common to both cylinders is secured a crosshead pivotally +connected by two pitmen with opposite crank arms on crank shafts +mounted to turn in suitable bearings on the base, which also supports +a frame carrying the low pressure cylinder, on top of which is a frame +supporting the high pressure cylinder. The valves in the two steam +chests are connected with each other by a valve rod connected at its +lower end in the usual manner with the reversing link, operated from +eccentrics secured on one of the crank shafts. + +The crank arms stand at angles to each other, so that the crank shafts +are turned in opposite directions, and the position of the link is +such that it can be readily changed by the reversing lever to +simultaneously reverse the motion of the crank shafts. On the crank +shafts are also formed two other crank arms pivotally connected by +opposite pitmen with a slide mounted in vertical guideways, supported +on a frame erected on the base, the motion of the crank shafts causing +the vertical sliding motion of the slide traveling loosely in the +guideways, and thus serving as a governor, as, in case one of the +propellers becomes disabled, the power of the shaft carrying the +disabled propeller is directly transferred to the other shaft through +the crank arms, pitmen, and slide, and the other propeller is caused +to do all the work. All the parts of the engine are within easy reach +of the engineer, and there are so few working parts in motion that the +friction is reduced to a minimum. + +It is said that the plan of construction and the operation of this +engine have been carefully observed by practical engineers, and that, +considering the dimensions of the boat, her speed, the smallness of +the power, the ease with which she passes the centers, the absence of +vibration while running, and the very few working parts in motion, the +engine is a notable success. She can be run at a very high velocity +without injury or risk, and is designed to be very economical in cost +and in weight and space. This engine has been recently patented in the +United States and foreign countries by Mr. James A. Clarke, of New +Westminster. + + * * * * * + + + + +IMPROVEMENTS IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF RIVER AND CANAL BARGES. + +By M. RITTER (KNIGHT) VON SZABEL, late Austrian Naval Officer, of +Vienna. + + +This innovation consists essentially in an arrangement by which two +distinct vessels, on being revolved round their longitudinal axis to +an angle of 90 deg., can be combined into one single duplex vessel, or, to +put it in different words, a larger vessel is arranged so that it can +be parted into two halves (called "semi-barges"), which can be used +and navigated with equal facility as two distinct vessels, as if +combined into one. By the combination of the two semi-barges into one +duplex barge the draught of the vessel is nearly doubled, the ratio +existing between the draught of a loaded semi-vessel and the equally +loaded duplex vessels being 5:8 (up to 8.5) + +The advantage of the invention consists: + + 1. In this difference of draught. + + 2. In the smaller width of the semi-vessel as compared with + the duplex vessel. + + 3. In the fact that the combination and separation of the + vessels can be effected, without the least disturbance of the + cargo, in a minimum of time. + +It facilitates the utilization, to the highest possible extent, of the +varying conditions and dimensions of canal locks and rivers. + +The transition from rivers to canals, and from larger canals to +smaller ones, is expedited by the possibility afforded of, on the +arrival at the locks, dividing the vessel in a space of a few minutes; +of passing with the semi-vessel, singly, the various smaller locks or +the shallow canal, after which the two sections may be re-combined and +navigated again as one vessel. The process of "folding up" the two +vessels will of course take longer than that of separation. + +On rivers, the channels of which are interrupted by sand banks and +rapids, the same operation may be carried out, thus avoiding the +expense and delay necessitated by, perhaps, repeated "lightering," +i.e., reduction of the cargo. + +Thus, the through traffic on large rivers like the Danube, with its +repeated obstacles to navigation, such as the "iron gate," and several +sand-banks known and dreaded by bargemen, would be materially +facilitated, any necessity for unloading part of the cargo being +obviated; moreover, such a duplex vessel composed of two semi-vessels +affords the advantage of utilizing to a fuller degree the power of +traction, and one large vessel will be more convenient for traffic +than two smaller ones. + +Further, the mode of construction of the semi-vessels--both ends of +which are of a similar pattern--allows of their being navigated up and +down a water channel without the necessity of turning them round; +provision having also been made for the fixing of the rudder at either +end, which would therefore merely require exchanging. This is of some +advantage in narrow river beds and canals, and applies equally to the +duplex vessel as to the single semi-vessels. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 5.] + +Each semi-barge on its part is also constructed of two equal +halves--which are, however, inseparable--and as there is no distinct +stem or stern, any one of these semi-vessels will fit any other +semi-vessels of the same dimensions, and can be attached to the same +by means of the coupling apparatus, and the two "folded up" into one +duplex vessel. This process does not present any material +difficulties. The two single boats on being coupled together can be +made to lean over toward each other, by filling their lateral water +compartments, to such an extent that the further closing up can be +easily effected by means of specially constructed windlasses. In the +case of petroleum vessels the "folding up" operation is facilitated by +the circumstance that the petroleum may be made to serve the purposes +of water ballast. + +As regards the size and tonnage of the new vessels, this will of +course depend on the local condition of the rivers and canals to be +navigated. Thus a vessel destined for traffic on canals with locks of +varying dimensions will have to be adapted to the dimensions of the +smallest existing lock. + +Supposing the size of the latter to be such as found in the case of +the Rhine-Marne or the Rhine-Rhone Canal, or on the Neckar down to +Cannstadt, or in the Danube-Main Canal and some smaller canals in the +Weser district, etc., viz.: + + Length of lock 34.5 meters. + Width 5.2 " + Depth 1.6 to 2.0 meters. + +The semi-barge may be made 32 meters in length, 4 meters in breadth +and 2.5 meters total depth, and with a draught of 1.5 meters will be +capable of carrying a load of 100 tons (of 1,000 kilos each). +Correspondingly the duplex vessel will be able to carry 200 tons, with +a minimum draught of 2.4 meters and a width of 5.4 meters, but, with a +favorable height of the water level, the draught of the semi-barge may +be increased to 1.65 and that of duplex vessels to 2.7 meters. + +Where not limited to certain proportions by the dimensions of the +locks to be passed, the vessel may in the first place be made longer; +the width and height may also be increased accordingly (provided that +the proportion of breadth to width is kept within the ratio 4:2.5), so +that the semi-barges may be constructed for a single burden up to 300 +tons, or 600 for the duplex vessel. + +As regards the nature of the cargo, parcels would not be admissible in +this instance, but any kind of homogeneous cargo would be suitable +which would bear laying over on one side. + +Thus this style of vessel would be well adapted for petroleum tank +vessels, for the transport of all kinds of cereals, flour, coffee, and +sugar in sacks--these latter being held in position by an arrangement +of planking and boards so as to prevent any overturning of the goods +on the vessels being folded up or taken apart. Similarly in the case +of a cargo of loose grain or other loose produce, the same must be +prevented from being upset by a kind of wooden casing. + +Two semi-vessels loaded with different cargoes may be coupled +together, provided that there is not too much difference between their +respective draughts. Slight differences may be balanced by the water +compartments being filled to a greater or smaller extent. + +The peculiar position of the hatches allows of loading the +semi-vessels separately as well as when coupled together. + +If there is for the time being no necessity for using the vessels in +their capacity of separate and duplex barges, any kind of cargo might +be loaded that does not require large hatches. + +The vessels, on account of their more complicated construction, will +be somewhat more expensive, but wherever the advantage offered by them +outweighs the extra expenditure, they can be used with success. + +The innovation might be of particular importance where a new canal +system is being constructed, since the latter might be subdivided into +main canals and branch canals--similarly as in the case of ordinary +and narrow gauge railways--the main canal being built of a larger +section and with larger locks to suit the duplex barges, while the +branch canals could be planned of smaller dimensions calculated to +suit the semi-barge. Thus the first cost of such a canal system would +be materially reduced as compared with a canal installation of one +uniform section throughout. + +Likewise in mountainous districts with rock soil it would be an +important consideration whether a canal had to be blasted out of the +solid rock or a tunnel cut, in dimensions suitable for a vessel of 6 +or of 14 square meters section below the water line. + +In this case, even in certain portions of a main canal--where rendered +desirable by the rocky nature of the ground--a smaller section might +be adopted, which would only be large enough for single semi-barges, +so that the duplex vessel would in these instances have to be taken +apart in the same way as in a branch canal. + +The saving to be effected by constructing a canal on this principle, +as compared with a canal of one uniform section throughout, must be +considerable, and the advantages of the arrangement are apparent. + +The appended figures will further illustrate the arrangement. Fig. 1 +shows two separate semi-barges ready to pursue their journey +independently. Fig. 2 shows two semi-barges coupled together ready to +be "folded up" by means of ropes and specially constructed +windlasses--their lateral water compartments having previously been +filled. Fig. 3 shows the duplex vessel after the "folding up" +operation just described; and Figs. 4 and 5 show the cross section of +two loaded semi-barges as outlined in Figs. 2 and 3. + +These Figs. 4 and 5 will also serve to illustrate the manner in which +sacks and loose produce should be loaded. Fig. 4 also shows the filled +water compartments, and the effect of their weight in making the boats +lean toward each other. + +The materials most suited for this new style of vessel will be iron +and steel such as generally used in the construction of canal and +river vessels. + +The new ship can be moved by any motor or driving implement, nor could +there technically a great difficulty be found for making the boilers +move on a quadrant-like rail base in the shape of a circle segment's +quarter, or for building a double screw steamer by combining two +single screw propellers. + +May be a ship owner is willing to submit the innovations to an +attempt, so much the more as there is running no great risk by doing +so; for in case the ships should not answer the expectations, both +separable as well as joinable, they can be used like single ships, +without any further alteration being made, except as to the loading +gaps. + +The above invention is covered by United States patent No. 435,107. +Any further information may be had by addressing M. v. Szabel, ix +Bezirk, Beethovengasse 10, Wien, Austria. + + * * * * * + + + + +WELDON'S RANGE FINDER. + + +Colonel Weldon has recently considerably modified and improved his +ingenious range finder, and we illustrate herewith from _Engineering_ +the form in which it is now manufactured. It consists of a metal box, +the lid of which is shown open in the engraving, and on this lid are +fitted three prisms which are the essential constituents of the +instrument. When the lid is closed, these, with the compass and level, +also attached to the lid, lie inside the metal box, and are thus +thoroughly protected. The upper prism marked 1 is a right-angled one +and is mounted with the right angle outward; looking into the +left-hand corner of this prism one will see in it, by double +reflection, objects lying on one's right hand. Below this is a second +prism with a principal angle of 88 deg. 51 min. 15 sec., and below +this a third with a principal angle of 74 deg. 53 min. 15 sec. + +A level and a compass are also mounted on the lid as shown. To use the +instrument the observer stands so that the object the range of which +is required lies on his right hand, and looking into the left-hand +corner of the upper prism views it there by double reflection from the +internal faces of the prism. At the same time looking through the +opening shown in the lid below the prism he selects some object, which +appears nearly in line with the image seen in the prism. He then +shifts his position till these two images coincide, in which case +lines joining him with the two objects will make right angles with +each other. In Fig. 2, O is the object whose range is required, D the +object seen by direct vision, and A the position of the observer. The +observer now marks his position on the ground, and shifting the +instrument looks into the left-hand corner of the second prism, when +he again sees the image of the object, whose range is required, by +double reflection, but lying now to the right of the object, D. He +then retires, keeping in line with A and D, till he reaches B, when +the two images again coincide; the lines joining them and the observer +now make an angle of 88 deg. 51 min. 15 sec. Then in the triangle, +OBA, OA = tan 88 deg. 51 min. 15 sec. X A B = 50 AB. The length AB is +easily paced, and the distance OA is 50 times this length. + +A longer base, and probably greater accuracy, can be obtained by using +the second prism only, as indicated in Fig. 3, in which case the +distance of the object is 25 times the distance BC. This second prism +is, however, best adapted for predicting the range of moving objects. +Three observers are required. Two of them have finders, while the +other measures the distance between the two. The first two observers +separate, and No. 2 takes a position such that the object is reflected +to one side of observer No. 1, whom he views by direct vision. As the +object continues to move, its image gets nearer and nearer No. 1, who +during the whole of the time moves a little to one side or the other, +so as to keep the image of the object constantly in line with No. 2. +Just as the image of the object gets very near No. 1, No. 2 calls out +"Ready," the distance between the two observers is taken by the third, +and when the image of the object actually falls on No. 1 its distance +is just 25 times the distance between them, and the guns set to this +range are fired by word of command from No. 2. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2. & FIG. 3.] + +By using the third prism in conjunction with the second a still longer +base of one-fourth the distance of the object can be employed. The +range finder can also be used as a depleidoscope for transit +observations. For this purpose it is mounted on a block of wood by +means of elastic band and leveled by the level on its lid, being at +the same time set in the meridian of the place. The lid is opened to +make an angle with the horizon equal to the latitude of the place of +observation. On looking into the upper prism two images of the sun +will be seen on each side of the apex of the prism, which gradually +approach each other as the sun nears the meridian, and finally +coincide as it passes it, the time of which being noted gives the +longitude of the place. + +Extensive trials of the instrument have been made both in this country +and in India, which agree in showing that the average error in using +the instrument is about 21/2 to 31/2 per cent. + + * * * * * + + + + +WHEELS LINKED WITH A BELL CRANK. + + +[Illustration: FIG. 1] + +There are four ways in which a connecting rod is made use of in +machine work. The first is in linking two wheels together that stand +in the same position, but a slight distance off centers. The rod in +this case has only to lead the driven wheel around by connecting it +with the driver, and consequently has only to endure a pulling strain +in the direction of its length. The second is when the rod is called +upon to stand a pull and a push at every revolution. The third takes +in the matter of the twisting strain that a rod can manage; but the +fourth brings the hardest usage that a connecting rod can be called +upon to endure, and that is by making a lever of the rod to get a +driving action by prying on a fulcrum in the center. In Fig. 1 is seen +a case of this kind taken from a machine in which a disk engine was +made use of. The rod has a chance to turn about on its center from a +ball and socket joint, and engages with both wheels in nicely fitted +journals, and boxes set in line with the center of the socket joint, +so that when one wheel turns, the rod pries the other around by using +the rod as a lever and the ball joint for a fulcrum, giving a uniform +leverage all the while, with no dead centers. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.] + +To set this arrangement around at right angles, or where the shafts +will bring the wheels together, as for bevel gears, a bent lever arm +would need to be used, as shown in Fig. 2, but the bend in the +connecting arms brings in another feature that must be provided, as it +allows the wheels to turn either with or against each other, and +leaves two places where the bent arms will come to a dead center. What +is needed here is another element that will take all the twisting +strain on the rod and keep the pitch of both arms alike in every +portion of a revolution. To do this the ball and socket joint will +need to be replaced by a gambrel joint like a ship's compass, and +arranging the bent driving arms as shown in Fig. 3; then the driving +end of the connecting frame will move about in a true circle, +producing as great a tendency to turn the driving wheel in one +position as another. In this arrangement there must be at least six +nicely fitted journals and their bearings, four of which will be +required to take care of the forked connecting rod that joins the +wheels together. Besides all this the bearings must all line up with +the same center that the shafts are centered from or there will be a +"pinch" somewhere in the system. It may seem at first that there must +be more or less end-on movement provided for, and that the bearings +should be spherical; but that it is not the case will be noticed when +all the points are understood to be working from one center similar to +that provided for in bevel gears.--_Boston Journal of Commerce._ + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.] + + * * * * * + + + + +THE DECORATIVE TREATMENT OF NATURAL FOLIAGE.[1] + + [Footnote 1: Lectures before the Society of Arts, London, 1891.] + +By HUGH STANNUS. + + +_Lecture I._ + + +Sec. 1.--THE ELEMENTS OF DECORATION. + +The chief impelling Motives which have caused that treatment of +objects which is now termed _Decorative_, have been: + + (a) That necessitated by the Usage, which is FUNCTIONAL; + + (b) That resulting from the Instinct to please the eye, which + is AESTHETIC; + + (c) That arising from the Desire to record or to teach, which + is the DIDACTIC motive; + +The AESTHETIC instinct of the early peoples was gratified by: + + (a) The _forms_ of their weapons or tools; + + (b) The _patterns_ with which they are decorated; + + (c) The _imitation_ of the surrounding animals, e.g. the Deer + scratched on the horn at the British Museum. + + +Imitation was afterward applied to the vegetable creation; and much of +what is termed Ornament was derived from that class of elements. + +The ELEMENTS OF DECORATION are the material used by the Artist. They +might be considered to include everything that is visible; but since +Decoration is a result of the aesthetic instinct, the field is narrowed +to such as are pleasing _at the first glance_. And the selection is +further limited to such as are suitable to the shape and size of +objects. + +They may be classified according to their relative Dignity, as +follows: + + The Human form, + Animal forms, + Natural foliage, + Artificial objects, + Artificial foliage, and + Geometrical figures. + + +Sec. 2.--THE TWO KINDS OF FOLIAGE. + +A Distinction is made between natural and artificial foliage. They +have much in common; and consequently many have supposed that our +Western artificial foliage is merely a very-much-conventionalized +version of natural foliage. The supposition is correct with regard to +Eastern Pattern work, but not in Western Architectural ornamentation. + +A simple generalization may make this clear. The ordinary stock +foliage of the Ornamentist was evolved in connection with: + + (In the West) (In the East) + ARCHITECTURE, TEXTILES, + as in Greece. as in Persia. + +Hence the primary Elements of decoration were derived from: + + (In the West) (In the East) + GEOMETRICAL LINES, NATURAL FLOWERS and LEAVES, + e.g. the meander, spiral, etc. e.g. the pine, pomegranate, etc. + +Further, it may be observed that the Method of treating these Elements +has been different: + + (In the West) (In the East) + The Geometrical lines The natural foliage was + were enriched by the introduction codified by the introduction + of the details of of Geometrical arrangement; + Natural vegetation; thus thus becoming + becoming gradually more gradually more + _naturalesque_. _artificial_. + +An APPROXIMATION between the two treatments, sometimes appears; but +the two kinds--Artificial, and Natural--are essentially different in +origin; and should be kept distinct in their application. + +This approximation may be shown, in a tabular arrangement, thus: + + +GEOMETRY...........................................................NATURE + +The patterns are merely The plants are copied as + straight lines, dots, and accurately as possible. + portions of circles. + + The lines become stems. The plant is applied + without repetition. + + Leaves are added to the Repetition is used with the + stems. plants. + + Serration is added to the Weaving economy induces + leaf-edge. symmetry. + + Similarity of serrated Symmetry induces Geometrical + leaf-edge to the Akanthos Severity, and the Omission + plant, is observed; of all details of the + Imitation becomes more original plant which are not + direct; and this artificial easily worked in connection + foliage becomes termed with geometrical + "Acanthus." arrangement. + + Flowers generally circular The Flowers and Leaves + in mass-shape, are added (_only_) survive; the growth + at the ends of the spiral of the stems is forgotten; + stems. and tradition does the rest. + + + +Sec. 3.--APPLICATION OF THE TWO KINDS. + +Each of these two kinds of foliage has its own proper use. Artificial +foliage is appropriate to the enrichment of Architecture; and Natural +foliage to those objects which are not architectural, but are termed +"movables," including under this term, Furniture, and more especially +Hangings and other applications of the Textile art. + +This may be seen on comparing the two columns below, of which the L.H. +one refers to Architecture, and the R.H. one to Natural foliage. + + (Architecture) (Natural foliage) + RULES: + Governed by severe Exhibits _apparent_ playful + rules of Repetition, Freedom. There _are_ + Axiality, Symmetry, etc., underlying Rules, which + which are apparent to are detected by the scientific + the passer-by. Hence Botanist; but these + Artificial foliage, being are not seen by the casual + regular in its structure, observer. + is more appropriate than + the (apparently) irregular + growth of Natural + foliage. + CHARACTERISTICS: + Rigidity and Stability. Elasticity and Tremulousness + in every breeze. + + LINES OF COMPOSITION: + Geometrical lines. In determinate curves, + The geometrical lines which are very subtile, + and spirals of Artificial and varied, and therefore + foliage demand an unmoving suitable to a hanging and + surface for proper view. swaying material. + + The curves of Nature + They would generally be spoiled are not spoiled when on a + if not on a plane surface. folded material. + + DISTRIBUTION: + Symmetrical. The Balanced. The growth + symmetry of artificial of natural foliage is generally + foliage is appropriate to symmetrical; but + that of Architecture. this is not apparent. + + BEAUTY: + Depends on _form_, with More appropriate to objects + color as a secondary adjunct. which depend on _color_ for + their principal charm. + +There have been waves of the desire to introduce Natural foliage into +Architecture (e.g. in the "Decorated period" of Gothic architecture); +but the Artificial elements have always proved too strong, and the two +have never mixed. In Architecture, everything has three dimensions; +and the artificial foliage is carved with leaves, etc., of a suitable +thickness: in Natural foliage the tenuity of leaves, etc., is such +that it cannot be reproduced. Even in the architraves round the +glorious doors of Florence the natural foliage is not always a +success; and where Ghiberti has stopped short in the ductile bronze, +it is not probable that the modern carver will succeed in stone. It +may therefore be suggested that the close imitation of Natural foliage +should be confined to objects of _two_ dimensions, i.e., to plane +surfaces and figured materials. + +This selection of the Elements of Decoration, according to their +association, is analogous to the selection made use of by the Poet, +from the words and ideas, which are his Materials. It will be observed +that, as on a Classic or Heroic subject, the choice is of learned +words and classical ideas, and on a Domestic or Pastoral one, simple +words and homely similes are used--so, in conjunction with the severe +forms of Architecture, the formal character of artificial foliage is +suitable; and for decorating Textiles and other movable Accessories, +the Natural foliage, with which the earth is clothed and beautified, +is appropriate. + +ENRICHMENT OF SURFACE may be beautiful for one reason; IMITATION OF +NATURE is beautiful for another. When imitations of natural foliage +are introduced decoratively on a surface, then may it be twice +beautiful--first, in the _principles_ according to which the +distribution is arranged; and secondly, because of the _elements_ +which are worked in being beautiful in themselves. Geometrical +elements might be so used as to serve the first end, but can never +fulfill the second: Storiation fulfills the second; but its increase +of interest absorbs the first. + +This course of Lectures is intended to treat of Natural foliage, +leaving Artificial foliage to be dealt with at another opportunity. It +is not Historical. The History of the Decorative treatment of Natural +foliage, showing its evolution in the past, is a large and interesting +theme; but, unless this were accompanied by critical remarks based on +given principles, the method might be barren of results. Tradition is +not to be undervalued; but the student should be led to Tradition +through Principles. + +It is further intended more especially to apply to the aesthetic use. +When natural foliage is used AEsthetically (i.e., decoratively), then +the Shape of the surface should govern the Mass shape of the foliage, +and there should be Parallelism between them (see Sec. 29). When used +Didactically (i.e., symbolically), then the foliage may be treated +more freely. + + +Sec. 4.--THE FOUR TREATMENTS. + +There are, broadly speaking, four methods of treating Natural foliage. +These may be arranged in a Chart, according to their relation to the +two poles of Art and Science; from Realism (which is all Art and no +Science) to the "Botanical Analysis" method (in which is a little +Science but no Art), thus: + +The first two of these methods are Artistic and legitimate: the others +are inartistic and misleading. Before treating of the artistic methods +it will be well to clear the ground by dismissing the others. + + ART POLE..........................................SCIENCE POLE + + Realism | Conventionalism | Disguised | Botanical + (See Sec. 10). | (See Sec. 14). | Artificialism | Analysis + | | (See Sec. 6). | (See Sec. 5). + + +Sec. 5.--THE BOTANICAL ANALYSIS TREATMENT. + +In this method the student was taught (i) to draw each plant with the +Stem _straightened out_, the Leaves _flattened out_, and the Flowers +represented as in _side elevation_ or _plan_. (ii) The Flowers were +further _pulled in pieces_, and the Petals were _flattened out_ in a +manner similar to the Entomologists' practice of displaying their +"specimens" scientifically. Often, also (iii) the Stems and Buds were +_cut through_; and "patterns" were made with the Sections. + +With regard to the first of these practices (i): it should be observed +that much of the beauty of appearance of natural foliage results from +the variety of view, the subtile curvature, and the foreshortening, as +seen in perspective; and that to sacrifice all these for the sake of a +_diagram_ would be a wasted opportunity. + +With regard to the other practices (ii) and (iii): it is obvious that +these statements of the facts of the plant are useful as a part of the +Science of Botany; but can no more be considered as making Decoration +than Anatomical diagrams can be looked upon as Pictures. Some +knowledge of external Botany is useful to a Pattern artist as some +knowledge of external Anatomy is useful to the Pictorial artist. In +each of these cases, the Science, which discovers and records facts, +is subservient to its sister, Art, which uses the facts to interpret +appearances; and, when scientific diagrams are put forth as Art, the +Science is in its wrong place: it has then been treated as if it were +the Building instead of being only the Scaffolding; and the results of +such attempts cannot be considered as complete or final. + +Examples of this method are given in Figs. 1 and 2. It was officially +encouraged about twenty-five years ago; and books like "Plants, their +Natural Growth and Ornamental Treatment," and "Suggestions in Floral +Design," both by F. Edward Hulme, F.L.S., etc., show it at its best. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.] + +In criticising this method, there is no desire to cast any slight upon +those who were responsible for it. They were groping in the dark, and +did the best they knew, according to their lights. But Japanese work +was not known at that time, and, but for that, the Pattern artist of +to-day might still be occupied in pinning leaves and flowers against +the wall. It was, moreover, a protest against the Cabbage Rose on the +Hearth rug, that some may still remember with shuddering. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.] + + +Sec. 6.--THE DISGUISED ARTIFICIALITY TREATMENT. + +In this method the student was taught to sketch out what he considered +to be good Curves and Spirals; and then (i) to bend the selected plant +so that its stem might coincide with them, regardless of its own +proper natural growth; or (ii) to deck out the first drawn spirals +with the leaves and flowers of the selected plant. + +With regard to the first of these practices: it is much more foolish +than the Analysis method; and is little short of blasphemy against the +Great Designer. He has determined how each plant shall grow: how, +within limits of cultivation, its stems and branches shall separate, +each to seek its own share of air and sunshine; how its leaves shall +stand erect or droop, each according to its function; and always in +perfect beauty. And further: how each family of plants shall have its +own method of branching; which is as much a part of its character and +often of its beauty as are the Flowers and Leaves. + +The second practice, which generally produces a result similar to the +first, is quite as unthinking. It is more often practiced; and is +responsible for many of the labored and uninteresting designs which +are common. If the Pattern-artist deck-out the old worn-out and common +place spirals with leaves and flowers borrowed from Nature--the result +is like the "voice of Jacob and the hands of Esau;" it is merely a +Disguise of Artificiality. + +An example of this method is given in Fig. 3. It was generally +practiced in Germany; and books like "Das Vegetabile Ornamente," by K. +Krumbholz, show it at its best. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.] + +If this treatment were universally followed--there would soon be an +end to design with natural foliage. The spectator might observe one +border which appeared to be a Rose, another a Tulip, the third a +Thistle, and the fourth a Fuchsia; and, on examination, discover that +these were not Rose, Tulip, Thistle, and Fuchsia; but merely that very +artificial old friend--the Spiral-scroll--_in disguise_. + +An apologist for this method remarks:--" ... In such matters as the +ramification of plants, ... nature is always making angles and elbows +[_sic_] which we are obliged, in decorative treatment, to change into +curves for our purpose;...". This opinion needs only to be applied to +animals in order to exhibit its absurdity; and with regard to plants, +it will be seen that this tampering has not even the poor merit of +success. + + +Sec. 7.--NOTE ON SYMMETRY. + +A desire for Symmetry often accompanies these two treatments. This is +a quality to be avoided whenever possible in Natural foliage design. +The so-called "Turn-over patterns" are an economy in Weaving-design, +but the economy is of the wrong kind. An artist should spend his +thought to spare material or cost in working. When he spares his +_thought_--making the least amount of thought cover the greatest +amount of surface--then is his work worth to the world just what it +has cost him, i.e., very little. + +So injurious is the influence of Symmetry in Natural foliage design, +that it might almost be a test question--"Is the design symmetrical?" +When the exigencies of Machine-reproduction necessitate this with +Natural foliage--it is a hardship which the Artist regretfully accepts, +and no one would willingly make a design for Hand-reproduction which +was symmetrical; rather would he spend himself to insure the worthier +result which ensues from Balance. + +An example of Symmetry is given in Fig. 4; and of Balance in Fig. 5. +Each panel contains two classes of Elements:--Natural foliage (i.e., +two branches of the Bay tree), and an Artificial object (i.e., a +Ribbon which ties them). The lower Element (i.e., the Ribbon) is +treated symmetrically in both panels: the higher Element (i.e., the +Branches) are _symmetrical_ in the former panel, and _balanced_ in the +latter. This latter treatment, will be seen to be not only the more +interesting, but the more like the infinite variety of Nature; while +the former is a wasted opportunity, and contrary to Nature. + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.] + +The Student will observe by experience that the mind soon tires of +Artificiality, both in Curvature and in Symmetry; the lines of Nature +have a pleasant freshness and inexhaustible variety; and the _Natural_ +method of treating Nature is not only the most true, but also the most +beautiful. + +[Illustration: FIG. 5.] + + +Sec. 8.--REALISM AND CONVENTIONALISM: DEFINITIONS. + +REALISM--the result of _Realistic_ treatment, i.e., the attempt to +render the reproduction as like the reality as is possible, even to +the verge of deception--is the aim of the Pictorial-Artist. In +Pictures the surface appears to have been annihilated, and the +spectator beholds the scene as if there were a hole through the wall. +It is not the highest, and should not be the only aim in Art; but it +has always been sought for and admired. It requires perfect +conditions, of materials and tools; i.e., _complete Technical +appliances_. + +CONVENTIONALISM--the result of _incomplete Technical appliances_, and +the attempt to render so much of the Beauty of the original as is +possible, with due regard to their capabilities--is the aim of the +Decorative-Artist. It is not the highest aim; though a necessary curb +in Decorative-Art, both for the technical reason, and also as a result +of the Position or Function of the object. + +It will thus be seen that the two words, when used with regard to +foliage of any kind, refer to the _Method of representing it_, and not +to its Kind or its manner of Growth. + + +Sec. 9.--SCALES FROM REALISM TO CONVENTIONALISM. + +These two methods, when applied absolutely, form the two +extremes:--The most complete REALISM being at one end, and the most +limited CONVENTIONALISM at the other. There are scales of gradual +reduction between them, which may be shown on two charts: + +(i) Reduction in the NUMBER OF PARTS which preserve their Realistic +rendering. + +(ii) Reduction in the DEGREE OF REALISM through all parts. + +(i) According to the number of the features or parts of the design +which are treated with less than realism. Thus there might be a panel +representing a Window-opening with an architectural framing, with a +Flower-vase on the sill, and a Landscape-background. The first part to +be reduced in realistic rendering would be the Background, the second +would be the Framing, leaving the third, the Flower-vase, as the +survival. This is a Scale of reduction in _Number of Parts_. + +It may be shown, in tabular arrangement, thus:-- + + REALISM............................................CONVENTIONALISM. + + + COMPLETE PICTORIAL REALISM, in which all parts are realistically + represented (see Sec. 10). + + SEMI-PICTORIAL REALISM, in which the Back-ground is reduced to + a flat-tint, while all the remaining parts are realistically + represented (see Sec. 11). + + DECORATIVE REALISM, in which the chief Feature (_only_) + is realistically represented, and all the other parts are + reduced to conventional renderings (see Sec. 12). + + COMPLETE CONVENTIONALISM, in which all parts are reduced to + conventional renderings (see Conventionalism). + +Inasmuch as there is some realistic part remaining in each of the +first three methods--these are classified under the heading of +REALISM. + +(ii) According to the Degree in which color, gradation, or shading, is +sacrificed, in consequence of the limited Means at the disposal of the +Artist; resulting in the gradual departure from Realism to the most +severe Conventionalism. The reduction is applied to all parts of the +work. This is a scale of reduction in _Degree_. There are two +Varieties in each degree; and they are marked with italic letters. + +It may be shown, in tabular arrangement, thus:-- + + REALISM.............................................CONVENTIONALISM. + + COMPLETE REALISM, in which all parts are represented, in + proper colors, and perfect gradation, with correct light and + shade (see Sec. 10). + + FIRST DEGREE OF CONVENTIONALISM, in which all parts are + represented: (a) By a reduced number of Pigments, the other + qualities remaining; (b) By reduction in gradation and + shading to Flat-tints of several pigments (see Sec. 15). + + SECOND DEGREE OF CONVENTIONALISM, in which all parts are + represented: (c) By a reduction to Monochrome of color, with + Gradation (_only_) remaining; (d) By reduction to Monochrome + of White and Black, with Gradation (_only_) remaining (see Sec. + 16). + + THIRD DEGREE OF CONVENTIONALISM, in which all parts are + represented: (e) By reduction to a Flat-tint of one pigment + on a ground of another; (f) By reduction to a Flat-tint of + White on Black, or _vice versa_ (see Sec. 17). + + ULTIMATE CONVENTIONALISM, in which all parts are + represented; (g) By reduction to Outline of several + pigments; (h) Reduction to Outline of one pigment (see Sec.18). + + +Inasmuch as Realism ceases so soon as any reduction in the three +qualities (of color, gradation, and shadow) is introduced; and the +treatment becomes more Conventional in each method after the +first--these are classified under the heading of CONVENTIONALISM. + +[There is an analogous scale of reduction in Form, from the +Complete-relief of an isolated Statue to the Flatness of a +Floor-plate; but this does not belong to the present subject.] + + + * * * * * + + + + +THE CYCLOSTAT. + + +The various processes commonly employed for the observation of bodies +in motion (intermittent light or vision) greatly fatigue the observer, +and, as a general thing, give only images, that are difficult to +examine. We are going to show how Prof. Marc Thury, upon making +researches in a new direction, has succeeded in constructing an +apparatus that permits of the continuous observation of a body having +a rapid rotary motion. The principle of the method is of extreme +simplicity. + +[Illustration: FIGS. 1, 2, AND 3.--DIAGRAMS EXPLANATORY OF THE +PRINCIPLE OF THE CYCLOSTAT.] + +Let us consider (Fig. 1) a mirror, A B, reflecting an object, C D, and +revolving around it: when the mirror will have made a half revolution, +the image, C' D', of the object will have made an entire one. The +figure represents three successive positions of the mirror, distant by +an eighth of a revolution. The structure of the image shows that it +has made a quarter revolution in an opposite direction in each of its +positions. But if (Fig. 2) the body itself has revolved in the same +direction with an angular velocity double that of the mirror, its +image will have described a circle in remaining constantly parallel +with itself. The image will be just as insensible as the object +itself; but it is very easy to bring it back to a state of rest. + +Let us suppose (Fig. 3a) the observer placed at O, the revolving +object at T, the axis of rotation being this time the line O F. Let us +place a mirror at A B and cause it to revolve around the same axis; +but, instead of looking at the image directly in the mirror, let us +receive it, before and after its reflection upon A B, upon two +mirrors, C D and D E, inclined 30 deg. upon the axis of rotation of the +system; the image, instead of being observed directly in the mirror, A +B, will always be seen in the axis, O F, and will consequently appear +immovable. + +The same result may be obtained (Fig. 3b) with a rectangular isosceles +prism whose face, A B, serves as a mirror, while the faces, A C and B +D, break the ray--the first deflecting it from the axis to throw it on +the mirror, and the second throwing it back to the axis of rotation, +which is at the same time the line of direction of the sight. + +The principle of the instrument, then, consists in causing the +revolution, around the axis of rotation of the object to be observed, +of a mirror parallel with such axis, and in observing it in the axis +itself after sending the image to it by two reflections or two +refractions. In reality, the entire instrument is contained in the +small prism above, properly mounted upon a wheel that may be revolved +at will; and, in this form, it may serve, for example, to determine +the rotary velocity of an inaccessible axis. For this it will suffice +to modify its velocity until the axis appears to be at rest, and to +apply the revolution counter to the wheel upon which the prism is +mounted, or to another wheel controlling the mechanism. + +But Mr. Thury has constructed a completer apparatus, the _cyclostat_ +(Fig. 4), which, opposite the prism, has a second plate whose +actuating wheel is mounted upon the same axis as the first, the +gearing being so calculated that the prism shall revolve with twice +less velocity than the second plate. This latter, observed through the +prism, will be always seen at rest, and be able to serve as a support +for the object that it is desired to examine. + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.--THE CYCLOSTAT. + +1. General view of the apparatus. +2. Section of the ocular, O.] + +The applications are multitudinous. In the first place, in certain +difficult cases, it may serve for the observation of a swinging +thermometer, which is then read during its motion. Then it may be +employed for the continuous observation of a body submitted to +centrifugal force. Apropos of this, we desire to add a few words. Most +of the forces at our disposal, applied to a body, are transmitted from +molecule to molecule, and produce tension, crushing, etc. Gravity and +magnetic attraction form an exception; their point of application is +found in all the molecules of the body, and they produce pressures and +slidings of a peculiar kind. But these forces are of a very limited +magnitude; but it might nevertheless be of great interest to amplify +them in a strong measure. Let us, for example, suppose that a magician +has found a means of increasing the intensity of gravity tenfold in +his laboratory. All the conditions of life would be modified to the +extent of being unrecognizable. A living being borne in this space +would remain small and squat. All objects would be stocky and be +spread out in width or else be shattered. Viscid or semi-solid bodies, +such as pitch, would rapidly spread out and take on a surface as +plane and smooth as water under the conditions of gravity upon the +earth. On still further increasing the gravity, we would see the soft +metals behaving in the same way, and lead, copper and silver would in +turn flow away. These metals, in fact, are perfectly moulded under a +strong pressure, just like liquids, through the simple effect of the +attraction of the earth applied to all their molecules. Upon causing +an adequate attractive force to act upon the molecules of metals they +will be placed under conditions analogous to those to which they are +submitted in strong presses or in the mills that serve for coining +money. The sole difference consists in the fact that the action of +gravity is infinitely more regular, and purer, from a physical +standpoint, than that of the press or coining mill. Through very +simple considerations, we thus reach the principle which was +enunciated, we believe, by the illustrious Stokes, that our idea of +solid and liquid bodies is a necessary consequence of the intensity of +gravity upon the earth. Upon a larger or smaller planet, a certain +number of solid bodies would pass to a liquid state, or inversely. Let +us return to the cyclostat. In default of gravity, centrifugal force +gives us a means of realizing certain conditions that we would find in +the laboratory of our magician. The cyclostat permits us to observe +what is going on in that laboratory without submitting ourselves to +forces that might cause us great annoyance. We have hitherto been +content to put poor frogs therein and study upon them the effect of +the central anaemia and peripheral congestion produced on their +organism by the unrestrained motion of the liquids carried along by +centrifugal force. The results, it seems, have proved very +curious.--_La Nature_. + + * * * * * + + + + +MERCURY WEIGHING MACHINE. + + +We illustrate herewith a novel type of weighing machine. Hitherto the +weighing machines in common use have either been designed with some +kind of steelyard apparatus, upon which weights could be moved to +different distances from a fixed fulcrum, or springs have been so +applied as to be compressed to different degrees by different weights +put upon the scale pan, or table, of the machine. In other instances +more complicated mechanism is used, and various movable counterpoises +are usually required in order to balance the moving parts of the +machine. + +[Illustration] + +The type of machine which we now illustrate has been recently brought +out by Mr. G.E. Rutter, and the system has given very satisfactory +results with platform weighing machines. The engraving illustrates a +form of balance which may be applied to strength testing machines, or +for any work where an apparatus of the type of a Salter's balance +would be of use. It is simple in construction, and consists of a tube +A closed at the bottom and forming a reservoir for mercury. The body +which it is required to weigh is hung upon the hook B carried by the +crossbar C, which is connected by rigid rods to the upper part of the +tube, and by means of the internal rods D is attached to the cross +head E, which works freely inside the tube A. The top part of the tube +is, as will be clearly understood from the illustration, cut away to +allow of the descent of the rods. To the cross head E is attached the +piston F, which may be made of wood or of a hollow metal tube closed +at the end, or other suitable material. It will be easily understood +that when a weight is hung upon the hook B, the piston F is caused to +descend into the mercury which rises in the annular space between the +piston and the tube. The weight of the volume of displaced mercury is +proportional to the weight of the body hung upon the hook, and the +buoyancy of the piston in the mercury forms the upward force which +balances the downward pull of gravity. When the apparatus is at rest +the piston F descends into the mercury to such a distance as will +balance the weight of the rods, hook, and piston itself. If, now, the +cross bar G, provided with a pointer H, be fixed to the rods, it +should at that time register zero, upon the scale J fixed to the +outside of the tube, and as the descent of the piston into the mercury +is directly proportional to the weight of the body attached to the +hook B, the divisions of the scale will all be equal. It will thus be +seen that the apparatus is extremely simple in theory, and it only +remains to construct it in such a form that the mercury may not easily +be spilt in moving the instrument from place to place. This is +effected by causing the cross head E to fill the tube while working +freely therein, and a small valve is arranged to allow for the passage +of air. The cross bar G can be regulated upon the rods by means of set +screws.--_Industries._ + + * * * * * + + + + +REEFING SAILS FROM THE DECK. + + +While this method may be applied to topsails and top-gallant-sails, I +especially apply it to courses, which, being so difficult to reef the +old way, may by this method be reefed from the deck in a few minutes. + +After several years of trial by myself and others, on voyages around +Cape Horn under all circumstances of weather, of sleet and snow, this +method has always given the utmost satisfaction. + +[Illustration: REEFING SAILS FROM THE DECK. Front View. Rear View.] + +The average time required for reefing and setting was noted for five +years, being seven and one-half minutes. + +This trial was made on a mainsail, the yard being seventy-one feet +long, and reefyard sixty-six feet long, eleven inches diameter at +center and nine at yard-arms. + +By reference to the drawing it will be seen that it is not necessary +to have clewgarnets or buntlines in reefing. The operation is +performed by easing of the sheet and hauling the lee reef-tackle +first, also the midship reef tackle. + +When the yardarm of the reefspar is up at the lee side, the sail +cannot sag to leeward when the tack is eased away. Now haul the +weather reef-tackle likewise midship, snug up to the yard, belay all +down the tack, and sheet aft. + +As all the reef-tackles lead to the slings of the yard, there is no +impediment in swinging the yard when the reef-tackles are taut and +belayed. + +The slack sail will not chafe, as it remains quiet, but if so desired +may be stopped up at leisure with only a few hands with stops provided +for that purpose. + +In case of a sudden squall the sail may be hauled up the usual way. +The buntlines will draw the part of the sail below the reef well up on +the part above the reefyard, and remain becalmed, while the weight of +the reefspar will prevent any slatting or danger of losing the sail +any more than any other sail clewed up. + +In case there is steam power at hand, all three reef-tackles may be +hauled simultaneously, easing sheet and tack sufficiently to let the +wind out of the sail without shaking. + +There are other advantages gained by this method; while its +essentials are positive, quick reefing from the deck in all weathers, +it is also better reefed than by the old method. For by this new +method the sail is not strained or torn, and the sail will wear +longer, not being subject to such straining. + +It may be carried longer, as the spar supports the sail like a band, +especially an old sail. + +This method does not interfere with the use of the so called +midship-tack, but change of putting on bands, from the leech of the +sail at the reef to the center tack would be necessary. + +The weight of the spar may be considered by some as objectionable, (an +old argument against double-topsail yards). The spar used for the reef +may be about one-half the diameter of the yard on which it is to be +used. + +Such critics do not consider that a crew of men aloft on the yard are +several times heavier than such a spar. + +L.K. MORSE. + +Rockport, Me., Oct. 28, 1891. + + * * * * * + + + + +A NEW PROCESS FOR THE BLEACHING OF JUTE. + +By Messrs. LEYKAM and TOSEFOTHAL. + + +Jute is well known as a very cheap fiber, and its employment in +textile industry is consequently both extensive and always increasing. +Accompanying this increase is a corresponding one in the amount of old +waste jute, which can be employed for the manufacture of paper. + +Up to the present time, only very little use has been made of jute for +the manufacture of thread and the finer fabrics, because the +difficulty of bleaching the fiber satisfactorily has proved a very +serious hindrance to its improvement by chemical means. All the +methods hitherto proposed for bleaching jute are so costly that they +can scarcely be made to pay; and, moreover, in many cases, the jute is +scarcely bleached, and loses considerably in firmness and weight, +owing to the large quantities of bleaching agents which have to be +applied. + +In consequence of this difficulty, the enormous quantities of jute +scraps, which are always available, are utilized in paper making +almost entirely for the production of ordinary wrapping paper, which +is, at the best, of medium quality. In the well known work of Hoffmann +and Muller, the authors refer to the great difficulty of bleaching +jute, and therefore recommend that it be not used for making white +papers. + +Messrs. Leykam and Tosefothal have succeeded in bleaching it, and +rendering the fiber perfectly white, by a new process, simple and +cheap (which we describe below), so that their method can be very +advantageously employed in the paper industry. + +The jute fiber only loses very little of its original firmness and +weight; but, on the other hand, gains largely in pliability and +elasticity, so that the paper made from it is of great strength, and +not only resists tearing, but especially crumpling and breaking. + +The jute may be submitted to the process in any form whatever, either +crude, in scraps, or as thread or tissue. + +The material to be bleached is first treated with gaseous chlorine or +chlorine water, in order to attack the jute pigment, which is very +difficult to bleach, until it takes an orange shade. After having +removed the acids, etc., formed by this treatment, the jute is placed +in a weak alkaline bath, cold or hot, of caustic soda, caustic potash, +caustic ammonia, quicklime, sodium or potassium carbonate, etc., or a +mixture of several of these substances, which converts the greatest +part of the jute pigment, already altered by the chlorine, into a form +easily soluble in water, so that the pigment can be readily removed by +a washing with water. After this washing the jute can be bleached as +easily as any other vegetable fiber in the ordinary manner, by means +of bleaching powder, etc., and an excellent fibrous material is +obtained, which can be made use of with advantage in the textile and +paper industries. + +The application of the process may be illustrated by an example: + +One hundred kilos. of waste jute scraps are first of all treated in +the manner usually employed in the paper industry; 15 per cent. of +quicklime is added, and they are treated for 10 hours at a pressure of +11/2 atmospheres. The scraps are then freed from water by means of a +hydro-extractor, or a press, and finally saturated with chlorine in a +gas chamber for 24 hours or less, according to the requirements of the +case. Every 100 kilos. of jute requires 75 kilos. of hydrochloric acid +(20 deg. B.) and 20 kilos. of manganese peroxide (78-80 per cent.). + +The jute then takes an orange color, and is subsequently washed in a +tank, a kilo. of caustic soda being added per 100 kilos. of jute; this +amount of alkali is sufficient to dissolve the pigment, which colors +the water flowing from the washer a deep brown. After washing, the +jute can be completely bleached by the use of 5-7 kilos. of bleaching +powder per 100 kilos. of jute.--_Mon. de la Teinture_. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE INDEPENDENT--STORAGE OR PRIMARY BATTERY--SYSTEM OF ELECTRIC MOTIVE +POWER.[1] + + [Footnote 1: Abstract of a paper read before the American Streel + Railway Association, Oct. 23, 1891.] + +By KNIGHT NEFTEL. + + +Owing to a variety of causes, the system which was assigned to me at +the last convention to report on has made less material progress in a +commercial way than its competitors. + + +PRIMARY BATTERIES. + +So far, primary batteries have been applied only to the operation of +the smallest stationary motors. Their application in the near future +to traction may, I think, be entirely disregarded. Were it not a +purely technical matter, it might be easily demonstrated, with our +knowledge of electro-chemistry, that such an arrangement as an +electric primary battery driving a car is an impossibility. + +In view of the claims of certain inventors, I regret to be obliged to +make so absolute a statement; but the results so far have produced +nothing of value. + + +SECONDARY BATTERIES. + +The application of secondary or storage batteries to electrical +traction has been accomplished in a number of cities, with a varying +amount of success. Roads equipped by batteries have now been +sufficiently long in operation to allow us to draw some conclusions as +to the practical results obtained and what is possible in the near +future. The advantages which have been demonstrated on Madison Avenue, +in New York; Dubuque, Iowa; Washington, D.C., and elsewhere, may be +summarized as follows: + +_First_. The independent feature of the system. The cars independent +of each other, and free from drawbacks of broken trolley wires; +temporary stoppages at the power station; the grounding of one motor +affecting other motors, and sudden and severe strains upon the +machinery at the power station, such as frequently occur in direct +systems; the absence of all street structures and repairs to the same, +and the loss by grounds and leakages, are also very considerable +advantages, both as to economy and satisfactory operation. + +_Second_. The comparatively small space required for the power +station. Each car being provided with two or more sets of batteries, +the same can be charged at a uniform rate without undue strain on the +machinery of the power station, and as it can be done more rapidly +than the discharge required for the operation of the motors, a less +amount of general machinery is necessary for a given amount of work. + +Another and important advantage of the system is the low pressure of +the current used to supply the motors, and the consequent increased +durability of the motor, and practically absolute safety to life from +electrical shock. + +It has been demonstrated also that the cars can be easily handled in +the street; run at any desired speed, and reversed with far more +safety to the armature of the motor than in the direct system. The +increased weight requires simply more brake leverage. + +The modern battery, improved in many of its details during the last +year, is still an unknown quantity as to durability. There is the same +doubt concerning this as there was at the time incandescent lamps were +first introduced. At that time some phenomenal records were made by +lamps grouped with other lamps. + +Similarly, some plates appeared to be almost indestructible, while +others, made practically in the same manner, deteriorate within a very +short time. It is, consequently, very difficult to exactly and fairly +place a limit on the life of the positive plates as yet. Speaking +simply from observation of a large number of plates of various kinds, +I am inclined to put the limit at about eight months; though it is +claimed by some of the more prominent manufacturers--and undoubtedly +it is true in special cases--that entire elements have lasted ten +months, and even longer. + +It must be remembered, however, that the jolting and handling to which +these batteries are subjected, in traction work, increases the +tendency to disintegrate, buckle and short circuit, and that the +record for durability for this application can never be the same as +for stationary work. A serious inconvenience to the use of batteries +in traction work is the necessary presence of the liquid in the jars. +This causes the whole equipment to be somewhat cumbersome, and unless +arranged with great care, and with a variety of devices lately +designed, a source of considerable annoyance. + +The connections between the plates, which formerly gave so much +trouble by breaking off, have been perfected so as to prevent this +difficulty, and the shape of the jars has been designed to prevent the +spilling of the acid while the car is running. The car seats are now +practically hermetically sealed, so that the escaping gases are not +offensive to the passengers. + +The handling of the batteries is an exceedingly important +consideration. Many devices have been invented to render this easy and +cheap. I have witnessed the changing of batteries in a car, one set +being taken out and a charged set replaced by four men in the short +space of three minutes. This is accomplished by electrical elevators, +which move the batteries opposite the car, and upon the platforms of +which the discharged elements are again charged. + +The general conclusions which the year's experience and progress have +afforded us an opportunity to make may be summarized as follows: + +Storage battery cars are as yet applicable only to those roads which +are practically level; where the direct system cannot be used, and +where cable traction cannot be used; and applicable to those roads +only at about the same cost as horse traction. + +I feel justified in making this statement in view of the guarantees +which some of the more prominent manufacturers of batteries are +willing to enter into, and which practically insure the customer +against loss due to the deterioration of plates: leaving the question +of the responsibility of the company the only one for him to look +into. + + * * * * * + + + + +ON THE ELIMINATION OF SULPHUR FROM PIG IRON.[1] + + [Footnote 1: Paper read before the Iron and Steel Institute.] + +By J. MASSENEZ, Hoerde. + + +If in the acid and the basic Bessemer processes the molten pig iron is +taken direct to the converter from the blast furnace, there is the +disadvantage that the running of the individual blast furnaces can +hardly ever be kept so uniform as it is desirable should be the case +in order to secure regularity in the converter charges. In the +manufacture of Bessemer steel the variable proportions of silicon and +of carbon here come chiefly under consideration, while in the basic +process it is chiefly the varying proportions of silicon and of +sulphur; and in cases where either ores containing variable +percentages of phosphorus, or puddle slags, are treated, the varying +proportion of phosphorus has also to be considered. This disadvantage +of the irregular composition of the individual blast furnace charges +is obviated in a simple and effective manner by W.R. Jones's mixing +process. In this as much pig iron from the various blast furnaces of a +works as is sufficient for a large number of Bessemer charges, say +from seven to twelve charges, or, in other words, from 70 to 120 tons +of pig iron, is placed in a mixing vessel. Only a portion of pig iron +placed in the mixer is taken for further treatment for steel, while +new supplies of pig iron are brought from the blast furnace. In this +way homogeneity sufficient for practical purposes is obtained. + +In the treatment of phosphoric pig iron, which is employed in the +production of basic steel, it is, however, not sufficient merely to +conduct the molten pig iron in large quantities to the converter in a +mixed condition, but the problem here is to render the proportion of +sulphur also independent of the blast furnace process to such an +extent that the proportion of sulphur in the finished steel is so low +that the quality of the steel is in no way influenced by it. The +question of desulphurization has, especially of late years, become of +the utmost importance, at any rate for the iron industry of the +Continent. By the great strike of 1889, the German colliers have +succeeded in greatly improving their wages; and with this increase in +wages not only is there a distinct diminution in the amount of coal +wrought, but, unfortunately, the coal produced since then is raised in +a much less pure condition than was formerly the case. Consequently +the proportion of sulphur in the coke has considerably increased. +Whereas formerly this proportion did not exceed one per cent., it has +now in many cases risen to 18 per cent.; so that an unpleasant ratio +exists between the wages of the workmen and the amount of sulphur in +the coal raised. It is therefore not remarkable that, even when ores +fairly free from sulphur are treated, it easily happens that a +sulphureted pig iron is obtained. + +In order to effect satisfactory desulphurization, attention has been +bestowed on the fact that iron sulphide is converted by manganese into +manganese sulphide and iron. If sulphureted pig iron, poor in +manganese, is added in a fluid condition to manganiferous molten pig +iron, poor in sulphur, the metal is desulphurized, and a manganese +sulphide slag is formed. It may be urged that it does not seem +necessary to effect the desulphurization by means of the reaction of +the manganese and iron sulphide outside of the blast furnace, as it is +possible, by suitably directing the blast furnace, by the employment +of manganiferous ores or highly basic slag, so to desulphurize the +iron in the blast furnace itself that it would be unnecessary further +to lower the percentage of sulphur. Every blast furnace manager, +however, will have observed that, even with every precaution in the +blast furnace practice, pig iron will often be obtained with so high a +percentage of sulphur as to render it useless for the Bessemer acid or +basic processes. If the desulphurization in the blast furnace is +carried sufficiently far, it is always necessary to work the furnace +hot, and thus to obtain hotter iron than is desirable for further +treatment in the converter. On the other hand, the method of further +desulphurization outside the blast furnace, described in this paper, +presents the double advantage that part of the blast furnace can be +kept cooler, and thus lime and coke be saved, and that there is a +certainty that no red-short charges are obtained in the treatment in +the converter, while the pig iron passes to the converter at a +suitable temperature. + +[Illustration: FIGS. 1 through 5] + +A further advantage presented by the direct process described in this +paper is that the Bessemer works is independent of the time at which +the individual blast furnaces are tapped, as the pig iron required for +the Bessemer process can be taken at any moment from the +desulphurizing plant. In Hoerde, where the mixing and desulphurizing +process has for a considerable time been regularly in use, it has been +found that all the chief difficulties formerly encountered in the +method of taking the fluid pig iron direct from the various blast +furnaces to the converter have been obviated. At Hoerde the mixing and +desulphurizing plant shown in the accompanying engravings is employed. +This apparatus holds 70 tons of pig iron. It is, however, advisable to +have an apparatus of greater capacity, say 120 tons. The apparatus has +the shape of a converter, and the hydraulic machinery by which it is +moved is simple and effective. An hydraulic pressure of eight +atmospheres is sufficient to set it in motion. The vessel is provided +with a double lining of firebricks of the same quality as those used +for the lining of blast furnaces. This lining is gradually attacked +only along the slag line, and does not require repair until it has +been in use for some six weeks. Further repairs are then necessary +every three weeks. Only the few courses of spoilt bricks are renewed, +and for the repairs, including the cooling of the vessel, a period of +two or three days is required. At the end of the week the vessel is +kept filled, so that its contents suffice for the last charge to be +blown on Saturday. On Sunday night the vessel is again filled. The +consumption of manganese is very low; theoretically, it is the +quantity required for the formation of manganese sulphide, and in +practice it has been found that this amounts to about 0.2 per cent. +The proportion of manganese which the desulphurized pig iron coming +from the vessel should contain is best kept at about 1.5 per cent. in +order to render the desulphurization as complete as possible. Thus, a +mean proportion of 1.7 per cent. of manganese in the pig iron passing +into the vessel is more than sufficient to effect a thorough +desulphurization. Indeed, 1 to 1.2 per cent. of manganese is +sufficient to effect a satisfactory desulphurization. For the extent +of the removal of the sulphur, the temperature and the duration of the +reaction are of importance. It has been found that if highly +sulphureted pig iron is poured from the blast furnace into the +desulphurizing vessel, fifteen to twenty minutes are sufficient to +effect the desulphurization requisite for the steel process. The part +played by the duration of the process is seen from the results +obtained with the last charges, if the vessel is emptied at the end of +the week without fresh pig iron being added from the blast furnace. +If, for example, 60 tons of pig iron with 0.065 per cent. of sulphur +remain in the vessel, the proportion of sulphur with the last charges +falls to 0.03 per cent. The iron in the vessel remains sufficiently +fluid for several hours. When necessary, a little wood is thrown in. +It has been found quite unnecessary to obtain heat by passing and +burning a current of gas above the bath of metal. + +A number of results, showing the separation of sulphur at the Hoerde +Works, was published a few months ago[2] by Professor P. Tunner, one +of our honorary members. + + [Footnote 2: "Oesterreichische Zeitschrift fur Berg und + Huttenwesen," 1891, No. 19.] + +The totals represent, respectively, 138,500 kilogrammes of pig iron +and 98,654 kilogrammes of sulphur. + +Thus, from 138,500 kilogrammes of pig iron there has been eliminated +179,577-98,654 = 80,923 kilogrammes of sulphur, or, in other words, +45.063 per cent. + +The proportion of sulphur in the slags rises with that in the iron +from the blast furnace to 17 per cent., an inappreciable portion of +the sulphur of the slag being oxidized to sulphurous anhydride by +access of air. An analysis of the slag yielded the following results: + + Per cent. + Sulphur 17.07 + Manganese 30.31 + Phosphoric anhydride 0.61 + Iron 7.13 + Bases 35.04 + +An analysis of an average sample gave: + + Per cent. + Manganese sulphide 28.01 + Manganous oxide 20.23 + Ferrous oxide 25.46 + Silica 18.90 + Alumina 5.00 + Lime 3.53 + Magnesia 0.43 + +The great convenience and certainty presented by the method described +in this paper will in all probability lead to its general adoption. As +a matter of fact, several works are now occupied with the installation +of this mixing and desulphurizing plant. + + * * * * * + + + + +ON THE OCCURRENCE OF TIN IN CANNED FOOD. + +By H.A. WEBER, Ph.D. + + +The following investigation of the condition of foods packed in tin +cans was prompted by an alleged case of poisoning, which occurred at +Mansfield, Ohio, in April, 1890. A man and woman were reported to the +writer as having been made sick by eating pumpkin pie made from canned +pumpkin. The attending physician pronounced the case one of lead +poisoning. The wholesale dealer from whose stock the canned pumpkin +originally came, procured a portion of the same at the house where the +poisoning occurred, and sent it to the writer for examination. + +The results of the examination as reported in Serial No. 552, below, +showed that the canned pumpkin contained an amount of stannous salts +equivalent to 6.4 maximum doses and 51.4 minimum doses of stannous +chloride per pound. On being notified of this fact, the dealer sent a +can of the same brand of pumpkin from his stock. The inner coating of +the can was found to be badly eroded, and upon examination, as +reported in Serial No. 563, below, one pound of the pumpkin contained +tin salts equivalent to 7 maximum and 56 minimum doses of stannous +chloride. + +The unexpected large amount of tin salts in such an insipid article as +canned pumpkin, and the claimed ill effects of the consumption of the +same, suggested the advisability of extending the investigation to +other canned goods in common use. Accordingly a line of articles was +purchased in open market as sold to consumers, no pains being taken to +procure old samples. The collection embraced fruits, vegetables, fish +and condensed milk. With the exception of the condensed milk, every +article examined was contaminated with salts of tin. In most cases the +amount of tin salts present was so large that there can be no doubt of +danger to health from the consumption of the food, especially if +several kinds are consumed at the same meal. + + +METHOD. + +The method employed in the determination of the tin was simply as +follows: + +The contents of each can were emptied into a large porcelain dish, and +the condition of the inner coating of the can noted. After thoroughly +mixing the contents, fifty grammes were weighed off and incinerated in +a porcelain dish of suitable size. The residue was treated with a +large excess of concentrated hydrochloric acid, evaporated to dryness, +moistened with hydrochloric acid, water was added, and the mass was +filtered and washed, the insoluble matter being all washed upon the +filter. After drying the filter with its contents, the whole was again +incinerated in a porcelain dish and the residue treated as before. The +solution thus obtained was properly diluted and saturated with +hydrogen sulphide. After standing about twelve hours in a covered +beaker the precipitate was filtered off and the tin weighed as stannic +oxide. + + +RESULTS OF EXAMINATION. + +_Serial No. 552._--Sample of canned pumpkin, received of F.A. +Derthick, April 22, 1890, sent by Albert F. Remy & Co., Mansfield, +Ohio. Pie made from it supposed to have made a man and woman sick. The +attending physician pronounced the case one of lead poisoning. + + Per cent. + Tin dioxide with trace of lead 0.0424 + Grains per pound 2.97 + Equivalent to stannous chloride 3.74 + Minimum doses 51.4 + Maximum doses 6.4 + +_Serial No. 563._--Sample of canned pumpkin, received of Edward +Bethel, June 27, 1890. Labeled: Choice Pie Pumpkin, packed at Salem, +Columbiana County, Ohio, by G.B. McNabb, sent by A.F. Remy & Co., +Mansfield, Ohio. + + Per Cent. + Tin dioxide 0.0444 + Grains per pound 3.11 + Equivalent to stannous chloride 3.91 + Minimum doses 56 + Maximum doses 7 + + Can eroded. + +_Serial No. 565._--Sample of canned pumpkin, bought of T.B. Vaure, +July 11, 1890. Labeled: Belpre Pumpkin, Golden. George Dana & Sons, +Belpre, Ohio. + + Per Cent. + Tin dioxide 0.0054 + Grains per pound 0.38 + Equivalent to stannous chloride 0.48 + Minimum doses 7.7 + Maximum doses 1.0 + + Can eroded. + +_Serial No. 566._--Sample of canned Hubbard Squash, bought of T.B. +Vaure, July 11, 1890. Labeled: Ladd Brand, L. Ladd, Adrian, Michigan. + + Per Cent. + Tin dioxide 0.026 + Grains per pound 1.85 + Equivalent to stannous chloride 2.33 + Minimum doses 37.00 + Maximum doses 4.7 + + Can badly eroded. + +_Serial No. 567._--Sample of canned tomatoes, bought of T.B. Vaure, +July 11, 1890. Labeled: Extra Fine Tomatoes. Blue Label. Curtice Bros. +Co., Rochester, N.Y. + + Per Cent. + Tin dioxide 0.012 + Grains per pound 0.84 + Equivalent to stannous chloride 1.06 + Minimum doses 16.00 + Maximum doses 2.00 + + Inner coating eroded. + +_Serial No. 568._--Sample of canned tomatoes, bought of T.B. Vaure, +July 11, 1890. Labeled: Fresh Tomatoes, Curtice Bros. Co., Rochester, +N.Y. + + Per Cent. + Tin dioxide 0.014 + Grains per pound 0.98 + Equivalent to stannous chloride 1.23 + Minimum doses 19.00 + Maximum doses 2.5 + + Can eroded. + +_Serial No. 569._--Sample of canned peas, bought of T.B. Vaure, July +11, 1890. Labeled: Petites Pois, P. Emillien, Bordeaux. + + Per Cent. + Copper oxide 0.0294 + Grains per pound 2.06 + Equivalent to copper sulphate 3.95 + Tin dioxide 0.0068 + Grains per pound 0.48 + Equivalent to stannous chloride 0.6 + Minimum doses 9.6 + Maximum doses 1.2 + + No visible erosion. + +_Serial No. 570._--Sample of canned mushroom, bought of T.B. Vaure, +July 11, 1890. Labeled Champignons de Choix. Boston fils. Paris. + + Per Cent. + Tin dioxide 0.02 + Grains per pound 1.40 + Equivalent to stannous chloride 1.76 + Minimum doses 28.00 + Maximum doses 3.50 + + Inner coating highly discolored. + +_Serial No. 571._--Sample of canned blackberries, bought of T.B. +Vaure, July 11, 1890. Labeled: Lawton Blackberries. Curtice Bros. Co., +Rochester, N.Y. + + Per Cent. + Tin dioxide 0.0114 + Grains per pound 0.80 + Equivalent to stannous chloride 1.01 + Minimum doses 16.00 + Maximum doses 2.00 + + Inner coating eroded. + +_Serial No. 572._--Sample of canned blueberries, bought of T.B. Vaure, +July 11, 1890. Labeled: Blueberries. Eagle Brand, packed by A. & R. +Loggie, Black Brook, N.B. + + Per Cent. + Tin dioxide 0.03 + Grains per pound 2.10 + Equivalent to stannous chloride 2.64 + Minimum doses 42.00 + Maximum doses 5.30 + + Can badly eroded. + +_Serial No. 574._--Sample of canned salmon, bought of T.B. Vaure. July +11, 1890. Labeled: Best Fresh Columbia River Salmon, Eagle Canning +Co., Astoria Clatsop Co., Oregon. + + Per Cent. + Tin dioxide 0.0134 + Grains per pound 0.94 + Equivalent to stannous chloride 1.18 + Minimum doses 18.90 + Maximum doses 2.30 + + Inner coating eroded. + +_Serial No. 578._--Sample of canned pears, received of Mr. Edward +Bethel, July 29, 1890. Labeled: Bartlett Pears. Solan's Brand, packed +in Solano Co., California. + + Juice. Fruit. + Per Ct. Per Ct. + Tin dioxide 0.0074 0.0074 + Grains per pound 0.5180 0.5180 + Equivalent to stannous chloride 0.65 0.65 + Minimum doses 10.40 10.40 + Maximum doses 1.30 1.30 + + Can eroded. + +_Serial No. 579._--Sample of canned peaches, received of Edward +Bethel, July 29. 1890. Labeled: Peaches, Wm. Maxwell, Baltimore, +U.S.A. + + Juice. Fruit. + Per Ct. Per Ct. + Tin dioxide 0.0324 0.0414 + Grains per pound 2.2680 2.8980 + Equivalent to stannous chloride 2.85 3.65 + Minimum doses 45.60 58.40 + Maximum doses 5.70 7.30 + + Can badly eroded. + + +_Serial No. 580._--Sample of canned blackberries, received of Edward +Bethel, July 29, 1890. Labeled: Blackberries, Clipper Brand, Wm. +Munson & Sons, Baltimore, Md. + + Per Cent. + Tin dioxide 0.06 + Grains per pound 4.20 + Equivalent to stannous chloride 5.28 + Minimum doses 84.00 + Maximum doses 10.60 + + Can badly eroded. + + +_Serial No. 581._--Sample of canned cherries, received of Edward +Bethel, July 29, 1890. Labeled: Red Cherries, Cloverdale Brand, G.C. +Mournaw & Co., Cloverdale, Va. + + Per Cent. + Tin dioxide 0.0414 + Grains per pound 2.8980 + Equivalent to stannous chloride 3.65 + Minimum doses 58.40 + Maximum doses 7.30 + + Can badly eroded. + + +_Serial No. 582._--Sample of canned pumpkin, received of Edward +Bethel, July 29, 1890. Labeled: Royal Pumpkin, Urbana Canning Co., +Urbana, O. + + Per Cent. + Tin dioxide 0.0184 + Grains per pound 1.2990 + Equivalent to stannous chloride 1.62 + Minimum doses 25.90 + Maximum doses. 3.20 + + Can eroded. + + +_Serial No. 583._--Sample of canned baked sweet potatoes, received of +Edward Bethel, July 29, 1890. Labeled: Tennessee Baked Sweet Potatoes, +Capital Canning Co., Nashville, Tenn. + + Per Cent. + Tin dioxide 0.0132 + Grains per pound 0.92 + Equivalent to stannous chloride 1.16 + Minimum doses 18.50 + Maximum doses 2.30 + + Can eroded. + + +_Serial No. 584._--Sample of canned peas, received of Edward Bethel, +July 29, 1890. Labeled: Marrowfat Peas, Parson Bros., Aberdeen, +Maryland. + + Per Cent. + Tin dioxide 0.0044 + Grains per pound 0.30 + Equivalent to stannous chloride 0.38 + Minimum doses 6.20 + Maximum doses 0.80 + + Can slightly eroded. + + +_Serial No. 585._--Sample of string beans, received of Edward Bethel, +July 29, 1890. Labeled: String Beans. Packed by H.P. Hemingway & Co., +Baltimore City, Md. + + Per Cent. + Tin dioxide 0.0154 + Grains per pound 1.08 + Equivalent to stannous chloride 1.36 + Minimum doses 21.70 + Maximum doses 2.70 + + Can eroded. + + +_Serial No. 586._--Sample of canned salmon, received of Edward Bethel, +July 29, 1890. Labeled: Puget Sound Fresh Salmon, Puget Sound Salmon +Co., W.T. + + Per Cent. + Tin dioxide 0.0044 + Grains per pound 0.30 + Equivalent to stannous chloride 0.38 + Minimum doses 0.20 + Maximum doses 0.80 + + Can slightly eroded. + + +_Serial No. 587._--Sample of condensed milk, received of Edward +Bethel, July 29, 1890. Labeled: Borden's Condensed Milk. The Gail +Borden Eagle Brand, New York Condensed Milk Co., 71 Hudson Street, New +York. + + Tin dioxide none. + + No visible erosion. + + +_Serial No. 592._--Sample of canned pineapples, bought of Mr. Brown, +Fifth Avenue, August 4, 1890. Labeled: Pineapples, First Quality. +Packed by Martin Wagner & Co., Baltimore, Md. + + Per Cent. + Tin dioxide 0.0098 + Grains per pound 0.6860 + Equivalent to stannous chloride 0.8640 + Minimum doses 13.6 + Maximum doses 1.7 + + Can eroded + + +_Serial No. 593._--Sample of canned pineapples, bought of Mr. Brown, +Fifth Avenue, August 4, 1890. Labeled: Florida Pineapple, Oval Brand. +Extra Quality. A Booth Packing Co., Baltimore, Md. + + Per Cent. + Tin dioxide 0.0158 + Grains per pound 1.11 + Equivalent to stannous chloride 1.40 + Minimum doses 22.40 + Maximum doses 2.80 + + Can eroded. + +--_Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc_. + + * * * * * + + + + +NEW PROCESS FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF CHROMATES. + +By J. MASSIGNON and E. VATEL. + + +The ordinary method of manufacturing the bichromates consists in +making an intimate mixture of finely pulverized chrome ore, lime in +large excess, potash or soda, or corresponding salts of these two +bases. This mixture is placed in a reverberatory furnace, and +subjected to a high temperature, while plenty of air is supplied. +During the operation the mass is constantly puddled to bring all the +particles into contact with the hot air, so that all the sesquioxide +of chromium of the ore will be oxidized. After the oxidation is +finished, the mass is taken from the furnace and cooled; the +bichromate is obtained by lixiviation, treated with sulphuric acid and +crystallized. This method of manufacture has several serious +objections. + +The authors, after research and experiment, have devised a new +process, following an idea suggested by Pelouze. + +The ore very finely pulverized is mixed with chloride of calcium or +lime, or carbonate of calcium, in such proportions that all the base, +proceeding from the caustic lime or the carbonate of calcium put in +the mixture, shall be in slightly greater quantity than is necessary +to transform into chromate of calcium all the sesquioxide of chromium +of the ore, when this sesquioxide will be by oxidation changed into +the chromic acid state. The chloride of calcium employed in proportion +of one equivalent for three of the total calcium is most convenient +for the formation of oxychloride of calcium. If the mixture is made +with carbonate of lime (pulverized chalk), it will not stiffen in the +air; but if lime and carbonate of calcium are employed at the same +time, the mass stiffens like cement, and can be moulded into bricks or +plates. The best way to operate is to mix first a part of the ore and +well pulverized chalk, and slake it with the necessary concentrated +chloride of calcium solution; then to make up a lime dough, and mix +the two, moulding quickly. The loaves or moulds thus formed are +partially dried in the air, then completely dried in a furnace at a +moderate temperature, and finally baked, to effect the reduction of +the carbonate of calcium into caustic lime. It is only necessary then +to expose the loaves to the air at the ordinary temperature, for the +oxidation of the sesquioxide of chromium will go on by degrees without +any manipulation, by the action of the atmospheric air, the matter +thus prepared having a sufficient porosity to allow the air free +access to the interior of the mass. Under ordinary conditions the +oxidation will be completed in a month. The division of this +work--mixing, slaking or thinning, roasting or baking, and subjection +to the air--is analogous to the work of a tile or brick works. The +advance of the oxidation can be followed by the appearance of the +matter, which after baking presents a deep green color, which passes +from olive green into yellow, according to the progress of calcium +chromate formation. When the oxidation is completed, the mass +contains: Chromate of calcium, chloride of calcium, carbonate of lime +and caustic lime in excess, sesquioxide of iron and the gangue, part +of which is united with the lime. This mass is washed with water by +the ordinary method of lixiviation, and there is obtained a +concentrated solution containing all the chloride of calcium, and a +small quantity only of chromate of calcium, the latter being about 100 +times less soluble in water. + +This solution can be used in the following ways: + +1. It can be concentrated and used in preparing a new charge, the +small quantity of calcium chromate present being an assistance, or: + +2. It can be used for making chromate of lead (chrome yellow), by +precipitating the calcium chromate with a lead salt; this being a very +economical process for the manufacture of this color. + +The mass after lixiviation, being treated with a solution of sulphate +or carbonate of potash or soda, will yield chromate of potash or soda, +and by the employment of sulphuric acid, the corresponding +bichromates. The solutions are then filtered, to get rid of the +insoluble deposits, concentrated, and crystallized. + +If, instead of chromate or bichromate of potash or soda, chromic acid +is sought, the mass after lixiviation is treated with sulphuric acid, +and the chromic acid is obtained directly without any intermediate +steps. + +This process has the following advantages: + +1. The oxidation can be effected at the ordinary temperature, thus +saving expense in fuel. + +2. The heavy manual labor is avoided. + +3. The loss of potash and soda by volatilization and combination with +the gangue is entirely avoided. + +4. It is not actually necessary to use rich ores; silicious ores can +be used. + +5. The intimate mixture of the material before treatment being made +mechanically, the puddling is avoided, and in consequence a greater +proportion of the sesquioxide of chromium in the ores is +utilized.--_Bull. Soc. Chem._ 5, 371. + + * * * * * + + + + +A VIOLET COLORING MATTER FROM MORPHINE. + + +A violet coloring matter is formed, together with other substances, by +boiling for 100 hours in a reflux apparatus a mixture of morphine +(seven grammes), p-nitrosodimethylaniline hydrochloride (five +grammes), and alcohol (500 c.c.). The solution gradually assumes a red +brown color, and a quantity of tetramethyldiamidoazobenzene separates +in a crystalline state. After filtering from the latter, the alcoholic +solution is evaporated to dryness, and the residue boiled with water, +a deep purple colored solution being so obtained. This solution, which +contains at least two coloring matters, is evaporated almost to +dryness, acidulated with hydrochloric acid, and then rendered alkaline +with sodium hydrate, the coloring matters being precipitated and the +unchanged morphine remaining in solution. The precipitate is collected +on a filter, washed with dilute sodium hydrate, dried, and extracted +in the cold with amyl alcohol, which dissolves out a violet coloring +matter, and leaves in the residue a blue coloring matter or mixture of +coloring matters. The violet coloring matter is obtained in a pure +state on evaporating the amyl alcohol. Its platinochloride has the +formula PtCl_{4}.C_{25}H_{29}N_{3}O_{4}.HCl, and has the +characteristic properties of the platinochlorides of the majority of +alkaloids. The coloring matter, of which the free base has the +formula-- + + (C_{6}H_{4}N(CH_{3})_{2})--N==(C_{17}H_{19}NO_{4}) + +forms an amorphous mass with a bronze-like luster; it is sparingly +soluble in water, freely so in alcohol, its alcoholic solution being +strongly dichroic; its green colored solution in concentrated +sulphuric acid becomes successively blue and violet on dilution with +water; it dyes silk, wool, and gun cotton, but is not fast to light. + +Morphine violet is the first true coloring matter obtained from the +natural alkaloids, the morphine blue of Chastaing and Barillot (Compt. +Rend., 105, 1012) not being a coloring matter properly so called. +--_P. Cazeneuve, Bull. Soc. Chim._ + + * * * * * + + + + +LIQUID BLUE FOR DYEING. + + +The new liquid blue of M. Dornemann is intended to avoid the formation +of clots, etc., which lead to irregularity in shade, if not to the +formation of spots on the textile. In addition to accomplishing this +end, the process is accelerated by subjecting the blue to a previous +treatment. + +In this preliminary treatment of the blue, the object is to remove the +sulphur which retards the solution of the color. + +The liquid is prepared as follows: The pigment, previously dried at +150 deg. C., is crushed and finely ground, and contains about 47 per cent. +of coloring matter; to this is added 53 per cent. of water. + +To this mixture, or slurry, the inventor adds an indefinite quantity +of glucose and glycerine of 43 deg. B., having a specific gravity of +1.425. It is then ready for use.--_Le Moniteur de la Teinture_. + + * * * * * + + +A NEW CATALOGUE OF VALUABLE PAPERS + +Contained in SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT during the past ten years, +sent _free of charge_ to any address. MUNN & CO., 361 Broadway, New +York. + + * * * * * + + +THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN + +ARCHITECTS AND BUILDERS EDITION. + +$2.50 A YEAR. 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