diff options
| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 04:45:02 -0700 |
|---|---|---|
| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 04:45:02 -0700 |
| commit | 422d0215fc45c14304c638fe25c6b440f8d4fc3e (patch) | |
| tree | 014cfd80585a3c69e5923cffae8e48b48822fcfc /old/14657-h | |
Diffstat (limited to 'old/14657-h')
104 files changed, 10337 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/old/14657-h/14657-h.htm b/old/14657-h/14657-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..4526070 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/14657-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,10337 @@ +<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.0 Transitional//EN"> +<html> +<head> +<meta name="generator" content= +"HTML Tidy for Windows (vers 1st March 2004), see www.w3.org"> +<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Philo-Judæus by Norman +Bentwich</title> +<meta http-equiv="content-type" content= +"text/html; charset=us-ascii"> +<style type="text/css"> +A { + TEXT-DECORATION: none; +} +P { + MARGIN-TOP: 0.75em; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 0.75em; TEXT-ALIGN: justify; +} +H1 { + TEXT-ALIGN: center; +} +H2 { + TEXT-ALIGN: center; +} +H3 { + TEXT-ALIGN: center; +} +H4 { + TEXT-ALIGN: center; +} +H5 { + TEXT-ALIGN: center; +} +H6 { + TEXT-ALIGN: center; +} + +HR { + WIDTH: 33%; +} +HR.full { + WIDTH: 100%; HEIGHT: 5px; +} +A:link { + COLOR: blue; TEXT-DECORATION: none; +} +LINK { + COLOR: blue; TEXT-DECORATION: none; +} +A:visited { + COLOR: blue; TEXT-DECORATION: none; +} +A:hover { + COLOR: red; +} + + +BODY { + MARGIN-LEFT: 7%; MARGIN-RIGHT: 8%; +} +.linenum { + LEFT: 4%; POSITION: absolute; TOP: auto; +} +.note { + MARGIN-BOTTOM: 1em; MARGIN-LEFT: 2em; MARGIN-RIGHT: 2em; +} +.blkquot { + MARGIN-LEFT: 4em; MARGIN-RIGHT: 4em; +} +.pagenum { + FONT-SIZE: smaller; LEFT: 92%; POSITION: absolute; + TEXT-ALIGN: right; +} +.newpage { display: none; +} +.sidenote { + CLEAR: right; MARGIN-TOP: 1em; PADDING-LEFT: 1em; + FONT-SIZE: smaller; FLOAT: right; + MARGIN-BOTTOM: 1em; WIDTH: 20%; +} + +ins.correction {border-bottom-style: dotted; border-bottom-color: red; + border-bottom-width:1px; +} + +.poem { + MARGIN-LEFT: 10%; MARGIN-RIGHT: 10%; TEXT-ALIGN: left; +} + + +.poem BR { + DISPLAY: none; +} +.poem .stanza { + MARGIN: 1em 0em; +} +.poem SPAN { + DISPLAY: block; PADDING-LEFT: 3em; MARGIN: 0px; TEXT-INDENT: -3em; +} +.poem SPAN.i2 { + DISPLAY: block; MARGIN-LEFT: 2em; +} +.poem SPAN.i4 { + DISPLAY: block; MARGIN-LEFT: 4em; +} +.poem .caesura { + VERTICAL-ALIGN: -200%; +} +LI.indent { + MARGIN-LEFT: 5%; +} +</style> +</head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +Project Gutenberg's Philo-Judaeus of Alexandria, by Norman Bentwich + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Philo-Judaeus of Alexandria + +Author: Norman Bentwich + +Release Date: January 10, 2005 [EBook #14657] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PHILO-JUDAEUS OF ALEXANDRIA *** + + + + +Produced by Ted Garvin, jayam, David King, and the PG Online +Distributed Proofreading Team + + + + + + +</pre> + +<div style= +" background-color: white; color: black; border-style: ridge;"> +<center> +<h1>PHILO-JUDÆUS</h1> +</center> +</div> +<br> +<br> +<br> +<br> +<h3>BY</h3> +<br> +<h2>NORMAN BENTWICH</h2> +<h3>Sometime Scholar of Trinity College,<br> +Cambridge</h3> +<br> +<br> +<br> +<br> +<h4>COPYRIGHT, 1910, BY<br> +THE JEWISH PUBLICATION SOCIETY OF AMERICA</h4> +<br> +<br> +<br> +<br> +<h2>PHILO-JUDÆUS<br> +OF ALEXANDRIA,</h2> +<br> +<br> +<br> +<br> +<h3>TO MY MOTHER</h3> +<center><img alt="Greek: threptêria " src= +"images/image01.jpg" width="91" height="24"></center> +<br> +<br> +<br> +<br> +<br> +<br> +<br> +<br> +<a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a> +<h3>CONTENTS</h3> +<table summary="toc"> +<tr> +<td><b>CHAPTER</b></td> +<td></td> +<td align="right">page</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><a href="#PREFACE"></a><b>PREFACE</b></td> +<td></td> +<td align="right"><a href="#page_7">7</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>I. THE JEWISH COMMUNITY AT ALEXANDRIA</td> +<td></td> +<td align="right"><a href="#page_13">13</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>II. THE LIFE AND TIMES OF PHILO</td> +<td></td> +<td align="right"><a href="#page_44">44</a></td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>III. PHILO'S WORKS AND METHOD</td> +<td></td> +<td align="right"><a href="#page_74">74</a></td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>IV. PHILO AND THE TORAH</td> +<td></td> +<td align="right"><a href="#page_104">104</a></td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>V. PHILO'S THEOLOGY</td> +<td></td> +<td align="right"><a href="#page_132">132</a></td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>VI. PHILO AS A PHILOSOPHER</td> +<td></td> +<td align="right"><a href="#page_167">167</a></td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>VII. PHILO AND JEWISH TRADITION</td> +<td></td> +<td align="right"><a href="#page_199">199</a></td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>VIII. THE INFLUENCE OF PHILO</td> +<td></td> +<td align="right"><a href="#page_242">242</a></td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>BIBLIOGRAPHY</td> +<td></td> +<td align="right"><a href="#page_263">263</a></td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>ABBREVIATIONS USED FOR THE REFERENCES</td> +<td></td> +<td align="right"><a href="#page_266">266</a></td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>INDEX</td> +<td></td> +<td align="right"><a href="#page_269">269</a></td> +<td></td> +</tr> +</table> +<br> +<br> +<br> +<br> +<br> +<br> +<br> +<br> +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_7" id= +"page_7">[pg.7]</a></span> +<hr style="width: 65%;"> +<h2><a name="PREFACE" id="PREFACE">PREFACE</a></h2> +<hr style="width: 65%;"> +<p>It is a melancholy reflection upon the history of the Jews that +they have failed to pay due honor to their two greatest +philosophers. Spinoza was rejected by his contemporaries from the +congregation of Israel; Philo-Judæus was neglected by the +generations that followed him. Maimonides, our third philosopher, +was in danger of meeting the same fate, and his philosophical work +was for long viewed with suspicion by a large part of the +community. Philosophers, by the very excellence of their thought, +have in all races towered above the comprehension of the people, +and aroused the suspicion of the religious teachers. Elsewhere, +however, though rejected by the Church, they have left their +influence upon the nation, and taken a commanding place in its +history, because they have founded secular schools of thought, +which perpetuated their work. In Judaism, where religion and +nationality are inextricably combined, that could not be. The +history of Judaism since the extinction of political independence +is the history of a national religious culture; what was national +in its thought alone found favor; and unless a philosopher's work +bore this national religious stamp it dropped out of Jewish +history.</p> +<p>Philo certainly had an intensely strong Jewish feeling, but his +work had also another aspect, which <span class="newpage"><a name= +"page_8" id="page_8">[pg.8]</a></span> was seized upon and made use +of by those who wished to denationalize Judaism and convert it into +a philosophical monotheism. The favor which the Church Fathers +showed to his writings induced and was balanced by the neglect of +the rabbis.</p> +<p>It was left till recently to non-Jews to study the works of +Philo, to present his philosophy, and estimate its value. So far +from taking a Jewish standpoint in their work, they emphasized the +parts of his teaching that are least Jewish; for they were writing +as Christian theologians or as historians of Greek philosophy. They +searched him primarily for traces of Christian, neo-Platonic, or +Stoic doctrines, and commiserated with him, or criticised him as a +weak-kneed eclectic, a half-blind groper for the true light.</p> +<p>Even during the last hundred years, which have marked a revival +of the historical consciousness of the Jews, as of all peoples, it +has still been left in the main to non-Jewish scholars to write of +Philo in relation to his time and his environment. The purpose of +this little book is frankly to give a presentation of Philo from +the Jewish standpoint. I hold that Philo is essentially and +splendidly a Jew, and that his thought is through and through +Jewish. The surname given him in the second century, +"Judæus," not only distinguishes him from an obscure +Christian bishop, but it expresses the predominant characteristic +of his teaching. It may be objected that I have pointed the moral +and adorned the tale in accordance with preconceived opinions, +which—as Mr. Claude <span class="newpage"><a name="page_9" +id="page_9">[pg.9]</a></span> Montefiore says in his essay on +Philo—it is easy to do with so strange and curious a writer. +I confess that my worthy appeals to me most strongly as an exponent +of Judaism, and it may be that in this regard I have not always +looked on him as the calm, dispassionate student should; for I +experience towards him that warmth of feeling which his name, +<img alt="Greek: philon " src="images/image02.jpg" width="52" +height="24">, "the beloved one," suggests. But I have tried so to +write this biography as neither to show partiality on the one side +nor impartiality on the other. If nevertheless I have exaggerated +the Jewishness of my worthy's thought, my excuse must be that my +predecessors have so often exaggerated other aspects of his +teaching that it was necessary to call a new picture into being, in +order to redress the balance of the old.</p> +<p>Although I have to some extent taken a line of my own in this +Life, my obligations to previous writers upon Philo are very great. +I have used freely the works of Drummond, Schürer, Massebieau, +Zeller, Conybeare, Cohn, and Wendland; and among those who have +treated of Philo in relation to Jewish tradition I have read and +borrowed from Siegfried (<i>Philon als Ausleger der heiligen +Schrift</i>), Freudenthal (<i>Hellenistische Studien</i>), Ritter +(<i>Philo und die Halacha</i>), and Mr. Claude Montefiore's +<i>Florilegium Philonis</i>, which is printed in the seventh volume +of the Jewish Quarterly Review. Once for all Mr. Montefiore has +selected many of the most beautiful and most vital passages of +Philo, and much as I should have liked to unearth new gems, as +beautiful and as <span class="newpage"><a name="page_10" id= +"page_10">[pg.10]</a></span> illuminating, I have often found +myself irresistibly attracted to Mr. Montefiore's passages. Dr. +Neumark's book, <i>Geschichte der jüdischen Philosophie des +Mittelalters</i>, appeared after my manuscript was set up, or I +should have dealt with his treatment of Philo. With what he says of +the relation of Plato to Judaism I am in great part in agreement, +and I had independently come to the conclusion that Plato was the +main Greek influence on Philo's thought.</p> +<p>To these various books I owe much, but not so much as to the +teaching, influence, and help of one whose name I have not the +boldness to associate with this little volume, but whose notes on +my manuscript have given it whatever value it may possess. The +index I owe to the kindly help of a sister, who would also be +nameless. Lastly I have to thank Dr. Lionel Barnett, professor of +Sanscrit at University College, London, and my father, who read my +manuscript before it was sent to the printers. The one gave me the +benefit of his wide and accurate scholarship, the other gave me +much valuable advice and removed many a blazing indiscretion.</p> +<p>NORMAN BENTWICH.</p> +<p><i>February 28, 1907.</i> <span class="newpage"><a name= +"page_11" id="page_11">[pg.11]</a></span></p> +<p><span class="newpage"><a name="page_12" id= +"page_12">[pg.12]</a></span> <span class="newpage"><a name= +"page_13" id="page_13">[pg.13]</a></span></p> +<br> +<br> +<br> +<br> +<hr style="width: 65%;"> +<h3>PHILO-JUDÆUS OF ALEXANDRIA</h3> +<hr style="width: 65%;"> +<br> +<br> +<br> +<br> +<h2>I</h2> +<p>THE JEWISH COMMUNITY AT ALEXANDRIA</p> +<br> +<p>The three great world-conquerors known to history, Alexander, +Julius Cæsar, and Napoleon, recognized the pre-eminent value +of the Jew as a bond of empire, an intermediary between the +heterogeneous nations which they brought beneath their sway. Each +in turn showed favor to his religion, and accorded him political +privileges. The petty tyrants of all ages have persecuted Jews on +the plea of securing uniformity among their subjects; but the great +conqueror-statesmen who have made history, realizing that progress +is brought about by unity in difference, have recognized in Jewish +individuality a force making for progress. Whereas the pure +Hellenes had put all the other peoples of the world in the single +category of barbarians, their Macedonian conqueror forced upon them +a broader view, and, regarding his empire as a world-state, made +Greeks and Orientals live together, and prepared the way for a +mingling of races and culture. Alexander the Great became a notable +figure in the Talmud and Midrashim, and many a marvellous legend +was told about his passing <span class="newpage"><a name="page_14" +id="page_14">[pg.14]</a></span> visit to Jerusalem during his march +to Egypt.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_1_1">[1]</a> The high priest—whether it was +Jaddua, Simon, or Onias the records do not make clear—is said +to have gone out to meet him, and to have compelled the reverence +and homage of the monarch by the majesty of his presence and the +lustre of his robes. Be this as it may, it is certain that +Alexander settled a considerable number of Jews in the Greek +colonies which he founded as centres of cosmopolitan culture in his +empire, and especially in the town by the mouth of the Nile that +received his own name, and was destined to become within two +centuries the second town in the world; second only to Rome in +population and power, equal to it in culture. By its geographical +position, the nature of its foundation, and the sources of its +population, and by the wonderful organization of its Museum, in +which the records of all nations were stored and studied, +Alexandria was fitted to become the meeting-place of +civilizations.</p> +<p>There was already a considerable settlement of Jews in Egypt +before Alexander's transplantation in 332 B.C.E. Throughout Bible +times the connection between Israel and Egypt had been close. +Isaiah speaks of the day when five cities in the land of Egypt +should speak the language of Canaan and swear to the Lord of hosts +(xix. 18); and when Nebuchadnezzar led away the first captivity, +many of the people had fled from Palestine to the old "cradle of +the nation." Jeremiah (xliv) went down with them <span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_15" id="page_15">[pg.15]</a></span> to +prophesy against their idolatrous practices and their backslidings; +and Jewish and Christian writers in later times, daring boldly +against chronology, told how Plato, visiting Egypt, had heard +Jeremiah and learnt from him his lofty monotheism. Doubt was thrown +in the last century upon the continuance of the Diaspora in Egypt +between the time of Jeremiah and Alexander, but the recent +discovery of a Jewish temple at Elephantine and of Aramaic papyri +at Assouan dated in the fifth and fourth centuries B.C.E. has +proved that these doubts were not well founded, and that there was +a well-established community during the interval.</p> +<p>From the time of the post-exilic prophets Judaism developed in +three main streams, one flowing from Jerusalem, another from +Babylon, the third from Egypt. Alexandria soon took precedence of +existing settlements of Jews, and became a great centre of Jewish +life. The first Ptolemy, to whom at the dismemberment of +Alexander's empire Egypt had fallen,<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id= +"FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2">[2]</a> continued to the +Jewish settlers the privileges of full citizenship which Alexander +had granted them. He increased also the number of Jewish +inhabitants, for following his conquest of Palestine (or +Coele-Syria, as it was then called), he brought back to his capital +a large number of Jewish families and settled thirty thousand +Jewish soldiers in garrisons. For the next hundred years the +Palestinian and Egyptian Jews were under the same rule, and for the +most part the Ptolemies <span class="newpage"><a name="page_16" id= +"page_16">[pg.16]</a></span> treated them well. They were +easy-going and tolerant, and while they encouraged the higher forms +of Greek culture, art, letters, and philosophy, both at their own +court and through their dominions, they made no attempt to impose +on their subjects the Greek religion and ceremonial. Under their +tolerant sway the Jewish community thrived, and became +distinguished in the handicrafts as well as in commerce. Two of the +five sections into which Alexandria was divided were almost +exclusively occupied by them; these lay in the north-east along the +shore and near the royal palace—a favorable situation for the +large commercial enterprises in which they were engaged. The Jews +had full permission to carry on their religious observances, and +besides many smaller places of worship, each marked by its +surrounding plantation of trees, they built a great synagogue, of +which it is said in the Talmud, "He who has not seen it has not +seen the glory of Israel."<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id= +"FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3">[3]</a> It was in the +form of a basilica, with a double row of columns, and so vast that +an official standing upon a platform had to wave his head-cloth or +veil to inform the people at the back of the edifice when to say +"Amen" in response to the Reader. The congregation was seated +according to trade-guilds, as was also customary during the Middle +Ages; the goldsmiths, silversmiths, coppersmiths, and weavers had +their own places, for the Alexandrian Jews seem to have partially +adopted the Egyptian caste-system. The Jews enjoyed a large amount +of <span class="newpage"><a name="page_17" id= +"page_17">[pg.17]</a></span> self-government, having their own +governor, the ethnarch, and in Roman times their own council +(Sanhedrin), which administered their own code of laws. Of the +ethnarch Strabo says that he was like an independent ruler, and it +was his function to secure the proper fulfilment of duties by the +community and compliance with their peculiar laws.<a name= +"FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_4_4">[4]</a> Thus the people formed a sort of state +within a state, preserving their national life in the foreign +environment. They possessed as much political independence as the +Palestinian community when under Roman rule; and enjoyed all the +advantages without any of the narrowing influences, physical or +intellectual, of a ghetto. They were able to remain an independent +body, and foster a Jewish spirit, a Jewish view of life, a Jewish +culture, while at the same time they assimilated the different +culture of the Greeks around them, and took their part in the +general social and political life.</p> +<p>At the end of the third and the beginning of the second century +Palestine was a shuttlecock tossed between the Ptolemies and the +Seleucids; but in the reign of Antiochus Epiphanes (<i>c.</i> 150 +B.C.E.) it finally passed out of the power of the Ptolemaic house, +and from this time the Palestinian Jews had a different political +history from the Egyptian. The compulsory Hellenization by +Antiochus aroused the best elements of the Jewish nation, which had +seemed likely to lose by a gradual assimilation its adherence to +pure monotheism and the Mosaic law. The struggle of <span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_18" id="page_18">[pg.18]</a></span> foe as +against the Hellenizing party of his own people, which, led by the +high priests Jason, Menelaus, and Alcimus, tried to crush both the +national and the religious spirit. The Maccabæan rule brought +not only a renaissance of national life and national culture, but +also a revival of the national religion. Before, however, the +deliverance of the Jews had been accomplished by the noble band of +brothers, many of the faithful Palestinian families had fled for +protection from the tyranny of Antiochus to the refuge of his enemy +Ptolemy Philometor. Among the fugitives were Onias and Dositheus, +who, according to Josephus,<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id= +"FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5">[5]</a> became the +trusted leaders of the armies of the Egyptian monarch. Onias, +moreover, was the rightful successor to the high-priesthood, and +despairing of obtaining his dignity in Jerusalem, where the office +had been given to the worthless Hellenist Alcimus, he conceived the +idea of setting up a local centre of the Jewish religion in the +country of his exile. He persuaded Ptolemy to grant him a piece of +territory upon which he might build a temple for Jewish worship, +assuring him that his action would have the effect of securing +forever the loyalty of his Jewish subjects. Ptolemy "gave him a +place one hundred and eighty furlongs distant from Memphis, in the +nomos of Heliopolis, where he built a fortress and a temple, not +like that at Jerusalem, but such as <span class="newpage"><a name= +"page_19" id="page_19">[pg.19]</a></span> resembled a +tower."<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_6_6">[6]</a> Professor Flinders Petrie has recently +discovered remains at Tell-el-Yehoudiyeh, the "mound of the Jews," +near the ancient Leontopolis, which tally with the description of +Josephus, and may be presumed to be the ruins of the temple.</p> +<p>It is difficult to arrive at an accurate idea of the nature and +importance of the Onias temple, because our chief authority, +Josephus,<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_7_7">[7]</a> gives two inconsistent accounts of it, and +the Talmud references<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id= +"FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8">[8]</a> are equally +involved. But certain negative facts are clear. First, the temple +did not become, even if it were designed to be, a rival to the +temple of Jerusalem: it did not diminish in any way the tribute +which the Egyptian Jews paid to the sacred centre of the religion. +They did not cease to send their tithes for the benefit of the poor +in Judæa, or their representatives to the great festivals, +and they dispatched messengers each year with contributions of gold +and silver, who, says Philo,<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id= +"FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9">[9]</a> "travelled over +almost impassable roads, which they looked upon as easy, in that +they led them to piety." The Alexandrian-Jewish writers, without +exception, are silent about the work of Onias; Philo does not give +a single hint of it, and on the other hand speaks<a name= +"FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_10_10">[10]</a> several times of the great <span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_20" id="page_20">[pg.20]</a></span> +national centre at Jerusalem as "the most beautiful and renowned +temple which is honored by the whole East and West." The Egyptian +Jews, according to Josephus, claimed that the prophecy of Isaiah +had been accomplished, "that there shall be an altar to the Lord in +the midst of the land of Egypt" (Is. xix. 19). But the altar, it +has recently been suggested,<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id= +"FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11">[11]</a> was rather +a "Bamah" (a high place) than a temple. It served as a temporary +sanctuary while the Jerusalem temple was defiled, and afterwards it +was a place where the priestly ritual was carried out day by day, +and offerings were brought by those who could not make the +pilgrimage to Jerusalem. Though the synagogue was the main seat of +religious life in the Diaspora, there was still a desire for the +sacrificial worship, and for a long time the rabbis looked with +favor upon the establishment of Onias. But when the tendency to +found a new ritual there showed itself, they denied its +holiness.<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_12_12">[12]</a> The religious importance of the temple, +however, was never great, and its chief interest is that it shows +the survival of the affection for the priestly service among the +Hellenized community, and helps therefore to disprove the myth that +the Alexandrians allegorized away the Levitical laws.</p> +<p>During the checkered history of Egypt in the first century +B.C.E., when it was in turn the plaything of the corrupt Roman +Senate, who supported the claims <span class="newpage"><a name= +"page_21" id="page_21">[pg.21]</a></span> of a series of feeble +puppet-Ptolemies, the prize of the warriors, who successively +aspired to be masters of the world, Julius Cæsar, Mark +Antony, and Octavian, and finally a province of the Roman Empire, +the political and material prosperity of the Alexandrian Jews +remained for the most part undisturbed. Julius Cæsar and +Augustus, who everywhere showed special favor to their Jewish +subjects, confirmed the privileges of full citizenship and limited +self-government which the early Ptolemies had bestowed.<a name= +"FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_13_13">[13]</a> Josephus records a letter of Augustus to +the Jewish community at Cyrene, in which he ordains: "Since the +nation of the Jews hath been found grateful to the Roman people, it +seemed good to me and my counsellors that the Jews have liberty to +make use of their own customs, and that their sacred money be not +touched, but sent to Jerusalem, and that they be not obliged to go +before the judge on the Sabbath day nor on the day of preparation +for it after the ninth hour," <i>i.e.</i>, after the early +evening.<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_14_14">[14]</a> This decree is typical of the emperor's +attitude to his Jewish subjects; and Egypt became more and more a +favored home of the race, so that the Jewish population in the +land, from the Libyan desert to the border of Ethiopia, was +estimated in Philo's time at not less than one million.<a name= +"FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_15_15">[15]</a></p> +<p>The prosperity and privileges of the Jews, combined with their +peculiar customs and their religious <span class="newpage"><a name= +"page_22" id="page_22">[pg.22]</a></span> separateness, did not +fail at Alexandria, as they have not failed in any country of the +Diaspora, to arouse the mixed envy and dislike of the rude +populace, and give a handle to the agitations of self-seeking +demagogues. The third book of the Maccabees tells of a Ptolemaic +persecution during which Jewish victims were turned into the arena +at Alexandria, to be trodden down by elephants made fierce with the +blood of grapes, and of their deliverance by Divine Providence. +Some fiction is certainly mixed with this recital, but it may well +be that during the rule of the stupid and cruel usurper Ptolemy +Physcon (<i>c.</i> 120 B.C.E.) the protection of the royal house +was for political reasons removed for a time from the Jews. +Josephus<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_16_16">[16]</a> relates that the anniversary of the +deliverance was celebrated as a festival in Egypt. The popular +feeling against the peculiar people was of an abiding character, +for it had abiding causes, envy and dislike of a separate manner of +life; and the professional anti-Semite,<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id= +"FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17">[17]</a> who had his +forerunners before the reign of the first Ptolemy, was able from +time to time to fan popular feelings into flame. In those days, +when history and fiction were not clearly distinguished, he was apt +to hide his attacks under the guise of history, and stir up odium +by scurrilous and offensive accounts of the ancient Hebrews. Hence +anti-Jewish literature originated at Alexandria.</p> +<p><span class="newpage"><a name="page_23" id= +"page_23">[pg.23]</a></span> Manetho, an historian of the second +century B.C.E., in his chronicles of Egypt, introduced an +anti-Jewish pamphlet with an original account of the Exodus, which +became the model for a school of scribes more virulent and less +distinguished than himself. The Battle of Histories was taken up +with spirit by the Jews, and it was round the history of the +Israelites in Egypt that the conflict chiefly raged. In reply to +the offensive picture of a Manetho and the diatribes of some +"starveling Greekling," there appeared the eulogistic picture of an +Aristeas, the improved Exodus of an Artapanus. Joseph and Moses +figured as the most brilliant of Egyptian statesmen, and the +Ptolemies as admirers of the Scriptures. The morality of this +apologetic literature, and more particularly of the literary +forgeries which formed part of it, has been impugned by certain +German theologians. But apart from the necessities of the case, it +is not fair to apply to an age in which Cicero declared that +artistic lying was legitimate in history, the standard of modern +German accuracy. The fabrications of Jewish apologists were in the +spirit of the time.</p> +<p>The outward history of the Alexandrian community is far less +interesting and of far less importance than its intellectual +progress. When Alexander planted the colony of Jews in his greatest +foundation, he probably intended to facilitate the fusion of +Eastern and Western thought through their mediation. Such, at any +rate, was the result of his work. His marvellous exploits had put +an end for a time to the political strife between Asia and Europe, +and had <span class="newpage"><a name="page_24" id= +"page_24">[pg.24]</a></span> started the movement between the two +realms of culture, which was fated to produce the greatest +combination of ideas that the world has known. Now, at last, the +Hebrew, with his lofty conception of God, came into close contact +with the Greek, who had developed an equally noble conception of +man. Disraeli, in his usual sweeping manner, makes one of his +characters in "Lothair" tell how the Aryan and Semitic races, after +centuries of wandering upon opposite courses, met again and, +represented by their two choicest families, the Hellenes and the +Hebrews, brought together the treasures of their accumulated wisdom +and secured the civilization of man. Apart from the question of the +original common source, of which we are no longer sure, his +rhetoric is broadly true; but for two centuries the influence was +nearly all upon one side. The Jew, attracted by the brilliant art, +literature, science, and philosophy of the Hellene, speedily +Hellenized, and as early as the third century B.C.E. Clearchus, the +pupil of Aristotle, tells of a Jew whom his master met, who was +"Greek not only in language but also in mind."<a name= +"FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_18_18">[18]</a> The Greek, on the other hand, who had +not yet comprehended the majesty of his neighbor's monotheism, for +lack of adequate presentation, did not Hebraize. In Palestine the +adoption of Greek ways and the introduction of Greek ideas +proceeded rapidly to the point of demoralization, until the +Maccabees stayed it. Unfortunately, the Hellenism that was brought +to Palestine was not <span class="newpage"><a name="page_25" id= +"page_25">[pg.25]</a></span> the lofty culture, the eager search +for truth and knowledge, that marked Athens in the classical age; +it was a bastard product of Greek elegance and Oriental luxury and +sensuousness, a seeking after base pleasures, an assertion of +naturalistic polytheism. And hence came the strong reaction against +Greek ideas among the bulk of the people, which prevented any +permanent fusion of cultures in the land of Israel.</p> +<p>The Hellenism of Alexandria was a more genuine product. The +liberal policy of the early Ptolemies made their capital a centre +of art, literature, science, and philosophy. To their court were +gathered the chief poets, savants, and thinkers of their age. The +Museum was the most celebrated literary academy, and the Library +the most noted collection of books in the world. Dwelling in this +atmosphere of culture and research, the Hebrew mind rapidly +expanded and began to take its part as an active force in +civilization. It acquired the love of knowledge in a wider sense +than it had recognized before, and assimilated the teachings of +Hellas in all their variety. Within a hundred years of their +settlement Hebrew or Aramaic had become to the Jews a strange +language, and they spoke and thought in Greek. Hence it was +necessary to have an authoritative Greek translation of the Holy +Scriptures, and the first great step in the Jewish-Hellenistic +development is marked by the Septuagint version of the Bible.</p> +<p>Fancy and legend attached themselves early to an <span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_26" id="page_26">[pg.26]</a></span> event +fraught with such importance for the history of the race and +mankind as the translation of the Scriptures into the language of +the cultured world. From this overgrowth it is difficult to +construct a true narrative; still, the research of latter-day +scholars has gone far to prove a basis of truth in the statements +made in the famous letter of the pseudo-Aristeas, which professes +to describe the origin of the work. We may extract from his story +that the Septuagint was written in the reign of Ptolemy +Philadelphus, about 250 B.C.E., with the approval, if not at the +express request, of the king, and with the help of rabbis brought +from Palestine to give authority to the work. But we need not +believe with later legend that each of the seventy translators was +locked up in a separate cell for seventy days till he had finished +the whole work, and that when they were let out they were all found +to have written exactly the same words. Philo gives us a version of +the event, romantic, indeed, but more rational, in his "Life of +Moses."<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_19_19">[19]</a> He tells how Ptolemy, having conceived a +great admiration for the laws of Moses, sent ambassadors to the +high priest of Juddea, requesting him to choose out a number of +learned men that might translate them into Greek. "These were duly +chosen, and came to the king's court, and were allotted the Isle of +Pharos as the most tranquil spot in the city for carrying out their +work; by God's grace they all found the exact Greek words to +correspond <span class="newpage"><a name="page_27" id= +"page_27">[pg.27]</a></span> to the Hebrew words, so that they were +not mere translators, but prophets to whom it had been granted to +follow in the divinity of their minds the sublime spirit of Moses." +"On which account," he adds, "even to this day there is in every +year celebrated a festival in the Island of Pharos, to which not +only Jews but many persons of other nations sail across, +reverencing the place in which the light of interpretation first +shone forth, and thanking God for His ancient gift to man, which +has eternal youth and freshness." It is significant that Philo +makes no mention in his books of the festival of Hanukah, while the +Talmud has no mention of this feast of Pharos; the Alexandrian Jews +celebrated the day when the Bible was brought within reach of the +Greek world, the Palestinians the day when the Greeks were driven +out of the temple. At the same time the celebrations in honor of +the Septuagint and of the deliverance from the Ptolemaic +persecution<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id= +"FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20">[20]</a> are +remarkable illustrations of a living Jewish tradition at +Alexandria, which attached a religious consecration to the special +history of the community.</p> +<p>It is not correct to say with Philo that the translator rendered +each word of the Hebrew with literal faithfulness, so as to give +its proper force. Rather may we accept the words of the Greek +translator of Ben Sira: "Things originally spoken in Hebrew have +not the same force in them when they are translated into another +tongue, and not only these, but the law itself <span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_28" id="page_28">[pg.28]</a></span> (the +Torah) and the prophecies and the rest of the books have no small +difference when they are spoken in their original +language."<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_21_21">[21]</a></p> +<p>From the making of the translation one can trace the movement +that ended in Christianity. By reading their Scriptures in Greek, +Jews began to think them in Greek and according to Greek +conceptions. Certain commentators have seen in the Septuagint +itself the infusion of Greek philosophical ideas. Be this as it +may, it is certain that the version facilitated the introduction of +Greek philosophy into the interpretation of Scripture, and gave a +new meaning to certain Hebraic conceptions, by suggesting +comparison with strange notions. This aspect of the work led the +rabbis of Palestine and Babylon in later days, when the spread of +Hellenized Judaism was fraught with misery to the race, to regard +it as an awful calamity, and to recount a tale of a plague of +darkness which fell upon Palestine for three days when it was +made;<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_22_22">[22]</a> and they observed a fast day in place of +the old Alexandrian feast on the anniversary of its completion. +They felt as the old Italian proverb has it, <i>Traduttori, +traditori!</i> ("Translators are traitors!"). And the Midrash in +the same spirit declares<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id= +"FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23">[23]</a> that the +oral law was not written down, because God knew that otherwise it +would be translated into Greek, and He wished it to be the special +mystery of His people, as the Bible no longer was. <span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_29" id="page_29">[pg.29]</a></span> The +Septuagint translation of the Bible was one answer to the lying +accounts of Israel's early history concocted by anti-Semitic +writers. As we have seen,<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id= +"FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24">[24]</a> the +Alexandrian Jews began early to write histories and re-edit the +Bible stories to the same purpose. And for some time their writings +were mainly apologetic, designed, whatever their form, to serve a +defensive purpose. But later they took the offensive against the +paganism and immorality of the peoples about them, and the +missionary spirit became predominant. Alexander Polyhistor, who +lived in the first century, included in his "History of the Jews" +fragments of these early Jewish historians and apologists, which +the Christian bishop Eusebius has handed down to us. From them we +can gather some notion of the strange medley of fact and +imagination which was composed to influence the Gentile world. +Abraham is said to have instructed the Egyptians in astrology; +Joseph devised a great system of agriculture; Moses was identified +variously with the legendary Greek seer Musaeus and the god Hermes. +A favorite device for rebutting the calumnies of detractors and +attracting the outer world to Jewish ideas, was the attachment to +some ancient source of panegyrics upon Judaism and monotheism. To +the Greek philosopher Heraclitus and the Greek historian +Hecatæeus, who wrote a history of the world, passages which +glorify the Hebrew people and the Hebrew God were ascribed. Still +more daring was <span class="newpage"><a name="page_30" id= +"page_30">[pg.30]</a></span> the conversion into archaic hexameter +verse of the stories of Genesis and Exodus, and of Messianic +prophecies in the guise of Sibylline oracles. The Sibyl, whom the +superstitions of the time revered as an inspired seeress of +prehistoric ages, was made to recite the building of the tower of +Babel, or the virtues of Abraham, and again to prophesy the day +when the heathen nations should be wiped out, and the God of Israel +be the God of all the world. Although the fabrication of oracles is +not entirely defensible, it is unnecessary to see, with +Schürer, in these writings a low moral standard among the +Egyptian Jews. They were not meant to suggest, to the cultured at +any rate, that the Sibyl in one case or Heraclitus in another had +really written the words ascribed to them. The so-called forgery +was a literary device of a like nature with the dialogues of Plato +or the political fantasies of More and Swift. By the striking +nature of their utterances the writers hoped to catch the ear of +the Gentile world for the saving doctrine which they taught. The +form is Greek, but the spirit is Hebraic; in the third Sibylline +oracle, particularly, the call to monotheism and the denunciation +of idolatry, with the pictures of the Divine reward for the +righteous, and of the Divine judgment for the ungodly, remind us of +the prophecies of Isaiah and Jeremiah; as when the poet +says,<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_25_25">[25]</a> "Witless mortals, who cling to an image +that ye have fashioned to be your god, why do ye vainly go astray, +and march along a path which is <span class="newpage"><a name= +"page_31" id="page_31">[pg.31]</a></span> not straight? Why +remember ye not the eternal founder of All? One only God there is +who ruleth alone." And again: "The children of Israel shall mark +out the path of life to all mortals, for they are the interpreters +of God, exalted by Him, and bearing a great joy to all +mankind."<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_26_26">[26]</a> The consciousness of the Jewish mission +is the dominant note. Masters now of Greek culture, the Jews +believed that they had a philosophy of their own, which it was +their privilege to teach to the Greeks; their conception of God and +the government of the world was truer than any other; their +conception of man's duty more righteous; even their conception of +the state more ideal.</p> +<p>The apocryphal book, the Wisdom of Solomon, which was probably +written at Alexandria during the first century B.C.E., is marked by +the same spirit. There again we meet with the glorification of the +one true God of Israel, and the denunciation of pagan idolatry; and +while the author writes in Greek and shows the influence of Greek +ideas, he makes the Psalms and the Proverbs his models of literary +form. "Love righteousness," he begins, "ye that be judges of the +earth; think ye of the Lord with a good mind and in singleness of +heart seek ye Him." His appeal for godliness is addressed to the +Gentile world in a language which they understood, but in a spirit +to which most of them were strangers. The early history of the +Israelites in Egypt comes home to him <span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_32" id="page_32">[pg.32]</a></span> with +especial force, for he sees it "in the light of eternity," a +striking moral lesson for the godless Egyptian world around him in +which the house of Jacob dwelt again. With poetical imagination he +tells anew the story of the ten plagues as though he had lived +through them, and seen with his own eyes the punishment of the +idolatrous land. He ends with a pæan to the God who had saved +His people. "For in all things Thou didst magnify them, and Thou +didst glorify them, and not lightly regard them, standing by their +side in every time and place."</p> +<p>At this epoch, and at Alexandria especially, Judaism was no +self-centred, exclusive faith afraid of expansion. The mission of +Israel was a very real thing, and conversion was widespread in +Rome, in Egypt, and all along the Mediterranean countries. The +Jews, says the letter of Aristeas, "eagerly seek intercourse with +other nations, and they pay special care to this, and emulate each +other therein." And one of the most reliable pagan writers says of +them, "They have penetrated into every state, and it is hard to +find a place where they have not become powerful."<a name= +"FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_27_27">[27]</a> Nor was it merely material power which +they acquired. The days had come which the prophet Amos (viii. 11) +had predicted, when "God will send a famine in the land, not a +famine of bread, nor a thirst for water, but a famine of hearing +the words of the Lord." The Greek world had lost faith in the +poetical gods of its <span class="newpage"><a name="page_33" id= +"page_33">[pg.33]</a></span> mythology and in the metaphysical +powers of its philosophical schools, and was searching for a more +real object to revere and lean on. The people were thirsting for +the living God. And in place of the gods of nature, whom they had +found unsatisfying, or the impersonal world-force, with which they +sought in vain to come into harmony, the Jews offered them the God +of history, who had preserved their race through the ages, and +revealed to them the law of Moses.</p> +<p>The missionary purpose was largely responsible for the rise of a +philosophical school of Bible commentators. The Hellenistic world +was thoroughly sophisticated, and Alexandria was distinguished +above all towns as the home of philosophical lectures and +book-making. One of Philo's contemporaries is said to have written +over one thousand treatises, and in one of his rare touches of +satire Philo relates<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id= +"FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28">[28]</a> how bands +of sophists talked to eager crowds of men and women day and night +about virtue being the only good, and the blessedness of life +according to nature, all without producing the slightest effect, +save noise. The Jews also studied philosophy, and began to talk in +the catchwords of philosophy, and then to re-interpret their +Scriptures according to the ideas of philosophy. The Septuagint +translation of the Pentateuch was to the cultured Gentile an +account in rather bald and impure Greek of the history of a family +which grew into a petty nation, and of their tribal and national +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_34" id= +"page_34">[pg.34]</a></span> laws. The prophets, it is true, set +forth teachings which were more obviously of general moral import; +but the books of the prophets were not God's special revelation to +the Jews, but rather individual utterances and exhortations: and +their teaching was treated as subordinate to the Divine revelation +in the Five Books of Moses. Those, then, who aimed at the spread of +Jewish monotheism were impelled to draw out a philosophical +meaning, a universal value from the Books of Moses. Nowadays the +Bible is the holy book of so much of the civilized world that it is +somewhat difficult for us to form a proper conception of what it +was to the civilized world before the Christian era. We have to +imagine a state of culture in which it was only the Book of books +to one small nation, while to others it was at best a curious +record of ancient times, just as the Code of Hammurabi or the +Egyptian Book of Life is to us. The Alexandrian Jews were the first +to popularize its teachings, to bring Jewish religion into line +with the thought of the Greek world. It was to this end that they +founded a particular form of Midrash—the allegorical +interpretation, which is largely a distinctive product of the +Alexandrian age. The Palestinian rabbis of the time were on the one +hand developing by dialectic discussion the oral tradition into a +vast system of religious ritual and legal jurisprudence; on the +other, weaving around the law, by way of adornment to it, a +variegated fabric of philosophy, fable, allegory, and legend. +Simultaneously the Alexandrian preachers—they <span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_35" id="page_35">[pg.35]</a></span> were +never quite the same as the rabbis—were emphasizing for the +outer world as well as their own people the spiritual side of the +religion, elaborating a theology that should satisfy the reason, +and seeking to establish the harmony of Greek philosophy with +Jewish monotheism and the Mosaic legislation. Allegorical +interpretation is "based upon the supposition or fiction that the +author who is interpreted intended something 'other' <img alt= +"Greek: allo " src="images/image03.jpg" width="55" height="20"> +than what is expressed"; it is the method used to read thought into +a text which its words do not literally bear, by attaching to each +phrase some deeper, usually some philosophical meaning. It enables +the interpreter to bring writings of antiquity into touch with the +culture of his or any age; "the gates of allegory are never closed, +and they open upon a path which stretches without a break through +the centuries." In the region of jurisprudence there is an +institution with a similar purpose, which is known as "legal +fiction," whereby old laws by subtle interpretation are made to +serve new conditions and new needs. Allegorical interpretation must +be carefully distinguished from the writing of allegory, of which +Bunyan's "Pilgrim's Progress" is the best-known type. One is the +converse of the other; for in allegories moral ideas are +represented as persons and moral lessons enforced by what purports +to be a story of life. In allegorical interpretation persons are +transformed into ideas and their history into a system of +philosophy. The Greek philosophers had applied this method to Homer +since the <span class="newpage"><a name="page_36" id= +"page_36">[pg.36]</a></span> fourth century B.C.E., in order to +read into the epic poet, whose work they regarded almost as a +Divine revelation, their reflective theories of the universe. And +doubtless the Jewish philosophers were influenced by their +example.</p> +<p>Their allegorical treatment of the Bible was intended, not +merely to adapt it to the Greek world, but to strengthen its hold +on the Alexandrian Jews themselves. These, as they acquired +Hellenic culture, found that the Bible in its literal sense did not +altogether satisfy their conceptions. They detected in it a certain +primitiveness, and having eaten further of the tree of knowledge, +they were aware of its philosophical nakedness. It was full of +anthropomorphism, and it seemed wanting in that which the Greek +world admired above all things—a systematic theology and +systematic ethics. The idea that the words of the Bible contained +some hidden meanings goes back to the earliest Jewish tradition and +is one of the bases of the oral law; but the special characteristic +of the Alexandrian exegesis is that it searched out theories of God +and life like those which the Greek philosophers had developed. The +device was necessary to secure the allegiance of the people to the +Torah. And from the need of expounding the Bible in this way to the +Jewish public at Alexandria, there arose a new form of religious +literature, the sermon, and a new form of commentary, the +homiletical. The words "homiletical" and "homily" suggest what they +originally connoted; they are derived from the Greek word <img alt= +"Greek: homilia " src="images/image04.jpg" width="55" height="22">, +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_37" id= +"page_37">[pg.37]</a></span> "an assembly," and a homily was a +discourse delivered to an assembly. The Meturgeman of Palestine and +Babylon, who expounded the Hebrew text in Aramaic, became the +preacher of Alexandria, who gave, in Greek, of course, homiletical +expositions of the law. In the great synagogue each Sabbath some +leader in the community would give a harangue to the assembly, +starting from a Biblical text and deducing from it or weaving into +it the ideas of Hellenic wisdom, touched by Jewish influence; for +the synagogues at Alexandria as elsewhere were the schools +(<i>Schule</i>) as much as the houses of prayer; schools, as Philo +says, of "temperance, bravery, prudence, justice, piety, holiness, +and in short of all virtues by which things human and Divine are +well ordered."<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id= +"FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29">[29]</a> He speaks +repeatedly of the Sabbath gatherings, when the Jews would become, +as he puts it, a community of philosophers,<a name="FNanchor_30_30" +id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30">[30]</a> as they +listened to the exegesis of the preacher, who by allegorical and +homiletical fancies would make a verse or chapter of the Torah live +again with a new meaning to his audience. The Alexandrian Jews, +though the form of their writing was influenced by the Greeks, +probably brought with them from Palestine primitive traces of +allegorism. Allegory and its counterpart, allegorical +interpretation, are deeply imbedded in the Oriental mind, and we +hear of ancient schools of symbolists in the oldest portions of the +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_38" id= +"page_38">[pg.38]</a></span> Talmud.<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id= +"FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31">[31]</a> At what +period the Alexandrians began to use allegorical interpretation for +the purpose of harmonizing Greek ideas with the Bible we do not +know, but the first writer in this style of whom we have record +(though scholars consider that his fragments are of doubtful +authenticity) is Aristobulus. He is said to have been the tutor of +Ptolemy Philometor, and he must have written at the beginning of +the first century B.C.E. He dedicated to the king his "Exegesis of +the Mosaic Law," which was an attempt to reveal the teachings of +the Peripatetic system, <i>i.e.</i>, the philosophy of Aristotle, +within the text of the Pentateuch. All anthropomorphic expressions +are explained away allegorically, and God's activity in the +material universe is ascribed to his <img alt="Greek: Dunamis" src= +"images/image05.jpg" width="73" height="17"> or power, which +pervades all creation. Whether the power is independent and treated +as a separate person is not clear from the fragments that +Eusebius<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_32_32">[32]</a> has preserved for us. Aristobulus was +only one link in a continuous chain, though his is the only name +among Philo's predecessors that has come down to us. Philo speaks, +fifteen times in all, of explanations of allegorists who read into +the Bible this or that system of thought<a name="FNanchor_33_33" +id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33">[33]</a> +regarding the words of the law as "manifest symbols of things +invisible and hints of things inexpressible." And if their work +were <span class="newpage"><a name="page_39" id= +"page_39">[pg.39]</a></span> before us, it is likely that Philo +would appear as the central figure of an Alexandrian Midrash +gathered from many sources, instead of the sole authority for a +vast development of the Torah. We must not regard him as a single +philosophical genius who suddenly springs up, but as the +culmination of a long development, the supreme master of an old +tradition.</p> +<p>If the allegorical method appears now as artificial and frigid, +it must be remembered that it was one which recommended itself +strongly to the age. The great creative era of the Greek mind had +passed away with the absorption of the city-state in Alexander's +empire. Then followed the age of criticism, during which the works +of the great masters were interpreted, annotated, and compared. +Next, as creative thought became rarer, and confidence in human +reason began to be shaken, men fell back more and more for their +ideas and opinions upon some authority of the distant past, whom +they regarded as an inspired teacher. The sayings of Homer and +Pythagoras were considered as divinely revealed truths; and when +treated allegorically, they were shown to contain the philosophical +tenets of the Platonic, the Aristotelian, or the Stoic school. +Thus, in the first century B.C.E., the Greek mind, which had +earlier been devoted to the free search for knowledge and truth, +was approaching the Hebraic standpoint, which considered that the +highest truth had once for all been revealed to mankind in inspired +writings, and that the duty of later generations was to interpret +this revealed doctrine rather than <span class="newpage"><a name= +"page_40" id="page_40">[pg.40]</a></span> search independently for +knowledge. On the other hand, the Jewish interpreters were trying +to reach the Greek standpoint when they set themselves to show that +the writers of the Bible had anticipated the philosophers of Hellas +with systems of theology, psychology, ethics, and cosmology. +Allegorism, it may be said, is the instrument by which Greek and +Hebrew thought were brought together. Its development was in its +essence a sign of intellectual vigor and religious activity; but in +the time of Philo it threatened to have one evil consequence, which +did in the end undermine the religion of the Alexandrian community. +Some who allegorized the Torah were not content with discovering a +deeper meaning beneath the law, but went on to disregard the +literal sense, <i>i.e.</i>, they allegorized away the law, and held +in contempt the symbolic observance to which they had attached a +spiritual meaning. On the other hand, there was a party which +adhered strictly to the literal sense <img alt= +"Greek: to hrêton" src="images/image06.jpg" width="86" +height="24"> and rejected allegorism.<a name="FNanchor_34_34" id= +"FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34">[34]</a> Philo +protested against these extremes and was the leader of those who +were liberal in thought and conservative in practice, and who +venerated the law both for its literal and for its allegorical +sense. To effect the true harmony between the literal and the +allegorical sense of the Torah, between the spiritual and the legal +sides of Judaism, between Greek philosophy and revealed +religion—that was the great work of Philo-Judæus. +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_41" id= +"page_41">[pg.41]</a></span> Though the religious and intellectual +development of the Alexandrian community proceeded on different +lines from that of the main body of the nation in Palestine, yet +the connection between the two was maintained closely for +centuries. The colony, as we have noticed, recognized +whole-heartedly the spiritual headship of Jerusalem, and at the +great festivals of the year a deputation went from Alexandria to +the holy sanctuary, bearing offerings from the whole community. In +Jerusalem, on the other hand, special synagogues, where Greek was +the language,<a name="FNanchor_35_35" id= +"FNanchor_35_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_35">[35]</a> were built +for Alexandrian visitors. Alexandrian artisans and craftsmen took +part in the building of Herod's temple, but were found inferior to +native workmen.<a name="FNanchor_36_36" id= +"FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36">[36]</a> The notices +within the building were written in Greek as well as in Aramaic, +and the golden gates to the inner court were, we are told by +Josephus,<a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_37_37">[37]</a> the gift of Philo's brother, the head of +the Alexandrian community. Some fragments have come down to us of a +poem about Jerusalem in Greek verse by a certain Philo, who lived +in the first century B.C.E., and was perhaps an ancestor of our +worthy. He glorifies the Holy City, extols its fertility, and +speaks of its ever-flowing waters beneath the earth. His greater +namesake says that wherever the Jews live they consider Jerusalem +as their metropolis. The Talmud again <span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_42" id="page_42">[pg.42]</a></span> tells +how Judah Ben Tabbai and Joshua Ben Perahya, during the persecution +of the Pharisees by Hyreanus, fled to Alexandria, and how later +Joshua Ben Hanania<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id= +"FNanchor_38_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_38">[38]</a> sojourned +there and gave answers to twelve questions which the Jews +propounded to him, three of them dealing with "the Wisdom." The +Talmud has frequent reference to Alexandrian Jews, and that it +makes little direct mention of the Alexandrian exegesis is +explained by the distrust of the whole Hellenistic movement, which +the rise of Christianity and the growth of Gnosticism induced in +the rabbis of the second and third centuries. They lived at a time +when it had been proved that that movement led away from Judaism, +and its main tenets had been adopted or perverted by an +antagonistic creed. It was a tragic necessity which compelled the +severance between the Eastern and Western developments of the +religion. In Philo's day the breach was already threatened, through +the anti-legal tendencies of the extreme allegorists. His own aim +was to maintain the catholic tradition of Judaism, while at the +same time expounding the Torah according to the conceptions of +ancient philosophy. Unfortunately, the balance was not preserved by +those who followed him, and the branch of Judaism that had +blossomed forth so fruitfully fell off from the parent tree. But +till the middle of the first century of the common era the +Alexandrian and the Palestinian developments of Jewish <span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_43" id="page_43">[pg.43]</a></span> culture +were complementary: on the one side there was legal, on the other, +philosophical expansion. Moreover, the Judæo-Alexandrian +school, though, through its abandonment of the Hebrew tongue, it +lies outside the main stream of Judaism, was an immense force in +the religious history of the world, and Philo, its greatest figure, +stands out in our annals as the embodiment of the Jewish religious +mission, which is to preach to the nations the knowledge of the one +God, and the law of righteousness. <span class="newpage"><a name= +"page_44" id="page_44">[pg.44]</a></span></p> +<hr style="width: 65%;"> +<br> +<br> +<br> +<br> +<a name="II" id="II"></a> +<h2>II</h2> +<p>THE LIFE AND TIMES OF PHILO</p> +<br> +<p>"The hero," says Carlyle, "can be poet, prophet, king, priest, +or what you will, according to the kind of world he finds himself +born into."<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id= +"FNanchor_39_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39_39">[39]</a> The Jews +have not been a great political people, but their excellence has +been a peculiar spiritual development: and therefore most of their +heroes have been men of thought rather than action, writers rather +than statesmen, men whose influence has been greater on posterity +than upon their own generation. Of Philo's life we know one +incident in very full detail, the rest we can only reconstruct from +stray hints in his writings, and a few short notices of the +commentators. From that incident also, which we know to have taken +place in the year 40 C.E., we can fix the general chronology of his +life and works. He speaks of himself as an old man in relating it, +so that his birth may be safely placed at about 20 B.C.E. The first +part of his life therefore was passed during the tranquil era in +which Augustus and Tiberius were reorganizing the Roman Empire +after a half-century of war; but he was fated to see more +troublesome times for his people, when the emperor Gaius, for a +miserable eight years, harassed the world with his mad escapades. +In the riots which ensued upon the attempt to deprive the Jews of +their religious freedom his brother the alabarch was <span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_45" id="page_45">[pg.45]</a></span> +imprisoned;<a name="FNanchor_40_40" id= +"FNanchor_40_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40_40">[40]</a> and he +himself was called upon to champion the Alexandrian community in +its hour of need. Although the ascent of the stupid but honest +Claudius dispelled immediate danger from the Jews and brought them +a temporary increase of favor in Alexandria as well as in +Palestine, Philo did not return entirely to the contemplative life +which he loved; and throughout the latter portion of his life he +was the public defender as well as the teacher of his people. He +probably died before the reign of Nero, between 50 and 60 C.E. In +Jewish history his life covered the reigns of King Herod, his sons, +and King Agrippa, when the Jewish kingdom reached its height of +outward magnificence; and it extended probably up to the ill-omened +conversion of Judæa into a Roman province under the rule of a +procurator. It is noteworthy also that Philo was partly +contemporary with Hillel, who came from Babylon to Jerusalem in 30 +B.C.E., and according to the accepted tradition was president of +the Sanhedrin till his death in 10 C.E. In this epoch Judaism, by +contact with external forces, was thoroughly self-conscious, and +the world was most receptive of its teaching; hence it spread +itself far and wide, and at the same time reached its greatest +spiritual intensity. Hillel and Philo show the splendid expansion +of the Hebrew mind. In the history of most races national greatness +and national genius appear together. The two grandest expressions +of Jewish genius immediately <span class="newpage"><a name= +"page_46" id="page_46">[pg.46]</a></span> preceded the national +downfall. For the genius of Judaism is religious, and temporal +power is not one of the conditions of its development.</p> +<p>Philo belonged to the most distinguished Jewish family of +Alexandria,<a name="FNanchor_41_41" id= +"FNanchor_41_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41_41">[41]</a> and +according to Jerome and Photius, the ancient authorities for his +life, was of the priestly rank; his brother Alexander Lysimachus +was not only the governor of the Jewish community, but also the +alabarch, <i>i.e.</i>, ruler of the whole Delta region, and enjoyed +the confidence of Mark Antony, who appointed him guardian of his +second daughter Antonia, the mother of Germanicus and the Roman +emperor Claudius. Born in an atmosphere of power and affluence, +Philo, who might have consorted with princes, devoted himself from +the first with all his soul to a life of contemplation; like a +Palestinian rabbi he regarded as man's highest duty the study of +the law and the knowledge of God.<a name="FNanchor_42_42" id= +"FNanchor_42_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42_42">[42]</a> This is the +way in which he understood the philosopher's life<a name= +"FNanchor_43_43" id="FNanchor_43_43"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_43_43">[43]</a>: man's true function is to know God, and +to make God known: he can know God only through His revelation, and +he can comprehend that revelation only by continued study. +<img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image07.jpg" width="100" height= +"14">, God's interpreter must have a wise heart,<a name= +"FNanchor_44_44" id="FNanchor_44_44"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_44_44">[44]</a> as the rabbis explained. Philo then +considered that the true understanding of the law required a +complete knowledge of general culture, and that secular philosophy +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_47" id= +"page_47">[pg.47]</a></span> was a necessary preparation for the +deeper mysteries of the Holy Word. "He who is practicing to abide +in the city of perfect virtue, before he can be inscribed as a +citizen thereof, must sojourn with the 'encyclic' sciences, so that +through them he may advance securely to perfect goodness."<a name= +"FNanchor_45_45" id="FNanchor_45_45"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_45_45">[45]</a> The "encyclic," or encyclopædic +sciences, to which he refers, are the various branches of Greek +culture, and Philo finds a symbol of their place in life in the +story of Abraham. Abraham is the eternal type of the seeker after +God, and as he first consorted with the foreign woman Hagar and had +offspring by her, and afterwards in his mature age had offspring by +Sarah, so in Philo's interpretation the true philosopher must first +apply himself to outside culture and enlarge his mind with that +training; and when his ideas have thus expanded, he passes on to +the more sublime philosophy of the Divine law, and his mind is +fruitful in lofty thoughts.<a name="FNanchor_46_46" id= +"FNanchor_46_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46_46">[46]</a></p> +<p>As a prelude to the study of Greek philosophy he built up a +harmony of the mind by a study of Greek poetry, rhetoric, music, +mathematics, and the natural sciences. His works bear witness to +the thoroughness with which he imbibed all that was best in Greek +literature. His Jewish predecessors had written in the impure +dialect of the Hellenistic colonies (the <img alt= +"Greek: koinê dialektos" src="images/image08.jpg" width="142" +height="19">, and had shown little literary charm; but Philo's +style is more graceful than that of any Greek prose writer since +the golden age of the fourth <span class="newpage"><a name= +"page_48" id="page_48">[pg.48]</a></span> century. Like his +thought, indeed, it is eclectic and not always clear, but full of +reminiscences of the epic and tragic poets on the one hand, and of +Plato on the other,<a name="FNanchor_47_47" id= +"FNanchor_47_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47_47">[47]</a> it gives a +happy blending of prose and poetry, which admirably fits the +devotional philosophy that forms its subject. And what was said of +Plato by a Greek critic applies equally well to Philo: "He rises at +times above the spirit of prose in such a way that he appears to be +instinct, not with human understanding, but with a Divine oracle." +From the study of literature and kindred subjects Philo passed on +to philosophy, and he made himself master of the teachings of all +the chief schools. There was a mingling of all the world's wisdom +at Alexandria in his day; and Philo, like the other philosophers of +the time, shows acquaintance with the ideas of Egyptian, Chaldean, +Persian,<a name="FNanchor_48_48" id="FNanchor_48_48"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_48_48">[48]</a> and even Indian thought. The chief Greek +schools in his age were the Stoic, the Platonic, the Skeptic and +the Pythagorean, which had each its professors in the Museum and +its popular preachers in the public lecture-halls. Later we will +notice more closely Philo's relations to the Greek philosophers: +suffice it here to say that he was the most distinguished Platonist +of his age.</p> +<p>Philo's education therefore was largely Greek, and his method of +thought, and the forms in which his ideas were associated and +impressed, were Greek. It <span class="newpage"><a name="page_49" +id="page_49">[pg.49]</a></span> must not be thought, however, that +this involved any weakening of his Judaism, or detracted from the +purity of his belief. Far from it. The Torah remained for him the +supreme standard to which all outside knowledge had to be +subordinated, and for which it was a preparation.<a name= +"FNanchor_49_49" id="FNanchor_49_49"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_49_49">[49]</a> But Philo brought to bear upon the +elucidation of the Torah and Jewish law and ceremony not only the +religious conceptions of the Jewish mind, but also the intellectual +ideas of Greek philosophy, and he interpreted the Bible in the +light of the broadest culture of his day. Beautiful as are the +thoughts and fancies of the Talmudic rabbis, their Midrash was a +purely national monument, closed by its form as by its language to +the general world; Philo applied to the exposition of Judaism the +most highly-trained philosophic mind of Alexandria, and brought out +clearly for the Hellenistic people the latent philosophy of the +Torah.</p> +<p>Greek was his native language, but at the same time he was not, +as has been suggested, entirely ignorant of Hebrew. The Septuagint +translation was the version of the Bible which he habitually used, +but there are passages in his works which show that he knew and +occasionally employed the Hebrew Bible.<a name="FNanchor_50_50" id= +"FNanchor_50_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50_50">[50]</a> Moreover, +his etymologies are evidence of his knowledge of the Hebrew +language; though he sometimes gives a symbolic value to Biblical +names according to <span class="newpage"><a name="page_50" id= +"page_50">[pg.50]</a></span> their Greek equivalent, he more +frequently bases his allegory upon a Hebrew derivation. That all +names had a profound meaning, and signified the true nature of that +which they designated, is among the most firmly established of +Philo's ideas. Of his more striking derivations one may cite +Israel, <img alt="Hebrew: " src="images/image09.jpg" width="73" +height="22"> the man who beholdeth God; Jerusalem, <img alt= +"Hebrew; " src="images/image10.jpg" width="73" height="25">, the +sight of peace; Hebrew, <img alt="Hebrew; " src= +"images/image11.jpg" width="46" height="22"> one who has passed +over from the life of the passions to virtue; Isaac, <img alt= +"Hebrew; " src="images/image12.jpg" width="51" height="25"> the joy +or laughter of the soul. These etymologies are more ingenious than +convincing, and are not entirely true to Hebrew philology, but +neither were those of the early rabbis; and they at least show that +Philo had acquired a superficial knowledge of the language of +Scripture. Nor can it be doubted that he was acquainted with the +Palestinian Midrash, both Halakic and Haggadic. At the beginning of +the "Life of Moses" he declares that he has based it upon "many +traditions which I have received from the elders of my +nation,"<a name="FNanchor_51_51" id="FNanchor_51_51"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_51_51">[51]</a> and in several places he speaks of the +"ancestral philosophy," which must mean the Midrash which embodied +tradition. Eusebius also, the early Christian authority, bears +witness to his knowledge of the traditional interpretations of the +law.<a name="FNanchor_52_52" id="FNanchor_52_52"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_52_52">[52]</a></p> +<p>It is fairly certain, moreover, that Philo sojourned some time +in Jerusalem. He was there probably during the reign of Agrippa +(<i>c.</i> 30 C.E.), who was an <span class="newpage"><a name= +"page_51" id="page_51">[pg.51]</a></span> intimate friend of his +family, and had found a refuge at Alexandria when an exile from +Palestine and Rome. In the first book on the Mosaic laws<a name= +"FNanchor_53_53" id="FNanchor_53_53"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_53_53">[53]</a> Philo speaks with enthusiasm of the +great temple, to which "vast assemblies of men from a countless +variety of cities, some by land, some by sea, from East, West, +North, and South, come at every festival as if to some common +refuge and harbor from the troubles of this harassed and anxious +life, seeking to find there tranquillity and gain a new hope in +life by its joyous festivities." These gatherings, at which, +according to Josephus,<a name="FNanchor_54_54" id= +"FNanchor_54_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54_54">[54]</a> over two +million people assembled, must, indeed, have been a striking symbol +of the unity of the Jewish race, which was at once national and +international; magnificent embassies from Babylon and Persia, from +Egypt and Cyrene, from Rome and Greece, even from distant Spain and +Gaul, went in procession together through the gate of Xistus up the +temple-mount, which was crowned by the golden sanctuary, shining in +the full Eastern sun like a sea of light above the town. Philo +describes in detail the form of the edifice that moved the +admiration of all who beheld it, and for the Jew, moreover, was +invested with the most cherished associations. Its outer courts +consisted of double porticoes of marble columns burnished with +gold, then came the inner courts of simple columns, and "within +these stood the temple itself, beautiful beyond all possible +description, as one may <span class="newpage"><a name="page_52" id= +"page_52">[pg.52]</a></span> tell even from what is seen in the +outer court; for the innermost sanctuary is invisible to every +being except the high priest." The majesty of the ceremonial within +equalled the splendor without. The high priest, in the words of Ben +Sira (xlv), "beautified with comely ornament and girded about with +a robe of glory," seemed a high priest fit for the whole world. +Upon his head the mitre with a crown of gold engraved with +holiness, upon his breast the mystic Urim and Thummim and the ephod +with its twelve brilliant jewels, upon his tunic golden +pomegranates and silver bells, which for the mystic ear pealed the +harmony of the world as he moved. Little wonder that, inspired by +the striking gathering and the solemn ritual, Philo regarded the +temple as the shrine of the universe,<a name="FNanchor_55_55" id= +"FNanchor_55_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55_55">[55]</a> and thought +the day was near when all nations should go up there together, to +do worship to the One God.</p> +<p>Sparse as are the direct proofs of Philo's connection with +Palestinian Judaism, his account of the temple and its service, +apart from the general standpoint of his writings, proves to us +that he was a loyal son of his nation, and loved Judaism for its +national institutions as well as its great moral sublimity. His +aspiration was to bring home the truths of the religion to the +cultured world, and therefore he devised a new expression for the +wisdom of his people, and transformed it into a literary system. +Judaism forms the kernel, but Greek philosophy and literature the +shell, <span class="newpage"><a name="page_53" id= +"page_53">[pg.53]</a></span> of his work; for the audience to which +he appealed, whether Jewish or Gentile, thought in Greek, and would +be moved only by ideas presented in Greek form, and by Greek models +he himself was inspired.</p> +<p>Philo's first ideal of life was to attain to the profoundest +knowledge of God so as to be fitted for the mission of interpreting +His Word: and he relates in one of his treatises how he spent his +youth and his first manhood in philosophy and the contemplation of +the universe.<a name="FNanchor_56_56" id= +"FNanchor_56_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56_56">[56]</a> "I feasted +with the truly blessed mind, which is the object of all desire +(<i>i.e.</i>, God), communing continually in joy with the Divine +words and doctrines. I entertained no low or mean thought, nor did +I ever crawl about glory or wealth or worldly comfort, but I seemed +to be carried aloft in a kind of spiritual inspiration and to be +borne along in harmony with the whole universe." The intense +religious spirit which seeks to perceive all things in a supreme +unity Philo shares with Spinoza, whose life-ideal was the +intuitional knowledge of the universe and "the intellectual love of +God." Both men show the pursuit of righteousness raised to +philosophical grandeur.</p> +<p>In his early days the way to virtue and happiness appeared to +Philo to lie in the solitary and ascetic life. He was possessed by +a noble pessimism, that the world was an evil place,<a name= +"FNanchor_57_57" id="FNanchor_57_57"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_57_57">[57]</a> and the worldly life an <span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_54" id="page_54">[pg.54]</a></span> evil +thing for a man's soul, that man must die to live, and renounce the +pleasures not only of the body but also of society in order to know +God. The idea was a common one of the age, and was the outcome of +the mingling of Greek ethics and psychology and the Jewish love of +righteousness. For the Greek thinkers taught a psychological +dualism, by which the body and the senses were treated as +antagonistic to the higher intellectual soul, which was immortal, +and linked man with the principle of creation. The most remarkable +and enduring effect of Hellenic influence in Palestine was the rise +of the sect of Essenes,<a name="FNanchor_58_58" id= +"FNanchor_58_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_58_58">[58]</a> Jewish +mystics, who eschewed private property and the general social life, +and forming themselves into communistic congregations which were a +sort of social Utopia, devoted their lives to the cult of piety and +saintliness. It cannot be doubted that their manner of life was to +some degree an imitation of the Pythagorean brotherhoods, which +ever since the sixth century had spread a sort of monasticism +through the Greek world. Nor is it unlikely that Hindu teachings +exercised an influence over them, for Buddhism was at this age, +like Judaism, a missionizing religion, and had teachers in the +West. Philo speaks in several places of its doctrines.<a name= +"FNanchor_59_59" id="FNanchor_59_59"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_59_59">[59]</a> Whatever its moulding influences, +Essenism represented the spirit of the age, and it spread far and +wide. At Alexandria, above all places, where the life of luxury and +dissoluteness <span class="newpage"><a name="page_55" id= +"page_55">[pg.55]</a></span> repelled the serious, ascetic ideas +took firm hold of the people, and the Therapeutic life, +<i>i.e.</i>, the life of prayer and labor devoted to God, which +corresponded to the system of the Essenes, had numerous votaries. +The first century witnessed the extremes of the religious and +irreligious sentiments. The world was weary and jaded; it had lost +confidence in human reason and faith in social ideals, and while +the materialists abandoned themselves to hideous orgies and sensual +debaucheries, the higher-minded went to the opposite excess and +sought by flight from the world and mortification of the flesh to +attain to supernatural states of ecstasy. A book has come down to +us under the name of Philo<a name="FNanchor_60_60" id= +"FNanchor_60_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_60_60">[60]</a> which +describes "the contemplative life" of a Jewish brotherhood that +lived apart on the shores of Lake Mareotis by the mouth of the +Nile. Men and women lived in the settlement, though all intercourse +between the sexes was rigidly avoided. During six days of the week +they met in prayer, morning and evening, and in the interval +devoted themselves in solitude to the practice of virtue and the +study of the holy allegories, and the composition of hymns and +psalms. On the Sabbath they sat in common assembly, but with the +women separated from the men, and listened to the allegorical +homily of an elder; they paid special honor to the Feast of +Pentecost, reverencing the mystical attributes of the number fifty, +and they celebrated a religious banquet <span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_56" id="page_56">[pg.56]</a></span> +thereon. During the rest of the year they only partook of the +sustenance necessary for life, and thus in their daily conduct +realized the way which the rabbis set out as becoming for the study +of the Torah: "A morsel of bread with salt thou must eat, and water +by measure thou must drink; thou must sleep upon the ground and +live a life of hardship, the while thou toilest in the +Torah."<a name="FNanchor_61_61" id="FNanchor_61_61"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_61_61">[61]</a></p> +<p>We do not know whether Philo attached himself to one of these +brotherhoods of organized solitude, or whether he lived even more +strictly the solitary life out in the wilderness by himself. +Certainly he was at one period in sympathy with ascetic ideas. It +seemed to him that as God was alone, so man must be alone in order +to be like God.<a name="FNanchor_62_62" id= +"FNanchor_62_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_62_62">[62]</a> In his +earlier writings he is constantly praising the ascetic life, as a +means, indeed, to virtue rather than as a good in itself, and as a +helpful discipline to the man of incomplete moral strength, though +inferior to the spontaneous goodness which God vouchsafes to the +righteous. Isaac is the type of this highest bliss, while the life +of Jacob is the type of the progress to virtue through +asceticism.<a name="FNanchor_63_63" id= +"FNanchor_63_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_63_63">[63]</a> The flight +from Laban represents the abandonment of family and social life for +the practical service of God, and as Jacob, the ascetic, became +Israel, "the man who beholdeth God," so Philo determined "to scorn +delights and live laborious days" in order to be drawn <span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_57" id="page_57">[pg.57]</a></span> nearer +to the true Being. But he seems to have been disappointed in his +hopes, and to have discovered that the attempt to cut out the +natural desires of man was not the true road to righteousness. "I +often," he says,<a name="FNanchor_64_64" id= +"FNanchor_64_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_64_64">[64]</a> "left my +kindred and friends and fatherland, and went into a solitary place, +in order that I might have knowledge of things worthy of +contemplation, but I profited nothing: for my mind was sore tempted +by desire and turned to opposite things. But now, sometimes even +when I am in a multitude of men, my mind is tranquil, and God +scatters aside all unworthy desires, teaching me that it is not +differences of place which affect the welfare of the soul, but God +alone, who knows and directs its activity howsoever he +pleases."</p> +<p>The noble pessimism of Philo's early days was replaced by a +noble optimism in his maturity, in which he trusted implicitly in +God's grace, and believed that God vouchsafed to the good man the +knowledge of Himself without its being necessary for him to inflict +chastisements upon his body or uproot his inclinations. In this +mood moderation is represented as the way of salvation; the +abandonment of family and social life is selfish, and betrays a +lack of the humanity which the truly good man must possess.<a name= +"FNanchor_65_65" id="FNanchor_65_65"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_65_65">[65]</a> Of Philo's own domestic life we catch +only a fleeting glimpse in his writings. He realized the place of +woman in the home; "her absence is its destruction," <span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_58" id="page_58">[pg.58]</a></span><br> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">he said; and of his wife it is +told in another of the "Fragments"</span><br> +that when asked one day in an assembly of women why she alone did +not wear any golden ornament, she replied, "The virtue of a husband +is a sufficient ornament for his wife."</p> +<p>Though in his maturity Philo renounced the ascetic life, his +ideal throughout was a mystical union with the Divine Being. To a +certain school of Judaism, which loves to make everything rational +and moderate, mysticism is alien; it was alien indeed to the +Sadducee realist and the Karaite literalist; it was alien to the +systematic Aristotelianism of Maimonides, and it is alien alike to +Western orthodox and Reform Judaism. But though often obscured and +crushed by formal systems, mysticism is deeply seated in the +religious feelings, and the race which has developed the Cabbalah +and Hasidism cannot be accused of lack of it. Every great religion +fosters man's aspiration to have direct communion with God in some +super-rational way. Particularly should this be the case with a +religion which recognizes no intermediary. The Talmudic conceptions +of <img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image13.jpg" width="208" height= +"21">, the Divine Presence, and <img alt="Hebrew; " src= +"images/image14.jpg" width="100" height="22"> the holy spirit, +which was vouchsafed to the saint, certainly are mystic, and at +Alexandria similar ideas inspired a striking development. Once +again we can trace the fertilizing influence of Greek ideas. Even +when the old naturalistic cults had flourished in Greece, and +political life had provided a worthy goal for man, mystical beliefs +and ceremonies had a powerful <span class="newpage"><a name= +"page_59" id="page_59">[pg.59]</a></span> attracion for the +Hellene; and, when the belief in the old gods had been shattered, +and with the national greatness the liberal life of the State had +passed away, he turned more and more to those rites which professed +to provide healing and rest for the sickening soul. Many of the +Alexandrian Jews must have been initiated into these Greek +mysteries, for Philo introduces into his exegesis of the law of +Moses an ordinance forbidding the practice.<a name="FNanchor_66_66" +id="FNanchor_66_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_66_66">[66]</a> He +himself advocates a more spiritual mysticism, and it is a cardinal +principle of his philosophy to treat the human soul as a god within +and its absorption in the universal Godhead as supreme bliss, the +end of all endeavor. He claimed to have attained, himself, to this +union, and to have received direct inspiration. Giving a Greek +coloring to the Hebrew notion of prophecy, "My soul," he says, "is +wont to be affected with a Divine trance and to prophesy about +things of which it has no knowledge"<a name="FNanchor_67_67" id= +"FNanchor_67_67"></a><a href="#Footnote_67_67">[67]</a>.... "Many a +time have I come with the intention of writing, and knowing exactly +what I ought to set down, but I have found my mind barren and +fruitless, and I have gone away with nothing done, but at times I +have come empty, and suddenly been full, for ideas were invisibly +rained down upon me from above, so that I was seized by a Divine +frenzy, and was lost to everything, place, people, self, speech, +and thought. I had gotten a stream of interpretation, <span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_60" id="page_60">[pg.60]</a></span> a gift +of light, a clear survey of things, the clearest that eye can +give."<a name="FNanchor_68_68" id="FNanchor_68_68"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_68_68">[68]</a></p> +<p>In his "Guide of the Perplexed,"<a name="FNanchor_69_69" id= +"FNanchor_69_69"></a><a href="#Footnote_69_69">[69]</a> Maimonides +describes the various degrees of the <img alt="Hebrew; " src= +"images/image14.jpg" width="100" height="22">, or what we call +religious "genius," with which man may be blessed. He distinguishes +between the man who possesses it only for his own exaltation, and +the man who feels himself compelled to impart it to others for +their happiness. To this higher order of genius Philo advanced in +his maturity. He consciously regarded himself as a follower of +Moses, who was the perfect interpreter of God's thought. So he, +though in a lesser degree, was an inspired interpreter, a +hierophant (as he expressed it in the language of the Greek +mystics) who expounded the Divine Word to his own generation by the +gift of the Divine wisdom. When he had fled from Alexandria, to +secure virtue by contemplation, he had as his final goal the +attainment of the true knowledge of God, and as he advanced in age, +he advanced in decision and authority. He was conscious of his +philosophic grasp of the Torah, and the diffidence with which he +allegorized in his early works gave place to a serene confidence +that he had a lesson for his own and for future generations. Hoping +for the time when Judaism should be a world-religion, he spoke his +message for Jew and Gentile. We can imagine him preaching on +Sabbaths to the <span class="newpage"><a name="page_61" id= +"page_61">[pg.61]</a></span> great congregation which filled the +synagogue at Alexandria, and on other days of the week expounding +his philosophical ideas to a smaller circle which he collected +around him.</p> +<p>Essentially, then, he was a philosopher and a teacher, but he +was called upon to play a part in the world of action. Following +the passage already quoted, wherein Philo speaks of the blessings +of the life of contemplation that he had led in the past,<a name= +"FNanchor_70_70" id="FNanchor_70_70"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_70_70">[70]</a> he goes on to relate how that "envy, the +most grievous of all evils, attacked me, and threw me into the vast +sea of public affairs, in which I am still tossed about without +being able to make my way out." A French scholar<a name= +"FNanchor_71_71" id="FNanchor_71_71"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_71_71">[71]</a> conjectures that this is only a +metaphorical way of saying that he was forced into some public +office, probably, a seat in the Alexandrian Sanhedrin; and he +ascribes the language to the bitter disappointment of one who was +devoted to philosophical pursuits and found himself diverted from +them. Philo's language points rather to duties which he was +compelled to undertake less congenial than those of a member of the +Sanhedrin would have been; and probably must refer to the polemical +activity which he was called upon to exert in defending his people +against misrepresentation and persecution. During the reign of +Augustus and the early years of Tiberius (30 B.C.E.-20 C.E.) the +Roman provinces were firmly ruled, and <span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_62" id="page_62">[pg.62]</a></span> the +governors were as firmly controlled by the emperor. To Rectus, who +was the prefect of Egypt till 14 C.E., and who was removed for +attempted extortion, Tiberius addressed the rebuke, "I want my +sheep to be shorn, not strangled." But when Tiberius fell under the +influence of Sejanus, and left to his hated minister the active +control of the empire, harder times began for the provincials, and +especially for the Jews. Sejanus was an upstart, and like most +upstarts a tyrant; and for some reason—it may be jealousy of +the power of the Jews at Rome—he hated the Jewish race and +persecuted it. The great opponent of Sejanus was Antonia, the ward +of Philo's brother, and a loyal friend to his people; and this, +too, may have incited Sejanus' ill-feeling. Whatever the reason, +the Alexandrian Jews felt the heavy hand, and when Philo came to +write the story of his people in his own times, he devoted one book +to the persecution by Sejanus. Unfortunately it has not survived, +but veiled hints of the period of stress through which the people +passed are not wanting in the commentary on the law.</p> +<p>There were always anti-Semites spoiling for a fight at +Alexandria, and there was always inflammable material which they +could stir up. The Egyptian populace were by nature, says Philo, +"jealous and envious, and were filled moreover with an ancient and +inveterate enmity towards the Jews,"<a name="FNanchor_72_72" id= +"FNanchor_72_72"></a><a href="#Footnote_72_72">[72]</a> and of the +degenerate Greek population, many were anxious from motives +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_63" id= +"page_63">[pg.63]</a></span> of private gain as well as from +religious enmity to incite an outbreak; since the Jews were wealthy +and the booty would be great. Among the cultured, too, there was +one philosophical school powerful at Alexandria, which maintained a +persistent attitude of hostility towards the Jews. The chief +literary anti-Semites of whom we have record at this period were +Stoics, and it is probably their "envy" to which Philo refers when +he complains of being drawn into the sea of politics. In writings +and in speeches the Stoic leaders Apion and Chæremon carried +on a campaign of misrepresentation, and sought to give their +attacks a fine humanitarian justification by drawing fancy pictures +of the Jewish religion and Jewish laws. The Jews worshipped the +head of an ass,<a name="FNanchor_73_73" id= +"FNanchor_73_73"></a><a href="#Footnote_73_73">[73]</a> they hated +the Gentiles, and would have no communication with them, they +killed Gentile children at the Passover, and their law allowed them +to commit any offences against all but their own people, and +inculcated a low morality. When it was not morally bad, it was +degraded and superstitious. Whereas the modern anti-Semite usually +complains about Jewish success and dangerous cleverness, Apion +accused them of having produced no original ideas and no great men, +and no citizen as worthy of Alexandria as himself! Against these +charges Philo, the most philosophical Jew of the time and the most +distinguished member of the Alexandrian <span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_64" id="page_64">[pg.64]</a></span> +community, was called upon to defend his people, and that part of +his works which Eusebius calls <img alt="Greek: Hypotheticha" src= +"images/image15.jpg" width="84" height="19">; <i>i.e.</i> +apologetics, was probably written in reply to the Stoic attacks. +The hatred of the Stoics was a religious hatred, which is the +bitterest of all; the Stoics were the propagators of a rival +religious system, which had originally been founded by Hellenized +Semites and borrowed much from Semitic sources. They had their +missionaries everywhere and aspired to found a universal +philosophical religion. In their proselytizing activity they tried +to assimilate to their pantheism the mythological religion of the +masses, and thus they became the philosophical supporters of +idolatry. Their greatest religious opponents were the Jews, who not +only refused to accept their teachings, but preached to the nations +a transcendental monotheism against their impersonal and +accommodating pantheism, and a divinely-revealed law of conduct +against their vague natural reason. In the Stoic pantheism the +first stand of the pagan national deities was made against the God +of Israel, and at Alexandria during the first century the fight +waxed fierce. It was a fight of ideas in which persons only were +victims, but at the back of the intermittent persecutions of which +we have record we may always surmise the influence of the Stoic +anti-Semites. The war of words translated itself from time to time +into the breaking of heads.</p> +<p>Philo, indeed, never mentions Apion by name, but he refers +covertly in many places to his insolence and <span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_65" id="page_65">[pg.65]</a></span> +unscrupulousness.<a name="FNanchor_74_74" id= +"FNanchor_74_74"></a><a href="#Footnote_74_74">[74]</a> Josephus +wrote a famous reply to his attacks, refuting "his vulgar abuse, +gross ignorance and demagogic claptrap,"<a name="FNanchor_75_75" +id="FNanchor_75_75"></a><a href="#Footnote_75_75">[75]</a> and the +fact that a Palestinian Jew thought this apology necessary, proves +the wide dissemination of the poison. The disgrace and death of +Sejanus seem to have brought a relief from actual persecution to +the Alexandrian Jews; but the ill-will between the two races in the +city smouldered on, and it only required a weakening of the +controlling hand at Rome to set the passions aflame again. Right +through Philo's treatise "On the Confusion of Tongues," we can +trace the tension. As soon as Gaius, surnamed Caligula, came to the +imperial chair, the opportunity of the anti-Semites returned. +Gaius, after reigning well a few months, fell ill, was seized with +madness, and proved how much evil can be done in a short space by +an imbecile autocrat. Flaccus, the governor of Egypt, who had +hitherto ruled fairly, hoping to ingratiate himself by misrule, +allowed himself to be led by worthless minions, who, from motives +of private greed, desired a riot at Alexandria; he was won over by +the anti-Semites and gave the mob a free hand in their attacks upon +the "alien Jews."<a name="FNanchor_76_76" id= +"FNanchor_76_76"></a><a href="#Footnote_76_76">[76]</a> The arrival +of Agrippa, the grandson of Herod, who was on his way to his +kingdom of Palestine, which the capricious emperor had just +conferred upon him, excited the ill-will of the Alexandrian +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_66" id= +"page_66">[pg.66]</a></span> mob. Flaccus looked on while the +people attacked the Jewish quarters, sacked the houses, and +assailed everyone that came within their reach. The most +distinguished Jews were not spared, and thirty members of the +Council of Elders were dragged to the marketplace and scourged. +Philo's account gives a picture strikingly similar to that of a +modern pogrom. The brutal indifference of Flaccus did not indeed +avail to ingratiate him with the emperor, and he was recalled to +Italy, exiled, and afterwards executed.</p> +<p>The recall of Flaccus did not, however, put an end to the +troubles; the mob had got out of hand, the anti-Semitic demagogues +were elated, and a fresh opportunity for outrage soon presented +itself. The mad emperor, having exhausted ordinary human follies, +went on to imagine himself first a god and then the Supreme God, +and finally ordered his image to be set up in every temple +throughout his dominion. The Jews could not obey the order, and the +mob rushed into fresh excesses upon them, defiled the synagogues +with images of the lunatic, and in the great synagogue itself set +up a bronze statue of him, inscribed with the name of Jupiter. With +bitterness Philo points out that it was easy enough for the vile +Egyptians, who worshipped reptiles and beasts, to erect a statue of +the emperor in their temples; for the Jews, with their lofty idea +of God, it was impossible. Against the attack upon their liberty of +conscience they appealed directly to Gaius. An embassy was sent to +lay their case before him, and Philo went to Italy at the +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_67" id= +"page_67">[pg.67]</a></span> head of the embassy. "He who is +learned, gentle, and modest, and who is beloved of men, he shall be +leader in the city." So said one of the rabbis of old, and the +maxim is especially appropriate to Philo, who in name and deed was +"beloved of men." Philo has left us a very full account of his +mission, so that this incident of his life is a patch of bright +light, which stands out almost glaringly from the general shadow. +The account is not merely, nor, indeed, entirely history. Looking +always for a sermon or a subject for a philosophical lesson, Philo +has tricked out the record of the facts with much moralizing +observation on the general lot of mankind, and elaborated the part +of Providence more in the spirit of religious romance than of +scientific history. Yet the main facts are clear. Philo prepared a +long philosophical "apologia" for the Jews and set out with five +colleagues for Italy. Nor were the enemies of the Jews remiss; and +Apion, the Alexandrian anti-Semite, was sent at the head of a +hostile deputation. The emperor, Gaius, was in one of his most +flippant moods and little inclined to listen to philosophical or +literary disquisitions. At first he received the Jewish deputation +in a friendly way, and led them to think that he was favorable; but +when they came to plead their cause, they had a rude awakening. +Philo, who was not likely to appreciate the bitter humor of the +situation, tells<a name="FNanchor_77_77" id= +"FNanchor_77_77"></a><a href="#Footnote_77_77">[77]</a> with +gravity that he expected that <span class="newpage"><a name= +"page_68" id="page_68">[pg.68]</a></span> the emperor would hear +the two contending parties in all proper judicial form, but that in +fact he behaved like an insolent, overbearing tyrant. The +audience—if it can be so called—took place in the +gardens of the palace, and the emperor dragged the unfortunate +deputation after him about the place, while he gave orders to his +gardeners, builders, and workmen. Whenever they tried to put +forward their arguments, he would rush ahead, enjoying the fright +and dismay of his helpless victims. At times he would stop to make +some ribald and jeering remark, as, "Why don't you eat pork, you +fools?" at which the Egyptians following loudly applauded. Philo +and his comrades, half-dead with agony, could only pray; and in +response to the prayer, says our moralizing chronicler, the +emperor's heart was turned to pity, so that he dismissed them +without giving any hostile answer. According to Josephus, he drove +them away in a passion, and Philo had to cheer his companions by +assuring them of the Divine aid.<a name="FNanchor_78_78" id= +"FNanchor_78_78"></a><a href="#Footnote_78_78">[78]</a></p> +<p>The affair was a pathetic farce, and the Jewish actors in it had +a sorry time. The people about the palace, taking their lead from +the emperor, treated them as clowns, and hissed and mocked them, +and even beat them. The scene is somewhat revolting when one +conjures up the picture of the aged Jewish philosopher being +roughly handled by the set of ruffians and impudent slaves who +surrounded a Roman emperor. Happily Gaius jeered once too often in +his <span class="newpage"><a name="page_69" id= +"page_69">[pg.69]</a></span> mad life. One Chaerea, a Roman of +position, nursed an insult of the emperor, and stabbed him shortly +after these events; and the world had the respite of a tolerably +sane emperor before the crowning horror of Nero was let loose upon +it.</p> +<p>The murder of the capricious tyrant released not only the Jews +of Alexandria, but also the Jews of Palestine, from the burden of +fear for their religion. The order had been given to set up a +bronze statue of the emperor in the temple; the Roman governor +Petronius was averse to obeying the edict, but the emperor +insisted. King Agrippa, who had been but lately advanced by him to +the kingdom of Judæa, interceded zealously on behalf of his +people. Philo gives us an account of this appeal by the Jewish +king,<a name="FNanchor_79_79" id="FNanchor_79_79"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_79_79">[79]</a> which recalls at every turn the scenes +of the book of Esther. We have again the fasting, the banquet, the +emperor's request, the appeal of the royal favorite for his people. +One higher critic, indeed, has been found to suggest that the +Biblical book really relates Agrippa's intercession at Rome +disguised in the setting of a Persian story. Agrippa secured for a +short time the rescission of the fateful decree, but the capricious +madman soon returned to his old frame of mind, and ordered his +image to be set up immediately. Had not his death intervened, there +would certainly have been rebellion in Palestine. As it was, the +great revolt was postponed for thirty years. For a little the Jews +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_70" id= +"page_70">[pg.70]</a></span> prevailed over their adversaries; the +anti-Semitic influences were put down in Judæa and in +Alexandria, and in both places "there was light and joy and +gladness for the Jews." Their political privileges were reaffirmed +by imperial decree, and Philo's brother Alexander, who had been +imprisoned, was restored to honor.<a name="FNanchor_80_80" id= +"FNanchor_80_80"></a><a href="#Footnote_80_80">[80]</a> "It is +fitting," ran the rescript of Claudius, "to permit the Jews +everywhere under our sway to observe their ancient customs without +hindrance. And I charge them to use my indulgence with moderation, +and not to show contempt for the religious rites of other +peoples."</p> +<p>The note of triumph rings through the political references to be +found in the last parts of Philo's allegorical commentary, and no +doubt it was accentuated in the lost book which he added as an +epilogue, or palinode, to his history of the embassy. God had again +preserved his people, and discomfited their foes; +recently-discovered papyri have revealed that the arch +anti-Semites, Isidorus and Lampon, were tried at Rome and executed. +Claudius was well-disposed to the Jewish race, and before the final +storm there was a calm. Howbeit, after the death of Agrippa, in 44 +C.E., Judæa became a Roman province, and under the rapacious +governorship of Felix Florus and Cestius Gallus, the hostility of +the people to the Romans grew more and more bitter. But in +Alexandria there was tranquillity, or at least we know of no +disquieting events during the next decade. <span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_71" id="page_71">[pg.71]</a></span> "Old +age," said Philo, "is an unruffled harbor,"<a name="FNanchor_81_81" +id="FNanchor_81_81"></a><a href="#Footnote_81_81">[81]</a> and the +saying refers possibly to his own experience. For he must have died +full of years and full of honors. Through his life he was the +spiritual and philosophical guide, and finally he had become the +champion of his people against their persecutors, giving dignity to +their cause and inspiring respect even in their enemies. He was +happy in the time of his death, for he did not live to see the +destruction of the national home of his people and of that temple +which he had loved to contemplate as the future centre of a +universal religion. The disintegration of his own community at +Alexandria followed full soon on the greater disaster; the temple +of Onias was dismantled and interdicted against Jewish worship by +Vespasian in the year 73 C.E., and though, as has been noted, this +was not in itself of great importance, it is symbolic of the +uprooting of national life in the Diaspora as well as in Palestine +itself. On the downfall of Jerusalem in 70 C.E. many of the extreme +anti-Roman party, known as the Zealots, fled to Alexandria and +stirred up rebellion and dissension. Nothing but disaster could +have attended the outbreak, but it is a sad reflection that the +governor who put it down and ruthlessly exterminated the rebels was +none other than Tiberius Alexander, the nephew of Philo, who was in +turn procurator of Judæa and Egypt. By another irony of +history he had in the previous year been largely instrumental in +securing for Vespasian, <span class="newpage"><a name="page_72" id= +"page_72">[pg.72]</a></span> who was besieging Jerusalem, the +imperial throne of Rome.<a name="FNanchor_82_82" id= +"FNanchor_82_82"></a><a href="#Footnote_82_82">[82]</a> With him +ends our knowledge of Philo's family, and it ends significantly +with one who has ceased to be a Jew. The ruin of the +Jewish-Alexandrian community was completed by a desperate revolt in +the reign of Trajan, 114-117 C.E., after which they were deprived +of their chief political privileges; and finally, after incessant +conflicts with the Christians, they were expelled from the city by +the all-powerful Bishop Cyril (415 C.E.).</p> +<p>Philo himself passed out of Jewish tradition within a short +time, to become a Christian worthy. The destruction of the nation +and the gradual severance of the Christian heresy from the main +community compelled the abandonment of missionary activity and +distrust of the work of its exponents. The dangerous aspect of the +Alexandrian development was revealed. Its philosophical +allegorizing might attract the Gentile to the Jewish Scriptures, +but it also led the Jew away from his special conduct of life. The +Alexandrian Church, which claimed to continue the tradition of +Philo, departed further and further from the Jewish standpoint, and +formulated a dogmatic creed that was utterly opposed to Jewish +monotheism. A philosophical Judaism for the whole world was a +splendid ideal, but unfortunately in Philo's time it was incapable +of accomplishment. The result of the attempt to found it was the +establishment of a religion in which, together with the adoption of +Hebraic <span class="newpage"><a name="page_73" id= +"page_73">[pg.73]</a></span> teachings about God, certain ideas of +Alexandrian mysticism became stereotyped as dogmas, and Jewish law +was abrogated. When Babylon replaced Palestine as the centre of +Jewish intellect, the works of Philo, like the rest of the +Hellenistic-Jewish literature, written as they were in a strange +tongue, fell into disuse, and before long were entirely forgotten. +The Christians, on the other hand, found in Philo a notable +evidence for many of their beliefs and a philosophical testimony +for the dogmas of their creed. They claimed him as their own, and +the Church Fathers, to bind him more closely to their tradition, +invented fables of his meeting with Peter at Rome and Mark at +Alexandria, They traced, in the treatise "On the Contemplative +Life," a record of early Christian monastic communities, and on +account of this book especially regarded Philo almost with the +reverence of an apostle. To the Christian theologians of Alexandria +we owe it that the interpretation of Judaism to the Hellenic world +in the light of Hellenic philosophy has been preserved. Of the two +Jewish philosophers who have made a great contribution to the +world's intellectual development, Spinoza was excommunicated in his +lifetime, and Philo suffered moral excommunication after his death. +The writings of both exercised their chief influence outside the +community; but the emancipated Jewry of our own day can in either +case recognize the worth of the thinker, and point with pride to +the saintliness of the man. <span class="newpage"><a name="page_74" +id="page_74">[pg.74]</a></span></p> +<hr style="width: 65%;"> +<br> +<br> +<br> +<br> +<a name="III" id="III"></a> +<h2>III</h2> +<p>PHILO'S WORKS AND METHOD</p> +<br> +<p>The first thing that strikes a reader of Philo is the great +volume of his work: he is the first Jewish writer to produce a +large and systematic body of writings, the first to develop +anything in the nature of a complete Jewish philosophy. He had +essentially the literary gift, the capacity of giving lasting +expression to his own thought and the thought of his generation. +Treating him merely as a man of letters, he is one of the chief +figures in Greek literature of the first century. We have extant +over forty books of his composition, and nearly as many again have +disappeared. His works are one and all expositions of Judaism, but +they fall into six distinct classes of exegesis:</p> +<p>I. The allegorical commentary, or "Allegories of the Laws," +which is a series of philosophical treatises based upon continuous +texts in Genesis, from the first to the eighteenth chapter. +Together with this, the best authorities place the two remaining +books on the "Dreams of the Bible," which are a portion of a larger +work, and deal allegorically with the dreams of Jacob and +Joseph.</p> +<p>II. The Midrashic commentary on the Five Books of Moses, for +which we have no single name, but <span class="newpage"><a name= +"page_75" id="page_75">[pg.75]</a></span> which was clearly +intended to be an ethical and philosophical treatise upon the whole +law.</p> +<p>III. A commentary in the form of "Questions and Answers to +Genesis and Exodus," which is incomplete now, and save for detached +fragments exists only in a Latin translation. In its original form +it provided a short running exegesis, verse by verse, to the whole +of the first three books of the Pentateuch, and was contained in +twelve parts.</p> +<p>IV. A popular and missionizing presentation of the Jewish system +in the form of a "Life of Moses," and three appended tractates on +the virtues "Courage," "Humanity," and "Repentance." +Scholars<a name="FNanchor_83_83" id="FNanchor_83_83"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_83_83">[83]</a> are of opinion that there are gaps in +the extant "Life of Moses," but the general plan of the work is +clear. It is at once an abstract and an interpretation of Jewish +law for the Greek world, and also an ideal biography of the Jewish +lawgiver.</p> +<p>V. Philosophical monographs, not so intimately connected with +the Bible as the preceding works; but in the nature of rhetorical +exercises upon the stock subjects of the schools, which receive a +Jewish coloring by reason of Biblical illustrations.</p> +<p>VI. Historical and apologetic works that set out the case of the +contemporary Jews against their persecutors and traducers. Of these +writings the larger part has disappeared, and of a portion of those +which remain the genuineness has been doubted.</p> +<p>Lastly, there is a miscellaneous number of works <span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_76" id="page_76">[pg.76]</a></span> +ascribed to Philo, which all good scholars<a name="FNanchor_84_84" +id="FNanchor_84_84"></a><a href="#Footnote_84_84">[84]</a> now +admit to be spurious: "On the Incorruptibility of the World," "On +the Universe," "On Samson," and "On Jonah," etc.</p> +<p>It will be seen from this classification of Philo's works, that +he has dealt in several ways with the Biblical material. The reason +of this is partly that his mind developed, and the interpretation +of his maturer years differed widely from that of his earliest +writings. Partly, however, it arises from the fact that the +different treatments were meant for different audiences, and Philo +always took the measure of those whom he was addressing. His most +representative works are "a triple cord" with which he binds the +Jewish Scripture to Greek culture. For the Greek-speaking populace +he set out a broad statement of the Mosaic law; for the cultured +community of Alexandria, Jew and Gentile, a more elaborate +exegesis, in which each character and each ordinance of the +Pentateuch received a particular ethical value; and, finally, for +the esoteric circle of Hellenic-Jewish philosophers, a theological +and psychological study of the allegories of the law. Origen, the +first great Christian exegete of the Bible and a close student of +the Philonic writings, distinguished three forms of interpreting: +the historical, the moral, and the philosophical; he probably took +the distinction from Philo, who exemplifies it in his commentaries +upon the Books of Moses. <span class="newpage"><a name="page_77" +id="page_77">[pg.77]</a></span> Varied as is its scope, the +religious idea dominates all his work, and endows it with one +spirit. Whether he is writing philosophical, ethical, or mystical +commentary, whether history, apology, or essay, his purpose is to +assert the true notion of the one God, and the Divine excellence of +God's revelation to His chosen people. Thus he regards history as a +theodicy, vindicating the ways of God to man, and His special +providence for Israel; philosophy as the inner meaning of the +Scriptures, revealed by God in mystic communion with His holy +prophets,<a name="FNanchor_85_85" id="FNanchor_85_85"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_85_85">[85]</a> and, if comprehended aright, able to +lead us on to a true conception of His Divine being. The greater +part of the Hellenistic-Jewish literature has disappeared, but +Philo sums up for us the whole of the Alexandrian development of +Judaism. He represents it worthily in both its main aspects: the +infusion of Greek culture into the Jewish pursuit of righteousness, +and the recommendation of Jewish monotheism and the Torah to the +Greek world. Aristaeus, Aristobulus, and Artapanus are hardly more +than names, but their spirit is inherited and glorified in +Philo-Judæus. His work, therefore, is more than the +expression of one great mind; it is the record and expression of a +great culture.</p> +<p>The chronology of Philo's writings is as uncertain as the +chronology of his life. Yet it is possible to trace a deepening of +outlook and an increasing originality, if we work our way up from +the sixth to the <span class="newpage"><a name="page_78" id= +"page_78">[pg.78]</a></span> first division of the classification. +It does not follow that the works were written in this +order—and it may well be that Philo was producing at one and +the same time books of several classes—but we may use this +order as an ideal scale by which to mark off the stage of his +philosophical progress. In the first place come the <img alt= +"Greek: Hypotheticha" src="images/image15.jpg" width="84" height= +"19">, or apologetic works, which have a practical purpose. With +these we may associate the moralizing history that dealt in five +books respectively with the persecutions of Sejanus, Flaccus, and +Caligula, the ill-starred embassy, and the final triumph of the +Jews over their enemies. The <img alt="Greek: Hypotheticha " src= +"images/image15.jpg" width="84" height="19"> proper, as we gather +from Eusebius, contained a general apology for Judaism, and an +account of the Essenes—which have disappeared—and the +suspected book on the Therapeutic sect known by the title "On the +Contemplative Life." Whether they received this generic name +because they are suggestions for the Jewish cause, or because they +are written to answer the insinuations <img alt= +"Greek: chath' hypothesin" src="images/image16.jpg" width="135" +height="25"> of adversaries, is a moot point. But their general +purport is clear: they were an apologetic presentation of Jewish +life, written to show the falsity of anti-Semitic calumnies. The +Jews are good citizens and their manner of life is humanitarian. +The Essene sect is a living proof of Jewish practical socialism and +practical philosophy, the Therapeutae show the Jewish zeal for the +contemplative life.</p> +<p>Next we come to Philo's philosophical monographs, which are not, +as one might expect, the work of his <span class="newpage"><a name= +"page_79" id="page_79">[pg.79]</a></span> mature thought, but +rather the exercises of youth. Dissertations or declamations upon +hackneyed subjects were part of the regular course of the +university student at Alexandria, and Philo prepared himself for +his Jewish philosophy by composing in the approved style essays +upon "Providence," "The Liberty of the Good," and "The Slavery of +the Wicked," etc. What chiefly distinguishes them above other +collections of commonplaces is the appeal to the Bible for types of +goodness, and here again the Essenes figure as the type of the +philosophical life.<a name="FNanchor_86_86" id= +"FNanchor_86_86"></a><a href="#Footnote_86_86">[86]</a> The writer, +while still engaged in the studies of the Greek university, is +feeling his way towards his system of universal Mosaism.</p> +<p>This he expounds confidently and enthusiastically in his "Life +of Moses." Philo in this book is not any longer the apt pupil of +Greek philosophers, nor the eloquent defender of the +Jewish-Alexandrian community against lying detractors. He preaches +a mission to the whole world, and he lays before it his gospel of +monotheism and humanity. Each Greek school has its ideal type, its +Socrates, Diogenes, or Pythagoras; but Philo places above them all +"the most perfect man that ever lived, Moses, the legislator of the +Jews,<a name="FNanchor_87_87" id="FNanchor_87_87"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_87_87">[87]</a> as some hold, but according to others +the interpreter of the sacred laws, and the greatest of men in +every way." And above all the ethical systems of the day he sets +the law of life that God <span class="newpage"><a name="page_80" +id="page_80">[pg.80]</a></span> revealed to His greatest prophet: +"The laws of the Greek legislators are continually subject to +change; the laws of Moses alone remain steady, unmoved, unshaken, +stamped as it were with the seal of nature herself, from the day +when they were written to the present day, and will so remain for +all time so long as the world endures. Not only the Jews but all +other peoples who care for righteousness adopt them.... Let all men +follow this code and the age of universal peace will come about, +the kingdom of God on earth will be established."<a name= +"FNanchor_88_88" id="FNanchor_88_88"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_88_88">[88]</a> Nor is the Greek to fear the lot of a +proselyte. "God loves the man who turns from idolatry to the true +faith not less than the man who has been a believer all his +life;"<a name="FNanchor_89_89" id="FNanchor_89_89"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_89_89">[89]</a> and in the little essays upon Repentance +and Nobility, which are attached to the larger treatise, Philo +appeals to his own people to welcome the stranger within the +community. "The Life of Moses" is the greatest attempt to set +monotheism before the world made before the Christian gospels. And +it is truer to the Jewish spirit, because it breathes on every page +love for the Torah. Philo in very truth wished to fulfil the +law.</p> +<p>If Judaism was to be the universal religion, it must be shown to +contain the ultimate truth both about real being, <i>i.e.</i> God, +and about ethics; for the philosophical world in that age—and +the philosophical world included all educated people—demanded +of <span class="newpage"><a name="page_81" id= +"page_81">[pg.81]</a></span> religion that it should be +philosophical, and of philosophy that it should be religious. The +desire to expound Judaism in this way is the motive of Philo's +three Biblical commentaries. The "Questions and Answers to Genesis +and Exodus" constitute a preliminary study to the more elaborate +works which followed. In them Philo is collecting his material, +formulating his ideas, and determining the main lines of his +allegory. They are a type of Midrash in its elementary stage, the +explanation of the teacher to the pupil who has difficulties about +the words of the law: at once like and unlike the old Tannaitic +Midrash; like in that they deal with difficulties in the literal +text of the Bible; unlike in that the reply of Philo is Agadic more +usually than Halakic, speculative rather than practical. In these +books,<a name="FNanchor_90_90" id="FNanchor_90_90"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_90_90">[90]</a> as has been pointed out, there are +numerous interpretations which Philo shares with the Palestinian +schools. A few specimens taken from the first book will illustrate +Philo's plan, but it should be mentioned that in every case he sets +out the simple meaning of the text, the <i>Peshat</i>, as well as +the inner meaning, or <i>Derash</i>.</p> +<p>"Why does it say: 'And God made every green herb of the field +before it was upon the earth'? (Gen. ii. 4.)</p> +<p>"By these words he suggests symbolically the incorporeal Idea. +The phrase, 'before it was upon the earth,' marks the original +perfection of every plant <span class="newpage"><a name="page_82" +id="page_82">[pg.82]</a></span> and herb. The eternal types were +first created in the noetic world, and the physical objects on +earth, perceptible by the senses, were made in their likeness."</p> +<p>In this way Philo reads into the first chapter of the Bible the +Platonic idealism which we shall see was a fundamental part of his +philosophy.</p> +<p>"Why, when Enoch died, does it say, 'And he pleased God'? (Gen. +v. 24.)</p> +<p>"He says this to teach that the soul is immortal, inasmuch as +after it is released from the body it continues to please."</p> +<p>"What is the meaning of the expression, 'And Noah opened the +roof of the ark'? (Gen. viii. 13.)</p> +<p>"The text appears to need no interpretation; but in its +symbolical meaning the ark is our body, and that which covers the +body and for a long time preserves its strength is spoken of as its +roof. And this is appetite. Hence when the mind is attracted by a +desire for heavenly things, it springs upwards and makes away with +all material desires. It removes that which threw a shade over it +so as to reach the eternal Ideas."</p> +<p>The "Questions and Answers" are essentially Hebraic in form, +designed for Jews who knew and studied their Bible; and we can feel +in them the influences of a training in traditional Mishnah and +Midrash; but Philo passed from them to a more artistic expression +and a more thoroughly Hellenized presentation of the philosophy of +the Bible. This work is the largest extant expression of his +thought and mission; it embraces the treatises which we know +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_83" id= +"page_83">[pg.83]</a></span> as "On the Creation of the World," +"The Lives of Abraham and Joseph," "On the Decalogue," and finally +those "On the Specific Laws," which are partly thus entitled and +partly have separate ethical names, as "On Honoring Parents," "On +Rewards and Punishments," "On Justice," etc. Large portions of it +have disappeared, notably the "Lives of Isaac and Jacob"; and also +the "Life of Moses," which was introductory to his laws. For the +book which we have under that name does not belong to the series, +but is separate. The purpose of the work broadly is to deepen the +value of the Bible for the Jews by revealing its constant spiritual +message, and to assert its value for the whole of humanity by +showing in it a philosophical conception of the universe and its +creation, the most lofty ethical and moral types, the most +admirable laws, and, above all, the purest ideas of God and His +relation to man. All that seems tribal and particularist is +explained away, and the spiritual aspect of every chapter—of +every word almost—of the Torah is emphasized. Philo expounds +the sacred book, not of one particular nation, but of mankind. The +Roman and Greek peoples were waiting for a religious message which +should at once harmonize with rational ideas and satisfy their +longing for God. All the philosophical schools were converting the +scientific systems of the classical age into <img alt= +"Greek: Tropoi Biou" src="images/image17.jpg" width="103" height= +"22">, "plans of life," and Philo challenges them all with a new +faith which has as its basis a God who not only was the sole +Creator and Ruler of <span class="newpage"><a name="page_84" id= +"page_84">[pg.84]</a></span> the world, but who had revealed to man +the way of happiness, and the good life, social as well as +individual. To-day, when the world about us has accepted—or +has professed to accept—the ethical law of the Bible, we are +apt to regard the essentials of Judaism as the belief in One God +and the observance of ceremonies. But to Philo Judaism was +something more comprehensive. It was the spiritual life, and the +Mosaic law is the complete code of the Divine Republic, of which +all are or can be citizens. In the introduction to the "Life of +Abraham," Philo explains the scheme of his work:<a name= +"FNanchor_91_91" id="FNanchor_91_91"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_91_91">[91]</a></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>"'The Sacred Laws' [as he regularly calls the Bible] were +written in five books, of which the first is entitled Genesis. It +derives its title from the account of the creation which it +contains, though it deals also with endless other subjects, peace +and war, hunger and plenty, great cataclysms, and the histories of +good and evil men. We have examined with great care the accounts of +the creation in our former treatise ['On the Making of the +Universe'], and we now go on naturally to inquire into the laws; +and postponing the particular laws, which are as it were copies, we +will first of all examine the more universal, which are their +models. Now men who have lived irreproachable lives are these laws, +and their virtues are recorded in the Holy Scriptures not only by +way of eulogy, but in order to lead on those who read about them to +emulate their life. They are become living standards of right +reason, whom the lawgiver has glorified for two reasons: (1) To +show that the laws laid down are consistent with nature [the +conception of a <span class="newpage"><a name="page_85" id= +"page_85">[pg.85]</a></span> natural law binding upon all peoples +was one of the fixed ideas of the age]. (2) To show that it is not +a matter of terrible labor to live according to our positive laws +if a man has the will to do so; seeing that the patriarchs +spontaneously followed the unwritten principles before any of the +particular laws were written. So that a man may properly say that +the code of law is only a memorial of the lives of the patriarchs. +For the patriarchs, of their own accord and impulse, chose to +follow nature, and, regarding her course with truth as the most +ancient ordinance, they lived a life according to the law."</p> +</div> +<p>Philo dwells affectionately on the patriarchs, because, as he +held, they proved the Jewish life to be truest to man's nature and +to the highest ideal of humanity, and served therefore as examples +to the Gentile world of the universal truth of the religion. The +rabbis also took the patriarchs as the perfect type of our life, +saying, "Everything that happens to them is a sign to future +generations,"<a name="FNanchor_92_92" id= +"FNanchor_92_92"></a><a href="#Footnote_92_92">[92]</a> and again: +"The patriarchs are the true <img alt="Hebrew; " src= +"images/image18.jpg" width="56" height="16">, manifestation of +God." But while he emphasized the broad moral teachings of Judaism +exemplified by the patriarchs, Philo nevertheless upheld in its +integrity the Mosaic law, and found in every one of the six hundred +and thirteen precepts a spiritual meaning. Even the details of the +tabernacle offerings have their universal lesson when he expounds +them as symbols. Voltaire speaks cynically of Judaism as a religion +of sacrifices: Philo shows that the ritual of sacrifice +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_86" id= +"page_86">[pg.86]</a></span> suggests moral lessons. The command of +the red heifer, a part of the law which was particularly subject to +attack, emphasizes the law of moral as well as of physical +cleanliness. The prohibition to add honey or leaven to the +sacrifice<a name="FNanchor_93_93" id="FNanchor_93_93"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_93_93">[93]</a> (Lev. ii. 13) points the lesson that all +superfluous pleasure is unrighteous; and so on with each +prescription.</p> +<p>The Mosaic code in his exposition is commensurate with life in +all its aspects. It deals not only with the duties of the +individual but also with the good government of the state. The life +of Joseph is made the text of a political treatise, and throughout +the books "On the Specific Laws," the socialism of the Bible is +emphasized,<a name="FNanchor_94_94" id= +"FNanchor_94_94"></a><a href="#Footnote_94_94">[94]</a> and held up +as the ideal order of the future. The Jewish State is enlarged in +Philo's vision from a national theocracy into a world-city inspired +by the two ideas of love of God and love of humanity. In this +conception, no doubt, the influence of Greek philosophy is to be +seen; the Jewish interpreter keeps before him the "Republic" of +Plato, and the "Polity" of Aristotle. With him, however, the ideal +state is not a vision "laid up in heaven";<a name="FNanchor_95_95" +id="FNanchor_95_95"></a><a href="#Footnote_95_95">[95]</a> its +foundation is already laid upon earth, its capital is Jerusalem, +and it is the mission of his people to extend its borders till it +embraces all nations<a name="FNanchor_96_96" id= +"FNanchor_96_96"></a><a href="#Footnote_96_96">[96]</a>—an +idea which permeates the Jewish litany.</p> +<p>This commentary of the law is allegorical in the <span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_87" id="page_87">[pg.87]</a></span> sense +that beneath the particular law the interpreter constantly reveals +a spiritual idea, but it is not allegorical in the sense that he +makes an exchange of values. He is not for the most part reading +into the text conceptions which are not suggested by it, but really +and truly expounding; and where he gives a philosophical piece of +exegesis, as when he explains the visit of the three angels to +Abraham as a theory of the human soul about God's being,<a name= +"FNanchor_97_97" id="FNanchor_97_97"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_97_97">[97]</a> he does so with diffidence or with +reference to authorities that have founded a tradition. It is quite +otherwise with the last class of Philo's work, the fruit of his +maturest thought, with which it remains to deal.</p> +<p>Throughout the "Allegories of the Laws" he takes the verse of +the Bible not so much as a text to be amplified and interpreted, +but as a pretext for a philosophical disquisition. The allegories +indeed are only in form a commentary on the Bible; in one aspect +they are a history of the human soul, which, if they had been +completed, would have traced the upward progress from Adam to +Moses. It is not to be expected, however, that Philo should adhere +closely to any plan in the allegories. Theology, metaphysics, and +ethics have as large a part in the medley of philosophical ideas as +the story of the soul. His Hebraic mind, even when fortified by the +mastery of philosophy, was unable to present its ideas +systematically; it passed from subject to subject, weaving the +whole together only by the thread of a continuous <span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_88" id="page_88">[pg.88]</a></span> +commentary upon Genesis. Parts of the work are missing, it is true, +which adds to the seeming want of plan; and—greatest loss of +all—the first part, which gave the philosophical account of +the first chapter of Genesis, the first six days of creation, +referred to as "The Hexameron" <img alt="Greek: to Hexêmeron" +src="images/image19.jpg" width="127" height="28">, has +disappeared.<a name="FNanchor_98_98" id= +"FNanchor_98_98"></a><a href="#Footnote_98_98">[98]</a> Here must +have been the general introduction to the allegories, wherein Philo +declared his purpose and his method of exposition. The first +treatise that we possess starts abruptly with a comment on the +first verse of the second chapter, "'And the heaven and earth and +all their world were completed.' Moses has previously related the +creation of the mind and sense, and now he proceeds to describe +their perfection. Their perfection is not the individual mind or +sense, but their archetypal 'ideas.' And symbolically he calls the +mind heaven, because in heaven are the ideas of the mind, and the +sense he calls earth, because it is corporeal and +material."<a name="FNanchor_99_99" id="FNanchor_99_99"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_99_99">[99]</a></p> +<p>So in a rambling, unsystematic way Philo embarks upon a +discourse on idealism and psychology, making a fresh start +continually from a verse or a phrase of the Bible. The Biblical +narrative in the earliest chapters offered a congenial soil for his +explorations, but no ground is too stubborn for his seed. The +genealogy of Noah's sons is as fertile in suggestion as the story +of Adam and Eve, for each name represents some hidden power or +possesses some ethical import.</p> +<p><span class="newpage"><a name="page_89" id= +"page_89">[pg.89]</a></span> The allegorical commentary is clearly +the work of Philo's maturity, wherein he exhibits full mastery of +an original method of exegesis. His allegories are no longer +tentative, and he writes with the confidence of the sage, who has +received not only the admiration of his people, but the inspiration +of God. Another sign of their maturity is that asceticism seems no +longer the true path to virtue, as it was to the author of "The +Lives of the Patriarchs" and "The Specific Laws," but, on the +contrary, a moderate use of the world's goods and a share in +political life are marks of the perfect man. These characteristics +bespeak the firmer hand and the profounder experience. Yet the +series of works which form together Philo's esoteric doctrine were +certainly put together over a long period of years, as the varied +political references indicate. It has indeed been suggested by a +modern German scholar<a name="FNanchor_100_100" id= +"FNanchor_100_100"></a><a href="#Footnote_100_100">[100]</a> that +large parts were originally given in the form of detached lectures +and sermons, and that Philo later composed them together into a +continuous commentary, working them up with much literary +elaboration. In support of this theory, it may be urged that +several of the treatises contain political addresses to public +audiences, notably the <i>De Agricultura</i> and <i>De Confusione +Linguarum</i>, while in others there are invocations to prayer, or +a summons to read a passage in the Bible, addressed apparently by +the preacher to the Hazan, who had before him the scroll of the +law. From Philo's own statements we know that the wisest men used +to deliver philosophical <span class="newpage"><a name="page_90" +id="page_90">[pg.90]</a></span> homilies upon the Bible on the +Sabbath day; and it is natural that the man who was appointed to +head the Jewish embassy to Gaius had made himself known in the past +to his brethren for oratory and wisdom of speech. "Sermons," said +Jowett, "though they deal with eternal subjects, are the most +evanescent form of literature." The dictum is true for the most +part, but occasionally the sermon, by its depth of thought, the +universality of its message, and the beauty of its expression, has +become part of the world's heritage from the ages. Moreover, at +Alexandria philosophy was associated with preaching. And the +sermons of the Jewish-Hellenistic writer, in their style as well as +in their thought, represent an epoch. Philo spoke in the language +of the intellectual world of his day, and strove to associate the +intellectual precepts of Hellenism with the Hebraic passion for +righteousness. In his great moments, however, the Hebraic spirit +towers supreme. "He was," said Croiset, the historian of Greek +literature, "the first Greek prose writer who could speak to God +and of God to man with the ardent piety and reverence of the Jewish +prophets."<a name="FNanchor_101_101" id= +"FNanchor_101_101"></a><a href="#Footnote_101_101">[101]</a></p> +<p>It is a serious misconception to imagine that Philo's +philosophical allegories were meant for the general body of +Alexandrian Jews. He frequently<a name="FNanchor_102_102" id= +"FNanchor_102_102"></a><a href="#Footnote_102_102">[102]</a> +declares that he is speaking to a specially initiated sect, and +warns his hearers not to divulge his teaching. The <span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_91" id="page_91">[pg.91]</a></span> notion +of an esoteric doctrine for the aristocracy of intellect had become +a fixed idea in the Greek schools for three centuries, ever since +the days of Aristotle; and whether through Greek influence or +otherwise it had been generally adopted by the Jewish teachers. The +rabbis of the Talmud derived from the first chapters of Genesis the +inner mystery of the law, which was cognizable only by the sage; +and the same idea is found in later Jewish tradition, which, +expounding Paradise <img alt="Hebrew:prds " src= +"images/image20.jpg" width="58" height="27"> as four stages of +interpretation, each marked by a letter of the word, Peshat, Remez, +Derash, and Sod <img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image21.jpg" width= +"52" height="24">, <a name="FNanchor_103_103" id= +"FNanchor_103_103"></a><a href="#Footnote_103_103">[103]</a> +regarded the last as the final reward of the devoted seeker after +God, as it is said in the Psalms, "The secret of the Lord is for +those who fear Him." Jewish religious philosophers have in all ages +designed their work for a select few. The Halakah, or way of life, +is the fit study of the many. So Maimonides wrote his Moreh only +for those who already were masters of the law. And Philo likewise +at Alexandria taught an esoteric doctrine to an esoteric circle, +which alone was fitted to receive the profoundest theology.<a name= +"FNanchor_104_104" id="FNanchor_104_104"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_104_104">[104]</a> The allegories of the law do not take +the place of the law itself, nor of its ethical ordinances. They +are additional to the other exegesis and distinct, destined only +for the man of learning. And as we shall see, he asserts +emphatically in the midst of his allegories<a name= +"FNanchor_105_105" id="FNanchor_105_105"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_105_105">[105]</a> that the <span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_92" id="page_92">[pg.92]</a></span> +perception of the philosophical value does not release man from the +practice itself. The wise man even as the fool must obey the +law.</p> +<p>Why, it may be asked, does Philo artificially attach his +philosophy to the Scriptures? He does so for two reasons: first, +because he holds and wishes to prove that between faith and +philosophy there is no conflict, and his generation worked out the +agreement by this method; he does so also because he wishes to +establish the Torah and Judaism upon a sure foundation for the man +of outside culture. The pursuit of philosophy must have menaced the +attachment to Judaism and challenged the authority of the Bible at +Alexandria. A superficial knowledge of the materialistic or +rationalistic theories, which were propagated respectively by the +Epicurean and Stoic schools, was made the excuse for indifference +to the law. Then as now the advanced Jew would mask his +self-indulgence under the guise of a banal philosophy, and jeer +easily at archaic myths and tribal laws. The dominating motive of +Philo's work is to show that the Bible contains for those who will +seek it the richest treasures of wisdom, that its ethical teaching +is more ideal and yet more real than that which hundreds of +sophists poured forth daily in the lecture-theatres<a name= +"FNanchor_106_106" id="FNanchor_106_106"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_106_106">[106]</a> to the gaping dilettanti of learning, +and lastly that the cultured Jew may search out knowledge and truth +to their depths, and find them expressed in his holy books and +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_93" id= +"page_93">[pg.93]</a></span> in his religious beliefs and +practices. Philo frequently introduces into his philosophical +interpretation a polemic against the disintegrating and +demoralizing forces which were at work in the Alexandria of his +day. His commentary therefore is a strange medley, compounded of +idealistic speculation, theology, homiletics, moral denunciation, +and polemical rhetoric. The idea, which is not uncommon, that Philo +represents the extreme Hellenic development of Judaism, and that he +gathered into his writings the opinions of all Greek schools to the +ruin of his Jewish individuality, is utterly erroneous. In fact, he +chooses out only the valuable parts of Greek thought, which could +enter into a true harmony with the Hebraic spirit; and he not only +rejects, but he attacks unsparingly those elements which were +antagonistic to holiness and righteousness. With the enthusiasm of +a Maccabee, if with other weapons, he fought against the bastard +culture, which meant self-indulgence and the excessive attention to +the body, the idol-worship, the degraded ideas of the Divine power, +and the disregard of truth and justice, that were current in the +pagan society about him. The seeking after sensual pleasure and +luxury was the most glaring evil of his city—as the Talmud +says,<a name="FNanchor_107_107" id="FNanchor_107_107"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_107_107">[107]</a> of ten parts of lust nine were given +to Alexandria—and with every variety of denunciation he +returns again and again to the charge. Epicureanism is detestable +not only for its low idea of <span class="newpage"><a name= +"page_94" id="page_94">[pg.94]</a></span> human life, but for its +godless conception of the universe. Its theory that the world was a +fortuitous concourse of atoms, which was governed by blind chance, +and that the gods lived apart in complete indifference to +men—this was to Philo utter atheism, and as such the greatest +of sins. He attacked paganism not only in its crude form of +idolatry,<a name="FNanchor_108_108" id= +"FNanchor_108_108"></a><a href="#Footnote_108_108">[108]</a> but in +its more seductive disguise of a pretentious philosophy. Always and +entirely he was the champion of monotheism.</p> +<p>Nearly as godless, and therefore as vile in his eyes as the +follower of Epicurus, is the follower of the Stoic doctrines. It +has been shown that the Jews and the Stoics were continually in +conflict at Alexandria; and the "Allegories of the Laws" are filled +with attacks, overt and hidden, upon the Stoic doctrines. The +Stoics, indeed, believed in one supreme Divine Power, not however +in a transcendental and personal God, but a cosmic, impersonal, +fatalistic world-force.<a name="FNanchor_109_109" id= +"FNanchor_109_109"></a><a href="#Footnote_109_109">[109]</a> To +Philo this conception, with its denial of the Divine will and the +Divine care for the individual, was as atheistic as the Epicurean +"chance." Equally repulsive to his religious standpoint was the +Stoic dogma, that man is, or should be, independent of all help, +and that the human reason is all-powerful and can comprehend the +universe by its own unaided power.<a name="FNanchor_110_110" id= +"FNanchor_110_110"></a><a href="#Footnote_110_110">[110]</a> +Repulsive also were their pride, their rejection of the emotions, +their hard rationalism. The <span class="newpage"><a name="page_95" +id="page_95">[pg.95]</a></span> battle of Philo against the Stoics +is the battle of personal monotheism against impersonal pantheism, +of religious faith and revelation against arrogant rationalism, and +of idealism against materialism. Hostile as he is to the Stoic +intellectual dogmatism, Philo is none the less opposed to its +converse, intellectual skepticism and agnosticism. Man, he is +convinced, has a Divine revelation<a name="FNanchor_111_111" id= +"FNanchor_111_111"></a><a href="#Footnote_111_111">[111]</a> which +he may not deny without ruin. He holds with Pope that we have</p> +<p><span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Too much of knowledge for the +Skeptic side,</span><br> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Too much of weakness for the +Stoic's pride,"</span><br></p> +<p>and he attacks the Skeptics of the day who devoted their minds +to destructive dialectical quibbling and sophistry<a name= +"FNanchor_112_112" id="FNanchor_112_112"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_112_112">[112]</a> instead of seeking for God and the +human good. They are the Ishmaels of philosophy.</p> +<p>Philo's polemic is directed less against the Greek schools in +themselves than against the Jewish followers of the Greek schools. +He saw the danger to Judaism in the teachings of these +anti-religious philosophers, and deeply as he loved Greek culture, +he loved more deeply his religion. He wanted to reveal a philosophy +in the Bible which should win back to Judaism the men who had been +captivated by foreign thought. In one aspect, therefore, his +master-work is a plea for unity. The community at Alexandria was a +very heterogeneous body; not only were the sects which had appeared +in Palestine, the Sadducees, <span class="newpage"><a name= +"page_96" id="page_96">[pg.96]</a></span> Samaritans, Pharisees, +and Essenes, represented there too, but in addition there were +parties who attached themselves to one or other of the Greek +schools, the Pythagoreans, Skeptics, and the like, and lastly +Gnostic groups, who cultivated an esoteric doctrine of the Godhead, +and were lax in their observance of the law, which they held to be +purely symbolical and of no account in its literal meaning. The +mental activity which this growth of sects exemplified was in some +respects a healthy sign, but it contained seeds of religious chaos, +which bore their fruit in the next century. Men started by thinking +out a philosophical Judaism for themselves; they ended by ceasing +to be Jews and philosophers. Philo foresaw this danger, and he +tried to combat it by presenting his people with a commentary of +the Bible which should satisfy their intellectual and speculative +bent, but at the same time preserve their loyalty to the Bible and +the law. To the Greek world he offered a philosophical religion, to +his own people a religious philosophy. Thus the allegorical +commentary is the crowning point of his work, the offering of his +deepest thought to the most cultured of the community; and though +much of its detail had only relevancy for its own time, and its +method may repel our modern taste, yet the spirit which animates it +is of value to all ages, and should be an inspiration to every +generation of emancipated Jews. That spirit is one of fearless +acceptance of the finest culture of the age combined with +unswerving love of the law and loyalty to catholic Judaism.</p> +<p><span class="newpage"><a name="page_97" id= +"page_97">[pg.97]</a></span> We have already treated of the general +characteristics of Philo's method of allegorical interpretation, +but we must now consider rather more closely the way in which he +employs it. The general principle upon which he depends is, that +besides and in addition to the literal meaning which the Bible +bears for the common man, it has a hidden and deeper meaning for +the philosopher. It is, as it were, a sort of palimpsest; the +writing on the top all may read, the writing below the student +alone can decipher. With the rabbis Philo holds that the Torah was +written "in the language of the sons of man,"<a name= +"FNanchor_113_113" id="FNanchor_113_113"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_113_113">[113]</a> but he believes with them again that +it contains all wisdom. And if the ideas of reason do not appear in +its literal meaning, then they must be searched out in some inner +interpretation. Commenting on the verse in Genesis (xi. 7), "Let us +confound their language, that they may not understand one another's +speech," he says: "Those who follow the literal and obvious +interpretation think that the origin of the Greek and barbarian +languages is here described; [the contrast between Greek, on the +one hand, and barbarian—in which Hebrew, it seems, is +included—on the other, is remarkable]. I would not find fault +with them, because they also, perhaps, employ right reason, but I +would call on them not to remain content with this, but to follow +me to the metaphorical renderings, considering that the actual +words of the holy oracle are, <span class="newpage"><a name= +"page_98" id="page_98">[pg.98]</a></span> as it were, shadows of +the real bodies, and the powers which they reflect are the true +underlying ideas."<a name="FNanchor_114_114" id= +"FNanchor_114_114"></a><a href="#Footnote_114_114">[114]</a></p> +<p>Elsewhere he tells a story of the condign punishment which +befell a godless and impious man, perchance a Samaritan Jew, who +made mock of the race of allegorical interpreters, jeering at the +idea that the change of names from Abram to Abraham and from Sarai +to Sarah contained some deep meaning. He soon paid a fitting +penalty for his wicked wit, for on some very trivial pretext he +went and hanged himself. Which was just, says Philo; for such a +rascal deserved a rascal's death.<a name="FNanchor_115_115" id= +"FNanchor_115_115"></a><a href="#Footnote_115_115">[115]</a> It is +noteworthy that the Talmud also lays stress upon the deep meaning +of the patriarch's change of name.<a name="FNanchor_116_116" id= +"FNanchor_116_116"></a><a href="#Footnote_116_116">[116]</a> "He +who calls Abraham Abram," said Bar Kappara, "transgresses a +positive command" <img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image22.jpg" +width="105" height="21">. "Nay," said Rabbi Levi, "he transgresses +both a positive and a negative command (and commits a double sin)." +Clearly this was a test-question and an article of faith, possibly +because the letter <img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image24.jpg" +width="22" height="13"> , which was added to the name, was a letter +of mystical import in the opinion of the age. Both the rejection of +the literal and the rejection of the allegorical value of the +Bible, Philo regarded as impious, and he had to struggle against +opposite factions that were one-sided. The true son of the law +believes in both <img alt= +"Greek: to rhêton and to en hyponoiais" src= +"images/image23.jpg" width="256" height="22">.<a name= +"FNanchor_117_117" id="FNanchor_117_117"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_117_117">[117]</a> Seeing that the Bible was the +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_99" id= +"page_99">[pg.99]</a></span> inspired revelation of God, who is the +fountain of all wisdom and knowledge—this is Philo's cardinal +dogma—it is not to be supposed, on the one hand, that it was +silent about the profoundest ideas of the human mind, or, on the +other, that it contained ideas opposed to right reason and truth. +Yet at first sight it seemed to lack any definite philosophy and to +offer anthropomorphic views of God. Hence the true interpreter must +use the actual words of the sage as metaphors, following the maxim, +"Turn it about and about, because all is in it, and contemplate it +and wax grey over it, for thou canst have no better rule than +this."<a name="FNanchor_118_118" id="FNanchor_118_118"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_118_118">[118]</a> The principle upon which Philo, +Saadia, Maimonides, and in fact the whole line of Jewish +philosophical exegetes have worked, is that the "words of the law +are fruitful and multiply"; or, as the Bible phrase runs, "The +Torah which Moses commanded unto us is the inheritance of the +congregation of Jacob." It is the separate inheritance of each +generation, which each must cultivate so as to gather therefrom its +own fruit.</p> +<p>The Halakah is the outcome of this devotion in one aspect, the +philosophical exegesis in another. In the one case Jewish +jurisprudence and the body of legal tradition, in the other, +philosophical ideas inspired by outer civilization, are attached to +the text of the Bible by ingenious devices of association. The +device is partly a pious fiction, partly a genuine belief; in other +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_100" id= +"page_100">[pg.100]</a></span> words, the teachers honestly thought +that there was respectively a hidden philosophical meaning in the +Bible and an oral tradition, supplementary to the written law and +arising out of it; but on the other hand they would not have urged +that their particular interpretation alone was portended by the +Scriptures. This is shown in the Talmud by the fact that different +rabbis deduced the same lessons from different verses, and contrary +laws from the same verse; in Philo by the fact that he often gives +various interpretations of one text in different parts of his work. +All that was claimed was that knowledge and truth must be primarily +referred to the Divine revelation, and all law and practice to the +authority of the Mosaic code. Philo, then, in the same way as the +rabbis, deduces all his teaching from the Bible, not because he +holds that it was explicitly contained there, but because he +desires to give to his philosophical notions Divine authority. Like +the rabbis, again, he suggests definite rules of interpretation +which may always be applied <img alt= +"Greek: kanones tês allêgorias" src= +"images/image25.jpg" width="193" height="19"> .<a name= +"FNanchor_119_119" id="FNanchor_119_119"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_119_119">[119]</a> He declares that every name in the +Torah has a deep symbolical meaning, and symbolizes some +power.<a name="FNanchor_120_120" id="FNanchor_120_120"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_120_120">[120]</a> Thus the names of the sons of Jacob +typify each some moral quality, and these qualities together make +the perfect man and the perfect nation. Reuben is "the son of +insight" <img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image26.jpg" width="65" +height="21">, Simeon is learning <img alt="Hebrew; " src= +"images/image27.jpg" width="67" height="24">, Judah <span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_101" id="page_101">[pg.101]</a></span> +<img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image28.jpg" width="65" height= +"21"> stands for the praise of God.<a name="FNanchor_121_121" id= +"FNanchor_121_121"></a><a href="#Footnote_121_121">[121]</a> It may +be noted, by the way, that all these values show traces of Hebrew +etymology. Again, the synonyms in the Bible are to be carefully +studied, while even particles and parts of words have their special +value and importance. And the skilful exegete may for homiletical +purposes make slight changes in a word, following the rabbinical +rule,<a name="FNanchor_122_122" id="FNanchor_122_122"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_122_122">[122]</a> "Read not so, but so." Thus he plays +upon the name Esau, and takes the Hebrew word as though it were +written, not <img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image29.jpg" width= +"34" height="21"> but <img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image30.jpg" +width="34" height="18">, a thing made.<a name="FNanchor_123_123" +id="FNanchor_123_123"></a><a href="#Footnote_123_123">[123]</a> +Whence he shows that Esau represents the sham (made-up) greatness, +which is boastful and insolent and shameless. Philo is referring +perhaps to Apion, the vainglorious anti-Semite, whom he often +covertly attacks. Again, whenever there is repetition in the text, +a deeper meaning is portended. Dealing with the verse, "Sarah the +wife of Abraham took Hagar the Egyptian" (Gen. xvi. 3), Philo +comments, that we already knew that Sarah was Abraham's wife: why, +then, does the Bible mention it again? And following certain values +which he has made, he draws the lesson that the study of philosophy +must always go together with the study of general culture.<a name= +"FNanchor_124_124" id="FNanchor_124_124"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_124_124">[124]</a> These examples are not isolated; yet +it is rather a barren science to search for the canons of Philo's +allegory, as Siegfried has done.</p> +<p><span class="newpage"><a name="page_102" id= +"page_102">[pg.102]</a></span> For his allegory is a very flexible +instrument, which can be employed at pleasure to deduce anything +from anything. And Philo regards these "points of construction" as +the excuse, not as the motive, of his ethical and philosophical +teaching. He does not depend on such devices, for he wanders into +allegory more often than not without any pretext of the kind.</p> +<p>The modern reader may consider the allegorical method artificial +and unconvincing, even if he does not go so far as Spinoza, and say +that it is "useless, harmful, and absurd."<a name= +"FNanchor_125_125" id="FNanchor_125_125"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_125_125">[125]</a> We prefer to-day to show the inner +agreement of philosophical with Biblical teaching, rather than +pretend that all philosophy is contained within the Bible; and we +accept the Bible as it stands, as a book of supreme religious +worth, without requiring more of it. But that is mainly a +difference of taste or of method, and in Philo's day, and in fact +down to the time of the sixteenth-century Renaissance, Jew and +Gentile alike preferred the other way. For thought, ancient and +mediæval, was pervaded with the craving for authority or a +plausible show of it. The Bible was not only the great book of +morality, but the standard of truth, that from which knowledge in +all its branches started, and that by which it was to be judged. As +all knowledge came from God, so all knowledge was in God's Book; +and allegory was the method by which the intellectual conceptions +of succeeding ages were attached to it.</p> +<p><span class="newpage"><a name="page_103" id= +"page_103">[pg.103]</a></span></p> +<p>The two main heads of Biblical interpretation which the Jewish +religious genius developed, Peshat and Derash,—these +represent two permanent attitudes of mind. In the first the +commentator tries to get at the exact meaning of the text before +him, to make its lesson clear and discuss the circumstances of the +composition, the exact relations of its parts. He is satisfied to +take the writer of the Biblical book for what he says in his own +form of utterance. In the second the commentator is more anxious to +inculcate ideas and lessons which do not arise obviously from the +text, and to widen the significance of what he finds in the Bible. +The interpretation ceases to be a mere exposition; it becomes +creative or conciliating thought, and the interpreter becomes a +religious reformer, a philosopher, a prophet. To this school Philo +belongs, and the framework of his teaching or the ingenuity by +which he develops it from his text is of small account. It is what +he teaches and what he considers to be the vital things in religion +and life to which we must pay attention. Judged on this ground +Philo is a supreme master of Derash, and must take a place among +the most creative of the interpreters of the Bible.</p> +<p><span class="newpage"><a name="page_104" id= +"page_104">[pg.104]</a></span></p> +<hr style="width: 65%;"> +<br> +<br> +<br> +<br> +<p>IV</p> +<p>PHILO AND THE TORAH</p> +<br> +<p>Over and over again Philo declares that his function is to +expound the law of Moses. Moses was the interpreter of God's word +to Israel; and Philo aspired to be the interpreter of the +revelation of Moses to the Hellenistic world, "the living voice of +the holy law." He believed that Israel was a chosen people in the +sense that it had received the Divine message on behalf of the +whole human race,<a name="FNanchor_126_126" id= +"FNanchor_126_126"></a><a href="#Footnote_126_126">[126]</a> a +Kingdom of Priests, in that it occupied to other nations the +position which the priest—using the word in the fullest +sense—occupied to the common people.<a name= +"FNanchor_127_127" id="FNanchor_127_127"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_127_127">[127]</a> The Torah is God's covenant, not only +with one small nation, but with all His children, and its teachings +are true for all times and for all places. "The Bible," as +Professor Butcher says,<a name="FNanchor_128_128" id= +"FNanchor_128_128"></a><a href="#Footnote_128_128">[128]</a> "is +the one book which appears to have the capacity of eternal +self-adjustment, of uninterrupted correspondence with an +ever-shifting and ever-widening environment." Nowadays this appears +a truism, but the truth first presented itself to the +Jewish-Alexandrian community when they came in contact with +external culture. The Palestinian and Babylonian Jews, free for the +most part from outside influences, developed the Torah for the +Jewish people, amplified the tradition, and determined <span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_105" id="page_105">[pg.105]</a></span> the +Halakah, the practical law. But the Alexandrian Jews in the first +place found their own attitude to the Torah affected by their +acquaintance with Greek ethics and metaphysics, and also found it +necessary to interpret the Bible in a new fashion in order to make +its value known to their environment. The Greek world required to +be shown the general principle, the broad ethical idea in each +ordinance. And thus it came about that the Alexandrian interpreters +always emphasized the universal beneath the particular, the moral +spirit beneath the forms.</p> +<p>It had been one of the chief functions of the prophets to +demonstrate the moral import of the law. In their vision the God of +Israel became the God of the universe, and His law of conduct was +spread over all mankind. "For the law shall go forth from Zion, and +the word of the Lord from Jerusalem" (Micah iv. 2). Philo in effect +expounds Judaism in their spirit, though he speaks their message in +the voice of Plato and to a people whose minds were trained in +Greek culture. Yet it is significant that he wrote all his +commentaries round the Five Books of Moses, and used the prophets +and other Biblical books only to illustrate and support the Mosaic +teaching, which contains the whole way of life and the whole +religious philosophy. According to the rabbis also the Prophets +formed only a complement to the Torah, "a species of +Agadah";<a name="FNanchor_129_129" id= +"FNanchor_129_129"></a><a href="#Footnote_129_129">[129]</a> and +the prophetic vision of</p> +<p><span class="newpage"><a name="page_106" id= +"page_106">[pg.106]</a></span> Moses was much clearer than that of +his successors. Philo, too, clearly realized that Judaism was the +religion of the law. His view of the Torah is what the modern world +would call uncritical: that is to say, he accepts the idea that the +whole of the Five Books was an objective revelation to Moses at +Sinai. But though—or because—he is innocent of the +higher criticism, and believes in the literal inspiration of the +Torah, his conception is none the less enlightened and spiritual. +The law—the Divine Logos—is not the enactment of an +outside power, arbitrarily imposed, and to be obeyed because of its +miraculous origin; it is the expression of the human soul within, +when raised to its highest power by the Divine inspiration. Every +man may fit himself to receive the Divine word, which is, in modern +language, revelation.<a name="FNanchor_130_130" id= +"FNanchor_130_130"></a><a href="#Footnote_130_130">[130]</a> Moses, +then, is distinguished above all other legislators, not because he +alone received it, but because he received it in its purest form, +and because he was the most noble interpreter of it. It is for this +reason that the law of Moses is of universal validity for conduct. +The Divine spirit possessed him so fully that his Logos, or +revelation, is eternally true, and by following it all men become +fit to be blessed with the Divine gift themselves. This is true of +the other prophets of the Bible to a smaller degree, and in a still +minor degree Philo hoped that it was true of himself.</p> +<p>It should be premised that the "law of nature" <span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_107" id="page_107">[pg.107]</a></span> was +at the time of Philo an idea as widely accepted as "evolution" is +to-day. Men believed that by a study of the processes of the +universe the individual might discover the law of conduct that +should bring his action into harmony with the whole. What the Greek +philosophers declared to be the privilege of the few, Philo +declared to have been imparted by God to His people as their law of +life. Hence the Mosaic legislation is the code of nature and +reason, and the righteous man directs his conduct in accordance +with those rules of nature by which the cosmos is ordered.<a name= +"FNanchor_131_131" id="FNanchor_131_131"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_131_131">[131]</a> Obedience to the law should not be +obedience to an outward prescription, but rather the following out +of our own highest nature. The ideal which the Stoic sage +continually aspired for and never attained to—the life +according to nature and right reason—this Philo claimed had +been accomplished in the Mosaic revelation, handed down by God to +Israel and through them to the world.</p> +<p>Before we deal with Philo's treatment of the law in its narrower +sense, it will be as well to consider briefly his interpretation of +the historical parts of the Torah. Here likewise he finds ideas of +natural reason and eternal truths embodied. To Philo, as we have +seen, the Torah is a unity, and every part of it has equal validity +and value. He had to contend against certain higher critics of his +day, who declared that Genesis was a collection of myths +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_108" id= +"page_108">[pg.108]</a></span> <img alt= +"Greek: mythôn plasmata" src="images/image31.jpg" width="154" +height="18">).<a name="FNanchor_132_132" id= +"FNanchor_132_132"></a><a href="#Footnote_132_132">[132]</a> +Moreover, the long catalogues of genealogies in Genesis and the +longer recitals of sacrifices in Leviticus and Numbers seemed to +refute those who declared that every part of the Pentateuch was a +Divine revelation. In the third book of the "Questions to Genesis" +Philo directly grapples with this objection. Commenting on the +verse (Gen. xv. 9), "Take for me a heifer of three years old and a +goat of three years old," etc., he says that in interpreting any +part or any verse of Scripture we must look to the purpose of the +whole and explain it from this outlook, "without dissecting or +disturbing its harmony or disintegrating its unity."<a name= +"FNanchor_133_133" id="FNanchor_133_133"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_133_133">[133]</a> Why should God, asked the scoffer, +reveal these trivial or prolix details? Philo's answer is in fact +to spiritualize everything that is material, and universalize +everything that is particular. While he believes in the literal +inspiration of the Bible, he does not insist upon the literal truth +of every word of it, and in the opening chapters of Genesis in +particular, he treats the tales as symbolical or allegorical myths. +His philosophical commentary on the creation, corresponding to the +<img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image32.jpg" width="118" height= +"16"> of the rabbis, is found in the book <i>De Mundi Opificio</i>, +which stands in modern editions at the head of his writings. Its +main theme is to trace in the text the Platonic idealism, +<i>i.e.</i>, the theory that God first created transcendental, +incorporeal archetypes of all <span class="newpage"><a name= +"page_109" id="page_109">[pg.109]</a></span> physical and material +things. Philo uses the double account of the creation of man in the +first and second chapters of Genesis as clear evidence that the +Bible describes—for those who have the mind to see—the +creation of an ideal before the terrestrial man.</p> +<p>In the "Allegories of the Laws," which is the profounder +philosophical doctrine, the account of Adam and Eve is deliberately +chosen by Philo as the text of a psychological treatise, in which +he analyzes<a name="FNanchor_134_134" id= +"FNanchor_134_134"></a><a href="#Footnote_134_134">[134]</a> the +relations of the mind, the senses, and the pleasures, represented +respectively by Adam, Eve, and the Serpent. The necessity of +explaining the story symbolically is professedly based on the fact +that otherwise we are driven to the idea that the Bible spoke +inaccurately about God. "It is silly," he says, "to suppose that +Adam and Eve can have hidden themselves in the Garden of Eden, for +God filled the whole." We are driven then to suggest another +meaning; and Philo passes into a homily about the false opinion of +the man who follows the bidding of the senses (Eve) at the +instigation of pleasure (the Serpent).<a name="FNanchor_135_135" +id="FNanchor_135_135"></a><a href="#Footnote_135_135">[135]</a></p> +<p>The story of Cain and Abel is another piece of moral philosophy +embodied in a concrete form. Abel symbolizes pious humility, Cain +the deadly sin of atheism and intellectual pride, which denies the +absolute and ever-present power of the Deity. Philo asks himself +the question that other commentators have frequently raised, some +in reverence, some in <span class="newpage"><a name="page_110" id= +"page_110">[pg.110]</a></span> ridicule, "Who was Cain's +wife?"<a name="FNanchor_136_136" id="FNanchor_136_136"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_136_136">[136]</a> And he answers that the Bible +expression about the children of Cain cannot be taken literally, +but suggests the union of the ill-ruled mind with impious opinions, +which have as their issue false pride and sin.</p> +<p>Philo here treats the stories in the opening of Genesis as pure +allegories, in which the men and women represent symbolically +characters and qualities. It should be remembered, however, that +these interpretations occur in the commentary where our author is +not so much expounding the Torah as deducing secret doctrines from +it. His proper exposition of the law proceeds from the book on the +Creation to the lives of the patriarchs Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, +and then to the lives of Joseph and Moses. And in this commentary +the Bible narrative is taken as historical truth: only in addition +to the historical fact there is a moral and universal value in +every figure and every episode. The patriarchs' lives represent the +unwritten law which the Greek world held in high honor, for it was +considered to contain the broad principles of individual and social +conduct, and to be prior logically and chronologically to the +written codes. Moses, therefore, the perfect legislator, according +to Philo, has presented in the three founders of the Hebrew race +embodiments of the unwritten law of good conduct for all mankind. +Each of them is a moral type of eternal validity and represents one +of the ways in <span class="newpage"><a name="page_111" id= +"page_111">[pg.111]</a></span> which blessedness may be +attained.<a name="FNanchor_137_137" id= +"FNanchor_137_137"></a><a href="#Footnote_137_137">[137]</a> +Abraham represents the goodness which comes from instruction; +Isaac, the spontaneous goodness that is innate, and the joy (or +laughter) of the soul that is God's gift to his favored sons; +Jacob, the goodness that comes after long effort, through the life +of practice and severe discipline. Before this triad, the Bible +presents another group of three, who represent the virtues +preparatory to the acquisition of perfect goodness: Enosh, Enoch, +and Noah.<a name="FNanchor_138_138" id= +"FNanchor_138_138"></a><a href="#Footnote_138_138">[138]</a> They +typify respectively, as their names indicate, hope, repentance, and +justice. It is a pretty thought, helped by an error in the +Septuagint translation,<a name="FNanchor_139_139" id= +"FNanchor_139_139"></a><a href="#Footnote_139_139">[139]</a> which +sees in the name of the first <i>i.e.</i>, man, <img alt="Hebrew; " +src="images/image33.jpg" width="40" height="18"> the symbol of +hope. Hope, the commentator suggests, is the distinguishing +characteristic of man<a name="FNanchor_140_140" id= +"FNanchor_140_140"></a><a href="#Footnote_140_140">[140]</a> as +compared with other animals, and hope therefore is our first step +towards the Divine nature, the seed of which faith is the fruit. +Next in order come repentance and natural justice, and from these +stepping-stones we can rise to the higher self. Philo's +interpretation of these Bible figures would appear to have behind +it an old Midrashic tradition. As far back as the book of Ben Sira, +in the passage on "the Praises of Famous Men" (xliv), they are +taken as typical of the different virtues, and Enoch notably +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_112" id= +"page_112">[pg.112]</a></span> is the type of repentance. In the +first century the world was becoming incapable of understanding +abstract ideas, and required ethics to be concretely embodied in +examples of life. Philo found within the Jewish Scriptures what the +Christian apostles later transferred to other events.</p> +<p>Joseph, whose life followed that of the patriarchs, is the type +of the political life, the model of the man of action and ambition. +Taken alone, this is inferior to the life of the saint and +philosopher, but mixed with the other it produces the perfect man, +for the truly good man must take his part in public life. The story +of Joseph, then, illustrates the full humanity of Moses' scheme, +and it marks also, according to Philo, the great moral lesson, that +if there be one spark of nobility in a man's soul, God will find it +and cause it to shine forth.<a name="FNanchor_141_141" id= +"FNanchor_141_141"></a><a href="#Footnote_141_141">[141]</a> For +Joseph, until he comes down to Egypt, is not a virtuous man, but +full of conceit and unworthy aspiration for supremacy; he shows his +true worth when he is sold into slavery; and then by the Divine +inspiration he becomes the ideal statesman. Very suggestive is +Philo's homily, by which he develops the Bible narrative, that the +function of the statesman is to expound dreams;<a name= +"FNanchor_142_142" id="FNanchor_142_142"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_142_142">[142]</a> because his task is to interpret the +life of man, which is one long dream of changing scenes, wherein we +forget what has gone before, as the fleeting shadow leads us from +childhood to youth, from youth to manhood, from manhood to +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_113" id= +"page_113">[pg.113]</a></span> old age. Lastly, from the story of +Joseph he draws the lesson that when the Hebrew has attained to a +high position in a foreign land, as in Egypt, where there is utter +blindness about the true God, he can and should retain his national +laws,<a name="FNanchor_143_143" id="FNanchor_143_143"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_143_143">[143]</a> and not assimilate the practices of +his environment.</p> +<p>Eusebius<a name="FNanchor_144_144" id= +"FNanchor_144_144"></a><a href="#Footnote_144_144">[144]</a> +mentions, among the works of Philo which he had before him, a book +on "The Statesman," in which doubtless the principles of government +and social life were more fully treated. The book has disappeared, +but the life of Joseph suffices to show that Philo recognized the +place of public service in the human ideal.</p> +<p>Moses is not only the divinely inspired legislator, but he +typifies also the perfection of the human soul, the highest example +of the man at one with God, supreme as king, lawgiver, priest, and +prophet. He is the link between God and man, the perfect +interpreter of the Divine Word; and though Philo avoids the +suggestion of any Divine power incarnate in man, he speaks +imaginatively of the Logos of Moses,<a name="FNanchor_145_145" id= +"FNanchor_145_145"></a><a href="#Footnote_145_145">[145]</a> +<i>i.e.</i>, his reason, as identical with the Logos of God, the +Divine law of the universe. It is significant of his attitude to +religion that he lays no stress upon the miracles of the Bible +narrative. Not that he rationalizes them away; he rejects all +rationalizing whatsoever; but he <span class="newpage"><a name= +"page_114" id="page_114">[pg.114]</a></span> interprets them as +great spiritual signs, rather than as diversions from the laws of +nature. His allegory of the burning bush, which Moses saw at Horeb +is typical, and presents a truth to which the whole history of +Israel bears witness. The weak thorn-bush, which was not consumed +by the fire, is the image of the idea of Israel, which almost cries +to the people in their misfortune: "Do not despair! Your weakness +is your strength, and by it you shall wound race after race. You +will be preserved by those who wish to destroy you, and you shall +not perish. In evil days you shall not suffer, and when a tyrant +thinks to uproot you, you shall shine forth the more in brighter +glory."<a name="FNanchor_146_146" id= +"FNanchor_146_146"></a><a href="#Footnote_146_146">[146]</a> The +passage is typical also of the rhetorical artifice with which +Philo, following the taste of the time, recommended the Bible to +the Greeks.</p> +<p>We turn now to Philo's treatment of the Mosaic legislation, the +Torah in its narrower sense, which is to modern Jewry perhaps the +most striking part of his commentary. His problem was the same as +ours—to bring the ancient law into harmony with the ideas of +a non-Jewish environment, and to show its essential value when +tried by an external cultural standard. Briefly his solution is +that he sees everything in the Torah <i>sub specie +æternitatis</i>, in the light of eternity; and by his +faithfulness to the law, combined with his spiritual interpretation +of it, he stands forth as the greatest Jewish missionary of his +age. Unfortunately for Judaism, depth of thought and philosophical +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_115" id= +"page_115">[pg.115]</a></span> judgment are not the qualities which +mark the successful religious missionary. Philo's philosophical +treatment of the Torah was understood only of the few; the +fanatical Pauline rejection of the law appealed to the masses. The +spirit of the age demanded, indeed, the ethical interpretation of +the Bible, and it was carried out in many ways, some true, some +untrue to Judaism. Philo and Josephus tell us how Judaism was +spreading over the world.<a name="FNanchor_147_147" id= +"FNanchor_147_147"></a><a href="#Footnote_147_147">[147]</a> "There +is not any city of the Greeks," says the historian, "nor of the +barbarians, nor of any nation whatsoever, to which our custom of +resting on the seventh day has not been introduced, and where our +fasts and our dietary laws are not observed.... As God Himself +pervadeth all the universe, so hath our law passed through the +world." And their testimony is supported by the frequent gibes +against Judaizing Romans in the Roman poets,<a name= +"FNanchor_148_148" id="FNanchor_148_148"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_148_148">[148]</a> and by the explicit statements of +Strabo,<a name="FNanchor_149_149" id= +"FNanchor_149_149"></a><a href="#Footnote_149_149">[149]</a> the +famous geographer, and, more remarkable still, of Seneca, the Stoic +philosopher-statesman. The bitter foe of the Jews, he confessed +that this superstitious pest was infecting the whole world, and +that the conquered people (Judæa had lately been made a Roman +province) were taking their conquerors captive.<a name= +"FNanchor_150_150" id="FNanchor_150_150"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_150_150">[150]</a> Philo, with his ardent hope, looked +for the near coming of the time when the worship of the Jewish God +would prevail over the <span class="newpage"><a name="page_116" id= +"page_116">[pg.116]</a></span> world, and sought to show that the +Jewish law, which is the expression of Jewish belief, and which +differs from all others, not only in the extent of its sway, but in +its unchangeableness, could be universalized to fit its new +service. To this end he interpreted the Mosaic code, which "no war, +tyrant, persecution, or visitation, human or Divine, can destroy: +for it is eternal."<a name="FNanchor_151_151" id= +"FNanchor_151_151"></a><a href="#Footnote_151_151">[151]</a> In the +arrangement of the Torah, Philo finds a proof of its universality. +It begins with the account of the creation, to teach us that the +same Being that is the Creator and Father of the universe is also +its Legislator, and, again, that he who follows the law will choose +to live in harmony with nature, and will exhibit consistency of +action with words and of words with action. Other philosophers, +notably the Stoics, claimed to lay down a plan of life that +followed the law of nature; but their practice notoriously fell +below their unrealizable professions. In Judaism alone spirit and +practice were at one, so that each inspired the other and secured +human excellence. "Not theory but practice is the root of the +matter" <img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image34.jpg" width="247" +height="19">, according to the rabbis:<a name="FNanchor_152_152" +id="FNanchor_152_152"></a><a href="#Footnote_152_152">[152]</a> and +Philo, who, contemplative philosopher as he was, yet recognized the +all-importance of conduct, writes in the same spirit:<a name= +"FNanchor_153_153" id="FNanchor_153_153"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_153_153">[153]</a> "We must first study and then act, +for we learn, not for learning's sake, but in order to action."</p> +<p><span class="newpage"><a name="page_117" id= +"page_117">[pg.117]</a></span> Philo seeks to arrange the law under +general moral heads, and he finds in the Decalogue the holy text +upon which the rest of the code is but a commentary. He may be +following a tradition common among all the Jews, for in the Midrash +to Numbers (xiii) it is said that the six hundred and thirteen +precepts are all contained in the Ten Commandments: <img alt= +"Hebrew; " src="images/image35.jpg" width="193" height="21">. We do +not know, however, in what way the early rabbis carried out this +idea, whereas we possess Philo's arrangement; and some of its +features are very suggestive.<a name="FNanchor_154_154" id= +"FNanchor_154_154"></a><a href="#Footnote_154_154">[154]</a> To the +first two commandments he attaches the ritual laws relating to +priests and sacrifices, to the fourth the laws of all the +festivals, to the seventh the criminal and civil law, to the tenth +the dietary laws. The Decalogue he conceives as falling into two +divisions, between which the fifth commandment is a link. For the +first four commandments are ordinances that determine man's +relation to God, and the last five those which determine his +relation to his fellows. Honor of the parents is the link between +the Divine and the human virtues, even as parents themselves are a +link between immortal God and mortal man. Corresponding to the two +divisions of the Decalogue are the two generic virtues which the +Mosaic legislation has set as its goal, piety, and humanity, or +what the rabbis called charity <img alt="Hebrew; " src= +"images/image36.jpg" width="58" height="16">. "He who loves God, +but does not show love towards his own kind, has but the half of +virtue."<a name="FNanchor_155_155" id= +"FNanchor_155_155"></a><a href="#Footnote_155_155">[155]</a> Thus +in one and the same age Hillel, <span class="newpage"><a name= +"page_118" id="page_118">[pg.118]</a></span> incited by a single +scoffer, and Philo, moved by the taunts of a tribe of anti-Semites, +looked for the most vital lesson of the Torah, and they found it +alike in "the love of our neighbor." That was Judaism on its +practical side.</p> +<p>In order to show the humanitarian spirit of the Torah, Philo +emphasizes its socialistic institutions, the law of the seventh +year's rest to the land <img alt="Hebrew; " src= +"images/image37.jpg" width="118" height="18">, of the emancipation +of the slaves, and of the Jubilee. These to him are not tribal +laws, but the ideal institutions for the whole world, which shall +one day be set up when the theocracy has been established over all +mankind. And in an age when slavery was as accepted a condition as +factory-labor is to-day, he ventured to assert the principle of the +equality of man. "If," saith the law, "one of thy brethren be sold +to thee, let him serve thee for six years, and in the seventh year +let him go free without payment." And Philo thereon +comments:<a name="FNanchor_156_156" id= +"FNanchor_156_156"></a><a href="#Footnote_156_156">[156]</a> "A +second time Moses calls our fellow-creature brother, to impress +upon the master that he has a tie with his servant, so that he may +not neglect him as a stranger. Nay, but if he follows the direction +of the law, he will feel sympathy with him, and will not be vexed +when he is about to liberate him. For though we call our servants +slaves, yet in verity they are only dependents who serve us in +order to have the means of life." This corresponds with the Talmud +dictum, "Whoever buys a <span class="newpage"><a name="page_119" +id="page_119">[pg.119]</a></span> Jewish slave buys a master for +himself."<a name="FNanchor_157_157" id= +"FNanchor_157_157"></a><a href="#Footnote_157_157">[157]</a> +Commenting again upon the verse in Exodus xxi. 6, which says with +seeming harshness that a servant who wishes to stay with his master +after the year of emancipation has arrived, shall be nailed by the +ear to a door, he explains that no man should consent of his own +will to be a slave, for we should only be servants of God; and if a +man deliberately rejects freedom for comfort, he should wear a mark +of degradation. The so-called Christian principle of the dignity of +human life and the equality of man, Philo shows to be the spirit of +the Mosaic law, not limited within the confines of one nation, but +valid for the world. Nor is it contained therein as a mere +sentimental aspiration, but it is realized in the institutions of +the Jewish polity.</p> +<p>Philo looked for the same broad principles in his treatment of +the ceremonial law. The Sabbath day is the central observance, one +might say, the lodestar of the Jewish life, round which the other +ceremonies revolve. The Sabbath is the call to man's higher nature, +for it is the day on which we are bidden to devote ourselves to the +Divine power within us and to seek to know God. "The six days in +which the Creator made the universe are an example to us to work, +but the seventh day, on which He rested, is an example to us to +meditate. As on that day God is said to have looked upon His work, +so we, too, should <span class="newpage"><a name="page_120" id= +"page_120">[pg.120]</a></span> contemplate the universe thereon, +and consider our highest welfare. Let us never neglect the example +of the best life, the combination of action and thought, but +keeping a clear vision of it before our minds, so far as our human +nature will permit, let us liken ourselves to immortal God by word +and deed."<a name="FNanchor_158_158" id= +"FNanchor_158_158"></a><a href="#Footnote_158_158">[158]</a> +High-flown this language may be, but what Philo wishes to mark is +the spiritual value of the Sabbath. It is not merely a day of rest +from workaday toil, but it is a day upon which we devote all our +thoughts to God, and enter into closer communion with Him, +<img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image38.jpg" width="168" height= +"18">, a repose of love and devotion. Heine said that on one day of +the week the lowliest Jew became a prince, Philo that he became a +philosopher. As in all of Philo's interpretations of Jewish custom, +there is something mystic in his conception of the Sabbath. For he +regards all Divine service and all prayer as a mystic rite which +leads the human soul unto God. In the special ordinances of the day +he finds a spiritual motive. We may not touch fire, because fire is +the seed and beginning of industry.<a name="FNanchor_159_159" id= +"FNanchor_159_159"></a><a href="#Footnote_159_159">[159]</a> The +servant of the house may not work,<a name="FNanchor_160_160" id= +"FNanchor_160_160"></a><a href="#Footnote_160_160">[160]</a> +because on this day he shall have a taste of freedom and humanity, +and he will work the more cheerfully during the remaining six days. +Some rabbis later, when numbers of Gentiles had adopted this +without the other institutions of Judaism, claimed the Sabbath as +the <span class="newpage"><a name="page_121" id= +"page_121">[pg.121]</a></span> special heritage of Israel; and in +the book of Jubilees<a name="FNanchor_161_161" id= +"FNanchor_161_161"></a><a href="#Footnote_161_161">[161]</a> it is +said that Israel alone has the right to observe the Sabbath. Not so +Philo, who, desiring to give the day a value for all, regards it as +God's covenant with the whole of humanity.<a name= +"FNanchor_162_162" id="FNanchor_162_162"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_162_162">[162]</a></p> +<p>The Sabbath idea is reflected in all the festivals, which have +as their dominating idea man's joyful gratitude to God. Influenced +probably by a mystic fondness for certain numbers, Philo enumerates +ten festivals, as follows:<a name="FNanchor_163_163" id= +"FNanchor_163_163"></a><a href="#Footnote_163_163">[163]</a> (1) +Each day in the year, if we use it aright—a truly Philonic +conception; (2) The Sabbath; (3) The new moon—then in +Alexandria, as in Palestine, a solemn day; (4) The Passover; (5) +The bringing of the first barley ('Omer); (6) The Feast of +Unleavened Bread. These last three are separate aspects of one +celebration, which is divided up so as to produce the holy decad. +(7) Pentecost; (8) New Year; (9) Atonement (to the mystic the Feast +of feasts); (10) Tabernacles. Following his design of revealing in +Judaism a religion of universal validity, Philo points out in all +these festivals a double meaning. On the one hand, they mark God's +providence to His chosen people, shown in some great event of their +history—this is the special meaning for the +Israelite—and, on the other, they indicate God's goodness as +revealed in the march of nature, and thus help to bind man to the +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_122" id= +"page_122">[pg.122]</a></span> universal process. So Passover is +the festival of the spring and a memorial of the creation <img alt= +"Hebrew; " src="images/image39.jpg" width="175" height="18"> as +well as the memorial of the great Exodus, and of our gratitude for +the deliverance from the inhospitable land of Egypt. And those who +look for a deeper moral meaning may find in it a symbol of the +passing over from the life of the senses to the life with God. +Similarly, Philo deals with the other festivals,<a name= +"FNanchor_164_164" id="FNanchor_164_164"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_164_164">[164]</a> and in their particular ceremonies he +finds symbols which stamp eternal lessons of history and of +morality upon our hearts. The unleavened bread is the mark of the +simple life, the New Year Shofar of the Divine rule of peace, the +Sukkot booth of the equality of all men, and, as he puts it +elsewhere, of man's duty in prosperity to remember the troubles of +his past, so that he may worthily recognize God's goodness. Much of +this may appear trite to us; and the association of the festivals +with the seasons of nature may to some appear a false development +of historical Judaism; nevertheless Philo's treatment of this part +of the Torah is notable. It shows remarkable feeling for the +ethical import of the law, and it establishes the harmony between +the Greek and Hebrew conceptions of the Deity by combining the God +of history with the God of nature in the same festival. The ideas +were not unknown to Palestinian rabbis; Philo, by giving them a +Greek dress, opened them to the world.</p> +<p><span class="newpage"><a name="page_123" id= +"page_123">[pg.123]</a></span></p> +<p>Equally remarkable and equally suggestive is Philo's treatment +of the dietary laws. We have seen that he placed them under the +governing principle of the tenth commandment, "Thou shalt not +covet," or, more broadly, "Thou shalt not have base desires." The +dietary laws are at once a symbol and a discipline of temperance +and self-control. We know that the Greeks, as soon as they had a +superficial knowledge of Jewish observance, jeered at the barbarous +and stupid superstition of refusing to eat pork. Again we are told +in the letter of the false Aristeas that when Ptolemy's ambassadors +went to Jerusalem, to summon learned men to translate the Torah +into Greek, Eleazar, the high priest, instructed them in the deeper +moral meaning of the dietary laws. Further, in the fourth book of +the Maccabees—an Alexandrian sermon upon the Empire of Right +Reason—we find an eloquent defence of these same laws as the +precepts of reason which fortify our minds. Philo, then, is +following a tradition, but he improves upon it. Accepting the +Platonic psychology, which divided the soul into reason, temper +(<i>i.e.</i>, will), and desire, he shows how the aim of the Mosaic +law about food is to control desire and will, so as to make them +subservient to reason. By practicing self-restraint in the two +commonest actions of life—eating and drinking—the +Israelite acquires it in all things. The hard ascetic who would +root out bodily desires errs against human nature, but the wise +legislator controls them and curbs them by precepts, so that they +are bent to the higher reason.</p> +<p><span class="newpage"><a name="page_124" id= +"page_124">[pg.124]</a></span> Modern apologists for Judaism have +been found who, trying to force science to support their tottering +faith, allege that the dietary law is hygienic. Philo relies on no +such treacherous reed. We may not eat, he says,<a name= +"FNanchor_165_165" id="FNanchor_165_165"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_165_165">[165]</a> the flesh of the pig or shell-fish, +not because they are unhealthy, but because they are the sweetest +and most delightful of all food, and for that very reason they are +marks of the sensual life. This and this alone is the true +religious justification of the dietary law.</p> +<p>In this way, by showing how the letter represents the spirit, +Philo fulfils the law; his religion is liberal in thought, +conservative in practice. He sees clearly that to throw off the law +and reject tradition involves in the end chaos and the overthrow of +righteousness. And certain Christian—and +other—theologians, if one may make bold to say so, fail to +realize the spirit of Philo, when they speak of him as a man who +approached the light, but was too tied down by the old traditions +to receive the full illumination. Rather is it true that the Jewish +aspiration of "freedom under the law," or spirit through the +letter, is absolutely fundamental in Philo, and loyalty to the +Torah is a guiding principle in his religious outlook. He asserts +it clearly and strikingly, not only in his ethical commentary on +the law, but in his philosophical allegories. Both passages deserve +quotation, since they mark the fundamental contrast between Philo +and non-Jewish allegorists of the law. In the first <span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_125" id="page_125">[pg.125]</a></span> +Philo is commenting upon the command "Thou shalt not add to or take +away from the law" (Deut. xix. 14).<a name="FNanchor_166_166" id= +"FNanchor_166_166"></a><a href="#Footnote_166_166">[166]</a> He +shows first how each of the virtues is marred by excess in either +direction; virtue in fact, according to the Aristotelian formula, +is "a mean."</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>"And in the same way, if we add anything great or small to +piety, the queen of virtues, or take anything away, we mar it and +change its form. Addition will engender superstition, and +diminution impiety, and true piety will disappear, which above all +things we should pray for to enlighten our souls: for it is the +cause of the greatest of goods, inducing in us a knowledge of our +conduct towards God, which is a thing more royal and kingly than +any public office or distinction. Further, Moses lays down another +general command, 'Do not remove the boundary stone of thy neighbor, +which thy ancestors have set up.' This, methinks, does not refer +merely to inheritances and the boundary of land, but it is ordained +with a view to the preservation of ancient customs. For customs are +unwritten laws, the decrees of men of old, not carved indeed upon +pillars and inscribed upon parchment, but engraved upon the souls +of the generations who through the ages maintain the chosen +community. Children should take over the paternal customs from +their parents as part of their inheritance, for they were reared on +them, and lived on them from their swaddling days, and they should +not neglect them merely because the tradition is not written. The +man who obeys the written laws is not, indeed, worthy of praise, +for he may be constrained thereto by fear of punishment. But he who +holds fast to the unwritten laws gives proof of a voluntary +goodness and is worthy of our eulogy."</p> +</div> +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_126" id= +"page_126">[pg.126]</a></span> +<p>Clearly he is arguing here for the observance of the oral law, +which later was standardized in the Halakah.</p> +<p>In the other passage, which occurs in the philosophical book "On +the Migration of Abraham,"<a name="FNanchor_167_167" id= +"FNanchor_167_167"></a><a href="#Footnote_167_167">[167]</a> he +sets forth the reason of the authority of the law with more +argument, and controverts those who would allegorize away the +ordinances.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>"To whom, then, God has granted both to be and to seem good, he +is truly happy and truly renowned. And we must have a great care +for reputation, as a matter of great importance and of much value, +for our social and bodily life. [By reputation Philo means +reputation of being loyal Jews. He is addressing here an esoteric +circle who, if they were lax, would bring philosophy into +disrepute.] And almost all can secure it, who are well content not +to disturb established customs, but diligently preserve the +constitution of their nation. But there are some who, looking upon +the written laws as symbols of intellectual things, lay great +stress on these, but neglect the former. Such men I would blame for +their shallowness of mind <img alt="Greek: euchereia" src= +"images/image40.jpg" width="68" height="19">. For they ought to +give good heed to both—to the accurate investigation of the +unseen meaning, but also to the blameless observance of the visible +letter. But now, as if they were living by themselves in a desert, +and were souls without bodies, and knew nothing of city or village +or house or intercourse with men, they despise all that seems +valuable to the many, and search for bare and naked truth as it is +in itself. Such people the sacred Scripture teaches to give good +heed to a good reputation, and to abolish none of those customs +which greater and more inspired men than we instituted in the past. +For, because the seventh day teaches us symbolically <span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_127" id="page_127">[pg.127]</a></span> +concerning the power of the uncreated God, and the inactivity of +the creature, we must not therefore abolish its ordinances, so as +to light a fire, or till the ground, or bear a burden, or prosecute +a lawsuit, or demand the restoration of a deposit, or exact the +repayment of a loan, or do any other thing, which on week-days is +allowed. Because the festivals are symbols of spiritual joy and of +our gratitude to God, we must not therefore give up the fixed +assemblies at the proper seasons of the year. Nor, because +circumcision symbolizes the excision of all lusts and passions, and +the destruction of the impious opinion according to which the mind +imagines that it is itself capable of production, must we therefore +abolish the law of fleshly circumcision. We should have to neglect +the service of the temple, and a thousand other things, if we were +to restrict ourselves only to the allegorical or symbolic sense. +That sense resembles the soul, the other sense the body. Just as we +must be careful of the body, as the house of the soul, so must we +give heed to the letter of the written laws. For only when these +are faithfully observed, will the inner meaning, of which they are +the symbols, become more clearly realized, and, at the same time, +the blame and accusation of the multitude will be avoided."<a name= +"FNanchor_168_168" id="FNanchor_168_168"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_168_168">[168]</a></p> +</div> +<p>Philo's position is, then, that man on the one hand owes loyalty +to his nation, and on the other is not only a creature of spirit, +but has a body and bodily passions. He cannot, therefore, have a +religion which is individual or merely spiritual, but he requires +common forms and ceremonies that can bind him with <span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_128" id="page_128">[pg.128]</a></span> the +rest of the community, and train his body by good habit to obey his +reason. We do not reach the spirit by denying but by obeying the +letter. To the mere formal observance of the law and the +unreasoning custom which blindly follows the practice of our +fathers [Greek: synêtheia] Philo is equally opposed, and he +protests, with the earnestness of an Isaiah, against superstitious +sacrifice and against the lip-service of the materialist.<a name= +"FNanchor_169_169" id="FNanchor_169_169"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_169_169">[169]</a></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>"If a man practices ablutions and purifications, but defiles his +mind while he cleanses his body; or if, through his wealth, he +founds a temple at a large outlay and expense; or if he offers +hecatombs and sacrifices oxen without number, or adorns the shrine +with rich ornaments, or gives endless timber and cunningly wrought +work, more precious than silver or gold—let him none the more +be called religious ([Greek: eusebês]). For he has wandered +far from the path of religion, mistaking ritual for holiness, and +attempting to bribe the Incorruptible, and to flatter Him whom none +can flatter. God welcomes genuine service, and that is the service +of a soul that offers the bare and simple sacrifice of truth, but +from false service, the mere display of material wealth, he turns +away."</p> +</div> +<p>Lot's daughter, born of a pillar of stone, symbolizes this +unthinking, hypertrophied religion; and custom, its mother, which +always lags behind and has no seed of life, is the enemy of truth. +The religious man pursueth righteousness righteously, the +superstitious unrighteously.</p> +<p><span class="newpage"><a name="page_129" id= +"page_129">[pg.129]</a></span></p> +<p>Thus Philo holds the balance between a formless spirituality and +an unspiritual formalism. The end of religious observance is the +love of God, but the love of God requires more than feeling; it +must impregnate life. Dubnow, in his summary of Jewish history, +formulates an epigram, which, like most of its kind, becomes in its +conciseness and pointed antithesis a half-truth. "At Jerusalem," he +says, "Judaism appeared as a system of practical ceremonies; at +Alexandria as a complex of abstract symbols." No doubt it is true +that at Jerusalem the practical side of the law was most prominent, +but the spiritual exaltation to which it should lead was appraised +as the true end by the great rabbis. Witness Hillel, and indeed all +the writers of the gnomic wisdom in the "Ethics of the Fathers." At +Alexandria, again, while the philosophical principle underlying the +outward practice was especially emphasized, the practice itself was +loyally observed, and its value perceived, by those who most +thoroughly understood Judaism. Witness the writings of Philo, the +Wisdom of Solomon, and the fourth book of the Maccabees. The +antithesis between letter and spirit, faith and works, is in truth +a false one; and wherever the significance of Judaism has been +fully comprehended, the two aspects of the law have been +inextricably intertwined. As Philo understood the Jewish mission, +it was not merely to diffuse the Jewish God-idea, but quite as much +to diffuse the Jewish attitude to God, the way of life. Abstract +ideas, however lofty, can never be the bond of a <span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_130" id="page_130">[pg.130]</a></span> +religious community, nor can they be a safeguard for moral conduct. +Sooner or later congregations must submit themselves to some law, +be it a law of dogma, or be it a law of conduct. Antinomianism, the +opposition to the law, to which Paul later gave powerful, even +fanatical, expression, was a strong movement at Alexandria in +Philo's day. Preparatory to the spread of Christianity, numerous +sects sprang up there which purported to follow a spiritual Judaism +wherein the law was abrogated because, forsooth, its symbolism was +understood! In the extreme allegorists, whom Philo attacks for +their shallowness, one may discern the prototypes of the Cainites, +Ophites, Melchizedecians, and the rest of the heretical parties +that produced the religious chaos of the next centuries. From that +welter of opinions there at last emerged dogmatic Christianity. The +Christian reformers came to free man from the yoke of the law; but +their successors imposed on the mind the fetters of dogma, and, in +order to check the passions of the body, advocated renunciation and +asceticism. So that not only Judaism as a system of belief, but +Judaism as a system of life was lost in their handiwork. +Spirituality lacking knowledge and allegorism in excess led to this +result. In Philo they are controlled by affection for the Torah, +and by a conviction of the need for national cohesion.</p> +<p>Philo is loyal to the Jewish tradition not only because he had a +deep feeling for what a modern teacher has called the catholic +conscience and the historical <span class="newpage"><a name= +"page_131" id="page_131">[pg.131]</a></span> continuity of Judaism, +but because his philosophy was based on a conviction that the +Jewish religion was the truest guide to conduct and righteousness +and to the love of God. To him, as to Plato and Aristotle, the law +was the outward register of the moral ideal; the "word-and-deed +symbols" of ceremonial and prayer were emblems indeed of moral +principles, but at the same time they had an intrinsic value, in +that they impressed these principles upon the mind, and brought +belief and action into harmony. "Religion is law, not philosophy," +said Hobbes. With Philo, religion is law <i>and</i> philosophy. +Thus the love of the Torah is of the essence of his religious +thought. As he puts it in the exhortation to his fellow-ambassadors +before Gaius,<a name="FNanchor_170_170" id= +"FNanchor_170_170"></a><a href="#Footnote_170_170">[170]</a> "to +die in defence of it is a kind of life." In his philosophical +Judaism he sought always for the universal and the spiritual, but +so as always to increase the honor of the law, and not only of the +law but of the customs of his ancestors, thinking with the Psalmist +that "the Torah is a tree of life to those who keep fast hold of +her, and those who support her are blessed."</p> +<p><span class="newpage"><a name="page_132" id= +"page_132">[pg.132]</a></span></p> +<br> +<br> +<br> +<br> +<p>V</p> +<p>PHILO'S THEOLOGY</p> +<br> +<p>"The most remarkable feature about Judaism," says Darmesteter, +"is that without a philosophical system it had reached a +philosophical conclusion about the government of the world and the +nature of God."<a name="FNanchor_171_171" id= +"FNanchor_171_171"></a><a href="#Footnote_171_171">[171]</a> The +same idea underlies the statement of the Peripatetic writer +Theophrastus (who lived in the latter part of the fourth century +B.C.E.) that the Jews are a people of philosophers,<a name= +"FNanchor_172_172" id="FNanchor_172_172"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_172_172">[172]</a> and the epigram of Heine, that they +pray in metaphysics. Intuitively, the lawgiver and prophets of the +Hebrew race had attained a conception of monotheism to which the +greatest of the Greek philosophers had hardly struggled by reason. +The Greeks had started with separate nature-powers, which they had +finally resolved into a supreme nature-force; the Hebrews had +started with the historical God of their fathers, whom they had +universalized into the Creator of the world and Father of all the +human race. Wellhausen has suggested that the intellectual +development of Judaism with its tendency to become a purified +monotheism moved in the same direction towards which Greek thought +tended in its philosophical speculation of the universe. The +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_133" id= +"page_133">[pg.133]</a></span> difference between the two +conceptions of God, however, remained even in their universalized +aspect; the one was an impersonal world-force, the other a personal +God in direct relation with individual man. Elsewhere than in +Judæa, it has been well said, religious development reaches +unity only by sacrificing personality. But the prophets, whose +conception of God was imaginative rather than rational, preserved +His nearness while expanding His sway. Israel, to use Philo's +etymology, is the man who sees God,<a name="FNanchor_173_173" id= +"FNanchor_173_173"></a><a href="#Footnote_173_173">[173]</a> and +his religious genius gave to the world a personal incorporeal +Deity, who is both transcendent and immanent, personal and yet +above human conception. It is unnecessary to quote evidence of this +view of the Godhead in the Bible, and it would be superfluous to +adduce passages from the rabbis, did they not bear a striking +similarity to the words of Philo. God to them is not only the +Creator of the world, but also the Father of the world, the +Governor of the world, the Only One of the world, the Space of the +world, filling it as the soul fills the body.<a name= +"FNanchor_174_174" id="FNanchor_174_174"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_174_174">[174]</a> Now, this Jewish conception of God is +dominant in Philo. To him also God is not only the Creator but the +Father of the universe.<a name="FNanchor_175_175" id= +"FNanchor_175_175"></a><a href="#Footnote_175_175">[175]</a> He is +the One and the All.<a name="FNanchor_176_176" id= +"FNanchor_176_176"></a><a href="#Footnote_176_176">[176]</a> He is +ever at rest, yet he outstrippeth everything, <span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_134" id="page_134">[pg.134]</a></span> +nearest to everyone, yet far removed, everywhere and nowhere, above +and outside the universe, yet filling creation with +Himself.<a name="FNanchor_177_177" id= +"FNanchor_177_177"></a><a href="#Footnote_177_177">[177]</a> Philo +loves to attach to the Deity these opposite predicates, for in this +way alone can we form for ourselves some conception, however +inadequate, of His Being. Strictly, God is unconditioned, and +cannot be the subject of predication, for all determination +involves negation, and hence in one aspect He is not conceivable +nor describable, nor nameable.<a name="FNanchor_178_178" id= +"FNanchor_178_178"></a><a href="#Footnote_178_178">[178]</a> +Siegfried and Zeller press this negative attitude to the Deity, and +find that there is an inherent contradiction in Philo's system, +which ruins it, in that his God, upon whom all depends and who is +the object of all knowledge, is absolutely unknowable and +unapproachable. But this is to take Philo according to the strict +letter to the neglect of the spirit, and to do that with one so +eloquent and so careless of verbal accuracy is utterly to +misunderstand him.</p> +<p>The Greek philosophers in their attempt to formulate an exact +notion of the First Being by abstract metaphysics had, indeed, +conceived it in this fashion; and Philo, harmonizing Greek +metaphysics and Hebrew intuition, is drawn at times into a +presentation of God which appears to deny His personality and make +of Him an abstraction. What has been said of Spinoza is true no +less of Philo.<a name="FNanchor_179_179" id= +"FNanchor_179_179"></a><a href="#Footnote_179_179">[179]</a> "The +tendency to unity, to the infinite, to religion, overbalanced +itself <span class="newpage"><a name="page_135" id= +"page_135">[pg.135]</a></span> till, by its mere excess, it seemed +to be changed into its opposite. But this is not his spirit, only +the dead ultimate result of an imperfect logic that confuses an +abstract with a concrete unity." In truth, the moment man tries to +define his conception of God's essence in words, he either impairs +and perverts his idea, or he must use words that do not really make +the idea any clearer than it was unexpressed. Thus in the Hymn of +<img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image41.jpg" width="39" height= +"22"> the writer, versifying the creeds of Maimonides, seeks to +define God: "He is a Unity, but there is no Unity like His; He is +hidden and there is no end to His oneness." But nobody can claim +that this gives any adequate conception of what he means; so, too, +Philo, when he tries to analyze God's being metaphysically, only +obscures the God of his soul, who was the historical God of +Israel.</p> +<p>The Hebraic God, like the Greek First Being, has no qualities, +but unlike the other He has ethical attributes, and it is by these +that we know Him and by these that He is related to the universe +and to man. "Failing to comprehend Him in His essence we must aim +at the next best thing, to comprehend Him as He is manifested to +the world."<a name="FNanchor_180_180" id= +"FNanchor_180_180"></a><a href="#Footnote_180_180">[180]</a> So in +the "Hymn of Unity" it is written, "In images they told of Thee, +but not according to Thy essence! They but likened Thee in +accordance with Thy works."<a name="FNanchor_181_181" id= +"FNanchor_181_181"></a><a href="#Footnote_181_181">[181]</a> And +this is the manner in which Philo conceives Him: "God's grace and +goodness it is which are the causes of <span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_136" id="page_136">[pg.136]</a></span> +creation."<a name="FNanchor_182_182" id= +"FNanchor_182_182"></a><a href="#Footnote_182_182">[182]</a> "The +just man, seeking the nature of all things, makes this most +excellent discovery, that all things are due to the grace of God." +"To those who ask the origin of creation, one could most easily +reply that it is the goodness and grace of God which He bestowed on +the race that is after His image."<a name="FNanchor_183_183" id= +"FNanchor_183_183"></a><a href="#Footnote_183_183">[183]</a> "For +all that is in the universe and the universe itself are the gift +and bounty and grace of God."<a name="FNanchor_184_184" id= +"FNanchor_184_184"></a><a href="#Footnote_184_184">[184]</a> Again, +"God is omnipotent; He could make all evil, but He wills only what +is best."<a name="FNanchor_185_185" id= +"FNanchor_185_185"></a><a href="#Footnote_185_185">[185]</a> "All +is due to God's grace, though nothing is worthy of it;<a name= +"FNanchor_186_186" id="FNanchor_186_186"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_186_186">[186]</a> but God looked to His own eternal +goodness, and considered that to do good befitted His own blessed +and happy nature."</p> +<p>Philo's life-aim, as we have seen,<a name="FNanchor_187_187" id= +"FNanchor_187_187"></a><a href="#Footnote_187_187">[187]</a> was to +see God in all things and all things in God. He is the sole +principle of being, exercising continuous causality; and yet He is +always at rest, for His energy is the expression of His being. "He +never ceases to create, for creation is as proper to Him as it is +proper to fire to burn and to snow to cause cold."<a name= +"FNanchor_188_188" id="FNanchor_188_188"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_188_188">[188]</a> Further, to Him all human activity +and excellence are directly due. He fertilizes virtue by sending +down the seed from Heaven,<a name="FNanchor_189_189" id= +"FNanchor_189_189"></a><a href="#Footnote_189_189">[189]</a> and He +brings forth wisdom <span class="newpage"><a name="page_137" id= +"page_137">[pg.137]</a></span> from the human mind by His own +Divine effluence. "It is the distinctive feature of Jewish +thought," said Spinoza, "never to make account of particular and +secondary causes, but in a spirit of devotion, piety, and godliness +to refer all things directly to the Deity." No Jewish thinker ever +applied this principle more thoroughly than Philo; and it gives an +unique color to his work in the history of ancient philosophy. All +our lives are one unceasing miracle, due to the constant +manifestation of God's power; and the miracles of the Bible are +examples of the universal working of Divine care rather than +exceptions from it.</p> +<p>The dominant feeling behind Greek thought is that man is the +measure of all things: Plato, attacking the standpoint of his +nation, had declared that God is the measure, and Philo repeats his +maxim with a new intensity. It means for him that man's mind is a +fragment or particle of the Divine universal mind, which, however, +is impotent till called into activity by the further Divine gift of +inspiration. Knowledge and happiness, therefore, come not through +God, but from God.<a name="FNanchor_190_190" id= +"FNanchor_190_190"></a><a href="#Footnote_190_190">[190]</a> "The +Divine Word streams down from the fount of wisdom, and waters the +plants of virtuous souls."<a name="FNanchor_191_191" id= +"FNanchor_191_191"></a><a href="#Footnote_191_191">[191]</a> "To +God alone is it fitting to use the word 'my,'"<a name= +"FNanchor_192_192" id="FNanchor_192_192"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_192_192">[192]</a> or, put in another way, man has only +the usufruct and God the ownership of his <span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_138" id="page_138">[pg.138]</a></span> +powers. Pride of intellect is therefore a deadly sin, because it +involves a false, incomplete idea of God, and true knowledge +involves reverence. The ideal of the Greek sage, the independent +reason, is a godless thing, and those in whom a knowledge of Greek +philosophy produces intellectual pride are not disciples of Divine +Wisdom. In a fine passage Philo charges with hypocrisy those who +talk in high-sounding language about the all-powerful Deity, and +yet declare that by their own intellect they can comprehend the +world.<a name="FNanchor_193_193" id="FNanchor_193_193"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_193_193">[193]</a> This was the attitude not only of the +proud Stoic, but of certain kindred Jewish sects, which were +subject to Greek influences, such as the Gnostics and the Cainites. +And upon them Philo appears to be pouring his wrath when he +exclaims: "How have you the effrontery to go on making and +listening to fine professions about piety and the honor of God, +when you have within you, forsooth, the mind equal to God that +comprehends all human things, and can combine good and evil +portions, giving to some a mixed, to others an unmixed lot? And +when anybody accuses you of impiety, you brazenly declare that you +belong to the school of that noble guide and teacher Cain +(<i>i.e.</i> insolent reason), who bade you pay honor to the +secondary rather than the primary cause."</p> +<p>Philo has often been reproached with intellectualism, and +excessive regard to acquired wisdom, and it <span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_139" id="page_139">[pg.139]</a></span> may +be urged that by his allegorical method he tried to find in the +Bible the sanction of two degrees of religious faith, the higher +for the philosopher and the lower for the ordinary man. At the same +time, however, before his God he retains the childlike simplicity +of the most un-Hellenic rabbi, and the perfect humility of the +Hasid. His conviction of the dependence of all upon God's grace is +the perfect corrective of his intellectual exclusiveness. The idea +of God as the unity which comprehends everything and causes +everything is the great Jewish contribution to thought, and binds +our literature together in all its manifestations. It characterizes +and unites the poetical utterance of the Bible prophets, the pious +wisdom of the rabbis, the philosophical systems of Philo and +Maimonides.</p> +<p>The more sublime and exalted the conception of God, the more +imperative became the need for the thinking Jew to explain how the +perfect infinite Being came into relation with the imperfect finite +world of man and matter. How can the incorporeal God be the founder +of the material universe? How can the infinite mind be present in +the finite thought of man? How can the all-good Power be the +creator of the evil which we see in the material world and of the +wickedness that flourisheth among men? These questions presented +themselves to the Israelite after he had consummated his marvellous +religious intuition, and became the starting-point of a theology +which is nascent in the Wisdom literature of the Bible. Theology is +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_140" id= +"page_140">[pg.140]</a></span> the reasoning about God which +follows always in the footsteps of religious certitude. First, man +by his intuitive reason rises to some idea of the Godhead +satisfying to his emotion; next, by his discursive reason, he +endeavors to justify that idea to his experience in analyzing God's +operations. Renan, disposing sweepingly of a great question, +declares that the Jewish monotheism excluded any true theology. +But, in fact, in Palestine, and still more in Alexandria from the +third century B.C.E., Jewish thought had as one of its constant +aims to develop a theory of the operations of the one God in the +world of material plurality. When the Jews came in contact with the +cosmological mythology of Babylon, their God seemed to soar beyond +the reach of men, and they looked to powers nearer them to bridge +the widening gulf. To some extent this aim engendered a +modification in the religious monotheism, and led to the +interposition of intermediate conceptions between the Inconceivable +and man. "The whole angelology," says Deutsch,<a name= +"FNanchor_194_194" id="FNanchor_194_194"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_194_194">[194]</a> "so strikingly simple before the +Captivity and so wonderfully complex after it, owes its quick +development in Babylonian soil to some awe-stricken desire which +grows with growing culture, removing the inconceivable Being +further and further from human touch or knowledge." Speaking +generally, it may be said that reflection about God's relations +produced in Palestine the doctrine of angels, in Alexandria the +doctrine of Wisdom and the Logos. At the same time the <span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_141" id="page_141">[pg.141]</a></span> +Wisdom and the Word were not unknown to the Palestinian Midrash, +and the hierarchies of angels to the Alexandrian, for the +suggestion of the different subordinate powers had been evolved +before the two traditions had become independent. The doctrine of +angels never indeed won recognition from the rabbis, but it was for +centuries an element of popular belief.</p> +<p>More philosophical than the doctrine of angels was the +conception of different attributes of God <img alt="Hebrew; " src= +"images/image42.jpg" width="52" height="22">, which were different +manifestations of His activity, to the human mind separable and +distinguishable from each other, though absolutely they were +inseparable aspects of the Godhead. Chief among these were the +attribute of mercy and the attribute of justice, <img alt= +"Hebrew; " src="images/image43.jpg" width="244" height="16"> +<a name="FNanchor_195_195" id="FNanchor_195_195"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_195_195">[195]</a> by which, according to a Midrash, +Adam was driven from Eden. And these conceptions, though distrusted +by the Synagogue, entered into later parts of the Prayer Book. +"Attribute of Mercy, reveal thyself for us; make our supplication +to fall at the feet of Thy Creator; and on behalf of Thy people +beseech for mercy"; thus runs a fine prayer in the Ne'ilah service +of the Day of Atonement, and many of the other Selihot prove the +persistence of this development of Jewish belief. The theory of +Divine attributes was common to Palestine and Alexandria, and +plays, as we shall see, an important part in Philo's<a name= +"FNanchor_196_196" id="FNanchor_196_196"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_196_196">[196]</a> thought; but the distinctive +Hellenistic theology is the hypostasis of the Wisdom and the +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_142" id= +"page_142">[pg.142]</a></span> Word of God. In the Bible itself, +and notably in Proverbs, we find Wisdom personified—the first +vague, poetical suggestion of a Jewish theology. As the Jews came +into contact with Hellenic influence, the tendency to develop the +personification into a power increased, and may be traced through +the first flower of Græco-Jewish culture, the Wisdom +literature. The Greek philosophers had conceived the First Cause as +a ruling Mind, or universal Reason, and influenced by this +conception, yet loyal to their monotheistic faith, the Jewish +writers of the Hellenistic age spoke of the Wisdom as the minister +of God, the power by which He ruled creation. The apocryphal books +of Ecclesiasticus and the Wisdom of Solomon exhibit Wisdom passing +from the poetical personification of the Bible to the separate +hypostasis of theology. In the verse of the Bible sage, "Wisdom +hath builded her house, she hath hewn out her seven pillars" (Prov. +ix. 1), she is the creation of the purely poetical fancy, but in +the Wisdom of Solomon she has become a link between Heaven and +earth, the creation of the theologian's reflection. "She reacheth +from one end of the world to the other with strength, and ordereth +all things graciously. She is settled by God on His throne, and by +her He made the world, by her the righteous were saved. She watched +over the father of the human race, and she delivered Israel from +Egypt." In Ecclesiasticus it is written, "All Wisdom is from the +Lord and is with Him forever. She cometh forth from the mouth of +the Most High, and was created <span class="newpage"><a name= +"page_143" id="page_143">[pg.143]</a></span> before all things. God +having fashioned her from the beginning placed her over all His +works. Then she covered the earth as a mist, she pitched her tent +in high places and her palace was in a pillar of cloud. She +ministered in the tabernacle, and was established in Zion, in +Jerusalem, the beloved city." In similar strain, in the apocalyptic +book of Enoch (xxx), God says, "On the sixth day I ordered My +Wisdom to make man"; and in the Sibylline Oracles and Aristobulus +she appears as the assessor of God who ruleth over men.</p> +<p>Parallel with Wisdom, the Word of God was developed into +something between a poetical image and a separate power. Again the +development starts from a Biblical metaphor. "By the word of the +Lord were the heavens created, and all their host by the breath of +His mouth" (Ps. xxxiii). "God of our Fathers and Lord of Mercy, who +didst make all things by Thy word," says the writer of the Wisdom +of Solomon. Inspired again by the phrase of the Psalmist, "He sent +His word, and healed them" (Ps. cvi. 20), he hymns the Divine Logos +as the all-powerful emissary doing God's bidding among men. "It was +neither herb nor emollient that cured Israel in the wilderness +(when bitten by the fiery scorpions), but Thy Logos, O Lord, which +heals all things." Later, when he describes the destruction of the +first-born in Egypt, he rises in a pæan to a finer poetical +flight: "When tranquil silence folded all things, and night in her +own swiftness was in the midst of her course, Thy <span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_144" id="page_144">[pg.144]</a></span> +all-powerful Logos leaped from heaven, from his royal throne, a +stern warrior into the midst of the doomed land, bearing as a sharp +sword Thy Divine commandment, and having taken his stand filled all +things with death: and he touched heaven and walked upon earth." +The Jewish poet, rejecting the idea that the perfect God could +descend to earth and slay men, brushes away the anthropomorphism of +the Bible, and summons from his mind this creation mixed of Hebrew +imagination and Greek reason. So, too, Onkelos, wherever activity +upon earth was ascribed to God, wrote, in his translation (Targum) +of Scripture, "the word of the Lord," and for the material hand he +substituted the more abstract might. The same development,<a name= +"FNanchor_197_197" id="FNanchor_197_197"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_197_197">[197]</a> under the names of Memra and (less +frequently) of <img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image44.jpg" width= +"37" height="16">, shows that the word-agent of God appealed to +certain of the rabbis in their desire to explain away, on the one +hand, expressions in the Bible which seemed to invest the Deity +with corporeal qualities, and, on the other, so to divide His +infinite perfection as to make His presence immanent upon +earth.</p> +<p>The teachers at Alexandria were above all others induced to +develop the Word into the active power, since they seemed thereby +to find in the Bible a remarkable anticipation of Greek philosophy. +The Greek Logos, by which "the Word" was translated in the +Septuagint, meant also thought and reason, and during the +Hellenistic age was the regular term by which <span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_145" id="page_145">[pg.145]</a></span> the +philosophical schools expressed the impersonal world-force which +governed all things. The Logos idea among the Jews was a +modification of intuitive and naïve monotheism; among the +Greeks it was a step upwards, demanded by reason, from polytheism +to a monistic view of the universe. By the first century its +recognition as the ruling power in both the physical and moral +universe had become a point of union in all philosophical +schools—the common stamp of philosophical theology. Between +the Semitic ministerial word uttered by a personal Being and the +Greek pantheistic governing reason, there was probably an early +connection, due to Eastern influences which operated upon the +founders of Greek philosophy, which later schools lost sight of. +When the Hebrew Scriptures were translated, the two coalesced more +fruitfully in the Greek term Logos, and a point of union was +provided between the philosophical and the Jewish theology. +Moreover the local Egyptian influence aided the union, for the god +Thoth was also identified with the Logos, which thus appeared as a +religious conception common to all races, the basis of a universal +creed. And besides the world-reason of the philosophers, another +Greek influence no doubt tended to further the development of the +Logos in Jewish thought. One of the most marked characteristics of +the Hellenistic age is the renascence of wonder at the institutions +of human life, and more especially at numbers and speech.</p> +<p><span class="newpage"><a name="page_146" id= +"page_146">[pg.146]</a></span> Numbers were held to contain the +essence of things, and the marvellous powers of four, seven, and +ten received honor from all sects and schools. Words, too, were +regarded almost as a mystic power, distinct from thought, +incorporeal things which made thought real and gave it expression. +The mystical susceptibility of Philo to the power of numbers has +been noticed by every critic and exaggerated by not a few; his +mystical valuation of words and speech, though far more important +in his thought, has been commonly passed over. The analysis which +Greek writers made of the relation between the mental thought, the +sound which utters it, and the mind which thinks it, was invested +with special importance for the Jewish thinker, who transferred it +from the human to the Divine sphere. He applied it to interpret the +constant Biblical phrases "and God said" or "and God spoke," +according to notions in which philosophy and theology are mixed; +and propounded a mystic idealism and a mystic cosmology, in which +God's thought or comprehensive Word becomes the archetype of the +visible universe, His single words the substantive universe and the +laws of nature. A century before Philo, Aristobulus—assuming +the genuineness of his Fragments—wrote:<a name= +"FNanchor_198_198" id="FNanchor_198_198"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_198_198">[198]</a> "We must understand the Word of God, +not as a spoken word, but as the establishment of actual things, +seeing that we find throughout the Torah that Moses has declared +the whole creation to be words of God." Philo, following his +predecessor, <span class="newpage"><a name="page_147" id= +"page_147">[pg.147]</a></span> says, "God speaks not words but +things,"<a name="FNanchor_199_199" id= +"FNanchor_199_199"></a><a href="#Footnote_199_199">[199]</a> and, +again, commenting on the first chapter of Genesis, "God, even as He +spake, at the same moment created."<a name="FNanchor_200_200" id= +"FNanchor_200_200"></a><a href="#Footnote_200_200">[200]</a> And of +human speech he has this pretty conceit a little before: "Into the +mouth there enter food and drink, the perishable food of a +perishable body; out of it issue words, immortal laws of an +immortal soul, by which rational life is guided."<a name= +"FNanchor_201_201" id="FNanchor_201_201"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_201_201">[201]</a> If human speech is "immortal law," +much more is the speech of God. His words are ideas seen by the eye +of the soul, not heard by the ear.<a name="FNanchor_202_202" id= +"FNanchor_202_202"></a><a href="#Footnote_202_202">[202]</a> The +ten commandments given at Sinai were "ideas" of this incorporeal +nature, and the voice that Israel heard was no voice such as men +possess, but the <img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image45.jpg" +width="51" height="19">, the Divine Presence itself, which exalted +the multitude.<a name="FNanchor_203_203" id= +"FNanchor_203_203"></a><a href="#Footnote_203_203">[203]</a> Philo +is here expanding and developing Jewish tradition. In the "Ethics +of the Fathers" (v) we read: "By ten words was the world created"; +and in the pages of the Midrash the <img alt="Hebrew; " src= +"images/image46.jpg" width="57" height="21">, <i>i.e.</i>, the +mystic emanation of the Deity, which revealed itself after the +spirit of prophecy had ceased to be vouchsafed, is credited with +wondrous and varied powers, now revealing the Decalogue, now +performing some miracle, now appearing in a vision to the blessed, +now prophesying the future fate of the race to a pious rabbi. The +fertilizing stream of Greek <span class="newpage"><a name= +"page_148" id="page_148">[pg.148]</a></span> philosophical idealism +nourished the growth of the Jewish pious imagination, and in the +Logos of Philo the fruit matured. It is idle to try to formulate a +single definite notion of Philo's Logos. For it is the expression +of God in all His multiple and manifold activity, the instrument of +creation, the seat of ideas, the world of thought which God first +established as the model of the visible universe, the guiding +providence, the sower of virtue, the fount of wisdom, described +sometimes in religious ecstasy, sometimes in philosophical +metaphysics, sometimes in the spirit of the mystical poet. Of his +last manner let us take a specimen singled out by a Christian and a +Jewish theologian as of surprising beauty. Commenting on the verse +of the Psalmist, "The river of God is filled with water," Philo +declares that it is absurd to call any earthly stream the river of +God.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>"The poet clearly refers to the Divine Logos that is full of the +fountain of wisdom, and is in no part itself empty. Nay, it is +diffused through the universe, and is raised up on high. In another +verse the Psalmist says, 'The course of the river gladdens the city +of God.' And in truth the continuous rush of the Divine Logos is +borne along with eager but regular onset, and overflows and +gladdens all things. In one sense he calls the world the city of +God, for it has received the 'full cup' of the Divine draught, and +has quaffed a perpetual, eternal joy. But in another sense he gave +this name to the soul of the wise, wherein God is said to walk as +in a city. And who can pour out the sacred measures of their joy to +the blissful soul which holds out the holy cup, that is its own +reason, save the Logos, the cupbearer of God, the</p> +</div> +<p><span class="newpage"><a name="page_149" id= +"page_149">[pg.149]</a></span></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>master of the feast? Nor is the Logos cupbearer only, but it is +itself the pure draught, itself the joy and exultation, itself the +pouring forth and the delight, itself the ambrosial philtre and +potion of bliss."<a name="FNanchor_204_204" id= +"FNanchor_204_204"></a><a href="#Footnote_204_204">[204]</a></p> +</div> +<p>Through the luxury of metaphor and imagination one may discern +the underlying thought of the mystic writer, that the Logos is the +effluence of God, either in the whole universe or the individual +man, filling the one as the other with the Divine Shekinah. It is +the link which joins God and man, the ladder of Jacob's dream, +which stretches from Heaven to earth.<a name="FNanchor_205_205" id= +"FNanchor_205_205"></a><a href="#Footnote_205_205">[205]</a> That +man can attain the Divine state by the help of God's effluence was +a cardinal thought of Philo's; this, indeed, is the form in which +he conceives the Messianic hope. God does not come down to earth +incarnate in man's form, but God's active influence possesses the +soul of man, and makes it live with God, and if man be peculiarly +blessed, carries it up to the ineffable Spirit. Similarly his idea +of the Messiah is more spiritual than that of the popular belief. +The ascent of man to God's height, not the descent of God to man's +level, will produce the age of universal peace.</p> +<p>There are various degrees of the Divine influence, stretching +from complete possession by the Deity Himself to the advent of +single Divine thoughts. These Philo regards as <img alt= +"Greek: logoi" src="images/image47.jpg" width="46" height="19">, +words or thoughts—for he does not clearly distinguish between +the two—and he resolves the realistic angels of the Bible +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_150" id= +"page_150">[pg.150]</a></span> into this spiritual +conception.<a name="FNanchor_206_206" id= +"FNanchor_206_206"></a><a href="#Footnote_206_206">[206]</a> Thus +he says, "the place" where Jacob alighted and had the vision (Gen. +xxvii. 11) is the symbol of the perfect contemplation of God; the +angels which he saw ascending and descending are the inferior light +of Divine precepts. These thoughts are continually vouchsafed to +all of us, prompting us to noble actions, comforting us in times of +sadness, inspiring lofty ideas.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>"Up and down through the whole soul the Logoi of God move +without end; when they ascend, drawing it up with them, and +severing it from the mortal part, and showing only the vision of +ideal things; but when they descend, not casting it down, but +descending with it from humanity or compassion towards our race, so +as to give assistance and help, in order that, inspiring what is +noble, they may revive the soul which is borne along on the stream +of the body."<a name="FNanchor_207_207" id= +"FNanchor_207_207"></a><a href="#Footnote_207_207">[207]</a></p> +</div> +<p>Conversely, the rabbis taught that from each word that proceeded +from the mouth of God an angel was created, as it is said: "By the +word of the Lord the Heavens were made, and all the host of them by +the breath of His mouth."<a name="FNanchor_208_208" id= +"FNanchor_208_208"></a><a href="#Footnote_208_208">[208]</a></p> +<p>Apart from these sudden and occasional emanations of the Divine +Spirit, the individual man has within him a permanent Divine Logos +by which he may direct his conduct aright. Viewed in this aspect, +the Logos, <i>i.e.</i>, the activity of God, is conscience, the +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_151" id= +"page_151">[pg.151]</a></span> Judge in the soul, which is the true +man dwelling within,<a name="FNanchor_209_209" id= +"FNanchor_209_209"></a><a href="#Footnote_209_209">[209]</a> ruler +and king, judge and arbiter, witness and accuser, correcting and +restraining. Rising to bolder personification, Philo, who loves to +present a spiritual thought in a concrete image, calls it the +undefiled high priest in us.<a name="FNanchor_210_210" id= +"FNanchor_210_210"></a><a href="#Footnote_210_210">[210]</a> In +this power he finds a sure refutation of skepticism; for in virtue +of the Divine voice man may secure moral certitude: and he finds +also a philosophical value for popular superstition. It was a +common notion of the pagans as well as the Jews of the time that an +intermediate order of beings passed between heaven and earth and +brought supernatural aid to men; and also that a familiar spirit, +or Dæmon, dwelt within the soul of each man. The finer spirit +of Philo resolves the attendant Dæmon and the +messenger-dæmons or angels into the spiritual effluences of +the one Deity; save for a few places where he makes a pose of +agreement with popular notions and speaks of winged denizens of +Heaven<a name="FNanchor_211_211" id="FNanchor_211_211"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_211_211">[211]</a> who descend to earth, he habitually +expounds angels as inward revelations of God.</p> +<p>As the revelation of God to the individual is a Logos, so, too, +is his revelation to the whole of mankind. It was pointed out in +the last chapter that Philo identified the Torah with the law of +nature, and he did this by regarding it as the Divine Logos. The +more perfect emanation of God is in one view the power by +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_152" id= +"page_152">[pg.152]</a></span> which He directs the physical +creation, in another the perfect law which He set up as the model +of conduct for His highest creatures. The rabbis, indeed, were +prone to glorify the law as the primal creation of God, and the +instrument of all the later creations, <img alt="Hebrew; " src= +"images/image48.jpg" width="203" height="18">.<a name= +"FNanchor_212_212" id="FNanchor_212_212"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_212_212">[212]</a> They speak of it as the light, the +pillar, and the bond of the universe, the model whereon the +architect looked;<a name="FNanchor_213_213" id= +"FNanchor_213_213"></a><a href="#Footnote_213_213">[213]</a> and +Philo amplifies this simple poetical concept and develops it afresh +in the light of Greek idealistic and cosmical notions,<a name= +"FNanchor_214_214" id="FNanchor_214_214"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_214_214">[214]</a> so that the Torah, as the Logos of +God, is equated with the source of all being, wisdom, and +knowledge, with the ideal world which is the archetype of the +material, and with all the law and order of nature. And as the +Torah is the Logos, so also its particular precepts are Logoi.</p> +<p>It seems difficult to trace the unity among all these different +aspects of the "Word," but in fact they are only different +expressions of the Divine activity in the universe. All these are +comprehended in the Logos, and then again divided out of it, so +that it is, as it were, a crystal prism reflecting the light of the +Godhead in a myriad different ways. One curious illustration of the +universal sense in which Philo understood the Logos is his +interpretation of the manna; it is typical also of his manner of +exegesis <span class="newpage"><a name="page_153" id= +"page_153">[pg.153]</a></span> and his habit of spiritualizing the +material. It is related in Exodus (xvi. 15) that when the +Israelites saw the heavenly food they exclaimed <img alt="Hebrew; " +src="images/image49.jpg" width="59" height="15">, "What is it?" and +hence the food obtained its name of manna. Now the Greek Septuagint +word for <img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image50.jpg" width="67" +height="22"> which means not only "what" but "anything." Philo sees +in the gift of the heavenly food a symbol of the inspiration of the +chosen people by the Divine Logos, and says that the Logos is +rightly called manna, <i>i.e.</i>, anything, because it is the +"most generic of all things, and that by which man may be +nourished."<a name="FNanchor_215_215" id= +"FNanchor_215_215"></a><a href="#Footnote_215_215">[215]</a></p> +<p>The central thought of Philo's system is that God is immanent in +all His work; but it would seem to him sacrilegious to apply to the +Godhead itself this universal, unceasing activity, and so he +develops the Logos as the most ideal attribute of the Deity, and +the sum of all His immanence and effluence. He preferred the Logos +to the older Wisdom, probably because he could by this conception +bring his idea of God into closer relation with Greek philosophical +notions, for already the Hellenistic world had come spontaneously +to revere the cosmical Logos. Only Philo gave to the expression of +their physical and metaphysical speculation a religious warmth new +to it, when he associated it with the word uttered by the personal +God. Philosophy, theology, and religion were all joined and +harmonized in his conception.</p> +<p>If we have followed thus far the spirit of Philo <span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_154" id="page_154">[pg.154]</a></span> +aright, the Logos is only the immanent manifestation of the One +God, who is both transcendental and immanent, metaphorically, not +metaphysically, separate. In other words, it is the complete aspect +of God as He reveals Himself to the world. Above it and including +it is the being or essence of God, seen in Himself, and not in +relation to His outward activity. But it is often suggested that +the Logos appears to Philo as a second God, subordinate, indeed, to +the Supreme Being, but yet a separate personality. It is said, with +truth, that he speaks of it as a person, now calling it king, +priest, primal man, the first-born son of God, even the second God, +and identifying it at other times with some personal being, +Melchizedek or Moses, and apostrophizing it as man's helper, guide, +and advocate.<a name="FNanchor_216_216" id= +"FNanchor_216_216"></a><a href="#Footnote_216_216">[216]</a> Now we +have reason to think that Gnostic sects of Jews, both in Alexandria +and in Palestine, were at this time tending towards the division of +the Godhead into separate powers. The heresy of "Minut," frequently +mentioned in the Talmud, consisted originally, in the opinion of +modern scholars, of a Gnostic ditheism;<a name="FNanchor_217_217" +id="FNanchor_217_217"></a><a href="#Footnote_217_217">[217]</a> and +during the latter part of the first century and thereafter we hear +of sects in Egypt and Syria which supported similar theories. +Theology here produced its fantastic offspring theosophy, and the +followers of the esoteric wisdom let their speculations carry them +away from the cardinal principle of <span class="newpage"><a name= +"page_155" id="page_155">[pg.155]</a></span> Judaism. Influenced by +Egyptian speculation, they imagined an incarnation of the Divine +Spirit, and in the mystical thought of the day they adumbrated +theories of virgin birth.</p> +<p>Now these prototypes of Christian belief had undoubtedly +manifested themselves at Alexandria in Philo's day. His treatises +show traces of them,<a name="FNanchor_218_218" id= +"FNanchor_218_218"></a><a href="#Footnote_218_218">[218]</a> and +the question is whether he countenanced them or tried to summon the +theosophists of his generation back to the true Jewish conception +of God. Certain Christian and philosophical critics of Philo, for +whom the wish was perhaps father to the thought, have found in +Philo's Logos a conception which is at times impersonal, at times +personal, at times an aspect of the One God, and at times a second +independent God. If we take Philo literally, this certainly is the +case. But let it be clearly understood, this interpretation not +only involves Philo in inconsistency, but it utterly ruins and +destroys his religious and philosophical system. It means that the +champion of Jewish monotheism wanders into a vague ditheism. And in +view of this, the modern commentators of Philo, notably Professor +Drummond,<a name="FNanchor_219_219" id= +"FNanchor_219_219"></a><a href="#Footnote_219_219">[219]</a> have +examined his words more carefully and studied them in relation to +their context; and they have shown how, judged in this critical +fashion, the personality of the Logos is only figurative. It is, +indeed, probable that certain extreme passages, where the Logos is +presented most explicitly as <span class="newpage"><a name= +"page_156" id="page_156">[pg.156]</a></span> a separate Deity, are +due to Christological interpolation. The Church Fathers found in +the popular belief in the Divine Word a remarkable support of the +Trinity, and regarding, as they did, Philo's writings as valuable +testimony to the truth of Christianity, they had every temptation +to bring his passages about the Logos still closer to their ideas. +And between the first and the fifth century, when we first hear +from Eusebius of manuscripts of Philo at the Christian monastery of +Cæsarea—from which we can trace our texts in direct +line—there was no high standard in dealing with ancient +authorities. It is the Christian teachers who preserved Philo, and +they preserved him not as scholars but as missioners. The best +editors have recognized that our text has been interfered with by +evidenced-making scribes, as where a passage about the new +Jerusalem appears, agreeing almost word for word with the picture +of Revelations. Similarly, not a few passages about the Logos are +probably spurious.<a name="FNanchor_220_220" id= +"FNanchor_220_220"></a><a href="#Footnote_220_220">[220]</a></p> +<p>Yet, even when we have expurgated our text of Philo, there +remain, it will be said, numerous passages where the Logos is +spoken of and apostrophized as a person. This is so, but the +conclusion which is drawn, that the Logos is regarded as a second +deity, is unjustifiable. The Jewish mind from the time of the +prophets unto this day has thought in images and metaphors, and the +personification of the Logos is only the most striking instance of +Philo's regular <span class="newpage"><a name="page_157" id= +"page_157">[pg.157]</a></span> habit of personifying all abstract +ideas. The allegorical habit particularly conduces to this, for as +persons are constantly resolved into ideas, so ideas come to be +naturally represented as persons. There are thus two steps in +Philo's theology, which seem to some extent to counteract each +other; in the first place, he resolves the concrete physical +expressions of the Bible into spiritual ideas, in the second he +portrays those ideas in pictorial language and clothes them in +personifications. The allegorizer requires an allegorist to +interpret him aright.</p> +<p>Nor must it be forgotten that Philo was preaching spiritual +monotheism not only to Jews, but also to the Hellenic world, for +whom it was a vast bound from their naturalistic polytheism. +Zealous as he was for the pure faith, he realized that mankind +could not attain it directly, but must approach it by conceptions +of the One God gradually increasing in profundity and truth. The +Greek thinkers had approximated closest to the Hebraic God-idea +when they conceived one supreme, immanent reason in the universe; +and Philo, in carrying his audiences beyond this to the +transcendent-immanent Being, transformed the Greek cosmical concept +into a Divine power of the One Being. For the true believer this is +the stepping-stone to the perfect idea. "The Logos," he says, "is +the God of us imperfect people, but the true sages worship the One +Being."<a name="FNanchor_221_221" id= +"FNanchor_221_221"></a><a href="#Footnote_221_221">[221]</a> And, +again, "The imperfect have <span class="newpage"><a name="page_158" +id="page_158">[pg.158]</a></span> as their law the holy +Logos."<a name="FNanchor_222_222" id= +"FNanchor_222_222"></a><a href="#Footnote_222_222">[222]</a> And in +this sense, it is "intermediate <img alt="Greek: methorios" src= +"images/image51.jpg" width="91" height="22"> between God and +man."<a name="FNanchor_223_223" id="FNanchor_223_223"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_223_223">[223]</a> What such passages mean is that the +separation of the Logos is a stage in man's progress up to the true +idea of God. It is a second-best Deity, so to say, rather than a +second Deity; for those who regard the Logos as God have no +conception at all of the perfect Being of which it is only the +principal attribute.</p> +<p>The theology of Philo is characterized throughout by a tolerant +and philosophical grasp of the difficulty of pure monotheism, and +of the necessity of a long intellectual searching before the goal +can be attained. To declare the Unity of God is simple enough; to +have a real conception of it is a very different and a very +difficult thing. And Philo's theology has a two-fold aim, in which +either part complements the other. It explains, on the one hand, +how God is revealed to the world through His powers or attributes +or modes of activity, and, on the other, how man can ascend to an +ecstatic union with the Real Being through comprehension of those +powers. By the ideal ladder which brings down God to earth, man can +climb again to Heaven. The three chief rungs of the ladder are the +attributes of creation, and of ruling power, and the Logos. The +perfect unity of the Godhead is not, of course, properly the +subject of attributes, but the limited mind of man so conceives it +for its own understanding, and speaks of God's justice, God's +goodness, <span class="newpage"><a name="page_159" id= +"page_159">[pg.159]</a></span> God's wisdom. These are, to use +philosophical terminology, categories of the religious +understanding, which are finally resolved by the perfect sage in +"the synthetic apperception of Unity."</p> +<p>Philo follows what may have been a Hebrew tradition in +explaining the two names of God, "Elohim" and "Jehovah," as +connoting His two chief attributes: (1) the creative or beneficent, +(2) the ruling or judicial, or, as it is sometimes called, the +law-giving power.<a name="FNanchor_224_224" id= +"FNanchor_224_224"></a><a href="#Footnote_224_224">[224]</a> Names, +as we know, were always regarded by Philo as profound symbols, and +naturally the names of God are of vital import; and the twofold +expression for the Hebrew Deity, of which the higher critics have +made much destructive use, was noticed by the earliest +commentators, but made the basis by them of a constructive +theology. The ruling and the creative attributes of God are +outlined and contained in the highest mode of all, the Logos, "the +reason of God in every phase and form of it that is discoverable +and realizable by man." For by the Logos, God is both ruler and +good.<a name="FNanchor_225_225" id="FNanchor_225_225"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_225_225">[225]</a> This is the profound interpretation +of the story in Genesis, that "God placed at the east of the garden +of Eden the two Cherubim and a flaming sword, which turned every +way to keep the way of the tree of life" (Gen. iv. 24). The +Cherubim are the symbols of the powers of majesty and goodness; the +flaming sword is the Logos; "because," says our author quaintly, +"all thought and speech are the most <span class="newpage"><a name= +"page_160" id="page_160">[pg.160]</a></span> mobile and the most +ardent (<i>i.e.</i>, the most intensive) of things, and especially +the thought and speech of the only Principle."<a name= +"FNanchor_226_226" id="FNanchor_226_226"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_226_226">[226]</a></p> +<p>To correspond with the descending attributes of God we have the +ascending dispositions of man towards Him, fear, love, and thirdly +their synthesis in loving knowledge. When we are in the first stage +of religion we obey the law in hope of reward or fear of +punishment; when we have progressed higher in thought, we worship +God as the good Creator; when we have ascended one further stage, +we surpass both fear and love in an emotion which combines them, +realizing, as Browning puts it, that "God is law and God is love." +In illustration of this scheme of Philo's we may examine two +passages out of his philosophical commentary. In the first he is +commenting upon the appearance of the three angels to Abraham as he +sat outside his tent (Gen. xviii).<a name="FNanchor_227_227" id= +"FNanchor_227_227"></a><a href="#Footnote_227_227">[227]</a> And, +by the way, it may be remarked that the Midrash commenting on this +passage notes that it begins, "And the Lord appeared unto Abraham," +and then continues, "And he lifted up his eyes and looked, and, lo, +three men stood before him." Hence we may learn that it was really +the one God who appeared to the Patriarch, and that the three +angels were but a vision of his mind. This is the dominant note of +Philo's interpretation, but he as usual elaborates the old Midrash +philosophically. <span class="newpage"><a name="page_161" id= +"page_161">[pg.161]</a></span></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>"The words," he says, "are symbols of things apprehended by +intelligence alone—the soul receives a triple expression of +one being, of which one is the representative of the actual +existent, and the other two are shadows, as it were, cast from +this. So it happens also in the physical world, for there often +occur two shadows of bodies at rest or in motion. Let no one +suppose, however, that shadow is properly used in relation to God. +It is only a popular use of words for the clearer understanding of +our subject. The reality is not so, but, as one standing nearest to +the truth might say, the middle one is the Father of the universe, +who is called in Scripture the 'Self-existent'; and those on either +side of Him are the two oldest and chief powers, the Creative and +the Regal. The middle one, then, being attended by the others as by +a bodyguard, presents to the contemplative mind a mental image or +representation now of one and now of three; of one whenever the +soul, being properly purified and perfectly initiated, rises to the +idea which is unmingled and free from limitation, and requires +nothing to complete it; but of three whenever it has not yet been +initiated into the great mysteries, and still celebrates the lesser +rites, unable to apprehend the Being in itself without +modification, but apprehending it through its modes as either +creating or ruling. This is, as the proverb says, a second-best +course, but yet it partakes of godlike opinion. But the former does +not partake of—for it <i>is</i> itself—the Godlike +opinion, or rather it is truth, which is more precious than all +opinion.</p> +<p>"Further, there are three classes of human character, to each of +which one of the three conceptions of God has been assigned. The +best class goes with the first, the conception of the absolute +Being; the next goes with the conception of Him as a Benefactor, in +virtue of which He is called God; the third with the conception of +Him as a Ruler, in virtue of which He is called Lord. The +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_162" id= +"page_162">[pg.162]</a></span> noblest character serves Him who is +in all the purity of His absolute Being; it is attracted by no +other thing or aspect, but is solely and intently devoted to the +honor of the one and only Being; the second is brought to the +knowledge of the Father through His beneficent power; the third +through His regal power."</p> +</div> +<p>In the second passage, which occurs in the treatise on flight +from the world,<a name="FNanchor_228_228" id= +"FNanchor_228_228"></a><a href="#Footnote_228_228">[228]</a> Philo +is allegorizing the law about founding six cities of refuge (Exodus +xxxii). These are but material symbols for the six stages of the +ascent of the mind to the pure God-idea. The chief city, the +metropolis, is the Divine Logos, next come the two powers already +considered, and then three secondary powers, the retributive, the +law-giving, and the prohibitive. "Very beautiful and well-fenced +cities they are, worthy refuges of souls that merit salvation." +Each of these cities is an aspect of the religious mind; when it +settles in the first it obeys the law from fear of punishment and +thinks of God as the Judge; in the second it observes the precepts +in hope of reward and conceives God as the legislator of a fixed +code; in the next it is repentant and throws itself on God's grace, +marking the first step of the spiritual life. Then it ascends in +order to the idea of God as the governor of the universe, and the +emotion which the rabbis called <img alt="Hebrew; " src= +"images/image52.jpg" width="93" height="16">, the fear of Heaven; +and to the idea of God as the Creator and the universal Providence, +which has as its emotional reflex the love of Heaven, <img alt= +"Hebrew; " src="images/image53.jpg" width="99" height="22"> +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_163" id= +"page_163">[pg.163]</a></span> But even this, which is the highest +stage for many men, is not an adequate conception. Above it is the +contemplation of God, apart from all manifestations in the +perceptible world, in His ideal nature, the Logos, which at once +transcends and comprehends the universe. And the attitude of this +man can be best expressed perhaps by Spinoza's phrase, "the +intellectual love of God," <i>amor intellectualis Dei</i>. The +worshipper of the Logos has grasped and has harmonized all the +manifestations of the Deity; he sees and honors all things in God; +he comprehends the universe as the perfect manifestation of one +good Being.</p> +<p>Is this the highest point which man can reach? Many religious +philosophers have held that it is, but Philo, the mystic, yearning +to track out God "beyond the utmost bound of human thought," +imagines one higher condition. The Logos is only the image or the +shadow of the Godhead.<a name="FNanchor_229_229" id= +"FNanchor_229_229"></a><a href="#Footnote_229_229">[229]</a> Above +it is the one perfect reality, the transcendent Essence. Now, man +cannot by any intellectual effort attain knowledge of the Infinite +as He truly is, for this is above thought. But to a few blessed +mortals God of His grace vouchsafes a mystic vision of His nature. +Thus Moses, the perfect hierophant, had this perfect apprehension, +and passed from intellectual love to holy adoration. And the true +philosopher has as the goal of his aspirations the heaven-sent +ecstasy, in which he sees God no longer through His effects, or in +the modes of His <span class="newpage"><a name="page_164" id= +"page_164">[pg.164]</a></span> activity, but through Himself in His +own essence. The philosopher, when he receives this vision +<img alt="Greek: epopteia" src="images/image54.jpg" width="84" +height="22"> is possessed by the Shekinah,<a name= +"FNanchor_230_230" id="FNanchor_230_230"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_230_230">[230]</a> and, losing consciousness of his +individuality, becomes at one with God.</p> +<p>So much for Philo's theory of man's upward progress. We may add +a word about his treatment of the problem which troubled thinkers +in that age, and which has harassed theologians ever since, viz., +to show how punishment and evil could be derived from a God who was +all-powerful and all-good. The Gnostics were driven by the +difficulty to imagine an evil world-power, which was in incessant +conflict with the Good God: and popular belief had conjured up a +legion of subordinate powers, who took part in the work of creation +and the government of the world. When Philo is speaking popularly, +he accepts this current theology and speaks also of a punitive +power of God<a name="FNanchor_231_231" id= +"FNanchor_231_231"></a><a href="#Footnote_231_231">[231]</a> +<img alt="Greek: dunamis cholastichê" src= +"images/image55.jpg" width="162" height="21">; but not when he is +the philosopher. For then, in perfect faith, he denies the absolute +existence of evil. "It is neither in Paradise nor indeed anywhere +whatsoever."<a name="FNanchor_232_232" id= +"FNanchor_232_232"></a><a href="#Footnote_232_232">[232]</a> Man, +however, by his free will causes evil in the human sphere; and when +God formed in man a rational nature capable of choosing for itself, +moral evil became the necessary contrary of good.<a name= +"FNanchor_233_233" id="FNanchor_233_233"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_233_233">[233]</a> Moreover, the punitive activity of +God, though it seems <span class="newpage"><a name="page_165" id= +"page_165">[pg.165]</a></span> to cause suffering and misery, is in +truth a good, simulating evil, and if men judged the universal +process as a whole, they would find it all good. The existence of +evil involves no derogation from the perfect unity of God.</p> +<p>If we have understood correctly Philo's theology, neither Logos, +nor subordinate powers, nor angels, nor demons have an objective +existence; they are mere imaginings of varying incompleteness which +the limited minds of men, "moving in worlds not realized," make for +themselves of the one and only true God. Philo's theology is the +philosophical treatment of Jewish tradition, just as Philo's legal +exegesis is the philosophical treatment of the Torah. While +maintaining and striving to deepen the conception of God's unity, +he aims at expounding to the reason how, on the one hand, that +unity is revealed in the world about us, and how, on the other, we +may advance to its true comprehension. It was, however, unfortunate +that Philo expressed his theology in the current language, which +was vague and inexact, and adapted certain foreign theosophical +ideas to Judaism; hence succeeding generations, paying regard to +the pictorial representation rather than to the principles of his +thought, sought and found in him evidence of theories of Divine +government to which Judaism was pre-eminently opposed. The first +chapter of the Fourth Gospel shows that gradual process of thought +which finally made the Logos doctrine the antithesis of Judaism. In +the first verse we have a thought which might well <span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_166" id="page_166">[pg.166]</a></span> have +been written by Philo himself: "In the beginning was the Word, and +the Word was with God, and the Word was God." But in the fourteenth +verse there is manifest the sharp cleavage: "And the Word was made +flesh, and dwelt among us, and we beheld his glory, the glory as of +the only begotten of the Father, full of grace and truth." There +may be a fine spiritual thought beneath the letter here, but the +notion of the Incarnation is not Jewish, nor philosophical, nor +Philonic. Philo's work was made to serve as the guide of that +Christian Gnosticism which, within the next hundred years, +proclaimed that Judaism was the work of an evil God, and that the +essential mission of Jesus—the good Logos—was to +dethrone Jehovah! But though the Logos conception was turned to +non-Jewish and anti-Jewish purposes, it was in Philo the offspring +of a pure and philosophical monotheism. Whatever the later abuse of +his teaching, Philo constructed a theology which, though affected +by foreign influences, was essentially true to Judaism; and more +than that, he was the first to weave the Jewish idea of God into +the world's philosophy.</p> +<p><span class="newpage"><a name="page_167" id= +"page_167">[pg.167]</a></span></p> +<hr style="width: 65%;"> +<br> +<br> +<br> +<br> +<a name="VI" id="VI"></a> +<h2>VI</h2> +<p>PHILO AS A PHILOSOPHER</p> +<br> +<p>Save for a few monographs of no great importance, because of the +absence of original thought, Philo's works form avowedly an +exegesis of the Bible and not a series of philosophical writings. +Nor must the reader expect to find an ordered system of philosophy +in his separate works, much more than in the writings of the +rabbis. As Professor Caird says,<a name="FNanchor_234_234" id= +"FNanchor_234_234"></a><a href="#Footnote_234_234">[234]</a> "The +Hebrew mind is intuitive, imaginative, incapable of analysis or +systematic connection of ideas." Philo's philosophical conceptions +lie scattered up and down his writings, "strung on the thread of +the Bible narrative which determines the sequence of his thoughts." +Nevertheless, though he has not given us explicit treatises on +cosmology, metaphysics, ethics, psychology, etc., and though he was +incapable of close logical thinking, he has treated all these +subjects suggestively and originally in the course of his +commentary, and his readers may gather together what he has +dispersed, and find a co-ordinated body of religious philosophy. +However loosely they are set forth in his treatises, his ideas are +closely connected in his mind. Herein he <span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_168" id="page_168">[pg.168]</a></span> +differs from his Jewish predecessors, for the notion of the old +historians of the Alexandrian movement, that there was a systematic +Jewish philosophy before Philo, does not appear to have been +well-founded. All that Aristeas and Aristobulus and the Apocryphal +authors had done was to assimilate certain philosophemes to their +religious ideas; they had not re-interpreted the whole system of +philosophy from a Jewish point of view or traced an independent +system, or an eclectic doctrine in the Holy Scriptures. This was +the achievement of Philo. His thought is not original in the sense +of presenting a new scheme of philosophy, but it is original in the +sense of giving a fresh interpretation to the philosophical ideas +of his age and environment. He ranges them under a new principle, +puts them in a new light, and combines them in a new synthesis. +This again is characteristic of the Jewish mind. Intent on God, it +does not endeavor to make its own analysis of the universe by +independent reasoning, but it utilizes the systems of other nations +and endeavors to harmonize them with its religious convictions. +Hence it is that nearly all Jewish philosophy appears to be +eclectic; its writers have ranged through the fields of thought of +many schools and culled flowers from each, which they bind together +into a crown for their religion. They do not, with few exceptions, +pursue philosophy with the purpose of widening the borders of +secular knowledge; but rather in order to bring the light of reason +to illuminate and clarify faith, to harmonize Judaism with the +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_169" id= +"page_169">[pg.169]</a></span> general culture of its environment, +and to revivify belief and ceremony with a new interpretation. All +this applies to our worthy, but at the same time he was a +philosopher at heart, because he believed that the knowledge of God +came by contemplation as well as by practice, and, further, because +he had a firm faith in the universalism of Judaism; and he believed +that this universal religion must comprehend all that is highest +and truest in human thought. Like most Jewish philosophers he is +synthetic rather than analytic, believing in intuition and +distrusting the discursive reason, careless of physical science and +soaring into religious metaphysics. Again, like most Jewish +philosophers, he is deductive, starting with a synthesis of all in +the Divine Unity, and making no fresh inductions from phenomena. It +has been said that, though Philo was a philosopher and a Jew, yet +Saadia was the first Jewish philosopher. But Philo's philosophical +ideas are in complete harmony with his Judaism; and if by the +criticism it is meant that most of the content of his works is +based upon Greek models, it is true on the other hand that the +spirit which pervades them is essentially Jewish, and that by the +new force which he breathed into it he reformed and gave a new +direction to the Greek philosophy of his age.</p> +<p>Philo's philosophy is certainly eclectic in some degree, and we +find in it ideas taken from the schools of Plato, Aristotle, +Pythagoras, and the Stoics. Its fixed point was his theology, and +wherever he finds anything to support this he adapts it to his +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_170" id= +"page_170">[pg.170]</a></span> purpose. He approached philosophy +from a position opposed to that of the Greeks: they brought a +questioning and free mind to the problems of the universe; he comes +full of religious preconceptions. Yet in this lies his strength as +well as his limitation, for he gains thus a point of certainty and +a clear end, which other eclectic systems of the day did not +possess. He welds together all the different elements of his +thought in the heat of his passion for God. His cosmology and his +ontology are a philosophical exposition of the Jewish conception of +God's relation to the universe, his ethics and his psychology of +the Jewish conception of man's relation to God.</p> +<p>The religious preconceptions of Philo drew him to Plato above +all other philosophers, so that his thought is essentially a +religious development of Platonism. It is not too much to say that +Philo's work has a double function, to interpret the Bible +according to Platonic philosophy and to interpret Plato in the +spirit of the Bible. The agreement was not the artificial +production of the commentator, for in truth Plato was in sympathy +with the religious conscience as a whole. The contrast between +Hellenism and Hebraism is true, if we restrict it to the average +mind of the two races. The one is intent on things secular, the +other on God. But the greatest genius of the Hellenic race, +influenced perhaps by contact with Oriental peoples, possessed, in +a remarkable degree, the Hebraic spirit, which is zealous for God +and makes for righteousness. Plato was not only a great +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_171" id= +"page_171">[pg.171]</a></span> philosopher, but also a great +theologian, a great religious reformer, and a great prophet, the +most perfectly developed mind which the world, ancient or modern, +has known. His "Ideas," which are the archetypes of sensible +things, were not only logical concepts but also a kingdom of Heaven +connected with the human individual by the Divine soul. And as he +grew older so his religious feeling intensified, and he translated +his philosophy into theology and positive religion. Platonism, it +has been well said, is a temper as much as a doctrine; it is the +spirit that turns from the earth to Heaven, from creation to God. +In his last work, "The Laws," wherein he designs a theocratic +state, which has striking points of resemblance with the Jewish +polity, he says: "The conclusion of the matter is this, which is +the fairest and truest of all sayings, that for the good man to +sacrifice and hold converse with the Deity by means of prayers and +service of every kind is the noblest thing of all and the most +conducive to a happy life, and above all things fitting."<a name= +"FNanchor_235_235" id="FNanchor_235_235"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_235_235">[235]</a></p> +<p>This is typical of Plato's attitude towards life in his old age; +and further, his metaphysical system of monistic idealism is the +most remarkable approach to Hebrew monotheism which the Greek world +made. The Patristic writers in the first centuries of the Christian +era were so struck by this Hebraism in the Greek thinker, that they +attributed it to direct borrowing. <span class="newpage"><a name= +"page_172" id="page_172">[pg.172]</a></span> Aristobulus had +written of a translation of the Pentateuch older than the +Septuagint, which Plato was supposed to have studied. Clement +called him the Hebrew philosopher, Origen and Augustine comment on +his agreement with Genesis, and think that when he was in Egypt he +listened to Jeremiah.<a name="FNanchor_236_236" id= +"FNanchor_236_236"></a><a href="#Footnote_236_236">[236]</a> +Eusebius worked out in detail his correspondences with the Bible. +Some early neo-Platonist, perhaps Numenius, declared that Plato was +only the Attic Moses; and in more modern times the Cambridge +Platonists of the sixteenth century harbored similar ideas, and +Nietzsche spoke bitterly of the day when "Plato went to school with +the Jews in Egypt."</p> +<p>Of Philo, then, we may say, as Montaigne said of himself, that +he was a Platonist before he knew who Plato was. Yet he was the +first Hellenistic Jew who perceived the fundamental harmony between +the philosopher's idealism and Jewish monotheism, and he was the +first important commentator of Plato who developed the religious +teaching of his master into a powerful spiritual force.</p> +<p>It is true that the seeds of neo-Platonism, <i>i.e.</i>, the +religious re-interpretation of Platonism under the influence of +Eastern thought, had been sown already; and Philo must have +received from his environment to some extent the mystical version +of the master's system, with its goal of ecstatic union with God, +and its tendency to asceticism as a means thereto. But the earlier +products of the movement had been crude, <span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_173" id="page_173">[pg.173]</a></span> and +had lacked a powerful moving spirit. This was provided by Philo +when he introduced his overmastering conception of God. The popular +saying, "Either Plato Philonizes or Philo Platonizes"<a name= +"FNanchor_237_237" id="FNanchor_237_237"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_237_237">[237]</a> contains a deep truth in its first as +well as in its second part. It not only marks the likeness in style +of the two writers, but it suggests that Philo, on the one hand, +made fruitful the religious germ in Plato's teaching by his +Hebraism, and, on the other, nourished the philosophical seed in +Judaism by his Platonism. Plato's teaching falls into two main +classes, the dialectical and the mythical, and it is with the +latter that Philo is in specially close connection. For in his +myths Plato tries to achieve a synthesis by imaginative flight +where he had failed by discursive reason. He unifies experience by +striking intuitions, something in the spirit of a Hebrew prophet. +Moreover his style, as well as his thought, has here affinity with +Jewish modes of thought. As Zeller says, speaking of the myths: +"From the first, in the act of producing his work he thinks in +images. They mark the point where it becomes evident that he cannot +be wholly a philosopher because he is still too much of a poet." +And this is true of all Philo's writings, and to generalize +somewhat widely, of most Jewish philosophy. In "The Timæus," +particularly, Plato, throughout, is the poet-philosopher, writing +imaginative myths, which present pictorially an idealistic scheme +of the universe; and "The Timæus" is for <span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_174" id="page_174">[pg.174]</a></span> +Philo, after the Bible, the most authoritative of books, the source +of his chief philosophical ideas.</p> +<p>The dominant philosophical principle of Plato is what is known +as the Theory of Ideas. He imagined a world of real existences, +invisible, incorporeal, eternal, grasped only by thought, prior to +the objects of the physical universe, and the models or archetypes +of them. In "The Timæus," which is a system of cosmology at +once religious and metaphysical, the "Ideas" are represented as the +thoughts of the one Supreme Mind, the intermediate powers by which +the Supreme Unity, known as the "Idea of the Good," or "the +Creator," evolves the material universe. Thus the universe is seen +as the manifestation of one Beneficent Spirit, who brings it into +existence and rules over it through His "ideal" thoughts. Philo +adopts completely and uncritically this theory of transcendental +ideas in his philosophical exegesis of the cosmogony in Genesis. +"Without an incorporeal archetype God brings no simple thing to +fulfilment."<a name="FNanchor_238_238" id= +"FNanchor_238_238"></a><a href="#Footnote_238_238">[238]</a> There +is an idea of stars, of grass, of man, of virtue, of music. And the +Platonic conception receives a religious sanction. The ideas are a +necessary step between God and the material universe, and those who +deny them throw all things into confusion.<a name= +"FNanchor_239_239" id="FNanchor_239_239"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_239_239">[239]</a> "God would not touch matter Himself, +but He did not grudge a share of His nature to it through His +powers, of which the true name <span class="newpage"><a name= +"page_175" id="page_175">[pg.175]</a></span> is ideas." We have +already noticed<a name="FNanchor_240_240" id= +"FNanchor_240_240"></a><a href="#Footnote_240_240">[240]</a> how +ingeniously Philo deduces the Theory of Ideas from the Biblical +account of the creation, and associates it with the Hebraic +conception of the ministerial Wisdom and Word. He, however, gives a +new direction to the Platonic theory, owing to his Hebraic +conception of God. The ideas with him are not the thoughts of an +impersonal mind, but the emanations of a personal, volitional +Deity. Keeping close to Jewish tradition, he says that they are the +words of the Deity speaking. As human speech consists of +incorporeal ideas, which produce an effect upon the minds of +others, so the Divine speech is a pattern of incorporeal ideas +which impress themselves upon a formless void, and so create the +material world.<a name="FNanchor_241_241" id= +"FNanchor_241_241"></a><a href="#Footnote_241_241">[241]</a> In +this way Philo associates his cosmology with his theology. The +creative "Ideas" are equated collectively with the Supreme +Logos,<a name="FNanchor_242_242" id="FNanchor_242_242"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_242_242">[242]</a> individually with the Logoi which +represent God's particular activities. Thus the Logos represents +the whole ideal or noetic world, "the kingdom of Heaven"; and it is +in this metaphysical sense that the Logos is the first creation, +"the first-born son of God," prior to the physical universe, which +is His grandson. The whole universe is thus seen as the orderly +manifestation of one principle. Philo, expanding a favorite image +of the Haggadah, illustrates God's creation by the simile of a king +founding a city. "He gets to him an architect, who first designs +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_176" id= +"page_176">[pg.176]</a></span> in his mind the parts of the perfect +city, and then, looking continually to his model, begins to +construct the city of stones and wood. So when God resolved to +found the world-city, He first brought its form into mind, and +using this as a model he completed the visible world."<a name= +"FNanchor_243_243" id="FNanchor_243_243"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_243_243">[243]</a></p> +<p>The theory of religious idealism is the centre of Philo's +philosophy, and provides the basis of his explanation of the +material universe. Physics, indeed, he considered of small account, +because he believed there could be no certainty in such +speculations.<a name="FNanchor_244_244" id= +"FNanchor_244_244"></a><a href="#Footnote_244_244">[244]</a> His +mind was utterly unscientific; but as a religious philosopher he +found it necessary to give a theory of the creation. Jewish dogma +held that the world had been called into being out of nothing; the +Greek philosophers repudiated such an idea, and held that creation +must be the result of a reasonable process; Aristotle had imagined +that matter was a separately existent principle with mind, and that +the world was eternal; and the Stoics held that matter was the +substance of all things, including the pantheistic power +itself:</p> +<p><span style="margin-left: 1em;">"All are but parts of one +stupendous whole,</span><br> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Whose body nature is, and God the +soul."</span><br></p> +<p>Philo impugns both these theories,<a name="FNanchor_245_245" id= +"FNanchor_245_245"></a><a href="#Footnote_245_245">[245]</a> the +one because it denies the creative power of God, the other because +it confuses the Creator with His creation. He looked <span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_177" id="page_177">[pg.177]</a></span> for +a system which should satisfy at once the Jewish notion that the +world was brought out of nothing by the will of God, and the +philosophical concept that God is all reality; and he found in +Plato's idealism a view of the creation which he could harmonize +with the religious view. Plato declared that the material world had +been created out of the <i>Non-Ens</i> <img alt= +"Greek: mê on" src="images/image56.jpg" width="67" height= +"22"> <i>i.e.</i>, that which has no real existence. He conceived +space and matter as the mere passive receptacle of form, which is +nothing till the form has given it quality. Though Philo's language +is vague, this seems to be his view when he is speaking +philosophically. It is, perhaps, a slight deviation from the +earlier religious standpoint of the Jews, which looks to a direct +and deliberate creation of the world-stuff, rather than to the +informing of space by spirit, and regards the world as separate +from God, and not as a manifestation of His being. But the more +philosophical conception appears likewise in the Wisdom of Solomon. +"For Thine all-powerful hand that created the world out of formless +matter," says the author (xi. 17), establishing before Philo the +compromise between two competing influences in his mind. More +emphatically Philo rejects the notion of creation in time.<a name= +"FNanchor_246_246" id="FNanchor_246_246"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_246_246">[246]</a> Time, he says, came into being after +God had made the universe, and has no meaning for the Divine Ruler, +whose life is in the eternal present. <span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_178" id="page_178">[pg.178]</a></span></p> +<p>Summing up, we may say that Philo regards the universe as the +image of the Divine manifestation or evolution in thought produced +by His beneficent will; and this view is true to the religious +standpoint of traditional Judaism in spirit if not in letter.</p> +<p>In his conception of the human soul, Philo again harmonizes the +simple Jewish notion with the developed Greek psychology by means +of the Platonic idealism. The soul in the Bible is the breath of +God; in Plato it is an Idea incarnate, represented in "The +Timæus" as a particle of the Supreme Mind. Philo, following +the psychology of his age, divides the soul into a higher and a +lower part: (1) the Nous; (2) the vital functions, which include +the senses. He lays all the stress upon the former, which gives man +his kinship with God and the ideal world, while the other part is +the necessary result of its incarnation in the body. He variously +describes the Nous as an inseparable fragment of the Divine soul, a +Divine breath which God inspires into each body, a reflection, an +impression, or an image of the blessed Logos, sealed with its +stamp.<a name="FNanchor_247_247" id="FNanchor_247_247"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_247_247">[247]</a> Following the Platonic conception, +Philo occasionally speaks of the Divine soul as having a prenatal +existence,<a name="FNanchor_248_248" id= +"FNanchor_248_248"></a><a href="#Footnote_248_248">[248]</a> +holding, as the English poet put it, that</p> +<p><span style="margin-left: 1em;">"The soul that rises with us, +our life's star,</span><br> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Hath had elsewhere its +setting</span><br> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">And cometh from +afar."</span><br></p> +<p><span class="newpage"><a name="page_179" id= +"page_179">[pg.179]</a></span> Here, too, he follows an older +Jewish-Hellenistic tradition, which appears in the Wisdom of +Solomon (viii. 19 and 20), where it is written: "A good soul fell +to my lot. Nay rather, being good, I came into a body undefiled." +The Nous is in fact the god within, and it bears to the microcosm +Man the relation which the infinite God bears to the +macrocosm.<a name="FNanchor_249_249" id= +"FNanchor_249_249"></a><a href="#Footnote_249_249">[249]</a> +Indeed, it is the Logos descended from above, but yearning to +return to its true abode. Thus Philo sings its Divine nature:</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>"It is unseen, but sees all things: its essence is unknown, but +it comprehends the essence of all things. And by arts and sciences +it makes for itself many roads and ways, and traverses sea and +land, searching out all things within them. And it soars aloft on +wings, and when it has investigated the sky and its changes it is +borne upwards towards the æther and the revolutions of the +heavens. It follows the stars in their orbits, and passing the +sensible it yearns for the intelligible world."</p> +</div> +<p>The Nous is the king of the whole organism, the governing and +unifying power, and hence is often called the man himself. The +senses, resembling the powers of God, are only the bodyguard, +subordinate instruments, and inferior modes of the Divine +part.<a name="FNanchor_250_250" id="FNanchor_250_250"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_250_250">[250]</a> So Philo explains that all our +faculties are derived from the Divine principle, and he draws the +moral lesson that our true function is to bend them all to the +Divine service, so as to foster our noblest part. The aim of the +good man is to bring the god within <span class="newpage"><a name= +"page_180" id="page_180">[pg.180]</a></span> him into union with +the God without, and to this end he must avoid the life of the +senses,<a name="FNanchor_251_251" id= +"FNanchor_251_251"></a><a href="#Footnote_251_251">[251]</a> which +mars the Divine Nous, and may entirely crush it. The Divine soul, +as it had a life before birth, so also has a life after death; for +what is Divine cannot perish. Immortality is man's most splendid +hope. If the Divine Presence fills him with a mystic ecstasy, he +has, indeed, attained it upon this earth, but this bliss is only +for the very blessed sage; and he, too, looks forward to the more +lasting union with the Godhead after this terrestrial life is +over.<a name="FNanchor_252_252" id="FNanchor_252_252"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_252_252">[252]</a> True at once to the principles of +Platonism and Judaism, Philo admits no anthropomorphic conception +of Heaven or of Hell. He is convinced that there is a life +hereafter, and finds in the story of Enoch the Biblical symbol +thereof,<a name="FNanchor_253_253" id= +"FNanchor_253_253"></a><a href="#Footnote_253_253">[253]</a> but he +does not speculate about the nature of the Divine reward. The pious +are taken up to God, he says, and live forever,<a name= +"FNanchor_254_254" id="FNanchor_254_254"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_254_254">[254]</a> communing alone with the +Alone.<a name="FNanchor_255_255" id="FNanchor_255_255"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_255_255">[255]</a> The unrighteous souls, Philo +sometimes suggests, in accordance with current Pythagorean ideas, +are reincarnated according to a system of transmigration within the +human species (<img alt="Greek: palengenesia" src= +"images/image57.jpg" width="117" height="22"> ).<a name= +"FNanchor_256_256" id="FNanchor_256_256"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_256_256">[256]</a> Yet the sinner suffers his full doom +on earth. The true Hades is the life of the wicked man who has not +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_181" id= +"page_181">[pg.181]</a></span> repented, exposed to vengeance, with +uncleansed guilt, obnoxious to every curse.<a name= +"FNanchor_257_257" id="FNanchor_257_257"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_257_257">[257]</a> And the Divine punishment is to live +always dying, to endure death deathless and unending, the death of +the soul.<a name="FNanchor_258_258" id= +"FNanchor_258_258"></a><a href="#Footnote_258_258">[258]</a></p> +<p>The Divine Nous constitutes the true nature of man; Philo, +however, insists with almost wearisome repetition, that the god +within us has no power in itself, and depends entirely on the grace +and inspiration of God without for knowledge, virtue, and +happiness.<a name="FNanchor_259_259" id= +"FNanchor_259_259"></a><a href="#Footnote_259_259">[259]</a> The +Stoic dogma, that the wise man is perfectly independent and +self-contained <img alt="Greek: autarchês" src= +"images/image58.jpg" width="91" height="19"> appears to him as a +wicked blasphemy. "Those who make God the indirect, and the mind +the direct cause are guilty of impiety, for we are the instruments +through which particular activities are developed, but He who gives +the impulse to the powers of the body and the soul is the Creator +by whom all things are moved."<a name="FNanchor_260_260" id= +"FNanchor_260_260"></a><a href="#Footnote_260_260">[260]</a> All +thought-functions, memory, reasoning, intuition, are referred +directly to Divine inspiration, which is in Platonic terminology +the illumination of the mind by the ideas. Thus, finally, all human +activity is referred back to God.</p> +<p>This guiding principle determines Philo's attitude to knowledge, +involving, as it does, that we only know by Divine inspiration, or, +as he says, by the immanence <span class="newpage"><a name= +"page_182" id="page_182">[pg.182]</a></span> of the Logoi.<a name= +"FNanchor_261_261" id="FNanchor_261_261"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_261_261">[261]</a> The possibility of knowledge was one +of the burning questions of the age, and it was the failure of the +old dogmatic schools to answer it which led to a great religious +movement in Greek philosophy. How can man attain to true knowledge, +it was asked, about the universe, seeing that perceptions vary with +each individual, and of conceptions we have no certain standard? +The old Hebrew attitude to this question is expressed by the verse +of the Psalmist: "The heavens are the heavens of the Lord, but the +earth hath He given to the sons of men" (Psalm cxv), which implies +that man must not try to penetrate the secrets of the universe. +Philo is sufficiently a philosopher to desire knowledge about +things Divine and human, but at the same time he has a complete +distrust in the powers of human sense and human reason. About the +physical universe he is frankly a skeptic,<a name= +"FNanchor_262_262" id="FNanchor_262_262"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_262_262">[262]</a> but his religious faith leads him to +hold that God vouchsafes to man some knowledge of Himself and of +the proper way of life, <i>i.e.</i>, ethics. "Man knows all things +in God."<a name="FNanchor_263_263" id= +"FNanchor_263_263"></a><a href="#Footnote_263_263">[263]</a> Plato +similarly had despaired of knowledge of the physical world, and had +turned to the heavenly ideas as the true object of thought. +Moreover, in his early period, while his theory was still poetical +and mystical, he had conceived that knowledge was made possible in +the subject, <span class="newpage"><a name="page_183" id= +"page_183">[pg.183]</a></span> by the entrance of "forms," or +emanations, from the ideas. This theory Philo adapts to his Jewish +outlook. Like Plato, he turns away from the physical to the ideal +world,<a name="FNanchor_264_264" id="FNanchor_264_264"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_264_264">[264]</a> and he regards the ideas of wisdom, +virtue, bravery, etc., which are theologically powers of God, as +continually sending forth Logoi, forms or forces (the angels of +popular belief), to inform and enlighten our minds. Throughout, God +is the cause of all knowledge as well as of being, for these +effluences are but an expression of God's activity. In Philo's +theory, object and subject are really one. What can be known are +the modes or attributes of God, which philosophically are" Ideas"; +what knows is the emanation of the Idea, which God sends into the +human soul that is prepared to receive it by pious contemplation. +"Through the heavenly Wisdom, wisdom is seen, for wisdom sees +itself." "Through God, God is known, for He is His own +light."<a name="FNanchor_265_265" id= +"FNanchor_265_265"></a><a href="#Footnote_265_265">[265]</a></p> +<p>Thus all knowledge is intuition, and man's function is not so +much to reason as to lead a life of piety and contemplate the +Divine work in the hope of being blessed with inspiration. It would +be a mistake, however, to take Philo's words quite literally. He +does not deny the need of human effort and striving for knowledge; +for the Divine influence is not vouchsafed till we have prepared +for it and consecrated all our faculties to God. But, devout mystic +as he is, <span class="newpage"><a name="page_184" id= +"page_184">[pg.184]</a></span> he ascribes every consummation to +the direct help of the Deity. "The mind is the cause of nothing, +but rather the Deity, who is prior to mind, generates +thought."<a name="FNanchor_266_266" id= +"FNanchor_266_266"></a><a href="#Footnote_266_266">[266]</a> The +Greek philosopher had ascribed the final synthesis of knowledge to +a superhuman force. Philo ascribes to God all the intermediate +steps from sense-perception. It may be admitted that his passive +notion of philosophy involves the abandonment of the Greek ideal, +the eager searching of Plato after truth. He lived in an age in +which, through loss of intellectual power, man had come to despair +of the attainment of knowledge by human effort, and to rely +entirely upon supernatural means, Divine revelations, visions, and +the like. It is consistent with his whole position that the crown +of life is represented, not as an intellectual state, but as a +superhuman ecstasy of the Nous, wherein it is freed not only from +the body but from the rest of the soul, and is, so to say, led out +of itself.<a name="FNanchor_267_267" id= +"FNanchor_267_267"></a><a href="#Footnote_267_267">[267]</a> He +comments on the verse, "And the sun went down and a deep sleep fell +on Abraham" (Gen. xv. 12). "When the Divine light," he says, +"shines upon the mortal soul, the mortal light sinks, and our +reason is driven out at the approach of the Divine spirit."<a name= +"FNanchor_268_268" id="FNanchor_268_268"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_268_268">[268]</a> This is the Alexandrian +interpretation of <img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image59.jpg" +width="145" height="16">, and though it is much affected by Greek +mystical ideas, yet at the same time it is broadly true to the +spirit of Jewish mysticism, as we see it <span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_185" id="page_185">[pg.185]</a></span> +presented in writers of all ages, and as the Psalmist expressed it, +"to abide under the shadow of the Almighty."</p> +<p>Philo's ethics, like the rest of his philosophy, exhibits the +transfusion of Greek ideas with his Hebrew spirit. The Greek +philosophers had evolved a rational plan of life, while the Jewish +teachers were impregnated with burning ardor for the living God; +and Philo brings the two things together, making ethics dependent +on religion. The Stoics, who were the most powerful school of his +day, regarded as the ideal of goodness life according to unbending +reason and in complete independence of God or man. Philo +understands God as a personal power making for righteousness, and +man's excellence, accordingly, which is likeness to God, is piety +and charity.<a name="FNanchor_269_269" id= +"FNanchor_269_269"></a><a href="#Footnote_269_269">[269]</a> Above +all he insists upon Faith <img alt="Greek: pistis" src= +"images/image60.jpg" width="60" height="19"> and he defines virtue +as a condition of soul which fixes its hopes upon the truly +Existent God. The Stoics also professed to honor faith or +confidence above all things, but the virtue which they meant was +reliance upon man's own powers. Philo's virtue is almost the +converse of this. Man must feel completely dependent upon God, and +his proper attitude is humility and resignation. So only can he +receive within his soul the seed of goodness, and finally the +Divine Logos.<a name="FNanchor_270_270" id= +"FNanchor_270_270"></a><a href="#Footnote_270_270">[270]</a> Yet at +the same time Philo remains loyal to the Jewish <span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_186" id="page_186">[pg.186]</a></span> +ideal of conduct: faith without works is empty, and, as he puts it, +"The true-born goods are faith and consistency of word and +action."<a name="FNanchor_271_271" id= +"FNanchor_271_271"></a><a href="#Footnote_271_271">[271]</a></p> +<p>The attainment of the highest excellence demands severe +discipline, save for those few blessed souls whom God perfects +without any effort on their part. The rest can only secure +self-realization by self-renunciation; they must avoid the bodily +passions and bodily lusts.<a name="FNanchor_272_272" id= +"FNanchor_272_272"></a><a href="#Footnote_272_272">[272]</a> At +times the Divine enthusiasm causes Philo, like many a Jewish saint +and like his master Plato, to scorn all bodily limitations and +recommend "insensibility"<img alt="Greek: apatheia" src= +"images/image61.jpg" width="81" height="19"><a name= +"FNanchor_273_273" id="FNanchor_273_273"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_273_273">[273]</a> by which he means that man should +crush his physical desires and repress his feelings. Not that the +good life seems to him to imply absence of pleasure. On the +contrary, it is filled with the purest of joy, for when man rises +to the love of God "in calm of mind, all passion spent," then and +then alone has he tasted true joyousness. The symbol of this bliss +is Isaac <img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image62.jpg" width="53" +height="21">, the laughter of the soul.</p> +<p>It was noticed in the second chapter that Philo modified his +ethical ideas during his life. In the earlier period he insists +more strongly on the need of ascetic self-denial, and has almost a +horror of the world. Maturer experience, however, taught him that +man is made for this world, and that a wise use of its goods was a +surer path to happiness and to <span class="newpage"><a name= +"page_187" id="page_187">[pg.187]</a></span> God than flight from +all temptations. In his later writings, therefore, he exhibits a +striking moderation. He reproaches the ascetics for their "savage +enthusiasm,"<a name="FNanchor_274_274" id= +"FNanchor_274_274"></a><a href="#Footnote_274_274">[274]</a> +probably hinting at the extreme sects of the Essenes and the +Therapeutæ. "Those who follow a gentler wisdom seek after +God, but at the same time do not despise human things."</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>"Truth will properly blame those who without discrimination shun +all concern with the life of the State, and say that they despise +the acquisition of good repute and pleasure. They are only making +grand pretensions, and they do not really despise these things. +They go about in torn raiment and with solemn visage, and live the +life of penury and hardship as a bait, to make people believe that +they are lovers of good conduct, temperance, and +self-control."<a name="FNanchor_275_275" id= +"FNanchor_275_275"></a><a href="#Footnote_275_275">[275]</a></p> +</div> +<p>Philo's aphorism, which follows, "Be drunk in a sober manner," +is characteristic. The Stoic extreme of passionlessness is almost +as false as the Epicurean hedonism, and the mean between them is +the ideal Jewish life, in which godliness and humanity are +blended.</p> +<p>We have now examined the main divisions of Philo's philosophy, +and we see that his metaphysics, cosmology, theory of knowledge, +and ethics are all religious in tone, and all determined in their +main lines by his Jewish outlook. His Hebraism is a seal which +stamps all that enters his mind from Greek <span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_188" id="page_188">[pg.188]</a></span> +sources, and the Bible, spiritually interpreted, is the canon of +all his wisdom.</p> +<p>There remains one minor aspect of his work which must be briefly +examined, because it has become closely associated with his name. +This is his number-symbolism, by which he ascribes important powers +to certain numbers, so that they are regarded as holy themselves +and sanctifying that to which they are attached. This feature of +his thought is commonly ascribed to Pythagorean influence, which +was strong at Alexandria, and, indeed, throughout the world, at +this era. The exact details of the holiness of four, seven, ten, +fifty, etc., Philo may have borrowed from neo-Pythagorean sources, +but the general tendency was the natural result of his environment +and his stage of thought. It was a feature of the recurring +childishness of ideas and the renascence of wonder at common things +which is apparent on many hands. To have denied the powers of +numbers would have seemed as absurd and eccentric then as to deny +the powers of electricity to-day. And in all ages people have been +found to regard numbers mystically as a link between God and earth, +and a means of solving all physical and metaphysical problems. The +Hebrew intellect, primitive as it was, tended particularly to the +reverence of the numerical powers. Witness the Bible itself, which +emphasizes certain numbers; and witness also the fifth chapter of +the Pirke Abot, with its lists ranged under four, seven, and ten, +which is only typical of the rabbinical attitude. Philo is not +original in his views <span class="newpage"><a name="page_189" id= +"page_189">[pg.189]</a></span> concerning numbers, not above nor +below the loose thinking of his age. He accepts unquestioningly the +potency of seven, because of its marvellous mathematical +properties, ratios, etc., its geometrical efficacy, and because of +the seven periods of life from infancy to old age, of the seven +parts of the body, the seven motions, the seven strings of the +lyre, the seven vowels, and the very name, which is connected with +worship <img alt="Greek: sebasmos" src="images/image63.jpg" width= +"90" height="22">. All this is trifling and trite, but what is of +importance is the use which Philo makes of the sentiment. He +converts it throughout to the support and glorification of Jewish +institutions. Thus, if a man honors seven, he says, he will devote +the Sabbath to meditation and philosophy.<a name="FNanchor_276_276" +id="FNanchor_276_276"></a><a href="#Footnote_276_276">[276]</a> +Further, as seven is the symbol of rest and tranquillity, the +Sabbath must be a day of perfect rest. Ten is magnified so as to +honor the Decalogue,<a name="FNanchor_277_277" id= +"FNanchor_277_277"></a><a href="#Footnote_277_277">[277]</a> fifty +so as to honor the Feast of Pentecost. So, too, the Pythagoreans' +mathematical conceptions of God as "the beginning and limit of all +things," or, again, as the principle of equality, are approved by +Philo, "because they breed in the soul the fairest and most +nourishing fruit—piety." In short, Philo's Pythagoreanism +only emphasizes his commanding purpose—to deepen and +recommend the Jewish God-idea and the Jewish method of life.</p> +<p>Jewish influences throughout are the determining element of +Philo's teaching; they are the dynamic <span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_190" id="page_190">[pg.190]</a></span> +forces working upon the Greek matter and producing the new +Platonism, which constitutes Philo's contribution to Greek +philosophy. It may, indeed, be said that his Hebraism makes Philo +anti-philosophical, because he has no desire or hope of adding to +positive knowledge, but aims only at the calm of the individual +soul in union with its God. The Platonic Theory of Ideas, +metaphysical in origin, plays a very important part in his works, +but it is adapted mystically, and turned from an ideal of the human +intellect to a support of monotheism and piety. Here Philo is at +once the leader and the child of his generation; men were no longer +satisfied with rational systems, but wanted a religious philosophy, +based upon a transcendental principle and a Divine revelation which +could give them some certainty and some positive hope in life. +Doubtless, the strong mystical tendency in Philo destroyed the +balance between the intuitive and the discursive reason which makes +the perfect philosopher. In his overpowering passion for God, he +distrusts overmuch the analytical efforts of the human mind. +Nevertheless, his acquired Hellenism gives his Jewish conceptions a +philosophical impress, and this has made him the model of the +school of religious philosophers. The ministerial "Word" became the +"ideal" expression of God's mind, the governing reason, the +world-soul; the angels were spiritualized as a kingdom of Ideas. +Piety received an intellectual as well as a religious value, and +the Mosaic law was raised to a higher dignity as an ethical code of +universal validity.</p> +<p><span class="newpage"><a name="page_191" id= +"page_191">[pg.191]</a></span></p> +<p>A complete harmony between the Hellenic and the Hebraic outlook +upon life was impossible, but Philo at least accomplished a harmony +between Hebraic monotheism and Greek metaphysics. He desired to +show that faith and philosophy were in agreement, and that the +imaginative and reflective conceptions of God and the Divine +government were in unison. And he may be considered to have +realized his desire in his synthesis of Jewish theology and +Platonic idealism. He is through and through a great interpreter, +elucidating points of unity between distinct systems of thought. In +him the fusion of cultures, which began with the Septuagint +translation, reached its culmination. It reached its zenith and +straightway the severance began.</p> +<p>In the next chapter we shall trace Philo's place in Jewish +thought; here we may glance at his place in the development of +Greek philosophy. The fusion between Eastern and Western thought, +which he himself so strikingly illustrates, continued to dominate +philosophy for the next four hundred years; and Plato, who, with +his deep religious spirit, had a broad affinity with the Oriental +conception of the universe, was the supreme philosophical master. +All the chief teachers looked to him for the intellectual basis of +their ideas and read into his works their particular religious +beliefs; but they failed to maintain a true harmony between the +two. The cultures of all countries and races mingled, even as their +peoples mingled under the Roman Empire, but they were so combined +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_192" id= +"page_192">[pg.192]</a></span> as to lose the purity and +individuality of each element. The Eastern Platonists who followed +Philo brought to their interpretation less noble conceptions of the +Godhead, the Gnosticism of Syria, the dualism of Persia, the +impersonal pantheism of India, and the theurgies of Egypt, and +produced strange hybrids of the human mind. The one point of +agreement between them is that they conceive the Supreme God as +impersonal and entirely inactive, "a deified Zero," and endeavor by +a system of emanation to trace the descent of this baffling +principle into man and the universe. Philo was as unfortunate in +his philosophical as in his religious following, who both +transformed his poetical metaphors into fixed and rigid dogmas. His +doctrine of the Logos was, on the one hand, the forerunner of the +Trinity of the Church, on the other of the Trinity of the +Alexandrian neo-Platonists. It is difficult, indeed, to trace with +certainty the connection between Philo and the later school of +Alexandrian Platonists, but there appears to be at least one clear +link in the teaching of the Syrian Numenius, who flourished in the +middle of the second century. To him are attributed the two +sayings: "Either Plato Philonizes or Philo Platonizes," and "What +is Plato but the Attic Moses?" Modern scholars have questioned the +correctness of the reference, but be this as it may, it is certain +that Numenius used the Bible as evidence of Platonic doctrines. "We +should go back," he says, in a fragment, "to the actual writings of +Plato and call in as testimony the ideas of the most <span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_193" id="page_193">[pg.193]</a></span> +cultured races; comparing their holy books and laws we should bring +in support the harmonious ideas which are to be found among the +Brahmans and the Jews."<a name="FNanchor_278_278" id= +"FNanchor_278_278"></a><a href="#Footnote_278_278">[278]</a> Origen +tells us,<a name="FNanchor_279_279" id= +"FNanchor_279_279"></a><a href="#Footnote_279_279">[279]</a> +moreover, that he often introduced excerpts from the books of Moses +and the Prophets, and allegorized them with ingenuity. In one of +the few remains of his writings which have come down to us, we find +him praising the verse in the first chapter of Genesis, "The spirit +of God was upon the waters"; because, as Philo had interpreted +it—following perhaps a rabbinical tradition—water +represents the primal world-stuff. And elsewhere he mentions the +efforts of the Egyptian magicians to frustrate the miracles of +Moses, following Philo's account in his life of the Jewish +hero.</p> +<p>The work of Philo helped to spread a knowledge of the Hebrew +Scriptures far and wide and to give them general authority as a +philosophical book; but it did not succeed in spreading the pure +Hebrew monotheism. The exalted Hebrew idea of God was still too +sublime for the pagan nations, even for their philosophers. The +world in truth was decaying morally and intellectually, and most of +all in powers of imagination; and its hunger for God found +expression in crude and stunted conceptions of His nature. Unable +any longer to soar to Heaven, it sullied the majesty of the Deity, +and divided the Godhead in order to <span class="newpage"><a name= +"page_194" id="page_194">[pg.194]</a></span> bridge the gap. +Numenius represents in philosophy the Gnostic ideas about God which +were widely held by the heretics, Jewish and Christian, of the +second century. He divides the Godhead into two separate powers: +(1) the impersonal Being behind all reality, free from all activity +whatsoever; (2) the Demiurge or active governor of the universe, +who again is subdivided into a transcendent and an immanent +power.</p> +<p>The teaching of Plotinus, the most famous of the later +Alexandrian neo-Platonists, shows a further step in the development +of religious Platonism. Viewed from its higher side it is an +attempt to explain everything as the emanation of the One. But +philosophy in the third century debased itself in order to support +the tottering polytheistic religion of the pagan world against the +modified Hebraic creed, Christianity, which was fast demolishing +its power. Against the Trinity of the Church the philosophers set +up a heavenly Trinity of so-called reason: the Ineffable One, the +Demiurgic Mind, and the World Soul; and between this Trinity and +man they placed intermediate hierarchies of gods, angels, and +demons—in fact, the whole fugitive army of Greek polytheism +thinly disguised. All the vulgar fancies and superstitions which +Philo had intellectualized, these later Eastern Platonists sought +to revive and justify by conceptions of physical emanation blended +of false science and mysticism. They hoped to found a universal +religion by finding room in one system for the deities of all +nations! <span class="newpage"><a name="page_195" id= +"page_195">[pg.195]</a></span></p> +<p>From Plotinus down to Proclus, neo-Platonism became more +unintellectual, more insane, more pagan, and, finally, with its +vapid dreams, it brought the history of Greek philosophy to an +inglorious close. Its finer teachings, however, deeply affected +mediaeval philosophy, and not least the Arab-Jewish school. The +theory of emanations and spiritual hierarchies pervades the +writings of Ibn Ezra, Ibn Gabirol, and Ibn Daud, and thus +indirectly provides a connection between the culture of Alexandrian +Judaism and the culture of Spanish Judaism. The praise of God known +as the <img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image64.jpg" width="91" +height="18"> by Ibn Gabirol is a splendid example of the Hebraizing +of neo-Platonic doctrines, which, though probably quite independent +of his teaching, recalls constantly the ideas of Philo.</p> +<p>By his place at the head of the neo-Platonic school Philo enters +the broad stream of the world's philosophical development, but his +more lasting influence was exercised over the religious philosophy +of Christianity. He was the direct master of what is known as the +Patristic school, which sought to combine the intellectual +conceptions of Plato with the religious ideas of the Gospels. Its +most celebrated teachers were Clement and Origen, both of +Alexandria, who flourished in the second century. They resorted +largely to allegorical interpretation, learning from Philo to trace +in the Bible principles of universal thought and profound +philosophy; but they used his method and his lessons to support +notions of God and the Logos which were alien to his spirit. He had +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_196" id= +"page_196">[pg.196]</a></span> possessed pre-eminently the soaring +imagination of poetry, which is the crown of the intellectual and +of the religious mind, and unites them in their highest excellence; +but they bounded their philosophy within the narrow limits of +dogma, and thereby destroyed the harmony between Hebraism and +Hellenism which he had contrived to effect. The controversy of +Origen and Celsus began again the battle between reason and faith, +"which was to destroy for centuries the independence of philosophy +and to break the continuity of civilization." Had Philo really been +ploughing the sand, and was an agreement between faith and reason, +between religion and philosophy, impossible? Can the two finest +creations of the mind only be combined on the terms that one is +subordinate, or rather servile, to the other? In Judaism, if +anywhere, the combination should be possible, for Judaism has as +its basis an intuitional conception of God, which is in harmony +with the philosophical conception of the universe, and it has +little dogma besides. The neo-Platonists and the Church Fathers +failed to carry on the ideal of Philo, but it was to be expected +that among his own people, the nation of philosophers, as he had +called them, he would have found true successors. Yet the use made +of his work by the Christians compelled his people to regard him as +a betrayer of the law and to avoid his goal as a treacherous snare. +For centuries Greek philosophy was banned from Jewish thought, and +Philo's works are not mentioned by any Jewish writer. Strangers +possessed his inheritance, <span class="newpage"><a name="page_197" +id="page_197">[pg.197]</a></span> and his name alone, +"Philo-Judæus," bore witness to his nationality. It is an +interesting speculation to consider how different might have been +the history, not only of the Jews, but of the world, if the +Hellenistic Judaism of Philo had prevailed in the Roman-Greek world +instead of "the impurer Hellenism of Christianity." When, in the +tenth century, the leaders of Jewish thought broke the bonds of +seclusion, and brought anew to the interpretation of their religion +the culture of the outer world, Greek philosophy became again a +powerful influence, though it was Aristotle rather than Plato whom +they studied. The harmonizing spirit of Philo, which may be +accounted part of the genius of the race, lives on in Saadia, +Maimonides, Ibn Ezra, Ibn Gabirol, and Judah Halevi. But the +difference between him and the Arabic school is marked. They do not +inherit his whole object, for they aimed not at a philosophical +Judaism which should be a world-religion, but at a philosophical +Judaism for the more enlightened Jews alone. Philo's work was the +culminating point, indeed, of a great development in Judaism, +produced by the mingling of the finest products of human reason and +human imagination, but it was particularly the expression of his +own commanding genius. He lacked a true successor, for those who +shared his aim did not inherit his Jewish outlook, and those who +shared his Jewish outlook did not inherit his aim. What is +characteristic of and peculiar to Philo is the combination of the +missionary and the philosopher. Living at a time <span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_198" id="page_198">[pg.198]</a></span> when +the Jewish genius expanded most brilliantly, and when Judaism +exercised its greatest influence, he hoped to make his religion +universal by showing it to be philosophical, and to bring about by +the aid of Plato the ideal of the prophets. <span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_199" id="page_199">[pg.199]</a></span></p> +<hr style="width: 65%;"> +<br> +<br> +<br> +<br> +<a name="VII" id="VII"></a> +<h2>VII</h2> +<p>PHILO AND JEWISH TRADITION</p> +<br> +<p>We have seen from time to time how Philo's interpretation of the +Bible corresponds with Palestinian Jewish tradition; and we must +now consider more in detail the relations of the two schools of +Jewish learning. Until the last century it was commonly supposed +that no close relation existed, and that the Alexandrian and +Palestinian schools were independent and opposed; Scaliger, the +greatest scholar of the seventeenth century, wrote<a name= +"FNanchor_280_280" id="FNanchor_280_280"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_280_280">[280]</a> that "Philo was more ignorant of +Hebraic and Aramaic lore than any Gaul or Scythian," and this was +the opinion generally held. The researches of Freudenthal and +Siegfried<a name="FNanchor_281_281" id= +"FNanchor_281_281"></a><a href="#Footnote_281_281">[281]</a> have +shown the falsity of these views; and, most important of all, Philo +refutes them out of his own mouth. He refers in many different +parts of his works<a name="FNanchor_282_282" id= +"FNanchor_282_282"></a><a href="#Footnote_282_282">[282]</a> to the +tradition and the wisdom of his ancestors, he tells us how on the +Sabbath the Jews studied in their synagogues their special +philosophy,<a name="FNanchor_283_283" id= +"FNanchor_283_283"></a><a href="#Footnote_283_283">[283]</a> and he +commences his "Life of Moses" by declaring that against the false +calumnies of Greek writers he will set forth the true account which +he has learnt from the sacred <span class="newpage"><a name= +"page_200" id="page_200">[pg.200]</a></span> writings and "from +certain elders of his race." In support of his statement we have +the remark of Eusebius, the Christian historian, and our chief +ancient authority for Philo's work,<a name="FNanchor_284_284" id= +"FNanchor_284_284"></a><a href="#Footnote_284_284">[284]</a> that +he set forth and expounded not only the laws of the Bible, but many +institutions and opinions of his fathers. Apart from these direct +references, the numerous points of correspondence between Philo's +interpretations and those of the Talmud and later Midrash would +compel us to admit a connection between Alexandria and +Jerusalem.</p> +<p>The break between the two schools did not show itself till after +the time of Philo. Up to the first century of the Christian era the +rabbis encouraged the union of Shem and Japheth—the two good +sons of one parent—and the stream of ideas flowed quite +freely between the teachers in Palestine and the Hellenized colony +in Egypt.<a name="FNanchor_285_285" id= +"FNanchor_285_285"></a><a href="#Footnote_285_285">[285]</a> Hence +the Palestinian Jews, on the one hand, received the first fruits of +this mingling of cultures, and the Alexandrian Jews, on the other, +must have inherited the early tradition of the rabbinical +interpreters embodied in ancient Halakah and Haggadah. By this +common heritage, rather than by any direct borrowing, it seems more +reasonable to account for the correspondence in the two Midrashim. +It should be remembered that until the second century of the common +era the mass of Jewish tradition was a floating and developing body +of <span class="newpage"><a name="page_201" id= +"page_201">[pg.201]</a></span> opinion not consigned to writing or +formalized, but handed down by word of mouth from teacher to pupil, +and preacher to congregation: in this way it was diffused +throughout the mind of the race, indefinitely and, to some extent, +unconsciously shaping its thought. The detailed points of agreement +between Philo and the Talmud and Midrash are not of great moment in +themselves, but they are the signs of a unity of development and +the catholicity of Judaism in the East and West. Doubtless the +development was more national and at the same time more legal in +Judæa, in Alexandria more Hellenistic and philosophical, but +there is a common spiritual bond between the two expressions, pious +images, fancies, similes, interpretations which they share. They +are, as it were, children of one family, and despite the varying +influences of environment they maintain a family resemblance. With +the Sibylline oracles we may compare Daniel and the Psalms of +Solomon; with Aristeas and his fellow-Apologists, Josephus; with +the allegorical commentaries of Philo, the Midrashim. Modern +scholars have gone far to prove that Philo was the expounder of an +Hellenic Midrash upon the Bible, in which were gathered the +thoughts and ideas that had been brought to Egypt by the Jewish +settlers, modified, no doubt, by Greek influences, but still +bearing the stamp of their origin. Philo, then, appears in the +direct line of the tradition which from the time of the Great +Synagogue was disseminated through two channels, the schools of +Palestine and the writers of Alexandria. He developed the national +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_202" id= +"page_202">[pg.202]</a></span> Jewish theology in a literary form, +which made it available for the world, but with him the tradition +as a Jewish tradition ends; in its further Hellenistic development +it departed entirely from its original principles.</p> +<p>It is natural that the larger number of parallels between Philo +and the rabbis is to be found in the Haggadic portions of Talmudic +teaching, for the Haggadah represents the same spirit as underlies +Philo's work, though in a more peculiarly Jewish form; it is an +allegory, a play of fancy, a tale that points a moral, or +illustrates a question. It had, too, largely the same origin, for +it gathered together the popular discourses given in the synagogue +on the Sabbaths. Yet the relation of Philo to the other domain of +the Talmud, the code of life, or the Halakah, is of great interest; +for, as we have seen,<a name="FNanchor_286_286" id= +"FNanchor_286_286"></a><a href="#Footnote_286_286">[286]</a> the +Alexandrian community had a Sanhedrin of their own, of which +Philo's brother was the president, and he himself probably a +member; and in his exposition of the "Specific Laws" he has +preserved for us the record of certain interpretations of the +Jewish code, which are illuminating as much by their difference +from, as by their agreement with, the practices of Palestine. The +general aim of Philo's exegesis of the law was to show its broad +principles of justice and humanity rather than to formulate its +exact detail. It is true, he makes it an offence<a name= +"FNanchor_287_287" id="FNanchor_287_287"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_287_287">[287]</a>—unknown to the rabbis—for +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_203" id= +"page_203">[pg.203]</a></span> a Jew to be initiated into the Greek +mysteries, but usually he is concerned to recommend the Halakah to +the world rather than expand it for his own community. This is +shown in his treatment of the civil as much as the moral law. The +great system of jurisprudence in his day, with which every code +claiming to have universal value had necessarily to challenge +comparison, was Roman Law. That part of it which was applied +throughout the Empire, the <i>jus gentium</i>, was regarded as +"written reason." It is probable that contact with Roman +jurisprudence had affected the practical interpretations which the +Alexandrian Sanhedrin put upon the Biblical legislation, and was +the cause of some of their differences from the Palestinian +Halakah. In treating the ethical law, Philo's object was to show +its agreement with the loftiest conceptions of Greek philosophers, +and, indeed, its profounder truth; in treating the civil law of the +Bible, his object likewise was to show its agreement with the +highest principles of jurisprudence and its superiority to pagan +codes. If at times he supports a greater severity than the +Palestinian rabbis eventually allowed, that is where greater +severity implies a closer relation to Roman Law. Thus he has not +the horror of capital punishment which the Jerusalem Sanhedrin +exhibited; he would condemn to death the man who commits wilful +homicide, whether by his own hand or by poison;<a name= +"FNanchor_288_288" id="FNanchor_288_288"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_288_288">[288]</a> <span class="newpage"><a name= +"page_204" id="page_204">[pg.204]</a></span> whereas the other +Halakah allows it only in the former case. He who commits perjury +also is to suffer capital punishment.<a name="FNanchor_289_289" id= +"FNanchor_289_289"></a><a href="#Footnote_289_289">[289]</a> He +adds a law which finds no place in the Palestinian tradition, +making the exposure of children a capital crime.<a name= +"FNanchor_290_290" id="FNanchor_290_290"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_290_290">[290]</a> Again, following the text of the +Biblical law literally (see Deut. xxi. 18), he gives power of life +and death to parents over their rebellious children, whereas the +Jewish law demands a trial before a court to make the death +sentence legal. He approves of the <i>lex talionis</i>, "an eye for +an eye, a tooth for a tooth," agreeing here, indeed, with the +opinion of earlier rabbis like R. Eliezer (see Baba Kama 84, +<img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image65.jpg" width="144" height= +"19">, "the law of eye for eye is to be taken literally"), and +disagreeing with the later Halakic interpretation, which says that +the law of Moses means the award of the value of an eye for an eye, +etc.</p> +<p>This is one instance among many of Philo's adoption of the older +tradition, established probably under the Sadducæan +predominance, which was modified in the rabbinical schools of the +first and the second century. Paradoxically, in his exposition of +the law, Philo follows the letter more closely as the expression of +justice, while the later rabbis often allegorize it in order to +support their humaner interpretation. Thus, commenting on the +passage in Exodus xxii. 3 about the law of theft, "If the sun be +risen upon him, blood shall be shed for blood," he, like R. +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_205" id= +"page_205">[pg.205]</a></span> Eliezer, interprets <img alt= +"Hebrew; " src="images/image66.jpg" width="98" height="15"><a name= +"FNanchor_291_291" id="FNanchor_291_291"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_291_291">[291]</a> <i>i.e.</i>, literally. "If," he +says, "the owner catches the thief before sunrise, he may kill him, +but after the sun has risen he must bring him before the +court."<a name="FNanchor_292_292" id= +"FNanchor_292_292"></a><a href="#Footnote_292_292">[292]</a> This +also was the Roman law, but the Halakah interprets more +artificially: "If it were as clear as sunlight that the thief would +not have killed the owner, then the owner may not kill him." Philo +would justify the old law; the rabbis explain it away. On the other +hand, in his treatment of the law relating to slaves, Philo extends +the liberality both of the Bible and the Halakah. He declares that +the slave is to be set free when by his master's violence he loses +an eye or even a tooth.<a name="FNanchor_293_293" id= +"FNanchor_293_293"></a><a href="#Footnote_293_293">[293]</a> The +Bible and the Talmud direct emancipation only where the slave loses +a limb; but Philo writes eloquently of the humanity of which man is +deprived by the loss of sight; and he would apparently condemn the +master who injured his slave more seriously to the full penalties +of the ordinary law.<a name="FNanchor_294_294" id= +"FNanchor_294_294"></a><a href="#Footnote_294_294">[294]</a> +Maimonides, in his exposition of the law, approves the milder +practice,<a name="FNanchor_295_295" id= +"FNanchor_295_295"></a><a href="#Footnote_295_295">[295]</a> and +this suggests that it had an old tradition behind it. Beautiful is +Philo's stray maxim, "Behave to your servants as you pray that God +may behave to you. For as we hear them, so shall we be heard, and +as we regard them, so shall we <span class="newpage"><a name= +"page_206" id="page_206">[pg.206]</a></span> be regarded."<a name= +"FNanchor_296_296" id="FNanchor_296_296"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_296_296">[296]</a> In his whole treatment of slavery, +Philo shows remarkable enlightenment for his age. He objects, +indeed, to the institution altogether, and he tempers it +continually with ideas of equality. Thus, following the Halakah, he +directs the redemption of a slave seven years after his purchase, +and he treats the laws of the seventh-year rest to the land and of +the jubilee as of universal validity.</p> +<p>Coming to the more specifically religious laws we find that +Philo, missionary as he is, prohibits altogether marriage with +Gentiles,<a name="FNanchor_297_297" id= +"FNanchor_297_297"></a><a href="#Footnote_297_297">[297]</a> and +that though, in the opinion of certain rabbinic teachers, the +Biblical prohibition extended only to marriage with the Canaanite +tribes, and unions with other Gentiles were permitted.<a name= +"FNanchor_298_298" id="FNanchor_298_298"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_298_298">[298]</a> Philo recognizes how dangerous such +unions are for the cause which he had so dearly at heart, the +spreading of Judaism. "Even," says he, "if you yourself remain true +to your religion through the influence of the excellent instruction +of your parents, yet there is no small danger that your children by +such a marriage may be beguiled away by bad customs to unlearn the +true religion of the one only God."<a name="FNanchor_299_299" id= +"FNanchor_299_299"></a><a href="#Footnote_299_299">[299]</a> +Throughout, Philo is true to the mission of Israel in its highest +sense. That mission is not assimilation, and it is to be brought +about by no easy method of mixing with the surrounding people. It +can be effected <span class="newpage"><a name="page_207" id= +"page_207">[pg.207]</a></span> only by holding up the Torah in its +purity as a light to the nations, and by offering them examples of +life according to the law.</p> +<p>Of the special ordinances for Sabbaths and festivals Philo +mentions only those consecrated by the Biblical law or ancient +tradition, which probably were the only ones settled in his day. He +lays down the prohibition to kindle fire,<a name="FNanchor_300_300" +id="FNanchor_300_300"></a><a href="#Footnote_300_300">[300]</a> to +make or return deposits, or to plead in the law courts on the +Sabbath; he speaks of the reading of the Haggadah and Hallel on the +night of Passover, of the bringing of a barley cake during the +'Omer and of the first fruits to the Temple on the Feast of Weeks, +of the Shofar at New Year, and of the Sukkah, but not of the Lulab +at Tabernacles. It should be remembered that the Halakah was not +consolidated till the second or third century, and in Philo's time +it was in the process of formation by different schools of rabbis. +But the passage quoted in an earlier chapter, about adding to the +law, proves his reverence for the oral law.<a name= +"FNanchor_301_301" id="FNanchor_301_301"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_301_301">[301]</a></p> +<p>Though his statement of the civil and religious law is of great +interest to the student of Halakic development, Philo's work +presents greater correspondence, on the whole, with the Haggadah, +which in a primitive way draws philosophical and ethical lessons +from the Bible narrative. It is a free interpretation of the +Scriptures, the expression of the individual moralist; it loves to +point a moral and adorn a tale, and in many cases it is in +agreement with the <span class="newpage"><a name="page_208" id= +"page_208">[pg.208]</a></span> Hellenistic school. To take a few +typical examples: An early interpretation explains the story of the +Brazen Serpent, as Philo does,<a name="FNanchor_302_302" id= +"FNanchor_302_302"></a><a href="#Footnote_302_302">[302]</a> to +mean that as long as Israel are looking upward to the Father in +Heaven they will live, but when they cease to do so they will die. +Another, like him again, finds the motive of the command to bore +the ear of the slave who will not leave his master at the seventh +year of redemption, in the principle that men are God's servants, +and should not voluntarily throw away their precious freedom. So, +too, the Haggadah agrees in numerous points with Philo's stories +about the patriarchs.<a name="FNanchor_303_303" id= +"FNanchor_303_303"></a><a href="#Footnote_303_303">[303]</a> If one +were to go through the Midrashic interpretations of the Five Books +of Moses, he would find in nearly every section interpretations +reminiscent of Philo. In some cases, however, there are striking +contrasts in the two commentaries. Thus the Midrash<a name= +"FNanchor_304_304" id="FNanchor_304_304"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_304_304">[304]</a> tells that the four rivers of Eden +symbolize the four great nations of the old world; to Philo, they +represent the four cardinal virtues established by Greek +philosophers. The Palestinian commentators were prone to see an +historical where Philo saw a philosophical image.</p> +<p>The question may be asked, Who is the originator and who the +borrower of the common tradition? And it is a question to which +chronology can give no certain answer, and for which dates or +records have no <span class="newpage"><a name="page_209" id= +"page_209">[pg.209]</a></span> meaning. For the Haggadah was not +committed to writing till many generations had known its +influences, and it was not finally compiled till many generations +more had handed it down with continuous accretions. The Haggadah in +fact is part of the permanent spirit of the race going back to a +hoary past, and stretching down "the echoing grooves of time" to +the tradition of Judaism in our own day. The Hebrew Word means, and +the thing is, "what is said": the utterances of the inspired +teacher, some tale, some happy play of fancy, some moral aphorism, +some charming allegory which captivated the hearers, and was handed +down the generations as a precious thought. It is significant in +this regard that the Haggadah is remarkable for the number of +foreign words which it contains, Greek, Persian, and Roman terms +jostling with Hebrew and Aramaic. For while the Halakah was the +production of the Palestinian and Babylonian schools alone, the +Haggadah brought together the harvest of all lands; and scraps of +Greek philosophy found their way to Palestine before the +Alexandrian school developed its systematic allegory. In the +Mishnah, the earliest body of Jewish lore which was definitely +formulated and written down, one section is Haggadic, the passages +we know as the "Ethics of the Fathers." Now, we cannot place the +date of this compilation before the first century,<a name= +"FNanchor_305_305" id="FNanchor_305_305"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_305_305">[305]</a> and thus it would seem to +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_210" id= +"page_210">[pg.210]</a></span> be contemporary with Philo's work, +to which it affords numerous parallels. But the great mass of the +Haggadah, the Pesikta, the Mekilta, and the other Midrashim, were +all later compilations, some of them as late as the fifth and the +sixth century. Are we to say, then, that where they correspond to +Philo they show his influence? At first this would appear the +natural conclusion.</p> +<p>There is a better test of priority, however, than the date of +compilation, the test of the thought itself and its expression. And +judged by this test we see that the Haggadah is the more ancient, +the primal development of the Hebrew mind. The "Sayings of the +Fathers" are typical of the finest and most concentrated wisdom of +the Haggadah, and exhibit thought in its impulsive, unsystematic, +gnomic expression, neither logical nor illogical, because it knows +not logic. Beautiful ethical intuitions and profound guesses at +theological truth abound; anything like a definite system of ethics +and theology is not to be found, whence it is said, "Do not argue +with the Haggadah." Even more so is this the case with the bulk of +the Midrash. There, pious fancy will weave itself around the +history and ideals of the people, and suddenly one comes across a +sage reflection or a philosophical utterance. With Philo it is +otherwise. Compared with the Greeks he is unsystematic, inaccurate, +wanting in logic, exuberant in imagination. Compared with the +rabbis he is a formal and accurate philosopher, an exact and +scholarly <span class="newpage"><a name="page_211" id= +"page_211">[pg.211]</a></span> theologian. The floating poetical +ideas of the Haggadah are woven by him into the fabric of a Jewish +philosophy and a Jewish theology, and knit together with the +rational conceptions of Aristotle's "Metaphysics" and Plato's +"Timæus." We may say, then, almost with certainty, that Philo +derives from the early Jewish tradition, though at the same time he +introduced into that tradition many an idea taken from the Greek +thinkers, which found its way to the later Palestinian schools of +Jamnia and Tiberias, and was recast by the Hebraic imagination.</p> +<p>Over and over again we find that he adopts some fancy of his +ancestors and develops it rhetorically and philosophically in his +commentary. To give many examples or references to examples of this +feature of Philo's work is not within the scope of this book, but +of his development of an old Palestinian tradition the following +passage may serve as a typical instance:</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>"There is an old story," he writes, "composed by the sages and +handed down by memory from age to age.... They say that, when God +had finished the world, he asked one of the angels if aught were +wanting on land or in sea, in air or in heaven. The angel answered +that all was perfect and complete. One thing only he desired, +speech, to praise God's works, or to recount, rather than praise, +the exceeding wonderfulness of all things made, even of the +smallest and the least. For the due recital of God's works would be +their most adequate praise, seeing that they needed no addition of +ornament, but possessed in the sincerity of truth the most perfect +eulogy. And the Father approved the angel's words, and afterwards +appeared the race gifted with the muses and <span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_212" id="page_212">[pg.212]</a></span> with +song. This is the ancient story; and in accord with it, I say that +it is God's peculiar work to do good, and the creature's work to +give Him thanks."<a name="FNanchor_306_306" id= +"FNanchor_306_306"></a><a href="#Footnote_306_306">[306]</a></p> +</div> +<p>Now this legend and moral appear in another form in the +collection of Midrash, the Pirke Rabbi Eliezer, which apparently +had ancient sources that have disappeared. There it is told: "When +the Holy One, blessed be He, consulted the Torah as to the +completeness of the work of creation, she answered him: 'Master of +the future world, if there be no host, over whom will the King +reign, and if there be no creatures to praise him, where is the +glory of the King?' And the Lord of the world was pleased with her +answer and forthwith He created man."<a name="FNanchor_307_307" id= +"FNanchor_307_307"></a><a href="#Footnote_307_307">[307]</a></p> +<p>The Haggadah is rich also in allegorical speculation, of which +there are traces in the Biblical books themselves. In the book of +Micah, for example, we find that the patriarchs are taken as types +of certain virtues, Abraham of Kindness, <img alt="Hebrew; " src= +"images/image67.jpg" width="40" height="14">, and Jacob of Truth, +<img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image68.jpg" width="34" height= +"15"> (vii. 20). And when the ideas of the people expanded +philosophically in Palestine and in Alexandria, the profounder +conceptions were attached to Scripture by the device of allegorical +interpretation, <span class="newpage"><a name="page_213" id= +"page_213">[pg.213]</a></span> and certain rabbis attributed a +higher value to the inner than to the literal meaning. Thus Akiba, +who wrote an elaborate allegorical work upon the Song of +Songs,<a name="FNanchor_308_308" id="FNanchor_308_308"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_308_308">[308]</a> held that the book was the most +profound in the Bible, and Rabbi Judah similarly regarded the book +of Job.<a name="FNanchor_309_309" id= +"FNanchor_309_309"></a><a href="#Footnote_309_309">[309]</a> The +Palestinian allegorists took to themselves a wider field than the +Alexandrian, and looked for the deeper meanings rather in the +Wisdom Literature than in the Pentateuch, which was to them +essentially the Book of the Law, and, therefore, not a fit subject +for Mashal, <i>i.e.</i>, inner meanings.<a name="FNanchor_310_310" +id="FNanchor_310_310"></a><a href="#Footnote_310_310">[310]</a> +Hence, their allegorism was more natural, more real, and truer to +the spirit of that which they interpreted. They allegorized when an +allegory was invited, whereas Philo and his school often forced +their philosophical meanings in face of the clear purport of the +text, and without regard to the Hebrew. In the one case allegory +was a genuine development, and might have been adopted by the +original prophet: in the other, it was reconstruction; and the +artificial un-Hebraic character of the Hellenistic commentary was +one of the causes of its disappearance from Jewish tradition. While +the Palestinian allegorists based their continuous philosophical +interpretation upon the Wisdom Books, they, at the same time, +looked for secondary meanings wherever opportunity offered, and +found lessons in letters and teachings in names. An early school of +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_214" id= +"page_214">[pg.214]</a></span> commentators was actually known as +<img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image69.jpg" width="117" height= +"12"> <a name="FNanchor_311_311" id="FNanchor_311_311"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_311_311">[311]</a> or interpreters of signs, and their +method was by examination of the letters of a word, or by +comparison of different verses, to explore homilies. For instance, +the verse, "And God showed Moses a tree" (Exod. xvi. 26), by which +he sweetened the waters at Marah, symbolized, by a play on the word +<img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image70.jpg" width="51" height= +"18">,<a name="FNanchor_312_312" id="FNanchor_312_312"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_312_312">[312]</a> that God taught Moses the Torah, of +which it is said, "She is a tree of life" (Prov. iii. 18). Another +happy example of this method occurs in the sixth section of the +Pirke Abot, where the names in the itinerary, <img alt="Hebrew; " +src="images/image71.jpg" width="258" height="19"> (Numb. xxi. 19), +are invested with a spiritual meaning. Whoever believes in the +Torah, it is written, shall be exalted, as it is said, "From the +gift of the law man attains the heritage of God, and by that +heritage he reaches Heaven."</p> +<p>In this passage of Palestinian allegorism, it may be noticed +that the Torah is regarded as a spiritual bond between man and God, +and as a sort of intermediary power between them. This feature is +almost as frequent in the Midrash as the Logos-idea in Philo, so +that it may be said that rabbinic theology finds an idealism in the +Torah which corresponds to the idealism of the Philonic Word. It is +expressed, no doubt, naïvely and fancifully, even playfully, +without attempt at philosophical deductions. It is informed by the +same spirit as the Alexandrian allegory, but it is essentially +poetical and impulsive, and set forth in <span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_215" id="page_215">[pg.215]</a></span> +mythical personification, not in deliberate metaphysics. The Torah +to the rabbis was the embodiment of the Wisdom which the writer of +Proverbs had glorified, and it takes its prerogatives. God gazes +upon the Torah before He creates the world.<a name= +"FNanchor_313_313" id="FNanchor_313_313"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_313_313">[313]</a> The Torah, though the chief, is not, +however, the only object of rabbinic idealism. God and His name, it +is said, alone existed before the world was created,<a name= +"FNanchor_314_314" id="FNanchor_314_314"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_314_314">[314]</a> and in a Talmud legend relating the +birth of man, the ideal power is identified with Truth, which, like +the Logos, is pictured as God's own seal.</p> +<p><span style="margin-left: 1em;">"From Heaven to Earth, from +Earth once more to Heaven</span><br> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Shall Truth, with constant +interchange, alight</span><br> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">And soar again, an everlasting +link</span><br> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Between the world and +Sky."</span><br> +<br> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Translation of Emma +Lazarus.)<a name="FNanchor_315_315" id= +"FNanchor_315_315"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_315_315">[315]</a></span><br></p> +<p>Correspondingly, Philo identifies the Logos with the name of God +and with Truth.</p> +<p>Of another piece of Talmudic idealism we catch a trace in +Maimonides' "Guide of the Perplexed,"<a name="FNanchor_316_316" id= +"FNanchor_316_316"></a><a href="#Footnote_316_316">[316]</a> where +he says that the rabbis explained the designation of God, <img alt= +"Hebrew; " src="images/image72.jpg" width="112" height="22"> +[rendered in the authorized version, "He who rideth on the heavens" +(Ps. lxviii. 4)], to mean that He dwelt in the highest sphere of +heaven amid the eternal ideas of Justice and Virtue, as it is said: +"Justice and Righteousness are the base <span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_216" id="page_216">[pg.216]</a></span> of +Thy throne" (Ps. lxxxix. 15). These fancies and interpretations +indicate that in Palestine as well as in Alexandria an idealistic +theology and a religious metaphysics were developing at this +period, though in the East it was more imaginative, more Hebraic, +more in the spirit of the old prophets.</p> +<p>The more serious metaphysical and theological speculation of the +rabbis was embodied in the doctrine of the "Creation," and the +"Chariot," <img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image73.jpg" width="276" +height="19">, which in form were commentaries on the early chapters +of Genesis and the visions of Ezekiel. They were reserved for the +wisest and most learned, for the rabbis had always a fear of +introducing the student to philosophy until his knowledge of the +law was well established. They held, with Plato, that metaphysical +speculation must be the crown of knowledge, and if treated as its +foundation, before the necessary discipline had been obtained, it +would produce all sorts of wild ideas. Judaism for them was +primarily not a philosophical doctrine but a system of life. The +Hellenistic school was so far false to their standpoint that it +laid stress for the ordinary believer upon the philosophical +meaning as well as upon the law. And as events proved, this led to +the neglect of the law and the dogmatic establishment of +speculative theories as the basis of a new religion. Doubtless the +consciousness that the philosophical development led away from +Judaism increased the distrust of the later rabbis for such +speculation, and made them regard esoteric as a milder term for +heretical; <span class="newpage"><a name="page_217" id= +"page_217">[pg.217]</a></span> but the warning is already given in +Ben Sira: "It is not needful for thee to see the secret +things."<a name="FNanchor_317_317" id= +"FNanchor_317_317"></a><a href="#Footnote_317_317">[317]</a> The +Talmud, indeed, records certain ideas about the powers of God and +His relation to the universe in the names of the great masters; and +in these ideas there are striking resemblances to Philo's +conceptions. The Word is spoken of as an intermediate +agency;<a name="FNanchor_318_318" id= +"FNanchor_318_318"></a><a href="#Footnote_318_318">[318]</a> the +finger of God is really the Word; the angels are sprung from the +Words of God: Ben Zoma declared that the whole work of creation was +carried out by the Word, as it is written, "And God said."<a name= +"FNanchor_319_319" id="FNanchor_319_319"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_319_319">[319]</a> But on the other hand there are +passages in which the rabbis oppose the Alexandrian attitude, and +point out in its excessive philosophizing a danger to Judaism, so +that in the end they exclude it. Rabbi Ishmael, we are told, warned +his pupils of the danger of Greek wisdom.<a name="FNanchor_320_320" +id="FNanchor_320_320"></a><a href="#Footnote_320_320">[320]</a> +Akiba, living at a time when the Jews were fighting for spiritual +as well as for physical life against the combined forces of the +Greeks and Romans, proposed to ban all the <img alt="Hebrew; " src= +"images/image74.jpg" width="120" height="18"><a name= +"FNanchor_321_321" id="FNanchor_321_321"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_321_321">[321]</a> and the Gemara argues that among +these were included the Apocryphal works which showed Greek +influence. Again, Elisha ben Abuya, the arch-heretic, is held up to +reproach because he read <img alt="Hebrew; " src= +"images/image75.jpg" width="84" height="21">,<a name= +"FNanchor_322_322" id="FNanchor_322_322"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_322_322">[322]</a> under which title Greek Gnostic books +are probably implied. <span class="newpage"><a name="page_218" id= +"page_218">[pg.218]</a></span></p> +<p>At the time when this spirit shows itself, the appearance of +heretical offshoots from Judaism was already pronounced. Heresy was +the aftermath of the combination of Judaism and Hellenism, and if +further disintegration was to be avoided, the seductive Greek +influence had to be discouraged. There is always the danger in a +mingling of two cultures, that each will lose its particular +excellence in a compound which has certain qualities, but not the +virtues, of either element. Compromises may be desirable in +political affairs; in affairs of thought they are perilous. Down to +the time of Philo, the fusion of thought at Alexandria had been +beneficial, and had broadened the Jewish outlook without impairing +its strength, but the dissolving forces of civilization never +operated more powerfully than in the early centuries of the common +era, when the intellect of the world was jaded and weary, and the +great movement in culture was a jumbling together of the ideas of +East and West. More especially in the cosmopolitan towns, +Alexandria, Antioch, and Rome, national life, national culture, and +national religion were undermined; and even the Jew, despite the +stronghold of his law and tradition, was caught in the general +vortex of mingling creeds and theologies. Out of this confusion +(which was in one aspect a continuation of the work of Philo) +emerged, first, fantastic Gnostic religious and philosophical +sects, and, finally, the Christian Church, which proved the system +best fitted to survive <span class="newpage"><a name="page_219" id= +"page_219">[pg.219]</a></span> in the circumstances, but was in +essence as well as in origin a blending of different outlooks, and +true to the cardinal points of neither Hebraism nor Hellenism. The +rabbis, with remarkable intuition, saw that the Hellenistic +development of Judaism, which had vainly striven to make Judaism +universal, had ended in violating its monotheism and abrogating its +law; and in that era of disintegration, denationalization, and +decomposition they determined to keep their heritage pure and +inviolate. Judaism by their efforts was the only national culture +which survived, and some sacrifice had to be made to secure this +end. The literary monuments of the Alexandrian community from the +Septuagint translation to the philosophy of the Christian +scholarchs were cut out of Jewish tradition, and the Babylonian +school was ignorant altogether of the <img alt="Hebrew; " src= +"images/image76.jpg" width="91" height="16"> (Greek wisdom). When +Ben Zoma desired to study the <img alt="Hebrew; " src= +"images/image77.jpg" width="114" height="14">, and asked of his +teacher at what hour of the day it was lawful to do so, he received +the reply that it was permissible at an hour which was neither day +nor night; for the precept was to study the Torah by day and night, +as it is said, <img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image78.jpg" width= +"187" height="18"> (Josh. i. 8). Bar Kappara, indeed, a rabbi of +the third century, explained Genesis ix. 27, "God shall enlarge +Japheth and he shall dwell in the tents of Shem," to mean that the +words of the Torah shall be recited in the speech of Japheth +(<i>i.e.</i>, Greek) in the synagogues and schools,<a name= +"FNanchor_323_323" id="FNanchor_323_323"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_323_323">[323]</a> but by <span class="newpage"><a name= +"page_220" id="page_220">[pg.220]</a></span> most other teachers +the union between Shem and Japheth was no longer encouraged, +because Japheth had become degraded and was allied with the cruel +children of Edom (Rome).</p> +<p>Besides the Talmud and the Midrash we have, in the work of +Josephus, another indication that there was in Philo's own day +communication between Alexandria and Palestine. The Jewish +historian marks the influence of Hellenic ideas in Palestine in +fullest measure, and like Philo he seeks by embellishment to +recommend the histories and Scriptures of his people to the non-Jew +and to bring home their thought to the cultured Roman-Greek world. +Thus, in the preface to his "Antiquities," he notes, as Philo noted +in his commentary, that Moses begins his laws with a philosophical +cosmology; he says also that Moses spoke some things under a +fitting allegory, hiding beneath it a very remarkable philosophical +theory. The allegorical commentary which Josephus declared that he +intended to write has not—if it was written—come down +to us, but we have in his writings certain allegorical valuations +of names that agree directly with Philo. Abel he explains as +signifying mourning, Cain, <img alt="Hebrew; " src= +"images/image79.jpg" width="30" height="19">, as selfish +possession. In the priestly garments of Aaron he sees with Philo a +symbol of the universe, which the high priest supported when he +entered the Holy of Holies. And the ritual vessels of the +tabernacle have also their universal significance.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>"If," says the Palestinian Hellenist, "any man do but consider +the fabric of the tabernacle and regard the <span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_221" id="page_221">[pg.221]</a></span> +vestments of the high priest, he will find that our legislator was +a Divine man, and that we are unjustly reproached by those who +attack us for tribal narrowness. For if he look upon these things +without prejudice, he will find that each one was made by way of +imitation and representation of the universe. When Moses ordered +twelve loaves to be set on the table, he denoted the years as +distinguished into so many months. By branching out the candlestick +into seven parts, he intimated the seven divisions of the +planets.... The vestments of the high priest, being made of linen, +signified the earth, the blue color thereof denoted the sky, the +pomegranates symbolized lightning, and the noise of the bells +resembled thunder. And the fashion of the ephod showed that God had +made the world of four elements."<a name="FNanchor_324_324" id= +"FNanchor_324_324"></a><a href="#Footnote_324_324">[324]</a></p> +</div> +<p>Let us now listen now to Philo: "The raiment of the priest is +altogether a representation and imitation of the universe, and its +parts are the parts of the other. His tunic is all of blue linen, +the symbol of the sky. [The rabbis had a similar fancy of the +Tsitsith (fringes).] And the flowers embroidered thereon mark the +earth, from which all things flower. And the pomegranates are a +symbol of the water, being skilfully called thus (<img alt= +"Greek: rhoischoi" src="images/image80.jpg" width="64" height= +"19">, <i>i.e.</i>, flowing fruit) because of their juice, and the +bells are the symbols of the harmony of all the elements."<a name= +"FNanchor_325_325" id="FNanchor_325_325"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_325_325">[325]</a></p> +<p>It is true that the symbolism of two allegorists is varied, but +a common spirit and aim underlie their interpretations. This is +true alike of their account of the ritualistic and civil law of +Moses. Either, then, <span class="newpage"><a name="page_222" id= +"page_222">[pg.222]</a></span> there was a common source of Jewish +apologetic literature, or Josephus must have borrowed from Philo. +It is significant that he is the only contemporary of Philo that +mentions him. He speaks of him as a distinguished philosopher, the +brother of the alabarch, and the leader of the embassy to +Gaius.<a name="FNanchor_326_326" id="FNanchor_326_326"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_326_326">[326]</a> He knows also of the anti-Semitic +diatribes of Philo's great enemy Apion, and two of his extant books +are masterly reply to their outpourings. Hence it is not rash to +assume that he knew at least that part of Philo's work which had a +missionary and apologetic purpose—the "Life of Moses" and the +"Hypothetica." He makes no acknowledgment to them, it is true, but +expressions of obligation were not in the fashion of the time. +Plagiarism was held to be no crime, and citation of authorities in +notes or elsewhere was almost unknown in literature—save in +the Talmud,<a name="FNanchor_327_327" id= +"FNanchor_327_327"></a><a href="#Footnote_327_327">[327]</a> where +to tell something in the name of somebody else is a virtue. But one +can hardly doubt that the man who devoted himself to refuting the +lying calumnies of Apion first made himself master of the classical +work of Apion's opponent, which claimed to give to the Greek world +the authoritative account of the Jewish lawgiver and his +legislation.</p> +<p>What Josephus knew must have been known to other cultured Jews +of Palestine. Yet Philo, save in one doubtful case which will be +noticed, is not mentioned by any Jewish writer between Josephus in +the <span class="newpage"><a name="page_223" id= +"page_223">[pg.223]</a></span> first and Azariah dei Rossi in the +sixteenth century. The compilers of the Midrashim and the Yalkut, +the philosophers of the Dark and Middle Ages, finally the +Cabbalists, are continually reminiscent of his doctrines, but they +do not mention his works or his existence. The Midrash +Tadshé,<a name="FNanchor_328_328" id= +"FNanchor_328_328"></a><a href="#Footnote_328_328">[328]</a> a +tenth century compilation of allegorical exegesis, contains +definite parallels to Philonic passages, especially in its +quotations from an Essene Tannaite, Pin[h.]as ben Jaïr; but +again the trace of influence is indirect. On the other hand, the +Christian writers from the time of Clement in the second century +quote him freely, make anthologies of his beautiful sayings, and in +their more imaginative moments acclaim him the comrade of Mark and +the friend of Peter. The rise of the Christian Church, which +coincided with the downfall of the nation, caused the rabbis to +emphasize the national character of Judaism in order to preserve +the old faith of their fathers in the critical condition in which +exile, persecution, and assimilation placed it. The first century +was a time of feverish dreams and wild hopes that were not +realizable: men had looked for the coming of the days of universal +peace and good-will, and the Alexandrian Jews in particular hoped +for the spreading of Judaism over the world. The rabbis recognized +that this consummation was far away, and that Judaism must remain +particularist for centuries in the hope of a final universalism. +Meantime it must <span class="newpage"><a name="page_224" id= +"page_224">[pg.224]</a></span> hold fast to the law and, in default +of a national home, strengthen the national religious life in each +Jewish household. They regarded Greek as not only a strange but a +hostile tongue, and the allegorical exegesis of the Bible, which +had led to the whittling away of the law, as a godless wisdom. The +Septuagint translation, which had offered a starting point for +philosophical speculation, was replaced by a new Greek version of +the Old Testament made by Aquila, a proselyte, in the first +century. It gave a baldly literal translation of the Hebrew text, +sacrificing form and even lucidity to a faithful transcript. With +unconscious irony the rabbis, who rejoiced in its truth to the +Hebrew, said of Aquila, "Thou art fairer than the children of men, +grace is poured into thy lips"<a name="FNanchor_329_329" id= +"FNanchor_329_329"></a><a href="#Footnote_329_329">[329]</a> (Ps. +xlv). In truth the work was utterly innocent of literary grace. A +translation of the Bible marked the end, as it had marked the +beginning, of Jewish-Hellenistic literature, but if the first had +suggested the admission, so the other suggested the rejection of +Greek philosophy from the interpretation of Judaism and a return to +the exclusive national standpoint. The rabbinical appreciation of +Aquila's work shows that, while the Jews were in Palestine, many +still required a Greek translation of the Bible; but when in the +third century C.E. the centre of the religion was moved to Babylon, +Greek was forgotten, and the rabbis for a period lost sight of +Greek culture. It is another irony of history that our manuscripts +of Philo go back to <span class="newpage"><a name="page_225" id= +"page_225">[pg.225]</a></span> an archetype in the library of +Cæsarea in Palestine, which Eusebius studied in the fourth +century. Philo came to the land of his fathers in the possession of +his people's enemies, and at a time when he could no longer be +understood by his people.</p> +<p>Philo's works were not translated into Hebrew, and as Greek +ceased to be the language of the cultured, they could not, in their +original form, have influenced later Jewish philosophers. But the +Christians, in their proselytizing activity, had translated them +into Latin and Armenian before the fifth century, and through one +of these means they may possibly have exercised an influence upon +the new school of Jewish philosophy, which, opening with Saadia in +the tenth century, blossomed forth in the Arabic-Spanish epoch. The +light of historical research is beginning to illumine the obscurity +of the Dark Ages, and has revealed traces of an Alexandrian +allegorist in the writings of the Persian Jew Benjamin +al-Nehawendi, himself a distinguished allegorizer of the Bible, who +wrote in the ninth century and taught that God created the world by +means of one ministerial angel.<a name="FNanchor_330_330" id= +"FNanchor_330_330"></a><a href="#Footnote_330_330">[330]</a> +Benjamin relates that the doctrine was held by a Jewish sect known +as the Maghariya, which probably sprang up in the fourth or the +fifth century, when sects grew like mushrooms. The Karaite +al-Kirkisani, who wrote fifty years later, says that <span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_226" id="page_226">[pg.226]</a></span> the +Maghariya sect used in support of their doctrine the "prolegomena +of an Alexandrian sage" who gave certain remarkable interpretations +of the Bible; and in one of Dr. Schechter's Genizah fragments, +which is probably to be ascribed to Kirkisani, there are contained +examples of the Alexandrian's explanations of the Decalogue, which +occur, and occur only, in Philo's treatise on the "Ten +Commandments."</p> +<p>This connection between Philo and an obscure Jewish sect, or an +obscurer Persian-Jewish writer, may appear far-fetched and not +worth the making. In itself doubtless it is unimportant, but it +serves to keep Philo, however barely, within Jewish tradition. For +it shows that Alexandrian literature, though probably through the +medium of a Mohammedan source, was known to some Jews in the +centuries of transition. It may be that further examination of the +great Genizah collection, which has opened to Jewish scholarship a +new world, will reveal further and stronger ties to unite Philo +with his philosophical successors, of whom the first is Saadia Gaon +(892-942 C.E.). Indeed the main interest of this newly-discovered +connection, if it can be seriously so regarded, is that it suggests +the possibility of Saadia's acquaintance with Philo by means of a +translation. That Saadia read the works upon which Christian +theologians relied, is certain; and a fragment in which he refers +to the teaching of Judah the Alexandrian<a name="FNanchor_331_331" +id="FNanchor_331_331"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_331_331">[331]</a>—also unearthed from the +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_227" id= +"page_227">[pg.227]</a></span> Cairo Genizah—goes some way to +support the suggestion. The passage refers to the connection of the +number "fifty" with the different seasons of the year, and though +it does not tally exactly with any piece of the extant Philo, it is +in the Philonic manner. And Philo, who was surnamed Judæus by +the Church, would have been re-named by his own people, translating +from the Church writers, <img alt="Hebrew; " src= +"images/image81.jpg" width="46" height="13">. One would the more +willingly catch on to this floating straw, because Saadia was at +once a compatriot of Philo, born in the Fayyum of Egypt, and the +first Jew who strove to carry on his work. He aimed at showing the +philosophy of the Torah, and its harmony with Greek wisdom in +particular. Aristotle, who had been translated into Arabic, had +meantime supplanted Plato as the master of philosophy for +theologians, and Saadia's <i>magnum opus</i>, <img alt="Hebrew; " +src="images/image82.jpg" width="106" height="13">, is colored +throughout by Aristotelian ideas. But the difference of masters +does not obscure the likeness of aim, and, albeit unconsciously, +Saadia renews the task of the Hellenic-Jewish school.</p> +<p>Saadia's work was carried on and expanded in a great outburst of +the Jewish genius, which showed itself most brilliantly in the +Moorish-Spanish kingdom. The general cultural conditions of +Alexandria in the first century B.C.E. were reproduced in Spain in +the tenth century. Once again the Jews found themselves politically +emancipated amid a sympathetic environment, and again they +illumined their religious tradition with all the culture which +their <span class="newpage"><a name="page_228" id= +"page_228">[pg.228]</a></span> environment could afford. The +mingling of thought gave birth to a great literature, both creative +and critical; to a striking body of lyric poetry; to a systematic +theology, and a religious philosophy.</p> +<p>While the study of the old Talmudic lore was maintained, the +greatest teachers developed tradition afresh by a philosophical +restatement designed to make it appeal to the mental attitude of +the enlightened. The sermon flourished again, collections of +Haggadah (Yalkut) were made as storehouses of homilies, and +metaphysical treatises modelled upon the works of the schoolmen set +forth a philosophical Judaism for the learned world. It is notable +also that these last were not written in Hebrew or in the Talmudic +dialect, but in Arabic, the language of their cultured environment; +for though the missionary spirit was dead, the controversial +activity of the period impelled the Jewish philosophers to present +their ideas in the form used by the philosophers of the general +community.</p> +<p>It is not only the general conditions of the Arab-Jewish period, +but also the special development of Jewish ideas, which recalls the +work of the Alexandrian school. This was, indeed, to be expected, +seeing that in both cases there was a mingling of Hebraism and +Hellenism. In Spain, however, the Jews acquired Hellenism at second +hand, and through the somewhat distorted medium of Arabic +translations or scholastic misunderstanding, and hence the harmony +is neither complete nor pure. They endeavored to <span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_229" id="page_229">[pg.229]</a></span> show +that the teachings of Aristotle are implicit in the written and the +oral law, but the interpretation is hardly convincing even in "The +Guide of the Perplexed," of Maimonides, the monumental work which +marks the culmination of mediæval Jewish philosophy.</p> +<p>If there is one figure in Jewish tradition with whom Philo +challenges at once comparison and contrast, it is Maimonides, the +brightest star of the Arabic, as he was of the Hellenic, +development of the Jewish religion. Though there is nothing on +which to found any direct influence of the one on the other, the +aim, the method, the scope of their philosophical work are the +same, the relation which they hold to exist between faith and +philosophy wellnigh identical. The metaphysics of the Bible, +according to both, is hidden beneath an allegory, and is meant only +for the more learned of the people. To Maimonides the Bible is not +only the standard of all wisdom, but it is "the Divine anticipation +of human discovery." In the words of Hosea, God has therein +"multiplied visions and spoken in similitudes" (xii. 11). The duty +of the Jewish philosopher is to expound these metaphors and +similes; and Maimonides, endeavoring to knit Greek metaphysics +closely with Jewish tradition, propounds a science of allegorical +values, which by exact philological study traces the inner as well +as the outer meaning of the Hebrew words. But differentiated as it +is by greater mastery of the tradition and closer adherence to the +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_230" id= +"page_230">[pg.230]</a></span> Hebrew text, his method is nearly as +artificial and his thought as extraneous to the text as the method +and thought of Philo. The content of their philosophies is, indeed, +strikingly alike, save that the one is a Platonist, the other an +Aristotelian. This involves not so much a difference of +philosophical views as a difference of temper and of objective. The +followers of Plato are mystics, yearning for the love of God; the +followers of Aristotle are rationalists, seeking for the abstract +knowledge of God. Hence in Maimonides there is less soaring and +more argument than in Philo. Everything is deduced, so far as may +be, with exactitude and logical sequence—according to the +logic of the schoolmen—and everything is formalized according +to scholastic principles. But the subjects treated are the +same—the nature of God and His attributes, His relation to +the universe and man, the manner of the creation, and the way of +righteousness.</p> +<p>Maimonides, who is in form more loyal to Jewish tradition, is to +a larger degree than Philo dependent on authority for the +philosophical ideas which he applies to religion. To a great extent +this is due to the spirit of his age, for in the Middle Ages not +only was the matter of thought, but also its form, accepted on +authority, and Aristotle ruled the one as imperiously as the Bible +ruled the other. The differences of form and substance do not, +however, obscure the essential likeness with Philo's interpretation +of Judaism. With him Maimonides holds that the essential nature +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_231" id= +"page_231">[pg.231]</a></span> of God is incognizable.<a name= +"FNanchor_332_332" id="FNanchor_332_332"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_332_332">[332]</a> No positive predication can properly +be applied to Him, but we know Him by His activities in relation to +man and the world, <i>i.e.</i>, by His attributes or by what Philo +called His powers. Maimonides does not preserve the absolute +monarchy of the Divine government, but places between God and man +intermediate beings with subordinate creative powers—the +separate intelligences of the stars, which are identified with the +angels of the Bible.<a name="FNanchor_333_333" id= +"FNanchor_333_333"></a><a href="#Footnote_333_333">[333]</a> But he +maintains inviolate the sole causality of God and His immanence in +the human soul. Maimonides, like Philo, gives in addition to a +metaphysical theology a philosophical exposition of the law of +Moses, which has the same guiding principle as the books on the +"Specific Laws." Moses was the perfect legislator,<a name= +"FNanchor_334_334" id="FNanchor_334_334"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_334_334">[334]</a> whose ordinances are <img alt= +"Hebrew; " src="images/image83.jpg" width="55" height="16">, +<i>i.e.</i>, perfectly equitable, attaining "the mean"—the +Aristotelian conception of excellence—and identical with the +eternal laws of nature.<a name="FNanchor_335_335" id= +"FNanchor_335_335"></a><a href="#Footnote_335_335">[335]</a> +Numerous details of Maimonides' interpretations agree with those +given in the books on the "Specific Laws." Whether correspondence +of thought is merely an indication of the similar workings of +Jewish genius in similar conditions, or whether it is the effect of +an early tradition common to both, or whether, finally, there was +connection, however indirect, between the two minds, it is now +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_232" id= +"page_232">[pg.232]</a></span> impossible to say. But at least the +philosophy of Maimonides confirms the inner Jewishness of the +philosophy of Philo, and its essential loyalty to Jewish +tradition.</p> +<p>Not less striking than his correspondence with later Jewish +religious philosophy, though not less indefinite, is the relation +of Philo to the later Jewish mystical and theosophical literature, +purporting also to be a development of hoary tradition, and indeed +calling itself simply the tradition, <img alt="Hebrew; " src= +"images/image84.jpg" width="46" height="21">. Between Philo and the +Cabbalah it is as difficult to establish any direct connection as +between Philo and rabbinic Midrash, but the likeness in spirit and +the signs of a common source are equally remarkable. To trace God +in all things through various attributes and emanations, to bring +God and man into direct union, to prove that there is an immanent +God within the soul of the individual, and to show how this may be +inspired with the transcendental Deity—this is common to +both. In the earliest times the mystic doctrine appears to have +been a form of Jewish Gnosticism, speculation about the nature of +God and His connection with the world. It probably embraced the +<img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image85.jpg" width="302" height= +"18">, though we know not what these exactly contained.<a name= +"FNanchor_336_336" id="FNanchor_336_336"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_336_336">[336]</a> But it was not till the Middle Ages +that Jewish mysticism received definite and separate literary +expression, and by that time it was mixed up with a number of +neo-Platonic and magical <span class="newpage"><a name="page_233" +id="page_233">[pg.233]</a></span> fancies and foreign theosophies. +The later compilations of this character form what is more +regularly known as the Cabbalah; but, apart from the professions of +the later writers, a continuous train of tradition affirms the +existence of secret teachings in Judaism from the time of the +Babylonian captivity. Jewish mysticism is as much a continuous +expression of the spirit of the race as the Jewish law. We may then +without rashness conclude that the later Cabbalah is a coarser +development, for a less enlightened and less philosophical age, of +the Gnostic material which Philo refashioned in the light of +Platonism for the Hellenized community at Alexandria. Modern +scholars have favored the idea that the Essenes were the first +systematizers of and the first practitioners in the Cabbalah, and +have interpreted their name<a name="FNanchor_337_337" id= +"FNanchor_337_337"></a><a href="#Footnote_337_337">[337]</a> to +mean those engaged in secret things, but the mystic tradition +itself is earlier than the foundation of a special mystic sect. It +is part of the heritage from the Jewish prophets and psalmists and +the Babylonian interaction with Hebraism.</p> +<p>Philo had large sympathies with the Essenic development of +Judaism, and he speaks at times as though he had joined one of +their communities, and therein had been initiated into the great +mysteries and secret philosophies of the sages. We have noted that +he offers his most precious wisdom to the worthy few alone, "who in +all humility practice genuine piety, <span class="newpage"><a name= +"page_234" id="page_234">[pg.234]</a></span> free from all false +pretence." They, in turn, are to discourse on these doctrines only +to other members of the brotherhood. "I bid ye, initiated brethren, +who listen with chastened ears, receive these truly sacred +mysteries in your inmost souls, and reveal them not to one of the +uninitiated, but laying them up in your hearts, guard them as a +most excellent treasure in which the noblest of possessions is +stored, the knowledge, namely, of the First Cause and of virtue, +and moreover of what they generate."<a name="FNanchor_338_338" id= +"FNanchor_338_338"></a><a href="#Footnote_338_338">[338]</a> These +mysteries, it is not unlikely, represent according to some scholars +the <img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image86.jpg" width="25" height= +"15"> of the Talmudical rabbis, which was elaborately developed in +the Zohar and kindred writings. Be this as it may, Philo's +religious intensity expresses the spirit of the Cabbalists, his +mystic soaring is the prototype of their theosophical ecstasies; +his persistent declaration that God encloses the universe, but is +Himself not enclosed by anything, contains the root of their +conception of the En Sof <img alt="Hebrew; " src= +"images/image87.jpg" width="76" height="22">,<a name= +"FNanchor_339_339" id="FNanchor_339_339"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_339_339">[339]</a> his Logos-idealism, with its Divine +effluences, which are the true causes of all changes, physical and +mental, is companion to their system of <img alt="Hebrew; " src= +"images/image88.jpg" width="169" height="21"> emanations and +spheres. His fancies about sex and the struggle between a male and +female principle in all things<a name="FNanchor_340_340" id= +"FNanchor_340_340"></a><a href="#Footnote_340_340">[340]</a> are a +constant theme of their teachers, and form a special section of +their wisdom, <img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image89.jpg" width= +"76" height="13">, the mystery of generation. His conception of the +Logos as the heavenly <span class="newpage"><a name="page_235" id= +"page_235">[pg.235]</a></span> archetype of the human race, the +"Man-himself," is the Platonic counterpart of their <img alt= +"Hebrew; " src="images/image90.jpg" width="85" height="21">, or +"primal man," who is known in the ancient allegorizing of the Song +of Songs. His number-mysticism and his speech-idealism reappear +more crudely, but not obscurely, in their ideas of creative +letters, of which the cosmogony by the twenty-two letters of the +Hebrew alphabet in the Sefer Yezirah is typical. Finally, his +teachings of ecstasy and Divine possession are repeated in divers +ways in their descriptions of the pious life <img alt="Hebrew; " +src="images/image91.jpg" width="73" height="18">.</p> +<p>Philo, indeed, viewed from the Jewish standpoint, is the +Hellenizer not only of the law but also of the Cabbalah, the +philosophical adapter of the secret traditional wisdom of his +ancestors. He brings it into close relation with Platonism and +purifies it; he clears away its anthropomorphisms and superstitious +fantasies, or rather he raises them into idealistic conceptions and +sublime exaltations of the soul. By his deep knowledge of the +intellectual ideas of Greece he refined the strange compound of +lofty imagination and popular fancy, and raised it to a higher +value. Plato and the Cabbalah represent the same mystic spirit in +different degrees of intellectual sublimity and religious +aspiration; Philo endeavored to unite the two manifestations. He +lived in a markedly non-rational age given over to mystical +speculation; and Alexandria especially, by her cosmopolitan +character, "furnished the soil and seed which formed the mystic +philosophy that knew how to blend the wisdom and <span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_236" id="page_236">[pg.236]</a></span> +folly of the ages."<a name="FNanchor_341_341" id= +"FNanchor_341_341"></a><a href="#Footnote_341_341">[341]</a> +Through the mass of apocalyptic literature that was poured forth in +the first centuries of the common era, through the later books of +the Apocrypha, through the Sefer Yezirah of the ninth and the Zohar +of the thirteenth century, and through the vast literature inspired +by these books, run the ideas that composed Philo's mystic +theology. Philo himself was unknown, but his religious +interpretation of Platonism had entered into the world's thought, +and inspired the mystics of his own race as well as of the +Christian world.</p> +<p>After a thousand years of Latin domination the Renaissance +revived the study of Greek in Western Europe, and to the most +cultured of his race Philo was no longer a sealed book. The first +Jewish writer to show an intimate acquaintance with him and a clear +idea of his relation to Jewish tradition was Azariah dei Rossi, who +lived in the sixteenth century. His "Meor Einayim" dealt largely +with the Hellenistic epoch of Judaism, and its attitude towards it +is summed up in the remark that "all that is good in Philo agrees +with our law."<a name="FNanchor_342_342" id= +"FNanchor_342_342"></a><a href="#Footnote_342_342">[342]</a> He +pointed out many instances of agreement, and some of disagreement, +but he objected in general to the allegorizing of the historical +parts of the Torah and to the absence of the traditional +interpretations in Philo's commentaries. He shared largely the +rabbinical attitude and could not give an independent historical +appreciation of <span class="newpage"><a name="page_237" id= +"page_237">[pg.237]</a></span> Philo's work. That was not to come +for two hundred years more. To Dei Rossi we owe the Jewish +translation of Philo's name, <img alt="Hebrew; " src= +"images/image92.jpg" width="131" height="13">.<a name= +"FNanchor_343_343" id="FNanchor_343_343"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_343_343">[343]</a> To the outer world Philo was "the +Jew"; to his own people, "the Alexandrian."</p> +<p>As soon as Greek was reintroduced into the scholarly world, +Philo began to reassert an important influence on theology. One +remarkable school of English mystics and religious philosophers, +the Cambridge Platonists, who wrote during the seventeenth century, +founded upon him their method and also their general attitude to +philosophy.<a name="FNanchor_344_344" id= +"FNanchor_344_344"></a><a href="#Footnote_344_344">[344]</a> They +were Christian neo-Platonists, who looked for spiritual allegories +in the Old and New Testaments, and combined the teachings of Jesus +with the emotional idealism of the Alexandrian interpreters of +Plato. They affirmed enthusiastically God's revelation to the +universe and to individual man through the Logos. Their imitation +of Philo's allegorism serves to mark the important place that he +occupied in the learned world during the seventeenth century; and +supports, however slightly, the suggestion that he influenced, +directly or indirectly, the supreme Jewish philosopher of the age, +Baruch de Spinoza. That he was well known in Holland at the time is +shown in divers ways. He is quoted by the famous jurist Grotius in +his book which founded the science of international law; he is +quoted and criticised, as we have seen, by Scaliger; <span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_238" id="page_238">[pg.238]</a></span> and +curiously enough, his name, "Philo-Judæus," is applied by +Rembrandt to the portrait of his own father, now in the +Ferdinandeum at Innsbruck. It is tempting to conjecture that there +was a direct connection between the Jewish philosophers of the +ancient and the modern world. Whether it existed or not, there is +certainly kinship in their ideas. Spinoza does actually refer in +one place, in his "Theologico-Political Tractate" (ch. x), to the +opinion of Philo-Judæus upon the date of Psalm lxxxviii, and +there are other places in the same book, where he almost echoes the +words of the Jewish Platonist; as where he speaks of God's eternal +Word being divinely inscribed in the human mind: "And this is the +true original of God's covenant, stamped with His own seal, namely, +the idea of Himself, as it were, with the image of His Godhead" +(iv); or, again, "The supreme reward for keeping God's Word is that +Word itself." Spinoza knew no Greek, but, master as he was of +Christian theology, he may have studied Philo in a Latin +translation, and caught some of his phrases. With or without +influence, he developed, as Philo had done, a system of philosophy, +starting from the Hebrew conception of God and blending Jewish +tradition with scientific metaphysics. The Unity of God and His +sole reality were the fundamental principles of his thought, as +they had been of Philo's. He rejected, indeed, with scorn the +notion that all philosophy must be deduced from the Bible, which +was to him a book of moral and religious worth, but free from +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_239" id= +"page_239">[pg.239]</a></span> all philosophical doctrine. +Theology, the subject of the Bible, according to him, demands +perfect obedience, philosophy perfect knowledge.<a name= +"FNanchor_345_345" id="FNanchor_345_345"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_345_345">[345]</a> Both alike are saving, but the +spheres of the two are distinct: and Moses and the prophets excel +in law and imagination, not in reason and reflection. Hence Spinoza +approached the Bible from the critical standpoint; and, on the +other hand, he approached philosophy with a free mind searching for +truth, independent of religious dogmatism, and he was, therefore, +the founder of modern philosophy. None the less his view of the +universe is an intellectual expression of the Hebraic monotheism, +which unites a religious with a scientific monism. He regards God +as the only reality, sees and knows all things in Him, and deduces +all things from His attributes, which are the incomplete +representations that man makes of His true nature; he explains all +thought, all movement, and all that seems material as the working +of His modes; and, finally, he places as the end of man's +intellectual progress and the culmination of his moral life the +love of God. In truth, Jewish philosophy has its unity and its +special stamp, no less than Jewish religion and tradition, from +which it receives its nurture. Thrice it has towered up in a great +system: through Philo in the classical, through Maimonides in the +mediæval, through Spinoza in the modern world. In the +Renaissance of Jewish learning during the nineteenth century, +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_240" id= +"page_240">[pg.240]</a></span> Philo was at last studied and +interpreted by scholars of his own people. The first modern writer +to reveal the philosophy of Jewish history was Nachman Krochmal +(1785-1840), and his posthumous Hebrew book, "The Guide of the +Perplexed of the Time," edited by Zunz, contained the first +critical appreciation of the Hellenistic Jewish culture by a +rabbinic scholar. He knew no Greek, but he studied the works of +German writers, and in his account of Philo gives a summary of the +remarks of the theologian Neander, himself a baptized Jew. In his +own criticism he discerns the weakness and strength of Philo from +the Jewish aspect. "There are," he says, "many strange things in +Philo's exegesis, not only because he draws far-fetched allegories +from the text, but also because he interprets single words without +a sure foundation in Hebrew philology. He uses Scripture as a sort +of clay which he moulds to convey his philosophical ideas. Yet we +must be grateful to him because many of his interpretations are +beautiful ornaments to the text; and we may apply to them what Ibn +Ezra said of the teachings of the Haggadah, 'Some of them are fine +silks, others as heavy as sack-cloth.'"</p> +<p>Krochmal translated into Hebrew examples of Philo's allegories +and gave parallels and contrasts from the Talmud. The relation +between the Palestinian and the Alexandrian exegesis was more +elaborately considered by a greater master of Hellenistic +literature, <span class="newpage"><a name="page_241" id= +"page_241">[pg.241]</a></span> Zacharias Frankel (1801-1875), who +has been followed by a band of Jewish scholars. Yearly our +understanding of the Alexandrian culture becomes fuller. Philo, +too, has in part been translated into Hebrew. Indirect in the past, +his influence on Jewish thought in the future bids fair to be +direct and increasing.</p> +<p><span class="newpage"><a name="page_242" id= +"page_242">[pg.242]</a></span></p> +<hr style="width: 65%;"> +<br> +<br> +<br> +<br> +<a name="VIII" id="VIII"></a> +<h2>VIII</h2> +<p>THE INFLUENCE OF PHILO</p> +<br> +<p>The hope which Philo had cherished and worked for was the +spreading of the knowledge of God and the diffusion of the true +religion over the whole world.<a name="FNanchor_346_346" id= +"FNanchor_346_346"></a><a href="#Footnote_346_346">[346]</a> The +end of Jewish national life was approaching, but rabbis in +Palestine and philosophers at Alexandria, unconscious of the +imminent doom, thought that the promise of the prophet was soon to +be fulfilled, and all peoples would go up to worship the one God at +the temple upon Mount Zion, which should be the religious centre of +the world. In Philo's day a universal Judaism seemed possible, a +Judaism true to the Torah as well as to the Unity of God, <a name= +"FNanchor_347_347" id="FNanchor_347_347"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_347_347">[347]</a> spread over the Megalopolis of all +peoples; and in the light of this hope Philo welcomed proselytism. +The Jews had a clear mission; they were to be the light of the +world, because they alone of all peoples had perceived God. Israel +(<img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image09.jpg" width="73" height= +"22">), to repeat Philo's etymology, is the man who beholds God, +and through him the other nations were to be led to the light. The +mission of Israel was not a passive service, but an active +preaching of God's word, and an active propagation of God's law to +the Gentile. He must welcome the stranger <span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_243" id="page_243">[pg.243]</a></span> that +came within the gates.<a name="FNanchor_348_348" id= +"FNanchor_348_348"></a><a href="#Footnote_348_348">[348]</a> Philo +struggled against the separative and exclusive tendency which +characterized a section of his race. He laid stress upon the +valuelessness of birth, and the saving power of God's grace to the +pagan who has come to recognize Him, in language which Christian +commentators call incredible in a Jew, but which was in fact +typical of the common feeling at Alexandria. Appealing to the +Gentiles, Philo declared that "God has special regard for the +proselyte, who is in the class of the weak and humble together with +the widow and orphan<a name="FNanchor_349_349" id= +"FNanchor_349_349"></a><a href="#Footnote_349_349">[349]</a>; for +he may be alienated from his kindred when he is converted to the +honor of the one true God, and abandons idolatrous, polytheistic +worship, but God is all the more his advocate and helper." And +speaking to the Jews he says:<a name="FNanchor_350_350" id= +"FNanchor_350_350"></a><a href="#Footnote_350_350">[350]</a> +"Kinship is not measured by blood alone when truth is the judge, +but by likeness of conduct and by the pursuit of the same objects." +Similarly, in the Midrash, it is said that proselytes are as dear +to God as those who were born Jews;<a name="FNanchor_351_351" id= +"FNanchor_351_351"></a><a href="#Footnote_351_351">[351]</a> and, +again, that the Torah was given to Israel for the benefit of all +peoples;<a name="FNanchor_352_352" id= +"FNanchor_352_352"></a><a href="#Footnote_352_352">[352]</a> +or<a name="FNanchor_353_353" id="FNanchor_353_353"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_353_353">[353]</a> that the purpose of Israel's +dispersion was that they might make proselytes. Philo's short +treatise on "Nobility" is an eloquent <span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_244" id="page_244">[pg.244]</a></span> plea +for the equal treatment of the stranger who joins the true faith; +and the author finds in the Bible narratives support for his +thesis, that not good birth but the virtue of the individual is the +true test of merit. Of the valuelessness of the one, Cain, Ham, and +Esau are types; of the supreme worth of the other, Abraham, who is +set up as the model of the excellent man brought up among +idolaters, but led by the Divine oracle, revealed to his mind, to +embrace the true idea of God. If the founder of the Hebrew nation +was himself a convert, then surely there was a place within the +religion for other converts. Remarkable is the closing note of the +book:</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>"We should, therefore, blame those who spuriously appropriate as +their own merit what they derive from others, good birth; and they +should justly be regarded as enemies not only of the Jewish race, +but of all mankind; of the Jewish race, because they engender +indifference in their brethren, so that they despise the righteous +life in their reliance upon their ancestors' virtue; and of the +Gentiles, because they would not allow them their meed of reward +even though they attain to the highest excellence of conduct, +simply because they have not commendable ancestors. I know not if +there could be a more pernicious doctrine than this: that there is +no punishment for the wicked offspring of good parents, and no +reward for the good offspring of evil parents. The law judges each +man upon his own merit, and does not assign praise or blame +according to the virtues of the forefathers."</p> +</div> +<p>And, again, he writes: "God judges by the fruit of the tree, not +by the root; and in the Divine judgment <span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_245" id="page_245">[pg.245]</a></span> the +proselyte will be raised on high, and he will have a double +distinction, because on earth he 'deserted' to God, and later he +receives as his reward a place in Heaven."<a name= +"FNanchor_354_354" id="FNanchor_354_354"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_354_354">[354]</a></p> +<p>Unfortunately, the development of missionizing activity, which +followed Philo's epoch, threatening, as it did, the fundamental +principles of Judaism, necessitated the reassertion of its national +character and antagonism to an attitude which sought expansion by +compromise. It is the tragedy of Philo's work that his mission to +the nations was of necessity distrusted by his own race, and that +his appeal for tolerance within the community was turned to a +mockery by the hostility which the converts of the next century +showed to the national ideas. Christian apologists early learned to +imitate Philo's allegorical method, and appropriated it to explain +away the laws of Moses. Within a hundred years of Philo's death, +his ideal, at least in the form in which he had conceived it, had +been shattered for ages. While he was preaching a philosophical +Judaism for the world at Alexandria, Peter and Paul were preaching +through the Diaspora an heretical Judaism for the half-converted +Gentiles. The disciples of Jesus spread his teaching far and wide; +but they continually widened the breach which their Master had +himself initiated, and so their work became, not so much a +development of Judaism, as an attack upon it. In some of its +principles, <span class="newpage"><a name="page_246" id= +"page_246">[pg.246]</a></span> indeed, the message of Jesus was the +message of Philo, emphasizing, as it did, the broad principles of +morality and the need of an inner godliness. But it was +fundamentally differentiated by a doctrine of God and the Messiah +which was neither Jewish nor philosophical, and by the breaking +away from the law of Moses, which cut at the roots of national +life. Whatever the moral worth of the preaching of Jesus, it +involved and involves the overthrow of the Jewish attitude to life +and religion, which may be expressed as the sanctification of +ordinary conduct, and as morality under the national law. To this +ideal Philo throughout was true, and the Christian teachers were +essentially opposed, and however much they approximated to his +method and utilized his thought, they were always strangers to his +spirit. Philo's philosophy was in great part a philosophy of the +law; the Patristic school borrowed his allegorizing method and +produced a philosophy of religious dogma! Those who spread the +Christian doctrine among the Hellenized peoples and the +sophisticated communities that dwelt round the Mediterranean found +it necessary to explain and justify it by the metaphysical and +ethical catchwords of the day, and in so doing they took Philo as +their model. They followed both in general and in detail his +allegorical interpretations in their recommendation of the Old +Testament to the more cultured pagans, as the apology of Justin, +the commentaries of Origen, and the philosophical miscellany +(<img alt="Greek: Strômateis" src="images/image93.jpg" width= +"97" height="18">) of Clement abundantly show.</p> +<p><span class="newpage"><a name="page_247" id= +"page_247">[pg.247]</a></span> Certain parts of the New Testament +itself exhibit the combination of Hebraism and Hellenism which +characterizes the work of Philo. In the sayings of Jesus we have +the Hebraic strain, but in Luke and John and the Epistles the +mingling of cultures. Thus the Apostles seem to some the successors +of Philo, and the Epistles the lineal descendants of the +"Allegories of the Laws." In the Fourth Gospel and the Epistle to +the Hebrews especially the correspondence is striking. But there +is, in fact, despite much that is common, a great gulf between +them. The later missionaries oppose the national religion and the +Torah: Philo was pre-eminently their champion.</p> +<p>The most commanding of the Apostles, Paul of Tarsus, when he +took the new statement of Judaism out of the region of spirit and +tried to shape it into a definite religion for the world, "forgot +the rock from which he was hewn." As a modern Jewish theologian +says, <a name="FNanchor_355_355" id="FNanchor_355_355"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_355_355">[355]</a> "His break with the past is violent; +Jesus seemed to expand and spiritualize Judaism; Paul in some +senses turns it upside down." His work may have been necessary to +bring home the Word to the heathen, but it utterly breaks the +continuity of development. Paul himself was little of a +philosopher, and those to whom he preached were not usually +philosophical communities such as Philo addressed at Alexandria, +but congregations of half converted, superstitious pagans. The +philosophical exposition of <span class="newpage"><a name= +"page_248" id="page_248">[pg.248]</a></span> the law was too +difficult for them, while the observance of the law in its +strictness demanded too great a sacrifice. The spiritual teaching +of Jesus was dissociated by his Apostle from its source, and the +break with Judaism was deliberate and complete. The fanatical zest +of the missionary dominated him, and he proclaimed distinctly where +the new Hebraism which was offered to the Gentile should depart +from the historic religion of the Jews: "For Christ is the end of +the law for righteousness to everyone that believeth,"<a name= +"FNanchor_356_356" id="FNanchor_356_356"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_356_356">[356]</a> he says to the Romans; and to the +Galatians: "As many as are of the works of the law are under the +curse."<a name="FNanchor_357_357" id= +"FNanchor_357_357"></a><a href="#Footnote_357_357">[357]</a> +"Christ hath redeemed us from the curse of the law.... But before +faith came, we were kept under the law, shut up with the faith +which should afterwards be revealed. Wherefore the law was our +schoolmaster to bring us unto Christ that we might be justified by +faith. But after that faith is come, we are no longer under a +schoolmaster." Paul's position then—and he is the forerunner +of dogmatic Christianity—involved a rejection of the Torah; +and it is this which above all else constituted his cleavage from +both Judaism and the Philonic presentation of it.</p> +<p>Philo is commonly regarded as the forerunner of Christian +teaching, and it is doubtless true that he suggested to the Church +Fathers parts of their theology, and represented also the +missionary spirit <span class="newpage"><a name="page_249" id= +"page_249">[pg.249]</a></span> which inspired the teaching of some +Apostles. But it must be clearly understood that he shared still +more the spirit of Hillel, whose maxim was "to love thy +fellow-creatures and draw them near to the Torah," and that he +would have been fundamentally opposed to the new missionary +attitude of Paul. The doctrines of the Epistle to the Romans, or +the Epistle to the Ephesians, are absolutely antipathetic to the +ideal of the "Allegories of the Laws." Paul is allied in +spirit—though his expression is that of the fanatic rather +than of the philosopher—to the extreme allegorist section of +philosophical Jews at Alexandria, attacked by Philo for their +shallowness in the famous passage, quoted from <i>De Migratione +Abrahami</i> (ch. 16<a name="FNanchor_358_358" id= +"FNanchor_358_358"></a><a href="#Footnote_358_358">[358]</a>), who, +because they recognized the spiritual meaning of the law, rejected +its literal commands; because they saw that circumcision symbolized +the abandonment of the sensual life, no longer observed the +ceremony. The same antinomian spirit is shown in the Epistle to the +Galatians by the allegory of the children whom Abraham had by Hagar +the bondwoman and Sarah the free wife: "For there are the two +covenants, the one from the mount of Sinai which gendereth to +bondage, which is Hagar.... But we, brethren, as Isaac was, are the +children of promise." To Philo the law and the observance of the +letter were the high-road to freedom and the Divine spirit, and, +remaining loyal to the Jewish conception of religion, for all his +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_250" id= +"page_250">[pg.250]</a></span> philosophical outlook, he said: "The +rejection of the <img alt="Greek: Nomos" src="images/image94.jpg" +width="52" height="15"> will produce chaos in our lives." To Paul +the law was an obstacle to the spread of religious truth and a +fetter to the spiritual life of the individual.</p> +<p>It is possible that an extremist section of the Jews pressed the +letter of the law to excess, so as to lose its spirit, but the +opposite excess, into which Paul plunged the new faith, was as +narrow. It involved a glorification of belief, which did not imply +any relation to conduct. Philo had pleaded no less earnestly than +the Apostle for the reliance upon grace and the saving virtue of +faith, but he did not therefore absolve men from the law which made +for righteousness.<a name="FNanchor_359_359" id= +"FNanchor_359_359"></a><a href="#Footnote_359_359">[359]</a> And +lest it be thought that the stress laid upon faith was peculiar to +Hellenizing Judaism, we have only to note such passages as Dr. +Schechter has adduced from the early Midrash on the rabbinic +conception.<a name="FNanchor_360_360" id= +"FNanchor_360_360"></a><a href="#Footnote_360_360">[360]</a> "Great +was the merit of faith which Israel put in God; for it was by the +merit of this faith that the Holy Spirit came over them, and they +said the <img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image95.jpg" width="45" +height="18">, (<i>i.e.</i>, the Song of Moses) to God, as it is +said, 'And they believed in the Lord and His servant Moses. Then +sang Moses and the children of Israel this song unto the Lord.'" Or +again<a name="FNanchor_361_361" id="FNanchor_361_361"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_361_361">[361]</a>—and the passage reminds us +still more strongly of both Philo and Christian Gospel—"Our +Father Abraham came <span class="newpage"><a name="page_251" id= +"page_251">[pg.251]</a></span> into the possession of this world +and the world hereafter only by the merit of his faith."</p> +<p>What is new in the Christian position is not the magnifying of +faith; it is the severance of faith from the law and the particular +faith which is magnified. Philo, and the rabbis, too, believed that +faith was the goal of virtue, and the culmination of the moral +life; but faith to them implied the sanctification of the whole of +life, the love of God "shown in obedience to a law of conduct." +Paul, however, hating the law, set up a new faith in the saving +power of Jesus and in certain beliefs about him, which afterwards +were crystallized, or petrified, into merciless dogmas, contrary +alike to the Jewish ideas of God and of life. The new religion, +when it was denationalized, inevitably became ecclesiastical: for +as the national regulation of life was rejected, in order to ensure +some kind of uniformity, it had to bind its members together by +definite articles of belief imposed by a central authority. The +true alternative was not between a legal and a spiritual +religion—for every religion must have some external +rule—but between a law of conduct and a law of belief. Philo +and the rabbis chose the former way; Paul and the Church, the +latter. Christian theology, no less than the Christian conception +of religion, exhibits also a complete breach with the Jewish spirit +of Philo. In the Epistles there are, indeed, in many places +doctrines of the Logos in the same images and the same Hebraic +metaphors as Philo had worked into his system; but their purport +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_252" id= +"page_252">[pg.252]</a></span> is entirely changed by association +with new un-Jewish dogmas. Philo, allegorizing, <a name= +"FNanchor_362_362" id="FNanchor_362_362"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_362_362">[362]</a> had seen the holy Word typified in +the high priest, and in Melchizedek, the priest of the Most High; +he had called it the son of God and His first-born. Paul, +dogmatizing, exalts Jesus Christ, the incarnate Word, above +Melchizedek and the high priest, and calls on the Hebrews to gain +salvation by faith in the son of God, who died on behalf of the +sinful human race. Philo, in his poetic fancy, speaks of God +associating with the virgin soul and generating therein the Divine +offspring of holy wisdom;<a name="FNanchor_363_363" id= +"FNanchor_363_363"></a><a href="#Footnote_363_363">[363]</a> the +Christian creed-makers enunciated the irrational dogma of the +immaculate conception of Jesus. So, too, the earliest philosophical +exponents of Christianity, Clement of Alexandria, and Origen, may +have derived many of their detailed ideas from Philo, but they +converted—one might rather say perverted—his +monotheistic theology into a dogmatic trinitarianism. They exalted +the Logos, to Philo the "God of the imperfect," and a second-best +Deity, to an equal place with the perfect God. For man, indeed, he +was nearer and the true object of human adoration. And this not +only meant a departure from Judaism; it meant a departure from +philosophy. The supreme unity of the pure reason was sacrificed no +less than the unity of the soaring religious imagination. The one +transcendental God <span class="newpage"><a name="page_253" id= +"page_253">[pg.253]</a></span> became again, as He had been to the +Greek theologians, an inscrutable impersonal power, who was unknown +to man and ruled over the universe by His begotten son, the Logos. +The sublimity of the Hebrew conception, which combines personality +with unity, was lost, and the harmony of the intellectual and +emotional aspirations achieved by Philo was broken straightway by +those who professed to follow him. The skeleton of his thought was +clothed with a body wherein his spirit could never have dwelt. It +was the penalty which Philo paid for vagueness of expression and +luxuriance of words that his works became the support of doctrines +which he had combated, the guide of those who were opposed to his +life's ideal.</p> +<p>The experience of the Church showed how right was Philo's +judgment when he declared that the rejection of the Torah would +produce chaos. The fourth and fifth centuries exhibit an era of +unparalleled disorder and confusion in the religious world, +<a name="FNanchor_364_364" id="FNanchor_364_364"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_364_364">[364]</a> sect struggling with sect, creed with +creed, churches rising and falling, dogmas set up by councils and +forced upon men's souls at the point of the Roman sword! And out of +this struggling mass of beliefs and fancies, theologies and +superstitions, sects and political forces, there arose a +tyrannical, dogmatic Church which laid far heavier burthens on +men's minds than ever the most ruthless Pharisee of the +theologian's <span class="newpage"><a name="page_254" id= +"page_254">[pg.254]</a></span> imagination had laid upon their body +and spirit. The yoke of the law of Moses, sanctifying the life, had +been broken; the fiat of popes and the decrees of synods were the +saving beliefs which ensured the Kingdom of Heaven! Was it to this +that the allegorizing of the law, the search for the spirit beneath +the letter, the reinterpretation of the holy law of Moses in the +light of philosophical reason, had brought Judaism? And was the +association of Jewish religion with Greek philosophy one long +error? That would be a hard conclusion, if we had to admit that +Judaism cannot stand the test of contact with foreign culture. But +in truth the Hellenistic interpretation of the Bible, so long as it +was genuinely philosophical, remained loyal to Judaism. Only when +it became hardened into dogma, fixed not only as good doctrine, but +as the only saving doctrine, as the tree of life opposed to the +Torah, the tree of death—only then did it become anti-Jewish, +and appear as a bastard offspring of the Hebraic God-idea and Greek +culture. Nor should it be forgotten that the Christian theology and +the Christian conception of religion are a falling away also from +the highest Hellenic ideas; for to Plato as well God was a purely +spiritual unity, and religion "a system of morality based upon a +law of conduct and touched with emotion." In Philo, as we have +seen, the Hebraic and Hellenic conceptions of God touch at their +summits in their noblest expressions; the conceptions of Plato are +interfused with the imagination of the prophets. The Christian +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_255" id= +"page_255">[pg.255]</a></span> theology was a descent to a commoner +Hellenism—or one should rather call it a commoner +syncretism—as well as to an easier, impurer Hebraism.</p> +<p>It must not be put down to the fault of the Septuagint or the +allegorists or Philo that the Alexandrian development of Judaism +led on to Roman Christianity. It is to be ascribed rather to the +infirmity of human nature, which requires the ideas of its inspired +teachers and peoples to be brought down to the common +understanding, and causes the progress towards universal religion +to be a slow growth. The masses of the Alexandrian Jews in his own +day cannot have grasped his teaching; for Philo, to some degree, +lived in a narrow world of philosophical idealism, and he did not +calculate the forces which opposed and made impossible the spread +of his faith in its integrity. He was aiming at what was and must +for long remain unattainable—the establishment among the +peoples of philosophical monotheism.</p> +<p>No man is a prophet in his own land—or in his own +time—and because Philo has in him much of the prophet, he +seems to have failed. But it is the burden of our mission to sow in +tears that we may reap in joy. And the work of the +Alexandrian-Jewish school may be sad from one aspect of Jewish +history, but it is nevertheless one of the dominating incidents of +our religious annals. It did not succeed in bringing over the world +to the pure idea of God, but it did help in undermining cruder +paganism. It brought the nations nearer to God, and it introduced +Hebraism into the <span class="newpage"><a name="page_256" id= +"page_256">[pg.256]</a></span> thought of the Western peoples. It +marked, therefore, a great step in the religious work of Israel; +yet by the schools of rabbis who felt the hard hand of its +offspring upon their people it was regarded as a long misfortune, +to be blotted from memory. What seemed so ominous to them was that +the annihilation of the nation came at the same time as the +cleavage in the religion. Judaism seemed attacked no less by +internal foes than by external calamity; and was likely to perish +altogether or to drift into a lower conception of God, unless it +could find some stalwart defence. Hence they insisted on the +extension of the fence of the law, and abandoned for centuries the +mission of the Jews to the outer world. This was the true Galut, or +exile; not so much the political exclusion from the land of their +fathers, but the enforced exclusion from the mission of the +prophets. Philo is one of the brightest figures of a golden age of +Jewish expansion, which passed away of a sudden, and has never +since returned. In the silver and bronze ages which followed, his +place in Judaism was obscured. But this age of ours, which boasts +of its historical sense, looking back over the centuries and freed +from the bitter dismay of the rabbis, can appraise his true worth +and see in him one who realized for himself all that Judaism and +Jewish culture could and still can be.</p> +<p>Some Jewish teachers have thought that Philo's work was a +failure, others that it provides a warning rather than an example +for later generations of Jews, <span class="newpage"><a name= +"page_257" id="page_257">[pg.257]</a></span> proving the mischief +of expanding Judaism for the world. As well one might say that +Isaiah's prophecy was a calamity, because the Christian synoptics +used his words as evidences of Christianity. What is universal in +Jewish literature is in the fullest sense Jewish, and we should +beware of renouncing our inheritance because others have abused and +perverted it. Other critics, again, say that Philo is wearisome and +prolix, artificial and sophisticated. There is certainly some truth +in this judgment; but Philo has many beautiful passages which +compensate. Part of his message was for his own generation and the +Alexandrian community, and with the passing away of the Hellenistic +culture, it has lost its attraction. But part of it is of universal +import, and is very pertinent and significant for every generation +of Jews which, enjoying social and intellectual emancipation, lives +amid a foreign culture. Doubtless the position of Philo and the +Alexandrian community was to some extent different from that of the +Jews at any time since the greater Diaspora that followed the +destruction of the temple. They had behind them a national culture +and a centre of Jewish life, religious and social, which was a +powerful influence in civilization and united the Jews in every +land. And this gave a catholicity to their development and a +standard for their teaching which the scattered communities of Jews +to-day do not possess. None the less Philo's ideal of Judaism as +religion and life is an ideal for our time and for all time. Its +keynote is that Israel <span class="newpage"><a name="page_258" id= +"page_258">[pg.258]</a></span> is a holy people, a kingdom of +priests, which has a special function for humanity. And the +performance of this function demands the religious-philosophical +ordering of life. From the negative side Philo stands for the +struggle against Epicureanism, which in other words is the devotion +to material pleasures and sensual enjoyments. In adversity, as he +notes, the race is truest to its ideals, but as soon as the breeze +of prosperity has caught its sails, then it throws overboard all +that ennobles life. The hedonist whom he attacks, like the Epicuros +<img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image96.jpg" width="85" height= +"19"> of the rabbis, is not the banal thinker of one particular +age, but a permanent type in the history of our people. We seem to +spend nearly all our moral strength in the resistance of +persecution, and with tranquillity from without comes degradation +within. Emancipation, which should be but a means to the +realization of the higher life, is taken as an end, and becomes the +grave of idealism. With a reiteration that becomes almost +wearisome, but which is the measure of the need for the warning, +Philo protests against this desecration of life, of liberty, and of +Judaism. His position is, that a free and cultured Jewry must +pursue the mission of Israel alike by the example of the righteous +life devoted to the service of God, and by the preaching of God's +revealed word. This is his "burden of the word of the Lord" to the +worldly-wise and the materialists of civilized Alexandria—and +to Jews of other lands.</p> +<p>From the positive side Philo stands for the spiritual +significance of the religion. Judaism, which <span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_259" id="page_259">[pg.259]</a></span> lays +stress upon the law, the ceremonial, and the customs of our +forefathers, is threatened at times with the neglect of the inward +religion and the hardness of legalism. Not that the law, when it is +understood, kills the spirit or fetters the feelings, but a formal +observance and an unenlightened insistence upon the letter may +crush the soul which good habits should nurture. Religion at its +highest must be the expression of the individual soul within, not +the acceptance of a law from without. Although Philo's estimate of +the Torah is from the historical and philological standpoint +uncritical, in the religious sense it is finely critical inasmuch +as it searches out true values. Philo looks in every ordinance of +the Bible for the spiritual light and conceives the law as an +inspiration of spiritual truth and the guide to God, or, as he puts +it sometimes, "the mystagogue to divine ecstasy." For the crown of +life to him is the saint's union with God. In mysticism religion +and philosophy blend, for mysticism is the philosophical form of +faith. Just as the Torah to Philo has an outward and an inward +meaning, so, too, has the religion of the Torah; and the outward +Judaism is the symbol, the necessary bodily expression of the +inward, even as the words of Moses are the symbol, the suggestive +expression of the deeper truth behind them. Yet mystic and +spiritual as he is, Philo never allows religion to sink into mere +spirituality, because he has a true appreciation and a real love +for the law. The Torah is the foundation of Judaism, and one of the +three pillars of the universe, <span class="newpage"><a name= +"page_260" id="page_260">[pg.260]</a></span> as the rabbis said; +and neither the philosopher nor the mystic in Philo ever causes him +to forget that Judaism is a religion of conduct as well as of +belief, and that the law of righteousness is a law which must be +practiced and show itself in active life. He holds fast, moreover, +to the catholicity of Judaism, which restrains the individual from +abrogating observance till the united conscience of the race calls +for it; unless progress comes in this ordered way, the reformer +will produce chaos.</p> +<p>Philo is conservative then in practice, but he is pre-eminently +liberal in thought. The perfect example himself of the assimilation +of outside culture, he demands that Judaism shall always seek out +the fullest knowledge, and in the light of the broadest culture of +the age constantly reinterpret its religious ideas and its holy +books. Above all it must be philosophical, for philosophy is "the +breath and finer spirit of all knowledge," and it vivifies the +knowledge of God as well as the knowledge of human things. Without +it religion becomes bigoted, faith obscurantist, and ceremony +superstitious. But the Jew does not merely borrow ideas or accept +his philosophy ready-made from his environment; he interprets it +afresh according to his peculiar God-idea and his conception of +God's relation to man, and thereby makes it a genuine Jewish +philosophy, forming in each age a special Jewish culture. And as +religion without philosophy is narrow, so, to Philo, philosophy +without religion is barren; remote from the true life, and failing +in <span class="newpage"><a name="page_261" id= +"page_261">[pg.261]</a></span> the true purpose of the search for +wisdom, which is to raise man to his highest function. Philosophy, +then, is not the enemy of the Torah: it is its true complement, +endowing it with a deeper meaning and a profounder influence. Thus +the saying runs in the "Ethics of the Fathers,"</p> +<p><img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image97.jpg" width="394" height= +"15"></p> +<p>"If there is no Torah, there is no wisdom; if there is no +wisdom, there is no Torah." The thought that study of the law is +essential to Judaism Philo shares with the rabbis, and the Torah is +in his eyes Israel's great heritage, not only her literature but +her life. As Saadia said later, <a name="FNanchor_365_365" id= +"FNanchor_365_365"></a><a href="#Footnote_365_365">[365]</a> "This +nation is only a nation by reason of its Torah." It is because +Philo starts from this conviction that his mission is so striking, +and its results so tragical. The Judaism which he preached to the +pagan world was no food for the soul with the strength taken out to +render it more easily assimilated. He emphasizes its spiritual +import, he shows its harmony, as the age demanded, with the +philosophical and ethical conceptions of the time, but he +steadfastly holds aloft, as the standard of humanity, the law of +Moses. The reign of "one God and one law" seemed to him not a +far-off Divine event, but something near, which every good Jew +could bring nearer. He was oppressed by no craven fear of Jewish +distinctiveness; and the Biblical saying that Israel was a chosen +people <span class="newpage"><a name="page_262" id= +"page_262">[pg.262]</a></span> was real to him and moved him to +action. It meant that Israel was essentially a religious nation, +nearer God, and possessed of the Divine law of life, and that it +had received the Divine bidding to spread the truth about God to +all the world. It was a creed, and more, it was an inspiration +which constantly impelled to effort. It would be difficult to sum +up Philo's message to his people better than by the verses in +Deuteronomy which he, the interpreter of God's Word and the +successor of Moses, as he loved to consider himself, proclaims +afresh to his own age, and beyond it to the congregation of Jacob +in all ages, "Keep therefore my commandments and do them; for this +is your wisdom and your understanding in the sight of the nations, +which shall hear all these statutes, and say, Surely this great +nation is a wise and understanding people.</p> +<p>"For what nation is there so great, who hath God so nigh unto +them, as the Lord our God is in all things that we call upon Him +for?</p> +<p>"And what nation is there so great that hath statutes and +judgments so righteous as all this law, which I set before you this +day?" (Deut. iv. 5-7).</p> +<br> +<br> +<br> +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_263" id= +"page_263">[pg.263]</a></span> +<h3>BIBLIOGRAPHY</h3> +<p>The following are the chief works which have been consulted and +are recommended to the student of Philo:</p> +<p>The standard edition of Philo is still that of Thomas Mangey, +<i>Philonis Judæi opera quæ reperiri potuerunt +omnia.</i> 1742. Londini.</p> +<p>A far more accurate and critical edition, which is provided with +introductory essays and notes upon the sources of Philo, is in +course of publication for the Berlin Academy, by Dr. Leopold Cohn +and Dr. Paul Wendland. The first five volumes have already +appeared, and the remainder may be expected before long. The only +complete edition which contains the Latin text of the +<i>Quaestiones</i> as well as the Greek works is that published by +Tauchnitz in eight volumes; but the text is not reliable.</p> +<p>There is an English translation of Philo's works in the Bohn +Library (G. Bell & Sons) by C.D. Yonge (4 vols.), but it is +neither accurate nor neat. The same may he said of the German +translation of Jost, but an admirable German version edited by Dr. +L. Cohn is now appearing, which contains notes of the parallel +passages in rabbinic and patristic literature.</p> +<pre> +Works bearing on Philo and his period generally: + + Schürer, "History of the Jewish People at the Time + of Jesus Christ" (English translation). + + Siegfried, <i>Philo von Alexandrien als Ausleger der + heiligen Schrift</i>. + + Zeller, <i>Geschiehte der Philosophie der Griechen</i>, + vol. III, sec. 2. + + Drummond, "Philo-Judæus and the Jewish Alexandrian + School." 2 vols. (London.) + + Herriot, <i>Philon le Juif</i>. + + Vacherot, <i>école d'Alexandrie</i>, vol. I. + + Eusebius, <i>Præparatio Evangelica</i>, ed. Gifford. + + Freudenthal, J., <i>Hellenistische Studien</i>. + + Harnack, "History of Dogma," vol. I. + + Josephus, "Wars of the Jews"; "Antiquities of the Jews." + + Mommsen, Th., "The Roman Provinces." + +Works bearing on the special subjects of the different +chapters: + + I. THE JEWISH COMMUNITY AT ALEXANDRIA + Graetz, "History of the Jews" (Eng. trans.), vol. II. + Swete, "introduction to the Septuagint." + Hirsch, S.A., "The Temple of Onias," in the + Jews' College Jubilee Volume. + Friedländer, M. (Vienna), <i>Geschichte der jüdischen + Apologetitc</i> and <i>Religiöse Bewegungen + der Juden irn Zeitalter von Jesus.</i> + + II. THE LIFE AND TIMES OF PHILO + Conybeare, edition of <i>De Vita Contemplativa</i>. (Oxford.) + Hils, <i>Les juifs en Rome. Revue des Etudes + Juives</i>, vols. 8 and 11. + Reinach, Théodor, <i>Textes d'auteurs grecs et romains + rélatifs au Judaisme</i>. + Bréhier et Massebieau, <i>Essai sur la chronologie + de Philon. Revue de l'Histoire des Religions, </i> 1906. + + III. PHILO'S WORKS AND METHOD + Hart, J.H.A., "Philo of Alexandria," Jewish + Quarterly Review, vols. XVII and XVIII. + Massebieau, <i>Du classement des oeuvres de Philon</i>. + Cohn, Leopold, <i>Einteilung und Chronologie der + Schriften Philon</i>. + + IV. PHILO AND THE TORAH + Treitel, L., <i>Der Nomos in Philon. Monatsschrift + für Geschichte und Wissenschaft des Judenthums</i>, 1905. + + V. PHILO'S THEOLOGY + Montefiore, C., <i>Florilegium Philonis</i>, Jewish + Quarterly Review, vol. VIII. + Caird, Ed., "Evolution of Theology in the + Greek Philosophers." + Heinze, <i>Die Lefire vom Logos</i>, + Bucher, <i>Philonische Studien</i>. + Von Arnim, <i>Philonische Studien.</i> + + VI. PHILO AS A PHILOSOPHER + Freudenthal, Max, <i>Die Erkenntnisstheorie von Philo.</i> + Bigg, "The Christian neo-Platonists of Alexandria." + Bussell, "The School of Plato." + Stewart, J.A., "The Myths of Plato." + Cuyot, H., <i>Les reminiscences de Philon chez Plotin</i>. 1906. + Neumark, <i>Geschichte der jildischen Philosophie + des Mittelalters</i>. + + + VII. PHILO AND JEWISH TRADITION + Schechter, "Aspects of Rabbinic Theology." + Taylor, "Ethics of the Fathers." + Ritter, Bernhard, <i>Philo und die Halacha</i>. Breslau, 1879. + Dei Rossi, "Meor Einayim," ed. Cassel. + Krochmal, "Moreh Nebuchei Hazeman," ed. Zunz. + Frankel, Z., <i>Ueber den Einfluss der palästinensischen + Exegese auf die alexandrinische Hermeneutik</i>. + Epstein, <i>Le livre des Jubilis, Philon et le Midrasch + Tadsché</i>, Revue des Etudes Juives, XXI. + Ginzberg, L., "Allegorical Interpretation," in + Jewish Encyclopedia. + Joel, M., <i>Blicke in die Religionsgeschichte</i>. + Treitel, L., <i>Agadah bei Philo. Monatsschrift + für Geschichte und Wissenschaft des Judenthums</i>, 1909. + + +</pre> +<br> +<br> +<br> +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_266" id= +"page_266">[pg.266]</a></span> +<h3>ABBREVIATIONS USED FOR THE REFERENCES</h3> +<p>The references to Philo's works are made according to the +chapters in Conn and Wendland's edition, so far as it has appeared. +In referring to the works which they have not edited, I have used +the pages of Mangey'a edition; but I have frequently mentioned the +name of the treatise in which the passage occurs, as well as the +page-number.</p> +<p>I have employed the following abbreviations in the +references:</p> +<br> +<pre> +L.A. I-III Legum Allegoriae. + +De Mundi Op. De Mundi Opificio. + +De Sacrif. De Sacrifices Abelis. + +Quod Det. Quod Deterius Potiori Insidiatur. + +De Post. C. De Posteritate Caini. + +De Gigant. De Gigantibus. + +Quod Deus Quod Deus Sit Immutabilis. + +De Agric. De Agricultura. + +De Plant. De Plantatione. + +De Ebr. De Ebrietate. + +De Confus. De Confusione Linguarum. + +De Migr. De Migratione Abrahami. + +Quis Rer. Div. Quis Rerum Divinarum Heres. + +De Cong. De Congressu Eruditorum Causa. + +De Fuga De Fuga et Inventione. + +De Mut. Nom. De Mutatione Nominum. + +De Somn. De Somniis. + +De Abr. De Vita Abrahami. + +De Jos. De Vita Josephi. + +De V. Mos. De Vita Mosis. + +De Mon. De Monarchia. + +De Spec. Leg. De Specialibus Legibus. + +De Sac. De Sacerdotum Honoribus et de Victimis. + +De Leg. De Legatione ad Gaium. + +In Flacc. In Flaccum. + +De Decal. De Decalogo. + +De Septen. De Septenario. + +De Concupisc. De Concupiscentia. + +De Just. De Justitia. + +De Exsecr. De Exsecrationibus. + +Ant. Josephus: Antiquities of the Jews, tr. by Whiston. + +Bell. Jud. Wars of the Jews. + +C. Apion. Contra Apionem. + +Hist. Ecclesiast. Eusebius: Historia Ecclesiastica. + +Praep. Evang. Eusebius: Praeparatio Evangelica. + +Photius, Cod. Photius: Codex. +</pre> +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_269" id= +"page_269">[pg.269]</a></span> +<h3>INDEX</h3> +<ul> +<li>Abraham (<i>see</i> Lives of Abraham and Joseph), <a href= +"#page_83">83</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">model of the excellent man, <a href= +"#page_244">244</a>.</li> +<li>Agrippa (King), Philo's life covers reign of, <a href= +"#page_45">45</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">Philo in Jerusalem during reign of, <a href= +"#page_50">50</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">arrives at Alexandria, <a href= +"#page_65">65</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">advanced to Kingdom of Judea, <a href= +"#page_69">69</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">intercedes at Rome for his people, <a href= +"#page_69">69</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">death of, <a href="#page_70">70</a>.</li> +<li>Alexander (the Great), a notable figure in Talmud, <a href= +"#page_13">13</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">settles Jews in Greek colonies, <a href= +"#page_14">14</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">result of his work <a href= +"#page_23">23</a>.</li> +<li>Alexander Lysimachus, Alabarch of Delta region, <a href= +"#page_46">46</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">guardian of Antony's daughter, <a href= +"#page_46">46</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">restored to honor after imprisonment, <a href= +"#page_70">70</a>.</li> +<li>Alexandria, Jewish community at (<i>see</i> Jewish), <a href= +"#page_13">13</a> ff., <a href="#page_41">41</a>, <a href= +"#page_42">42</a> f.;</li> +<li class="indent">Jewish population of, under Ptolemy I, <a href= +"#page_15">15</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">meeting-place of civilizations, <a href= +"#page_14">14</a>, <a href="#page_48">48</a>, <a href= +"#page_95">95</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">centre of Jewish life, <a href= +"#page_15">15</a>, <a href="#page_129">129</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">two sections occupied by Jews, <a href= +"#page_16">16</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">prosperity of Jews in, <a href= +"#page_21">21</a>, <a href="#page_22">22</a>, <a href= +"#page_32">32</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">anti-Semitic literature and influences in, +<a href="#page_22">22</a>, <a href="#page_62">62</a>, <a href= +"#page_67">67</a>, <a href="#page_74">74</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">Jewish tradition at, <a href= +"#page_27">27</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">synagogues at, <a href="#page_37">37</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">deputation to Jerusalem from, <a href= +"#page_41">41</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">rabbis flee to, <a href="#page_42">42</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">Agrippa finds a refuge at, <a href= +"#page_51">51</a>, <a href="#page_65">65</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">mystical and ascetic ideas of people at, +<a href="#page_55"></a>, <a href="#page_59">59</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">philosophical schools at, <a href= +"#page_63">63</a>, <a href="#page_90">90</a>, <a href= +"#page_92">92</a>, <a href="#page_94">94</a>, <a href= +"#page_140">140</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">development of Judaism in, <a href= +"#page_77">77</a>, <a href="#page_255">255</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">Egyptian caste-system adopted at, <a href= +"#page_16">16</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">Jews of, popularize teachings of Bible, <a href= +"#page_34">34</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">Jews of, referred to, in Talmud, <a href= +"#page_42">42</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">Philo forced into Sanhedrin of, <a href= +"#page_61">61</a>, <a href="#page_202">202</a>, <a href= +"#page_203">203</a> f.;</li> +<li class="indent">Philo member of, <a href="#page_61">61</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">disintegration of community at, <a href= +"#page_71">71</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">Zealots flee to, on fall of Jerusalem, <a href= +"#page_71">71</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">replaced by Babylon as centre of Jewish +intellect, <a href="#page_73">73</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">Samaritans in, <a href="#page_106">106</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">antinomian movement in, <a href= +"#page_130">130</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">prototypes of Christian belief at, <a href= +"#page_155">155</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">Pythagorean influence at, <a href= +"#page_188">188</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">national life and culture undermined at +(<i>see</i> National), <a href="#page_218">218</a>.</li> +<li>Alexandrian, exegesis, characteristic of, <a href= +"#page_36">36</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">church, departs from Jewish standpoint, <a href= +"#page_72">72</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">Platonists, connection between Philo and later +school of, <a href="#page_192">192</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">schools, relation of, to Palestinian, <a href= +"#page_199">199</a> f., <a href="#page_213">213</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">literature in the Dark and Middle Ages, <a href= +"#page_225">225</a> f.</li> +<li><i>Allegories of the Laws</i>, an allegorical commentary, +<a href="#page_74">74</a>, <a href="#page_87">87</a> f.;</li> +<li class="indent">attacks Stoic doctrines, <a href= +"#page_94">94</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">the <i>Epistles</i>, lineal descendants of, +<a href="#page_247">247</a>.</li> +<li>Angels, doctrine of, in Palestine, <a href= +"#page_140">140</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">Philo's treatment of, <a href= +"#page_150">150-1</a>.</li> +<li>Antiochus Epiphanes, Palestine passes to, <a href= +"#page_17">17</a>.</li> +<li>Anti-Semitic, party, Flaccus won over by, <a href= +"#page_65">65</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">literature and influences in Alexandria, +<a href="#page_22">22</a>, <a href="#page_62">62</a>, <a href= +"#page_67">67</a>, <a href="#page_74">74</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">party, punishment of, at Rome, <a href= +"#page_70">70</a>.</li> +<li>Apion, a Stoic leader, <a href="#page_63">63</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">accuses Jews, <a href="#page_63">63</a>, +<a href="#page_67">67</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">Philo's references to, <a href= +"#page_63">63</a>, <a href="#page_101">101</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">Josephus' reply to, <a href= +"#page_65">65</a>.</li> +<li>Aquila, new Greek version of Old Testament made by, <a href= +"#page_224">224</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">rabbis' views of, <a href= +"#page_224">224</a>.</li> +<li>Aristeas, spirit of, glorified in Philo, <a href= +"#page_77">77</a>.</li> +<li>Aristobulus, first allegorist of Alexandria, <a href= +"#page_38">38</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">his spirit inherited by Philo, <a href= +"#page_77">77</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">on wisdom, <a href="#page_143">143</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">on the Word of God, <a href= +"#page_146">146</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">difference between Philo and, <a href= +"#page_168">168</a>.</li> +<li>Artapanus, Jewish apologist, <a href="#page_77">77</a>.</li> +<li>Assouan, Aramaic papyri at, <a href="#page_15">15</a>.</li> +</ul> +<ul> +<li>Babylon, replaces Alexandria as centre of Jewish intellect, +<a href="#page_73">73</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">Greek culture forgotten in, <a href= +"#page_224">224</a>.</li> +<li>Bible, the, Philo's interpretation</li> +<li class="indent">and views on, <a href="#page_49">49</a>, +<a href="#page_102">102</a>, <a href="#page_108">108</a> ff.;</li> +<li class="indent">Philo reveals spiritual message of, <a href= +"#page_83">83</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">authority of, challenged at Alexandria, <a href= +"#page_92">92</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">wisdom personified in, <a href= +"#page_141">141</a>, <a href="#page_142">142</a>.</li> +</ul> +<ul> +<li>Cabbalah, the, Essenes practitioners in, <a href= +"#page_233">233</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">Philo as the Hellenizer of, <a href= +"#page_235">235</a>.</li> +<li>Caligula. <i>See</i> Gaius.</li> +<li>Chaldean, thought, Philo's acquaintance with, <a href= +"#page_48">48</a>.</li> +<li>Christian, monastic communities, <a href= +"#page_73">73</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">heresy, a severance from main community, +<a href="#page_72">72</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">theologians, fail to realize spirit of Philo, +<a href="#page_124">124</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">reformers, and the yoke of the law, <a href= +"#page_130">130</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">teachers preserve Philo's works, <a href= +"#page_156">156</a>, <a href="#page_248"></a>;</li> +<li class="indent">writers quote Philo, <a href= +"#page_223">223</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">apologists imitate allegorical method, <a href= +"#page_245">245</a>.</li> +<li>Christianity, the movement towards, <a href= +"#page_28">28</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">rise of, <a href="#page_42">42</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">conflict with Judaism at Alexandria, <a href= +"#page_72">72</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">Philo's writings regarded as testimony to, +<a href="#page_156">156</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">Philo's influence over religious philosophy of, +<a href="#page_195">195</a>.</li> +<li>Conversion to Judaism, in Egypt and Rome, <a href= +"#page_32">32</a>.</li> +<li><i>Courage</i>, tractate appended to <i>Life of Moses</i>, +<a href="#page_75">75</a>.</li> +<li><i>Creation of the World</i>, description of, <a href= +"#page_83">83</a>.</li> +<li>Croiset, criticism of Philo by, <a href="#page_90">90</a>.</li> +</ul> +<ul> +<li><i>Decalogue, The</i>, contents of, <a href= +"#page_83">83</a>.</li> +<li>Derash, Philo a master of, <a href="#page_103">103</a>.</li> +<li><i>Dreams of the Bible</i>, classed with Allegories of the +Laws, <a href="#page_74">74</a>.</li> +<li>Dubnow, on Alexandrian Judaism, <a href= +"#page_129">129</a>.</li> +</ul> +<ul> +<li>Egypt, Alexander's march to, <a href="#page_14">14</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">settlement of Jews in, <a href= +"#page_14">14</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">connection between Israel and, <a href= +"#page_14">14</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">visited by Plato, <a href="#page_15">15</a>, +<a href="#page_172">172</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">Diaspora in, after Jeremiah, <a href= +"#page_15">15</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">a favored home of the Jews, <a href= +"#page_21">21</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">conversion widespread in (<i>see</i> Rome), +<a href="#page_32">32</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">Flaccus, governor of, <a href= +"#page_65">65</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">Jews of, under same rule as Palestine Jews, +<a href="#page_15">15</a>.</li> +<li>Egyptian, populace, Philo on, <a href="#page_62">62</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">thought, Philo's acquaintance with, <a href= +"#page_48">48</a>.</li> +<li><i>Epistles</i>, the Pauline, lineal descendants of Allegories +of the Laws, <a href="#page_247">247</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">doctrines of the Logos in, <a href= +"#page_250">250</a>.</li> +<li>Essenes, rise of, <a href="#page_34">34</a>, <a href= +"#page_54">54</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">account of, in Philo's works, <a href= +"#page_78">78</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">type of the philosophical life, <a href= +"#page_79">79</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">practitioners in the Cabbalah, <a href= +"#page_233">233</a>.</li> +</ul> +<ul> +<li>Flaccus, won over by Anti-Semites, <a href= +"#page_65">65</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">indifference of, to attacks of Jews, <a href= +"#page_66">66</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">recall of, <a href="#page_66">66</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">Philo on the persecutions of, <a href= +"#page_78">78</a>.</li> +<li>Frankel Z., writes on Alexandrian-Jewish culture, <a href= +"#page_241">241</a>.</li> +</ul> +<ul> +<li>Gaius (Roman Emperor), comes to the imperial chair, <a href= +"#page_65">65</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">Jews appeal directly to, <a href= +"#page_66">66</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">receives Jewish deputation, <a href= +"#page_67">67</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">death of, <a href="#page_69">69</a>.</li> +<li>Greek philosophers, Philo's relation to, <a href= +"#page_48"></a>, <a href="#page_52">52</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">philosophy, Philo's influence on, <a href= +"#page_49">49</a>, <a href="#page_191">191</a> f.;</li> +<li class="indent">colonies, Alexander settles Jews in, <a href= +"#page_14">14</a>.</li> +<li>Greek culture, various branches of, <a href= +"#page_47">47</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">the chief schools of, <a href="#page_48">48</a>, +<a href="#page_54">54</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">fertilizing influence of ideas of, <a href= +"#page_58">58</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">and Jewish Scripture, <a href= +"#page_76">76</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">neglected in Babylon, <a href= +"#page_224">224</a>.</li> +</ul> +<ul> +<li>Haggadah, the, in Philo's works, <a href="#page_202">202</a>, +<a href="#page_207">207 f.</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">antiquity of, <a href="#page_209">209</a> +f.;</li> +<li class="indent">allegorical speculation in, <a href= +"#page_212">212</a>.</li> +<li>Halakah, outcome of devotion to Torah, <a href= +"#page_99">99</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">Palestinian Jews determine, <a href= +"#page_105">105</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">observance of oral law standardized in, <a href= +"#page_126">126</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">relation of Philo to, <a href= +"#page_202">202</a> f.;</li> +<li class="indent">differences between Alexandrian Sanhedrin and +Palestinian, <a href="#page_203">203 f.</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">codification of, <a href= +"#page_207">207</a>.</li> +<li>Hebrew, language, evidence of Philo's knowledge of, <a href= +"#page_49">49</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">included in barbarian languages, <a href= +"#page_97">97</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">Philo's derivations from, <a href= +"#page_50">50</a>, <a href="#page_101">101</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">race, the three founders of, <a href= +"#page_110">110</a> f.;</li> +<li class="indent">tradition, Philo follows, <a href= +"#page_159">159</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">mind, Professor Caird on, <a href= +"#page_167">167</a>.</li> +<li>Hellenism, of Palestine, <a href="#page_24">24</a>, <a href= +"#page_25">25</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">of Alexandria (<i>see</i> Greek culture), +<a href="#page_25">25</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">influence of, in Palestine, <a href= +"#page_51"></a>;</li> +<li class="indent">and the interpretation of the Bible, <a href= +"#page_254">254</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">New Testament, a combination of Hebraism and, +<a href="#page_247">247</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">Christian theology a descent to a commoner, +<a href="#page_254">254</a>.</li> +<li>Hillel, Philo contemporary with, <a href= +"#page_45">45</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">shows expansion of Hebrew mind, <a href= +"#page_45">45</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">on chief lesson of Torah, <a href= +"#page_117">117</a>, <a href="#page_118">118</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">spirit of, shared by Philo, <a href= +"#page_249">249</a>.</li> +<li><i>Humanity</i>, tractate appended to a <i>Life of Moses</i>, +<a href="#page_75">75</a>.</li> +</ul> +<ul> +<li>Incarnation, notion of, not Jewish, <a href= +"#page_166">166</a>.</li> +<li>Indian, thought, Philo's acquaintance with, <a href= +"#page_48">48</a>.</li> +<li>Isaac, <i>See Lives of Isaac and Jacob</i>, <a href= +"#page_83">83</a>.</li> +<li>Israel, Philo's derivation of the name, <a href= +"#page_50">50</a>, <a href="#page_138">138</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">God's special providence for, <a href= +"#page_77">77</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">the mission of, <a href="#page_206">206</a>, +<a href="#page_242">242</a>.</li> +<li>Italy, Philo visits, <a href="#page_66">66</a>.</li> +</ul> +<ul> +<li>Jacob, <i>See Lives of Isaac and Jacob</i>, <a href= +"#page_83">83</a>.</li> +<li>Jeremiah, prophesies in Egypt, <a href="#page_14">14</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">heard by Plato, <a href="#page_15">15</a>.</li> +<li>Jerusalem, Alexander's visit to, <a href= +"#page_14">14</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">Philo, on national centre at, <a href= +"#page_20">20</a>, <a href="#page_41">41</a>, <a href= +"#page_86">86</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">spiritual headship of, <a href= +"#page_41">41</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">special synagogues for Alexandrians in, <a href= +"#page_41">41</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">derivation of name of, <a href= +"#page_50">50</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">Philo's sojourn at, <a href= +"#page_50">50</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">downfall of, <a href="#page_71">71</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">Judaism at, <a href="#page_129">129</a>.</li> +<li>Jesus, spread of his teaching, <a href= +"#page_245">245</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">his message compared with that of Philo, +<a href="#page_245">245</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">preaching of, effect on Jewish attitude to life, +<a href="#page_246">246</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">Paul sets up a new faith in, <a href= +"#page_251">251</a>.</li> +<li>Jewish, community at Alexandria (<i>see</i> Alexandria), +<a href="#page_13">13</a> ff., <a href="#page_72">72</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">temple at Elephantine, <a href= +"#page_15">15</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">kingdom reaches its height, <a href= +"#page_45">45</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">mind, religous conception of, <a href= +"#page_49">49</a>, <a href="#page_137">137</a>, <a href= +"#page_166">166</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">law and ceremony, elucidation of, <a href= +"#page_49">49</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">race, symbol of the unity of, <a href= +"#page_51">51</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">aspiration toward "freedom under the law," +<a href="#page_124">124</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">influences, dominant in Philo, <a href= +"#page_133">133</a>, <a href="#page_189">189</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">philosophy, eclectic, <a href= +"#page_168">168</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">philosophy, new school of in Middle Ages, +<a href="#page_225">225</a> f.</li> +<li>Joseph (<i>see Lives of Abraham and Joseph</i>), <a href= +"#page_83">83</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">as Egyptian statesman, <a href= +"#page_23">23</a>.</li> +<li>Josephus, on Onias and Dositheus, <a href= +"#page_18">18</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">inconsistent accounts of Onias temple, <a href= +"#page_19">19</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">on Egyptian Jews, <a href= +"#page_20">20</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">account of Herod's temple by, <a href= +"#page_41">41</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">writes a reply to Apion, <a href= +"#page_65">65</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">description of Gaius' conduct to Jewish +deputation, <a href="#page_68">68</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">on the spreading of Judaism, <a href= +"#page_115">115</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">indicates communication between schools of +Alexandria and Palestine, <a href="#page_220">220</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">relation to Philo and his works, <a href= +"#page_222">222</a>.</li> +<li>Jowett, on sermons, <a href="#page_90">90</a>.</li> +<li>Judaism, genius of, <a href="#page_46">46</a>, <a href= +"#page_196">196</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">Philo's exposition of, <a href= +"#page_52">52</a>, <a href="#page_74">74</a>, <a href= +"#page_78">78</a>, <a href="#page_81">81</a>, <a href= +"#page_84">84</a>, <a href="#page_105">105</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">Philo protests against desecration of, <a href= +"#page_258">258</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">mysticism in, <a href="#page_58">58</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">philosophical, <a href="#page_72">72</a>, +<a href="#page_230">230</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">Alexandrian development of, <a href= +"#page_77">77</a>, <a href="#page_92">92</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">moral teachings of, <a href= +"#page_85">85</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">religion of the law, <a href= +"#page_106">106</a>, <a href="#page_116">116</a>, <a href= +"#page_260">260</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">Josephus on the spreading of, <a href= +"#page_115">115</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">a religion of universal validity, <a href= +"#page_121">121</a>, <a href="#page_169">169</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">at Jerusalem and Alexandria, <a href= +"#page_129">129</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">catholic conscience of, <a href= +"#page_130">130</a>, <a href="#page_131">131</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">Darmesteter on, <a href= +"#page_132">132</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">Logos doctrine and, <a href= +"#page_165">165</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">danger of union with Gentiles to, <a href= +"#page_206">206</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">a national culture, <a href= +"#page_219">219</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">influences of Jesus and Paul on, <a href= +"#page_247">247</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">Hellenistic interpretation of the Bible and, +<a href="#page_254">254</a>.</li> +<li>Judas Maccabæus, struggles against Hellenizing party, +<a href="#page_18">18</a>.</li> +</ul> +<ul> +<li>Krochmal, Nachman, criticism of Philo, <a href= +"#page_240">240</a>.</li> +</ul> +<ul> +<li><i>Life of Moses</i>, contents of, <a href="#page_75">75</a>, +<a href="#page_79">79</a> f.;</li> +<li class="indent">an attempt to set monotheism before the world, +<a href="#page_80">80</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">tractates appended to, <a href= +"#page_75">75</a>.</li> +<li><i>Lives of Abraham and Joseph</i>, description of, <a href= +"#page_83">83</a>.</li> +<li><i>Lives of Isaac and Jacob</i>, contents of, <a href= +"#page_83">83</a>.</li> +<li>Logos, <a href="#page_143">143</a> ff.;</li> +<li class="indent">its relation to God's Providence, <a href= +"#page_143">143</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">meaning of, <a href="#page_164">164</a>, +<a href="#page_148">148</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">Aristobulus on, <a href= +"#page_146">146</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">regarded as the effluence of God, <a href= +"#page_149">149</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">spoken of as a person, <a href= +"#page_156">156</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">the soul, an image of, <a href= +"#page_178">178</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">development of Philo's doctrine of, <a href= +"#page_192">192</a>.</li> +</ul> +<ul> +<li>Maimonides, object of his Moreh, <a href= +"#page_91">91</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">principles of, <a href="#page_99">99</a>, +<a href="#page_229">229</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">comparison of Philo with, <a href= +"#page_229">229</a> f.</li> +<li>Mark Antony, Alexander Lysimachus in the confidence of, +<a href="#page_46">46</a>.</li> +<li>Monastic communities, supposed record of Christian, in Philo, +<a href="#page_73">73</a>.</li> +<li>Moses, Philo a follower of, <a href="#page_60">60</a>, <a href= +"#page_113">113</a> f.;</li> +<li class="indent">Philo's ideal type, <a href="#page_79">79</a> +f.;</li> +<li class="indent">Philo, as interpreter of his revelation, +<a href="#page_104">104</a>, <a href="#page_106">106</a> f.</li> +<li class="indent"><i>See Life of Moses</i>.</li> +</ul> +<ul> +<li>National, centre at Jerusalem, Philo on, <a href= +"#page_20">20</a>, <a href="#page_41">41</a>, <a href= +"#page_86">86</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">life undermined at Rome and Alexandria, <a href= +"#page_218">218</a>.</li> +</ul> +<ul> +<li>Old Testament, Septuagint translation of, <a href= +"#page_25">25-30</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">Aquila's new Greek version of, <a href= +"#page_224">224</a>.</li> +<li>Onias, leader of army of Egyptian monarch, <a href= +"#page_18">18</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">successor to high priesthood, <a href= +"#page_18">18</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">builds temple, <a href="#page_18">18</a>, +<a href="#page_19">19</a> f.;</li> +<li class="indent">temple of, dismantled, <a href= +"#page_71">71</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">Jewish writers silent about work of, <a href= +"#page_19">19</a>.</li> +<li>Oral law, observance of, standardized in the Halakah, <a href= +"#page_126">126</a>.</li> +<li>Origen, distinguishes three methods of interpretation, <a href= +"#page_76">76</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">teacher of Patristic school, <a href= +"#page_195">195</a>; imitates Philo, <a href= +"#page_186">186</a>.</li> +</ul> +<ul> +<li>Palestine, struggle for, between Ptolemies and Seleucids, +<a href="#page_17">17</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">Hellenism of, compared with that of Athens, +<a href="#page_24">24</a>, <a href="#page_25">25</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">rabbis of, <a href="#page_28">28</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">Philo visits, <a href="#page_50">50</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">effect of Hellenic influence in, <a href= +"#page_54">54</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">New Moon a solemn day in, <a href= +"#page_121">121</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">aims of Jewish thought in, <a href= +"#page_140">140</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">doctrine of angels in, <a href= +"#page_140"></a>.</li> +<li>Palestinian Jews, under same rule as Egyptian Jews, <a href= +"#page_15">15</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">rabbis, oral tradition, <a href= +"#page_34">34</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">development of Jewish culture, <a href= +"#page_42">42</a> f., <a href="#page_200">200</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">Midrash, Philo's acquaintance with, <a href= +"#page_52">52</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">schools, relation existing between Alexandrian +and, <a href="#page_199">199</a> f., <a href="#page_203">203</a> +f., <a href="#page_213">213</a>.</li> +<li>Paul, the most commanding of the apostles, <a href= +"#page_247">247</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">influence of, compared with that of Jesus, +<a href="#page_247">247</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">rejection of the Torah by, <a href= +"#page_248">248</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">sets up a new faith in Jesus, <a href= +"#page_251">251</a>.</li> +<li>Pentateuch, Samaritan doctrines with reference to, <a href= +"#page_106">105</a>.</li> +<li>Peshat, as a form of interpretation, <a href= +"#page_103">103</a>.</li> +<li>Philo, contemporary with Herod, <a href="#page_45">45</a>, +<a href="#page_50">50</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">family of, <a href="#page_46">46</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">works of <a href="#page_74">74</a> ff.;</li> +<li class="indent">philosophical training of, <a href= +"#page_49">49</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">flees from Alexandria, <a href= +"#page_60">60</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">meeting of Peter and Mark with, <a href= +"#page_73">73</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">forced into Sanhedrin of Alexandria, <a href= +"#page_61">61</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">writings of, regarded as testimony to +Christianity, <a href="#page_73">73</a>, <a href= +"#page_156">156</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">influence of, over Christian religious +philosophy, <a href="#page_195">195</a>, <a href= +"#page_242">242</a> ff.;</li> +<li class="indent">relation of, to Greek philosophers, <a href= +"#page_48">48</a>, <a href="#page_52">52</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">acquaintance of, with Chaldean and Indian +thought, <a href="#page_48">48</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">his interpretation and views of the Bible, +<a href="#page_49">49</a>, <a href="#page_102">102</a>, <a href= +"#page_108">108</a> ff.;</li> +<li class="indent">evidence of his knowledge of Hebrew language, +<a href="#page_49">49</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">follows Hebrew tradition, <a href= +"#page_159">159</a>, <a href="#page_199">199</a> ff.;</li> +<li class="indent">compared with Spinoza, <a href= +"#page_73">73</a>, <a href="#page_134">134</a>, <a href= +"#page_163">163</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">on persecutions of Sejanus and Flaccus, <a href= +"#page_62">62</a>, <a href="#page_78">78</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">replies to attacks of stoics, <a href= +"#page_64">64</a>, <a href="#page_95">95</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">stoics' view of God compared with that of, +<a href="#page_185">185</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">goes to Italy, <a href="#page_66">66</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">refers to Apion, <a href="#page_63">63</a>, +<a href="#page_101">101</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">Josephus' knowledge of the works of, <a href= +"#page_222">222</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">Christian teachers preserve works of, <a href= +"#page_156">156</a>, <a href="#page_247">247</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">relation of, to the Halakah, <a href= +"#page_202">202</a> f.;</li> +<li class="indent">comparison of Maimonides with, <a href= +"#page_229">229</a> f.;</li> +<li class="indent">doctrine of the Logos (<i>see</i> Logos), +<a href="#page_144">144</a> ff.;</li> +<li class="indent">connection between Saadia and, <a href= +"#page_226">226</a> f.;</li> +<li class="indent">the Hellenizer of the Cabbalah, <a href= +"#page_235">235</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">opposed to missionary attitude of Paul, <a href= +"#page_249">249</a>.</li> +<li>Plato, hears Jeremiah, <a href="#page_15">15</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">Philo's style reminiscent of, <a href= +"#page_48">48</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">conception of the Law in, <a href= +"#page_131">131</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">Philo's philosophy compared with that of, +<a href="#page_170">170</a> ff.;</li> +<li class="indent">dominant philosophical principle of, <a href= +"#page_174">174</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">a mystic, <a href="#page_230">230</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">conception of God in, <a href= +"#page_254">254</a>.</li> +<li>Ptolemies, the: Ptolemy I, increases number of Jewish +inhabitants in Alexandria, <a href="#page_15">15</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">IV, gives Heliopolis to Onias, <a href= +"#page_16">16</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">admirers of Scriptures, <a href= +"#page_23">23</a>.</li> +</ul> +<ul> +<li><i>Questions and Answers to Genesis and Exodus</i>, now +incomplete, <a href="#page_75">75</a>, <a href="#page_81">81</a> +f.;</li> +<li class="indent">a preliminary study to more elaborate works, +<a href="#page_81">81</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">Hebraic in form, <a href="#page_82">82</a>.</li> +</ul> +<ul> +<li><i>Repentance</i>, tractate appended to <i>Life of Moses</i>, +<a href="#page_75">75</a>.</li> +<li>Rome, Alexandria second to, <a href="#page_14">14</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">conversion widespread in (<i>see</i> Egypt), +<a href="#page_32">32</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">Agrippa an exile from, <a href= +"#page_51">51</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">power of Jews at, <a href= +"#page_62">62</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">Jewish struggle with, <a href= +"#page_220">220</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">Philo's apocryphal meeting with Peter at, +<a href="#page_73">73</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">national life and culture undermined at +(<i>see</i> National), <a href="#page_218">218</a>.</li> +</ul> +<ul> +<li>Saadia, founds new school of Jewish philosophy, <a href= +"#page_225">225</a> f.;</li> +<li class="indent">connection between Philo and, <a href= +"#page_226">226</a>f.</li> +<li>Samaritan, doctrines with reference to Pentateuch, <a href= +"#page_106">106</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">Jew, story of, <a href="#page_98">98</a>.</li> +<li>Sanhedrin, Hillel, president of, <a href= +"#page_45">45</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">Philo forced into Alexandrian, <a href= +"#page_61">61</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">duties of members of, <a href= +"#page_61">61</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">of Alexandrian community, <a href= +"#page_202"></a>;</li> +<li class="indent">of Jerusalem and capital punishment, <a href= +"#page_203">203</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">differences between Palestinian Halakah and +Alexandrian, <a href="#page_203">203</a> f.</li> +<li>Sejanus, Tiberius falls under influence of, <a href= +"#page_62">62</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">Antonia opponent of, <a href= +"#page_62">62</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">Philo's book on persecution of, <a href= +"#page_62">62</a>, <a href="#page_78">78</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">disgrace and death of, <a href= +"#page_65">65</a>.</li> +<li>Septuagint, Hellenistic development marked by, <a href= +"#page_25">25</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">Philo's version of origin of, <a href= +"#page_26">26</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">celebrations in honor of, <a href= +"#page_27">27</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">infusion of Greek philosophic ideas into, +<a href="#page_28">28</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">Christianizing influence of, <a href= +"#page_29">29</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">value of, to the cultured Gentile, <a href= +"#page_33">33</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">replaced by new Greek version of Old Testament, +<a href="#page_224">224</a>.</li> +<li>Solomon, Wisdom of, written at Alexandria, <a href= +"#page_31">31</a>.</li> +<li><i>Specific Laws, The</i>, description of, <a href= +"#page_83">83</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">socialism of Bible emphasized in, <a href= +"#page_86">86</a>.</li> +<li>Spinoza, his ideal of life, <a href="#page_53">53</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">compared with Philo's, <a href= +"#page_73">73</a>, <a href="#page_134">134</a>, <a href= +"#page_163">163</a>, <a href="#page_239">239</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">on Jewish thought, <a href= +"#page_137">137</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">influenced by Philo, <a href="#page_237">237</a> +ff.;</li> +<li class="indent">approaches Bible from critical standpoint, +<a href="#page_239">239</a>.</li> +<li>Stoics, the chief Anti-Semites, <a href="#page_63">63</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">Philo replies to attacks of, <a href= +"#page_64">64</a>, <a href="#page_95">95</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">in conflict with Jews at Alexandria, <a href= +"#page_94">94</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">beliefs of, <a href="#page_64">64</a>, <a href= +"#page_94">94</a>, <a href="#page_116">116</a>, <a href= +"#page_176">176</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">view of God compared with that of Philo, +<a href="#page_185">185</a>.</li> +<li>Synagogues,</li> +<li class="indent">at Alexandria, <a href="#page_16">16</a>, +<a href="#page_37">37</a>.</li> +</ul> +<ul> +<li>Tiberius Alexander,</li> +<li class="indent">nephew of Philo, <a href="#page_71">71</a>.</li> +<li>Tradition, Jewish,</li> +<li class="indent">at Alexandria, <a href="#page_27">27</a>;</li> +<li class="indent">Philo and Jewish, <a href="#page_199">199</a> +ff.</li> +</ul> +<ul> +<li>Zealots, flight of,</li> +<li class="indent">to Alexandria, <a href="#page_71">71</a>.</li> +</ul> +<br> +<br> +<br> +<br> +<hr style="width: 65%;"> +<a name="FOOTNOTES" id="FOOTNOTES"></a> +<h2>FOOTNOTES:</h2> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> Comp. Leviticus +Rabba 13.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> Comp. Josephus, +Ant. IX. 1.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> Sukkah +51<sup>b</sup>.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> Quoted by +Josephus, Ant. XIV. 7.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> Ant. XII. 5, 9, +XX. 10.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> Josephus, +<i>Bell. Jud.</i> VII. 10.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> Comp. the +passages in the "Antiquities" above and the <i>Bell. Jud.</i> V. +5.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> Menahot 109, +Abodah Zarah 52<sup>b</sup>.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> <i>De Leg.</i> +II. 578.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> Comp. <i>De +Mon.</i> I. 5.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> Dr. Hirseh, +in The Jews' College Jubilee Volume, p.39.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> Menahot +119.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> Comp. Ant. +XIV. 14-16.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> Ant. XVI. +7.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> Philo, <i>In +Flacc.</i> 6.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> <i>C. +Apion.</i> II. 5.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> I have used +the word anti-Semite because, though the hatred at Alexandria was +not racial, but national, it has now become synonymous with +Jew-hater generally.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> Quoted in +<i>C. Apion</i>. I. 22.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> <i>De V. +Mos</i>. II. 6, 7.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> See p. 22, +above.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> Preface to +Ecclesiasticus.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> Tract. +Soferim I. 7.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> Tanhuma +<img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image98.jpg" width="69" height= +"12"></p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> See p. 23, +above.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> <i>Orac. +Sib</i>., ed. Alexandre, III. 8.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, +III. 195.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> Comp. Strabo, +Frag. 6, Didot.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> <i>De +Post.C.</i> 24.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> <i>De V. +Mos</i>. II. 28.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> Comp. <i>De +Decal</i>. 20.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> Comp. Yer. +Berakot 24c.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> <i>Praep. +Evang</i>. VIII. 10, XIII. 12.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> Comp. <i>De +Abr</i>. 15 and 37, <i>De Jos</i>. II. 63, <i>De Spec. Leg.</i> +III. 32, <i>De Migr</i>. 89.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> <i>Quod +Deus</i> 11, <i>De Abr.</i> 36.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> Comp. Acts of +the Apostles VI. 9, and Tosef. Meg. III. 6.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> Yoma +83<sup>a</sup>.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> <i>Bell. +Jud.</i> V. 5.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> Comp. Niddah +69<sup>b</sup>, Sotah 47<sup>a</sup>.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> "Heroes and +Hero-Worship," ch. 3.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_40_40" id="Footnote_40_40"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_40_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> Ant. XIX. +5.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_41_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> Photius, +<i>Cod.</i> 108.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_42_42" id="Footnote_42_42"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_42_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> Comp. <i>De +Confus.</i> 15.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_43_43" id="Footnote_43_43"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_43_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> Comp. <i>De +Mon.</i> I. 6.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_44_44" id="Footnote_44_44"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_44_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> Comp. +Maimonides, Moreh II, ch. 36.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_45_45" id="Footnote_45_45"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_45_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> <i>L.A.</i> +I. 135.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_46_46" id="Footnote_46_46"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_46_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> Comp. <i>De +Cong.</i> 6 ff.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_47_47" id="Footnote_47_47"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_47_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> Comp. +Croiset, <i>Histoire de la littérature grecque</i>, V, pp. +425 ff.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_48_48" id="Footnote_48_48"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_48_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> Comp. Mills, +"Zoroaster, Philo, and Israel."</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_49_49" id="Footnote_49_49"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_49_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a> Comp. <i>Quis +Rer. Div.</i> 43, <i>De Judice</i> II, <i>De V. Mos.</i> II. 4.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_50_50" id="Footnote_50_50"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_50_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a> Ritter, +<i>Philon und die Halacha</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_51_51" id="Footnote_51_51"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_51_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> Comp. <i>De +V. Mos.</i> I. 1, <i>In Flacc.</i> 23 and 33, <i>De Mut. Nom.</i> +39.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_52_52" id="Footnote_52_52"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_52_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a> +<i>Præp. Evang.</i> VIII. v.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_53_53" id="Footnote_53_53"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_53_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a> <i>De +Mon.</i> II. 1-3.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_54_54" id="Footnote_54_54"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_54_54"><span class="label">[54]</span></a> Comp. +<i>Bell. Jud.</i> VI. 9. 3.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_55_55" id="Footnote_55_55"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_55_55"><span class="label">[55]</span></a> Comp. <i>De +V. Mos.</i> II. 4.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_56_56" id="Footnote_56_56"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_56_56"><span class="label">[56]</span></a> <i>De Spec. +Leg.</i> III. 1.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_57_57" id="Footnote_57_57"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_57_57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a> Comp. <i>De +Migr.</i> 4, <i>L.A.</i> III. 45.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_58_58" id="Footnote_58_58"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_58_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a> Comp. Graetz, +"History of the Jews" III. 91 ff.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_59_59" id="Footnote_59_59"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_59_59"><span class="label">[59]</span></a> Comp. <i>Quod +Omnis Probus Liber</i> 11 ff.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_60_60" id="Footnote_60_60"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_60_60"><span class="label">[60]</span></a> The +authenticity of this book is elaborately discussed by Conybeare in +his edition of it.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_61_61" id="Footnote_61_61"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_61_61"><span class="label">[61]</span></a> "Ethics of +the Fathers" VI. 4.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_62_62" id="Footnote_62_62"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_62_62"><span class="label">[62]</span></a> <i>De Mundi +Op.</i> I. 42.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_63_63" id="Footnote_63_63"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_63_63"><span class="label">[63]</span></a> Comp. <i>De +Migr.</i> 6 ff.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_64_64" id="Footnote_64_64"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_64_64"><span class="label">[64]</span></a> <i>L.A.</i> +II. 21.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_65_65" id="Footnote_65_65"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_65_65"><span class="label">[65]</span></a> <i>De +Fuga</i> 7 ff.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_66_66" id="Footnote_66_66"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_66_66"><span class="label">[66]</span></a> Comp. <i>De +Spec. Leg.</i> II. 260.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_67_67" id="Footnote_67_67"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_67_67"><span class="label">[67]</span></a> Comp. <i>De +Cherubim</i> 9.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_68_68" id="Footnote_68_68"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_68_68"><span class="label">[68]</span></a> <i>De +Migr.</i> 7-9.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_69_69" id="Footnote_69_69"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_69_69"><span class="label">[69]</span></a> II, ch. 36 +ff.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_70_70" id="Footnote_70_70"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_70_70"><span class="label">[70]</span></a> Comp. <i>De +Spec. Leg.</i> III. 1.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_71_71" id="Footnote_71_71"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_71_71"><span class="label">[71]</span></a> Massebieau, +<i>Du classement des oeuvres de Philon</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_72_72" id="Footnote_72_72"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_72_72"><span class="label">[72]</span></a> <i>In +Flacc.</i> 5.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_73_73" id="Footnote_73_73"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_73_73"><span class="label">[73]</span></a> Comp. Th. +Reinach, <i>Textes d'auteurs romains et grecs relatifs au +Judaisme</i>, pp. 120 ff.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_74_74" id="Footnote_74_74"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_74_74"><span class="label">[74]</span></a> Comp. <i>De +Confus.</i>, <i>passim</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_75_75" id="Footnote_75_75"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_75_75"><span class="label">[75]</span></a> Josephus, +<i>C. Apion.</i>, Introduction.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_76_76" id="Footnote_76_76"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_76_76"><span class="label">[76]</span></a> <i>In +Flacc.</i> 10.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_77_77" id="Footnote_77_77"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_77_77"><span class="label">[77]</span></a> <i>De +Leg</i>. 27 and 28.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_78_78" id="Footnote_78_78"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_78_78"><span class="label">[78]</span></a> Ant. XVIII. +8. 1.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_79_79" id="Footnote_79_79"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_79_79"><span class="label">[79]</span></a> <i>De Leg., +ad fin</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_80_80" id="Footnote_80_80"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_80_80"><span class="label">[80]</span></a> Ant. XIX. +5.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_81_81" id="Footnote_81_81"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_81_81"><span class="label">[81]</span></a> Frag, +preserved by John of Damascus, p. 404.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_82_82" id="Footnote_82_82"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_82_82"><span class="label">[82]</span></a> Comp. Ant. +XX. 5.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_83_83" id="Footnote_83_83"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_83_83"><span class="label">[83]</span></a> Comp. +Massebieau, <i>op. cit.</i></p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_84_84" id="Footnote_84_84"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_84_84"><span class="label">[84]</span></a> Comp. +Bernays, <i>Ueber die unter Philos Werken stehenden Schriften</i> +<img alt="Greek: peri tês aphtharsias Kosmou" src= +"images/image99.jpg" width="183" height="12"> and Siegfried, art. +"Philo" in the Jewish Encyclopedia.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_85_85" id="Footnote_85_85"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_85_85"><span class="label">[85]</span></a> <i>Quod +Deus</i> 86.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_86_86" id="Footnote_86_86"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_86_86"><span class="label">[86]</span></a> <i>Quod Omnis +Probus Liber</i> 12 ff.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_87_87" id="Footnote_87_87"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_87_87"><span class="label">[87]</span></a> <i>De V. +Mos.</i> I. 1.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_88_88" id="Footnote_88_88"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_88_88"><span class="label">[88]</span></a> <i>De V. +Mos</i>. II. 5.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_89_89" id="Footnote_89_89"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_89_89"><span class="label">[89]</span></a> "On +Repentance," II.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_90_90" id="Footnote_90_90"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_90_90"><span class="label">[90]</span></a> Comp. +Treitel, <i>Agadah bei Philo. Monatsschrift</i>, 1909.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_91_91" id="Footnote_91_91"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_91_91"><span class="label">[91]</span></a> <i>De +Abr.</i> 12.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_92_92" id="Footnote_92_92"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_92_92"><span class="label">[92]</span></a> Comp. +Bereshit Rabba 47.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_93_93" id="Footnote_93_93"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_93_93"><span class="label">[93]</span></a> <i>De Sac. et +Victimis</i> 5 and 6.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_94_94" id="Footnote_94_94"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_94_94"><span class="label">[94]</span></a> <i>De +Mon.</i> II. 3 ff.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_95_95" id="Footnote_95_95"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_95_95"><span class="label">[95]</span></a> Comp. Plato, +<i>Rep</i>. V, <i>ad fin</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_96_96" id="Footnote_96_96"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_96_96"><span class="label">[96]</span></a> <i>De +Exsecr</i>. II. 587.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_97_97" id="Footnote_97_97"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_97_97"><span class="label">[97]</span></a> <i>De +Abr.</i> 3.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_98_98" id="Footnote_98_98"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_98_98"><span class="label">[98]</span></a> Comp. +<i>L.A.</i> II. 4.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_99_99" id="Footnote_99_99"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_99_99"><span class="label">[99]</span></a> <i>L.A.</i> +I. 1.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_100_100" id="Footnote_100_100"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_100_100"><span class="label">[100]</span></a> Comp. +Freudenthal, <i>Hellenistische Studien</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_101_101" id="Footnote_101_101"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_101_101"><span class="label">[101]</span></a> Croiset, +<i>op. cit.</i> V, p. 427.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_102_102" id="Footnote_102_102"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_102_102"><span class="label">[102]</span></a> Comp. +<i>De Cherubim</i>, <i>passim</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_103_103" id="Footnote_103_103"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_103_103"><span class="label">[103]</span></a> Comp. +Zohar III.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_104_104" id="Footnote_104_104"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_104_104"><span class="label">[104]</span></a> <i>De +Cherubim</i>, 9 and 14, <i>De Somn.</i> 8.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_105_105" id="Footnote_105_105"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_105_105"><span class="label">[105]</span></a> <i>De +Migr.</i> 12.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_106_106" id="Footnote_106_106"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_106_106"><span class="label">[106]</span></a> <i>De +Post. C.</i> 22.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_107_107" id="Footnote_107_107"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_107_107"><span class="label">[107]</span></a> Midrash +Esther I.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_108_108" id="Footnote_108_108"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_108_108"><span class="label">[108]</span></a> Comp. +<i>De Sac.</i> II. 245.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_109_109" id="Footnote_109_109"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_109_109"><span class="label">[109]</span></a> Comp. +<i>De Migr.</i> 32.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_110_110" id="Footnote_110_110"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_110_110"><span class="label">[110]</span></a> Comp. +<i>De Post C</i>, 11.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_111_111" id="Footnote_111_111"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_111_111"><span class="label">[111]</span></a> +<i>Quaestiones in Gen.</i> III. 33.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_112_112" id="Footnote_112_112"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_112_112"><span class="label">[112]</span></a> <i>De +Cong.</i> 10.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_113_113" id="Footnote_113_113"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_113_113"><span class="label">[113]</span></a> Comp. +Berakot 51<sup>b</sup>, <i>De Agric.</i> 12, <i>De Somn.</i> II. +25.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_114_114" id="Footnote_114_114"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_114_114"><span class="label">[114]</span></a> <i>De +Confus.</i> 38.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_115_115" id="Footnote_115_115"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_115_115"><span class="label">[115]</span></a> <i>De Mut. +Nom.</i> 8.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_116_116" id="Footnote_116_116"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_116_116"><span class="label">[116]</span></a> Comp. +Bereshit Rabba 64.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_117_117" id="Footnote_117_117"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_117_117"><span class="label">[117]</span></a> <i>De +Somn.</i> I. 16 and 17.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_118_118" id="Footnote_118_118"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_118_118"><span class="label">[118]</span></a> Comp. +"Ethics of the Fathers" V. 25.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_119_119" id="Footnote_119_119"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_119_119"><span class="label">[119]</span></a> Comp. +<i>De Somn.</i> I. 13.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_120_120" id="Footnote_120_120"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_120_120"><span class="label">[120]</span></a> <i>De Mut. +Nom.</i> 9.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_121_121" id="Footnote_121_121"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_121_121"><span class="label">[121]</span></a> <i>De +Somn.</i> I. 5.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_122_122" id="Footnote_122_122"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_122_122"><span class="label">[122]</span></a> Berakot +10<sup>a</sup>.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_123_123" id="Footnote_123_123"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_123_123"><span class="label">[123]</span></a> <i>De +Cong.</i> 12.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_124_124" id="Footnote_124_124"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_124_124"><span class="label">[124]</span></a> <i>De +Cong.</i> 14.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_125_125" id="Footnote_125_125"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_125_125"><span class="label">[125]</span></a> +"Theologico-Political Tractate" VII.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_126_126" id="Footnote_126_126"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_126_126"><span class="label">[126]</span></a> <i>De +Abr.</i> 19.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_127_127" id="Footnote_127_127"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_127_127"><span class="label">[127]</span></a> <i>De +Mon.</i> II. 6.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_128_128" id="Footnote_128_128"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_128_128"><span class="label">[128]</span></a> Harvard +Studies, "Hellenism and Hebraism."</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_129_129" id="Footnote_129_129"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_129_129"><span class="label">[129]</span></a> Comp. +Schechter, "Aspects of Rabbinic Theology," p. 119.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_130_130" id="Footnote_130_130"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_130_130"><span class="label">[130]</span></a> Comp. +<i>De V. Mos.</i> II. 9 and 10, III. 1.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_131_131" id="Footnote_131_131"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_131_131"><span class="label">[131]</span></a> +<i>L.A.</i> I. 2.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_132_132" id="Footnote_132_132"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_132_132"><span class="label">[132]</span></a> Comp. +<i>De Mundi Op.</i> 2.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_133_133" id="Footnote_133_133"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_133_133"><span class="label">[133]</span></a> Comp. p. +85, above.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_134_134" id="Footnote_134_134"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_134_134"><span class="label">[134]</span></a> Comp. +<i>L.A.</i> I, <i>passim</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_135_135" id="Footnote_135_135"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_135_135"><span class="label">[135]</span></a> +<i>L.A.</i> III. 12.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_136_136" id="Footnote_136_136"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_136_136"><span class="label">[136]</span></a> <i>De +Post. C.</i> 11.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_137_137" id="Footnote_137_137"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_137_137"><span class="label">[137]</span></a> <i>De +Abr.</i> 3 ff.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_138_138" id="Footnote_138_138"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_138_138"><span class="label">[138]</span></a> +<i>Ibid.</i> 6-10.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_139_139" id="Footnote_139_139"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_139_139"><span class="label">[139]</span></a> The LXX +renders the verse Gen. iv. 26, which is translated in the +Authorized Version: "Then began men to call upon the name of the +Lord," <img alt= +"Greek: outos êlpisen epi ton tôn olôn patera, <i>i.e.</i>" +src="images/image100.jpg" width="283" height="15"> , "He hoped in +the Father of all."</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_140_140" id="Footnote_140_140"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_140_140"><span class="label">[140]</span></a> <i>Quod +Det.</i> 38.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_141_141" id="Footnote_141_141"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_141_141"><span class="label">[141]</span></a> <i>De +Jos.</i> 21.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_142_142" id="Footnote_142_142"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_142_142"><span class="label">[142]</span></a> <i>De +Jos.</i> 22.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_143_143" id="Footnote_143_143"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_143_143"><span class="label">[143]</span></a> <i>De +Jos.</i> 42.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_144_144" id="Footnote_144_144"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_144_144"><span class="label">[144]</span></a> <i>Hist. +Ecclesiast.</i> II. 18, 1.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_145_145" id="Footnote_145_145"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_145_145"><span class="label">[145]</span></a> <i>De V. +Mos.</i> III. 4 ff.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_146_146" id="Footnote_146_146"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_146_146"><span class="label">[146]</span></a> <i>De V. +Mos.</i> II. 3.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_147_147" id="Footnote_147_147"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_147_147"><span class="label">[147]</span></a> <i>De V. +Mos.</i> II. 5, Josephus, <i>C. Apion.</i> II. 37.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_148_148" id="Footnote_148_148"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_148_148"><span class="label">[148]</span></a> Comp. +Horace, Satires I. 4, 138; I. 9, 60.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_149_149" id="Footnote_149_149"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_149_149"><span class="label">[149]</span></a> Frag. +preserved in Josephus, Ant. XIV. 7.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_150_150" id="Footnote_150_150"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_150_150"><span class="label">[150]</span></a> Comp. +Reinach, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 262.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_151_151" id="Footnote_151_151"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_151_151"><span class="label">[151]</span></a> <i>De V. +Mos.</i> II. 3.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_152_152" id="Footnote_152_152"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_152_152"><span class="label">[152]</span></a> "Ethics of +the Fathers" I. 17.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_153_153" id="Footnote_153_153"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_153_153"><span class="label">[153]</span></a> <i>De +Fuga</i> 6.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_154_154" id="Footnote_154_154"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_154_154"><span class="label">[154]</span></a> <i>De +Decal.</i> 12.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_155_155" id="Footnote_155_155"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_155_155"><span class="label">[155]</span></a> <i>De +Decal.</i> 23.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_156_156" id="Footnote_156_156"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_156_156"><span class="label">[156]</span></a> <i>De +Septen.</i> 9.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_157_157" id="Footnote_157_157"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_157_157"><span class="label">[157]</span></a> Kiddushin +20<sup>a</sup>.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_158_158" id="Footnote_158_158"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_158_158"><span class="label">[158]</span></a> <i>De +Decal.</i> 20.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_159_159" id="Footnote_159_159"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_159_159"><span class="label">[159]</span></a> <i>De +Septen.</i> 7.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_160_160" id="Footnote_160_160"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_160_160"><span class="label">[160]</span></a> <i>De +Septen.</i> 6.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_161_161" id="Footnote_161_161"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_161_161"><span class="label">[161]</span></a> Ch. 2. +31.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_162_162" id="Footnote_162_162"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_162_162"><span class="label">[162]</span></a> Comp. +<i>De Migr.</i> 23.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_163_163" id="Footnote_163_163"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_163_163"><span class="label">[163]</span></a> <i>De +Septen.</i> 1. 2.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_164_164" id="Footnote_164_164"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_164_164"><span class="label">[164]</span></a> <i>De +Septen.</i> 18 ff.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_165_165" id="Footnote_165_165"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_165_165"><span class="label">[165]</span></a> <i>De +Concupisc.</i> 1-3.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_166_166" id="Footnote_166_166"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_166_166"><span class="label">[166]</span></a> Comp. +<i>De Just.</i> II. 360.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_167_167" id="Footnote_167_167"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_167_167"><span class="label">[167]</span></a> Ch. +16.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_168_168" id="Footnote_168_168"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_168_168"><span class="label">[168]</span></a> I have +taken this translation and that on the next page from Mr. Claude +Montefiore's <i>Florilegium Philonis</i>. Jewish Quarterly Review, +vol. VII.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_169_169" id="Footnote_169_169"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_169_169"><span class="label">[169]</span></a> Comp. +<i>De Ebr.</i> 40, and <i>De Spec. Leg.</i> II. 414.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_170_170" id="Footnote_170_170"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_170_170"><span class="label">[170]</span></a> <i>De +Leg.</i> II. 574.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_171_171" id="Footnote_171_171"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_171_171"><span class="label">[171]</span></a> <i>Essais, +Les Prophètes d'Israël</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_172_172" id="Footnote_172_172"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_172_172"><span class="label">[172]</span></a> Frag. +cited by Porphyry, <i>De Abstinentia</i> II. 25.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_173_173" id="Footnote_173_173"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_173_173"><span class="label">[173]</span></a> <i>De +Cong.</i> 10.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_174_174" id="Footnote_174_174"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_174_174"><span class="label">[174]</span></a> Comp. +Schechter, "Aspects of Rabbinic Theology," pp. 21 ff.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_175_175" id="Footnote_175_175"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_175_175"><span class="label">[175]</span></a> +<i>L.A.</i> I. 7.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_176_176" id="Footnote_176_176"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_176_176"><span class="label">[176]</span></a> +<i>L.A.</i> I. 14.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_177_177" id="Footnote_177_177"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_177_177"><span class="label">[177]</span></a> <i>De +Confus.</i> 2, <i>De Post. C.</i> 5.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_178_178" id="Footnote_178_178"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_178_178"><span class="label">[178]</span></a> Comp. +<i>De Somn.</i> I. 11, <i>De Mut. Nom.</i> 4.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_179_179" id="Footnote_179_179"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_179_179"><span class="label">[179]</span></a> Caird, +"Life of Spinoza" II.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_180_180" id="Footnote_180_180"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_180_180"><span class="label">[180]</span></a> <i>De +Mon.</i> I. 5.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_181_181" id="Footnote_181_181"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_181_181"><span class="label">[181]</span></a> Comp. "The +Authorised Prayer Book." p. 78.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_182_182" id="Footnote_182_182"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_182_182"><span class="label">[182]</span></a> <i>Quod +Deus</i> 23.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_183_183" id="Footnote_183_183"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_183_183"><span class="label">[183]</span></a> <i>De +Mundi Op.</i> 5.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_184_184" id="Footnote_184_184"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_184_184"><span class="label">[184]</span></a> +<i>L.A.</i> III. 24.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_185_185" id="Footnote_185_185"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_185_185"><span class="label">[185]</span></a> <i>De +Somn.</i> II. 38.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_186_186" id="Footnote_186_186"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_186_186"><span class="label">[186]</span></a> +<i>L.A.</i> III. 24.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_187_187" id="Footnote_187_187"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_187_187"><span class="label">[187]</span></a> See p. 77, +above.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_188_188" id="Footnote_188_188"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_188_188"><span class="label">[188]</span></a> +<i>L.A.</i> I. 3.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_189_189" id="Footnote_189_189"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_189_189"><span class="label">[189]</span></a> <i>De +Plant.</i> 7, <i>Quod Det.</i> 31.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_190_190" id="Footnote_190_190"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_190_190"><span class="label">[190]</span></a> <i>De +Cherubim</i> 35.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_191_191" id="Footnote_191_191"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_191_191"><span class="label">[191]</span></a> +<i>L.A.</i> II. 70.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_192_192" id="Footnote_192_192"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_192_192"><span class="label">[192]</span></a> <i>De +Cherubim</i> 32, <i>De Somn.</i> II, 56.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_193_193" id="Footnote_193_193"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_193_193"><span class="label">[193]</span></a> <i>De +Post. C.</i> 11.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_194_194" id="Footnote_194_194"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_194_194"><span class="label">[194]</span></a> Essay on +the Talmud.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_195_195" id="Footnote_195_195"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_195_195"><span class="label">[195]</span></a> Bereshit +Rabba 21, and Yalkut 26.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_196_196" id="Footnote_196_196"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_196_196"><span class="label">[196]</span></a> Comp. +<i>De Plant.</i> 30.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_197_197" id="Footnote_197_197"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_197_197"><span class="label">[197]</span></a> Comp. +[H.]agigah 14.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_198_198" id="Footnote_198_198"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_198_198"><span class="label">[198]</span></a> Quoted by +Euseb., <i>op. cit.</i> XIII. 8.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_199_199" id="Footnote_199_199"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_199_199"><span class="label">[199]</span></a> <i>De +Decal.</i> 11.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_200_200" id="Footnote_200_200"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_200_200"><span class="label">[200]</span></a> <i>De +Mundi Op.</i> 24.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_201_201" id="Footnote_201_201"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_201_201"><span class="label">[201]</span></a> +<i>Ibid.</i> 20.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_202_202" id="Footnote_202_202"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_202_202"><span class="label">[202]</span></a> <i>De +Migr.</i> 9.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_203_203" id="Footnote_203_203"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_203_203"><span class="label">[203]</span></a> <i>De +Decal.</i> 11.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_204_204" id="Footnote_204_204"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_204_204"><span class="label">[204]</span></a> <i>De +Somn.</i> II. 37.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_205_205" id="Footnote_205_205"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_205_205"><span class="label">[205]</span></a> <i>De +Somn.</i> I. 23.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_206_206" id="Footnote_206_206"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_206_206"><span class="label">[206]</span></a> Comp. +<i>De Somn.</i> II. 11.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_207_207" id="Footnote_207_207"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_207_207"><span class="label">[207]</span></a> <i>De +Somn.</i> I. 22.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_208_208" id="Footnote_208_208"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_208_208"><span class="label">[208]</span></a> Comp. +[H.]agigah 14<sup>a</sup>.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_209_209" id="Footnote_209_209"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_209_209"><span class="label">[209]</span></a> <i>Quod +Deus</i> 26 and 32.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_210_210" id="Footnote_210_210"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_210_210"><span class="label">[210]</span></a> <i>De +Confus.</i> 14.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_211_211" id="Footnote_211_211"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_211_211"><span class="label">[211]</span></a> <i>De +Gigant.</i> 2.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_212_212" id="Footnote_212_212"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_212_212"><span class="label">[212]</span></a> "Ethics of +the Fathers" III.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_213_213" id="Footnote_213_213"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_213_213"><span class="label">[213]</span></a> Comp. +Schechter, <i>op. cit.</i>, "The Law as Personified in +Literature."</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_214_214" id="Footnote_214_214"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_214_214"><span class="label">[214]</span></a> Comp. +<i>L.A.</i> III. 73, <i>De Somn.</i> II. 33.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_215_215" id="Footnote_215_215"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_215_215"><span class="label">[215]</span></a> <i>De +Cong.</i> 31.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_216_216" id="Footnote_216_216"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_216_216"><span class="label">[216]</span></a> <i>De +Confus.</i> 14, Fragments I, <i>L.A.</i> III. 23, <i>Quis Rer. +Div.</i> 42, <i>De Gigant.</i> 12.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_217_217" id="Footnote_217_217"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_217_217"><span class="label">[217]</span></a> Comp. +Graetz, "Gnosticism and Judaism," pp. 15 ff.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_218_218" id="Footnote_218_218"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_218_218"><span class="label">[218]</span></a> Comp. +<i>De Cherubim</i> 14 and 17, <i>De Gigant.</i> 12.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_219_219" id="Footnote_219_219"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_219_219"><span class="label">[219]</span></a> Drummond, +"Philo-Judæus and the Jewish Hellenistic School," vol. +II.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_220_220" id="Footnote_220_220"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_220_220"><span class="label">[220]</span></a> <i>De +Somn.</i> I. 32, <i>De Confus.</i> 14, <i>L.A.</i> III. 25, <i>De +V. Mos.</i> III. 14.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_221_221" id="Footnote_221_221"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_221_221"><span class="label">[221]</span></a> +<i>L.A.</i> III. 73.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_222_222" id="Footnote_222_222"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_222_222"><span class="label">[222]</span></a> <i>De +Sacrif.</i> 38.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_223_223" id="Footnote_223_223"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_223_223"><span class="label">[223]</span></a> <i>Quis +Rer. Div.</i> 42.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_224_224" id="Footnote_224_224"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_224_224"><span class="label">[224]</span></a> <i>De +Plant.</i> 21.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_225_225" id="Footnote_225_225"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_225_225"><span class="label">[225]</span></a> +<i>L.A.</i> III.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_226_226" id="Footnote_226_226"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_226_226"><span class="label">[226]</span></a> <i>De +Cherubim</i> 9.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_227_227" id="Footnote_227_227"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_227_227"><span class="label">[227]</span></a> <i>De +Abr.</i> 24 and 25.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_228_228" id="Footnote_228_228"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_228_228"><span class="label">[228]</span></a> <i>De +Fuga</i> 18.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_229_229" id="Footnote_229_229"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_229_229"><span class="label">[229]</span></a> +<i>L.A.</i> II.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_230_230" id="Footnote_230_230"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_230_230"><span class="label">[230]</span></a> +<i>L.A.</i> I. 13, II. 15, <i>Quis Rer. Div.</i> 53.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_231_231" id="Footnote_231_231"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_231_231"><span class="label">[231]</span></a> Comp. +<i>De Decal.</i>, <i>ad fin</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_232_232" id="Footnote_232_232"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_232_232"><span class="label">[232]</span></a> +<i>L.A.</i> I. 2232, <i>De Fuga</i> 12.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_233_233" id="Footnote_233_233"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_233_233"><span class="label">[233]</span></a> <i>De +Mundi Op.</i> 54, <i>De Fuga</i> 11.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_234_234" id="Footnote_234_234"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_234_234"><span class="label">[234]</span></a> "The +Evolution of Theology in the Greek Philosophers" VIII.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_235_235" id="Footnote_235_235"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_235_235"><span class="label">[235]</span></a> Plato, +"Laws" 718.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_236_236" id="Footnote_236_236"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_236_236"><span class="label">[236]</span></a> Comp. Bk. +12 of the <i>Præp. Evang.</i></p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_237_237" id="Footnote_237_237"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_237_237"><span class="label">[237]</span></a> Quoted by +Suidas, <i>s.v.</i> Philo.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_238_238" id="Footnote_238_238"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_238_238"><span class="label">[238]</span></a> <i>De +Mundi Op.</i> 43.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_239_239" id="Footnote_239_239"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_239_239"><span class="label">[239]</span></a> <i>De +Victimis</i> II. 260-262.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_240_240" id="Footnote_240_240"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_240_240"><span class="label">[240]</span></a> Comp. p. +81, above.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_241_241" id="Footnote_241_241"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_241_241"><span class="label">[241]</span></a> <i>De +Sacrif.</i> 24, <i>Quod Det.</i> 24.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_242_242" id="Footnote_242_242"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_242_242"><span class="label">[242]</span></a> <i>De +Mundi Op.</i> 24.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_243_243" id="Footnote_243_243"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_243_243"><span class="label">[243]</span></a> <i>De +Mundi Op.</i> 4.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_244_244" id="Footnote_244_244"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_244_244"><span class="label">[244]</span></a> <i>De +Somn.</i> I. 4.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_245_245" id="Footnote_245_245"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_245_245"><span class="label">[245]</span></a> <i>De +Victimis</i> II. 260.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_246_246" id="Footnote_246_246"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_246_246"><span class="label">[246]</span></a> <i>Quod +Deus</i> 6, <i>De Post. C.</i> 5.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_247_247" id="Footnote_247_247"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_247_247"><span class="label">[247]</span></a> <i>Quod +Det.</i> 24, <i>De Mundi Op.</i> 45 and 51.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_248_248" id="Footnote_248_248"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_248_248"><span class="label">[248]</span></a> +<i>L.A.</i> I. 32, <i>De Confus.</i> 27.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_249_249" id="Footnote_249_249"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_249_249"><span class="label">[249]</span></a> <i>De +Mon</i>. II. 214, <i>De Mundi Op</i>. I. 16.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_250_250" id="Footnote_250_250"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_250_250"><span class="label">[250]</span></a> <i>De +Mundi Op</i>. 22 and 48, <i>L.A.</i> I. 13 and II. 12 ff.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_251_251" id="Footnote_251_251"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_251_251"><span class="label">[251]</span></a> <i>De +Sacrif.</i> 32.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_252_252" id="Footnote_252_252"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_252_252"><span class="label">[252]</span></a> <i>De +Plant.</i> 9.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_253_253" id="Footnote_253_253"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_253_253"><span class="label">[253]</span></a> +<i>Quaestiones in Gen.</i> II. 59.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_254_254" id="Footnote_254_254"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_254_254"><span class="label">[254]</span></a> <i>De +Fuga</i> 6.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_255_255" id="Footnote_255_255"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_255_255"><span class="label">[255]</span></a> +<i>Quaestiones in Gen.</i> IV. 140.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_256_256" id="Footnote_256_256"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_256_256"><span class="label">[256]</span></a> <i>De +Cherubim</i> 32.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_257_257" id="Footnote_257_257"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_257_257"><span class="label">[257]</span></a> +<i>L.A.</i> I. 15.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_258_258" id="Footnote_258_258"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_258_258"><span class="label">[258]</span></a> +<i>L.A.</i> II. 25.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_259_259" id="Footnote_259_259"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_259_259"><span class="label">[259]</span></a> +<i>L.A.</i> I. 11 ff., II. 12-14.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_260_260" id="Footnote_260_260"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_260_260"><span class="label">[260]</span></a> <i>De +Cherubim</i> 35.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_261_261" id="Footnote_261_261"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_261_261"><span class="label">[261]</span></a> <i>De +Somn.</i> I. 12.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_262_262" id="Footnote_262_262"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_262_262"><span class="label">[262]</span></a> <i>De +Somn.</i> I. 4.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_263_263" id="Footnote_263_263"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_263_263"><span class="label">[263]</span></a> <i>De +Plant.</i> 7.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_264_264" id="Footnote_264_264"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_264_264"><span class="label">[264]</span></a> <i>Quod +Det.</i> 31.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_265_265" id="Footnote_265_265"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_265_265"><span class="label">[265]</span></a> <i>De +Migr.</i> 8, <i>De Spec. Leg.</i> I. 9.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_266_266" id="Footnote_266_266"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_266_266"><span class="label">[266]</span></a> +<i>L.A.</i> I. 13.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_267_267" id="Footnote_267_267"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_267_267"><span class="label">[267]</span></a> +<i>L.A.</i> III. 13, 14.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_268_268" id="Footnote_268_268"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_268_268"><span class="label">[268]</span></a> <i>Quis +Rer. Div.</i> 53.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_269_269" id="Footnote_269_269"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_269_269"><span class="label">[269]</span></a> <i>De +Mundi Op.</i> 54.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_270_270" id="Footnote_270_270"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_270_270"><span class="label">[270]</span></a> <i>De +Abr.</i> 31.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_271_271" id="Footnote_271_271"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_271_271"><span class="label">[271]</span></a> <i>De +Fuga</i> 27.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_272_272" id="Footnote_272_272"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_272_272"><span class="label">[272]</span></a> +<i>L.A.</i> I. 32, II. 25.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_273_273" id="Footnote_273_273"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_273_273"><span class="label">[273]</span></a> Comp. +<i>L.A.</i> III. 45.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_274_274" id="Footnote_274_274"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_274_274"><span class="label">[274]</span></a> <i>Quod +Det.</i> 7.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_275_275" id="Footnote_275_275"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_275_275"><span class="label">[275]</span></a> <i>De +Fuga</i> 5 ff.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_276_276" id="Footnote_276_276"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_276_276"><span class="label">[276]</span></a> <i>De +Mundi Op.</i> 15, <i>L.A.</i> I. 46.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_277_277" id="Footnote_277_277"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_277_277"><span class="label">[277]</span></a> <i>De +Decal.</i> 6-8.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_278_278" id="Footnote_278_278"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_278_278"><span class="label">[278]</span></a> Comp. +Euseb., <i>Praep. Evang.</i> IX 411A.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_279_279" id="Footnote_279_279"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_279_279"><span class="label">[279]</span></a> <i>C. +Celsum</i> IV. 51.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_280_280" id="Footnote_280_280"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_280_280"><span class="label">[280]</span></a> <i>De +Sectis Judaicis</i> XVIII.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_281_281" id="Footnote_281_281"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_281_281"><span class="label">[281]</span></a> Comp. +Freudenthal, <i>Hellenistische Studien</i>, and Siegfried, <i>Philo +als Ausleger der hieligen Schrift</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_282_282" id="Footnote_282_282"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_282_282"><span class="label">[282]</span></a> Comp. +<i>Quis Rer. Div.</i> XLIII, and Chapter II above.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_283_283" id="Footnote_283_283"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_283_283"><span class="label">[283]</span></a> <i>De +Mon</i>. II. 212.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_284_284" id="Footnote_284_284"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_284_284"><span class="label">[284]</span></a> <i>Hist. +Ecclesiast.</i> II. iv. 2.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_285_285" id="Footnote_285_285"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_285_285"><span class="label">[285]</span></a> Comp. +Graetz, "History" II. xviii.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_286_286" id="Footnote_286_286"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_286_286"><span class="label">[286]</span></a> Comp. +Chapter I, p. 17, above.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_287_287" id="Footnote_287_287"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_287_287"><span class="label">[287]</span></a> <i>De +Spec. Leg</i>. II. 260.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_288_288" id="Footnote_288_288"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_288_288"><span class="label">[288]</span></a> <i>De +Spec. Leg.</i> III. 17.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_289_289" id="Footnote_289_289"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_289_289"><span class="label">[289]</span></a> +<i>Ibid.</i> II. 6.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_290_290" id="Footnote_290_290"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_290_290"><span class="label">[290]</span></a> <i>De +Parentibus Colendis</i> 56.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_291_291" id="Footnote_291_291"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_291_291"><span class="label">[291]</span></a> Comp. +Sifre Debarim 237.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_292_292" id="Footnote_292_292"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_292_292"><span class="label">[292]</span></a> <i>De +Spec. Leg.</i> IV.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_293_293" id="Footnote_293_293"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_293_293"><span class="label">[293]</span></a> <i>De +Spec. Leg.</i> III. 36.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_294_294" id="Footnote_294_294"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_294_294"><span class="label">[294]</span></a> <i>De +Spec. Leg.</i> III. 33 and 34.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_295_295" id="Footnote_295_295"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_295_295"><span class="label">[295]</span></a> Moreh +Nebukim III, ch. 39.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_296_296" id="Footnote_296_296"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_296_296"><span class="label">[296]</span></a> +<i>Fragmenta ex Antonio</i> II. 672.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_297_297" id="Footnote_297_297"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_297_297"><span class="label">[297]</span></a> <i>De +Spec. Leg.</i> III. 5, II. 304, 305.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_298_298" id="Footnote_298_298"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_298_298"><span class="label">[298]</span></a> Deut. vii. +3, and Abodah Zarah 36<sup>b</sup>.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_299_299" id="Footnote_299_299"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_299_299"><span class="label">[299]</span></a> <i>De +Spec. Leg.</i> III. 5, II. 304.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_300_300" id="Footnote_300_300"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_300_300"><span class="label">[300]</span></a> <i>De +Septen.</i> 5 ff.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_301_301" id="Footnote_301_301"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_301_301"><span class="label">[301]</span></a>See Chapter +IV, p. 125, above.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_302_302" id="Footnote_302_302"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_302_302"><span class="label">[302]</span></a> Mishnah +Rosh Hashanah III. 8, and Philo, <i>De Somn.</i> II. 11.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_303_303" id="Footnote_303_303"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_303_303"><span class="label">[303]</span></a> Comp. +<i>Agadah bei Philo</i>, by Treitel, <i>Monatsschrift</i>, +1909.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_304_304" id="Footnote_304_304"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_304_304"><span class="label">[304]</span></a> Comp. +Bereshit Rabba 16, 4.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_305_305" id="Footnote_305_305"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_305_305"><span class="label">[305]</span></a> Comp. +Taylor's edition.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_306_306" id="Footnote_306_306"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_306_306"><span class="label">[306]</span></a> <i>De +Plant.</i> 30.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_307_307" id="Footnote_307_307"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_307_307"><span class="label">[307]</span></a> It is +impossible for me to make an adequate acknowledgment of my debt to +Dr. Schechter, President of the Jewish Theological Seminary of +America. But I should say that I have borrowed freely from his +articles on rabbinic theology in the Jewish Quarterly Review, vols. +VI and VII, now included in his "Aspects of Rabbinic Theology."</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_308_308" id="Footnote_308_308"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_308_308"><span class="label">[308]</span></a> Mishnah +Yodayim III. 5.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_309_309" id="Footnote_309_309"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_309_309"><span class="label">[309]</span></a> Bereshit +Rabba 26. 7.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_310_310" id="Footnote_310_310"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_310_310"><span class="label">[310]</span></a> Comp. +Schechter, <i>op. cit.</i>, Introduction.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_311_311" id="Footnote_311_311"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_311_311"><span class="label">[311]</span></a> Berakot +24<sup>b</sup>.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_312_312" id="Footnote_312_312"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_312_312"><span class="label">[312]</span></a> Mekilta +<img alt="Hebrew; " src="images/image101.jpg" width="45" height= +"16"> I. 1.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_313_313" id="Footnote_313_313"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_313_313"><span class="label">[313]</span></a> Bereshit +Rabba I. 2.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_314_314" id="Footnote_314_314"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_314_314"><span class="label">[314]</span></a> Pirke R. +Eliezer III.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_315_315" id="Footnote_315_315"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_315_315"><span class="label">[315]</span></a> Comp. +Poems, II, p. 25.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_316_316" id="Footnote_316_316"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_316_316"><span class="label">[316]</span></a> Moreh II, +ch. 70.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_317_317" id="Footnote_317_317"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_317_317"><span class="label">[317]</span></a>Eccles. +III. 15.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_318_318" id="Footnote_318_318"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_318_318"><span class="label">[318]</span></a> [H.]agigah +14 ff., Sanhedrin 37<sup>a</sup>.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_319_319" id="Footnote_319_319"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_319_319"><span class="label">[319]</span></a> Bereshit +Rabba 4.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_320_320" id="Footnote_320_320"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_320_320"><span class="label">[320]</span></a> Mena[h.]ot +99.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_321_321" id="Footnote_321_321"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_321_321"><span class="label">[321]</span></a> Mishnah +Sanhedrin II. 1.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_322_322" id="Footnote_322_322"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_322_322"><span class="label">[322]</span></a> 322: +[H.]agigah 15<sup>b</sup>.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_323_323" id="Footnote_323_323"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_323_323"><span class="label">[323]</span></a> Bereshit +Rabba 36. 8.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_324_324" id="Footnote_324_324"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_324_324"><span class="label">[324]</span></a> Ant. III. +2.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_325_325" id="Footnote_325_325"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_325_325"><span class="label">[325]</span></a> <i>De V. +Mos.</i> II. 12.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_326_326" id="Footnote_326_326"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_326_326"><span class="label">[326]</span></a> Comp. Ant. +XVIII. 8. 1.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_327_327" id="Footnote_327_327"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_327_327"><span class="label">[327]</span></a> Comp. +"Ethics of the Fathers" VI. 6.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_328_328" id="Footnote_328_328"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_328_328"><span class="label">[328]</span></a> See +Epstein, <i>Philon et le Midrasch Tadsché</i>, Revue des +Etudes Juives, XXI, p. 80.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_329_329" id="Footnote_329_329"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_329_329"><span class="label">[329]</span></a> Yer. Meg. +I. 71<sup>c</sup>.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_330_330" id="Footnote_330_330"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_330_330"><span class="label">[330]</span></a> Comp. an +article by Dr. Poznànski in the <i>Revue des études +Juives</i>, 1905, <i>Philo dans l'ancienne littérature +judéo-arabe</i>, pp. 10 ff.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_331_331" id="Footnote_331_331"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_331_331"><span class="label">[331]</span></a> Comp. +Poznànski, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 27.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_332_332" id="Footnote_332_332"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_332_332"><span class="label">[332]</span></a> Moreh II. +ch. 1 ff.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_333_333" id="Footnote_333_333"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_333_333"><span class="label">[333]</span></a> +<i>Ibid.</i> 31.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_334_334" id="Footnote_334_334"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_334_334"><span class="label">[334]</span></a> +<i>Ibid.</i> 31.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_335_335" id="Footnote_335_335"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_335_335"><span class="label">[335]</span></a> Moreh III. +43 ff.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_336_336" id="Footnote_336_336"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_336_336"><span class="label">[336]</span></a> Comp. +Ginzberg, art. "Cabbalah," Jewish Encyclopedia.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_337_337" id="Footnote_337_337"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_337_337"><span class="label">[337]</span></a> Comp. +Taylor's "Ethics of the Fathers," ch. 5, notes.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_338_338" id="Footnote_338_338"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_338_338"><span class="label">[338]</span></a> <i>De +Cherubim</i> 12 and 14. Comp. <i>De Somn.</i> I. 8.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_339_339" id="Footnote_339_339"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_339_339"><span class="label">[339]</span></a> Comp. +<i>De Somn.</i> I. 12.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_340_340" id="Footnote_340_340"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_340_340"><span class="label">[340]</span></a> Comp. +<i>De Fuga</i> 9.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_341_341" id="Footnote_341_341"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_341_341"><span class="label">[341]</span></a> Comp. +Hort, Introduction to Clement's <img alt="Greek: Etrômateis" +src="images/image102.jpg" width="81" height="15"></p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_342_342" id="Footnote_342_342"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_342_342"><span class="label">[342]</span></a> Ed. +Cassel, pp. 4 and 15<sup>b</sup>.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_343_343" id="Footnote_343_343"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_343_343"><span class="label">[343]</span></a> Comp. Imre +Binah. Meor Einayim, ch. 30.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_344_344" id="Footnote_344_344"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_344_344"><span class="label">[344]</span></a> Comp. J.A. +Stewart, "Myths of Plato," <i>ad fin.</i></p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_345_345" id="Footnote_345_345"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_345_345"><span class="label">[345]</span></a> Comp. +"Theologico-Political Tractate" XV.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_346_346" id="Footnote_346_346"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_346_346"><span class="label">[346]</span></a> Comp. +<i>De Humanitate</i> II. 395.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_347_347" id="Footnote_347_347"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_347_347"><span class="label">[347]</span></a> <i>De V. +Mos.</i> II. 1-5.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_348_348" id="Footnote_348_348"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_348_348"><span class="label">[348]</span></a> Comp. +<i>De Mon.</i> II. 6.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_349_349" id="Footnote_349_349"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_349_349"><span class="label">[349]</span></a> <i>De +Just.</i> 6.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_350_350" id="Footnote_350_350"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_350_350"><span class="label">[350]</span></a> Comp. +<i>De Nobilitate</i> 6.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_351_351" id="Footnote_351_351"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_351_351"><span class="label">[351]</span></a> Bamidbar +Rabba 8.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_352_352" id="Footnote_352_352"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_352_352"><span class="label">[352]</span></a> Tan[h.]uma +to Debarim.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_353_353" id="Footnote_353_353"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_353_353"><span class="label">[353]</span></a> Comp. +Pesa[h.]im 87<sup>b</sup>.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_354_354" id="Footnote_354_354"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_354_354"><span class="label">[354]</span></a> <i>De +Exsecr.</i> 6. II. 433.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_355_355" id="Footnote_355_355"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_355_355"><span class="label">[355]</span></a> Comp. +Montefiore, Jewish Quarterly Review, VI, p. 428.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_356_356" id="Footnote_356_356"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_356_356"><span class="label">[356]</span></a> Epistle to +the Romans V.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_357_357" id="Footnote_357_357"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_357_357"><span class="label">[357]</span></a> Epistle to +the Galatians III. 10.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_358_358" id="Footnote_358_358"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_358_358"><span class="label">[358]</span></a> Comp. +Chapter IV, above, p. 126.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_359_359" id="Footnote_359_359"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_359_359"><span class="label">[359]</span></a> <i>De +Abr.</i> 46.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_360_360" id="Footnote_360_360"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_360_360"><span class="label">[360]</span></a> Comp. +Schechter, <i>op. cit.</i>, Introduction.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_361_361" id="Footnote_361_361"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_361_361"><span class="label">[361]</span></a> Comp. +Mekilta 33<sup>a</sup>, ed. Friedmann.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_362_362" id="Footnote_362_362"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_362_362"><span class="label">[362]</span></a> Comp. +<i>L.A.</i> III. 26, and Chapter V, above, p. 154.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_363_363" id="Footnote_363_363"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_363_363"><span class="label">[363]</span></a> <i>De +Cherubim</i> 12.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_364_364" id="Footnote_364_364"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_364_364"><span class="label">[364]</span></a> Comp. +Gibbon, "Decline of the Roman Empire," ch. 15.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_365_365" id="Footnote_365_365"></a><a href= +"#FNanchor_365_365"><span class="label">[365]</span></a> <img alt= +"Hebrew; " src="images/image103.jpg" width="103" height="18"> +III.</p> +</div> + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Philo-Judaeus of Alexandria, by Norman Bentwich + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PHILO-JUDAEUS OF ALEXANDRIA *** + +***** This file should be named 14657-h.htm or 14657-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/1/4/6/5/14657/ + +Produced by Ted Garvin, jayam, David King, and the PG Online +Distributed Proofreading Team + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +https://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +https://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at https://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit https://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including including checks, online payments and credit card +donations. To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + https://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. + + +</pre> + +</body> +</html> diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image01.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image01.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..28cd726 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image01.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image02.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image02.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..764fa31 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image02.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image03.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image03.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..fd4e56a --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image03.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image04.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image04.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..2e5fca2 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image04.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image05.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image05.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..1cd3014 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image05.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image06.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image06.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..8a84361 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image06.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image07.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image07.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..eef8781 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image07.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image08.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image08.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..0910594 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image08.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image09.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image09.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..03aabd6 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image09.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image10.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image10.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..6c427ce --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image10.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image100.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image100.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..f3a3d46 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image100.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image101.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image101.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..011d2de --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image101.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image102.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image102.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..78909f8 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image102.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image103.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image103.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..f573ff3 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image103.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image11.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image11.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..e764729 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image11.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image12.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image12.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..6685385 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image12.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image13.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image13.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..37b574a --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image13.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image14.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image14.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..474c51c --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image14.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image15.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image15.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..c44841c --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image15.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image16.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image16.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..4e9a67e --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image16.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image17.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image17.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..314553e --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image17.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image18.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image18.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..db12db7 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image18.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image19.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image19.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..42a44eb --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image19.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image20.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image20.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..4d39ef9 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image20.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image21.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image21.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..02dc9ed --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image21.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image22.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image22.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..0e7da39 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image22.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image23.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image23.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..64f6e65 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image23.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image24.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image24.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..86dbcb9 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image24.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image25.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image25.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..81fc366 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image25.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image26.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image26.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..deb9689 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image26.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image27.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image27.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..0969755 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image27.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image28.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image28.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..7adc4ed --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image28.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image29.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image29.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..41a7ba8 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image29.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image30.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image30.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..caf2792 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image30.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image31.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image31.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..16b8781 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image31.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image32.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image32.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..cd97f13 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image32.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image33.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image33.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..64fb69a --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image33.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image34.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image34.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..72c9b3f --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image34.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image35.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image35.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..b472a22 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image35.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image36.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image36.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..e464028 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image36.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image37.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image37.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..f3bbb5d --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image37.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image38.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image38.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..b7d0151 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image38.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image39.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image39.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..6ec3435 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image39.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image40.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image40.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..1dee087 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image40.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image41.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image41.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..02ad2b3 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image41.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image42.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image42.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..7740cd1 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image42.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image43.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image43.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..4cb18b5 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image43.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image44.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image44.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..277abfa --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image44.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image45.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image45.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..fbbf9db --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image45.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image46.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image46.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..864e4ec --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image46.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image47.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image47.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..c85fede --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image47.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image48.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image48.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..032f49a --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image48.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image49.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image49.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..5bcd89d --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image49.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image50.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image50.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..51c6339 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image50.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image51.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image51.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..211e499 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image51.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image52.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image52.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..ad0be7a --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image52.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image53.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image53.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..ef0e59a --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image53.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image54.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image54.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..63d8269 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image54.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image55.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image55.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..e93825c --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image55.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image56.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image56.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..9aaae05 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image56.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image57.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image57.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..5f1be20 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image57.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image58.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image58.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..6dba196 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image58.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image59.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image59.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..4c54cb4 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image59.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image60.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image60.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..f3c9277 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image60.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image61.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image61.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..6005e5e --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image61.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image62.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image62.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..2768d6b --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image62.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image63.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image63.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..61b451c --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image63.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image64.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image64.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..28368fb --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image64.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image65.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image65.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..b155a32 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image65.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image66.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image66.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..3768f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image66.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image67.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image67.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..b39f4d0 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image67.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image68.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image68.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..7c7f28e --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image68.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image69.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image69.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..a679027 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image69.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image70.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image70.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..22963aa --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image70.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image71.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image71.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..67836ad --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image71.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image72.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image72.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..93b1c26 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image72.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image73.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image73.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..067fc71 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image73.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image74.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image74.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..2e6b232 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image74.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image75.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image75.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..994e125 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image75.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image76.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image76.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..4506c5b --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image76.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image77.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image77.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..61d35d9 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image77.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image78.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image78.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..78a1abc --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image78.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image79.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image79.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..463fc32 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image79.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image80.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image80.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..731c21e --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image80.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image81.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image81.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..14f8526 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image81.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image82.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image82.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..dbc9c36 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image82.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image83.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image83.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..221a3ac --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image83.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image84.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image84.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..53146bc --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image84.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image85.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image85.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..6478fcf --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image85.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image86.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image86.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..005badc --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image86.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image87.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image87.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..9404448 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image87.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image88.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image88.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..bc3128a --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image88.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image89.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image89.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..a9a8ec4 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image89.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image90.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image90.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..55d1feb --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image90.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image91.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image91.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..a0d494b --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image91.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image92.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image92.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..931f59d --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image92.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image93.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image93.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..63178d5 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image93.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image94.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image94.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..67504ad --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image94.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image95.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image95.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..194a211 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image95.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image96.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image96.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..ea049be --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image96.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image97.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image97.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..028aa68 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image97.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image98.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image98.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..81c89b9 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image98.jpg diff --git a/old/14657-h/images/image99.jpg b/old/14657-h/images/image99.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..e1a583d --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14657-h/images/image99.jpg |
