7 files changed, 7605 insertions, 0 deletions

diff --git a/old/14612-8.txt b/old/14612-8.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1da3be2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14612-8.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,2473 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Chambers' Edinburgh Journal, No. 421, New
+Series,  Jan. 24, 1852, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Chambers' Edinburgh Journal, No. 421, New Series,  Jan. 24, 1852
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: January 6, 2005 [EBook #14612]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CHAMBERS' EDINBURGH JOURNAL, ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Malcolm Farmer, Richard J. Shiffer and the PG Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team
+
+
+
+
+
+
+                     CHAMBERS' EDINBURGH JOURNAL
+
+
+  CONDUCTED BY WILLIAM AND ROBERT CHAMBERS, EDITORS OF 'CHAMBERS'S
+  INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE,' 'CHAMBERS'S EDUCATIONAL COURSE,' &c.
+
+
+  No. 421. NEW SERIES.  SATURDAY, JANUARY 24, 1852.  PRICE 1-1/2_d_
+
+
+
+
+THE WOLF-GATHERING.
+
+
+One winter evening some years ago, I sat with a small circle of
+friends round the fire, in the house of a Polish gentleman, whom his
+acquaintances agreed in calling Mr Charles, as the most pronounceable
+of his names. He had fought in all his country's battles of the
+unsuccessful revolution of 1831; and being one of the many who sought
+life and liberty in the British dominions, on the failure of that last
+national effort, he had, with a spirit worthy of an exiled patriot,
+made the best of his unchosen fortunes, and worked his way up, through
+a thousand difficulties and privations, to a respectable standing in
+the mercantile profession. At the period mentioned, Mr Charles had
+become almost naturalised in one of our great commercial towns, was a
+member of a British church, and the head of a British household; but
+when the conversation happened to turn on sporting matters round his
+own fireside, he related in perfect seriousness the following wild and
+legend-like story of his early life in Poland:--
+
+The year before the rising, I went from my native place in Samogitia
+(Szamaďt), to spend Christmas at the house of my uncle, situated in
+the wooded country of Upper Lithuania. He was a nobleman who boasted
+his descent from one of the oldest houses in Poland, and still held
+the estate which his ancestors had defended for themselves through
+many a Tartar invasion--as much land as a hunting-train could course
+over in a summer's day. But ample as his domain appeared, my uncle was
+by no means rich upon it. The greater portion had been forest-land for
+ages; elsewhere it was occupied by poor peasants and their fields; and
+in the centre he lived, after the fashion of his forefathers, in a
+huge timber-house with antiquated fortifications, where he exercised
+liberal hospitality, especially at Christmas times. My uncle was a
+widower, but he had three sons--Armand, Henrique, and
+Constantine--brave, handsome young men, who kept close intimacy and
+right merry companionship with their nearest neighbours, a family
+named Lorenski. Their property bordered on my uncle's land, and there
+was not a family of their station within leagues; but independently of
+that circumstance, the household must have had attractions for my
+cousins, for it consisted of the young Count Emerich, his sister
+Constanza, and two orphan cousins, Marcella and Eustachia, who had
+been brought up with them from childhood.
+
+The count's parents had died in his early youth, leaving him not only
+his own guardian, but that of his sister and cousins; and the young
+people had grown up safely and happily together in that forest-land.
+The cousins were like most of our Polish girls in the provinces,
+dark-eyed and comely, gay and fearless, and ready alike for the dance
+or the chase; but Count Emerich and his sister had the praise of the
+whole province for their noble carriage, their wise and virtuous
+lives, and the great affection that was between them. Both had strange
+courage, and were said to fear neither ghost nor goblin--which, I must
+remark, was not a common case in Lithuania. Constanza was the oldest
+by two years, and by far the most discreet and calm of temper, by
+which it was believed she rather ruled the household, though her
+brother had a high and fiery spirit. But they were never known to
+disagree, and, though still young, neither seemed to think of
+marrying. Fortunately, it was not so with all their neighbours. My
+stay at my uncle's house had not been long when I found out that
+Armand was as good as engaged to Marcella, and Henrique to Eustachia,
+while Constantine, the youngest and handsomest of the three brothers,
+paid vain though deferential court to Constanza.
+
+The rising was not then publicly talked of, though known to be in full
+preparation throughout the country. All the young and brave hearts
+among us were pledged to it, and my cousins did not hesitate to tell
+me in confidence that Count Emerich and his sister were its chief
+promoters in that district. They had a devoted assistant in Father
+Cassimer. He had been their mother's confessor, and lived in the house
+for five-and-thirty years, saying mass regularly in the parish church,
+a pine-built edifice on the edge of the forest. Father Cassimer's hair
+was like snow; but he was still erect, strong, and active. He said the
+church could not spare him, and he would live to a hundred. In some
+respects, the man did deserve a century, being a good Pole and a
+worthy priest, notwithstanding one weakness which beset him, for
+Father Cassimer took special delight in hunting. It was said that
+once, when robed for mass, a wild boar chanced to stray past; whereon
+the good priest mounted his horse, which was usually fastened to the
+church-door, and started after the game in full canonicals. That was
+in his youth; but Father Cassimer never denied the tale, and the
+peasants who remembered it had no less confidence in his prayers, for
+they knew he loved his country, and looked after the sick and poor.
+The priest was my cousin's instructor in wood-craft, and the
+boon-companion of my uncle; but scarcely had I got well acquainted
+with him and the Lorenskis, when two Christmas visitors arrived at
+their house.
+
+They were a brother and sister, Russian nobles, known as Count
+Theodore and Countess Juana. Their native place was St Petersburg, but
+they had spent years in travelling over Europe; and though nobody
+knew the extent of their estates, it was supposed to be great, for
+they spared no expense, and always kept the best society. Latterly
+they had been somehow attracted to Poland, and became so popular among
+our country nobles, that they were invited from house to house, making
+new friends wherever they went, for Russians though they were, they
+wished well to our country, and, among their intimates, spoke of
+liberty and justice with singular eloquence. Considering this, their
+popularity was no wonder. A handsomer or more accomplished pair I
+never saw. Both were tall, fair, and graceful, with hair of a light
+golden shade--the sister's descending almost to her feet when
+unbraided, and the brother's clustering in rich curls about the brow.
+They knew the dances of all nations, could play anything that was ever
+invented, whether game or instrument, and talked in every tongue of
+Europe, from Romaic to Swedish. Both could ride like Arabs. Count
+Theodore was a splendid shot, his sister was matchless in singing, and
+neither was ever tired of fun or frolic. They seemed of the Lorenskis'
+years, but had seen more of the world; and though scarcely so
+dignified, most people preferred the frank familiarity and lively
+converse of the travelled Russians.
+
+The Lorenskis themselves could not but applaud that general
+preference. They and the travellers had become fast friends almost on
+their first acquaintance, which took place in the previous winter; and
+Count Theodore and his sister had performed a long wintry journey from
+St Petersburg, to celebrate the Christmas-time with them. Peasants and
+servants rejoiced at their coming, for they were known to be liberal.
+The old priest said it had never been his luck to see anything decent
+out of Russia before, and my uncle's entire household were delighted,
+with the exception of Constantine. By and by, I guessed the cause of
+his half-concealed displeasure. The brother of each pair took
+wonderfully to the sister of the other. Count Theodore talked of
+buying an estate in Lithuania; and the young cousins predicted, that
+though Emerich and Constanza might be near neighbours, they would not
+live all their days free and single. After the Russians' arrival,
+there was nothing but sport among us. We had dances and concerts,
+plays, and all manner of games; but the deep snow of our Polish winter
+had not hardened to the usual strong ice, over marsh, river, and
+forest-land. It continued falling day after day, shutting all our
+amusements within doors, and preventing, to our general regret, the
+wonted wolf-hunt, always kept up in Lithuania from the middle of
+December till Christmas-eve.
+
+It was a custom, time immemorial, in the province, and followed as
+much for the amusement it afforded the young people, as for the
+destruction of the deadly prowler. The mode of conducting it was this:
+Every two or three families who chanced to be intimate when the ice
+was sufficiently strong and smooth for sledge-travelling, sent forth a
+party of young hunters, with their sisters and sweethearts, in a
+sledge covered at the one end, which was also well cushioned and gaily
+painted; the ladies in their best winter-dresses took possession of
+it, while the hunters occupied the exposed part, with guns,
+shot-pouches, and hunting-knives, in complete readiness. Beside the
+driver, who was generally an old experienced hand, there was placed a
+young hog, or a leg of pork, occasionally roasted to make the odour
+more inviting, and packed up with cords and straw in a pretty tight
+parcel, which was fastened to the sledge by a long rope twisted to
+almost iron hardness. Away they drove at full speed; and when fairly
+in the forest, the pork was thrown down, and allowed to drag after the
+sledge, the smell of it bringing wolves from every quarter, while the
+hunters fired at them as they advanced. I have seen a score of skins
+collected in this manner, not to speak of the fun, the excitement, and
+the opportunities for exhibiting one's marksmanship and courage where
+one would most wish to have them seen.
+
+The peasants said it was never lucky when Christmas came without a
+wolf-hunt: but that year it was like to be so; for, as I have said,
+the snow kept falling at intervals, with days of fog and thaw between,
+till the night before the vigil. In my youth, the Lithuanians kept
+Christmas after the fashion of old northern times. It began with great
+devotion, and ended in greater feasting. The eve was considered
+particularly sacred: many traditional ceremonies and strange beliefs
+hung about it, and the more pious held that no one should engage in
+any profane occupation, or think of going to sleep after sunset. When
+it came, our disappointment concerning the wolf-hunt lay heavy on many
+a mind as well as mine; but a strong frost had set in before daybreak,
+and at the early nightfall a finer prospect for sledging could not be
+desired--over the broad plain, and far between the forest pines; the
+ice stretched away as smooth and bright as a mirror. The moon was
+full, and the stars were out by thousands: you could have read large
+print by the cold, clear light, as my cousins and I stood at my
+uncle's door, fervently wishing it had been any other evening.
+Suddenly, our ears caught the sound of bells and laughing voices, and
+in a few minutes up drove the Lorenski sledge in its gayest trappings,
+with Constanza, the Russian countess, and the young cousins, all
+looking blithe, and rosy in the frosty air, while Emerich and Theodore
+sat in true hunter's trim, and Father Cassimer himself in charge of
+the reins, with the well-covered pork beside him. They had two noble
+horses of the best Tatar blood, unequalled in the province, as we
+knew, for speed and strength; and Emerich's cheerful voice first
+saluted us with: 'Ho! friends, it is seven hours yet till midnight:
+won't you come with us?--it is a shame to let Christmas in without a
+wolf-skin!'
+
+That was enough for us: we flew in for our equipments. My uncle was
+not at first willing that we should go; but the merry company now at
+his door, the unequivocal countenance which Father Cassimer gave to
+the proceeding, and the high spirits of the young Russians, who were,
+as usual, wild for the sport, made him think that, after all, there
+was no harm in the young people taking an hour or two in the woods
+before mass, which on Christmas-eve begins always at midnight. Our
+hunting-gear was donned in a trice; and with my uncle's most trusty
+man, Metski, to assist in driving, away we went at full speed to the
+forest.
+
+Father Cassimer was an experienced general in expeditions of the kind;
+he knew the turns of the woods where the wolves scented best; and when
+we had got fairly among the tall oaks, down went his pork. For some
+time it dragged on without a single wolf appearing, though the odour
+came strong and savoury through cords and straw.
+
+'If I were a wolf myself, I would come for that,' said old Metski. The
+priest quickened his speed, vowing he would not say mass without a
+skin that night; and we got deeper into the wilderness of oak and
+pine. Like most of our Lithuanian forests, it had no underwood. There
+was ample space for our sledge among the great trees, and the
+moonlight fell in a flood of brightness upon their huge white trunks,
+and through the frost-covered branches. We could see the long icicles
+gleaming like pendants of diamond for miles through the wide woods,
+but never a wolf. The priest began to look disappointed; Metski
+sympathised with him, for he relished a hunt almost as well as his
+reverence; but all the rest, with the help of the Russians, amused
+themselves with _making_ game. I have said they were in great spirits,
+particularly Count Theodore; indeed he was generally the gayer of the
+pair--his sister being evidently the more prudent--and in this respect
+they resembled the Lorenskis. Many a jest, however, on the
+non-appearance of the wolves went round our sledge, of which I
+remember nothing now except that we all laughed till the old wood
+rang.
+
+'Be quiet, good children,' said the priest, turning in his seat of
+command: 'you make noise enough to frighten all the wolves in
+creation.'
+
+'They won't come to-night, father; they are preparing for mass,' cried
+Count Theodore. 'Juana, if the old Finn were here now, wouldn't he be
+useful?'
+
+'Perhaps he might,' said the countess, with a forced laugh; but she
+cast a look of strange warning and reproof on her brother.
+
+'What Finn?' said the priest, catching the count's words.
+
+'Oh, he is talking of an old nursery-tale we had in St Petersburg,'
+hastily interposed the lady, though I thought her face had no memory
+of the nursery in it.
+
+'About the Finns I'll warrant,' said Father Cassimer. 'They are a
+strange people. My brother the merchant told me that he knew one of
+them at Abo who said he had a charm for the wolves; but somebody
+informed against him for smuggling, and the Russian government sent
+him to the lead-mines in Siberia. By Saint Sigismund, there's the
+first of them!'
+
+As the priest spoke, a large wolf appeared, and half the guns in the
+sledge were raised. 'Not yet, not yet,' said our experienced
+commander, artfully turning away as another and another came in sight.
+'There are more coming,' and he gradually slackened our pace; but far
+off through the moonlit woods and the frozen night we could hear a
+strange murmur, which grew and swelled on all sides to a chorus of
+mingled howlings, and the wolves came on by troops.
+
+'Fire now, friends!' cried Father Cassimer. 'We are like to have skins
+enough for Christmas;' and bang went all our barrels. I saw five fall;
+but, contrary to expectation, the wolves did not retire--they stood
+for an instant snarling at us. The distant howlings continued and came
+nearer; and then from every glade and alley, down the frozen streams,
+and through the wide openings of the forest, came by scores and
+hundreds such a multitude of wolves as we could not have believed to
+exist in all Lithuania.
+
+'Hand me my gun, and take the reins, Metski,' cried Father Cassimer.
+'Drive for your life!' he added in an under tone; but every one in the
+sledge heard him. Heaven knows how many we killed; but it seemed of no
+use. Our pork was swallowed, straw and all. The creatures were
+pressing upon us on every side, as if trying to surround the sledge;
+and it was fearful to see the leaps that some gray old fellows among
+them would take at Metski and the horses. Our driver did his part like
+a man, making a thousand winds and turns through the woods; but still
+the wolves pursued us. Fortunately, the firing kept them off, and,
+thanks to our noble horses, they were never able to get ahead of us;
+but as far as we could see behind us in the moonlight, came the
+howling packs, as if rising from the ground of the forest. We had seen
+nothing like it, and all did their best in firing, especially Count
+Theodore; but his shots had little effect, for his hand shook, and I
+know not if any but myself saw the looks of terrified intelligence
+which he exchanged with his sister. Still, she and the Lady Constanza
+kept up their courage, though the young cousins were as white as snow,
+and our ammunition was fast decreasing.
+
+'Yonder is a light,' said Constanza at last, as the poor horses became
+unmanageable from fright and weariness. 'It is from the cottage of old
+Wenzel, the woodman.'
+
+'If we could reach that,' said Father Cassimer, 'and leave the horses
+to their fate: it is our only chance.'
+
+No one contradicted the priest's arrangement, for his last words were
+felt to be true--though a pang passed over Constanza's face at the
+thought of leaving our brave and faithful horses to the wolves: but
+louder rose the howls behind us, as Metski urged on with all his
+might, and far above all went the shout of Father Cassimer (he had the
+best lungs in that province): 'Ho, Wenzel! open the door to us for
+God's sake!'
+
+We heard the old man reply, sent one well-aimed volley in among the
+wolves, and as they recoiled, man and woman leaped from the
+sledge--for our Polish girls are active--and rushed into the cottage,
+when old Wenzel instantly double-barred the door. It was woful to hear
+the cry of pain and terror from our poor horses as we deserted them;
+the next instant the wolves were upon them. We saw them from the
+window, as thick as ever flies stuck on sugar. How we fired upon them,
+and with what good-will old Wenzel helped us, praying all the time to
+every saint in the calendar, you may imagine! But still their numbers
+were increasing; and as a pause came in the fearful din, we plainly
+heard through the still air the boom of our own great bell, ringing
+for the midnight mass. At that sound, Father Cassimer's countenance
+fell for the first time. He knew the bellman was a poor half-witted
+fellow, who would not be sensible of his absence; and then he turned
+to have another shot at the wolves.
+
+Shots were by this time getting scarce among us. There was not a man
+had a charge left but old Wenzel, who had supplied us as long as he
+could; but at length, loading his own gun with his last charge, he
+laid it quietly in the corner, saying one didn't know what use might
+be for it, and he never liked an empty gun.
+
+Wenzel was the son of a small innkeeper at Grodno, but after his
+father's decease, which occurred when he was a child, his mother had
+married a Russian trader, who, when she died, carried the boy to
+Moscow. There Wenzel bade fair to be brought up a Russian; but when a
+stepmother came home, which took place while he was still a youth, he
+had returned to his native country, built himself a hut in the woods
+of Lithuania, and lived a lonely hunter till the time of my story,
+when he was still a robust, though gray-haired man. Some said his
+Muscovite parents had not been to his liking; some that he had found
+cause to shoot a master to whom they apprenticed him at Moscow; but be
+that as it might, Wenzel hated the Russians with all his heart, and
+never scrupled to say that the gun which had served him so long would
+serve the country too if it ever came to a rising. So much for
+Wenzel's story, by way of explaining what followed; but as I stood
+beside him that night at the hut's single crevice of a window, I could
+have given Poland itself for ammunition enough to do service on the
+wolves. They had now left nothing but the bones of our horses, which
+they had dragged round and round the cottage, with a din of howlings
+that almost drowned our voices within. Then they seized on the bodies
+of their own slain companions, which were devoured to the very skins;
+and still the gathering was going on. We could see them coming in
+troops through the open glades of the forest, as if aware that some
+human prey was in reserve. The hut was strongly built of great
+pine-logs, but it was fearful to hear them tearing at the door and
+scratching up the foundations. The bravest among us got terrified at
+these sounds. Metski loudly avowed his belief that the wolves were
+sent upon us as a punishment for hunting on Christmas-eve, and fell
+instantly to his prayers. Wenzel flung a blazing brand among them from
+the window, but they did not seem to care for fire; and three of them
+were so near leaping in, that he drove to the log-shutter and gave up
+that method of defence. None of the party appeared so far overcome
+with terror as Count Theodore: his spirit and prudence both seemed to
+forsake him. When the wolves began to scratch, he threw himself almost
+on his face in the corner, and kept moaning and praying in Russian, of
+which none of us understood a syllable but old Wenzel. Emerich and I
+would have spoken to him, but the woodman stopped us with a strange
+sign. Count Theodore had taken the relic of some saint from a
+pocket-book which he carried in his breast, and was, in Russian
+fashion as I think, confessing his sins over it; while his sister sat
+silent and motionless by the fire, with livid face and clasped hands.
+It was burning low, but I saw the woodman's face darken. He stepped to
+the corner and took down his gun, as I believed, to take the last shot
+at the wolves; but Count Theodore was in his way. He levelled it for
+an instant at the prostrate man, and before I could speak or
+interpose, the report, followed by a faint shrill shriek from the
+Russian, rang through the hut. We rushed to him, but the count was
+dead. A bullet had gone right through the heart.
+
+'My gun has shot the count, and the wolves will leave us now,' said
+Wenzel coolly. 'I heard him say in his prayers that a Finn, now in the
+Siberian mines, had vowed to send them on him and his company wherever
+he went.'
+
+As the woodman spoke, he handed to Count Emerich, with a hoarse
+whisper, a bloody pocket-book, taken from the dead body, and turning
+to Juana, said something loud and threatening to her in the Russian
+tongue; at which the lady only bowed her head, seeming of all in the
+hut to be the least surprised or concerned at the death of her
+brother. As for us, the complicated horrors of the night had left us
+stunned and stupified till the rapid diminution of the wolfish din,
+the sounds of shots and voices, and the glare of flambeaux lighting up
+the forest, brought most of us to the window. The wolves were scouring
+away in all directions, there was a grayness in the eastern sky, for
+Christmas-day was breaking; and from all sides the count and my
+uncle's tenantry, with skates and sledges, guns and torches, were
+pouring to the rescue as we shouted to them from the cottage.
+
+They had searched for us almost since midnight, fearing that something
+terrible had detained Father Cassimer and his company from mass. There
+were wonderfully few wolves shot in the retreat, and we all went home
+to Count Emerich's house, but not in triumph, for with us went the
+body of the Russian, of which old Wenzel was one of the bearers. The
+unanimous determination we expressed to bring him to justice as a
+murderer, was silenced when Emerich shewed us in confidence a letter
+from the Russian minister, and a paper with all our names in a list of
+the disaffected in Upper Lithuania, which he had found in Theodore's
+pocket-book. After that, we all affirmed that Wenzel's gun had gone
+off by accident; and on the same good Christmas-day, Count Emerich,
+with a body of his retainers, escorted the Lady Juana to a convent at
+the other end of the province, the superior of which was his aunt.
+There she became a true Catholic, professed, and, as I was told,
+turned to a great saint. There is a wooden cross with his name, and a
+Latin inscription on it, marking Count Theodore's grave, by our old
+church on the edge of the forest. No one ever inquired after him, and
+the company of that terrible night are far scattered. My uncle and his
+sons all died for the poor country. The young cousins are married to
+German doctors in Berlin. Constanza and her brother are still single,
+for aught I know, but they have been exiles in America these fifteen
+years. Father Cassimer went with them, after being colonel of a
+regiment which saw hard service on the banks of the Vistula; and it
+may be that he is still saying mass or hunting occasionally in the Far
+West.
+
+The last time I saw Wenzel and Metski was in the trenches at Minsk,
+where they had a tough debate regarding our adventure in the forest:
+the woodman insisting it was the Finn's spell that brought the wolves
+in such unheard-of numbers, and the peasant maintaining that it was a
+judgment on our desecration of Christmas-eve. For my own part, I think
+the long storm and a great scarcity of food had something to do with
+it, for tales of the kind were never wanting in our province. The
+wolf-gathering, however, saved us a journey to Siberia: thanks to old
+Wenzel. And sometimes yet, when any strange noise breaks in upon my
+sleep even here in England, I dream of being in his wild hut in the
+forest and listening to the wolfish voices at the door.
+
+
+
+
+THE DROLLERIES OF FALSE POLITICAL ECONOMY.
+
+PLANS FOR PAYING THE NATIONAL DEBT.
+
+
+It is not customary to associate the ludicrous with financial
+operations--with budgets, schemes of taxation, and national debts. In
+general, they are considered to assume a formidable aspect; and when
+that is not the case, their details are looked on as dry and
+uninteresting--they are universally voted a 'bore.' Yet we engage to
+shew, that there have been some financial projects which at the
+present day we can pronounce essentially ludicrous. And they are not
+the mere projects of enthusiasts and theoretic dreamers. They were put
+in practice on a large scale; they involved the disposal of millions
+of money; and they were in operation at so late a period, that the
+present generation paid heavy taxes for the purpose of carrying them
+out--taxes paid for nothing better than the success of a practical
+hoax.
+
+The round hundreds of millions in which our national debt is set forth
+seem to have often confused the brains of our most practical
+arithmeticians and financiers. They seem to have felt as if these did
+not represent real money, but something ideal; or perhaps we might
+say, they have treated them like certain results of the operation of
+figures which might be neutralised by others, as the equivalents on
+the two sides of an equation exhaust each other. We never hear of a
+man trying to pay his own personal debts otherwise than with money,
+but we have had hundreds of projects for paying the national debt
+without money, and generally through some curious and ingenious
+arithmetical process. We might perhaps amuse our readers by an account
+of some of these, for to their absurdity there are no bounds; but we
+adhere in the meantime to our engagement, to shew that on this subject
+even the practical projects of statesmen of our own day have been
+ridiculous.
+
+We shall suppose that some one has occasion for L.100, which he finds
+a friend obliging enough to lend him. On receiving it, he requests the
+loan of other L.10; and being asked for what purpose, he answers, that
+with that L.10 he will pay up the original L.100. This is a rather
+startling proposal; but when he is asked how he is to manage this
+practical paradox, he says: 'Oh, I shall put out the L.10 to interest,
+and in the course of time it will increase until it pays off the
+L.100.' The lender is perhaps a little staggered at first by the
+audacious plausibility of the proposal, but it requires but a few
+seconds to enable him to say: 'Why, yes, you may lend out the L.10 at
+interest; but in the meantime, as you have borrowed it, interest runs
+against you upon it; so what better are you?' The lender, so far from
+concurring with the sanguine hopes about the fructification of the
+L.10, will only regret his having intrusted the larger sum to a person
+whose notions of money are so loose and preposterous.
+
+Yet the proposal would only have carried into private pecuniary
+matters the principle of the sinking-fund, so long deemed a blessing,
+and a source of future prosperity to the country. A sinking-fund is an
+expression generally applied to any sum of money reserved out of
+expenditure to pay debt, or meet any contingency. Now, observe that
+our remarks are not directed against it in this simple form. A surplus
+of revenue obtained by moderate taxation, saved through frugal
+expenditure, and applied to the reduction of the national debt, is
+always a good thing. But the sinking-fund to which we chiefly refer
+was a system of borrowing money to pay debt. It might be said that the
+identical money which was borrowed was not the same which was used for
+paying the debt; but it came to the same thing if the sinking-fund was
+kept up while the nation was borrowing. Thus, taking the case of the
+private borrower as we have already put it, if he took L.10 of his own
+money and put it out at interest, that it might increase and pay off
+his loan, and if, by so doing, he found it necessary to borrow L.110,
+instead of merely L.100, it was virtually the same as if he applied
+L.10 of the borrowed money for his sinking-fund. Thus for the year
+1808, the state required L.12,200,000 in loan above what the taxes
+produced. But in the same year L.1,200,000 were applied to the
+sinking-fund; consequently, it was necessary to borrow so much more,
+and therefore the whole loan of that year amounted to L.13,400,000.
+The loan was increased exactly in the way in which our friend added
+the L.10 to the L.100. It was borrowing money to pay loans.
+
+The application of millions in this manner by our statesmen, was in a
+great measure owing to the enthusiastic speculations of Dr Richard
+Price, a benevolent, ingenious, and laborious man, who, unfortunately
+for the public, possessed the power of giving his wild speculations a
+tangible and practical appearance. He was, to use a common expression,
+'carried off his feet' by arithmetical calculations. He believed
+compound interest to be omnipotent. He made a calculation of what a
+penny could have come to if laid out at compound interest from the
+birth of Christ to the nineteenth century, and found it would make--we
+forget precisely how many globes of gold the size of this earth. He
+did not say, however, where the proper investments were to be made;
+how the money was to be procured; and, most serious of all, he
+overlooked that where one party received such an accumulating amount
+of money, some other party must pay it, and to pay it must make it. In
+fact, the doctor looked on the increase of money by compound interest
+as a mere arithmetical process. The world, however, finds it to be a
+process of working, and the making of money by toil, parsimony, and
+anxiety.
+
+When any one seizes on such a theme he is sure to be carried to
+extremities with it. It was one of Price's favourite theories, that
+the time when interest was highest was the best time for borrowing
+money, because the borrowed sinking-fund would then bring the highest
+interest. One is astonished in times like these, when people think
+taxes and national debt so serious, at the easy carelessness with
+which the doctor treats the disease, and his sure remedy. He says in
+his celebrated work on Annuities (i. 277): 'It is an observation that
+deserves particular attention here, that in this plan it will be of
+less importance to a state what interest it is obliged to give for
+money; _for the higher the interest, the sooner will such a sum pay
+off the principal_. Thus, L.100,000,000 borrowed at 8 per cent., and
+bearing an annual interest of L.8,000,000, would be paid off by a fund
+producing annually L.100,000 in fifty-six years; that is, in
+thirty-eight years less time than if the same money had been borrowed
+at 4 per cent. Hence it follows that reductions of interest would in
+this plan be no great advantage to a state. They would indeed lighten
+its present burdens; but this advantage would be in some measure
+balanced by the addition which would be made to its future burdens, in
+consequence of the longer time during which it would be necessary to
+bear them.'
+
+'Certain it is, therefore,' says the doctor, in a general survey of
+his arithmetical salvation of the country, 'that if our affairs are to
+be relieved, it must be by a fund increasing itself in the manner I
+have explained. The smallest fund of this kind is indeed omnipotent,
+if it is allowed time to operate.' And again: 'It might be easily
+shewn that the faithful application from the beginning of the year
+1700, of only L.200,000 annually, would long before 1790,
+notwithstanding the reductions of interest, have paid off above
+L.100,000,000 of the public debts. The nation might therefore some
+years ago have been eased of a great part of the taxes with which it
+is loaded. The most important relief might have been given to its
+trade and manufactures; and it might now have been in better
+circumstances than at the beginning of last war: its credit firm;
+respected by foreign nations, and dreaded by its enemies.'
+
+That such a tone should be assumed by an enthusiastic speculator is
+not wonderful. The payment of the national debt has been one of the
+staple dreams of enthusiasts. It would be difficult to believe the
+wild nonsense that has been written on it; and Hogarth, in his
+dreadful picture of a madhouse, appropriately represents one of his
+principal figures hard at work on it. But the remarkable thing--and
+what shews the perilous nature of such speculations--is, that these
+theories were worked out by chancellors of the exchequer, and adopted
+by parliament. There was a faint sinking-fund so early as 1716; but
+Walpole one day swept it up and spent it, having probably just
+discovered that it was a fallacy. It was in the days of the younger
+Pitt, however, that it came out in full bloom. After it had been for
+several years in operation, a retired and absent-minded mathematical
+student, Robert Hamilton, shewed its falsity in a book printed in
+1813. The exposure was conclusive, and no one since that time has
+ventured to support a sinking-fund.
+
+As already stated, it is a very good thing to save something out of
+the revenue and pay off part of the debt. But no good is done by
+keeping it to accumulate at interest, because the debt it would pay
+off is just accumulating against it. Apply this to private
+transactions. You are in debt L.110. You have L.10, and the question
+is: Are you to pay it at once, and reduce your debt to L.100, or are
+you to keep it accumulating at interest? It is much the same which you
+do, only the latter is the more troublesome mode. If you pay it at
+once, you will just have so much less interest to hand over to your
+creditor. If you put it out at interest, you will have to pay over to
+him what you receive for it, in addition to the interest of the L.100.
+There is an incidental purpose for which it has been deemed right that
+the government should, however, have a fund at its disposal--that is
+for buying into the funds when they fall very low, and thus
+accomplishing two services--the one the paying a portion of the debt
+at a cheap rate, the other stopping the depreciation of the funds.
+This is in itself we doubt not a very just practical object, but we
+believe the sums that can be applied to it are very small in
+comparison with the reserves which formed the old sinking-fund.
+
+But another and a very different argument has been adduced, not
+certainly for the re-establishment and support of a sinking-fund,
+since its fallacy has been exposed, but against the policy of having
+exposed it. It is said that the belief in the potency of a
+sinking-fund for clearing off the debt inspired public confidence in
+the stability of the funds, and that it was wrong to shake this
+confidence even by the promulgation of truth. It has often been
+supposed, indeed, that the statesmen who mainly carried out the system
+were in secret conscious of its fallacy, but were content to carry it
+out so long as they saw that it inspired confidence in the public. It
+is in allusion to this that we have spoken of the sinking-fund as a
+great hoax. We cannot sanction the morality of governments acting on
+conscious fallacies; and in this instance the natural confidence in
+the funds rather enlarged than decreased when the fallacy was exposed
+and the system abandoned.
+
+Keeping in view Dr Price's views of the potentiality of compound
+interest, we now give a brief account of a singular attempt made in
+France to put them in practice, and by their omnipotence pay our
+national debt and that of other nations too, out of a small private
+fortune. In the year 1794, a will was registered in France by one
+Fortuné Ricard, disposing of a sum of 500 livres, a little more than
+L.20 sterling. Fortuné stated that this sum was the result of a
+present of twenty-four livres which he had received when he was a boy,
+and had kept accumulating at compound interest to a period of advanced
+age. By his will he left it in the hands of trustees, making
+arrangements for a perpetual succession, as the purposes of the trust
+were not to be all accomplished for a period of several centuries. The
+money was to be divided into five portions, each of 100 livres, and so
+to be put out at compound interest.
+
+The first portion was to be withdrawn at the end of a century: it
+would then amount to 13,000 livres, or about L.550. It is scarcely
+worth while mentioning the purposes to which this trifle was to be
+applied, but for the credit of M. Ricard it may be mentioned that they
+were all unexceptionable. In two centuries the second sum would be
+released, amounting to 1,700,000 livres. At the end of the third
+century, the third instalment was to be released, when it would
+consist of 226,000,000 livres. The destination of these magnificent
+sums was also unexceptionable--it was for national education, the
+erecting of public libraries, and the like. The instalment to be
+released at the end of the fourth century would amount to about
+30,000,000,000 livres: it was to be employed partly in the building of
+100 towns, each containing 150,000 inhabitants, in the most agreeable
+parts of France. 'In a short time,' says the benevolent founder,
+'there will result from hence an addition of 15,000,000 of inhabitants
+to the kingdom, and its consumption will be doubled--for which service
+I hope the economists will think themselves obliged to me.' Malthus
+had not then published his principles of population.
+
+We must draw breath as we approach the destination of the fifth and
+last instalment. It was to amount to four millions of millions of
+livres--about a hundred and seventy thousand millions of pounds. We
+take for granted that Fortuné's calculations are correct, and have
+certainly not taken the trouble of verifying them. Among other truly
+benevolent and cosmopolitan destinations of this very handsome sum, it
+may be sufficient to mention these:--
+
+'Six thousand millions shall be appropriated towards paying the
+national debt of France, upon condition that the kings, our good lords
+and masters, shall be entreated to order the comptrollers-general of
+the finances to undergo in future an examination in arithmetic before
+they enter on the duties of their office.
+
+'Twelve thousand millions shall likewise be employed in paying the
+public debts of England. It may be seen that I reckon that both these
+national debts will be doubled in this period--not that I have any
+doubt of the talents of certain ministers to increase them much more,
+but their operations in this way are opposed by an infinity of
+circumstances, which lead me to presume that these debts cannot be
+more than doubled. Besides, if they amount to a few thousands of
+millions more, I declare that it is my intention that they should be
+entirely paid off, and that a project so laudable should not remain
+unexecuted for a trifle more or less.'[1]
+
+M. Ricard, it will be observed, must have drawn his will while royalty
+was in the ascendant; it was registered during the Reign of Terror,
+and one would be curious to know how many weeks, instead of centuries,
+his 500 livres remained sacred. Money in the most steadily-governed
+states--in our own, for instance--is subject to continual casualties.
+The most acute men of business cannot command perfectly certain
+investments for their own money--they are often miserably deceived,
+and suffer heavy losses. M. Ricard, however, supposed that a set of
+irresponsible trustees would for centuries always discover perfectly
+sure investments, and act with consummate watchfulness and honesty. If
+it were possible to leave behind one money with the qualification of
+always being securely invested, while the rest of the property in the
+world remained insecure, it would gradually suck all the wealth of the
+world into its vortex. But it would require supernatural agency to
+make it thus absolutely secure.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Footnote 1: See the will at length in the appendix to Lord
+Lauderdale's _Inquiry into the Nature and Origin of Public Wealth_.]
+
+
+
+
+SIR FRANCIS HEAD'S 'FAGGOT.'[2]
+
+
+'A FAGGOT OF FRENCH STICKS' is the whimsical title of a work just
+presented to the public, by the author of _Bubbles from the Brunnen of
+Nassau_; the said work being as respectable a specimen of bookmaking
+as has ever come under our notice. The object of the writer appears to
+have been to fill so much paper, by saying something about all he saw
+or heard of in a visit to Paris, no matter how insignificant the
+circumstances; and by this ingenious means, he has actually contrived
+to make up two goodly-sized volumes for the literary market.
+
+The author of this strange melange, however, is not without a dash of
+merit; he possesses a terrier-like power of poking about into holes
+and corners, and dragging to light a variety of facts which might
+escape the attention of less vigilant tourists. For example, he is not
+satisfied with the mere sight or employment of omnibuses,
+street-porters, _chiffonniers_, and other agents of the public
+service, but must know all about them--how the omnibus horses live,
+and how many miles they run per diem; what variety of occupations the
+porters resort to for a livelihood; and what are the substances, and
+their value, that the chiffonniers scrape every morning from the
+kennel. Sir Francis is great on pig slaughter-houses, furnished
+lodgings, and police-officers. He tells you every particular of his
+lodging: how he ascended the stair; what landing-places there were;
+what price he was to pay; how the servant brought him too few pieces
+of butter to breakfast, and what he said in ordering more; how one day
+he perceived a bad smell in his sitting-room, and shifted to a higher
+part of the building, where the bad smell did not come; how he finally
+paid his account, and how the _concierge_ bade him good-by. All
+important information this. An equally true and particular narrative
+is given of Sir Francis's object in visiting Paris, which was to
+consult an occulist on the subject of his eyes. In going to the
+occulist's, we are informed how he left his lodgings at a quarter
+before seven o'clock; how he crossed the Place Vendôme, and saw a
+sentinel pacing at the foot of Napoleon's Column; how he observed that
+the sentinel had the misfortune to have a hole in his greatcoat, which
+affords an opportunity too good to be lost for quoting that
+little-known verse of Burns's--'If there's a hole in a' your coats,'
+&c.; how he then, being done with looking at the sentinel, goes on his
+way, crosses the Boulevard des Italiens, and enters the Rue de la
+Chaussée d'Antin; how he looks about him till he sees No. 50, and,
+having spoken a word to the door-keeper, goes up stairs. Then, he
+informs his readers that he rang the doctor's bell; and how, the door
+being opened by a boy in livery, he was shewn into a drawing-room.
+Here, he tells us, he sat down in company with a number of other
+patients, waiting their turn to be called by the doctor. Vastly
+amusing all this, but nothing to what follows:--'For a considerable
+time we all sat in mute silence, and, indeed, in our respective
+attitudes, almost motionless, save that every now and then a
+gentleman, and sometimes a lady, would arise, slowly walk diagonally
+across the carpet to a corner close to the window, press with his or
+her hand the top of a little mahogany machine that looked like an
+umbrella-stand, look down into it, and then very slowly, at a sort of
+funereal pace, walk back. All this I bore with great fortitude for
+some time: at last, overpowered by curiosity, I arose, walked slowly
+and diagonally across the carpet, pushed the thing in the corner
+exactly as I had seen everybody else push it, looked just as they did,
+downwards, where, close to the floor, I beheld open, in obedience to
+the push I had given from the top, the lid of a spitting-box, from
+which I very slowly, and without attracting the smallest observation,
+walked back to my chair.' Wonderful power of description this!
+
+Having had the honour of receiving an invitation to dinner at the
+Elysée, Sir Francis of course goes at the appointed hour, seven
+o'clock. The following is his account of the affair. After passing
+through the entrance-hall, 'I slowly walked through two or three
+handsome rooms _en suite_, full of interesting pictures, into a
+drawing-room, in which I found assembled, in about equal proportions,
+about fifty very well-dressed ladies and gentlemen, the latter being
+principally officers, whose countenances, not less clearly than the
+decorations on their breasts, announced them to be persons of
+distinction. The long sofas and chairs, as if they had only just come
+out--or rather, as if they had just come up from the country to come
+out--had arranged themselves so very formally, and altogether behaved
+so very awkwardly, that it was almost impossible for the company
+assembled to appear as much at their ease as, from their position,
+education, and manners, they really were; and accordingly, biassed by
+the furniture, they kept moving, and bowing, and courtesying, and
+_sotto-voce_ talking, until they got into a parallelogram, in the
+centre of which stood, distinguished by a broad ribbon, and by a mild,
+thoughtful, benevolent countenance, Prince Louis Napoleon, whose
+gentle and gentleman-like bearing to every person who approached him
+entitled him to that monarchical homage in which the majority
+evidently delighted, but which it was alike his policy as well as his
+inclination--at all events to appear--to suppress; and accordingly the
+parallelogram, which, generally speaking, was at the point of
+congelation, sometimes and of its own accord froze into the formality
+of a court, and then all of a sudden appeared to recollect that the
+Prince was the President, and that the whole party had assembled to
+enjoy _liberté_, _fraternité_, and _égalité_. As I was observing the
+various phases that one after another presented themselves to view,
+the principal officer of the household came up to me, and in a quiet
+and appropriate tone of voice, requested me to do two things; one of
+which appeared to me to be rather easy, and the other--or rather to do
+both--extremely difficult. By an inclination of his forehead he
+pointed to two ladies of rank, whose names he mentioned to me, but
+with whom I was perfectly unacquainted, seated on the sofas at
+different points of the parallelogram. 'When dinner is announced you
+will be so good,' he said, 'as to offer your arm to ---- ' (the one)
+'and to seat yourself next to ---- ' (the other.) Of course I silently
+bowed assent; but while the officer who had spoken to me was giving
+similar instructions to other gentlemen, I own I felt a little
+nervous, lest, during the polite scramble in which I was about to
+engage, like the dog in the fable, grasping at the shadow of the
+second lady, I might lose the substance of the first, or _vice versâ_.
+However, when the doors were thrown open, I very quickly, with a
+profound reverence, obtained my prize, and at once confiding to
+her--for had I deliberated I should have been lost--the remainder of
+the pleasing duty it had been predestined I was to have the honour to
+perform, we glided through couples darting in various directions for
+similar objects, until, finding ourselves in a formal procession
+sufficiently near to the lady in question, we proceeded, at a funereal
+pace, towards our doom, which proved to be a most delightful one.
+Seated in obedience to the orders I had received, we found ourselves
+exactly opposite "le Prince," who had, of course, on his right and
+left, the two ladies of highest rank. The table was very richly
+ornamented, and it was quite delightful to observe at a glance what
+probably in mathematics, or even in philosophy, it might have been
+rather troublesome to explain--namely, the extraordinary difference
+which existed between forty or fifty ladies and gentlemen standing in
+a parallelogram in a drawing-room, and the very same number and the
+very same faces, rectilinearly seated in the very same form in a
+dining-room. It was the difference between sterility and fertility,
+between health and sickness, between joy and sorrow, between winter
+and summer; in fact, between countenances frozen into Lapland
+formality and glowing with tropical animation and delight. Everybody's
+mouth had apparently something kind to say to its neighbour's eyes;
+and the only alloy was that, as each person had two neighbours, his
+lips, under a sort of _embarras des richesses_, occasionally found it
+rather difficult to express all that was polite and pleasing to both.'
+Dinner being over, all returned to the drawing-room in the same formal
+order. Each gentleman bowed ceremoniously to the lady he had
+conducted, she withdrew her arm, 'and the sofas were again to be seen
+fringed by rows of satin shoes; while the carpet, in all other
+directions, was subjected to the pressure of boots, that often
+remained for a short time motionless as before. A general buzz of
+conversation, however, soon enlivened the room; and the President,
+gladly availing himself of it, mingled familiarly with the crowd.'
+
+In the course of his rambles through Paris, Sir Francis visits various
+_casernes_ or military barracks, and military schools. He also makes
+sundry investigations into the functions and _matériel_ of the French
+army, and finally, in company with Louis Napoleon, goes to a review.
+The sum of these proceedings is, that he is much struck with the
+progress made by the French in strategy and military manoeuvres,
+especially in their musket-ball firing, against which, he says, we
+have no chance. Everybody knows that our author is an alarmist, ever
+sighing over our want of national defences, and dreaming of invasion
+and rapine. At the same time, his details on military affairs are
+worth the notice of those to whom the business of military education
+is intrusted.
+
+Sir Francis is very much pleased with the Parisian street
+_commissionaires_ or porters, and wonders that no such luxury is
+general in London. One day he invites the nearest commissionaire to
+visit his lodging, and tell him his whole story, which the man gladly
+did. Setting off at a great rate, he said:--'Sir, I black boots; I saw
+wood; I take it up into the apartments; I carry portmanteaus and
+luggage, and whatever offers itself; I carry letters and parcels; I
+rub the floors of apartments and stairs; I wash the floors and the
+dining-rooms; I change furniture from one house to another with a
+handbarrow--carried by two men with leathern straps; I draw a cart
+with portmanteaus, wood, or furniture; I beat carpets, take them up
+out of the apartments, and carry them to the barrier outside Paris
+(yes, sir); I bring them back to the persons to whom they belong; I
+lay them down. I know how to arrange a room; I make the beds; I colour
+the inlaid floors of the apartments; I watch a sick person through the
+night and day (a shrug) for so much a day (a shrug), and for the night
+also (a shrug); I agree as to the price with those persons who employ
+me, for five francs the night, eight francs for the twenty-four
+hours, when they do not feed me; besides, I watch the dead in the
+apartment during the twenty-four hours that they remain exposed; in
+short (three shrugs), I do whatever is offered to me. I receive
+commercial notes for whoever will charge me with the commission, and
+who will give me the note to enable me to receive it; I bring back the
+money to the person who has intrusted me with the note, and the person
+pays me for my commission; I pawn at the Mont de Piété whatever the
+public is willing to intrust to me--jewels (a shrug), chains, watches,
+gold or silver; I pawn silver spoons and forks, for eating; I pawn
+clocks, linen; they take everything in pawn (a shrug) at the Mont de
+Piété--furniture, pianos, mattresses, candelabras, lustres: in short,
+they take in pawn everything of value; and I bring back the money and
+the pawnbroker's ticket to the person who has intrusted me with the
+commission, and at the same time that person pays me for my
+commission. Afterwards, I redeem pawned articles from the Mont de
+Piété for all those persons who choose to honour me with their
+commissions, provided that the person puts his signature on the back
+of the paper which the Mont de Piété delivered to him on the day when
+he pawned the aforesaid articles. I act as commissioner throughout all
+the departments of France, and also (shrug) in foreign countries,
+according to the price agreed on, and at a reasonable price; I travel
+on the railways (shrug), in the diligence (shrug); I go as quick as I
+can, and I come back as quick as I can; I rub down a horse--I can! I
+feed him; wash the carriage; drive the carriage; arrange the cellar;
+rinse out the bottles; bottle the wine; pile up the bottles after they
+are corked and stamped; lower the hogsheads of wine into the cellar
+with a thick rope, with the help of a comrade, and the price is two
+francs for each hogshead. In my own country, I am a labourer, and do
+everything relating to the cultivation of the ground. I root up the
+trees; I saw them into several lengths; I split the wood; pile it up
+to dry; then load it on mules, and carry it to the house to be burned;
+afterwards I mow the hay and corn; carry the corn into the barn
+(shrug), and the hay also; thrash the corn, and put it away into the
+granary; from whence they take it out by little and little to have it
+ground and to make bread. I prune the vines.' Here the commissionaire
+gives an account of the whole process of wine-making, in which he is
+an adept; and then goes on to explain how he is employed as a spy on
+families and others, all in the way of business. He ends with saying
+that trade is dull, and blames the revolution of 1848 for ruining his
+employment--for why? 'Everybody is afraid of the future. Everybody is
+economical; everybody is hiding, hoarding, or saving his money,
+because he knows that affairs cannot continue as they are, that sooner
+or later there will be another revolution.' Such a country! The
+revolution thus anticipated has taken place. By relieving the
+Parisians from the fears of a social upbreak--a universal sack of
+property--for that was preying on their minds--the grand _coup_ of
+Louis Napoleon will doubtless set money afloat, and restore occupation
+to the humbler classes--the real sufferers by revolutions.
+
+The curious thing about all the revolutions and coups that have ever
+taken place in France is, that they never give the slightest particle
+of real liberty to the people; and, what is equally surprising, the
+people do not know what liberty is. It is a thing they talk about, and
+paint over doorways, but further they go not. When, in 1848, a mob was
+suffered to assume supreme authority, it might have been anticipated
+that the very first thing they would do would be to turn the whole
+police system about its business and destroy its records. No such
+thing. The triumphant insurrectionists, complaining of tyranny, were
+as tyrannical as anybody; they retained the obnoxious system of
+passports, and kept up the usual routine of police administration,
+spies and all. The truth appears to be, that the French cannot
+comprehend the idea of social organisation without a minute machinery
+of management and interference. Society in England, where people may
+speak and do pretty much what they like, go here and go there without
+leave asked, and set up any business anywhere as suits their fancy--is
+anarchy, a chaos, according to French notions. Sir Francis inclines to
+the belief that a system of government interference and regulation, as
+in France, is an advantage, because it protects society against some
+gross abuses--such as the indiscriminate sale of medicines, want of
+sanitary arrangements, the open spectacle of vice, and so forth. True
+this, in some respects, and we could wish for a little more vigour in
+certain departments of our social policy; but in this, as in many
+things, we have to make a choice of evils. Better, we think, allow
+abuses to be corrected by the comparatively sluggish action of public
+opinion, than accustom a people to have everything done for them,
+every action regulated by laws and prefects of police. The account
+given by Sir Francis of the manner in which the authority of the
+police bears on common workmen, is only a version of what every
+traveller speaks of with execration. Although we ourselves alluded to
+the subject on a former occasion, we may recapitulate a few points
+from the volume before us: 'Every workman or labouring boy is obliged,
+all over France, to provide himself with a book termed _un livret_,
+indorsed in Paris by a commissaire of police, and in other towns by
+the mayor or his assistants, containing his description, name, age,
+birthplace, profession, and the name of the master by whom he is
+employed. In fact, no person, under a heavy fine, can employ a workman
+unless he produce a livret of the above description, bearing an
+acquittal of his engagements with his last master. Every workman,
+after inscribing in his livret the day and terms of his engagement
+with a new master, is obliged to leave it in the hands of his said
+master, who is required, under a penalty, to restore it to him on the
+fulfilment of his engagement. Any workman, although he may produce a
+regular passport, found travelling without his book, is considered as
+"vagabond," and as such may be arrested and punished with from three
+to six months' imprisonment, and after that subjected to the
+surveillance of the _haute-police_ for at least five and not exceeding
+ten years. No new livret can be indorsed until its owner produces the
+old one filled up. In case of a workman losing his livret, he may, on
+the presentation of his passport, obtain provisional permission to
+work, but without authority to move to any other place until he can
+satisfy the officer of police that he is free from all engagements to
+his last master. Every workman coming to Paris with a passport is
+required, within three days of his arrival, to appear at the
+prefecture of police with his livret, in order that it may be
+indorsed. In like manner, any labourer leaving Paris with a passport
+must obtain the _visé_ of the police to his livret, which, in fact,
+contains an abstract history of his industrial life. As a description
+of the political department of the police of Paris would involve
+details, the ramifications of which would almost be endless, I will
+only briefly state, that from the masters of every furnished hotel and
+lodging-house--who are required to insert in a register, indorsed by a
+commissaire de police, the name, surname, profession, and usual
+domicile of every person who sleeps in their house for a single
+night--and from innumerable other sources, information is readily
+obtained concerning every person, and especially every stranger,
+residing in the metropolis. For instance, at the entrance of each
+lodging, and of almost every private house, there sits a being termed
+a _concierge_, who knows the hour at which each inmate enters and goes
+out; who calls on him; how many letters he receives; by their
+post-marks, where they come from; what parcels are left for him; what
+they appear to contain, &c. &c. &c. Again, at the corner of every
+principal street, there is located, wearing the badge of the police, a
+commissionaire, acquainted with all that outwardly goes on within the
+radius of his Argus-eyed observations. From these people, from the
+drivers of fiacres, from the sellers of vegetables, from fruiterers,
+and lastly, from the masters of wine-shops, who either from people
+sober, tipsy, or drunk, are in the habit of hearing an infinity of
+garrulous details, the police are enabled to track the conduct of
+almost any one, and, if necessary, to follow up their suspicions by
+their own agents in disguises which, practically speaking, render them
+invisible.' Sir Francis mentions that he was considered of sufficient
+importance to be under surveillance. '"You are," said very gravely to
+me a gentleman in Paris of high station, on whom I had had occasion to
+call, "a person of some consideration. Your object here is not
+understood, and you are therefore under the surveillance of the
+police." I asked him what that meant. "Wherever you go," he replied,
+"you are followed by an agent of police. When one is tired, he hands
+you over to another. Whatever you do, is known to them; and at this
+moment there is one waiting in the street until you leave me."'
+
+We need say no more. The people who, under all phases of
+government--despotism, constitutional monarchy, and universal-suffrage
+republic--coolly tolerate, nay, they admire and vindicate, this
+atrocious system of personal restraint and espionage, are totally
+unfit for the enjoyment of civil liberty. In conclusion, we can hardly
+recommend the book before us, further than to say, that its gossip,
+though often prosy to the verge of twaddle, is also sometimes droll
+and amusing from its graphic minuteness.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+[Footnote 2: _A Faggot of French Sticks_, 2 vols. London: Murray. 1852.]
+
+
+
+
+IVORY AND ITS APPLICATIONS.
+
+
+The Chinese, from time immemorial, have been celebrated for their
+excellence in the fabrication of ornamental articles in ivory; and,
+strange to say, up to our own time, their productions are still
+unrivalled. European artists have never succeeded in cutting ivory
+after the manner of these people, nor, to all appearance, is it likely
+they ever will. Nothing can be more exquisitely beautiful than the
+delicate lacework of a Chinese fan, or the elaborate carving of their
+miniature junks, chess-pieces, and concentric balls: their models of
+temples, pagodas, and other pieces of architecture are likewise
+skilfully constructed; and yet three thousand years ago such monuments
+of art were executed with the very same grace and fidelity!
+
+Ivory was known to the Egyptians as an article both of use and
+ornament. They manufactured it into combs, rings, and a variety of
+similar things. The processions on the walls of their palaces and
+tombs would seem to indicate the fact of its having been obtained from
+India, and also from Ethiopia or Central Africa. There is every reason
+to believe also that the harder and more accessible ivory of the
+hippopotamus was extensively used by them. Colonel Hamilton Smith has
+seen a specimen of what appeared to be a sword-handle of ancient
+Egyptian workmanship, which has been recognised by dentists as
+belonging to this class of ivory.
+
+Ivory was extensively used by the Jews. It is frequently spoken of in
+Scripture as being obtained from Tarshish--an indiscriminate term for
+various places in the lands of the Gentiles, but probably referring in
+this case to some part of India or Eastern Africa. Wardrobes were made
+of ivory, or at least inlaid with it; the splendid throne of Solomon
+was formed of this material, overlaid with gold; Ahab built an ivory
+palace: and beds or couches of the same material were common among the
+wealthy Israelites. The Phoenicians of Tyre--those merchant-princes of
+antiquity--were so profuse of this valuable article of their luxurious
+commerce as to provide ivory benches for the rowers of their galleys.
+Assyria--whose records and history are only now beginning to be
+unfolded--possessed magnificent articles of ivory. Mr Layard, in his
+excavations at Nineveh, found 'in the rubbish near the bottom of a
+chamber, several ivory ornaments upon which were traces of gilding:
+among them was the figure of a man in long robes, carrying in one hand
+the Egyptian _crux ansata_--part of a crouching sphinx--and flowers
+designed with great taste and elegance.'
+
+The Greeks--who were acquainted with it at least as early as the time
+of Homer--gradually introduced ivory as a material for sculpture. In
+certain forms of combination with gold, it gave origin to the art of
+_chryselephantine_ sculpture, so called from the Greek primitives,
+gold and ivory. This art, which was perhaps more luxurious than
+tasteful, was introduced about six hundred years before the Christian
+era; and it was much admired for its singular beauty. It was not,
+however, till the days of Phidias that it attained to its full
+splendour. Two of the masterpieces of this sculptor--the colossal
+statues of Minerva in the Parthenon at Athens and the Olympian Jove in
+his temple--were formed of gold and ivory. The Minerva was forty feet
+high, and the Olympian Jupiter was one of the wonders of the world. In
+the latter of these, the exposed parts of the figure were of ivory,
+and the drapery of gold. It was seated on a throne elaborately formed
+of gold, ivory, and cedar-wood; it was adorned with precious stones;
+and in his hand the god sustained an emblematic figure of Victory,
+made of the same costly materials.
+
+The Romans used ivory as a symbol of power; but they applied it
+practically to an infinite variety of purposes. Their kings and
+magistrates sat on ivory thrones of rich and elaborate
+construction--an idea received from the Etruscans. The curule chairs
+of ivory and gold that belonged to the office of consul, together with
+the sceptres and other articles of similar description, were all of
+Etruscan origin. The _libri elephantis_ were tablets of ivory, on
+which were registered the transactions of the senate and magistrates;
+the births, marriages, and deaths of the people; their rank, class,
+and occupation, with other things pertaining to the census. The Romans
+also applied this material to the manufacture of musical instruments,
+combs, couches, harnesses of horses, sword-hilts, girdles. They were
+acquainted with the arts of dyeing and incrusting ivory, and they also
+possessed some splendid specimens of chryselephantine statuary.
+Ancient writers, indeed, mention no fewer than one hundred statues of
+gold and ivory; but they furnish us with no particulars of the mode of
+executing these colossal monuments of art in a substance which could
+only be obtained in small pieces. A head, smaller than the usual size,
+a statue about eight inches in height, and a bas-relief, are the only
+specimens that exist in the present day.
+
+After the fall of the Roman Empire, the taste for ivory ornament
+became almost extinct. There were some periods, however, in the early
+part of medićval history when this material was not forgotten: when
+the caliphs of the East formed of it some of the beautiful ornaments
+of their palaces; when the Arabian alchemists subjected it to the
+crucible, and so produced the pigment ivory black; when a Danish
+knight killed an elephant in the holy wars, and established an order
+of knighthood which still exists; when Charlemagne, the emperor of the
+West, had ivory ornaments of rare and curious carving.[3] It is,
+however, at a period subsequent to the return of the crusaders that we
+must date the commencement of a general revival of the taste in
+Europe. It would be interesting to trace the steps by which ivory
+regained its place in the arts and commerce of nations; but on this
+point we must not linger. From the low countries it spread to the far
+North. Its relations with art and beauty soon became widely
+recognised; the growing luxury of the Roman pontificate encouraged its
+applications; and towards the end of the fifteenth century it was
+extensively employed as an article of ornament and decoration in every
+country and court of Europe. The Portuguese were the first to revive a
+traffic with Africa which had been dormant for upwards of 1000 years.
+It was originally confined to the immense stores of ivory which the
+natives had accumulated for the purposes of their superstition; but
+these soon became exhausted, and the inexorable demands of European
+commerce once more prompted the destruction of the mighty and docile
+inhabitant of the wilderness. Elephant-hunting became a trade; and a
+terrible havoc was commenced, which has been unremittingly pursued
+down to the present time.
+
+The term ivory, originally derived from a Greek word signifying heavy,
+is indiscriminately applied to the following varieties of osseous
+matter:--
+
+1. _The tusks and teeth of the elephant_.--Naturalists recognise two
+species of elephants--the Asiatic (_Elephas Indicus_) and the African
+(_Elephas Africanus_.) The former of these species is indigenous to
+the whole of Southern India and the Eastern Archipelago; but the
+largest and most valuable Indian elephant is that of Ceylon. The
+second species is found throughout the whole of Africa; and on the
+banks of the great rivers and lakes of the unexplored regions of the
+interior, hordes of the finest African elephants are supposed to
+wander in security. It was until very recently believed that the
+Asiatic elephant yielded the largest teeth, and those imported from
+Pegu, Cochin-China, and Ceylon, sometimes weighed 150 lbs. Specimens,
+however, have been obtained from the interior of Africa of much
+greater weight and dimensions. Mr Gordon Cumming has in his collection
+a pair of teeth taken from an old bull elephant in the vicinity of the
+equator, of which the larger of the two measures 10 feet 9 inches
+long, and weighs 173 lbs.; and Mr Cawood, who resided thirty years at
+the Cape, has another pair in his possession measuring 8-1/2 feet
+each, and weighing together 330 lbs.
+
+Besides these contemporary races of elephants, the market is
+extensively supplied by the fossil ivory derived from the tusks of the
+great mammoth or fossil elephant of the geologist. The remains of this
+gigantic animal are abundantly distributed over the whole extent of
+the globe. They exist in large masses in the northern hemisphere,
+deeply embedded in the alluvial deposits of the tertiary period.
+Humboldt discovered specimens on some of the most elevated ridges of
+the Andes; and similar remains have been found in Africa. In the
+frozen regions of the far North, surrounded by successive layers of
+everlasting ice, the fossil ivory exists in a state of perfect
+preservation, and it constitutes indeed an important article of
+commerce in the north of Europe.
+
+2. _The teeth of the hippopotamus, or river-horse_.--These, under the
+inappropriate term of 'sea-horse teeth,' supply the most suitable
+ivory for the dentist. In addition to twenty grinders, the animal has
+twelve front teeth, the outer on each side of the jaw being the
+largest and most prized. This ivory is much harder, closer in the
+grain, and more valuable than that of the elephant. It is remarkable,
+moreover, for the extreme hardness of its enamel, which is quite
+incapable of being cut, and will strike fire with a steel instrument.
+The large teeth of the hippopotamus weigh on the average 6 lbs., and
+the small ones about 1 lb. each. Their value ranges from 6s. to 40s.
+per lb.
+
+3. _The teeth of the walrus, or sea-cow_.--These are nearly straight,
+and measure from 2 feet to 2-1/2 feet in length. The exterior portion
+of the tooth possesses a much finer grain and texture than its core,
+which in appearance and properties bears a close resemblance to
+ordinary bone. Of a yellowish cream-colour and mottled, this ivory is
+much less valuable than the teeth of the hippopotamus. It is seldom
+applied in our day to other than dental purposes; but its antiquity is
+interesting. The Scandinavian relics of the eleventh and twelfth
+centuries, with which our museums are so profusely enriched, are for
+the most part formed of the teeth of the walrus. The elegant spiral
+horn of the narwhal or sea-unicorn also produces ivory of a superior
+quality. It is not to any great extent applied to useful purposes, but
+is more frequently preserved in museums and collections as a beautiful
+natural curiosity.
+
+The tusks and teeth of the elephant--the latter, for the sake of
+distinction, are termed grinders--are formed after the ordinary manner
+of the teeth of animals. The organism which converts the earthy
+constituents of the blood into cellular tissue and membrane,
+contributes in the same way to form the teeth by the successive
+deposition of layer upon layer of the soft vascular pulp. The marks of
+these depositions, or laminć, are clearly distinguishable in the
+longitudinal strić of the section of a tooth. Mr Corse Scott states
+that the Indian elephant has only ten or twelve laminć in the tooth,
+while that of the great mammoth has twenty-four, besides having a much
+more regularly disposed enamel. The tooth is hollow about half-way up,
+but a very small tubular cavity is visible throughout its entire
+length. This, sometimes called the nerve, is in reality the apex of
+successive formations in the process of growth. The grinders are
+seldom used in the arts. They are of a different texture, the laminć
+more loosely combined, and possessing a tendency to separate, which
+renders them unfit for nearly all useful purposes. Ivory has the same
+chemical constitution as ordinary teeth--that is, cartilage united to
+such earthy ingredients as the phosphate of lime.
+
+But it is very remarkable that the fossil ivory of the mammoth, and
+specimens of the historic period of Pompeii or Egypt, contain
+sometimes as much as 10 per cent. more of fluoride of calcium than the
+ivory of the present day. We apprehend, however, that this
+property--first investigated by Dr George Wilson--may be derived from
+long-continued contact with earth, since fluoride of calcium is the
+chief ingredient in the enamel or exterior portion of the tooth.
+Ancient ivory, having thus gained in its inorganic bases, becomes
+deficient in the gelatinous constituents necessary to its
+preservation. We recently had a singularly beautiful application of
+the knowledge of this principle in the case of the ivory specimens
+sent from Nineveh by Mr Layard. On their arrival in England, it was
+discovered that they were rapidly crumbling to pieces. Professor Owen
+recommended that the articles should be boiled in a solution of
+albumen, which was done accordingly, and the ivory rendered as firm
+and solid as when it was first entombed.
+
+We may allude here to a very singular physical property which is
+possessed by the elephant's tusk. Specimens have frequently been
+obtained which were found to contain musket-bullets in their centre,
+surrounded with a species of osseous pulp differing from the ordinary
+character and constitution of ivory. There was frequently no
+corresponding orifice on the surface of the tusk; and hence
+Blumenbach, and other naturalists, were led to form some very
+inaccurate notions regarding this circumstance. Mr Rodgers of
+Sheffield some years ago forwarded a variety of such specimens to the
+Edinburgh College Museum, and these were very closely examined by
+Professor Goodsir, who, in a communication to the Royal Society of
+Edinburgh, demonstrated that this arose simply from a property of
+isolating foreign substances common to all osseous organised bodies:
+the ball having been enclosed by the tusk in its pulpy secretion, and
+corrosive action thereby prevented, the process of growth continued
+without interruption.
+
+Ivory is a solid, white, translucent substance, distinguishable from
+bone by its beautiful texture of semi-transparent rhomboidal network.
+The finest ivory is much more transparent than paper of the same
+thickness. A thin transverse section placed under the microscope
+exhibits a series of curvilinear lines diverging from the centre and
+interlacing each other with great regularity and beauty, closely
+resembling in appearance the engine-turning of a watch. It possesses a
+specific gravity varying from 1.888 in the tooth of the walrus, to
+2.843 in that of the elephant. Its mean gravity is therefore about two
+and a half times greater than water. The best, finest, and most
+valuable ivory is that obtained from the African elephant. When
+recently cut, it exhibits something of a yellowish transparent tint,
+which is due to the oil it contains, but this gradually changes to a
+beautiful and permanent white. It is not easily stained or destroyed
+by exposure to the atmosphere, and on that account is used in the arts
+for all the higher purposes, and especially for carved ornaments--such
+as chess-pieces, crucifixes, and articles of _virtu_. Indian ivory, on
+the contrary, when first cut, is perfectly white, but it becomes
+yellow and discoloured with age and exposure. A good illustration of
+this circumstance is presented by the dingy-coloured keys of an old
+pianoforte.
+
+This popular definition of good and inferior ivory is however, in
+point of fact, somewhat incorrect, since ivory obtained from the coast
+of Africa is often much inferior to that obtained from the Indian
+Archipelago. The best rule for determining the quality is probably
+that of its vicinity to the equator. The ivory brought from within the
+10th degrees of north and south latitude is incomparably the finest in
+the market; it is at the same time the most transparent, which of
+itself is a valuable characteristic. Our Indian ivory for some years
+back, instead of being shipped by way of the Cape for England, has, in
+order to save time, been sent by the Red Sea to Suez, and thence
+conveyed, generally on the backs of camels, across the Desert to
+Alexandria, where it is again shipped on board the Oriental
+steam-packets for Southampton, and conveyed by railway to London. By
+this expeditious mode of transit, however, the value of the ivory is
+frequently much deteriorated. The damage it sustains in being so often
+loaded and unloaded; and the intense heat of a tropical sun to which
+it is openly exposed in crossing the Isthmus--render the tusks unsound
+at the core, numerous cracks and fissures appear over the surface, the
+points are frequently broken off, and on the whole its market-price is
+considerably depreciated.
+
+There is no means of accurately determining the intrinsic value of our
+importation of ivory--the price is so variable. In 1827, upwards of
+3000 cwt.; in 1842, upwards of 5000 cwt.; and in 1850, about 8000 cwt.
+was imported, of which about four-fifths was entered for home
+consumption. In point of quantity or bulk it is not calculated to
+attract attention, nor does the commercial transaction excite much
+notice. A quiet advertisement in the front page of the _Economist_, a
+few letters from London, Birmingham, and Sheffield to City
+brokers--for the ivory-trade is confined to a very small number of
+houses--and a cargo of African or Indian ivory, amounting perhaps to
+L.50,000 sterling, is quickly and easily disposed of. The supply at
+this moment is unequal to the demand, and the price is steadily
+advancing.
+
+Small teeth weighing from 4 to 20 lbs. are worth from L.10 to L.16 per
+cwt.; and the price of the enormous tusks we have referred to, which
+are far beyond the limits of the above scale, is probably equal to
+L.50 per cwt. or upwards. African is worth about 25 per cent. more
+than Indian ivory of corresponding size and quality.
+
+To attempt even to catalogue the extremely diversified uses to which
+ivory is applied would of itself be no easy task. There is not perhaps
+in the whole commercial list an article possessed of wider relations.
+It is extensively consumed in the manufacture of handles to knives and
+forks, and cutlery of every description; combs of all kinds; brushes
+of every form and use; billiard-balls, chess-men, dice, dice-boxes;
+bracelets, necklaces, rings, brooches; slabs for miniature portraits,
+pocket-tablets, card-cases; paper-knives, shoeing-horns, large spoons
+and forks for salad; ornamental work-boxes, jewel-caskets, small
+inlaid tables; furniture for doors and cabinets; pianoforte and organ
+keys; stethoscopes, lancet-cases, and surgical instruments;
+microscopes, lorgnettes, and philosophical instruments; thermometer
+scales, hydrometer scales, and mathematical instruments; snuff-boxes,
+cigar-cases, pipe-tubes; fans, flowers, fancy boxes; crucifixes,
+crosiers, and symbols of faith; idols, gods, and symbols of
+superstition; vases, urns, sarcophagi, and emblems of the dead;
+temples, pagodas; thrones, emblems of mythology; and, in short, there
+is hardly a purpose in the useful and ornamental arts to which ivory
+is, or has not been in some way extensively employed. At present, the
+ivory carvings of Dieppe are the finest in Europe; but the genius of
+the present age is utilitarian, and so are its applications of ivory.
+If we desire high art in the fabrication of this material, we must go
+back a few centuries, or be satisfied with the beautiful productions
+of China or Hindostan. We could scarcely give a more apt illustration
+of this truth than by pointing to the scat of honour set apart for
+Prince Albert in the closing scene of the Great Exhibition. Elevated
+on the crimson platform, and standing forth as an appropriate emblem
+of the artistic genius of the mighty collection, was observed the
+magnificent ivory throne presented to her Majesty by the Rajah of
+Travancore!
+
+From the great value of the material, the economical cutting of it up
+is of the last importance. Nothing is lost. The smallest fragments are
+of some value, have certain uses, and bear a corresponding price.
+Ivory dust, which is produced in large quantities, is a most valuable
+gelatine, and as such extensively employed by straw-hat makers. The
+greatest consumption of ivory is undoubtedly in connection with the
+cutlery trade. For these purposes alone about 200 tons are annually
+used in Sheffield and Birmingham, and the ivory in nearly every
+instance is from India. The mode of manufacturing knife-handles is
+very simple and expeditious:--The teeth are first cut into slabs of
+the requisite thickness--then to the proper cross dimensions, by means
+of circular saws of different shapes. They are afterwards drilled with
+great accuracy by a machine; rivetted to the blade; and finally
+smoothed and polished. We believe that this branch of industry alone
+gives employment to about 500 persons in Sheffield. Combs are seldom
+made of any ivory but Indian, and their mode of manufacture we had
+recently occasion to describe.[4] A large amount of ivory is consumed
+in the backs of hairbrushes; and this branch of the trade has recently
+undergone considerable improvements. The old method of making a
+tooth-brush, for example, was to lace the bristles through the ivory,
+and then to glue, or otherwise fasten, an outside slab to the brush
+for the purpose of concealing the holes and wire-thread. This mode of
+manufacture has been improved on by a method of working the hair into
+the solid ivory; and brushes of this description are now the best in
+the market. Their chief excellence consists in their preserving their
+original white colour to the last, which is a great desideratum.
+Billiard-balls constitute another considerable item of ivory
+consumption. They cost from 6s. to 12s. each; and the nicety of our
+ornamental turning produces balls not only of the most perfect
+spherical form, but accurately corresponding in size and weight even
+to a single grain.
+
+The ivory miniature tablets so much in use, and which are so
+invaluable to the artist from the exquisitely delicate texture of the
+material, are now produced by means of a very beautiful and highly
+interesting chemical process. Phosphoric acid of the usual specific
+gravity renders ivory soft and nearly plastic. The plates are cut from
+the circumference of the tusk, somewhat after the manner of paring a
+cucumber, and then softened by means of the acid. When washed with
+water, pressed, and dried, the ivory regains its former consistency,
+and even its microscopic structure is not affected by the process.
+Plates thirty inches square have been formed in this way, and a great
+reduction in price has thus been effected. Painting on ivory, we may
+add, was practised among the ancients.
+
+Mr M'Culloch and other statistical writers predict the speedy
+extinction of the elephant, from the enormous consumption of its
+teeth; and curious calculations of the number of these animals
+annually extirpated to supply the English market alone are now getting
+somewhat popular. For example: 'in 1827 the customs-duty on ivory
+(20s. per cwt.--since reduced to 1s.) amounted to L.3257. The average
+weight of the elephant's tusk is 60 lbs.; and therefore 3040 elephants
+have been killed to supply this quantity of ivory.' But these
+calculations are in many respects quite fallacious. In the first
+place, the average weight of our imported tusks is _not_ 60 lbs.: we
+have the authority of one of the first ivory-merchants in London for
+stating that 20 lbs. will be a much closer approximation. This at once
+involves a threefold ratio of destruction. In place of 3040, we should
+have the terrible slaughter of 9120 elephants for one year's
+consumption of ivory in England! This, however, is not the case. In
+these calculations the immense masses of fossil ivory we have alluded
+to are obviously overlooked, and the equally immense quantities of
+broken teeth which are disinterred from the deserts of Arabia, or the
+jungles of Central Africa. The truth is, we have good reason to know,
+that a very large proportion of the commercial supply of Europe is
+sustained from the almost inexhaustible store of these descriptions of
+ivory.
+
+Nevertheless, it is indisputable that the insatiable demands of modern
+commerce will inevitably lead to the ultimate extermination of this
+noble animal. His venerable career is ignominiously brought to an end
+merely for the sake of the two teeth he carries in his mouth; which
+are very likely destined to be cut into rings to assist the infant
+Anglo-Saxons in cutting _their_ teeth, or partly made into jelly to
+satisfy the tastes and appetites of a London alderman. We cannot
+reasonably hope for a new suspension of the traffic: indeed we can
+only look for its extension. The luxurious tastes of man are inimical
+to the existence of the elephant. From time immemorial, the war of
+extermination has existed. His rightful domain--in the plain or the
+wilderness, or amid the wild herbage of his native savannas--is at all
+points ruthlessly invaded. But the result is inevitable--it will come
+to an end; and some future generation of naturalists--those of them at
+least who are curious in Palćontology--will regard the remains of our
+contemporary races of elephants with the same kind of astonishment
+with which we investigate the pre-historic evidences of the gigantic
+tapir or the mammoth.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Footnote 3: In the sacristy of the cathedral at Aix-la-Châpelle is
+still preserved, among other relics of this great prince, an immense
+ivory hunting-horn; and 'Charlemagne's chess-men,' which still exist,
+form part of the collection of works of art at Cologne.]
+
+[Footnote 4: See an article on the Aberdeen Combworks, No. 396.]
+
+
+
+
+BLIGHTED FLOWERS.
+
+
+The facts of the following brief narrative, which are very few and of
+but melancholy interest, became known to me in the precise order in
+which they are laid before the reader. They were forced upon my
+observation rather than sought out by me; and they present, to my mind
+at least, a touching picture of the bitter conflict industrious
+poverty is sometimes called upon to wage with 'the thousand natural
+shocks which flesh is heir to.'
+
+It must be now eight or nine years since, in traversing a certain
+street, which runs for nearly half a mile in a direct line southward,
+I first encountered Ellen----. She was then a fair young girl of
+seventeen, rather above the middle size, and with a queen-like air and
+gait which made her appear taller than she really was. Her
+countenance, pale but healthy, and of a perfectly regular and classic
+mould, was charming to look upon from its undefinable expression of
+lovableness and sweet temper. Her tiny feet tripped noiselessly along
+the pavement, and a glance from her black eye sometimes met mine like
+a ray of light, as, punctually at twenty minutes to nine, we passed
+each other near ---- House, each of us on our way to the theatre of
+our daily operations. She was an embroideress, as I soon discovered
+from a small stretching-frame, containing some unfinished work, which
+she occasionally carried in her hand. She set me a worthy example of
+punctuality, and I could any day have told the time to a minute
+without looking at my watch, by marking the spot where we passed each
+other. I learned to look for her regularly, and before I knew her
+name, had given her that of 'Minerva,' in acknowledgment of her
+efficiency as a mentor.
+
+A year after the commencement of our acquaintance, which never ripened
+into speech, happening to set out from home one morning a quarter of
+an hour before my usual time, I made the pleasing discovery that my
+juvenile Minerva had a younger sister, if possible still more
+beautiful than herself. The pair were taking an affectionate leave of
+each other at the crossing of the New Road, and the silver accents of
+the younger as, kissing her sister, she laughed out, 'Good-by, Ellen,'
+gave me the first information of the real name of my pretty mentor.
+The little Mary--for so was the younger called, who could not be more
+than eleven years of age--was a slender, frolicsome sylph, with a skin
+of the purest carnation, and a face like that of Sir Joshua's seraph
+in the National Gallery, but with larger orbs and longer lashes
+shading them. As she danced and leaped before me on her way home
+again, I could not but admire the natural ease and grace of every
+motion, nor fail to comprehend and sympathise with the anxious looks
+of the sisters' only parent, their widowed mother, who stood watching
+the return of the younger darling at the door of a very humble
+two-storey dwelling, in the vicinity of the New River Head.
+
+Nearly two years passed away, during which, with the exception of
+Sundays and holidays, every recurring morning brought me the grateful
+though momentary vision of one or both of the charming sisters. Then
+came an additional pleasure--I met them both together every day. The
+younger had commenced practising the same delicate and ingenious craft
+of embroidery, and the two pursued their industry in company under the
+same employer. It was amusing to mark the demure assumption of
+womanhood darkening the brows of the aërial little sprite, as, with
+all the new-born consequence of responsibility, she walked soberly by
+her sister's side, frame in hand, and occasionally revealed to
+passers-by a brief glimpse of her many-coloured handiwork. They were
+the very picture of beauty and happiness, and happy beyond question
+must their innocent lives have been for many pleasant months. But soon
+the shadows of care began to steal over their hitherto joyous faces,
+and traces of anxiety, perhaps of tears, to be too plainly visible on
+their paling cheeks. All at once I missed them in my morning's walk,
+and for several days--it might be weeks--saw nothing of them. I was at
+length startled from my forgetfulness of their very existence by the
+sudden apparition of both one Monday morning clad in the deepest
+mourning. I saw the truth at once: the mother, who, I had remarked,
+was prematurely old and feeble, was gone, and the two orphan children
+were left to battle it with the world. My conjecture was the truth, as
+a neighbour of whom I made some inquiries on the subject was not slow
+to inform me. '_Ah,_ sir,' said the good woman, 'poor Mrs D---- have
+had a hard time of it, and she born an' bred a gentlewoman.'
+
+I asked her if the daughters were provided for.
+
+'Indeed, sir,' continued my informant, 'I'm afeard not. 'Twas the most
+unfortnatest thing in the world, sir, poor Mr D----'s dying jest as a'
+did. You see, sir, he war a soldier, a fightin' out in Indy, and his
+poor wife lef at home wi' them two blossoms o' gals. He warn't what
+you call a common soldier, sir, but some kind o' officer like; an' in
+some great battle fought seven year agone he done fine service I've
+heerd, and promotion was send out to 'un, but didn't get there till
+the poor man was dead of his wounds. The news of he's death cut up his
+poor wife complete, and she han't been herself since. I've know'd she
+wasn't long for here ever since it come. Wust of all, it seems that
+because the poor man was dead the very day the promotion reached 'un,
+a' didn't die a captain after all, and so the poor widder didn't get
+no pension. How they've a' managed to live is more than I can tell.
+The oldest gal is very clever, they say; but Lor' bless 'ee! 'taint
+much to s'port three as is to be got out o' broiderin'.'
+
+Thus enlightened on the subject of their private history, it was with
+very different feelings I afterwards regarded these unfortunate
+children. Bereft of both parents, and cast upon a world with the ways
+of which they were utterly unacquainted, and in which they might be
+doomed to the most painful struggles even to procure a bare
+subsistence, one treasure was yet left them--it was the treasure of
+each other's love. So far as the depth of this feeling could be
+estimated from the looks and actions of both, it was all in all to
+each. But the sacred bond that bound them was destined to be rudely
+rent asunder. The cold winds of autumn began to visit too roughly the
+fair pale face of the younger girl, and the unmistakable indications
+of consumption made their appearance: the harassing cough, the hectic
+cheek, the deep-settled pain in the side, the failing breath. Against
+these dread forerunners it was vain long to contend; and the poor
+child had to remain at home in her solitary sick-chamber, while the
+loving sister toiled harder than ever to provide, if possible, the
+means of comfort and restoration to health. All the world knows the
+ending of such a hopeless strife as this. It is sometimes the will of
+Heaven that the path of virtue, like that of glory, leads but to the
+grave. So it was in the present instance: the blossom of this fair
+young life withered away, and the grass-fringed lips of the child's
+early tomb closed over the lifeless relics ere spring had dawned upon
+the year.
+
+Sorrow had graven legible traces upon the brow of my hapless mentor
+when I saw her again. How different now was the vision that greeted my
+daily sight from that of former years! The want that admits not of
+idle wailing compelled her still to pursue her daily course of labour,
+and she pursued it with the same constancy and punctuality as she had
+ever done. But the exquisitely chiselled face, the majestic gait, the
+elastic step--the beauty and glory of youth, unshaken because
+unassaulted by death and sorrow--where were they? Alas! all the
+bewitching charms of her former being had gone down into the grave of
+her mother and sister; and she, their support and idol, seemed no more
+now than she really was--a wayworn, solitary, and isolated straggler
+for daily bread.
+
+Were this a fiction that I am writing, it would be an easy matter to
+deal out a measure of poetical justice, and to recompense poor Ellen
+for all her industry, self-denial, and suffering in the arms of a
+husband, who should possess as many and great virtues as herself, and
+an ample fortune to boot. I wish with all my heart that it were a
+fiction, and that Providence had never furnished me with such a
+seeming anomaly to add to the list of my desultory chronicles. But I
+am telling a true story of a life. Ellen found no mate. No mate, did I
+say? Yes, one: the same grim yokefellow whose delight it is 'to gather
+roses in the spring' paid ghastly court to her faded charms, and won
+her--who shall say an unwilling bride? I could see his gradual but
+deadly advances in my daily walks: the same indications that gave
+warning of the sister's fate admonished me that she also was on her
+way to the tomb, and that the place that had known her would soon know
+her no more. She grew day by day more feeble; and one morning I found
+her seated on the step of a door, unable to proceed. After that she
+disappeared from my view; and though I never saw her again at the old
+spot, I have seldom passed that spot since, though for many years
+following the same route, without recognising again in my mind's eye
+the graceful form and angel aspect of Ellen D----.
+
+'And is this the end of your mournful history?' some querulous reader
+demands. Not quite. There is a soul of good in things evil. Compassion
+dwells with the depths of misery; and in the valley of the shadow of
+death dove-eyed Charity walks with shining wings.... It was nearly two
+months after I had lost sight of poor Ellen, that during one of my
+dinner-hour perambulations about town, I looked in almost accidentally
+upon my old friend and chum, Jack W----. Jack keeps a perfumer's shop
+not a hundred miles from Gray's Inn, where, ensconced up to his eyes
+in delicate odours, he passes his leisure hours--the hours when
+commerce flags, and people have more pressing affairs to attend to
+than the delectation of their nostrils--in the enthusiastic study of
+art and _virtu_. His shop is hardly more crammed with bottles and
+attar, soap, scents, and all the _etceteras_ of the toilet, than the
+rest of his house with prints, pictures, carvings, and curiosities of
+every sort. Jack and I went to school together, and sowed our slender
+crop of wild oats together; and, indeed, in some sort have been
+together ever since. We both have our own collections of rarities,
+such as they are, and each criticises the other's new purchases. On
+the present occasion there was a new Van Somebody's old painting
+awaiting my judgment; and no sooner did my shadow darken his door,
+than starting from his lair, and bidding the boy ring the bell should
+he be wanted, he hustled me up stairs, calling by the way to his
+housekeeper, Mrs Jones--Jack is a bachelor--to bring up coffee for
+two. I was prepared to pronounce my dictum on his newly-acquired
+treasure, and was going to bounce unceremoniously into the old
+lumber-room over the lobby to regale my sight with the delightful
+confusion of his unarranged accumulations, when he pulled me forcibly
+back by the coat-tail. 'Not there,' said Jack; 'you can't go there. Go
+into my snuggery.'
+
+'And why not there?' said I; jealous of some new purchase which I was
+not to see.
+
+'Because there's somebody ill there--it is a bedroom now: a poor girl;
+she wanted a place to die in, poor thing, and I put her in there.'
+
+'Who is she?--a relative?'
+
+'No; I never saw her till Monday last. Sit down, I'll tell you how it
+was. Set down the coffee, Mrs Jones, and just look in upon the
+patient, will you? Sugar and cream? You know my weakness for the dead
+wall in Lincoln's Inn Fields.' (Jack never refuses a beggar backed by
+that wall, for the love of Ben Jonson, who, he devoutly believes, had
+a hand in building it.) 'Well, I met with her there on Monday last.
+She asked for nothing, but held out her hand, and as she did so the
+tears streamed from her eyes on the pavement. The poor creature, it
+was plain enough, was then dying; and I told her so. She said she knew
+it, but had no place to die in but the parish workhouse, and hoped
+that I would not send her there. What's the use of talking? I brought
+her here, and put her to sleep on the sofa while Jones cleared out the
+lumber-room and got up a bed. I sent for Dr H---- to look at her; he
+gave her a week or ten days at the farthest: I don't think she'll last
+so long. The curate of St---- comes every day to see her, and I like
+to talk to her myself sometimes. Well, Mrs Jones, how goes she on?'
+
+'She's asleep,' said the housekeeper. 'Would you like to look at her,
+gentlemen?'
+
+We entered the room together. It was as if some unaccountable
+presentiment had forewarned me: there, upon a snow-white sheet, and
+pillowed by my friend's favourite eider-down squab, lay the wasted
+form of Ellen D----. She slept soundly and breathed loudly; and Dr
+H----, who entered while we stood at the bedside, informed us that in
+all probability she would awake only to die, or if to sleep again,
+then to wake no more. The latter was the true prophecy. She awoke an
+hour or two after my departure, and passed away that same night in a
+quiet slumber without a pang.
+
+I never learned by what chain of circumstances she was driven to seek
+alms in the public streets. I might have done so perhaps by inquiry,
+but to what purpose? She died in peace, with friendly hands and
+friendly hearts near her, and Jack buried her in his own grave in
+Highgate Cemetery, at his own expense; and declares he is none the
+worse for it. I am of his opinion.
+
+
+
+
+NOTES FROM AUSTRALIA.
+
+
+Letters from working-men have been published in great numbers by the
+home-press, but a voice from the tradesman has seldom been heard; or,
+if heard, has not been attended to. I trust in some measure to supply
+the deficiency to those middle-class townsfolk who seek to emigrate to
+Australia.
+
+_1st_, I can only reconcile the different accounts furnished by
+emigrants--believing people to write as they think at the time--by
+remembering that some have come from quiet rural places, and others
+from populous towns. The first will consider Geelong--its beautiful
+bay, ships, and steamers, as a hustling, improving, and increasing
+town, laid out for a future provincial capital; the last will regard
+it as a dull, detached series of villages, which will some day be a
+large town. A modification of these causes, allowing for age,
+temperament, circumstances, and station in life, will explain any
+ordinary discrepancy in the accounts from this country.
+
+_2d_, The various accounts of the climate must in a measure be traced
+to the same causes. People used to out-door labour in Britain find the
+winter so mild, that everything is lauded to the skies; those used to
+nice, roomy, convenient houses at home, finding themselves so very
+differently situated, condemn climate, prospects, and everything. Both
+may convey a false impression. The cold or heat by the thermometer is
+no test of sensation; days, however warm, are exceedingly agreeable,
+except the hot-wind days, which are absolutely indescribable, yet I
+have seen some men work out all day in the worst of them. They cause
+great relaxation in the system, and produce dysentery, especially
+among children. Compared with other _hot_ countries, this appears to
+be the most agreeable.
+
+_3d, Employment_.--This is readily to be obtained by working mechanics
+of all kinds in the towns; remembering that a very small sprinkling of
+workmen for finer work--such as cornice-mouldings, fine freestone
+work, cabinetwork, &c.--will be able to find employment for a long
+time to come, because, till a new generation spring up, who can live
+upon the accumulations of their sires, money will not be diverted to
+any great extent from business in land, buildings, or merchandise. A
+considerable number of labourers will find employment about the towns,
+at the stores, on the wharfs, &c. at about 24s. weekly. Country work
+on the sheep-stations--as shepherds, drivers of bullock-drays,
+sheep-washing and shearing, cooking for the men, &c.--is remunerated
+by about L.25 and food. These live far off in the solitary plains,
+almost apart from men, and come to town once, twice, or thrice a year,
+as their distance and employment may determine. The Sabbath has little
+of the religious character for them, and they know little of the
+progress of mankind. Agriculture also employs men at about the same
+rate. There is no probability of wages falling, for a long time to
+come, with any stream of emigration likely to come out hither; for if
+the country cannot grow more wool, a greater attention to its quality
+would employ more men; and agriculture will absorb a vast population
+as soon as the land-question has been fairly overhauled, and settled
+on a foundation that will allow a small capitalist to obtain, at a
+fair price, a suitable farm: besides, everything necessary to
+civilisation has yet to be done--roads, bridges, quarries, wells, and
+a long _etcetera_ that one can scarcely catalogue.
+
+_4th_, Capitalists of L.1000 and upwards can make, apart from
+wool-growing, twenty per cent. on their money without being in trade,
+chiefly by buying at the government land-sales, and subdividing the
+section into small allotments, or by building houses, shops, &c. The
+average of rental returns the capital in four years. But this can only
+be done if emigration continues--and emigration with a sprinkling of
+holders of L.50 to L.200. If this stops, there can be few purchasers.
+Should a fixed price be put upon government land, there might be a
+difference in the way in which capital could be turned to profit; but
+L.1000 and upwards can find so many favourable investments in a new
+colony, that a living could be secured without much trouble or
+anxiety.
+
+_5th, Population_.--By the census just completed, there are 78,000
+inhabitants in Victoria (Port-Philip); County of Bourke,
+44,000--including Melbourne, the capital, 20,000; County of Grant,
+12,000--including Geelong, its capital, 8000. Warnambool, Belfast, and
+Portland, along the coast, only number hundreds, and Kilmore, forty
+miles inland, nearly 2000: there are also various villages--on
+paper--so called, numbering ten to fifty houses each. From this it
+will be seen that more than half of the entire population is within
+twenty miles of Melbourne, a third of the residue within fifteen miles
+of Geelong, and the remainder scattered, including the 1200
+squatting-stations, over a very extensive country. These towns are
+not, in my opinion, a natural growth, but have been forced into their
+present magnitude from the difficulties in obtaining land at a price
+to make up for the utter want of every convenience, a want arising
+from the total absence of any effort on the part of the government
+hitherto to make even one great trunk-road through the colony.
+Facilities for internal communication would cause towns to increase
+naturally. Now, people arrive with glowing ideas of the beauty and
+fertility of the country, and finding everything difficult of access
+there, betake themselves to shopkeeping, forcing up rents to an
+exorbitant sum, and losing their little capital. I think my opinion
+borne out by the fact, that the country population of Grant County was
+1959 in 1846, and 4469 in 1851; Geelong in 1846 had 1911, and in 1851,
+8000--the town population more than quadrupling itself in the last
+five years, the county increasing only 2510. Melbourne and Bourke
+County are nearly in the same position.
+
+There are seven or eight merchants in Geelong who import goods of all
+kinds, twenty-two drapery establishments in a respectable way, besides
+numbers of small ones on the outskirts; other trades are
+proportionately overdone. Melbourne is, I am credibly informed,
+equally crowded. These facts shew that there is no opening for people
+in business. A great imposition is practised by stating the increase
+of a town at so much per cent., or having doubled or trebled itself in
+so short a time, the fact being that even its present condition may be
+that only of a village. Interested parties too often talk their places
+into notice; and if people do not deal in 'notions,' they all have
+some allotment that will just suit you, which they don't care to keep
+any longer.
+
+An argument from the amount of imports is made use of unfairly. The
+United States are set down at 30s. per head, Australia about L.7 per
+head. This latter, they say, is the country to encourage, to emigrate
+to--see how prosperous it is! being blind, apparently, to the fact,
+that Australia, having nothing as yet but the raw material, tallow and
+wool, it must barter all it has for what it wants--a proof to me as
+much of necessity as of prosperity. Many more persons cannot engage
+profitably in the wool and tallow trade; the field is therefore narrow
+for general purposes of emigrants, and easily liable to be
+overstocked, unless the government take prompt measures to open out
+the abundant internal resources of minerals, &c. and give easier and
+cheaper possession of land: then, though the imports might not be much
+more, the prosperity would be much greater. America I believe to be in
+this latter position, presenting a more varied field for the
+operations of the small capitalist, though her imports may be
+inconsiderable per head.
+
+I ought to state, that a great many of the reported cases of success
+are, from misapprehension of the real circumstances of the parties,
+either quite false, or calculated to mislead. Doubtless many
+successful hits will be made by purchasers of mineral land, and so are
+successful hits made at the gaming-table. Successful men, besides, are
+well known, while the unsuccessful have slunk away and are forgotten.
+Few fortunes have been made by simple shopkeeping.
+
+I ought not to conclude without referring to farming, although not
+practically acquainted with it; indeed, the accounts from farmers
+differ as much as the size and shape of their farms: but it appears to
+me that, from one or other of the following causes, farming has not
+hitherto paid well:--A large farm has been purchased, leaving too
+little cash to spare for the erection of houses, fences, and
+cultivation; or leaving it burdened with a mortgage at heavy interest;
+or a short lease--of three years--has been taken, and the money sunk
+on the improvements; or the cultivation has been of such a wretched
+description as failed to raise a remunerative crop. There never
+appears to have been a want of sufficient market for any
+field-produce. L.1000 judiciously invested on a farm, I believe, would
+pay.
+
+I trust it will be seen that my object in writing the foregoing has
+been to guard against the pictures of climate and scenery, good or
+bad, that are constantly written; to shew that plenty of employment at
+a remunerative wage is to be had, but only of the heavy and laborious
+kind; that there is a wide field for capitalists; but that shopkeepers
+and townspeople, unused to out-door labour, have a poor chance, owing
+to the smallness of the population and the competition which already
+exists.
+
+
+
+
+GROUND-LIZARD OF JAMAICA.
+
+
+One feature with which a stranger cannot fail to be struck on his
+arrival in the island, and which is essentially tropical, is the
+abundance of the lizards that everywhere meet his eye. As soon as ever
+he sets foot on the beach, the rustlings among the dry leaves, and the
+dartings hither and thither among the spiny bushes that fringe the
+shore, arrest his attention; and he sees on every hand the beautifully
+coloured and meek-faced ground-lizard (_Ameiva dorsalis_), scratching
+like a bird among the sand, or peering at him from beneath the shadow
+of a great leaf, or creeping stealthily along with its chin and belly
+upon the earth, or shooting over the turf with such a rapidity that it
+seems to fly rather than run. By the road-sides, and in the open
+pastures, and in the provision-grounds of the negroes, still he sees
+this elegant and agile lizard; and his prejudices against the reptile
+races must be inveterate indeed if he can behold its gentle
+countenance, and timid but bright eyes, its chaste but beautiful hues,
+its graceful form and action, and its bird-like motions, with any
+other feeling than admiration.
+
+As he walks along the roads and lanes that divide the properties, he
+will perceive at every turn the smooth and trim little figure of the
+wood-slaves (_Mabouya agilis_) basking on the loose stones of the dry
+walls; their glossy, fish-like scales glistening in the sun with
+metallic brilliancy. They lie as still as if asleep; but on the
+intruder's approach, they are ready in a moment to dart into the
+crevices of the stones and disappear until the danger is past.
+
+If he looks into the outbuildings of the estates, the mill-house, or
+the boiling-house, or the cattle-sheds, a singular croaking sound
+above his head causes him to look up; and then he sees clinging to the
+rafters, or crawling sluggishly along with the back downward, three or
+four lizards, of form, colour, and action very diverse from those he
+has seen before. It is the _gecko_ or croaking lizard (_Thecodactylus
+loevis_), a nocturnal animal in its chief activity, but always to be
+seen in these places or in hollow trees even by day. Its appearance is
+repulsive, I allow, but its reputation for venom is libellous and
+groundless.
+
+The stranger walks into the dwelling-house: lizards, lizards, still
+meet his eye. The little anoles (_A. iodurus, A. opalinus_, &c.) are
+chasing each other in and out between the jalousies, now stopping to
+protrude from the throat a broad disk of brilliant colour, crimson or
+orange, like the petal of a flower, then withdrawing it, and again
+displaying it in coquettish play. Then one leaps a yard or two through
+the air, and alights on the back of his playfellow; and both struggle
+and twist about in unimaginable contortions. Another is running up and
+down on the plastered wall, catching the ants as they roam in black
+lines over its whited surface; and another leaps from the top of some
+piece of furniture upon the back of the visitor's chair, and scampers
+nimbly along the collar of his coat. It jumps on the table--can it be
+the same? An instant ago it was of the most beautiful golden green,
+except the base of the tail, which was of a soft, light, purple hue;
+now, as if changed by an enchanter's wand, it is of a sordid, sooty
+brown all over, and becomes momentarily darker and darker, or mottled
+with dark and pale patches of a most unpleasing aspect. Presently,
+however, the mental emotion, what, ever it was--anger, or fear, or
+dislike--has passed away, and the lovely green hue sparkles in the
+glancing sunlight as before.
+
+He lifts the window-sash; and instantly there run out on the sill two
+or three minute lizards of a new kind, allied to the gecko, the common
+palette-tip (_Sphoeriodactylus argus_.) It is scarcely more than two
+inches long, more nimble than fleet in its movement, and not very
+attractive.
+
+In the woods he would meet with other kinds. On the trunks of the
+trees he might frequently see the Venus (_Dactyloa Edwardsii_), as it
+is provincially called; a lizard much like the anoles of the houses,
+of a rich grass-green colour, with orange throat-disk, but much larger
+and fiercer; or, in the eastern parts of the island, the great iguana
+(_Cyclura lophoma_), with it dorsal crest like the teeth of a saw
+running down all its back, might be seen lying out on the branches of
+the trees, or playing bo-peep from a hole in the trunk; or, in the
+swamps and morasses of Westmoreland, the yellow galliwasp (_Celestus
+occiduus_), so much dreaded and abhorred, yet without reason, might be
+observed sitting idly in the mouth of its burrow, or feeding on the
+wild fruits and marshy plants that constitute its food.--_Gosse's
+Naturalist's Sojourn_.
+
+
+
+
+A SCENE IN NEW ENGLAND.
+
+
+I leave Boston sometimes in the evening by rail, get thirty miles off,
+then strike away into byways, ramble for an hour or two, and get back
+to the rail. I was out yesterday, and nothing can equal the colour of
+the foliage: if it was painted, it would look like fancy. In the
+course of my stroll, I came upon a lake entirely surrounded with
+forest, and containing, as I was informed, about four square miles of
+water, studded with islands varying in size from one to twenty acres.
+I would describe a point of view which enchanted me. I was on one side
+of the lake, where it is about half a mile in width: about half-way
+across, for the foreground of my picture, is a small island, about two
+acres, covered with trees, looking as if they grew out of the lake,
+with a central one of at least eighty feet high, and of the purest
+orange colour. The opposite shore is of a crescent shape, with the
+forest rising like an amphitheatre behind, glowing with every
+imaginable colour, from the intense crimson to the pale pink, and
+looking exactly like an enormous flower-garden stretching away to the
+distance, and the colour so strongly reflected in the water, that it
+is difficult to tell the reality from the reflection. At home in
+England, I would have gone far to see such scenes; but they are here
+at every turn. I enclose you some leaves, but the purity of the colour
+is gone after a few hours. I am sure many valuable additions might be
+made to the European stock of flowers: there are thousands of
+species--some extremely beautiful; but how they are propagated, or
+whether they could be transplanted, I cannot tell, being no
+horticulturist. Among the millions here, one plant would be much
+admired with you. It grows wild about three feet high, with long,
+curiously-formed leaves, and surmounted by bunches of bright scarlet
+blossoms, exactly like the geranium. In the course of my stroll, I
+came upon a genuine shanty of a new settler, full of fine children.
+The husband away at work--a little patch cleared for Indian corn and a
+few vegetables, the sturdy trees enclosing all. Truly the pair have
+their work before them, but they have likewise hope and comfort. I
+chatted a little while with the wife, a genuine specimen of the
+Anglo-Saxon race--clean, industrious, and hopeful: left home to avoid
+being starved, and sat down here, in rude comfort, with her ruddy
+children growing up about her--to be a joy and a support, instead of
+the drag and vexation they would have proved at home.--_Private Letter
+from an English Artist settled at Boston_.
+
+
+
+
+WOMEN.
+
+
+Christianity freed woman, because it opened to her the long-closed
+world of spiritual knowledge. Sublime and speculative theories,
+hitherto confined to the few, became, when once they were quickened by
+faith, things for which thousands were eager to die. Simple women
+meditated in their homes on questions which had long troubled
+philosophers in the groves of academies. They knew this well; and felt
+that from her who had sat at the feet of the Master, listening to the
+divine teaching, down to the poorest slave who heard the tidings of
+spiritual liberty, they had all become daughters of a great and
+immortal faith. Of that faith women were the earliest adherents,
+disciples, and martyrs. Women followed Jesus, entertained the
+wandering apostles, worshipped in the catacombs, or died in the arena.
+The _Acts of the Apostles_ bear record to the charity of Dorcas and
+the hospitality of Lydia; and tradition has preserved the memory of
+Praxedes and Pudentiana, daughters of a Roman senator, in whose house
+the earliest Christian meetings were held in Rome.--_Women of
+Christianity, by Julia Kavanagh_.
+
+
+
+
+'WHARE'ER THERE'S A WILL THERE IS ALWAYS A WAY.'
+
+
+    Langsyne, when I first gaed to schule, I was glaiket,
+    In books and in learning nae pleasure had I;
+    And when for my fauts wi' the taws I was paiket,
+    'I canna do better,' was aye my reply.
+    'Deed Rab,' quo my mither, 'for daffn' and playin'
+    There 's nocht ye can manage by nicht or by day;
+    But this let me tell ye, and mind what I'm sayin'--
+    Whare'er there's a will there is always a way.
+
+    'Just look at our preacher, when but a bit callan,
+    The ills o' cauld poortith he aft had to dree,
+    But to better his lot the poor chiel aye was willin'--
+    At schule and at wark ever eident was he:
+    Sage books he wad read, and their truths he wad cherish,
+    And earnestly sprauchle up learning's steep brae;
+    And noo he's Mess John o' his ain native parish--
+    Sae whare there's a will there is always a way.
+
+    'And man, if ye saw how his manse is bedecket!
+    Ilk room's like a palace, it's plenished sae fine;
+    And then wi' the best in the land he's respecket,
+    And aft wi' My Lord is invited to dine.
+    O Rab, then, be active; frae him tak' example;
+    His case speaks mair powerfu' than ocht I can say;
+    And soon ye will find that your talents are ample;
+    For whare there's a will there is always a way.
+
+    'What though we are cotters?--the poorest may flourish,
+    And wha wadna rise wi' the glorious few?
+    Industry works wonders--its spirit aye nourish--
+    It isna the drone gathers hinney, I trew.
+    Then onward, my laddie! ye canna regret it;
+    What wrecks and what tears have been caused by delay!
+    If noble your wish is, press on, ye will get it!
+    For whare there's a will there is always a way.'
+
+    Thus spak my auld mither: ilk word seemed a sermon,
+    But just rather warldly, as ane micht alloo;
+    But, haith, it inspired me, and made me determine
+    To haud to the _lair_ and keep _progress_ in view.
+    Sae I tried ilka project instruction to gather:
+    When herdin' the sheep for our laird, Ringan Gray,
+    The Bible and Bunyan, I read 'mang the heather--
+    Aye whare there's a will there is always a way.
+
+    But my father he dee'd, and to help my auld mither
+    I noo had to struggle wi' hardship and care;
+    And aften I thocht I wad stick a'thegither,
+    But something within me said: 'Never despair!'
+    At last I grew bein, for I toiled late and early,
+    Syne to College I gaed, and was made a D.D.
+    And noo I'm Mess John in the Kirk o' Glenfairly--
+    Sae whare there's a will there is always a way.
+
+    The manse--but I shouldna wi' vainity crack o't--
+    Is as cozie a beil as a body could see;
+    Hauf-hid 'mang auld trees, wi' braw parks at the back o't,
+    Whare lambs, 'mang the gowans, are sporting wi' glee.
+    I've got a bit wife too, a rich winsome lady--
+    In short, I hae a' that a mortal could hae:
+    Sae onward, ye youths! as my auld mither said aye--
+    Whare'er there's a will there is always a way.
+                                                A. M'KAY.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Printed and Published by W. and R. CHAMBERS, High Street, Edinburgh.
+Also sold by W.S. ORR, Amen Corner, London; D.N. CHAMBERS, 55 West
+Nile Street, Glasgow; and J. M'GLASHAN, 50 Upper Sackville Street,
+Dublin.--Advertisements for Monthly Parts are requested to be sent to
+MAXWELL & Co., 31 Nicholas Lane, Lombard Street, London, to whom all
+applications respecting their insertion must be made.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Chambers' Edinburgh Journal, No. 421,
+New Series,  Jan. 24, 1852, by Various
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CHAMBERS' EDINBURGH JOURNAL, ***
+
+***** This file should be named 14612-8.txt or 14612-8.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        https://www.gutenberg.org/1/4/6/1/14612/
+
+Produced by Malcolm Farmer, Richard J. Shiffer and the PG Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+https://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+https://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at https://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit https://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including including checks, online payments and credit card
+donations.  To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     https://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
diff --git a/old/14612-8.zip b/old/14612-8.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e09bb44
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14612-8.zip
diff --git a/old/14612-h.zip b/old/14612-h.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..12fdb68
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14612-h.zip
diff --git a/old/14612-h/14612-h.htm b/old/14612-h/14612-h.htm
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e66532b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14612-h/14612-h.htm
@@ -0,0 +1,2659 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN"
+    "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+<head>
+    <meta http-equiv="Content-Type"
+          content="text/html; charset=us-ascii" />
+
+    <title>Chambers' Edinburgh Journal No. 421. January 24, 1852</title>
+    <style type="text/css">
+    /*<![CDATA[*/
+
+    <!--
+    body                 {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;
+			  max-width: 40em;}
+    p                    {text-align: justify;}
+    blockquote           {text-align: justify; font-size: 0.9em;}
+    h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6    {text-align: center;}
+    pre                  {font-size: 0.7em;}
+    .returnTOC           {text-align: right; font-size: 70%;}
+    hr                   {text-align: center; width: 50%;}
+    html>body hr         {margin-right: 25%; margin-left: 25%; width: 50%;}
+    hr.full              {width: 100%;}
+    html>body hr.full    {margin-right: 0%; margin-left: 0%; width: 100%;}
+    hr.short             {text-align: center; width: 20%;}
+    html>body hr.short   {margin-right: 40%; margin-left: 40%; width: 20%;}
+    .sc			 {font-variant: small-caps;}
+    .note
+    {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;}
+    span.pagenum    {position: absolute; left: 1%; right: 91%; font-size: 8pt;}
+    .fnanchor {
+	font-size: smaller; /* discreet [X] */
+	vertical-align: 2px; /* bumped up a trace from baseline */
+	}
+    .poem
+    {margin-left:10%; margin-right:10%; margin-bottom: 1em; text-align: left;}
+    .poem .stanza        {margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em;}
+    .poem p              {margin: 0; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;}
+    .poem p.i2           {margin-left: 1em;}
+    .poem p.i4           {margin-left: 2em;}
+    .poem p.i6           {margin-left: 3em;}
+    .poem p.i8           {margin-left: 4em;}
+    .poem p.i30          {margin-left: 15em;}
+    // -->
+    /*]]>*/
+    </style>
+</head>
+<body>
+
+
+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Chambers' Edinburgh Journal, No. 421, New
+Series,  Jan. 24, 1852, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Chambers' Edinburgh Journal, No. 421, New Series,  Jan. 24, 1852
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: January 6, 2005 [EBook #14612]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CHAMBERS' EDINBURGH JOURNAL, ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Malcolm Farmer, Richard J. Shiffer and the PG Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<h1>CHAMBERS' EDINBURGH JOURNAL</h1>
+
+<h2><a name="Contents" id="Contents">CONTENTS</a></h2>
+
+ <a href="#article1">THE WOLF-GATHERING.</a><br />
+ <a href="#article2">THE DROLLERIES OF FALSE POLITICAL ECONOMY.</a><br />
+ <a href="#article3">SIR FRANCIS HEAD'S 'FAGGOT.'</a><br />
+ <a href="#article4">IVORY AND ITS APPLICATIONS.</a><br />
+ <a href="#article5">BLIGHTED FLOWERS.</a><br />
+ <a href="#article6">NOTES FROM AUSTRALIA.</a><br />
+ <a href="#article7">GROUND-LIZARD OF JAMAICA.</a><br />
+ <a href="#article8">A SCENE IN NEW ENGLAND</a><br />
+ <a href="#article9">WOMEN.</a><br />
+ <a href="#article10">'WHARE'ER THERE'S A WILL THERE IS ALWAYS A WAY.</a><br />
+ <br />
+ <br />
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page49" id="page49"></a>[pg 49]</span>
+
+<img src="images/banner.png"
+          width="100%"
+          alt="Banner: Chambers' Edinburgh Journal" />
+
+<h4>CONDUCTED BY WILLIAM AND ROBERT CHAMBERS, EDITORS OF 'CHAMBERS'S
+INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE,' 'CHAMBERS'S EDUCATIONAL COURSE,' &amp;c.</h4>
+
+<hr class="full" />
+
+<table width="100%"
+        summary="Volume, Date and Price">
+<tr>
+<td align="left"><b>No. 421.&nbsp;&nbsp; NEW SERIES.</b></td>
+<td align="left"><b>SATURDAY, JANUARY 24, 1852.</b></td>
+<td align="right"><b>PRICE 1&frac12;<i>d</i>.</b></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="full" />
+
+<h2><a name="article1" id="article1">
+THE WOLF-GATHERING.
+</a></h2>
+
+<p class="returnTOC"><a href="#Contents">Return to Table of
+    Contents</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">One</span> winter evening some years ago, I sat with a small circle of
+friends round the fire, in the house of a Polish gentleman, whom his
+acquaintances agreed in calling Mr Charles, as the most pronounceable
+of his names. He had fought in all his country's battles of the
+unsuccessful revolution of 1831; and being one of the many who sought
+life and liberty in the British dominions, on the failure of that last
+national effort, he had, with a spirit worthy of an exiled patriot,
+made the best of his unchosen fortunes, and worked his way up, through
+a thousand difficulties and privations, to a respectable standing in
+the mercantile profession. At the period mentioned, Mr Charles had
+become almost naturalised in one of our great commercial towns, was a
+member of a British church, and the head of a British household; but
+when the conversation happened to turn on sporting matters round his
+own fireside, he related in perfect seriousness the following wild and
+legend-like story of his early life in Poland:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>The year before the rising, I went from my native place in Samogitia
+(Szama&iuml;t), to spend Christmas at the house of my uncle, situated in
+the wooded country of Upper Lithuania. He was a nobleman who boasted
+his descent from one of the oldest houses in Poland, and still held
+the estate which his ancestors had defended for themselves through
+many a Tartar invasion&mdash;as much land as a hunting-train could course
+over in a summer's day. But ample as his domain appeared, my uncle was
+by no means rich upon it. The greater portion had been forest-land for
+ages; elsewhere it was occupied by poor peasants and their fields; and
+in the centre he lived, after the fashion of his forefathers, in a
+huge timber-house with antiquated fortifications, where he exercised
+liberal hospitality, especially at Christmas times. My uncle was a
+widower, but he had three sons&mdash;Armand, Henrique, and
+Constantine&mdash;brave, handsome young men, who kept close intimacy and
+right merry companionship with their nearest neighbours, a family
+named Lorenski. Their property bordered on my uncle's land, and there
+was not a family of their station within leagues; but independently of
+that circumstance, the household must have had attractions for my
+cousins, for it consisted of the young Count Emerich, his sister
+Constanza, and two orphan cousins, Marcella and Eustachia, who had
+been brought up with them from childhood.</p>
+
+<p>The count's parents had died in his early youth, leaving him not only
+his own guardian, but that of his sister and cousins; and the young
+people had grown up safely and happily together in that forest-land.
+The cousins were like most of our Polish girls in the provinces,
+dark-eyed and comely, gay and fearless, and ready alike for the dance
+or the chase; but Count Emerich and his sister had the praise of the
+whole province for their noble carriage, their wise and virtuous
+lives, and the great affection that was between them. Both had strange
+courage, and were said to fear neither ghost nor goblin&mdash;which, I must
+remark, was not a common case in Lithuania. Constanza was the oldest
+by two years, and by far the most discreet and calm of temper, by
+which it was believed she rather ruled the household, though her
+brother had a high and fiery spirit. But they were never known to
+disagree, and, though still young, neither seemed to think of
+marrying. Fortunately, it was not so with all their neighbours. My
+stay at my uncle's house had not been long when I found out that
+Armand was as good as engaged to Marcella, and Henrique to Eustachia,
+while Constantine, the youngest and handsomest of the three brothers,
+paid vain though deferential court to Constanza.</p>
+
+<p>The rising was not then publicly talked of, though known to be in full
+preparation throughout the country. All the young and brave hearts
+among us were pledged to it, and my cousins did not hesitate to tell
+me in confidence that Count Emerich and his sister were its chief
+promoters in that district. They had a devoted assistant in Father
+Cassimer. He had been their mother's confessor, and lived in the house
+for five-and-thirty years, saying mass regularly in the parish church,
+a pine-built edifice on the edge of the forest. Father Cassimer's hair
+was like snow; but he was still erect, strong, and active. He said the
+church could not spare him, and he would live to a hundred. In some
+respects, the man did deserve a century, being a good Pole and a
+worthy priest, notwithstanding one weakness which beset him, for
+Father Cassimer took special delight in hunting. It was said that
+once, when robed for mass, a wild boar chanced to stray past; whereon
+the good priest mounted his horse, which was usually fastened to the
+church-door, and started after the game in full canonicals. That was
+in his youth; but Father Cassimer never denied the tale, and the
+peasants who remembered it had no less confidence in his prayers, for
+they knew he loved his country, and looked after the sick and poor.
+The priest was my cousin's instructor in wood-craft, and the
+boon-companion of my uncle; but scarcely had I got well acquainted
+with him and the Lorenskis, when two Christmas visitors arrived at
+their house.</p>
+
+<p>They were a brother and sister, Russian nobles, known as Count
+Theodore and Countess Juana. Their native place was St Petersburg, but
+they had spent years in travelling over Europe; and though nobody
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page50" id="page50"></a>[pg 50]</span>
+knew the extent of their estates, it was supposed to be great, for
+they spared no expense, and always kept the best society. Latterly
+they had been somehow attracted to Poland, and became so popular among
+our country nobles, that they were invited from house to house, making
+new friends wherever they went, for Russians though they were, they
+wished well to our country, and, among their intimates, spoke of
+liberty and justice with singular eloquence. Considering this, their
+popularity was no wonder. A handsomer or more accomplished pair I
+never saw. Both were tall, fair, and graceful, with hair of a light
+golden shade&mdash;the sister's descending almost to her feet when
+unbraided, and the brother's clustering in rich curls about the brow.
+They knew the dances of all nations, could play anything that was ever
+invented, whether game or instrument, and talked in every tongue of
+Europe, from Romaic to Swedish. Both could ride like Arabs. Count
+Theodore was a splendid shot, his sister was matchless in singing, and
+neither was ever tired of fun or frolic. They seemed of the Lorenskis'
+years, but had seen more of the world; and though scarcely so
+dignified, most people preferred the frank familiarity and lively
+converse of the travelled Russians.</p>
+
+<p>The Lorenskis themselves could not but applaud that general
+preference. They and the travellers had become fast friends almost on
+their first acquaintance, which took place in the previous winter; and
+Count Theodore and his sister had performed a long wintry journey from
+St Petersburg, to celebrate the Christmas-time with them. Peasants and
+servants rejoiced at their coming, for they were known to be liberal.
+The old priest said it had never been his luck to see anything decent
+out of Russia before, and my uncle's entire household were delighted,
+with the exception of Constantine. By and by, I guessed the cause of
+his half-concealed displeasure. The brother of each pair took
+wonderfully to the sister of the other. Count Theodore talked of
+buying an estate in Lithuania; and the young cousins predicted, that
+though Emerich and Constanza might be near neighbours, they would not
+live all their days free and single. After the Russians' arrival,
+there was nothing but sport among us. We had dances and concerts,
+plays, and all manner of games; but the deep snow of our Polish winter
+had not hardened to the usual strong ice, over marsh, river, and
+forest-land. It continued falling day after day, shutting all our
+amusements within doors, and preventing, to our general regret, the
+wonted wolf-hunt, always kept up in Lithuania from the middle of
+December till Christmas-eve.</p>
+
+<p>It was a custom, time immemorial, in the province, and followed as
+much for the amusement it afforded the young people, as for the
+destruction of the deadly prowler. The mode of conducting it was this:
+Every two or three families who chanced to be intimate when the ice
+was sufficiently strong and smooth for sledge-travelling, sent forth a
+party of young hunters, with their sisters and sweethearts, in a
+sledge covered at the one end, which was also well cushioned and gaily
+painted; the ladies in their best winter-dresses took possession of
+it, while the hunters occupied the exposed part, with guns,
+shot-pouches, and hunting-knives, in complete readiness. Beside the
+driver, who was generally an old experienced hand, there was placed a
+young hog, or a leg of pork, occasionally roasted to make the odour
+more inviting, and packed up with cords and straw in a pretty tight
+parcel, which was fastened to the sledge by a long rope twisted to
+almost iron hardness. Away they drove at full speed; and when fairly
+in the forest, the pork was thrown down, and allowed to drag after the
+sledge, the smell of it bringing wolves from every quarter, while the
+hunters fired at them as they advanced. I have seen a score of skins
+collected in this manner, not to speak of the fun, the excitement, and
+the opportunities for exhibiting one's marksmanship and courage where
+one would most wish to have them seen.</p>
+
+<p>The peasants said it was never lucky when Christmas came without a
+wolf-hunt: but that year it was like to be so; for, as I have said,
+the snow kept falling at intervals, with days of fog and thaw between,
+till the night before the vigil. In my youth, the Lithuanians kept
+Christmas after the fashion of old northern times. It began with great
+devotion, and ended in greater feasting. The eve was considered
+particularly sacred: many traditional ceremonies and strange beliefs
+hung about it, and the more pious held that no one should engage in
+any profane occupation, or think of going to sleep after sunset. When
+it came, our disappointment concerning the wolf-hunt lay heavy on many
+a mind as well as mine; but a strong frost had set in before daybreak,
+and at the early nightfall a finer prospect for sledging could not be
+desired&mdash;over the broad plain, and far between the forest pines; the
+ice stretched away as smooth and bright as a mirror. The moon was
+full, and the stars were out by thousands: you could have read large
+print by the cold, clear light, as my cousins and I stood at my
+uncle's door, fervently wishing it had been any other evening.
+Suddenly, our ears caught the sound of bells and laughing voices, and
+in a few minutes up drove the Lorenski sledge in its gayest trappings,
+with Constanza, the Russian countess, and the young cousins, all
+looking blithe, and rosy in the frosty air, while Emerich and Theodore
+sat in true hunter's trim, and Father Cassimer himself in charge of
+the reins, with the well-covered pork beside him. They had two noble
+horses of the best Tatar blood, unequalled in the province, as we
+knew, for speed and strength; and Emerich's cheerful voice first
+saluted us with: 'Ho! friends, it is seven hours yet till midnight:
+won't you come with us?&mdash;it is a shame to let Christmas in without a
+wolf-skin!'</p>
+
+<p>That was enough for us: we flew in for our equipments. My uncle was
+not at first willing that we should go; but the merry company now at
+his door, the unequivocal countenance which Father Cassimer gave to
+the proceeding, and the high spirits of the young Russians, who were,
+as usual, wild for the sport, made him think that, after all, there
+was no harm in the young people taking an hour or two in the woods
+before mass, which on Christmas-eve begins always at midnight. Our
+hunting-gear was donned in a trice; and with my uncle's most trusty
+man, Metski, to assist in driving, away we went at full speed to the
+forest.</p>
+
+<p>Father Cassimer was an experienced general in expeditions of the kind;
+he knew the turns of the woods where the wolves scented best; and when
+we had got fairly among the tall oaks, down went his pork. For some
+time it dragged on without a single wolf appearing, though the odour
+came strong and savoury through cords and straw.</p>
+
+<p>'If I were a wolf myself, I would come for that,' said old Metski. The
+priest quickened his speed, vowing he would not say mass without a
+skin that night; and we got deeper into the wilderness of oak and
+pine. Like most of our Lithuanian forests, it had no underwood. There
+was ample space for our sledge among the great trees, and the
+moonlight fell in a flood of brightness upon their huge white trunks,
+and through the frost-covered branches. We could see the long icicles
+gleaming like pendants of diamond for miles through the wide woods,
+but never a wolf. The priest began to look disappointed; Metski
+sympathised with him, for he relished a hunt almost as well as his
+reverence; but all the rest, with the help of the Russians, amused
+themselves with <i>making</i> game. I have said they were in great spirits,
+particularly Count Theodore; indeed he was generally the gayer of the
+pair&mdash;his sister being evidently the more prudent&mdash;and in this respect
+they resembled the Lorenskis. Many a jest, however, on the
+non-appearance of the wolves
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page51" id="page51"></a>[pg 51]</span>
+went round our sledge, of which I
+remember nothing now except that we all laughed till the old wood
+rang.</p>
+
+<p>'Be quiet, good children,' said the priest, turning in his seat of
+command: 'you make noise enough to frighten all the wolves in
+creation.'</p>
+
+<p>'They won't come to-night, father; they are preparing for mass,' cried
+Count Theodore. 'Juana, if the old Finn were here now, wouldn't he be
+useful?'</p>
+
+<p>'Perhaps he might,' said the countess, with a forced laugh; but she
+cast a look of strange warning and reproof on her brother.</p>
+
+<p>'What Finn?' said the priest, catching the count's words.</p>
+
+<p>'Oh, he is talking of an old nursery-tale we had in St Petersburg,'
+hastily interposed the lady, though I thought her face had no memory
+of the nursery in it.</p>
+
+<p>'About the Finns I'll warrant,' said Father Cassimer. 'They are a
+strange people. My brother the merchant told me that he knew one of
+them at Abo who said he had a charm for the wolves; but somebody
+informed against him for smuggling, and the Russian government sent
+him to the lead-mines in Siberia. By Saint Sigismund, there's the
+first of them!'</p>
+
+<p>As the priest spoke, a large wolf appeared, and half the guns in the
+sledge were raised. 'Not yet, not yet,' said our experienced
+commander, artfully turning away as another and another came in sight.
+'There are more coming,' and he gradually slackened our pace; but far
+off through the moonlit woods and the frozen night we could hear a
+strange murmur, which grew and swelled on all sides to a chorus of
+mingled howlings, and the wolves came on by troops.</p>
+
+<p>'Fire now, friends!' cried Father Cassimer. 'We are like to have skins
+enough for Christmas;' and bang went all our barrels. I saw five fall;
+but, contrary to expectation, the wolves did not retire&mdash;they stood
+for an instant snarling at us. The distant howlings continued and came
+nearer; and then from every glade and alley, down the frozen streams,
+and through the wide openings of the forest, came by scores and
+hundreds such a multitude of wolves as we could not have believed to
+exist in all Lithuania.</p>
+
+<p>'Hand me my gun, and take the reins, Metski,' cried Father Cassimer.
+'Drive for your life!' he added in an under tone; but every one in the
+sledge heard him. Heaven knows how many we killed; but it seemed of no
+use. Our pork was swallowed, straw and all. The creatures were
+pressing upon us on every side, as if trying to surround the sledge;
+and it was fearful to see the leaps that some gray old fellows among
+them would take at Metski and the horses. Our driver did his part like
+a man, making a thousand winds and turns through the woods; but still
+the wolves pursued us. Fortunately, the firing kept them off, and,
+thanks to our noble horses, they were never able to get ahead of us;
+but as far as we could see behind us in the moonlight, came the
+howling packs, as if rising from the ground of the forest. We had seen
+nothing like it, and all did their best in firing, especially Count
+Theodore; but his shots had little effect, for his hand shook, and I
+know not if any but myself saw the looks of terrified intelligence
+which he exchanged with his sister. Still, she and the Lady Constanza
+kept up their courage, though the young cousins were as white as snow,
+and our ammunition was fast decreasing.</p>
+
+<p>'Yonder is a light,' said Constanza at last, as the poor horses became
+unmanageable from fright and weariness. 'It is from the cottage of old
+Wenzel, the woodman.'</p>
+
+<p>'If we could reach that,' said Father Cassimer, 'and leave the horses
+to their fate: it is our only chance.'</p>
+
+<p>No one contradicted the priest's arrangement, for his last words were
+felt to be true&mdash;though a pang passed over Constanza's face at the
+thought of leaving our brave and faithful horses to the wolves: but
+louder rose the howls behind us, as Metski urged on with all his
+might, and far above all went the shout of Father Cassimer (he had the
+best lungs in that province): 'Ho, Wenzel! open the door to us for
+God's sake!'</p>
+
+<p>We heard the old man reply, sent one well-aimed volley in among the
+wolves, and as they recoiled, man and woman leaped from the
+sledge&mdash;for our Polish girls are active&mdash;and rushed into the cottage,
+when old Wenzel instantly double-barred the door. It was woful to hear
+the cry of pain and terror from our poor horses as we deserted them;
+the next instant the wolves were upon them. We saw them from the
+window, as thick as ever flies stuck on sugar. How we fired upon them,
+and with what good-will old Wenzel helped us, praying all the time to
+every saint in the calendar, you may imagine! But still their numbers
+were increasing; and as a pause came in the fearful din, we plainly
+heard through the still air the boom of our own great bell, ringing
+for the midnight mass. At that sound, Father Cassimer's countenance
+fell for the first time. He knew the bellman was a poor half-witted
+fellow, who would not be sensible of his absence; and then he turned
+to have another shot at the wolves.</p>
+
+<p>Shots were by this time getting scarce among us. There was not a man
+had a charge left but old Wenzel, who had supplied us as long as he
+could; but at length, loading his own gun with his last charge, he
+laid it quietly in the corner, saying one didn't know what use might
+be for it, and he never liked an empty gun.</p>
+
+<p>Wenzel was the son of a small innkeeper at Grodno, but after his
+father's decease, which occurred when he was a child, his mother had
+married a Russian trader, who, when she died, carried the boy to
+Moscow. There Wenzel bade fair to be brought up a Russian; but when a
+stepmother came home, which took place while he was still a youth, he
+had returned to his native country, built himself a hut in the woods
+of Lithuania, and lived a lonely hunter till the time of my story,
+when he was still a robust, though gray-haired man. Some said his
+Muscovite parents had not been to his liking; some that he had found
+cause to shoot a master to whom they apprenticed him at Moscow; but be
+that as it might, Wenzel hated the Russians with all his heart, and
+never scrupled to say that the gun which had served him so long would
+serve the country too if it ever came to a rising. So much for
+Wenzel's story, by way of explaining what followed; but as I stood
+beside him that night at the hut's single crevice of a window, I could
+have given Poland itself for ammunition enough to do service on the
+wolves. They had now left nothing but the bones of our horses, which
+they had dragged round and round the cottage, with a din of howlings
+that almost drowned our voices within. Then they seized on the bodies
+of their own slain companions, which were devoured to the very skins;
+and still the gathering was going on. We could see them coming in
+troops through the open glades of the forest, as if aware that some
+human prey was in reserve. The hut was strongly built of great
+pine-logs, but it was fearful to hear them tearing at the door and
+scratching up the foundations. The bravest among us got terrified at
+these sounds. Metski loudly avowed his belief that the wolves were
+sent upon us as a punishment for hunting on Christmas-eve, and fell
+instantly to his prayers. Wenzel flung a blazing brand among them from
+the window, but they did not seem to care for fire; and three of them
+were so near leaping in, that he drove to the log-shutter and gave up
+that method of defence. None of the party appeared so far overcome
+with terror as Count Theodore: his spirit and prudence both seemed to
+forsake him. When the wolves began to scratch, he threw himself almost
+on his face in the corner, and kept moaning and praying in Russian, of
+which none of us understood a syllable but old Wenzel. Emerich and I
+would have spoken to him, but the woodman stopped us with a strange
+sign. Count Theodore had taken the relic of some
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page52" id="page52"></a>[pg 52]</span>
+saint from a
+pocket-book which he carried in his breast, and was, in Russian
+fashion as I think, confessing his sins over it; while his sister sat
+silent and motionless by the fire, with livid face and clasped hands.
+It was burning low, but I saw the woodman's face darken. He stepped to
+the corner and took down his gun, as I believed, to take the last shot
+at the wolves; but Count Theodore was in his way. He levelled it for
+an instant at the prostrate man, and before I could speak or
+interpose, the report, followed by a faint shrill shriek from the
+Russian, rang through the hut. We rushed to him, but the count was
+dead. A bullet had gone right through the heart.</p>
+
+<p>'My gun has shot the count, and the wolves will leave us now,' said
+Wenzel coolly. 'I heard him say in his prayers that a Finn, now in the
+Siberian mines, had vowed to send them on him and his company wherever
+he went.'</p>
+
+<p>As the woodman spoke, he handed to Count Emerich, with a hoarse
+whisper, a bloody pocket-book, taken from the dead body, and turning
+to Juana, said something loud and threatening to her in the Russian
+tongue; at which the lady only bowed her head, seeming of all in the
+hut to be the least surprised or concerned at the death of her
+brother. As for us, the complicated horrors of the night had left us
+stunned and stupified till the rapid diminution of the wolfish din,
+the sounds of shots and voices, and the glare of flambeaux lighting up
+the forest, brought most of us to the window. The wolves were scouring
+away in all directions, there was a grayness in the eastern sky, for
+Christmas-day was breaking; and from all sides the count and my
+uncle's tenantry, with skates and sledges, guns and torches, were
+pouring to the rescue as we shouted to them from the cottage.</p>
+
+<p>They had searched for us almost since midnight, fearing that something
+terrible had detained Father Cassimer and his company from mass. There
+were wonderfully few wolves shot in the retreat, and we all went home
+to Count Emerich's house, but not in triumph, for with us went the
+body of the Russian, of which old Wenzel was one of the bearers. The
+unanimous determination we expressed to bring him to justice as a
+murderer, was silenced when Emerich shewed us in confidence a letter
+from the Russian minister, and a paper with all our names in a list of
+the disaffected in Upper Lithuania, which he had found in Theodore's
+pocket-book. After that, we all affirmed that Wenzel's gun had gone
+off by accident; and on the same good Christmas-day, Count Emerich,
+with a body of his retainers, escorted the Lady Juana to a convent at
+the other end of the province, the superior of which was his aunt.
+There she became a true Catholic, professed, and, as I was told,
+turned to a great saint. There is a wooden cross with his name, and a
+Latin inscription on it, marking Count Theodore's grave, by our old
+church on the edge of the forest. No one ever inquired after him, and
+the company of that terrible night are far scattered. My uncle and his
+sons all died for the poor country. The young cousins are married to
+German doctors in Berlin. Constanza and her brother are still single,
+for aught I know, but they have been exiles in America these fifteen
+years. Father Cassimer went with them, after being colonel of a
+regiment which saw hard service on the banks of the Vistula; and it
+may be that he is still saying mass or hunting occasionally in the Far
+West.</p>
+
+<p>The last time I saw Wenzel and Metski was in the trenches at Minsk,
+where they had a tough debate regarding our adventure in the forest:
+the woodman insisting it was the Finn's spell that brought the wolves
+in such unheard-of numbers, and the peasant maintaining that it was a
+judgment on our desecration of Christmas-eve. For my own part, I think
+the long storm and a great scarcity of food had something to do with
+it, for tales of the kind were never wanting in our province. The
+wolf-gathering, however, saved us a journey to Siberia: thanks to old
+Wenzel. And sometimes yet, when any strange noise breaks in upon my
+sleep even here in England, I dream of being in his wild hut in the
+forest and listening to the wolfish voices at the door.</p>
+<br />
+
+
+<hr />
+<h2><a name="article2" id="article2">
+THE DROLLERIES OF FALSE POLITICAL ECONOMY.
+</a></h2>
+
+<h3>PLANS FOR PAYING THE NATIONAL DEBT.</h3>
+
+<p class="returnTOC"><a href="#Contents">Return to Table of
+    Contents</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">It</span> is not customary to associate the ludicrous with financial
+operations&mdash;with budgets, schemes of taxation, and national debts. In
+general, they are considered to assume a formidable aspect; and when
+that is not the case, their details are looked on as dry and
+uninteresting&mdash;they are universally voted a 'bore.' Yet we engage to
+shew, that there have been some financial projects which at the
+present day we can pronounce essentially ludicrous. And they are not
+the mere projects of enthusiasts and theoretic dreamers. They were put
+in practice on a large scale; they involved the disposal of millions
+of money; and they were in operation at so late a period, that the
+present generation paid heavy taxes for the purpose of carrying them
+out&mdash;taxes paid for nothing better than the success of a practical
+hoax.</p>
+
+<p>The round hundreds of millions in which our national debt is set forth
+seem to have often confused the brains of our most practical
+arithmeticians and financiers. They seem to have felt as if these did
+not represent real money, but something ideal; or perhaps we might
+say, they have treated them like certain results of the operation of
+figures which might be neutralised by others, as the equivalents on
+the two sides of an equation exhaust each other. We never hear of a
+man trying to pay his own personal debts otherwise than with money,
+but we have had hundreds of projects for paying the national debt
+without money, and generally through some curious and ingenious
+arithmetical process. We might perhaps amuse our readers by an account
+of some of these, for to their absurdity there are no bounds; but we
+adhere in the meantime to our engagement, to shew that on this subject
+even the practical projects of statesmen of our own day have been
+ridiculous.</p>
+
+<p>We shall suppose that some one has occasion for L.100, which he finds
+a friend obliging enough to lend him. On receiving it, he requests the
+loan of other L.10; and being asked for what purpose, he answers, that
+with that L.10 he will pay up the original L.100. This is a rather
+startling proposal; but when he is asked how he is to manage this
+practical paradox, he says: 'Oh, I shall put out the L.10 to interest,
+and in the course of time it will increase until it pays off the
+L.100.' The lender is perhaps a little staggered at first by the
+audacious plausibility of the proposal, but it requires but a few
+seconds to enable him to say: 'Why, yes, you may lend out the L.10 at
+interest; but in the meantime, as you have borrowed it, interest runs
+against you upon it; so what better are you?' The lender, so far from
+concurring with the sanguine hopes about the fructification of the
+L.10, will only regret his having intrusted the larger sum to a person
+whose notions of money are so loose and preposterous.</p>
+
+<p>Yet the proposal would only have carried into private pecuniary
+matters the principle of the sinking-fund, so long deemed a blessing,
+and a source of future prosperity to the country. A sinking-fund is an
+expression generally applied to any sum of money reserved out of
+expenditure to pay debt, or meet any contingency. Now, observe that
+our remarks are not directed against it in this simple form. A surplus
+of revenue obtained by moderate taxation, saved through frugal
+expenditure, and applied to the reduction of the national debt,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page53" id="page53"></a>[pg 53]</span>
+is
+always a good thing. But the sinking-fund to which we chiefly refer
+was a system of borrowing money to pay debt. It might be said that the
+identical money which was borrowed was not the same which was used for
+paying the debt; but it came to the same thing if the sinking-fund was
+kept up while the nation was borrowing. Thus, taking the case of the
+private borrower as we have already put it, if he took L.10 of his own
+money and put it out at interest, that it might increase and pay off
+his loan, and if, by so doing, he found it necessary to borrow L.110,
+instead of merely L.100, it was virtually the same as if he applied
+L.10 of the borrowed money for his sinking-fund. Thus for the year
+1808, the state required L.12,200,000 in loan above what the taxes
+produced. But in the same year L.1,200,000 were applied to the
+sinking-fund; consequently, it was necessary to borrow so much more,
+and therefore the whole loan of that year amounted to L.13,400,000.
+The loan was increased exactly in the way in which our friend added
+the L.10 to the L.100. It was borrowing money to pay loans.</p>
+
+<p>The application of millions in this manner by our statesmen, was in a
+great measure owing to the enthusiastic speculations of Dr Richard
+Price, a benevolent, ingenious, and laborious man, who, unfortunately
+for the public, possessed the power of giving his wild speculations a
+tangible and practical appearance. He was, to use a common expression,
+'carried off his feet' by arithmetical calculations. He believed
+compound interest to be omnipotent. He made a calculation of what a
+penny could have come to if laid out at compound interest from the
+birth of Christ to the nineteenth century, and found it would make&mdash;we
+forget precisely how many globes of gold the size of this earth. He
+did not say, however, where the proper investments were to be made;
+how the money was to be procured; and, most serious of all, he
+overlooked that where one party received such an accumulating amount
+of money, some other party must pay it, and to pay it must make it. In
+fact, the doctor looked on the increase of money by compound interest
+as a mere arithmetical process. The world, however, finds it to be a
+process of working, and the making of money by toil, parsimony, and
+anxiety.</p>
+
+<p>When any one seizes on such a theme he is sure to be carried to
+extremities with it. It was one of Price's favourite theories, that
+the time when interest was highest was the best time for borrowing
+money, because the borrowed sinking-fund would then bring the highest
+interest. One is astonished in times like these, when people think
+taxes and national debt so serious, at the easy carelessness with
+which the doctor treats the disease, and his sure remedy. He says in
+his celebrated work on Annuities (i. 277): 'It is an observation that
+deserves particular attention here, that in this plan it will be of
+less importance to a state what interest it is obliged to give for
+money; <i>for the higher the interest, the sooner will such a sum pay
+off the principal</i>. Thus, L.100,000,000 borrowed at 8 per cent., and
+bearing an annual interest of L.8,000,000, would be paid off by a fund
+producing annually L.100,000 in fifty-six years; that is, in
+thirty-eight years less time than if the same money had been borrowed
+at 4 per cent. Hence it follows that reductions of interest would in
+this plan be no great advantage to a state. They would indeed lighten
+its present burdens; but this advantage would be in some measure
+balanced by the addition which would be made to its future burdens, in
+consequence of the longer time during which it would be necessary to
+bear them.'</p>
+
+<p>'Certain it is, therefore,' says the doctor, in a general survey of
+his arithmetical salvation of the country, 'that if our affairs are to
+be relieved, it must be by a fund increasing itself in the manner I
+have explained. The smallest fund of this kind is indeed omnipotent,
+if it is allowed time to operate.' And again: 'It might be easily
+shewn that the faithful application from the beginning of the year
+1700, of only L.200,000 annually, would long before 1790,
+notwithstanding the reductions of interest, have paid off above
+L.100,000,000 of the public debts. The nation might therefore some
+years ago have been eased of a great part of the taxes with which it
+is loaded. The most important relief might have been given to its
+trade and manufactures; and it might now have been in better
+circumstances than at the beginning of last war: its credit firm;
+respected by foreign nations, and dreaded by its enemies.'</p>
+
+<p>That such a tone should be assumed by an enthusiastic speculator is
+not wonderful. The payment of the national debt has been one of the
+staple dreams of enthusiasts. It would be difficult to believe the
+wild nonsense that has been written on it; and Hogarth, in his
+dreadful picture of a madhouse, appropriately represents one of his
+principal figures hard at work on it. But the remarkable thing&mdash;and
+what shews the perilous nature of such speculations&mdash;is, that these
+theories were worked out by chancellors of the exchequer, and adopted
+by parliament. There was a faint sinking-fund so early as 1716; but
+Walpole one day swept it up and spent it, having probably just
+discovered that it was a fallacy. It was in the days of the younger
+Pitt, however, that it came out in full bloom. After it had been for
+several years in operation, a retired and absent-minded mathematical
+student, Robert Hamilton, shewed its falsity in a book printed in
+1813. The exposure was conclusive, and no one since that time has
+ventured to support a sinking-fund.</p>
+
+<p>As already stated, it is a very good thing to save something out of
+the revenue and pay off part of the debt. But no good is done by
+keeping it to accumulate at interest, because the debt it would pay
+off is just accumulating against it. Apply this to private
+transactions. You are in debt L.110. You have L.10, and the question
+is: Are you to pay it at once, and reduce your debt to L.100, or are
+you to keep it accumulating at interest? It is much the same which you
+do, only the latter is the more troublesome mode. If you pay it at
+once, you will just have so much less interest to hand over to your
+creditor. If you put it out at interest, you will have to pay over to
+him what you receive for it, in addition to the interest of the L.100.
+There is an incidental purpose for which it has been deemed right that
+the government should, however, have a fund at its disposal&mdash;that is
+for buying into the funds when they fall very low, and thus
+accomplishing two services&mdash;the one the paying a portion of the debt
+at a cheap rate, the other stopping the depreciation of the funds.
+This is in itself we doubt not a very just practical object, but we
+believe the sums that can be applied to it are very small in
+comparison with the reserves which formed the old sinking-fund.</p>
+
+<p>But another and a very different argument has been adduced, not
+certainly for the re-establishment and support of a sinking-fund,
+since its fallacy has been exposed, but against the policy of having
+exposed it. It is said that the belief in the potency of a
+sinking-fund for clearing off the debt inspired public confidence in
+the stability of the funds, and that it was wrong to shake this
+confidence even by the promulgation of truth. It has often been
+supposed, indeed, that the statesmen who mainly carried out the system
+were in secret conscious of its fallacy, but were content to carry it
+out so long as they saw that it inspired confidence in the public. It
+is in allusion to this that we have spoken of the sinking-fund as a
+great hoax. We cannot sanction the morality of governments acting on
+conscious fallacies; and in this instance the natural confidence in
+the funds rather enlarged than decreased when the fallacy was exposed
+and the system abandoned.</p>
+
+<p>Keeping in view Dr Price's views of the potentiality of compound
+interest, we now give a brief account of a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page54" id="page54"></a>[pg 54]</span>
+singular attempt made in
+France to put them in practice, and by their omnipotence pay our
+national debt and that of other nations too, out of a small private
+fortune. In the year 1794, a will was registered in France by one
+Fortun&eacute; Ricard, disposing of a sum of 500 livres, a little more than
+L.20 sterling. Fortun&eacute; stated that this sum was the result of a
+present of twenty-four livres which he had received when he was a boy,
+and had kept accumulating at compound interest to a period of advanced
+age. By his will he left it in the hands of trustees, making
+arrangements for a perpetual succession, as the purposes of the trust
+were not to be all accomplished for a period of several centuries. The
+money was to be divided into five portions, each of 100 livres, and so
+to be put out at compound interest.</p>
+
+<p>The first portion was to be withdrawn at the end of a century: it
+would then amount to 13,000 livres, or about L.550. It is scarcely
+worth while mentioning the purposes to which this trifle was to be
+applied, but for the credit of M. Ricard it may be mentioned that they
+were all unexceptionable. In two centuries the second sum would be
+released, amounting to 1,700,000 livres. At the end of the third
+century, the third instalment was to be released, when it would
+consist of 226,000,000 livres. The destination of these magnificent
+sums was also unexceptionable&mdash;it was for national education, the
+erecting of public libraries, and the like. The instalment to be
+released at the end of the fourth century would amount to about
+30,000,000,000 livres: it was to be employed partly in the building of
+100 towns, each containing 150,000 inhabitants, in the most agreeable
+parts of France. 'In a short time,' says the benevolent founder,
+'there will result from hence an addition of 15,000,000 of inhabitants
+to the kingdom, and its consumption will be doubled&mdash;for which service
+I hope the economists will think themselves obliged to me.' Malthus
+had not then published his principles of population.</p>
+
+<p>We must draw breath as we approach the destination of the fifth and
+last instalment. It was to amount to four millions of millions of
+livres&mdash;about a hundred and seventy thousand millions of pounds. We
+take for granted that Fortun&eacute;'s calculations are correct, and have
+certainly not taken the trouble of verifying them. Among other truly
+benevolent and cosmopolitan destinations of this very handsome sum, it
+may be sufficient to mention these:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>'Six thousand millions shall be appropriated towards paying the
+national debt of France, upon condition that the kings, our good lords
+and masters, shall be entreated to order the comptrollers-general of
+the finances to undergo in future an examination in arithmetic before
+they enter on the duties of their office.</p>
+
+<p>'Twelve thousand millions shall likewise be employed in paying the
+public debts of England. It may be seen that I reckon that both these
+national debts will be doubled in this period&mdash;not that I have any
+doubt of the talents of certain ministers to increase them much more,
+but their operations in this way are opposed by an infinity of
+circumstances, which lead me to presume that these debts cannot be
+more than doubled. Besides, if they amount to a few thousands of
+millions more, I declare that it is my intention that they should be
+entirely paid off, and that a project so laudable should not remain
+unexecuted for a trifle more or less.'<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1" /><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p>
+
+<p>M. Ricard, it will be observed, must have drawn his will while royalty
+was in the ascendant; it was registered during the Reign of Terror,
+and one would be curious to know how many weeks, instead of centuries,
+his 500 livres remained sacred. Money in the most steadily-governed
+states&mdash;in our own, for instance&mdash;is subject to continual casualties.
+The most acute men of business cannot command perfectly certain
+investments for their own money&mdash;they are often miserably deceived,
+and suffer heavy losses. M. Ricard, however, supposed that a set of
+irresponsible trustees would for centuries always discover perfectly
+sure investments, and act with consummate watchfulness and honesty. If
+it were possible to leave behind one money with the qualification of
+always being securely invested, while the rest of the property in the
+world remained insecure, it would gradually suck all the wealth of the
+world into its vortex. But it would require supernatural agency to
+make it thus absolutely secure.</p>
+
+<h4>Notes:</h4>
+
+<div class="note"><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_1_1">[1]</a>
+See the will at length in the appendix to Lord
+Lauderdale's <i>Inquiry into the Nature and Origin of Public Wealth</i>.
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<hr />
+<h2><a name="article3" id="article3">
+SIR FRANCIS HEAD'S 'FAGGOT.'</a>
+<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></h2>
+
+<p class="returnTOC"><a href="#Contents">Return to Table of
+    Contents</a></p>
+
+<p>'<span class="sc">A Faggot of French Sticks'</span>
+is the whimsical title of a work just
+presented to the public, by the author of <i>Bubbles from the Brunnen of
+Nassau</i>; the said work being as respectable a specimen of bookmaking
+as has ever come under our notice. The object of the writer appears to
+have been to fill so much paper, by saying something about all he saw
+or heard of in a visit to Paris, no matter how insignificant the
+circumstances; and by this ingenious means, he has actually contrived
+to make up two goodly-sized volumes for the literary market.</p>
+
+<p>The author of this strange melange, however, is not without a dash of
+merit; he possesses a terrier-like power of poking about into holes
+and corners, and dragging to light a variety of facts which might
+escape the attention of less vigilant tourists. For example, he is not
+satisfied with the mere sight or employment of omnibuses,
+street-porters, <i>chiffonniers</i>, and other agents of the public
+service, but must know all about them&mdash;how the omnibus horses live,
+and how many miles they run per diem; what variety of occupations the
+porters resort to for a livelihood; and what are the substances, and
+their value, that the chiffonniers scrape every morning from the
+kennel. Sir Francis is great on pig slaughter-houses, furnished
+lodgings, and police-officers. He tells you every particular of his
+lodging: how he ascended the stair; what landing-places there were;
+what price he was to pay; how the servant brought him too few pieces
+of butter to breakfast, and what he said in ordering more; how one day
+he perceived a bad smell in his sitting-room, and shifted to a higher
+part of the building, where the bad smell did not come; how he finally
+paid his account, and how the <i>concierge</i> bade him good-by. All
+important information this. An equally true and particular narrative
+is given of Sir Francis's object in visiting Paris, which was to
+consult an occulist on the subject of his eyes. In going to the
+occulist's, we are informed how he left his lodgings at a quarter
+before seven o'clock; how he crossed the Place Vend&ocirc;me, and saw a
+sentinel pacing at the foot of Napoleon's Column; how he observed that
+the sentinel had the misfortune to have a hole in his greatcoat, which
+affords an opportunity too good to be lost for quoting that
+little-known verse of Burns's&mdash;'If there's a hole in a' your coats,'
+&amp;c.; how he then, being done with looking at the sentinel, goes on his
+way, crosses the Boulevard des Italiens, and enters the Rue de la
+Chauss&eacute;e d'Antin; how he looks about him till he sees No. 50, and,
+having spoken a word to the door-keeper, goes up stairs. Then, he
+informs his readers that he rang the doctor's bell; and how, the door
+being opened by a boy in livery, he was shewn into a drawing-room.
+Here, he tells us, he sat down in company with a number of other
+patients, waiting their turn to be called by the doctor. Vastly
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page55" id="page55"></a>[pg 55]</span>
+amusing all this, but nothing to what follows:&mdash;'For a considerable
+time we all sat in mute silence, and, indeed, in our respective
+attitudes, almost motionless, save that every now and then a
+gentleman, and sometimes a lady, would arise, slowly walk diagonally
+across the carpet to a corner close to the window, press with his or
+her hand the top of a little mahogany machine that looked like an
+umbrella-stand, look down into it, and then very slowly, at a sort of
+funereal pace, walk back. All this I bore with great fortitude for
+some time: at last, overpowered by curiosity, I arose, walked slowly
+and diagonally across the carpet, pushed the thing in the corner
+exactly as I had seen everybody else push it, looked just as they did,
+downwards, where, close to the floor, I beheld open, in obedience to
+the push I had given from the top, the lid of a spitting-box, from
+which I very slowly, and without attracting the smallest observation,
+walked back to my chair.' Wonderful power of description this!</p>
+
+<p>Having had the honour of receiving an invitation to dinner at the
+Elys&eacute;e, Sir Francis of course goes at the appointed hour, seven
+o'clock. The following is his account of the affair. After passing
+through the entrance-hall, 'I slowly walked through two or three
+handsome rooms <i>en suite</i>, full of interesting pictures, into a
+drawing-room, in which I found assembled, in about equal proportions,
+about fifty very well-dressed ladies and gentlemen, the latter being
+principally officers, whose countenances, not less clearly than the
+decorations on their breasts, announced them to be persons of
+distinction. The long sofas and chairs, as if they had only just come
+out&mdash;or rather, as if they had just come up from the country to come
+out&mdash;had arranged themselves so very formally, and altogether behaved
+so very awkwardly, that it was almost impossible for the company
+assembled to appear as much at their ease as, from their position,
+education, and manners, they really were; and accordingly, biassed by
+the furniture, they kept moving, and bowing, and courtesying, and
+<i>sotto-voce</i> talking, until they got into a parallelogram, in the
+centre of which stood, distinguished by a broad ribbon, and by a mild,
+thoughtful, benevolent countenance, Prince Louis Napoleon, whose
+gentle and gentleman-like bearing to every person who approached him
+entitled him to that monarchical homage in which the majority
+evidently delighted, but which it was alike his policy as well as his
+inclination&mdash;at all events to appear&mdash;to suppress; and accordingly the
+parallelogram, which, generally speaking, was at the point of
+congelation, sometimes and of its own accord froze into the formality
+of a court, and then all of a sudden appeared to recollect that the
+Prince was the President, and that the whole party had assembled to
+enjoy <i>libert&eacute;</i>, <i>fraternit&eacute;</i>, and <i>&eacute;galit&eacute;</i>. As I was observing the
+various phases that one after another presented themselves to view,
+the principal officer of the household came up to me, and in a quiet
+and appropriate tone of voice, requested me to do two things; one of
+which appeared to me to be rather easy, and the other&mdash;or rather to do
+both&mdash;extremely difficult. By an inclination of his forehead he
+pointed to two ladies of rank, whose names he mentioned to me, but
+with whom I was perfectly unacquainted, seated on the sofas at
+different points of the parallelogram. 'When dinner is announced you
+will be so good,' he said, 'as to offer your arm to &mdash;&mdash; ' (the one)
+'and to seat yourself next to &mdash;&mdash; ' (the other.) Of course I silently
+bowed assent; but while the officer who had spoken to me was giving
+similar instructions to other gentlemen, I own I felt a little
+nervous, lest, during the polite scramble in which I was about to
+engage, like the dog in the fable, grasping at the shadow of the
+second lady, I might lose the substance of the first, or <i>vice vers&acirc;</i>.
+However, when the doors were thrown open, I very quickly, with a
+profound reverence, obtained my prize, and at once confiding to
+her&mdash;for had I deliberated I should have been lost&mdash;the remainder of
+the pleasing duty it had been predestined I was to have the honour to
+perform, we glided through couples darting in various directions for
+similar objects, until, finding ourselves in a formal procession
+sufficiently near to the lady in question, we proceeded, at a funereal
+pace, towards our doom, which proved to be a most delightful one.
+Seated in obedience to the orders I had received, we found ourselves
+exactly opposite &quot;le Prince,&quot; who had, of course, on his right and
+left, the two ladies of highest rank. The table was very richly
+ornamented, and it was quite delightful to observe at a glance what
+probably in mathematics, or even in philosophy, it might have been
+rather troublesome to explain&mdash;namely, the extraordinary difference
+which existed between forty or fifty ladies and gentlemen standing in
+a parallelogram in a drawing-room, and the very same number and the
+very same faces, rectilinearly seated in the very same form in a
+dining-room. It was the difference between sterility and fertility,
+between health and sickness, between joy and sorrow, between winter
+and summer; in fact, between countenances frozen into Lapland
+formality and glowing with tropical animation and delight. Everybody's
+mouth had apparently something kind to say to its neighbour's eyes;
+and the only alloy was that, as each person had two neighbours, his
+lips, under a sort of <i>embarras des richesses</i>, occasionally found it
+rather difficult to express all that was polite and pleasing to both.'
+Dinner being over, all returned to the drawing-room in the same formal
+order. Each gentleman bowed ceremoniously to the lady he had
+conducted, she withdrew her arm, 'and the sofas were again to be seen
+fringed by rows of satin shoes; while the carpet, in all other
+directions, was subjected to the pressure of boots, that often
+remained for a short time motionless as before. A general buzz of
+conversation, however, soon enlivened the room; and the President,
+gladly availing himself of it, mingled familiarly with the crowd.'</p>
+
+<p>In the course of his rambles through Paris, Sir Francis visits various
+<i>casernes</i> or military barracks, and military schools. He also makes
+sundry investigations into the functions and <i>mat&eacute;riel</i> of the French
+army, and finally, in company with Louis Napoleon, goes to a review.
+The sum of these proceedings is, that he is much struck with the
+progress made by the French in strategy and military manoeuvres,
+especially in their musket-ball firing, against which, he says, we
+have no chance. Everybody knows that our author is an alarmist, ever
+sighing over our want of national defences, and dreaming of invasion
+and rapine. At the same time, his details on military affairs are
+worth the notice of those to whom the business of military education
+is intrusted.</p>
+
+<p>Sir Francis is very much pleased with the Parisian street
+<i>commissionaires</i> or porters, and wonders that no such luxury is
+general in London. One day he invites the nearest commissionaire to
+visit his lodging, and tell him his whole story, which the man gladly
+did. Setting off at a great rate, he said:&mdash;'Sir, I black boots; I saw
+wood; I take it up into the apartments; I carry portmanteaus and
+luggage, and whatever offers itself; I carry letters and parcels; I
+rub the floors of apartments and stairs; I wash the floors and the
+dining-rooms; I change furniture from one house to another with a
+handbarrow&mdash;carried by two men with leathern straps; I draw a cart
+with portmanteaus, wood, or furniture; I beat carpets, take them up
+out of the apartments, and carry them to the barrier outside Paris
+(yes, sir); I bring them back to the persons to whom they belong; I
+lay them down. I know how to arrange a room; I make the beds; I colour
+the inlaid floors of the apartments; I watch a sick person through the
+night and day (a shrug) for so much a day (a shrug), and for the night
+also (a shrug); I agree as to the price with those persons who employ
+me, for five francs the night, eight francs for the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page56" id="page56"></a>[pg 56]</span>
+twenty-four
+hours, when they do not feed me; besides, I watch the dead in the
+apartment during the twenty-four hours that they remain exposed; in
+short (three shrugs), I do whatever is offered to me. I receive
+commercial notes for whoever will charge me with the commission, and
+who will give me the note to enable me to receive it; I bring back the
+money to the person who has intrusted me with the note, and the person
+pays me for my commission; I pawn at the Mont de Pi&eacute;t&eacute; whatever the
+public is willing to intrust to me&mdash;jewels (a shrug), chains, watches,
+gold or silver; I pawn silver spoons and forks, for eating; I pawn
+clocks, linen; they take everything in pawn (a shrug) at the Mont de
+Pi&eacute;t&eacute;&mdash;furniture, pianos, mattresses, candelabras, lustres: in short,
+they take in pawn everything of value; and I bring back the money and
+the pawnbroker's ticket to the person who has intrusted me with the
+commission, and at the same time that person pays me for my
+commission. Afterwards, I redeem pawned articles from the Mont de
+Pi&eacute;t&eacute; for all those persons who choose to honour me with their
+commissions, provided that the person puts his signature on the back
+of the paper which the Mont de Pi&eacute;t&eacute; delivered to him on the day when
+he pawned the aforesaid articles. I act as commissioner throughout all
+the departments of France, and also (shrug) in foreign countries,
+according to the price agreed on, and at a reasonable price; I travel
+on the railways (shrug), in the diligence (shrug); I go as quick as I
+can, and I come back as quick as I can; I rub down a horse&mdash;I can! I
+feed him; wash the carriage; drive the carriage; arrange the cellar;
+rinse out the bottles; bottle the wine; pile up the bottles after they
+are corked and stamped; lower the hogsheads of wine into the cellar
+with a thick rope, with the help of a comrade, and the price is two
+francs for each hogshead. In my own country, I am a labourer, and do
+everything relating to the cultivation of the ground. I root up the
+trees; I saw them into several lengths; I split the wood; pile it up
+to dry; then load it on mules, and carry it to the house to be burned;
+afterwards I mow the hay and corn; carry the corn into the barn
+(shrug), and the hay also; thrash the corn, and put it away into the
+granary; from whence they take it out by little and little to have it
+ground and to make bread. I prune the vines.' Here the commissionaire
+gives an account of the whole process of wine-making, in which he is
+an adept; and then goes on to explain how he is employed as a spy on
+families and others, all in the way of business. He ends with saying
+that trade is dull, and blames the revolution of 1848 for ruining his
+employment&mdash;for why? 'Everybody is afraid of the future. Everybody is
+economical; everybody is hiding, hoarding, or saving his money,
+because he knows that affairs cannot continue as they are, that sooner
+or later there will be another revolution.' Such a country! The
+revolution thus anticipated has taken place. By relieving the
+Parisians from the fears of a social upbreak&mdash;a universal sack of
+property&mdash;for that was preying on their minds&mdash;the grand <i>coup</i> of
+Louis Napoleon will doubtless set money afloat, and restore occupation
+to the humbler classes&mdash;the real sufferers by revolutions.</p>
+
+<p>The curious thing about all the revolutions and coups that have ever
+taken place in France is, that they never give the slightest particle
+of real liberty to the people; and, what is equally surprising, the
+people do not know what liberty is. It is a thing they talk about, and
+paint over doorways, but further they go not. When, in 1848, a mob was
+suffered to assume supreme authority, it might have been anticipated
+that the very first thing they would do would be to turn the whole
+police system about its business and destroy its records. No such
+thing. The triumphant insurrectionists, complaining of tyranny, were
+as tyrannical as anybody; they retained the obnoxious system of
+passports, and kept up the usual routine of police administration,
+spies and all. The truth appears to be, that the French cannot
+comprehend the idea of social organisation without a minute machinery
+of management and interference. Society in England, where people may
+speak and do pretty much what they like, go here and go there without
+leave asked, and set up any business anywhere as suits their fancy&mdash;is
+anarchy, a chaos, according to French notions. Sir Francis inclines to
+the belief that a system of government interference and regulation, as
+in France, is an advantage, because it protects society against some
+gross abuses&mdash;such as the indiscriminate sale of medicines, want of
+sanitary arrangements, the open spectacle of vice, and so forth. True
+this, in some respects, and we could wish for a little more vigour in
+certain departments of our social policy; but in this, as in many
+things, we have to make a choice of evils. Better, we think, allow
+abuses to be corrected by the comparatively sluggish action of public
+opinion, than accustom a people to have everything done for them,
+every action regulated by laws and prefects of police. The account
+given by Sir Francis of the manner in which the authority of the
+police bears on common workmen, is only a version of what every
+traveller speaks of with execration. Although we ourselves alluded to
+the subject on a former occasion, we may recapitulate a few points
+from the volume before us: 'Every workman or labouring boy is obliged,
+all over France, to provide himself with a book termed <i>un livret</i>,
+indorsed in Paris by a commissaire of police, and in other towns by
+the mayor or his assistants, containing his description, name, age,
+birthplace, profession, and the name of the master by whom he is
+employed. In fact, no person, under a heavy fine, can employ a workman
+unless he produce a livret of the above description, bearing an
+acquittal of his engagements with his last master. Every workman,
+after inscribing in his livret the day and terms of his engagement
+with a new master, is obliged to leave it in the hands of his said
+master, who is required, under a penalty, to restore it to him on the
+fulfilment of his engagement. Any workman, although he may produce a
+regular passport, found travelling without his book, is considered as
+&quot;vagabond,&quot; and as such may be arrested and punished with from three
+to six months' imprisonment, and after that subjected to the
+surveillance of the <i>haute-police</i> for at least five and not exceeding
+ten years. No new livret can be indorsed until its owner produces the
+old one filled up. In case of a workman losing his livret, he may, on
+the presentation of his passport, obtain provisional permission to
+work, but without authority to move to any other place until he can
+satisfy the officer of police that he is free from all engagements to
+his last master. Every workman coming to Paris with a passport is
+required, within three days of his arrival, to appear at the
+prefecture of police with his livret, in order that it may be
+indorsed. In like manner, any labourer leaving Paris with a passport
+must obtain the <i>vis&eacute;</i> of the police to his livret, which, in fact,
+contains an abstract history of his industrial life. As a description
+of the political department of the police of Paris would involve
+details, the ramifications of which would almost be endless, I will
+only briefly state, that from the masters of every furnished hotel and
+lodging-house&mdash;who are required to insert in a register, indorsed by a
+commissaire de police, the name, surname, profession, and usual
+domicile of every person who sleeps in their house for a single
+night&mdash;and from innumerable other sources, information is readily
+obtained concerning every person, and especially every stranger,
+residing in the metropolis. For instance, at the entrance of each
+lodging, and of almost every private house, there sits a being termed
+a <i>concierge</i>, who knows the hour at which each inmate enters and goes
+out; who calls on him; how many letters he receives; by their
+post-marks, where
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page57" id="page57"></a>[pg 57]</span>
+they come from; what parcels are left for him; what
+they appear to contain, &amp;c. &amp;c. &amp;c. Again, at the corner of every
+principal street, there is located, wearing the badge of the police, a
+commissionaire, acquainted with all that outwardly goes on within the
+radius of his Argus-eyed observations. From these people, from the
+drivers of fiacres, from the sellers of vegetables, from fruiterers,
+and lastly, from the masters of wine-shops, who either from people
+sober, tipsy, or drunk, are in the habit of hearing an infinity of
+garrulous details, the police are enabled to track the conduct of
+almost any one, and, if necessary, to follow up their suspicions by
+their own agents in disguises which, practically speaking, render them
+invisible.' Sir Francis mentions that he was considered of sufficient
+importance to be under surveillance. '&quot;You are,&quot; said very gravely to
+me a gentleman in Paris of high station, on whom I had had occasion to
+call, &quot;a person of some consideration. Your object here is not
+understood, and you are therefore under the surveillance of the
+police.&quot; I asked him what that meant. &quot;Wherever you go,&quot; he replied,
+&quot;you are followed by an agent of police. When one is tired, he hands
+you over to another. Whatever you do, is known to them; and at this
+moment there is one waiting in the street until you leave me.&quot;'</p>
+
+<p>We need say no more. The people who, under all phases of
+government&mdash;despotism, constitutional monarchy, and universal-suffrage
+republic&mdash;coolly tolerate, nay, they admire and vindicate, this
+atrocious system of personal restraint and espionage, are totally
+unfit for the enjoyment of civil liberty. In conclusion, we can hardly
+recommend the book before us, further than to say, that its gossip,
+though often prosy to the verge of twaddle, is also sometimes droll
+and amusing from its graphic minuteness.</p>
+
+<h4>Notes:</h4>
+
+<div class="note"><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_2_2">[2]</a>
+<i>A Faggot of French Sticks</i>, 2 vols. London: Murray.
+1852.
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<hr />
+<h2><a name="article4" id="article4">
+IVORY AND ITS APPLICATIONS.
+</a></h2>
+
+<p class="returnTOC"><a href="#Contents">Return to Table of
+    Contents</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">The</span> Chinese, from time immemorial,
+have been celebrated for their
+excellence in the fabrication of ornamental articles in ivory; and,
+strange to say, up to our own time, their productions are still
+unrivalled. European artists have never succeeded in cutting ivory
+after the manner of these people, nor, to all appearance, is it likely
+they ever will. Nothing can be more exquisitely beautiful than the
+delicate lacework of a Chinese fan, or the elaborate carving of their
+miniature junks, chess-pieces, and concentric balls: their models of
+temples, pagodas, and other pieces of architecture are likewise
+skilfully constructed; and yet three thousand years ago such monuments
+of art were executed with the very same grace and fidelity!</p>
+
+<p>Ivory was known to the Egyptians as an article both of use and
+ornament. They manufactured it into combs, rings, and a variety of
+similar things. The processions on the walls of their palaces and
+tombs would seem to indicate the fact of its having been obtained from
+India, and also from Ethiopia or Central Africa. There is every reason
+to believe also that the harder and more accessible ivory of the
+hippopotamus was extensively used by them. Colonel Hamilton Smith has
+seen a specimen of what appeared to be a sword-handle of ancient
+Egyptian workmanship, which has been recognised by dentists as
+belonging to this class of ivory.</p>
+
+<p>Ivory was extensively used by the Jews. It is frequently spoken of in
+Scripture as being obtained from Tarshish&mdash;an indiscriminate term for
+various places in the lands of the Gentiles, but probably referring in
+this case to some part of India or Eastern Africa. Wardrobes were made
+of ivory, or at least inlaid with it; the splendid throne of Solomon
+was formed of this material, overlaid with gold; Ahab built an ivory
+palace: and beds or couches of the same material were common among the
+wealthy Israelites. The Phoenicians of Tyre&mdash;those merchant-princes of
+antiquity&mdash;were so profuse of this valuable article of their luxurious
+commerce as to provide ivory benches for the rowers of their galleys.
+Assyria&mdash;whose records and history are only now beginning to be
+unfolded&mdash;possessed magnificent articles of ivory. Mr Layard, in his
+excavations at Nineveh, found 'in the rubbish near the bottom of a
+chamber, several ivory ornaments upon which were traces of gilding:
+among them was the figure of a man in long robes, carrying in one hand
+the Egyptian <i>crux ansata</i>&mdash;part of a crouching sphinx&mdash;and flowers
+designed with great taste and elegance.'</p>
+
+<p>The Greeks&mdash;who were acquainted with it at least as early as the time
+of Homer&mdash;gradually introduced ivory as a material for sculpture. In
+certain forms of combination with gold, it gave origin to the art of
+<i>chryselephantine</i> sculpture, so called from the Greek primitives,
+gold and ivory. This art, which was perhaps more luxurious than
+tasteful, was introduced about six hundred years before the Christian
+era; and it was much admired for its singular beauty. It was not,
+however, till the days of Phidias that it attained to its full
+splendour. Two of the masterpieces of this sculptor&mdash;the colossal
+statues of Minerva in the Parthenon at Athens and the Olympian Jove in
+his temple&mdash;were formed of gold and ivory. The Minerva was forty feet
+high, and the Olympian Jupiter was one of the wonders of the world. In
+the latter of these, the exposed parts of the figure were of ivory,
+and the drapery of gold. It was seated on a throne elaborately formed
+of gold, ivory, and cedar-wood; it was adorned with precious stones;
+and in his hand the god sustained an emblematic figure of Victory,
+made of the same costly materials.</p>
+
+<p>The Romans used ivory as a symbol of power; but they applied it
+practically to an infinite variety of purposes. Their kings and
+magistrates sat on ivory thrones of rich and elaborate
+construction&mdash;an idea received from the Etruscans. The curule chairs
+of ivory and gold that belonged to the office of consul, together with
+the sceptres and other articles of similar description, were all of
+Etruscan origin. The <i>libri elephantis</i> were tablets of ivory, on
+which were registered the transactions of the senate and magistrates;
+the births, marriages, and deaths of the people; their rank, class,
+and occupation, with other things pertaining to the census. The Romans
+also applied this material to the manufacture of musical instruments,
+combs, couches, harnesses of horses, sword-hilts, girdles. They were
+acquainted with the arts of dyeing and incrusting ivory, and they also
+possessed some splendid specimens of chryselephantine statuary.
+Ancient writers, indeed, mention no fewer than one hundred statues of
+gold and ivory; but they furnish us with no particulars of the mode of
+executing these colossal monuments of art in a substance which could
+only be obtained in small pieces. A head, smaller than the usual size,
+a statue about eight inches in height, and a bas-relief, are the only
+specimens that exist in the present day.</p>
+
+<p>After the fall of the Roman Empire, the taste for ivory ornament
+became almost extinct. There were some periods, however, in the early
+part of medi&aelig;val history when this material was not forgotten: when
+the caliphs of the East formed of it some of the beautiful ornaments
+of their palaces; when the Arabian alchemists subjected it to the
+crucible, and so produced the pigment ivory black; when a Danish
+knight killed an elephant in the holy wars, and established
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page58" id="page58"></a>[pg 58]</span>
+an order
+of knighthood which still exists; when Charlemagne, the emperor of the
+West, had ivory ornaments of rare and curious carving.<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3" /><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> It is,
+however, at a period subsequent to the return of the crusaders that we
+must date the commencement of a general revival of the taste in
+Europe. It would be interesting to trace the steps by which ivory
+regained its place in the arts and commerce of nations; but on this
+point we must not linger. From the low countries it spread to the far
+North. Its relations with art and beauty soon became widely
+recognised; the growing luxury of the Roman pontificate encouraged its
+applications; and towards the end of the fifteenth century it was
+extensively employed as an article of ornament and decoration in every
+country and court of Europe. The Portuguese were the first to revive a
+traffic with Africa which had been dormant for upwards of 1000 years.
+It was originally confined to the immense stores of ivory which the
+natives had accumulated for the purposes of their superstition; but
+these soon became exhausted, and the inexorable demands of European
+commerce once more prompted the destruction of the mighty and docile
+inhabitant of the wilderness. Elephant-hunting became a trade; and a
+terrible havoc was commenced, which has been unremittingly pursued
+down to the present time.</p>
+
+<p>The term ivory, originally derived from a Greek word signifying heavy,
+is indiscriminately applied to the following varieties of osseous
+matter:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>The tusks and teeth of the elephant</i>.&mdash;Naturalists recognise two
+species of elephants&mdash;the Asiatic (<i>Elephas Indicus</i>) and the African
+(<i>Elephas Africanus</i>.) The former of these species is indigenous to
+the whole of Southern India and the Eastern Archipelago; but the
+largest and most valuable Indian elephant is that of Ceylon. The
+second species is found throughout the whole of Africa; and on the
+banks of the great rivers and lakes of the unexplored regions of the
+interior, hordes of the finest African elephants are supposed to
+wander in security. It was until very recently believed that the
+Asiatic elephant yielded the largest teeth, and those imported from
+Pegu, Cochin-China, and Ceylon, sometimes weighed 150 lbs. Specimens,
+however, have been obtained from the interior of Africa of much
+greater weight and dimensions. Mr Gordon Cumming has in his collection
+a pair of teeth taken from an old bull elephant in the vicinity of the
+equator, of which the larger of the two measures 10 feet 9 inches
+long, and weighs 173 lbs.; and Mr Cawood, who resided thirty years at
+the Cape, has another pair in his possession measuring 8&frac12; feet
+each, and weighing together 330 lbs.</p>
+
+<p>Besides these contemporary races of elephants, the market is
+extensively supplied by the fossil ivory derived from the tusks of the
+great mammoth or fossil elephant of the geologist. The remains of this
+gigantic animal are abundantly distributed over the whole extent of
+the globe. They exist in large masses in the northern hemisphere,
+deeply embedded in the alluvial deposits of the tertiary period.
+Humboldt discovered specimens on some of the most elevated ridges of
+the Andes; and similar remains have been found in Africa. In the
+frozen regions of the far North, surrounded by successive layers of
+everlasting ice, the fossil ivory exists in a state of perfect
+preservation, and it constitutes indeed an important article of
+commerce in the north of Europe.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>The teeth of the hippopotamus, or river-horse</i>.&mdash;These, under the
+inappropriate term of 'sea-horse teeth,' supply the most suitable
+ivory for the dentist. In addition to twenty grinders, the animal has
+twelve front teeth, the outer on each side of the jaw being the
+largest and most prized. This ivory is much harder, closer in the
+grain, and more valuable than that of the elephant. It is remarkable,
+moreover, for the extreme hardness of its enamel, which is quite
+incapable of being cut, and will strike fire with a steel instrument.
+The large teeth of the hippopotamus weigh on the average 6 lbs., and
+the small ones about 1 lb. each. Their value ranges from 6s. to 40s.
+per lb.</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>The teeth of the walrus, or sea-cow</i>.&mdash;These are nearly straight,
+and measure from 2 feet to 2&frac12; feet in length. The exterior portion
+of the tooth possesses a much finer grain and texture than its core,
+which in appearance and properties bears a close resemblance to
+ordinary bone. Of a yellowish cream-colour and mottled, this ivory is
+much less valuable than the teeth of the hippopotamus. It is seldom
+applied in our day to other than dental purposes; but its antiquity is
+interesting. The Scandinavian relics of the eleventh and twelfth
+centuries, with which our museums are so profusely enriched, are for
+the most part formed of the teeth of the walrus. The elegant spiral
+horn of the narwhal or sea-unicorn also produces ivory of a superior
+quality. It is not to any great extent applied to useful purposes, but
+is more frequently preserved in museums and collections as a beautiful
+natural curiosity.</p>
+
+<p>The tusks and teeth of the elephant&mdash;the latter, for the sake of
+distinction, are termed grinders&mdash;are formed after the ordinary manner
+of the teeth of animals. The organism which converts the earthy
+constituents of the blood into cellular tissue and membrane,
+contributes in the same way to form the teeth by the successive
+deposition of layer upon layer of the soft vascular pulp. The marks of
+these depositions, or lamin&aelig;, are clearly distinguishable in the
+longitudinal stri&aelig; of the section of a tooth. Mr Corse Scott states
+that the Indian elephant has only ten or twelve lamin&aelig; in the tooth,
+while that of the great mammoth has twenty-four, besides having a much
+more regularly disposed enamel. The tooth is hollow about half-way up,
+but a very small tubular cavity is visible throughout its entire
+length. This, sometimes called the nerve, is in reality the apex of
+successive formations in the process of growth. The grinders are
+seldom used in the arts. They are of a different texture, the lamin&aelig;
+more loosely combined, and possessing a tendency to separate, which
+renders them unfit for nearly all useful purposes. Ivory has the same
+chemical constitution as ordinary teeth&mdash;that is, cartilage united to
+such earthy ingredients as the phosphate of lime.</p>
+
+<p>But it is very remarkable that the fossil ivory of the mammoth, and
+specimens of the historic period of Pompeii or Egypt, contain
+sometimes as much as 10 per cent. more of fluoride of calcium than the
+ivory of the present day. We apprehend, however, that this
+property&mdash;first investigated by Dr George Wilson&mdash;may be derived from
+long-continued contact with earth, since fluoride of calcium is the
+chief ingredient in the enamel or exterior portion of the tooth.
+Ancient ivory, having thus gained in its inorganic bases, becomes
+deficient in the gelatinous constituents necessary to its
+preservation. We recently had a singularly beautiful application of
+the knowledge of this principle in the case of the ivory specimens
+sent from Nineveh by Mr Layard. On their arrival in England, it was
+discovered that they were rapidly crumbling to pieces. Professor Owen
+recommended that the articles should be boiled in a solution of
+albumen, which was done accordingly, and the ivory rendered as firm
+and solid as when it was first entombed.</p>
+
+<p>We may allude here to a very singular physical property which is
+possessed by the elephant's tusk. Specimens have frequently been
+obtained which were found to contain musket-bullets in their centre,
+surrounded with a species of osseous pulp differing from the ordinary
+character and constitution of ivory.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page59" id="page59"></a>[pg 59]</span>
+ There was frequently no
+corresponding orifice on the surface of the tusk; and hence
+Blumenbach, and other naturalists, were led to form some very
+inaccurate notions regarding this circumstance. Mr Rodgers of
+Sheffield some years ago forwarded a variety of such specimens to the
+Edinburgh College Museum, and these were very closely examined by
+Professor Goodsir, who, in a communication to the Royal Society of
+Edinburgh, demonstrated that this arose simply from a property of
+isolating foreign substances common to all osseous organised bodies:
+the ball having been enclosed by the tusk in its pulpy secretion, and
+corrosive action thereby prevented, the process of growth continued
+without interruption.</p>
+
+<p>Ivory is a solid, white, translucent substance, distinguishable from
+bone by its beautiful texture of semi-transparent rhomboidal network.
+The finest ivory is much more transparent than paper of the same
+thickness. A thin transverse section placed under the microscope
+exhibits a series of curvilinear lines diverging from the centre and
+interlacing each other with great regularity and beauty, closely
+resembling in appearance the engine-turning of a watch. It possesses a
+specific gravity varying from 1.888 in the tooth of the walrus, to
+2.843 in that of the elephant. Its mean gravity is therefore about two
+and a half times greater than water. The best, finest, and most
+valuable ivory is that obtained from the African elephant. When
+recently cut, it exhibits something of a yellowish transparent tint,
+which is due to the oil it contains, but this gradually changes to a
+beautiful and permanent white. It is not easily stained or destroyed
+by exposure to the atmosphere, and on that account is used in the arts
+for all the higher purposes, and especially for carved ornaments&mdash;such
+as chess-pieces, crucifixes, and articles of <i>virtu</i>. Indian ivory, on
+the contrary, when first cut, is perfectly white, but it becomes
+yellow and discoloured with age and exposure. A good illustration of
+this circumstance is presented by the dingy-coloured keys of an old
+pianoforte.</p>
+
+<p>This popular definition of good and inferior ivory is however, in
+point of fact, somewhat incorrect, since ivory obtained from the coast
+of Africa is often much inferior to that obtained from the Indian
+Archipelago. The best rule for determining the quality is probably
+that of its vicinity to the equator. The ivory brought from within the
+10th degrees of north and south latitude is incomparably the finest in
+the market; it is at the same time the most transparent, which of
+itself is a valuable characteristic. Our Indian ivory for some years
+back, instead of being shipped by way of the Cape for England, has, in
+order to save time, been sent by the Red Sea to Suez, and thence
+conveyed, generally on the backs of camels, across the Desert to
+Alexandria, where it is again shipped on board the Oriental
+steam-packets for Southampton, and conveyed by railway to London. By
+this expeditious mode of transit, however, the value of the ivory is
+frequently much deteriorated. The damage it sustains in being so often
+loaded and unloaded; and the intense heat of a tropical sun to which
+it is openly exposed in crossing the Isthmus&mdash;render the tusks unsound
+at the core, numerous cracks and fissures appear over the surface, the
+points are frequently broken off, and on the whole its market-price is
+considerably depreciated.</p>
+
+<p>There is no means of accurately determining the intrinsic value of our
+importation of ivory&mdash;the price is so variable. In 1827, upwards of
+3000 cwt.; in 1842, upwards of 5000 cwt.; and in 1850, about 8000 cwt.
+was imported, of which about four-fifths was entered for home
+consumption. In point of quantity or bulk it is not calculated to
+attract attention, nor does the commercial transaction excite much
+notice. A quiet advertisement in the front page of the <i>Economist</i>, a
+few letters from London, Birmingham, and Sheffield to City
+brokers&mdash;for the ivory-trade is confined to a very small number of
+houses&mdash;and a cargo of African or Indian ivory, amounting perhaps to
+L.50,000 sterling, is quickly and easily disposed of. The supply at
+this moment is unequal to the demand, and the price is steadily
+advancing.</p>
+
+<p>Small teeth weighing from 4 to 20 lbs. are worth from L.10 to L.16 per
+cwt.; and the price of the enormous tusks we have referred to, which
+are far beyond the limits of the above scale, is probably equal to
+L.50 per cwt. or upwards. African is worth about 25 per cent. more
+than Indian ivory of corresponding size and quality.</p>
+
+<p>To attempt even to catalogue the extremely diversified uses to which
+ivory is applied would of itself be no easy task. There is not perhaps
+in the whole commercial list an article possessed of wider relations.
+It is extensively consumed in the manufacture of handles to knives and
+forks, and cutlery of every description; combs of all kinds; brushes
+of every form and use; billiard-balls, chess-men, dice, dice-boxes;
+bracelets, necklaces, rings, brooches; slabs for miniature portraits,
+pocket-tablets, card-cases; paper-knives, shoeing-horns, large spoons
+and forks for salad; ornamental work-boxes, jewel-caskets, small
+inlaid tables; furniture for doors and cabinets; pianoforte and organ
+keys; stethoscopes, lancet-cases, and surgical instruments;
+microscopes, lorgnettes, and philosophical instruments; thermometer
+scales, hydrometer scales, and mathematical instruments; snuff-boxes,
+cigar-cases, pipe-tubes; fans, flowers, fancy boxes; crucifixes,
+crosiers, and symbols of faith; idols, gods, and symbols of
+superstition; vases, urns, sarcophagi, and emblems of the dead;
+temples, pagodas; thrones, emblems of mythology; and, in short, there
+is hardly a purpose in the useful and ornamental arts to which ivory
+is, or has not been in some way extensively employed. At present, the
+ivory carvings of Dieppe are the finest in Europe; but the genius of
+the present age is utilitarian, and so are its applications of ivory.
+If we desire high art in the fabrication of this material, we must go
+back a few centuries, or be satisfied with the beautiful productions
+of China or Hindostan. We could scarcely give a more apt illustration
+of this truth than by pointing to the scat of honour set apart for
+Prince Albert in the closing scene of the Great Exhibition. Elevated
+on the crimson platform, and standing forth as an appropriate emblem
+of the artistic genius of the mighty collection, was observed the
+magnificent ivory throne presented to her Majesty by the Rajah of
+Travancore!</p>
+
+<p>From the great value of the material, the economical cutting of it up
+is of the last importance. Nothing is lost. The smallest fragments are
+of some value, have certain uses, and bear a corresponding price.
+Ivory dust, which is produced in large quantities, is a most valuable
+gelatine, and as such extensively employed by straw-hat makers. The
+greatest consumption of ivory is undoubtedly in connection with the
+cutlery trade. For these purposes alone about 200 tons are annually
+used in Sheffield and Birmingham, and the ivory in nearly every
+instance is from India. The mode of manufacturing knife-handles is
+very simple and expeditious:&mdash;The teeth are first cut into slabs of
+the requisite thickness&mdash;then to the proper cross dimensions, by means
+of circular saws of different shapes. They are afterwards drilled with
+great accuracy by a machine; rivetted to the blade; and finally
+smoothed and polished. We believe that this branch of industry alone
+gives employment to about 500 persons in Sheffield. Combs are seldom
+made of any ivory but Indian, and their mode of manufacture we had
+recently occasion to describe.<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4" /><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> A large
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page60" id="page60"></a>[pg 60]</span>
+amount of ivory is consumed
+in the backs of hairbrushes; and this branch of the trade has recently
+undergone considerable improvements. The old method of making a
+tooth-brush, for example, was to lace the bristles through the ivory,
+and then to glue, or otherwise fasten, an outside slab to the brush
+for the purpose of concealing the holes and wire-thread. This mode of
+manufacture has been improved on by a method of working the hair into
+the solid ivory; and brushes of this description are now the best in
+the market. Their chief excellence consists in their preserving their
+original white colour to the last, which is a great desideratum.
+Billiard-balls constitute another considerable item of ivory
+consumption. They cost from 6s. to 12s. each; and the nicety of our
+ornamental turning produces balls not only of the most perfect
+spherical form, but accurately corresponding in size and weight even
+to a single grain.</p>
+
+<p>The ivory miniature tablets so much in use, and which are so
+invaluable to the artist from the exquisitely delicate texture of the
+material, are now produced by means of a very beautiful and highly
+interesting chemical process. Phosphoric acid of the usual specific
+gravity renders ivory soft and nearly plastic. The plates are cut from
+the circumference of the tusk, somewhat after the manner of paring a
+cucumber, and then softened by means of the acid. When washed with
+water, pressed, and dried, the ivory regains its former consistency,
+and even its microscopic structure is not affected by the process.
+Plates thirty inches square have been formed in this way, and a great
+reduction in price has thus been effected. Painting on ivory, we may
+add, was practised among the ancients.</p>
+
+<p>Mr M'Culloch and other statistical writers predict the speedy
+extinction of the elephant, from the enormous consumption of its
+teeth; and curious calculations of the number of these animals
+annually extirpated to supply the English market alone are now getting
+somewhat popular. For example: 'in 1827 the customs-duty on ivory
+(20s. per cwt.&mdash;since reduced to 1s.) amounted to L.3257. The average
+weight of the elephant's tusk is 60 lbs.; and therefore 3040 elephants
+have been killed to supply this quantity of ivory.' But these
+calculations are in many respects quite fallacious. In the first
+place, the average weight of our imported tusks is <i>not</i> 60 lbs.: we
+have the authority of one of the first ivory-merchants in London for
+stating that 20 lbs. will be a much closer approximation. This at once
+involves a threefold ratio of destruction. In place of 3040, we should
+have the terrible slaughter of 9120 elephants for one year's
+consumption of ivory in England! This, however, is not the case. In
+these calculations the immense masses of fossil ivory we have alluded
+to are obviously overlooked, and the equally immense quantities of
+broken teeth which are disinterred from the deserts of Arabia, or the
+jungles of Central Africa. The truth is, we have good reason to know,
+that a very large proportion of the commercial supply of Europe is
+sustained from the almost inexhaustible store of these descriptions of
+ivory.</p>
+
+<p>Nevertheless, it is indisputable that the insatiable demands of modern
+commerce will inevitably lead to the ultimate extermination of this
+noble animal. His venerable career is ignominiously brought to an end
+merely for the sake of the two teeth he carries in his mouth; which
+are very likely destined to be cut into rings to assist the infant
+Anglo-Saxons in cutting <i>their</i> teeth, or partly made into jelly to
+satisfy the tastes and appetites of a London alderman. We cannot
+reasonably hope for a new suspension of the traffic: indeed we can
+only look for its extension. The luxurious tastes of man are inimical
+to the existence of the elephant. From time immemorial, the war of
+extermination has existed. His rightful domain&mdash;in the plain or the
+wilderness, or amid the wild herbage of his native savannas&mdash;is at all
+points ruthlessly invaded. But the result is inevitable&mdash;it will come
+to an end; and some future generation of naturalists&mdash;those of them at
+least who are curious in Pal&aelig;ontology&mdash;will regard the remains of our
+contemporary races of elephants with the same kind of astonishment
+with which we investigate the pre-historic evidences of the gigantic
+tapir or the mammoth.</p>
+
+<h4>Notes:</h4>
+
+<div class="note"><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_3_3">[3]</a>
+In the sacristy of the cathedral at Aix-la-Ch&acirc;pelle is
+still preserved, among other relics of this great prince, an immense
+ivory hunting-horn; and 'Charlemagne's chess-men,' which still exist,
+form part of the collection of works of art at Cologne.
+</div>
+<br />
+<div class="note"><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_4_4">[4]</a>
+See an article on the Aberdeen Combworks, No. 396.
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<hr />
+<h2><a name="article5" id="article5">
+BLIGHTED FLOWERS.
+</a></h2>
+
+<p class="returnTOC"><a href="#Contents">Return to Table of
+    Contents</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">The</span> facts of the following brief narrative,
+which are very few and of
+but melancholy interest, became known to me in the precise order in
+which they are laid before the reader. They were forced upon my
+observation rather than sought out by me; and they present, to my mind
+at least, a touching picture of the bitter conflict industrious
+poverty is sometimes called upon to wage with 'the thousand natural
+shocks which flesh is heir to.'</p>
+
+<p>It must be now eight or nine years since, in traversing a certain
+street, which runs for nearly half a mile in a direct line southward,
+I first encountered Ellen&mdash;&mdash;. She was then a fair young girl of
+seventeen, rather above the middle size, and with a queen-like air and
+gait which made her appear taller than she really was. Her
+countenance, pale but healthy, and of a perfectly regular and classic
+mould, was charming to look upon from its undefinable expression of
+lovableness and sweet temper. Her tiny feet tripped noiselessly along
+the pavement, and a glance from her black eye sometimes met mine like
+a ray of light, as, punctually at twenty minutes to nine, we passed
+each other near &mdash;&mdash; House, each of us on our way to the theatre of
+our daily operations. She was an embroideress, as I soon discovered
+from a small stretching-frame, containing some unfinished work, which
+she occasionally carried in her hand. She set me a worthy example of
+punctuality, and I could any day have told the time to a minute
+without looking at my watch, by marking the spot where we passed each
+other. I learned to look for her regularly, and before I knew her
+name, had given her that of 'Minerva,' in acknowledgment of her
+efficiency as a mentor.</p>
+
+<p>A year after the commencement of our acquaintance, which never ripened
+into speech, happening to set out from home one morning a quarter of
+an hour before my usual time, I made the pleasing discovery that my
+juvenile Minerva had a younger sister, if possible still more
+beautiful than herself. The pair were taking an affectionate leave of
+each other at the crossing of the New Road, and the silver accents of
+the younger as, kissing her sister, she laughed out, 'Good-by, Ellen,'
+gave me the first information of the real name of my pretty mentor.
+The little Mary&mdash;for so was the younger called, who could not be more
+than eleven years of age&mdash;was a slender, frolicsome sylph, with a skin
+of the purest carnation, and a face like that of Sir Joshua's seraph
+in the National Gallery, but with larger orbs and longer lashes
+shading them. As she danced and leaped before me on her way home
+again, I could not but admire the natural ease and grace of every
+motion, nor fail to comprehend and sympathise with the anxious looks
+of the sisters' only parent, their widowed mother, who stood watching
+the return of the younger darling at the door of a very humble
+two-storey dwelling, in the vicinity of the New River Head.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page61" id="page61"></a>[pg 61]</span>
+</p>
+
+<p>Nearly two years passed away, during which, with the exception of
+Sundays and holidays, every recurring morning brought me the grateful
+though momentary vision of one or both of the charming sisters. Then
+came an additional pleasure&mdash;I met them both together every day. The
+younger had commenced practising the same delicate and ingenious craft
+of embroidery, and the two pursued their industry in company under the
+same employer. It was amusing to mark the demure assumption of
+womanhood darkening the brows of the a&euml;rial little sprite, as, with
+all the new-born consequence of responsibility, she walked soberly by
+her sister's side, frame in hand, and occasionally revealed to
+passers-by a brief glimpse of her many-coloured handiwork. They were
+the very picture of beauty and happiness, and happy beyond question
+must their innocent lives have been for many pleasant months. But soon
+the shadows of care began to steal over their hitherto joyous faces,
+and traces of anxiety, perhaps of tears, to be too plainly visible on
+their paling cheeks. All at once I missed them in my morning's walk,
+and for several days&mdash;it might be weeks&mdash;saw nothing of them. I was at
+length startled from my forgetfulness of their very existence by the
+sudden apparition of both one Monday morning clad in the deepest
+mourning. I saw the truth at once: the mother, who, I had remarked,
+was prematurely old and feeble, was gone, and the two orphan children
+were left to battle it with the world. My conjecture was the truth, as
+a neighbour of whom I made some inquiries on the subject was not slow
+to inform me. '<i>Ah,</i> sir,' said the good woman, 'poor Mrs D&mdash;&mdash; have
+had a hard time of it, and she born an' bred a gentlewoman.'</p>
+
+<p>I asked her if the daughters were provided for.</p>
+
+<p>'Indeed, sir,' continued my informant, 'I'm afeard not. 'Twas the most
+unfortnatest thing in the world, sir, poor Mr D&mdash;&mdash;'s dying jest as a'
+did. You see, sir, he war a soldier, a fightin' out in Indy, and his
+poor wife lef at home wi' them two blossoms o' gals. He warn't what
+you call a common soldier, sir, but some kind o' officer like; an' in
+some great battle fought seven year agone he done fine service I've
+heerd, and promotion was send out to 'un, but didn't get there till
+the poor man was dead of his wounds. The news of he's death cut up his
+poor wife complete, and she han't been herself since. I've know'd she
+wasn't long for here ever since it come. Wust of all, it seems that
+because the poor man was dead the very day the promotion reached 'un,
+a' didn't die a captain after all, and so the poor widder didn't get
+no pension. How they've a' managed to live is more than I can tell.
+The oldest gal is very clever, they say; but Lor' bless 'ee! 'taint
+much to s'port three as is to be got out o' broiderin'.'</p>
+
+<p>Thus enlightened on the subject of their private history, it was with
+very different feelings I afterwards regarded these unfortunate
+children. Bereft of both parents, and cast upon a world with the ways
+of which they were utterly unacquainted, and in which they might be
+doomed to the most painful struggles even to procure a bare
+subsistence, one treasure was yet left them&mdash;it was the treasure of
+each other's love. So far as the depth of this feeling could be
+estimated from the looks and actions of both, it was all in all to
+each. But the sacred bond that bound them was destined to be rudely
+rent asunder. The cold winds of autumn began to visit too roughly the
+fair pale face of the younger girl, and the unmistakable indications
+of consumption made their appearance: the harassing cough, the hectic
+cheek, the deep-settled pain in the side, the failing breath. Against
+these dread forerunners it was vain long to contend; and the poor
+child had to remain at home in her solitary sick-chamber, while the
+loving sister toiled harder than ever to provide, if possible, the
+means of comfort and restoration to health. All the world knows the
+ending of such a hopeless strife as this. It is sometimes the will of
+Heaven that the path of virtue, like that of glory, leads but to the
+grave. So it was in the present instance: the blossom of this fair
+young life withered away, and the grass-fringed lips of the child's
+early tomb closed over the lifeless relics ere spring had dawned upon
+the year.</p>
+
+<p>Sorrow had graven legible traces upon the brow of my hapless mentor
+when I saw her again. How different now was the vision that greeted my
+daily sight from that of former years! The want that admits not of
+idle wailing compelled her still to pursue her daily course of labour,
+and she pursued it with the same constancy and punctuality as she had
+ever done. But the exquisitely chiselled face, the majestic gait, the
+elastic step&mdash;the beauty and glory of youth, unshaken because
+unassaulted by death and sorrow&mdash;where were they? Alas! all the
+bewitching charms of her former being had gone down into the grave of
+her mother and sister; and she, their support and idol, seemed no more
+now than she really was&mdash;a wayworn, solitary, and isolated straggler
+for daily bread.</p>
+
+<p>Were this a fiction that I am writing, it would be an easy matter to
+deal out a measure of poetical justice, and to recompense poor Ellen
+for all her industry, self-denial, and suffering in the arms of a
+husband, who should possess as many and great virtues as herself, and
+an ample fortune to boot. I wish with all my heart that it were a
+fiction, and that Providence had never furnished me with such a
+seeming anomaly to add to the list of my desultory chronicles. But I
+am telling a true story of a life. Ellen found no mate. No mate, did I
+say? Yes, one: the same grim yokefellow whose delight it is 'to gather
+roses in the spring' paid ghastly court to her faded charms, and won
+her&mdash;who shall say an unwilling bride? I could see his gradual but
+deadly advances in my daily walks: the same indications that gave
+warning of the sister's fate admonished me that she also was on her
+way to the tomb, and that the place that had known her would soon know
+her no more. She grew day by day more feeble; and one morning I found
+her seated on the step of a door, unable to proceed. After that she
+disappeared from my view; and though I never saw her again at the old
+spot, I have seldom passed that spot since, though for many years
+following the same route, without recognising again in my mind's eye
+the graceful form and angel aspect of Ellen D&mdash;&mdash;.</p>
+
+<p>'And is this the end of your mournful history?' some querulous reader
+demands. Not quite. There is a soul of good in things evil. Compassion
+dwells with the depths of misery; and in the valley of the shadow of
+death dove-eyed Charity walks with shining wings.... It was nearly two
+months after I had lost sight of poor Ellen, that during one of my
+dinner-hour perambulations about town, I looked in almost accidentally
+upon my old friend and chum, Jack W&mdash;&mdash;. Jack keeps a perfumer's shop
+not a hundred miles from Gray's Inn, where, ensconced up to his eyes
+in delicate odours, he passes his leisure hours&mdash;the hours when
+commerce flags, and people have more pressing affairs to attend to
+than the delectation of their nostrils&mdash;in the enthusiastic study of
+art and <i>virtu</i>. His shop is hardly more crammed with bottles and
+attar, soap, scents, and all the <i>etceteras</i> of the toilet, than the
+rest of his house with prints, pictures, carvings, and curiosities of
+every sort. Jack and I went to school together, and sowed our slender
+crop of wild oats together; and, indeed, in some sort have been
+together ever since. We both have our own collections of rarities,
+such as they are, and each criticises the other's new purchases. On
+the present occasion there was a new Van Somebody's old painting
+awaiting my judgment; and no sooner did my shadow darken his door,
+than starting from his lair, and bidding
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page62" id="page62"></a>[pg 62]</span>
+the boy ring the bell should
+he be wanted, he hustled me up stairs, calling by the way to his
+housekeeper, Mrs Jones&mdash;Jack is a bachelor&mdash;to bring up coffee for
+two. I was prepared to pronounce my dictum on his newly-acquired
+treasure, and was going to bounce unceremoniously into the old
+lumber-room over the lobby to regale my sight with the delightful
+confusion of his unarranged accumulations, when he pulled me forcibly
+back by the coat-tail. 'Not there,' said Jack; 'you can't go there. Go
+into my snuggery.'</p>
+
+<p>'And why not there?' said I; jealous of some new purchase which I was
+not to see.</p>
+
+<p>'Because there's somebody ill there&mdash;it is a bedroom now: a poor girl;
+she wanted a place to die in, poor thing, and I put her in there.'</p>
+
+<p>'Who is she?&mdash;a relative?'</p>
+
+<p>'No; I never saw her till Monday last. Sit down, I'll tell you how it
+was. Set down the coffee, Mrs Jones, and just look in upon the
+patient, will you? Sugar and cream? You know my weakness for the dead
+wall in Lincoln's Inn Fields.' (Jack never refuses a beggar backed by
+that wall, for the love of Ben Jonson, who, he devoutly believes, had
+a hand in building it.) 'Well, I met with her there on Monday last.
+She asked for nothing, but held out her hand, and as she did so the
+tears streamed from her eyes on the pavement. The poor creature, it
+was plain enough, was then dying; and I told her so. She said she knew
+it, but had no place to die in but the parish workhouse, and hoped
+that I would not send her there. What's the use of talking? I brought
+her here, and put her to sleep on the sofa while Jones cleared out the
+lumber-room and got up a bed. I sent for Dr H&mdash;&mdash; to look at her; he
+gave her a week or ten days at the farthest: I don't think she'll last
+so long. The curate of St&mdash;&mdash; comes every day to see her, and I like
+to talk to her myself sometimes. Well, Mrs Jones, how goes she on?'</p>
+
+<p>'She's asleep,' said the housekeeper. 'Would you like to look at her,
+gentlemen?'</p>
+
+<p>We entered the room together. It was as if some unaccountable
+presentiment had forewarned me: there, upon a snow-white sheet, and
+pillowed by my friend's favourite eider-down squab, lay the wasted
+form of Ellen D&mdash;&mdash;. She slept soundly and breathed loudly; and Dr
+H&mdash;&mdash;, who entered while we stood at the bedside, informed us that in
+all probability she would awake only to die, or if to sleep again,
+then to wake no more. The latter was the true prophecy. She awoke an
+hour or two after my departure, and passed away that same night in a
+quiet slumber without a pang.</p>
+
+<p>I never learned by what chain of circumstances she was driven to seek
+alms in the public streets. I might have done so perhaps by inquiry,
+but to what purpose? She died in peace, with friendly hands and
+friendly hearts near her, and Jack buried her in his own grave in
+Highgate Cemetery, at his own expense; and declares he is none the
+worse for it. I am of his opinion.</p>
+<br />
+
+<hr />
+<h2><a name="article6" id="article6">
+NOTES FROM AUSTRALIA.
+</a></h2>
+
+<p class="returnTOC"><a href="#Contents">Return to Table of
+    Contents</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Letters</span> from working-men have been published in great numbers by the
+home-press, but a voice from the tradesman has seldom been heard; or,
+if heard, has not been attended to. I trust in some measure to supply
+the deficiency to those middle-class townsfolk who seek to emigrate to
+Australia.</p>
+
+<p><i>1st</i>, I can only reconcile the different accounts furnished by
+emigrants&mdash;believing people to write as they think at the time&mdash;by
+remembering that some have come from quiet rural places, and others
+from populous towns. The first will consider Geelong&mdash;its beautiful
+bay, ships, and steamers, as a hustling, improving, and increasing
+town, laid out for a future provincial capital; the last will regard
+it as a dull, detached series of villages, which will some day be a
+large town. A modification of these causes, allowing for age,
+temperament, circumstances, and station in life, will explain any
+ordinary discrepancy in the accounts from this country.</p>
+
+<p><i>2d</i>, The various accounts of the climate must in a measure be traced
+to the same causes. People used to out-door labour in Britain find the
+winter so mild, that everything is lauded to the skies; those used to
+nice, roomy, convenient houses at home, finding themselves so very
+differently situated, condemn climate, prospects, and everything. Both
+may convey a false impression. The cold or heat by the thermometer is
+no test of sensation; days, however warm, are exceedingly agreeable,
+except the hot-wind days, which are absolutely indescribable, yet I
+have seen some men work out all day in the worst of them. They cause
+great relaxation in the system, and produce dysentery, especially
+among children. Compared with other <i>hot</i> countries, this appears to
+be the most agreeable.</p>
+
+<p><i>3d, Employment</i>.&mdash;This is readily to be obtained by working mechanics
+of all kinds in the towns; remembering that a very small sprinkling of
+workmen for finer work&mdash;such as cornice-mouldings, fine freestone
+work, cabinetwork, &amp;c.&mdash;will be able to find employment for a long
+time to come, because, till a new generation spring up, who can live
+upon the accumulations of their sires, money will not be diverted to
+any great extent from business in land, buildings, or merchandise. A
+considerable number of labourers will find employment about the towns,
+at the stores, on the wharfs, &amp;c. at about 24s. weekly. Country work
+on the sheep-stations&mdash;as shepherds, drivers of bullock-drays,
+sheep-washing and shearing, cooking for the men, &amp;c.&mdash;is remunerated
+by about L.25 and food. These live far off in the solitary plains,
+almost apart from men, and come to town once, twice, or thrice a year,
+as their distance and employment may determine. The Sabbath has little
+of the religious character for them, and they know little of the
+progress of mankind. Agriculture also employs men at about the same
+rate. There is no probability of wages falling, for a long time to
+come, with any stream of emigration likely to come out hither; for if
+the country cannot grow more wool, a greater attention to its quality
+would employ more men; and agriculture will absorb a vast population
+as soon as the land-question has been fairly overhauled, and settled
+on a foundation that will allow a small capitalist to obtain, at a
+fair price, a suitable farm: besides, everything necessary to
+civilisation has yet to be done&mdash;roads, bridges, quarries, wells, and
+a long <i>etcetera</i> that one can scarcely catalogue.</p>
+
+<p><i>4th</i>, Capitalists of L.1000 and upwards can make, apart from
+wool-growing, twenty per cent. on their money without being in trade,
+chiefly by buying at the government land-sales, and subdividing the
+section into small allotments, or by building houses, shops, &amp;c. The
+average of rental returns the capital in four years. But this can only
+be done if emigration continues&mdash;and emigration with a sprinkling of
+holders of L.50 to L.200. If this stops, there can be few purchasers.
+Should a fixed price be put upon government land, there might be a
+difference in the way in which capital could be turned to profit; but
+L.1000 and upwards can find so many favourable investments in a new
+colony, that a living could be secured without much trouble or
+anxiety.</p>
+
+<p><i>5th, Population</i>.&mdash;By the census just completed, there are 78,000
+inhabitants in Victoria (Port-Philip); County of Bourke,
+44,000&mdash;including Melbourne, the capital, 20,000; County of Grant,
+12,000&mdash;including Geelong, its capital, 8000. Warnambool, Belfast, and
+Portland, along the coast, only number hundreds, and Kilmore, forty
+miles inland, nearly 2000: there are also various villages&mdash;on
+paper&mdash;so called, numbering ten to fifty houses each. From this it
+will be seen that more than half of the entire population is within
+twenty miles of Melbourne, a third of the residue within fifteen miles
+of Geelong, and the remainder scattered, including the 1200
+squatting-stations, over a very extensive country. These towns are
+not, in my opinion, a natural growth, but have been forced into their
+present magnitude from the difficulties in obtaining land at a price
+to make up for the utter want of every
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page63" id="page63"></a>[pg 63]</span>
+convenience, a want arising
+from the total absence of any effort on the part of the government
+hitherto to make even one great trunk-road through the colony.
+Facilities for internal communication would cause towns to increase
+naturally. Now, people arrive with glowing ideas of the beauty and
+fertility of the country, and finding everything difficult of access
+there, betake themselves to shopkeeping, forcing up rents to an
+exorbitant sum, and losing their little capital. I think my opinion
+borne out by the fact, that the country population of Grant County was
+1959 in 1846, and 4469 in 1851; Geelong in 1846 had 1911, and in 1851,
+8000&mdash;the town population more than quadrupling itself in the last
+five years, the county increasing only 2510. Melbourne and Bourke
+County are nearly in the same position.</p>
+
+<p>There are seven or eight merchants in Geelong who import goods of all
+kinds, twenty-two drapery establishments in a respectable way, besides
+numbers of small ones on the outskirts; other trades are
+proportionately overdone. Melbourne is, I am credibly informed,
+equally crowded. These facts shew that there is no opening for people
+in business. A great imposition is practised by stating the increase
+of a town at so much per cent., or having doubled or trebled itself in
+so short a time, the fact being that even its present condition may be
+that only of a village. Interested parties too often talk their places
+into notice; and if people do not deal in 'notions,' they all have
+some allotment that will just suit you, which they don't care to keep
+any longer.</p>
+
+<p>An argument from the amount of imports is made use of unfairly. The
+United States are set down at 30s. per head, Australia about L.7 per
+head. This latter, they say, is the country to encourage, to emigrate
+to&mdash;see how prosperous it is! being blind, apparently, to the fact,
+that Australia, having nothing as yet but the raw material, tallow and
+wool, it must barter all it has for what it wants&mdash;a proof to me as
+much of necessity as of prosperity. Many more persons cannot engage
+profitably in the wool and tallow trade; the field is therefore narrow
+for general purposes of emigrants, and easily liable to be
+overstocked, unless the government take prompt measures to open out
+the abundant internal resources of minerals, &amp;c. and give easier and
+cheaper possession of land: then, though the imports might not be much
+more, the prosperity would be much greater. America I believe to be in
+this latter position, presenting a more varied field for the
+operations of the small capitalist, though her imports may be
+inconsiderable per head.</p>
+
+<p>I ought to state, that a great many of the reported cases of success
+are, from misapprehension of the real circumstances of the parties,
+either quite false, or calculated to mislead. Doubtless many
+successful hits will be made by purchasers of mineral land, and so are
+successful hits made at the gaming-table. Successful men, besides, are
+well known, while the unsuccessful have slunk away and are forgotten.
+Few fortunes have been made by simple shopkeeping.</p>
+
+<p>I ought not to conclude without referring to farming, although not
+practically acquainted with it; indeed, the accounts from farmers
+differ as much as the size and shape of their farms: but it appears to
+me that, from one or other of the following causes, farming has not
+hitherto paid well:&mdash;A large farm has been purchased, leaving too
+little cash to spare for the erection of houses, fences, and
+cultivation; or leaving it burdened with a mortgage at heavy interest;
+or a short lease&mdash;of three years&mdash;has been taken, and the money sunk
+on the improvements; or the cultivation has been of such a wretched
+description as failed to raise a remunerative crop. There never
+appears to have been a want of sufficient market for any
+field-produce. L.1000 judiciously invested on a farm, I believe, would
+pay.</p>
+
+<p>I trust it will be seen that my object in writing the foregoing has
+been to guard against the pictures of climate and scenery, good or
+bad, that are constantly written; to shew that plenty of employment at
+a remunerative wage is to be had, but only of the heavy and laborious
+kind; that there is a wide field for capitalists; but that shopkeepers
+and townspeople, unused to out-door labour, have a poor chance, owing
+to the smallness of the population and the competition which already
+exists.</p>
+<br />
+
+<hr />
+<h2><a name="article7" id="article7">
+GROUND-LIZARD OF JAMAICA.
+</a></h2>
+
+<p class="returnTOC"><a href="#Contents">Return to Table of
+    Contents</a></p>
+
+<p>One feature with which a stranger cannot fail to be struck on his
+arrival in the island, and which is essentially tropical, is the
+abundance of the lizards that everywhere meet his eye. As soon as ever
+he sets foot on the beach, the rustlings among the dry leaves, and the
+dartings hither and thither among the spiny bushes that fringe the
+shore, arrest his attention; and he sees on every hand the beautifully
+coloured and meek-faced ground-lizard (<i>Ameiva dorsalis</i>), scratching
+like a bird among the sand, or peering at him from beneath the shadow
+of a great leaf, or creeping stealthily along with its chin and belly
+upon the earth, or shooting over the turf with such a rapidity that it
+seems to fly rather than run. By the road-sides, and in the open
+pastures, and in the provision-grounds of the negroes, still he sees
+this elegant and agile lizard; and his prejudices against the reptile
+races must be inveterate indeed if he can behold its gentle
+countenance, and timid but bright eyes, its chaste but beautiful hues,
+its graceful form and action, and its bird-like motions, with any
+other feeling than admiration.</p>
+
+<p>As he walks along the roads and lanes that divide the properties, he
+will perceive at every turn the smooth and trim little figure of the
+wood-slaves (<i>Mabouya agilis</i>) basking on the loose stones of the dry
+walls; their glossy, fish-like scales glistening in the sun with
+metallic brilliancy. They lie as still as if asleep; but on the
+intruder's approach, they are ready in a moment to dart into the
+crevices of the stones and disappear until the danger is past.</p>
+
+<p>If he looks into the outbuildings of the estates, the mill-house, or
+the boiling-house, or the cattle-sheds, a singular croaking sound
+above his head causes him to look up; and then he sees clinging to the
+rafters, or crawling sluggishly along with the back downward, three or
+four lizards, of form, colour, and action very diverse from those he
+has seen before. It is the <i>gecko</i> or croaking lizard (<i>Thecodactylus
+loevis</i>), a nocturnal animal in its chief activity, but always to be
+seen in these places or in hollow trees even by day. Its appearance is
+repulsive, I allow, but its reputation for venom is libellous and
+groundless.</p>
+
+<p>The stranger walks into the dwelling-house: lizards, lizards, still
+meet his eye. The little anoles (<i>A. iodurus, A. opalinus</i>, &amp;c.) are
+chasing each other in and out between the jalousies, now stopping to
+protrude from the throat a broad disk of brilliant colour, crimson or
+orange, like the petal of a flower, then withdrawing it, and again
+displaying it in coquettish play. Then one leaps a yard or two through
+the air, and alights on the back of his playfellow; and both struggle
+and twist about in unimaginable contortions. Another is running up and
+down on the plastered wall, catching the ants as they roam in black
+lines over its whited surface; and another leaps from the top of some
+piece of furniture upon the back of the visitor's chair, and scampers
+nimbly along the collar of his coat. It jumps on the table&mdash;can it be
+the same? An instant ago it was of the most beautiful golden green,
+except the base of the tail, which was of a soft, light, purple hue;
+now, as if changed by an enchanter's wand, it is of a sordid, sooty
+brown all over, and becomes momentarily darker and darker, or mottled
+with dark and pale patches of a most unpleasing aspect. Presently,
+however, the mental emotion, what, ever it was&mdash;anger, or fear, or
+dislike&mdash;has passed away, and the lovely green hue sparkles in the
+glancing sunlight as before.</p>
+
+<p>He lifts the window-sash; and instantly there run out on the sill two
+or three minute lizards of a new kind, allied to the gecko, the common
+palette-tip (<i>Sphoeriodactylus argus</i>.) It is scarcely more than two
+inches long, more nimble than fleet in its movement, and not very
+attractive.</p>
+
+<p>In the woods he would meet with other kinds. On the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page64" id="page64"></a>[pg 64]</span>
+trunks of the
+trees he might frequently see the Venus (<i>Dactyloa Edwardsii</i>), as it
+is provincially called; a lizard much like the anoles of the houses,
+of a rich grass-green colour, with orange throat-disk, but much larger
+and fiercer; or, in the eastern parts of the island, the great iguana
+(<i>Cyclura lophoma</i>), with it dorsal crest like the teeth of a saw
+running down all its back, might be seen lying out on the branches of
+the trees, or playing bo-peep from a hole in the trunk; or, in the
+swamps and morasses of Westmoreland, the yellow galliwasp (<i>Celestus
+occiduus</i>), so much dreaded and abhorred, yet without reason, might be
+observed sitting idly in the mouth of its burrow, or feeding on the
+wild fruits and marshy plants that constitute its food.&mdash;<i>Gosse's
+Naturalist's Sojourn</i>.</p>
+<br />
+
+<hr />
+<h2><a name="article8" id="article8">
+A SCENE IN NEW ENGLAND.
+</a></h2>
+
+<p class="returnTOC"><a href="#Contents">Return to Table of
+    Contents</a></p>
+
+<p>I leave Boston sometimes in the evening by rail, get thirty miles off,
+then strike away into byways, ramble for an hour or two, and get back
+to the rail. I was out yesterday, and nothing can equal the colour of
+the foliage: if it was painted, it would look like fancy. In the
+course of my stroll, I came upon a lake entirely surrounded with
+forest, and containing, as I was informed, about four square miles of
+water, studded with islands varying in size from one to twenty acres.
+I would describe a point of view which enchanted me. I was on one side
+of the lake, where it is about half a mile in width: about half-way
+across, for the foreground of my picture, is a small island, about two
+acres, covered with trees, looking as if they grew out of the lake,
+with a central one of at least eighty feet high, and of the purest
+orange colour. The opposite shore is of a crescent shape, with the
+forest rising like an amphitheatre behind, glowing with every
+imaginable colour, from the intense crimson to the pale pink, and
+looking exactly like an enormous flower-garden stretching away to the
+distance, and the colour so strongly reflected in the water, that it
+is difficult to tell the reality from the reflection. At home in
+England, I would have gone far to see such scenes; but they are here
+at every turn. I enclose you some leaves, but the purity of the colour
+is gone after a few hours. I am sure many valuable additions might be
+made to the European stock of flowers: there are thousands of
+species&mdash;some extremely beautiful; but how they are propagated, or
+whether they could be transplanted, I cannot tell, being no
+horticulturist. Among the millions here, one plant would be much
+admired with you. It grows wild about three feet high, with long,
+curiously-formed leaves, and surmounted by bunches of bright scarlet
+blossoms, exactly like the geranium. In the course of my stroll, I
+came upon a genuine shanty of a new settler, full of fine children.
+The husband away at work&mdash;a little patch cleared for Indian corn and a
+few vegetables, the sturdy trees enclosing all. Truly the pair have
+their work before them, but they have likewise hope and comfort. I
+chatted a little while with the wife, a genuine specimen of the
+Anglo-Saxon race&mdash;clean, industrious, and hopeful: left home to avoid
+being starved, and sat down here, in rude comfort, with her ruddy
+children growing up about her&mdash;to be a joy and a support, instead of
+the drag and vexation they would have proved at home.&mdash;<i>Private Letter
+from an English Artist settled at Boston</i>.</p>
+<br />
+
+<hr />
+<h2><a name="article9" id="article9">
+WOMEN.
+</a></h2>
+
+<p class="returnTOC"><a href="#Contents">Return to Table of
+    Contents</a></p>
+
+<p>Christianity freed woman, because it opened to her the long-closed
+world of spiritual knowledge. Sublime and speculative theories,
+hitherto confined to the few, became, when once they were quickened by
+faith, things for which thousands were eager to die. Simple women
+meditated in their homes on questions which had long troubled
+philosophers in the groves of academies. They knew this well; and felt
+that from her who had sat at the feet of the Master, listening to the
+divine teaching, down to the poorest slave who heard the tidings of
+spiritual liberty, they had all become daughters of a great and
+immortal faith. Of that faith women were the earliest adherents,
+disciples, and martyrs. Women followed Jesus, entertained the
+wandering apostles, worshipped in the catacombs, or died in the arena.
+The <i>Acts of the Apostles</i> bear record to the charity of Dorcas and
+the hospitality of Lydia; and tradition has preserved the memory of
+Praxedes and Pudentiana, daughters of a Roman senator, in whose house
+the earliest Christian meetings were held in Rome.&mdash;<i>Women of
+Christianity, by Julia Kavanagh</i>.</p>
+<br />
+
+<hr />
+<h2><a name="article10" id="article10">
+'WHARE'ER THERE'S A WILL THERE IS ALWAYS A WAY.'
+</a></h2>
+
+<p class="returnTOC"><a href="#Contents">Return to Table of
+    Contents</a></p>
+
+<div style="margin-left:15%">
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<p><span class="sc">Langsyne</span>, when I first gaed to schule, I was glaiket,</p>
+<p>In books and in learning nae pleasure had I;</p>
+<p>And when for my fauts wi' the taws I was paiket,</p>
+<p>'I canna do better,' was aye my reply.</p>
+<p>'Deed Rab,' quo my mither, 'for daffn' and playin'</p>
+<p>There 's nocht ye can manage by nicht or by day;</p>
+<p>But this let me tell ye, and mind what I'm sayin'&mdash;</p>
+<p>Whare'er there's a will there is always a way.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="stanza">
+<p>'Just look at our preacher, when but a bit callan,</p>
+<p>The ills o' cauld poortith he aft had to dree,</p>
+<p>But to better his lot the poor chiel aye was willin'&mdash;</p>
+<p>At schule and at wark ever eident was he:</p>
+<p>Sage books he wad read, and their truths he wad cherish,</p>
+<p>And earnestly sprauchle up learning's steep brae;</p>
+<p>And noo he's Mess John o' his ain native parish&mdash;</p>
+<p>Sae whare there's a will there is always a way.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="stanza">
+<p>'And man, if ye saw how his manse is bedecket!</p>
+<p>Ilk room's like a palace, it's plenished sae fine;</p>
+<p>And then wi' the best in the land he's respecket,</p>
+<p>And aft wi' My Lord is invited to dine.</p>
+<p>O Rab, then, be active; frae him tak' example;</p>
+<p>His case speaks mair powerfu' than ocht I can say;</p>
+<p>And soon ye will find that your talents are ample;</p>
+<p>For whare there's a will there is always a way.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="stanza">
+<p>'What though we are cotters?&mdash;the poorest may flourish,</p>
+<p>And wha wadna rise wi' the glorious few?</p>
+<p>Industry works wonders&mdash;its spirit aye nourish&mdash;</p>
+<p>It isna the drone gathers hinney, I trew.</p>
+<p>Then onward, my laddie! ye canna regret it;</p>
+<p>What wrecks and what tears have been caused by delay!</p>
+<p>If noble your wish is, press on, ye will get it!</p>
+<p>For whare there's a will there is always a way.'</p>
+</div>
+<div class="stanza">
+<p>Thus spak my auld mither: ilk word seemed a sermon,</p>
+<p>But just rather warldly, as ane micht alloo;</p>
+<p>But, haith, it inspired me, and made me determine</p>
+<p>To haud to the <i>lair</i> and keep <i>progress</i> in view.</p>
+<p>Sae I tried ilka project instruction to gather:</p>
+<p>When herdin' the sheep for our laird, Ringan Gray,</p>
+<p>The Bible and Bunyan, I read 'mang the heather&mdash;</p>
+<p>Aye whare there's a will there is always a way.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="stanza">
+<p>But my father he dee'd, and to help my auld mither</p>
+<p>I noo had to struggle wi' hardship and care;</p>
+<p>And aften I thocht I wad stick a'thegither,</p>
+<p>But something within me said: 'Never despair!'</p>
+<p>At last I grew bein, for I toiled late and early,</p>
+<p>Syne to College I gaed, and was made a D.D.</p>
+<p>And noo I'm Mess John in the Kirk o' Glenfairly&mdash;</p>
+<p>Sae whare there's a will there is always a way.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="stanza">
+<p>The manse&mdash;but I shouldna wi' vainity crack o't&mdash;</p>
+<p>Is as cozie a beil as a body could see;</p>
+<p>Hauf-hid 'mang auld trees, wi' braw parks at the back o't,</p>
+<p>Whare lambs, 'mang the gowans, are sporting wi' glee.</p>
+<p>I've got a bit wife too, a rich winsome lady&mdash;</p>
+<p>In short, I hae a' that a mortal could hae:</p>
+<p>Sae onward, ye youths! as my auld mither said aye&mdash;</p>
+<p>Whare'er there's a will there is always a way.</p>
+<p class="i30"><span class="sc">A. M'Kay.</span></p>
+</div></div>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<hr class="full" />
+
+<p>Printed and Published by W. and R. <span class="sc">Chambers</span>, High Street, Edinburgh.
+Also sold by W.S. <span class="sc">Orr</span>, Amen Corner, London; D.N.
+<span class="sc">Chambers</span>, 55 West Nile Street, Glasgow; and J.
+<span class="sc">M'Glashan</span>, 50 Upper Sackville Street,
+Dublin.&mdash;Advertisements for Monthly Parts are requested to be sent to
+<span class="sc">Maxwell &amp; Co.</span>., 31 Nicholas Lane, Lombard Street, London, to whom all
+applications respecting their insertion must be made.</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Chambers' Edinburgh Journal, No. 421,
+New Series,  Jan. 24, 1852, by Various
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CHAMBERS' EDINBURGH JOURNAL, ***
+
+***** This file should be named 14612-h.htm or 14612-h.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        https://www.gutenberg.org/1/4/6/1/14612/
+
+Produced by Malcolm Farmer, Richard J. Shiffer and the PG Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+https://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+https://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at https://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit https://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including including checks, online payments and credit card
+donations.  To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     https://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
+
+
+</pre>
+
+</body>
+</html>
diff --git a/old/14612-h/images/banner.png b/old/14612-h/images/banner.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9f9f0a0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14612-h/images/banner.png
diff --git a/old/14612.txt b/old/14612.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f458063
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14612.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,2473 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Chambers' Edinburgh Journal, No. 421, New
+Series,  Jan. 24, 1852, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Chambers' Edinburgh Journal, No. 421, New Series,  Jan. 24, 1852
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: January 6, 2005 [EBook #14612]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CHAMBERS' EDINBURGH JOURNAL, ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Malcolm Farmer, Richard J. Shiffer and the PG Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team
+
+
+
+
+
+
+                     CHAMBERS' EDINBURGH JOURNAL
+
+
+  CONDUCTED BY WILLIAM AND ROBERT CHAMBERS, EDITORS OF 'CHAMBERS'S
+  INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE,' 'CHAMBERS'S EDUCATIONAL COURSE,' &c.
+
+
+  No. 421. NEW SERIES.  SATURDAY, JANUARY 24, 1852.  PRICE 1-1/2_d_
+
+
+
+
+THE WOLF-GATHERING.
+
+
+One winter evening some years ago, I sat with a small circle of
+friends round the fire, in the house of a Polish gentleman, whom his
+acquaintances agreed in calling Mr Charles, as the most pronounceable
+of his names. He had fought in all his country's battles of the
+unsuccessful revolution of 1831; and being one of the many who sought
+life and liberty in the British dominions, on the failure of that last
+national effort, he had, with a spirit worthy of an exiled patriot,
+made the best of his unchosen fortunes, and worked his way up, through
+a thousand difficulties and privations, to a respectable standing in
+the mercantile profession. At the period mentioned, Mr Charles had
+become almost naturalised in one of our great commercial towns, was a
+member of a British church, and the head of a British household; but
+when the conversation happened to turn on sporting matters round his
+own fireside, he related in perfect seriousness the following wild and
+legend-like story of his early life in Poland:--
+
+The year before the rising, I went from my native place in Samogitia
+(Szamait), to spend Christmas at the house of my uncle, situated in
+the wooded country of Upper Lithuania. He was a nobleman who boasted
+his descent from one of the oldest houses in Poland, and still held
+the estate which his ancestors had defended for themselves through
+many a Tartar invasion--as much land as a hunting-train could course
+over in a summer's day. But ample as his domain appeared, my uncle was
+by no means rich upon it. The greater portion had been forest-land for
+ages; elsewhere it was occupied by poor peasants and their fields; and
+in the centre he lived, after the fashion of his forefathers, in a
+huge timber-house with antiquated fortifications, where he exercised
+liberal hospitality, especially at Christmas times. My uncle was a
+widower, but he had three sons--Armand, Henrique, and
+Constantine--brave, handsome young men, who kept close intimacy and
+right merry companionship with their nearest neighbours, a family
+named Lorenski. Their property bordered on my uncle's land, and there
+was not a family of their station within leagues; but independently of
+that circumstance, the household must have had attractions for my
+cousins, for it consisted of the young Count Emerich, his sister
+Constanza, and two orphan cousins, Marcella and Eustachia, who had
+been brought up with them from childhood.
+
+The count's parents had died in his early youth, leaving him not only
+his own guardian, but that of his sister and cousins; and the young
+people had grown up safely and happily together in that forest-land.
+The cousins were like most of our Polish girls in the provinces,
+dark-eyed and comely, gay and fearless, and ready alike for the dance
+or the chase; but Count Emerich and his sister had the praise of the
+whole province for their noble carriage, their wise and virtuous
+lives, and the great affection that was between them. Both had strange
+courage, and were said to fear neither ghost nor goblin--which, I must
+remark, was not a common case in Lithuania. Constanza was the oldest
+by two years, and by far the most discreet and calm of temper, by
+which it was believed she rather ruled the household, though her
+brother had a high and fiery spirit. But they were never known to
+disagree, and, though still young, neither seemed to think of
+marrying. Fortunately, it was not so with all their neighbours. My
+stay at my uncle's house had not been long when I found out that
+Armand was as good as engaged to Marcella, and Henrique to Eustachia,
+while Constantine, the youngest and handsomest of the three brothers,
+paid vain though deferential court to Constanza.
+
+The rising was not then publicly talked of, though known to be in full
+preparation throughout the country. All the young and brave hearts
+among us were pledged to it, and my cousins did not hesitate to tell
+me in confidence that Count Emerich and his sister were its chief
+promoters in that district. They had a devoted assistant in Father
+Cassimer. He had been their mother's confessor, and lived in the house
+for five-and-thirty years, saying mass regularly in the parish church,
+a pine-built edifice on the edge of the forest. Father Cassimer's hair
+was like snow; but he was still erect, strong, and active. He said the
+church could not spare him, and he would live to a hundred. In some
+respects, the man did deserve a century, being a good Pole and a
+worthy priest, notwithstanding one weakness which beset him, for
+Father Cassimer took special delight in hunting. It was said that
+once, when robed for mass, a wild boar chanced to stray past; whereon
+the good priest mounted his horse, which was usually fastened to the
+church-door, and started after the game in full canonicals. That was
+in his youth; but Father Cassimer never denied the tale, and the
+peasants who remembered it had no less confidence in his prayers, for
+they knew he loved his country, and looked after the sick and poor.
+The priest was my cousin's instructor in wood-craft, and the
+boon-companion of my uncle; but scarcely had I got well acquainted
+with him and the Lorenskis, when two Christmas visitors arrived at
+their house.
+
+They were a brother and sister, Russian nobles, known as Count
+Theodore and Countess Juana. Their native place was St Petersburg, but
+they had spent years in travelling over Europe; and though nobody
+knew the extent of their estates, it was supposed to be great, for
+they spared no expense, and always kept the best society. Latterly
+they had been somehow attracted to Poland, and became so popular among
+our country nobles, that they were invited from house to house, making
+new friends wherever they went, for Russians though they were, they
+wished well to our country, and, among their intimates, spoke of
+liberty and justice with singular eloquence. Considering this, their
+popularity was no wonder. A handsomer or more accomplished pair I
+never saw. Both were tall, fair, and graceful, with hair of a light
+golden shade--the sister's descending almost to her feet when
+unbraided, and the brother's clustering in rich curls about the brow.
+They knew the dances of all nations, could play anything that was ever
+invented, whether game or instrument, and talked in every tongue of
+Europe, from Romaic to Swedish. Both could ride like Arabs. Count
+Theodore was a splendid shot, his sister was matchless in singing, and
+neither was ever tired of fun or frolic. They seemed of the Lorenskis'
+years, but had seen more of the world; and though scarcely so
+dignified, most people preferred the frank familiarity and lively
+converse of the travelled Russians.
+
+The Lorenskis themselves could not but applaud that general
+preference. They and the travellers had become fast friends almost on
+their first acquaintance, which took place in the previous winter; and
+Count Theodore and his sister had performed a long wintry journey from
+St Petersburg, to celebrate the Christmas-time with them. Peasants and
+servants rejoiced at their coming, for they were known to be liberal.
+The old priest said it had never been his luck to see anything decent
+out of Russia before, and my uncle's entire household were delighted,
+with the exception of Constantine. By and by, I guessed the cause of
+his half-concealed displeasure. The brother of each pair took
+wonderfully to the sister of the other. Count Theodore talked of
+buying an estate in Lithuania; and the young cousins predicted, that
+though Emerich and Constanza might be near neighbours, they would not
+live all their days free and single. After the Russians' arrival,
+there was nothing but sport among us. We had dances and concerts,
+plays, and all manner of games; but the deep snow of our Polish winter
+had not hardened to the usual strong ice, over marsh, river, and
+forest-land. It continued falling day after day, shutting all our
+amusements within doors, and preventing, to our general regret, the
+wonted wolf-hunt, always kept up in Lithuania from the middle of
+December till Christmas-eve.
+
+It was a custom, time immemorial, in the province, and followed as
+much for the amusement it afforded the young people, as for the
+destruction of the deadly prowler. The mode of conducting it was this:
+Every two or three families who chanced to be intimate when the ice
+was sufficiently strong and smooth for sledge-travelling, sent forth a
+party of young hunters, with their sisters and sweethearts, in a
+sledge covered at the one end, which was also well cushioned and gaily
+painted; the ladies in their best winter-dresses took possession of
+it, while the hunters occupied the exposed part, with guns,
+shot-pouches, and hunting-knives, in complete readiness. Beside the
+driver, who was generally an old experienced hand, there was placed a
+young hog, or a leg of pork, occasionally roasted to make the odour
+more inviting, and packed up with cords and straw in a pretty tight
+parcel, which was fastened to the sledge by a long rope twisted to
+almost iron hardness. Away they drove at full speed; and when fairly
+in the forest, the pork was thrown down, and allowed to drag after the
+sledge, the smell of it bringing wolves from every quarter, while the
+hunters fired at them as they advanced. I have seen a score of skins
+collected in this manner, not to speak of the fun, the excitement, and
+the opportunities for exhibiting one's marksmanship and courage where
+one would most wish to have them seen.
+
+The peasants said it was never lucky when Christmas came without a
+wolf-hunt: but that year it was like to be so; for, as I have said,
+the snow kept falling at intervals, with days of fog and thaw between,
+till the night before the vigil. In my youth, the Lithuanians kept
+Christmas after the fashion of old northern times. It began with great
+devotion, and ended in greater feasting. The eve was considered
+particularly sacred: many traditional ceremonies and strange beliefs
+hung about it, and the more pious held that no one should engage in
+any profane occupation, or think of going to sleep after sunset. When
+it came, our disappointment concerning the wolf-hunt lay heavy on many
+a mind as well as mine; but a strong frost had set in before daybreak,
+and at the early nightfall a finer prospect for sledging could not be
+desired--over the broad plain, and far between the forest pines; the
+ice stretched away as smooth and bright as a mirror. The moon was
+full, and the stars were out by thousands: you could have read large
+print by the cold, clear light, as my cousins and I stood at my
+uncle's door, fervently wishing it had been any other evening.
+Suddenly, our ears caught the sound of bells and laughing voices, and
+in a few minutes up drove the Lorenski sledge in its gayest trappings,
+with Constanza, the Russian countess, and the young cousins, all
+looking blithe, and rosy in the frosty air, while Emerich and Theodore
+sat in true hunter's trim, and Father Cassimer himself in charge of
+the reins, with the well-covered pork beside him. They had two noble
+horses of the best Tatar blood, unequalled in the province, as we
+knew, for speed and strength; and Emerich's cheerful voice first
+saluted us with: 'Ho! friends, it is seven hours yet till midnight:
+won't you come with us?--it is a shame to let Christmas in without a
+wolf-skin!'
+
+That was enough for us: we flew in for our equipments. My uncle was
+not at first willing that we should go; but the merry company now at
+his door, the unequivocal countenance which Father Cassimer gave to
+the proceeding, and the high spirits of the young Russians, who were,
+as usual, wild for the sport, made him think that, after all, there
+was no harm in the young people taking an hour or two in the woods
+before mass, which on Christmas-eve begins always at midnight. Our
+hunting-gear was donned in a trice; and with my uncle's most trusty
+man, Metski, to assist in driving, away we went at full speed to the
+forest.
+
+Father Cassimer was an experienced general in expeditions of the kind;
+he knew the turns of the woods where the wolves scented best; and when
+we had got fairly among the tall oaks, down went his pork. For some
+time it dragged on without a single wolf appearing, though the odour
+came strong and savoury through cords and straw.
+
+'If I were a wolf myself, I would come for that,' said old Metski. The
+priest quickened his speed, vowing he would not say mass without a
+skin that night; and we got deeper into the wilderness of oak and
+pine. Like most of our Lithuanian forests, it had no underwood. There
+was ample space for our sledge among the great trees, and the
+moonlight fell in a flood of brightness upon their huge white trunks,
+and through the frost-covered branches. We could see the long icicles
+gleaming like pendants of diamond for miles through the wide woods,
+but never a wolf. The priest began to look disappointed; Metski
+sympathised with him, for he relished a hunt almost as well as his
+reverence; but all the rest, with the help of the Russians, amused
+themselves with _making_ game. I have said they were in great spirits,
+particularly Count Theodore; indeed he was generally the gayer of the
+pair--his sister being evidently the more prudent--and in this respect
+they resembled the Lorenskis. Many a jest, however, on the
+non-appearance of the wolves went round our sledge, of which I
+remember nothing now except that we all laughed till the old wood
+rang.
+
+'Be quiet, good children,' said the priest, turning in his seat of
+command: 'you make noise enough to frighten all the wolves in
+creation.'
+
+'They won't come to-night, father; they are preparing for mass,' cried
+Count Theodore. 'Juana, if the old Finn were here now, wouldn't he be
+useful?'
+
+'Perhaps he might,' said the countess, with a forced laugh; but she
+cast a look of strange warning and reproof on her brother.
+
+'What Finn?' said the priest, catching the count's words.
+
+'Oh, he is talking of an old nursery-tale we had in St Petersburg,'
+hastily interposed the lady, though I thought her face had no memory
+of the nursery in it.
+
+'About the Finns I'll warrant,' said Father Cassimer. 'They are a
+strange people. My brother the merchant told me that he knew one of
+them at Abo who said he had a charm for the wolves; but somebody
+informed against him for smuggling, and the Russian government sent
+him to the lead-mines in Siberia. By Saint Sigismund, there's the
+first of them!'
+
+As the priest spoke, a large wolf appeared, and half the guns in the
+sledge were raised. 'Not yet, not yet,' said our experienced
+commander, artfully turning away as another and another came in sight.
+'There are more coming,' and he gradually slackened our pace; but far
+off through the moonlit woods and the frozen night we could hear a
+strange murmur, which grew and swelled on all sides to a chorus of
+mingled howlings, and the wolves came on by troops.
+
+'Fire now, friends!' cried Father Cassimer. 'We are like to have skins
+enough for Christmas;' and bang went all our barrels. I saw five fall;
+but, contrary to expectation, the wolves did not retire--they stood
+for an instant snarling at us. The distant howlings continued and came
+nearer; and then from every glade and alley, down the frozen streams,
+and through the wide openings of the forest, came by scores and
+hundreds such a multitude of wolves as we could not have believed to
+exist in all Lithuania.
+
+'Hand me my gun, and take the reins, Metski,' cried Father Cassimer.
+'Drive for your life!' he added in an under tone; but every one in the
+sledge heard him. Heaven knows how many we killed; but it seemed of no
+use. Our pork was swallowed, straw and all. The creatures were
+pressing upon us on every side, as if trying to surround the sledge;
+and it was fearful to see the leaps that some gray old fellows among
+them would take at Metski and the horses. Our driver did his part like
+a man, making a thousand winds and turns through the woods; but still
+the wolves pursued us. Fortunately, the firing kept them off, and,
+thanks to our noble horses, they were never able to get ahead of us;
+but as far as we could see behind us in the moonlight, came the
+howling packs, as if rising from the ground of the forest. We had seen
+nothing like it, and all did their best in firing, especially Count
+Theodore; but his shots had little effect, for his hand shook, and I
+know not if any but myself saw the looks of terrified intelligence
+which he exchanged with his sister. Still, she and the Lady Constanza
+kept up their courage, though the young cousins were as white as snow,
+and our ammunition was fast decreasing.
+
+'Yonder is a light,' said Constanza at last, as the poor horses became
+unmanageable from fright and weariness. 'It is from the cottage of old
+Wenzel, the woodman.'
+
+'If we could reach that,' said Father Cassimer, 'and leave the horses
+to their fate: it is our only chance.'
+
+No one contradicted the priest's arrangement, for his last words were
+felt to be true--though a pang passed over Constanza's face at the
+thought of leaving our brave and faithful horses to the wolves: but
+louder rose the howls behind us, as Metski urged on with all his
+might, and far above all went the shout of Father Cassimer (he had the
+best lungs in that province): 'Ho, Wenzel! open the door to us for
+God's sake!'
+
+We heard the old man reply, sent one well-aimed volley in among the
+wolves, and as they recoiled, man and woman leaped from the
+sledge--for our Polish girls are active--and rushed into the cottage,
+when old Wenzel instantly double-barred the door. It was woful to hear
+the cry of pain and terror from our poor horses as we deserted them;
+the next instant the wolves were upon them. We saw them from the
+window, as thick as ever flies stuck on sugar. How we fired upon them,
+and with what good-will old Wenzel helped us, praying all the time to
+every saint in the calendar, you may imagine! But still their numbers
+were increasing; and as a pause came in the fearful din, we plainly
+heard through the still air the boom of our own great bell, ringing
+for the midnight mass. At that sound, Father Cassimer's countenance
+fell for the first time. He knew the bellman was a poor half-witted
+fellow, who would not be sensible of his absence; and then he turned
+to have another shot at the wolves.
+
+Shots were by this time getting scarce among us. There was not a man
+had a charge left but old Wenzel, who had supplied us as long as he
+could; but at length, loading his own gun with his last charge, he
+laid it quietly in the corner, saying one didn't know what use might
+be for it, and he never liked an empty gun.
+
+Wenzel was the son of a small innkeeper at Grodno, but after his
+father's decease, which occurred when he was a child, his mother had
+married a Russian trader, who, when she died, carried the boy to
+Moscow. There Wenzel bade fair to be brought up a Russian; but when a
+stepmother came home, which took place while he was still a youth, he
+had returned to his native country, built himself a hut in the woods
+of Lithuania, and lived a lonely hunter till the time of my story,
+when he was still a robust, though gray-haired man. Some said his
+Muscovite parents had not been to his liking; some that he had found
+cause to shoot a master to whom they apprenticed him at Moscow; but be
+that as it might, Wenzel hated the Russians with all his heart, and
+never scrupled to say that the gun which had served him so long would
+serve the country too if it ever came to a rising. So much for
+Wenzel's story, by way of explaining what followed; but as I stood
+beside him that night at the hut's single crevice of a window, I could
+have given Poland itself for ammunition enough to do service on the
+wolves. They had now left nothing but the bones of our horses, which
+they had dragged round and round the cottage, with a din of howlings
+that almost drowned our voices within. Then they seized on the bodies
+of their own slain companions, which were devoured to the very skins;
+and still the gathering was going on. We could see them coming in
+troops through the open glades of the forest, as if aware that some
+human prey was in reserve. The hut was strongly built of great
+pine-logs, but it was fearful to hear them tearing at the door and
+scratching up the foundations. The bravest among us got terrified at
+these sounds. Metski loudly avowed his belief that the wolves were
+sent upon us as a punishment for hunting on Christmas-eve, and fell
+instantly to his prayers. Wenzel flung a blazing brand among them from
+the window, but they did not seem to care for fire; and three of them
+were so near leaping in, that he drove to the log-shutter and gave up
+that method of defence. None of the party appeared so far overcome
+with terror as Count Theodore: his spirit and prudence both seemed to
+forsake him. When the wolves began to scratch, he threw himself almost
+on his face in the corner, and kept moaning and praying in Russian, of
+which none of us understood a syllable but old Wenzel. Emerich and I
+would have spoken to him, but the woodman stopped us with a strange
+sign. Count Theodore had taken the relic of some saint from a
+pocket-book which he carried in his breast, and was, in Russian
+fashion as I think, confessing his sins over it; while his sister sat
+silent and motionless by the fire, with livid face and clasped hands.
+It was burning low, but I saw the woodman's face darken. He stepped to
+the corner and took down his gun, as I believed, to take the last shot
+at the wolves; but Count Theodore was in his way. He levelled it for
+an instant at the prostrate man, and before I could speak or
+interpose, the report, followed by a faint shrill shriek from the
+Russian, rang through the hut. We rushed to him, but the count was
+dead. A bullet had gone right through the heart.
+
+'My gun has shot the count, and the wolves will leave us now,' said
+Wenzel coolly. 'I heard him say in his prayers that a Finn, now in the
+Siberian mines, had vowed to send them on him and his company wherever
+he went.'
+
+As the woodman spoke, he handed to Count Emerich, with a hoarse
+whisper, a bloody pocket-book, taken from the dead body, and turning
+to Juana, said something loud and threatening to her in the Russian
+tongue; at which the lady only bowed her head, seeming of all in the
+hut to be the least surprised or concerned at the death of her
+brother. As for us, the complicated horrors of the night had left us
+stunned and stupified till the rapid diminution of the wolfish din,
+the sounds of shots and voices, and the glare of flambeaux lighting up
+the forest, brought most of us to the window. The wolves were scouring
+away in all directions, there was a grayness in the eastern sky, for
+Christmas-day was breaking; and from all sides the count and my
+uncle's tenantry, with skates and sledges, guns and torches, were
+pouring to the rescue as we shouted to them from the cottage.
+
+They had searched for us almost since midnight, fearing that something
+terrible had detained Father Cassimer and his company from mass. There
+were wonderfully few wolves shot in the retreat, and we all went home
+to Count Emerich's house, but not in triumph, for with us went the
+body of the Russian, of which old Wenzel was one of the bearers. The
+unanimous determination we expressed to bring him to justice as a
+murderer, was silenced when Emerich shewed us in confidence a letter
+from the Russian minister, and a paper with all our names in a list of
+the disaffected in Upper Lithuania, which he had found in Theodore's
+pocket-book. After that, we all affirmed that Wenzel's gun had gone
+off by accident; and on the same good Christmas-day, Count Emerich,
+with a body of his retainers, escorted the Lady Juana to a convent at
+the other end of the province, the superior of which was his aunt.
+There she became a true Catholic, professed, and, as I was told,
+turned to a great saint. There is a wooden cross with his name, and a
+Latin inscription on it, marking Count Theodore's grave, by our old
+church on the edge of the forest. No one ever inquired after him, and
+the company of that terrible night are far scattered. My uncle and his
+sons all died for the poor country. The young cousins are married to
+German doctors in Berlin. Constanza and her brother are still single,
+for aught I know, but they have been exiles in America these fifteen
+years. Father Cassimer went with them, after being colonel of a
+regiment which saw hard service on the banks of the Vistula; and it
+may be that he is still saying mass or hunting occasionally in the Far
+West.
+
+The last time I saw Wenzel and Metski was in the trenches at Minsk,
+where they had a tough debate regarding our adventure in the forest:
+the woodman insisting it was the Finn's spell that brought the wolves
+in such unheard-of numbers, and the peasant maintaining that it was a
+judgment on our desecration of Christmas-eve. For my own part, I think
+the long storm and a great scarcity of food had something to do with
+it, for tales of the kind were never wanting in our province. The
+wolf-gathering, however, saved us a journey to Siberia: thanks to old
+Wenzel. And sometimes yet, when any strange noise breaks in upon my
+sleep even here in England, I dream of being in his wild hut in the
+forest and listening to the wolfish voices at the door.
+
+
+
+
+THE DROLLERIES OF FALSE POLITICAL ECONOMY.
+
+PLANS FOR PAYING THE NATIONAL DEBT.
+
+
+It is not customary to associate the ludicrous with financial
+operations--with budgets, schemes of taxation, and national debts. In
+general, they are considered to assume a formidable aspect; and when
+that is not the case, their details are looked on as dry and
+uninteresting--they are universally voted a 'bore.' Yet we engage to
+shew, that there have been some financial projects which at the
+present day we can pronounce essentially ludicrous. And they are not
+the mere projects of enthusiasts and theoretic dreamers. They were put
+in practice on a large scale; they involved the disposal of millions
+of money; and they were in operation at so late a period, that the
+present generation paid heavy taxes for the purpose of carrying them
+out--taxes paid for nothing better than the success of a practical
+hoax.
+
+The round hundreds of millions in which our national debt is set forth
+seem to have often confused the brains of our most practical
+arithmeticians and financiers. They seem to have felt as if these did
+not represent real money, but something ideal; or perhaps we might
+say, they have treated them like certain results of the operation of
+figures which might be neutralised by others, as the equivalents on
+the two sides of an equation exhaust each other. We never hear of a
+man trying to pay his own personal debts otherwise than with money,
+but we have had hundreds of projects for paying the national debt
+without money, and generally through some curious and ingenious
+arithmetical process. We might perhaps amuse our readers by an account
+of some of these, for to their absurdity there are no bounds; but we
+adhere in the meantime to our engagement, to shew that on this subject
+even the practical projects of statesmen of our own day have been
+ridiculous.
+
+We shall suppose that some one has occasion for L.100, which he finds
+a friend obliging enough to lend him. On receiving it, he requests the
+loan of other L.10; and being asked for what purpose, he answers, that
+with that L.10 he will pay up the original L.100. This is a rather
+startling proposal; but when he is asked how he is to manage this
+practical paradox, he says: 'Oh, I shall put out the L.10 to interest,
+and in the course of time it will increase until it pays off the
+L.100.' The lender is perhaps a little staggered at first by the
+audacious plausibility of the proposal, but it requires but a few
+seconds to enable him to say: 'Why, yes, you may lend out the L.10 at
+interest; but in the meantime, as you have borrowed it, interest runs
+against you upon it; so what better are you?' The lender, so far from
+concurring with the sanguine hopes about the fructification of the
+L.10, will only regret his having intrusted the larger sum to a person
+whose notions of money are so loose and preposterous.
+
+Yet the proposal would only have carried into private pecuniary
+matters the principle of the sinking-fund, so long deemed a blessing,
+and a source of future prosperity to the country. A sinking-fund is an
+expression generally applied to any sum of money reserved out of
+expenditure to pay debt, or meet any contingency. Now, observe that
+our remarks are not directed against it in this simple form. A surplus
+of revenue obtained by moderate taxation, saved through frugal
+expenditure, and applied to the reduction of the national debt, is
+always a good thing. But the sinking-fund to which we chiefly refer
+was a system of borrowing money to pay debt. It might be said that the
+identical money which was borrowed was not the same which was used for
+paying the debt; but it came to the same thing if the sinking-fund was
+kept up while the nation was borrowing. Thus, taking the case of the
+private borrower as we have already put it, if he took L.10 of his own
+money and put it out at interest, that it might increase and pay off
+his loan, and if, by so doing, he found it necessary to borrow L.110,
+instead of merely L.100, it was virtually the same as if he applied
+L.10 of the borrowed money for his sinking-fund. Thus for the year
+1808, the state required L.12,200,000 in loan above what the taxes
+produced. But in the same year L.1,200,000 were applied to the
+sinking-fund; consequently, it was necessary to borrow so much more,
+and therefore the whole loan of that year amounted to L.13,400,000.
+The loan was increased exactly in the way in which our friend added
+the L.10 to the L.100. It was borrowing money to pay loans.
+
+The application of millions in this manner by our statesmen, was in a
+great measure owing to the enthusiastic speculations of Dr Richard
+Price, a benevolent, ingenious, and laborious man, who, unfortunately
+for the public, possessed the power of giving his wild speculations a
+tangible and practical appearance. He was, to use a common expression,
+'carried off his feet' by arithmetical calculations. He believed
+compound interest to be omnipotent. He made a calculation of what a
+penny could have come to if laid out at compound interest from the
+birth of Christ to the nineteenth century, and found it would make--we
+forget precisely how many globes of gold the size of this earth. He
+did not say, however, where the proper investments were to be made;
+how the money was to be procured; and, most serious of all, he
+overlooked that where one party received such an accumulating amount
+of money, some other party must pay it, and to pay it must make it. In
+fact, the doctor looked on the increase of money by compound interest
+as a mere arithmetical process. The world, however, finds it to be a
+process of working, and the making of money by toil, parsimony, and
+anxiety.
+
+When any one seizes on such a theme he is sure to be carried to
+extremities with it. It was one of Price's favourite theories, that
+the time when interest was highest was the best time for borrowing
+money, because the borrowed sinking-fund would then bring the highest
+interest. One is astonished in times like these, when people think
+taxes and national debt so serious, at the easy carelessness with
+which the doctor treats the disease, and his sure remedy. He says in
+his celebrated work on Annuities (i. 277): 'It is an observation that
+deserves particular attention here, that in this plan it will be of
+less importance to a state what interest it is obliged to give for
+money; _for the higher the interest, the sooner will such a sum pay
+off the principal_. Thus, L.100,000,000 borrowed at 8 per cent., and
+bearing an annual interest of L.8,000,000, would be paid off by a fund
+producing annually L.100,000 in fifty-six years; that is, in
+thirty-eight years less time than if the same money had been borrowed
+at 4 per cent. Hence it follows that reductions of interest would in
+this plan be no great advantage to a state. They would indeed lighten
+its present burdens; but this advantage would be in some measure
+balanced by the addition which would be made to its future burdens, in
+consequence of the longer time during which it would be necessary to
+bear them.'
+
+'Certain it is, therefore,' says the doctor, in a general survey of
+his arithmetical salvation of the country, 'that if our affairs are to
+be relieved, it must be by a fund increasing itself in the manner I
+have explained. The smallest fund of this kind is indeed omnipotent,
+if it is allowed time to operate.' And again: 'It might be easily
+shewn that the faithful application from the beginning of the year
+1700, of only L.200,000 annually, would long before 1790,
+notwithstanding the reductions of interest, have paid off above
+L.100,000,000 of the public debts. The nation might therefore some
+years ago have been eased of a great part of the taxes with which it
+is loaded. The most important relief might have been given to its
+trade and manufactures; and it might now have been in better
+circumstances than at the beginning of last war: its credit firm;
+respected by foreign nations, and dreaded by its enemies.'
+
+That such a tone should be assumed by an enthusiastic speculator is
+not wonderful. The payment of the national debt has been one of the
+staple dreams of enthusiasts. It would be difficult to believe the
+wild nonsense that has been written on it; and Hogarth, in his
+dreadful picture of a madhouse, appropriately represents one of his
+principal figures hard at work on it. But the remarkable thing--and
+what shews the perilous nature of such speculations--is, that these
+theories were worked out by chancellors of the exchequer, and adopted
+by parliament. There was a faint sinking-fund so early as 1716; but
+Walpole one day swept it up and spent it, having probably just
+discovered that it was a fallacy. It was in the days of the younger
+Pitt, however, that it came out in full bloom. After it had been for
+several years in operation, a retired and absent-minded mathematical
+student, Robert Hamilton, shewed its falsity in a book printed in
+1813. The exposure was conclusive, and no one since that time has
+ventured to support a sinking-fund.
+
+As already stated, it is a very good thing to save something out of
+the revenue and pay off part of the debt. But no good is done by
+keeping it to accumulate at interest, because the debt it would pay
+off is just accumulating against it. Apply this to private
+transactions. You are in debt L.110. You have L.10, and the question
+is: Are you to pay it at once, and reduce your debt to L.100, or are
+you to keep it accumulating at interest? It is much the same which you
+do, only the latter is the more troublesome mode. If you pay it at
+once, you will just have so much less interest to hand over to your
+creditor. If you put it out at interest, you will have to pay over to
+him what you receive for it, in addition to the interest of the L.100.
+There is an incidental purpose for which it has been deemed right that
+the government should, however, have a fund at its disposal--that is
+for buying into the funds when they fall very low, and thus
+accomplishing two services--the one the paying a portion of the debt
+at a cheap rate, the other stopping the depreciation of the funds.
+This is in itself we doubt not a very just practical object, but we
+believe the sums that can be applied to it are very small in
+comparison with the reserves which formed the old sinking-fund.
+
+But another and a very different argument has been adduced, not
+certainly for the re-establishment and support of a sinking-fund,
+since its fallacy has been exposed, but against the policy of having
+exposed it. It is said that the belief in the potency of a
+sinking-fund for clearing off the debt inspired public confidence in
+the stability of the funds, and that it was wrong to shake this
+confidence even by the promulgation of truth. It has often been
+supposed, indeed, that the statesmen who mainly carried out the system
+were in secret conscious of its fallacy, but were content to carry it
+out so long as they saw that it inspired confidence in the public. It
+is in allusion to this that we have spoken of the sinking-fund as a
+great hoax. We cannot sanction the morality of governments acting on
+conscious fallacies; and in this instance the natural confidence in
+the funds rather enlarged than decreased when the fallacy was exposed
+and the system abandoned.
+
+Keeping in view Dr Price's views of the potentiality of compound
+interest, we now give a brief account of a singular attempt made in
+France to put them in practice, and by their omnipotence pay our
+national debt and that of other nations too, out of a small private
+fortune. In the year 1794, a will was registered in France by one
+Fortune Ricard, disposing of a sum of 500 livres, a little more than
+L.20 sterling. Fortune stated that this sum was the result of a
+present of twenty-four livres which he had received when he was a boy,
+and had kept accumulating at compound interest to a period of advanced
+age. By his will he left it in the hands of trustees, making
+arrangements for a perpetual succession, as the purposes of the trust
+were not to be all accomplished for a period of several centuries. The
+money was to be divided into five portions, each of 100 livres, and so
+to be put out at compound interest.
+
+The first portion was to be withdrawn at the end of a century: it
+would then amount to 13,000 livres, or about L.550. It is scarcely
+worth while mentioning the purposes to which this trifle was to be
+applied, but for the credit of M. Ricard it may be mentioned that they
+were all unexceptionable. In two centuries the second sum would be
+released, amounting to 1,700,000 livres. At the end of the third
+century, the third instalment was to be released, when it would
+consist of 226,000,000 livres. The destination of these magnificent
+sums was also unexceptionable--it was for national education, the
+erecting of public libraries, and the like. The instalment to be
+released at the end of the fourth century would amount to about
+30,000,000,000 livres: it was to be employed partly in the building of
+100 towns, each containing 150,000 inhabitants, in the most agreeable
+parts of France. 'In a short time,' says the benevolent founder,
+'there will result from hence an addition of 15,000,000 of inhabitants
+to the kingdom, and its consumption will be doubled--for which service
+I hope the economists will think themselves obliged to me.' Malthus
+had not then published his principles of population.
+
+We must draw breath as we approach the destination of the fifth and
+last instalment. It was to amount to four millions of millions of
+livres--about a hundred and seventy thousand millions of pounds. We
+take for granted that Fortune's calculations are correct, and have
+certainly not taken the trouble of verifying them. Among other truly
+benevolent and cosmopolitan destinations of this very handsome sum, it
+may be sufficient to mention these:--
+
+'Six thousand millions shall be appropriated towards paying the
+national debt of France, upon condition that the kings, our good lords
+and masters, shall be entreated to order the comptrollers-general of
+the finances to undergo in future an examination in arithmetic before
+they enter on the duties of their office.
+
+'Twelve thousand millions shall likewise be employed in paying the
+public debts of England. It may be seen that I reckon that both these
+national debts will be doubled in this period--not that I have any
+doubt of the talents of certain ministers to increase them much more,
+but their operations in this way are opposed by an infinity of
+circumstances, which lead me to presume that these debts cannot be
+more than doubled. Besides, if they amount to a few thousands of
+millions more, I declare that it is my intention that they should be
+entirely paid off, and that a project so laudable should not remain
+unexecuted for a trifle more or less.'[1]
+
+M. Ricard, it will be observed, must have drawn his will while royalty
+was in the ascendant; it was registered during the Reign of Terror,
+and one would be curious to know how many weeks, instead of centuries,
+his 500 livres remained sacred. Money in the most steadily-governed
+states--in our own, for instance--is subject to continual casualties.
+The most acute men of business cannot command perfectly certain
+investments for their own money--they are often miserably deceived,
+and suffer heavy losses. M. Ricard, however, supposed that a set of
+irresponsible trustees would for centuries always discover perfectly
+sure investments, and act with consummate watchfulness and honesty. If
+it were possible to leave behind one money with the qualification of
+always being securely invested, while the rest of the property in the
+world remained insecure, it would gradually suck all the wealth of the
+world into its vortex. But it would require supernatural agency to
+make it thus absolutely secure.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Footnote 1: See the will at length in the appendix to Lord
+Lauderdale's _Inquiry into the Nature and Origin of Public Wealth_.]
+
+
+
+
+SIR FRANCIS HEAD'S 'FAGGOT.'[2]
+
+
+'A FAGGOT OF FRENCH STICKS' is the whimsical title of a work just
+presented to the public, by the author of _Bubbles from the Brunnen of
+Nassau_; the said work being as respectable a specimen of bookmaking
+as has ever come under our notice. The object of the writer appears to
+have been to fill so much paper, by saying something about all he saw
+or heard of in a visit to Paris, no matter how insignificant the
+circumstances; and by this ingenious means, he has actually contrived
+to make up two goodly-sized volumes for the literary market.
+
+The author of this strange melange, however, is not without a dash of
+merit; he possesses a terrier-like power of poking about into holes
+and corners, and dragging to light a variety of facts which might
+escape the attention of less vigilant tourists. For example, he is not
+satisfied with the mere sight or employment of omnibuses,
+street-porters, _chiffonniers_, and other agents of the public
+service, but must know all about them--how the omnibus horses live,
+and how many miles they run per diem; what variety of occupations the
+porters resort to for a livelihood; and what are the substances, and
+their value, that the chiffonniers scrape every morning from the
+kennel. Sir Francis is great on pig slaughter-houses, furnished
+lodgings, and police-officers. He tells you every particular of his
+lodging: how he ascended the stair; what landing-places there were;
+what price he was to pay; how the servant brought him too few pieces
+of butter to breakfast, and what he said in ordering more; how one day
+he perceived a bad smell in his sitting-room, and shifted to a higher
+part of the building, where the bad smell did not come; how he finally
+paid his account, and how the _concierge_ bade him good-by. All
+important information this. An equally true and particular narrative
+is given of Sir Francis's object in visiting Paris, which was to
+consult an occulist on the subject of his eyes. In going to the
+occulist's, we are informed how he left his lodgings at a quarter
+before seven o'clock; how he crossed the Place Vendome, and saw a
+sentinel pacing at the foot of Napoleon's Column; how he observed that
+the sentinel had the misfortune to have a hole in his greatcoat, which
+affords an opportunity too good to be lost for quoting that
+little-known verse of Burns's--'If there's a hole in a' your coats,'
+&c.; how he then, being done with looking at the sentinel, goes on his
+way, crosses the Boulevard des Italiens, and enters the Rue de la
+Chaussee d'Antin; how he looks about him till he sees No. 50, and,
+having spoken a word to the door-keeper, goes up stairs. Then, he
+informs his readers that he rang the doctor's bell; and how, the door
+being opened by a boy in livery, he was shewn into a drawing-room.
+Here, he tells us, he sat down in company with a number of other
+patients, waiting their turn to be called by the doctor. Vastly
+amusing all this, but nothing to what follows:--'For a considerable
+time we all sat in mute silence, and, indeed, in our respective
+attitudes, almost motionless, save that every now and then a
+gentleman, and sometimes a lady, would arise, slowly walk diagonally
+across the carpet to a corner close to the window, press with his or
+her hand the top of a little mahogany machine that looked like an
+umbrella-stand, look down into it, and then very slowly, at a sort of
+funereal pace, walk back. All this I bore with great fortitude for
+some time: at last, overpowered by curiosity, I arose, walked slowly
+and diagonally across the carpet, pushed the thing in the corner
+exactly as I had seen everybody else push it, looked just as they did,
+downwards, where, close to the floor, I beheld open, in obedience to
+the push I had given from the top, the lid of a spitting-box, from
+which I very slowly, and without attracting the smallest observation,
+walked back to my chair.' Wonderful power of description this!
+
+Having had the honour of receiving an invitation to dinner at the
+Elysee, Sir Francis of course goes at the appointed hour, seven
+o'clock. The following is his account of the affair. After passing
+through the entrance-hall, 'I slowly walked through two or three
+handsome rooms _en suite_, full of interesting pictures, into a
+drawing-room, in which I found assembled, in about equal proportions,
+about fifty very well-dressed ladies and gentlemen, the latter being
+principally officers, whose countenances, not less clearly than the
+decorations on their breasts, announced them to be persons of
+distinction. The long sofas and chairs, as if they had only just come
+out--or rather, as if they had just come up from the country to come
+out--had arranged themselves so very formally, and altogether behaved
+so very awkwardly, that it was almost impossible for the company
+assembled to appear as much at their ease as, from their position,
+education, and manners, they really were; and accordingly, biassed by
+the furniture, they kept moving, and bowing, and courtesying, and
+_sotto-voce_ talking, until they got into a parallelogram, in the
+centre of which stood, distinguished by a broad ribbon, and by a mild,
+thoughtful, benevolent countenance, Prince Louis Napoleon, whose
+gentle and gentleman-like bearing to every person who approached him
+entitled him to that monarchical homage in which the majority
+evidently delighted, but which it was alike his policy as well as his
+inclination--at all events to appear--to suppress; and accordingly the
+parallelogram, which, generally speaking, was at the point of
+congelation, sometimes and of its own accord froze into the formality
+of a court, and then all of a sudden appeared to recollect that the
+Prince was the President, and that the whole party had assembled to
+enjoy _liberte_, _fraternite_, and _egalite_. As I was observing the
+various phases that one after another presented themselves to view,
+the principal officer of the household came up to me, and in a quiet
+and appropriate tone of voice, requested me to do two things; one of
+which appeared to me to be rather easy, and the other--or rather to do
+both--extremely difficult. By an inclination of his forehead he
+pointed to two ladies of rank, whose names he mentioned to me, but
+with whom I was perfectly unacquainted, seated on the sofas at
+different points of the parallelogram. 'When dinner is announced you
+will be so good,' he said, 'as to offer your arm to ---- ' (the one)
+'and to seat yourself next to ---- ' (the other.) Of course I silently
+bowed assent; but while the officer who had spoken to me was giving
+similar instructions to other gentlemen, I own I felt a little
+nervous, lest, during the polite scramble in which I was about to
+engage, like the dog in the fable, grasping at the shadow of the
+second lady, I might lose the substance of the first, or _vice versa_.
+However, when the doors were thrown open, I very quickly, with a
+profound reverence, obtained my prize, and at once confiding to
+her--for had I deliberated I should have been lost--the remainder of
+the pleasing duty it had been predestined I was to have the honour to
+perform, we glided through couples darting in various directions for
+similar objects, until, finding ourselves in a formal procession
+sufficiently near to the lady in question, we proceeded, at a funereal
+pace, towards our doom, which proved to be a most delightful one.
+Seated in obedience to the orders I had received, we found ourselves
+exactly opposite "le Prince," who had, of course, on his right and
+left, the two ladies of highest rank. The table was very richly
+ornamented, and it was quite delightful to observe at a glance what
+probably in mathematics, or even in philosophy, it might have been
+rather troublesome to explain--namely, the extraordinary difference
+which existed between forty or fifty ladies and gentlemen standing in
+a parallelogram in a drawing-room, and the very same number and the
+very same faces, rectilinearly seated in the very same form in a
+dining-room. It was the difference between sterility and fertility,
+between health and sickness, between joy and sorrow, between winter
+and summer; in fact, between countenances frozen into Lapland
+formality and glowing with tropical animation and delight. Everybody's
+mouth had apparently something kind to say to its neighbour's eyes;
+and the only alloy was that, as each person had two neighbours, his
+lips, under a sort of _embarras des richesses_, occasionally found it
+rather difficult to express all that was polite and pleasing to both.'
+Dinner being over, all returned to the drawing-room in the same formal
+order. Each gentleman bowed ceremoniously to the lady he had
+conducted, she withdrew her arm, 'and the sofas were again to be seen
+fringed by rows of satin shoes; while the carpet, in all other
+directions, was subjected to the pressure of boots, that often
+remained for a short time motionless as before. A general buzz of
+conversation, however, soon enlivened the room; and the President,
+gladly availing himself of it, mingled familiarly with the crowd.'
+
+In the course of his rambles through Paris, Sir Francis visits various
+_casernes_ or military barracks, and military schools. He also makes
+sundry investigations into the functions and _materiel_ of the French
+army, and finally, in company with Louis Napoleon, goes to a review.
+The sum of these proceedings is, that he is much struck with the
+progress made by the French in strategy and military manoeuvres,
+especially in their musket-ball firing, against which, he says, we
+have no chance. Everybody knows that our author is an alarmist, ever
+sighing over our want of national defences, and dreaming of invasion
+and rapine. At the same time, his details on military affairs are
+worth the notice of those to whom the business of military education
+is intrusted.
+
+Sir Francis is very much pleased with the Parisian street
+_commissionaires_ or porters, and wonders that no such luxury is
+general in London. One day he invites the nearest commissionaire to
+visit his lodging, and tell him his whole story, which the man gladly
+did. Setting off at a great rate, he said:--'Sir, I black boots; I saw
+wood; I take it up into the apartments; I carry portmanteaus and
+luggage, and whatever offers itself; I carry letters and parcels; I
+rub the floors of apartments and stairs; I wash the floors and the
+dining-rooms; I change furniture from one house to another with a
+handbarrow--carried by two men with leathern straps; I draw a cart
+with portmanteaus, wood, or furniture; I beat carpets, take them up
+out of the apartments, and carry them to the barrier outside Paris
+(yes, sir); I bring them back to the persons to whom they belong; I
+lay them down. I know how to arrange a room; I make the beds; I colour
+the inlaid floors of the apartments; I watch a sick person through the
+night and day (a shrug) for so much a day (a shrug), and for the night
+also (a shrug); I agree as to the price with those persons who employ
+me, for five francs the night, eight francs for the twenty-four
+hours, when they do not feed me; besides, I watch the dead in the
+apartment during the twenty-four hours that they remain exposed; in
+short (three shrugs), I do whatever is offered to me. I receive
+commercial notes for whoever will charge me with the commission, and
+who will give me the note to enable me to receive it; I bring back the
+money to the person who has intrusted me with the note, and the person
+pays me for my commission; I pawn at the Mont de Piete whatever the
+public is willing to intrust to me--jewels (a shrug), chains, watches,
+gold or silver; I pawn silver spoons and forks, for eating; I pawn
+clocks, linen; they take everything in pawn (a shrug) at the Mont de
+Piete--furniture, pianos, mattresses, candelabras, lustres: in short,
+they take in pawn everything of value; and I bring back the money and
+the pawnbroker's ticket to the person who has intrusted me with the
+commission, and at the same time that person pays me for my
+commission. Afterwards, I redeem pawned articles from the Mont de
+Piete for all those persons who choose to honour me with their
+commissions, provided that the person puts his signature on the back
+of the paper which the Mont de Piete delivered to him on the day when
+he pawned the aforesaid articles. I act as commissioner throughout all
+the departments of France, and also (shrug) in foreign countries,
+according to the price agreed on, and at a reasonable price; I travel
+on the railways (shrug), in the diligence (shrug); I go as quick as I
+can, and I come back as quick as I can; I rub down a horse--I can! I
+feed him; wash the carriage; drive the carriage; arrange the cellar;
+rinse out the bottles; bottle the wine; pile up the bottles after they
+are corked and stamped; lower the hogsheads of wine into the cellar
+with a thick rope, with the help of a comrade, and the price is two
+francs for each hogshead. In my own country, I am a labourer, and do
+everything relating to the cultivation of the ground. I root up the
+trees; I saw them into several lengths; I split the wood; pile it up
+to dry; then load it on mules, and carry it to the house to be burned;
+afterwards I mow the hay and corn; carry the corn into the barn
+(shrug), and the hay also; thrash the corn, and put it away into the
+granary; from whence they take it out by little and little to have it
+ground and to make bread. I prune the vines.' Here the commissionaire
+gives an account of the whole process of wine-making, in which he is
+an adept; and then goes on to explain how he is employed as a spy on
+families and others, all in the way of business. He ends with saying
+that trade is dull, and blames the revolution of 1848 for ruining his
+employment--for why? 'Everybody is afraid of the future. Everybody is
+economical; everybody is hiding, hoarding, or saving his money,
+because he knows that affairs cannot continue as they are, that sooner
+or later there will be another revolution.' Such a country! The
+revolution thus anticipated has taken place. By relieving the
+Parisians from the fears of a social upbreak--a universal sack of
+property--for that was preying on their minds--the grand _coup_ of
+Louis Napoleon will doubtless set money afloat, and restore occupation
+to the humbler classes--the real sufferers by revolutions.
+
+The curious thing about all the revolutions and coups that have ever
+taken place in France is, that they never give the slightest particle
+of real liberty to the people; and, what is equally surprising, the
+people do not know what liberty is. It is a thing they talk about, and
+paint over doorways, but further they go not. When, in 1848, a mob was
+suffered to assume supreme authority, it might have been anticipated
+that the very first thing they would do would be to turn the whole
+police system about its business and destroy its records. No such
+thing. The triumphant insurrectionists, complaining of tyranny, were
+as tyrannical as anybody; they retained the obnoxious system of
+passports, and kept up the usual routine of police administration,
+spies and all. The truth appears to be, that the French cannot
+comprehend the idea of social organisation without a minute machinery
+of management and interference. Society in England, where people may
+speak and do pretty much what they like, go here and go there without
+leave asked, and set up any business anywhere as suits their fancy--is
+anarchy, a chaos, according to French notions. Sir Francis inclines to
+the belief that a system of government interference and regulation, as
+in France, is an advantage, because it protects society against some
+gross abuses--such as the indiscriminate sale of medicines, want of
+sanitary arrangements, the open spectacle of vice, and so forth. True
+this, in some respects, and we could wish for a little more vigour in
+certain departments of our social policy; but in this, as in many
+things, we have to make a choice of evils. Better, we think, allow
+abuses to be corrected by the comparatively sluggish action of public
+opinion, than accustom a people to have everything done for them,
+every action regulated by laws and prefects of police. The account
+given by Sir Francis of the manner in which the authority of the
+police bears on common workmen, is only a version of what every
+traveller speaks of with execration. Although we ourselves alluded to
+the subject on a former occasion, we may recapitulate a few points
+from the volume before us: 'Every workman or labouring boy is obliged,
+all over France, to provide himself with a book termed _un livret_,
+indorsed in Paris by a commissaire of police, and in other towns by
+the mayor or his assistants, containing his description, name, age,
+birthplace, profession, and the name of the master by whom he is
+employed. In fact, no person, under a heavy fine, can employ a workman
+unless he produce a livret of the above description, bearing an
+acquittal of his engagements with his last master. Every workman,
+after inscribing in his livret the day and terms of his engagement
+with a new master, is obliged to leave it in the hands of his said
+master, who is required, under a penalty, to restore it to him on the
+fulfilment of his engagement. Any workman, although he may produce a
+regular passport, found travelling without his book, is considered as
+"vagabond," and as such may be arrested and punished with from three
+to six months' imprisonment, and after that subjected to the
+surveillance of the _haute-police_ for at least five and not exceeding
+ten years. No new livret can be indorsed until its owner produces the
+old one filled up. In case of a workman losing his livret, he may, on
+the presentation of his passport, obtain provisional permission to
+work, but without authority to move to any other place until he can
+satisfy the officer of police that he is free from all engagements to
+his last master. Every workman coming to Paris with a passport is
+required, within three days of his arrival, to appear at the
+prefecture of police with his livret, in order that it may be
+indorsed. In like manner, any labourer leaving Paris with a passport
+must obtain the _vise_ of the police to his livret, which, in fact,
+contains an abstract history of his industrial life. As a description
+of the political department of the police of Paris would involve
+details, the ramifications of which would almost be endless, I will
+only briefly state, that from the masters of every furnished hotel and
+lodging-house--who are required to insert in a register, indorsed by a
+commissaire de police, the name, surname, profession, and usual
+domicile of every person who sleeps in their house for a single
+night--and from innumerable other sources, information is readily
+obtained concerning every person, and especially every stranger,
+residing in the metropolis. For instance, at the entrance of each
+lodging, and of almost every private house, there sits a being termed
+a _concierge_, who knows the hour at which each inmate enters and goes
+out; who calls on him; how many letters he receives; by their
+post-marks, where they come from; what parcels are left for him; what
+they appear to contain, &c. &c. &c. Again, at the corner of every
+principal street, there is located, wearing the badge of the police, a
+commissionaire, acquainted with all that outwardly goes on within the
+radius of his Argus-eyed observations. From these people, from the
+drivers of fiacres, from the sellers of vegetables, from fruiterers,
+and lastly, from the masters of wine-shops, who either from people
+sober, tipsy, or drunk, are in the habit of hearing an infinity of
+garrulous details, the police are enabled to track the conduct of
+almost any one, and, if necessary, to follow up their suspicions by
+their own agents in disguises which, practically speaking, render them
+invisible.' Sir Francis mentions that he was considered of sufficient
+importance to be under surveillance. '"You are," said very gravely to
+me a gentleman in Paris of high station, on whom I had had occasion to
+call, "a person of some consideration. Your object here is not
+understood, and you are therefore under the surveillance of the
+police." I asked him what that meant. "Wherever you go," he replied,
+"you are followed by an agent of police. When one is tired, he hands
+you over to another. Whatever you do, is known to them; and at this
+moment there is one waiting in the street until you leave me."'
+
+We need say no more. The people who, under all phases of
+government--despotism, constitutional monarchy, and universal-suffrage
+republic--coolly tolerate, nay, they admire and vindicate, this
+atrocious system of personal restraint and espionage, are totally
+unfit for the enjoyment of civil liberty. In conclusion, we can hardly
+recommend the book before us, further than to say, that its gossip,
+though often prosy to the verge of twaddle, is also sometimes droll
+and amusing from its graphic minuteness.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+[Footnote 2: _A Faggot of French Sticks_, 2 vols. London: Murray. 1852.]
+
+
+
+
+IVORY AND ITS APPLICATIONS.
+
+
+The Chinese, from time immemorial, have been celebrated for their
+excellence in the fabrication of ornamental articles in ivory; and,
+strange to say, up to our own time, their productions are still
+unrivalled. European artists have never succeeded in cutting ivory
+after the manner of these people, nor, to all appearance, is it likely
+they ever will. Nothing can be more exquisitely beautiful than the
+delicate lacework of a Chinese fan, or the elaborate carving of their
+miniature junks, chess-pieces, and concentric balls: their models of
+temples, pagodas, and other pieces of architecture are likewise
+skilfully constructed; and yet three thousand years ago such monuments
+of art were executed with the very same grace and fidelity!
+
+Ivory was known to the Egyptians as an article both of use and
+ornament. They manufactured it into combs, rings, and a variety of
+similar things. The processions on the walls of their palaces and
+tombs would seem to indicate the fact of its having been obtained from
+India, and also from Ethiopia or Central Africa. There is every reason
+to believe also that the harder and more accessible ivory of the
+hippopotamus was extensively used by them. Colonel Hamilton Smith has
+seen a specimen of what appeared to be a sword-handle of ancient
+Egyptian workmanship, which has been recognised by dentists as
+belonging to this class of ivory.
+
+Ivory was extensively used by the Jews. It is frequently spoken of in
+Scripture as being obtained from Tarshish--an indiscriminate term for
+various places in the lands of the Gentiles, but probably referring in
+this case to some part of India or Eastern Africa. Wardrobes were made
+of ivory, or at least inlaid with it; the splendid throne of Solomon
+was formed of this material, overlaid with gold; Ahab built an ivory
+palace: and beds or couches of the same material were common among the
+wealthy Israelites. The Phoenicians of Tyre--those merchant-princes of
+antiquity--were so profuse of this valuable article of their luxurious
+commerce as to provide ivory benches for the rowers of their galleys.
+Assyria--whose records and history are only now beginning to be
+unfolded--possessed magnificent articles of ivory. Mr Layard, in his
+excavations at Nineveh, found 'in the rubbish near the bottom of a
+chamber, several ivory ornaments upon which were traces of gilding:
+among them was the figure of a man in long robes, carrying in one hand
+the Egyptian _crux ansata_--part of a crouching sphinx--and flowers
+designed with great taste and elegance.'
+
+The Greeks--who were acquainted with it at least as early as the time
+of Homer--gradually introduced ivory as a material for sculpture. In
+certain forms of combination with gold, it gave origin to the art of
+_chryselephantine_ sculpture, so called from the Greek primitives,
+gold and ivory. This art, which was perhaps more luxurious than
+tasteful, was introduced about six hundred years before the Christian
+era; and it was much admired for its singular beauty. It was not,
+however, till the days of Phidias that it attained to its full
+splendour. Two of the masterpieces of this sculptor--the colossal
+statues of Minerva in the Parthenon at Athens and the Olympian Jove in
+his temple--were formed of gold and ivory. The Minerva was forty feet
+high, and the Olympian Jupiter was one of the wonders of the world. In
+the latter of these, the exposed parts of the figure were of ivory,
+and the drapery of gold. It was seated on a throne elaborately formed
+of gold, ivory, and cedar-wood; it was adorned with precious stones;
+and in his hand the god sustained an emblematic figure of Victory,
+made of the same costly materials.
+
+The Romans used ivory as a symbol of power; but they applied it
+practically to an infinite variety of purposes. Their kings and
+magistrates sat on ivory thrones of rich and elaborate
+construction--an idea received from the Etruscans. The curule chairs
+of ivory and gold that belonged to the office of consul, together with
+the sceptres and other articles of similar description, were all of
+Etruscan origin. The _libri elephantis_ were tablets of ivory, on
+which were registered the transactions of the senate and magistrates;
+the births, marriages, and deaths of the people; their rank, class,
+and occupation, with other things pertaining to the census. The Romans
+also applied this material to the manufacture of musical instruments,
+combs, couches, harnesses of horses, sword-hilts, girdles. They were
+acquainted with the arts of dyeing and incrusting ivory, and they also
+possessed some splendid specimens of chryselephantine statuary.
+Ancient writers, indeed, mention no fewer than one hundred statues of
+gold and ivory; but they furnish us with no particulars of the mode of
+executing these colossal monuments of art in a substance which could
+only be obtained in small pieces. A head, smaller than the usual size,
+a statue about eight inches in height, and a bas-relief, are the only
+specimens that exist in the present day.
+
+After the fall of the Roman Empire, the taste for ivory ornament
+became almost extinct. There were some periods, however, in the early
+part of mediaeval history when this material was not forgotten: when
+the caliphs of the East formed of it some of the beautiful ornaments
+of their palaces; when the Arabian alchemists subjected it to the
+crucible, and so produced the pigment ivory black; when a Danish
+knight killed an elephant in the holy wars, and established an order
+of knighthood which still exists; when Charlemagne, the emperor of the
+West, had ivory ornaments of rare and curious carving.[3] It is,
+however, at a period subsequent to the return of the crusaders that we
+must date the commencement of a general revival of the taste in
+Europe. It would be interesting to trace the steps by which ivory
+regained its place in the arts and commerce of nations; but on this
+point we must not linger. From the low countries it spread to the far
+North. Its relations with art and beauty soon became widely
+recognised; the growing luxury of the Roman pontificate encouraged its
+applications; and towards the end of the fifteenth century it was
+extensively employed as an article of ornament and decoration in every
+country and court of Europe. The Portuguese were the first to revive a
+traffic with Africa which had been dormant for upwards of 1000 years.
+It was originally confined to the immense stores of ivory which the
+natives had accumulated for the purposes of their superstition; but
+these soon became exhausted, and the inexorable demands of European
+commerce once more prompted the destruction of the mighty and docile
+inhabitant of the wilderness. Elephant-hunting became a trade; and a
+terrible havoc was commenced, which has been unremittingly pursued
+down to the present time.
+
+The term ivory, originally derived from a Greek word signifying heavy,
+is indiscriminately applied to the following varieties of osseous
+matter:--
+
+1. _The tusks and teeth of the elephant_.--Naturalists recognise two
+species of elephants--the Asiatic (_Elephas Indicus_) and the African
+(_Elephas Africanus_.) The former of these species is indigenous to
+the whole of Southern India and the Eastern Archipelago; but the
+largest and most valuable Indian elephant is that of Ceylon. The
+second species is found throughout the whole of Africa; and on the
+banks of the great rivers and lakes of the unexplored regions of the
+interior, hordes of the finest African elephants are supposed to
+wander in security. It was until very recently believed that the
+Asiatic elephant yielded the largest teeth, and those imported from
+Pegu, Cochin-China, and Ceylon, sometimes weighed 150 lbs. Specimens,
+however, have been obtained from the interior of Africa of much
+greater weight and dimensions. Mr Gordon Cumming has in his collection
+a pair of teeth taken from an old bull elephant in the vicinity of the
+equator, of which the larger of the two measures 10 feet 9 inches
+long, and weighs 173 lbs.; and Mr Cawood, who resided thirty years at
+the Cape, has another pair in his possession measuring 8-1/2 feet
+each, and weighing together 330 lbs.
+
+Besides these contemporary races of elephants, the market is
+extensively supplied by the fossil ivory derived from the tusks of the
+great mammoth or fossil elephant of the geologist. The remains of this
+gigantic animal are abundantly distributed over the whole extent of
+the globe. They exist in large masses in the northern hemisphere,
+deeply embedded in the alluvial deposits of the tertiary period.
+Humboldt discovered specimens on some of the most elevated ridges of
+the Andes; and similar remains have been found in Africa. In the
+frozen regions of the far North, surrounded by successive layers of
+everlasting ice, the fossil ivory exists in a state of perfect
+preservation, and it constitutes indeed an important article of
+commerce in the north of Europe.
+
+2. _The teeth of the hippopotamus, or river-horse_.--These, under the
+inappropriate term of 'sea-horse teeth,' supply the most suitable
+ivory for the dentist. In addition to twenty grinders, the animal has
+twelve front teeth, the outer on each side of the jaw being the
+largest and most prized. This ivory is much harder, closer in the
+grain, and more valuable than that of the elephant. It is remarkable,
+moreover, for the extreme hardness of its enamel, which is quite
+incapable of being cut, and will strike fire with a steel instrument.
+The large teeth of the hippopotamus weigh on the average 6 lbs., and
+the small ones about 1 lb. each. Their value ranges from 6s. to 40s.
+per lb.
+
+3. _The teeth of the walrus, or sea-cow_.--These are nearly straight,
+and measure from 2 feet to 2-1/2 feet in length. The exterior portion
+of the tooth possesses a much finer grain and texture than its core,
+which in appearance and properties bears a close resemblance to
+ordinary bone. Of a yellowish cream-colour and mottled, this ivory is
+much less valuable than the teeth of the hippopotamus. It is seldom
+applied in our day to other than dental purposes; but its antiquity is
+interesting. The Scandinavian relics of the eleventh and twelfth
+centuries, with which our museums are so profusely enriched, are for
+the most part formed of the teeth of the walrus. The elegant spiral
+horn of the narwhal or sea-unicorn also produces ivory of a superior
+quality. It is not to any great extent applied to useful purposes, but
+is more frequently preserved in museums and collections as a beautiful
+natural curiosity.
+
+The tusks and teeth of the elephant--the latter, for the sake of
+distinction, are termed grinders--are formed after the ordinary manner
+of the teeth of animals. The organism which converts the earthy
+constituents of the blood into cellular tissue and membrane,
+contributes in the same way to form the teeth by the successive
+deposition of layer upon layer of the soft vascular pulp. The marks of
+these depositions, or laminae, are clearly distinguishable in the
+longitudinal striae of the section of a tooth. Mr Corse Scott states
+that the Indian elephant has only ten or twelve laminae in the tooth,
+while that of the great mammoth has twenty-four, besides having a much
+more regularly disposed enamel. The tooth is hollow about half-way up,
+but a very small tubular cavity is visible throughout its entire
+length. This, sometimes called the nerve, is in reality the apex of
+successive formations in the process of growth. The grinders are
+seldom used in the arts. They are of a different texture, the laminae
+more loosely combined, and possessing a tendency to separate, which
+renders them unfit for nearly all useful purposes. Ivory has the same
+chemical constitution as ordinary teeth--that is, cartilage united to
+such earthy ingredients as the phosphate of lime.
+
+But it is very remarkable that the fossil ivory of the mammoth, and
+specimens of the historic period of Pompeii or Egypt, contain
+sometimes as much as 10 per cent. more of fluoride of calcium than the
+ivory of the present day. We apprehend, however, that this
+property--first investigated by Dr George Wilson--may be derived from
+long-continued contact with earth, since fluoride of calcium is the
+chief ingredient in the enamel or exterior portion of the tooth.
+Ancient ivory, having thus gained in its inorganic bases, becomes
+deficient in the gelatinous constituents necessary to its
+preservation. We recently had a singularly beautiful application of
+the knowledge of this principle in the case of the ivory specimens
+sent from Nineveh by Mr Layard. On their arrival in England, it was
+discovered that they were rapidly crumbling to pieces. Professor Owen
+recommended that the articles should be boiled in a solution of
+albumen, which was done accordingly, and the ivory rendered as firm
+and solid as when it was first entombed.
+
+We may allude here to a very singular physical property which is
+possessed by the elephant's tusk. Specimens have frequently been
+obtained which were found to contain musket-bullets in their centre,
+surrounded with a species of osseous pulp differing from the ordinary
+character and constitution of ivory. There was frequently no
+corresponding orifice on the surface of the tusk; and hence
+Blumenbach, and other naturalists, were led to form some very
+inaccurate notions regarding this circumstance. Mr Rodgers of
+Sheffield some years ago forwarded a variety of such specimens to the
+Edinburgh College Museum, and these were very closely examined by
+Professor Goodsir, who, in a communication to the Royal Society of
+Edinburgh, demonstrated that this arose simply from a property of
+isolating foreign substances common to all osseous organised bodies:
+the ball having been enclosed by the tusk in its pulpy secretion, and
+corrosive action thereby prevented, the process of growth continued
+without interruption.
+
+Ivory is a solid, white, translucent substance, distinguishable from
+bone by its beautiful texture of semi-transparent rhomboidal network.
+The finest ivory is much more transparent than paper of the same
+thickness. A thin transverse section placed under the microscope
+exhibits a series of curvilinear lines diverging from the centre and
+interlacing each other with great regularity and beauty, closely
+resembling in appearance the engine-turning of a watch. It possesses a
+specific gravity varying from 1.888 in the tooth of the walrus, to
+2.843 in that of the elephant. Its mean gravity is therefore about two
+and a half times greater than water. The best, finest, and most
+valuable ivory is that obtained from the African elephant. When
+recently cut, it exhibits something of a yellowish transparent tint,
+which is due to the oil it contains, but this gradually changes to a
+beautiful and permanent white. It is not easily stained or destroyed
+by exposure to the atmosphere, and on that account is used in the arts
+for all the higher purposes, and especially for carved ornaments--such
+as chess-pieces, crucifixes, and articles of _virtu_. Indian ivory, on
+the contrary, when first cut, is perfectly white, but it becomes
+yellow and discoloured with age and exposure. A good illustration of
+this circumstance is presented by the dingy-coloured keys of an old
+pianoforte.
+
+This popular definition of good and inferior ivory is however, in
+point of fact, somewhat incorrect, since ivory obtained from the coast
+of Africa is often much inferior to that obtained from the Indian
+Archipelago. The best rule for determining the quality is probably
+that of its vicinity to the equator. The ivory brought from within the
+10th degrees of north and south latitude is incomparably the finest in
+the market; it is at the same time the most transparent, which of
+itself is a valuable characteristic. Our Indian ivory for some years
+back, instead of being shipped by way of the Cape for England, has, in
+order to save time, been sent by the Red Sea to Suez, and thence
+conveyed, generally on the backs of camels, across the Desert to
+Alexandria, where it is again shipped on board the Oriental
+steam-packets for Southampton, and conveyed by railway to London. By
+this expeditious mode of transit, however, the value of the ivory is
+frequently much deteriorated. The damage it sustains in being so often
+loaded and unloaded; and the intense heat of a tropical sun to which
+it is openly exposed in crossing the Isthmus--render the tusks unsound
+at the core, numerous cracks and fissures appear over the surface, the
+points are frequently broken off, and on the whole its market-price is
+considerably depreciated.
+
+There is no means of accurately determining the intrinsic value of our
+importation of ivory--the price is so variable. In 1827, upwards of
+3000 cwt.; in 1842, upwards of 5000 cwt.; and in 1850, about 8000 cwt.
+was imported, of which about four-fifths was entered for home
+consumption. In point of quantity or bulk it is not calculated to
+attract attention, nor does the commercial transaction excite much
+notice. A quiet advertisement in the front page of the _Economist_, a
+few letters from London, Birmingham, and Sheffield to City
+brokers--for the ivory-trade is confined to a very small number of
+houses--and a cargo of African or Indian ivory, amounting perhaps to
+L.50,000 sterling, is quickly and easily disposed of. The supply at
+this moment is unequal to the demand, and the price is steadily
+advancing.
+
+Small teeth weighing from 4 to 20 lbs. are worth from L.10 to L.16 per
+cwt.; and the price of the enormous tusks we have referred to, which
+are far beyond the limits of the above scale, is probably equal to
+L.50 per cwt. or upwards. African is worth about 25 per cent. more
+than Indian ivory of corresponding size and quality.
+
+To attempt even to catalogue the extremely diversified uses to which
+ivory is applied would of itself be no easy task. There is not perhaps
+in the whole commercial list an article possessed of wider relations.
+It is extensively consumed in the manufacture of handles to knives and
+forks, and cutlery of every description; combs of all kinds; brushes
+of every form and use; billiard-balls, chess-men, dice, dice-boxes;
+bracelets, necklaces, rings, brooches; slabs for miniature portraits,
+pocket-tablets, card-cases; paper-knives, shoeing-horns, large spoons
+and forks for salad; ornamental work-boxes, jewel-caskets, small
+inlaid tables; furniture for doors and cabinets; pianoforte and organ
+keys; stethoscopes, lancet-cases, and surgical instruments;
+microscopes, lorgnettes, and philosophical instruments; thermometer
+scales, hydrometer scales, and mathematical instruments; snuff-boxes,
+cigar-cases, pipe-tubes; fans, flowers, fancy boxes; crucifixes,
+crosiers, and symbols of faith; idols, gods, and symbols of
+superstition; vases, urns, sarcophagi, and emblems of the dead;
+temples, pagodas; thrones, emblems of mythology; and, in short, there
+is hardly a purpose in the useful and ornamental arts to which ivory
+is, or has not been in some way extensively employed. At present, the
+ivory carvings of Dieppe are the finest in Europe; but the genius of
+the present age is utilitarian, and so are its applications of ivory.
+If we desire high art in the fabrication of this material, we must go
+back a few centuries, or be satisfied with the beautiful productions
+of China or Hindostan. We could scarcely give a more apt illustration
+of this truth than by pointing to the scat of honour set apart for
+Prince Albert in the closing scene of the Great Exhibition. Elevated
+on the crimson platform, and standing forth as an appropriate emblem
+of the artistic genius of the mighty collection, was observed the
+magnificent ivory throne presented to her Majesty by the Rajah of
+Travancore!
+
+From the great value of the material, the economical cutting of it up
+is of the last importance. Nothing is lost. The smallest fragments are
+of some value, have certain uses, and bear a corresponding price.
+Ivory dust, which is produced in large quantities, is a most valuable
+gelatine, and as such extensively employed by straw-hat makers. The
+greatest consumption of ivory is undoubtedly in connection with the
+cutlery trade. For these purposes alone about 200 tons are annually
+used in Sheffield and Birmingham, and the ivory in nearly every
+instance is from India. The mode of manufacturing knife-handles is
+very simple and expeditious:--The teeth are first cut into slabs of
+the requisite thickness--then to the proper cross dimensions, by means
+of circular saws of different shapes. They are afterwards drilled with
+great accuracy by a machine; rivetted to the blade; and finally
+smoothed and polished. We believe that this branch of industry alone
+gives employment to about 500 persons in Sheffield. Combs are seldom
+made of any ivory but Indian, and their mode of manufacture we had
+recently occasion to describe.[4] A large amount of ivory is consumed
+in the backs of hairbrushes; and this branch of the trade has recently
+undergone considerable improvements. The old method of making a
+tooth-brush, for example, was to lace the bristles through the ivory,
+and then to glue, or otherwise fasten, an outside slab to the brush
+for the purpose of concealing the holes and wire-thread. This mode of
+manufacture has been improved on by a method of working the hair into
+the solid ivory; and brushes of this description are now the best in
+the market. Their chief excellence consists in their preserving their
+original white colour to the last, which is a great desideratum.
+Billiard-balls constitute another considerable item of ivory
+consumption. They cost from 6s. to 12s. each; and the nicety of our
+ornamental turning produces balls not only of the most perfect
+spherical form, but accurately corresponding in size and weight even
+to a single grain.
+
+The ivory miniature tablets so much in use, and which are so
+invaluable to the artist from the exquisitely delicate texture of the
+material, are now produced by means of a very beautiful and highly
+interesting chemical process. Phosphoric acid of the usual specific
+gravity renders ivory soft and nearly plastic. The plates are cut from
+the circumference of the tusk, somewhat after the manner of paring a
+cucumber, and then softened by means of the acid. When washed with
+water, pressed, and dried, the ivory regains its former consistency,
+and even its microscopic structure is not affected by the process.
+Plates thirty inches square have been formed in this way, and a great
+reduction in price has thus been effected. Painting on ivory, we may
+add, was practised among the ancients.
+
+Mr M'Culloch and other statistical writers predict the speedy
+extinction of the elephant, from the enormous consumption of its
+teeth; and curious calculations of the number of these animals
+annually extirpated to supply the English market alone are now getting
+somewhat popular. For example: 'in 1827 the customs-duty on ivory
+(20s. per cwt.--since reduced to 1s.) amounted to L.3257. The average
+weight of the elephant's tusk is 60 lbs.; and therefore 3040 elephants
+have been killed to supply this quantity of ivory.' But these
+calculations are in many respects quite fallacious. In the first
+place, the average weight of our imported tusks is _not_ 60 lbs.: we
+have the authority of one of the first ivory-merchants in London for
+stating that 20 lbs. will be a much closer approximation. This at once
+involves a threefold ratio of destruction. In place of 3040, we should
+have the terrible slaughter of 9120 elephants for one year's
+consumption of ivory in England! This, however, is not the case. In
+these calculations the immense masses of fossil ivory we have alluded
+to are obviously overlooked, and the equally immense quantities of
+broken teeth which are disinterred from the deserts of Arabia, or the
+jungles of Central Africa. The truth is, we have good reason to know,
+that a very large proportion of the commercial supply of Europe is
+sustained from the almost inexhaustible store of these descriptions of
+ivory.
+
+Nevertheless, it is indisputable that the insatiable demands of modern
+commerce will inevitably lead to the ultimate extermination of this
+noble animal. His venerable career is ignominiously brought to an end
+merely for the sake of the two teeth he carries in his mouth; which
+are very likely destined to be cut into rings to assist the infant
+Anglo-Saxons in cutting _their_ teeth, or partly made into jelly to
+satisfy the tastes and appetites of a London alderman. We cannot
+reasonably hope for a new suspension of the traffic: indeed we can
+only look for its extension. The luxurious tastes of man are inimical
+to the existence of the elephant. From time immemorial, the war of
+extermination has existed. His rightful domain--in the plain or the
+wilderness, or amid the wild herbage of his native savannas--is at all
+points ruthlessly invaded. But the result is inevitable--it will come
+to an end; and some future generation of naturalists--those of them at
+least who are curious in Palaeontology--will regard the remains of our
+contemporary races of elephants with the same kind of astonishment
+with which we investigate the pre-historic evidences of the gigantic
+tapir or the mammoth.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Footnote 3: In the sacristy of the cathedral at Aix-la-Chapelle is
+still preserved, among other relics of this great prince, an immense
+ivory hunting-horn; and 'Charlemagne's chess-men,' which still exist,
+form part of the collection of works of art at Cologne.]
+
+[Footnote 4: See an article on the Aberdeen Combworks, No. 396.]
+
+
+
+
+BLIGHTED FLOWERS.
+
+
+The facts of the following brief narrative, which are very few and of
+but melancholy interest, became known to me in the precise order in
+which they are laid before the reader. They were forced upon my
+observation rather than sought out by me; and they present, to my mind
+at least, a touching picture of the bitter conflict industrious
+poverty is sometimes called upon to wage with 'the thousand natural
+shocks which flesh is heir to.'
+
+It must be now eight or nine years since, in traversing a certain
+street, which runs for nearly half a mile in a direct line southward,
+I first encountered Ellen----. She was then a fair young girl of
+seventeen, rather above the middle size, and with a queen-like air and
+gait which made her appear taller than she really was. Her
+countenance, pale but healthy, and of a perfectly regular and classic
+mould, was charming to look upon from its undefinable expression of
+lovableness and sweet temper. Her tiny feet tripped noiselessly along
+the pavement, and a glance from her black eye sometimes met mine like
+a ray of light, as, punctually at twenty minutes to nine, we passed
+each other near ---- House, each of us on our way to the theatre of
+our daily operations. She was an embroideress, as I soon discovered
+from a small stretching-frame, containing some unfinished work, which
+she occasionally carried in her hand. She set me a worthy example of
+punctuality, and I could any day have told the time to a minute
+without looking at my watch, by marking the spot where we passed each
+other. I learned to look for her regularly, and before I knew her
+name, had given her that of 'Minerva,' in acknowledgment of her
+efficiency as a mentor.
+
+A year after the commencement of our acquaintance, which never ripened
+into speech, happening to set out from home one morning a quarter of
+an hour before my usual time, I made the pleasing discovery that my
+juvenile Minerva had a younger sister, if possible still more
+beautiful than herself. The pair were taking an affectionate leave of
+each other at the crossing of the New Road, and the silver accents of
+the younger as, kissing her sister, she laughed out, 'Good-by, Ellen,'
+gave me the first information of the real name of my pretty mentor.
+The little Mary--for so was the younger called, who could not be more
+than eleven years of age--was a slender, frolicsome sylph, with a skin
+of the purest carnation, and a face like that of Sir Joshua's seraph
+in the National Gallery, but with larger orbs and longer lashes
+shading them. As she danced and leaped before me on her way home
+again, I could not but admire the natural ease and grace of every
+motion, nor fail to comprehend and sympathise with the anxious looks
+of the sisters' only parent, their widowed mother, who stood watching
+the return of the younger darling at the door of a very humble
+two-storey dwelling, in the vicinity of the New River Head.
+
+Nearly two years passed away, during which, with the exception of
+Sundays and holidays, every recurring morning brought me the grateful
+though momentary vision of one or both of the charming sisters. Then
+came an additional pleasure--I met them both together every day. The
+younger had commenced practising the same delicate and ingenious craft
+of embroidery, and the two pursued their industry in company under the
+same employer. It was amusing to mark the demure assumption of
+womanhood darkening the brows of the aerial little sprite, as, with
+all the new-born consequence of responsibility, she walked soberly by
+her sister's side, frame in hand, and occasionally revealed to
+passers-by a brief glimpse of her many-coloured handiwork. They were
+the very picture of beauty and happiness, and happy beyond question
+must their innocent lives have been for many pleasant months. But soon
+the shadows of care began to steal over their hitherto joyous faces,
+and traces of anxiety, perhaps of tears, to be too plainly visible on
+their paling cheeks. All at once I missed them in my morning's walk,
+and for several days--it might be weeks--saw nothing of them. I was at
+length startled from my forgetfulness of their very existence by the
+sudden apparition of both one Monday morning clad in the deepest
+mourning. I saw the truth at once: the mother, who, I had remarked,
+was prematurely old and feeble, was gone, and the two orphan children
+were left to battle it with the world. My conjecture was the truth, as
+a neighbour of whom I made some inquiries on the subject was not slow
+to inform me. '_Ah,_ sir,' said the good woman, 'poor Mrs D---- have
+had a hard time of it, and she born an' bred a gentlewoman.'
+
+I asked her if the daughters were provided for.
+
+'Indeed, sir,' continued my informant, 'I'm afeard not. 'Twas the most
+unfortnatest thing in the world, sir, poor Mr D----'s dying jest as a'
+did. You see, sir, he war a soldier, a fightin' out in Indy, and his
+poor wife lef at home wi' them two blossoms o' gals. He warn't what
+you call a common soldier, sir, but some kind o' officer like; an' in
+some great battle fought seven year agone he done fine service I've
+heerd, and promotion was send out to 'un, but didn't get there till
+the poor man was dead of his wounds. The news of he's death cut up his
+poor wife complete, and she han't been herself since. I've know'd she
+wasn't long for here ever since it come. Wust of all, it seems that
+because the poor man was dead the very day the promotion reached 'un,
+a' didn't die a captain after all, and so the poor widder didn't get
+no pension. How they've a' managed to live is more than I can tell.
+The oldest gal is very clever, they say; but Lor' bless 'ee! 'taint
+much to s'port three as is to be got out o' broiderin'.'
+
+Thus enlightened on the subject of their private history, it was with
+very different feelings I afterwards regarded these unfortunate
+children. Bereft of both parents, and cast upon a world with the ways
+of which they were utterly unacquainted, and in which they might be
+doomed to the most painful struggles even to procure a bare
+subsistence, one treasure was yet left them--it was the treasure of
+each other's love. So far as the depth of this feeling could be
+estimated from the looks and actions of both, it was all in all to
+each. But the sacred bond that bound them was destined to be rudely
+rent asunder. The cold winds of autumn began to visit too roughly the
+fair pale face of the younger girl, and the unmistakable indications
+of consumption made their appearance: the harassing cough, the hectic
+cheek, the deep-settled pain in the side, the failing breath. Against
+these dread forerunners it was vain long to contend; and the poor
+child had to remain at home in her solitary sick-chamber, while the
+loving sister toiled harder than ever to provide, if possible, the
+means of comfort and restoration to health. All the world knows the
+ending of such a hopeless strife as this. It is sometimes the will of
+Heaven that the path of virtue, like that of glory, leads but to the
+grave. So it was in the present instance: the blossom of this fair
+young life withered away, and the grass-fringed lips of the child's
+early tomb closed over the lifeless relics ere spring had dawned upon
+the year.
+
+Sorrow had graven legible traces upon the brow of my hapless mentor
+when I saw her again. How different now was the vision that greeted my
+daily sight from that of former years! The want that admits not of
+idle wailing compelled her still to pursue her daily course of labour,
+and she pursued it with the same constancy and punctuality as she had
+ever done. But the exquisitely chiselled face, the majestic gait, the
+elastic step--the beauty and glory of youth, unshaken because
+unassaulted by death and sorrow--where were they? Alas! all the
+bewitching charms of her former being had gone down into the grave of
+her mother and sister; and she, their support and idol, seemed no more
+now than she really was--a wayworn, solitary, and isolated straggler
+for daily bread.
+
+Were this a fiction that I am writing, it would be an easy matter to
+deal out a measure of poetical justice, and to recompense poor Ellen
+for all her industry, self-denial, and suffering in the arms of a
+husband, who should possess as many and great virtues as herself, and
+an ample fortune to boot. I wish with all my heart that it were a
+fiction, and that Providence had never furnished me with such a
+seeming anomaly to add to the list of my desultory chronicles. But I
+am telling a true story of a life. Ellen found no mate. No mate, did I
+say? Yes, one: the same grim yokefellow whose delight it is 'to gather
+roses in the spring' paid ghastly court to her faded charms, and won
+her--who shall say an unwilling bride? I could see his gradual but
+deadly advances in my daily walks: the same indications that gave
+warning of the sister's fate admonished me that she also was on her
+way to the tomb, and that the place that had known her would soon know
+her no more. She grew day by day more feeble; and one morning I found
+her seated on the step of a door, unable to proceed. After that she
+disappeared from my view; and though I never saw her again at the old
+spot, I have seldom passed that spot since, though for many years
+following the same route, without recognising again in my mind's eye
+the graceful form and angel aspect of Ellen D----.
+
+'And is this the end of your mournful history?' some querulous reader
+demands. Not quite. There is a soul of good in things evil. Compassion
+dwells with the depths of misery; and in the valley of the shadow of
+death dove-eyed Charity walks with shining wings.... It was nearly two
+months after I had lost sight of poor Ellen, that during one of my
+dinner-hour perambulations about town, I looked in almost accidentally
+upon my old friend and chum, Jack W----. Jack keeps a perfumer's shop
+not a hundred miles from Gray's Inn, where, ensconced up to his eyes
+in delicate odours, he passes his leisure hours--the hours when
+commerce flags, and people have more pressing affairs to attend to
+than the delectation of their nostrils--in the enthusiastic study of
+art and _virtu_. His shop is hardly more crammed with bottles and
+attar, soap, scents, and all the _etceteras_ of the toilet, than the
+rest of his house with prints, pictures, carvings, and curiosities of
+every sort. Jack and I went to school together, and sowed our slender
+crop of wild oats together; and, indeed, in some sort have been
+together ever since. We both have our own collections of rarities,
+such as they are, and each criticises the other's new purchases. On
+the present occasion there was a new Van Somebody's old painting
+awaiting my judgment; and no sooner did my shadow darken his door,
+than starting from his lair, and bidding the boy ring the bell should
+he be wanted, he hustled me up stairs, calling by the way to his
+housekeeper, Mrs Jones--Jack is a bachelor--to bring up coffee for
+two. I was prepared to pronounce my dictum on his newly-acquired
+treasure, and was going to bounce unceremoniously into the old
+lumber-room over the lobby to regale my sight with the delightful
+confusion of his unarranged accumulations, when he pulled me forcibly
+back by the coat-tail. 'Not there,' said Jack; 'you can't go there. Go
+into my snuggery.'
+
+'And why not there?' said I; jealous of some new purchase which I was
+not to see.
+
+'Because there's somebody ill there--it is a bedroom now: a poor girl;
+she wanted a place to die in, poor thing, and I put her in there.'
+
+'Who is she?--a relative?'
+
+'No; I never saw her till Monday last. Sit down, I'll tell you how it
+was. Set down the coffee, Mrs Jones, and just look in upon the
+patient, will you? Sugar and cream? You know my weakness for the dead
+wall in Lincoln's Inn Fields.' (Jack never refuses a beggar backed by
+that wall, for the love of Ben Jonson, who, he devoutly believes, had
+a hand in building it.) 'Well, I met with her there on Monday last.
+She asked for nothing, but held out her hand, and as she did so the
+tears streamed from her eyes on the pavement. The poor creature, it
+was plain enough, was then dying; and I told her so. She said she knew
+it, but had no place to die in but the parish workhouse, and hoped
+that I would not send her there. What's the use of talking? I brought
+her here, and put her to sleep on the sofa while Jones cleared out the
+lumber-room and got up a bed. I sent for Dr H---- to look at her; he
+gave her a week or ten days at the farthest: I don't think she'll last
+so long. The curate of St---- comes every day to see her, and I like
+to talk to her myself sometimes. Well, Mrs Jones, how goes she on?'
+
+'She's asleep,' said the housekeeper. 'Would you like to look at her,
+gentlemen?'
+
+We entered the room together. It was as if some unaccountable
+presentiment had forewarned me: there, upon a snow-white sheet, and
+pillowed by my friend's favourite eider-down squab, lay the wasted
+form of Ellen D----. She slept soundly and breathed loudly; and Dr
+H----, who entered while we stood at the bedside, informed us that in
+all probability she would awake only to die, or if to sleep again,
+then to wake no more. The latter was the true prophecy. She awoke an
+hour or two after my departure, and passed away that same night in a
+quiet slumber without a pang.
+
+I never learned by what chain of circumstances she was driven to seek
+alms in the public streets. I might have done so perhaps by inquiry,
+but to what purpose? She died in peace, with friendly hands and
+friendly hearts near her, and Jack buried her in his own grave in
+Highgate Cemetery, at his own expense; and declares he is none the
+worse for it. I am of his opinion.
+
+
+
+
+NOTES FROM AUSTRALIA.
+
+
+Letters from working-men have been published in great numbers by the
+home-press, but a voice from the tradesman has seldom been heard; or,
+if heard, has not been attended to. I trust in some measure to supply
+the deficiency to those middle-class townsfolk who seek to emigrate to
+Australia.
+
+_1st_, I can only reconcile the different accounts furnished by
+emigrants--believing people to write as they think at the time--by
+remembering that some have come from quiet rural places, and others
+from populous towns. The first will consider Geelong--its beautiful
+bay, ships, and steamers, as a hustling, improving, and increasing
+town, laid out for a future provincial capital; the last will regard
+it as a dull, detached series of villages, which will some day be a
+large town. A modification of these causes, allowing for age,
+temperament, circumstances, and station in life, will explain any
+ordinary discrepancy in the accounts from this country.
+
+_2d_, The various accounts of the climate must in a measure be traced
+to the same causes. People used to out-door labour in Britain find the
+winter so mild, that everything is lauded to the skies; those used to
+nice, roomy, convenient houses at home, finding themselves so very
+differently situated, condemn climate, prospects, and everything. Both
+may convey a false impression. The cold or heat by the thermometer is
+no test of sensation; days, however warm, are exceedingly agreeable,
+except the hot-wind days, which are absolutely indescribable, yet I
+have seen some men work out all day in the worst of them. They cause
+great relaxation in the system, and produce dysentery, especially
+among children. Compared with other _hot_ countries, this appears to
+be the most agreeable.
+
+_3d, Employment_.--This is readily to be obtained by working mechanics
+of all kinds in the towns; remembering that a very small sprinkling of
+workmen for finer work--such as cornice-mouldings, fine freestone
+work, cabinetwork, &c.--will be able to find employment for a long
+time to come, because, till a new generation spring up, who can live
+upon the accumulations of their sires, money will not be diverted to
+any great extent from business in land, buildings, or merchandise. A
+considerable number of labourers will find employment about the towns,
+at the stores, on the wharfs, &c. at about 24s. weekly. Country work
+on the sheep-stations--as shepherds, drivers of bullock-drays,
+sheep-washing and shearing, cooking for the men, &c.--is remunerated
+by about L.25 and food. These live far off in the solitary plains,
+almost apart from men, and come to town once, twice, or thrice a year,
+as their distance and employment may determine. The Sabbath has little
+of the religious character for them, and they know little of the
+progress of mankind. Agriculture also employs men at about the same
+rate. There is no probability of wages falling, for a long time to
+come, with any stream of emigration likely to come out hither; for if
+the country cannot grow more wool, a greater attention to its quality
+would employ more men; and agriculture will absorb a vast population
+as soon as the land-question has been fairly overhauled, and settled
+on a foundation that will allow a small capitalist to obtain, at a
+fair price, a suitable farm: besides, everything necessary to
+civilisation has yet to be done--roads, bridges, quarries, wells, and
+a long _etcetera_ that one can scarcely catalogue.
+
+_4th_, Capitalists of L.1000 and upwards can make, apart from
+wool-growing, twenty per cent. on their money without being in trade,
+chiefly by buying at the government land-sales, and subdividing the
+section into small allotments, or by building houses, shops, &c. The
+average of rental returns the capital in four years. But this can only
+be done if emigration continues--and emigration with a sprinkling of
+holders of L.50 to L.200. If this stops, there can be few purchasers.
+Should a fixed price be put upon government land, there might be a
+difference in the way in which capital could be turned to profit; but
+L.1000 and upwards can find so many favourable investments in a new
+colony, that a living could be secured without much trouble or
+anxiety.
+
+_5th, Population_.--By the census just completed, there are 78,000
+inhabitants in Victoria (Port-Philip); County of Bourke,
+44,000--including Melbourne, the capital, 20,000; County of Grant,
+12,000--including Geelong, its capital, 8000. Warnambool, Belfast, and
+Portland, along the coast, only number hundreds, and Kilmore, forty
+miles inland, nearly 2000: there are also various villages--on
+paper--so called, numbering ten to fifty houses each. From this it
+will be seen that more than half of the entire population is within
+twenty miles of Melbourne, a third of the residue within fifteen miles
+of Geelong, and the remainder scattered, including the 1200
+squatting-stations, over a very extensive country. These towns are
+not, in my opinion, a natural growth, but have been forced into their
+present magnitude from the difficulties in obtaining land at a price
+to make up for the utter want of every convenience, a want arising
+from the total absence of any effort on the part of the government
+hitherto to make even one great trunk-road through the colony.
+Facilities for internal communication would cause towns to increase
+naturally. Now, people arrive with glowing ideas of the beauty and
+fertility of the country, and finding everything difficult of access
+there, betake themselves to shopkeeping, forcing up rents to an
+exorbitant sum, and losing their little capital. I think my opinion
+borne out by the fact, that the country population of Grant County was
+1959 in 1846, and 4469 in 1851; Geelong in 1846 had 1911, and in 1851,
+8000--the town population more than quadrupling itself in the last
+five years, the county increasing only 2510. Melbourne and Bourke
+County are nearly in the same position.
+
+There are seven or eight merchants in Geelong who import goods of all
+kinds, twenty-two drapery establishments in a respectable way, besides
+numbers of small ones on the outskirts; other trades are
+proportionately overdone. Melbourne is, I am credibly informed,
+equally crowded. These facts shew that there is no opening for people
+in business. A great imposition is practised by stating the increase
+of a town at so much per cent., or having doubled or trebled itself in
+so short a time, the fact being that even its present condition may be
+that only of a village. Interested parties too often talk their places
+into notice; and if people do not deal in 'notions,' they all have
+some allotment that will just suit you, which they don't care to keep
+any longer.
+
+An argument from the amount of imports is made use of unfairly. The
+United States are set down at 30s. per head, Australia about L.7 per
+head. This latter, they say, is the country to encourage, to emigrate
+to--see how prosperous it is! being blind, apparently, to the fact,
+that Australia, having nothing as yet but the raw material, tallow and
+wool, it must barter all it has for what it wants--a proof to me as
+much of necessity as of prosperity. Many more persons cannot engage
+profitably in the wool and tallow trade; the field is therefore narrow
+for general purposes of emigrants, and easily liable to be
+overstocked, unless the government take prompt measures to open out
+the abundant internal resources of minerals, &c. and give easier and
+cheaper possession of land: then, though the imports might not be much
+more, the prosperity would be much greater. America I believe to be in
+this latter position, presenting a more varied field for the
+operations of the small capitalist, though her imports may be
+inconsiderable per head.
+
+I ought to state, that a great many of the reported cases of success
+are, from misapprehension of the real circumstances of the parties,
+either quite false, or calculated to mislead. Doubtless many
+successful hits will be made by purchasers of mineral land, and so are
+successful hits made at the gaming-table. Successful men, besides, are
+well known, while the unsuccessful have slunk away and are forgotten.
+Few fortunes have been made by simple shopkeeping.
+
+I ought not to conclude without referring to farming, although not
+practically acquainted with it; indeed, the accounts from farmers
+differ as much as the size and shape of their farms: but it appears to
+me that, from one or other of the following causes, farming has not
+hitherto paid well:--A large farm has been purchased, leaving too
+little cash to spare for the erection of houses, fences, and
+cultivation; or leaving it burdened with a mortgage at heavy interest;
+or a short lease--of three years--has been taken, and the money sunk
+on the improvements; or the cultivation has been of such a wretched
+description as failed to raise a remunerative crop. There never
+appears to have been a want of sufficient market for any
+field-produce. L.1000 judiciously invested on a farm, I believe, would
+pay.
+
+I trust it will be seen that my object in writing the foregoing has
+been to guard against the pictures of climate and scenery, good or
+bad, that are constantly written; to shew that plenty of employment at
+a remunerative wage is to be had, but only of the heavy and laborious
+kind; that there is a wide field for capitalists; but that shopkeepers
+and townspeople, unused to out-door labour, have a poor chance, owing
+to the smallness of the population and the competition which already
+exists.
+
+
+
+
+GROUND-LIZARD OF JAMAICA.
+
+
+One feature with which a stranger cannot fail to be struck on his
+arrival in the island, and which is essentially tropical, is the
+abundance of the lizards that everywhere meet his eye. As soon as ever
+he sets foot on the beach, the rustlings among the dry leaves, and the
+dartings hither and thither among the spiny bushes that fringe the
+shore, arrest his attention; and he sees on every hand the beautifully
+coloured and meek-faced ground-lizard (_Ameiva dorsalis_), scratching
+like a bird among the sand, or peering at him from beneath the shadow
+of a great leaf, or creeping stealthily along with its chin and belly
+upon the earth, or shooting over the turf with such a rapidity that it
+seems to fly rather than run. By the road-sides, and in the open
+pastures, and in the provision-grounds of the negroes, still he sees
+this elegant and agile lizard; and his prejudices against the reptile
+races must be inveterate indeed if he can behold its gentle
+countenance, and timid but bright eyes, its chaste but beautiful hues,
+its graceful form and action, and its bird-like motions, with any
+other feeling than admiration.
+
+As he walks along the roads and lanes that divide the properties, he
+will perceive at every turn the smooth and trim little figure of the
+wood-slaves (_Mabouya agilis_) basking on the loose stones of the dry
+walls; their glossy, fish-like scales glistening in the sun with
+metallic brilliancy. They lie as still as if asleep; but on the
+intruder's approach, they are ready in a moment to dart into the
+crevices of the stones and disappear until the danger is past.
+
+If he looks into the outbuildings of the estates, the mill-house, or
+the boiling-house, or the cattle-sheds, a singular croaking sound
+above his head causes him to look up; and then he sees clinging to the
+rafters, or crawling sluggishly along with the back downward, three or
+four lizards, of form, colour, and action very diverse from those he
+has seen before. It is the _gecko_ or croaking lizard (_Thecodactylus
+loevis_), a nocturnal animal in its chief activity, but always to be
+seen in these places or in hollow trees even by day. Its appearance is
+repulsive, I allow, but its reputation for venom is libellous and
+groundless.
+
+The stranger walks into the dwelling-house: lizards, lizards, still
+meet his eye. The little anoles (_A. iodurus, A. opalinus_, &c.) are
+chasing each other in and out between the jalousies, now stopping to
+protrude from the throat a broad disk of brilliant colour, crimson or
+orange, like the petal of a flower, then withdrawing it, and again
+displaying it in coquettish play. Then one leaps a yard or two through
+the air, and alights on the back of his playfellow; and both struggle
+and twist about in unimaginable contortions. Another is running up and
+down on the plastered wall, catching the ants as they roam in black
+lines over its whited surface; and another leaps from the top of some
+piece of furniture upon the back of the visitor's chair, and scampers
+nimbly along the collar of his coat. It jumps on the table--can it be
+the same? An instant ago it was of the most beautiful golden green,
+except the base of the tail, which was of a soft, light, purple hue;
+now, as if changed by an enchanter's wand, it is of a sordid, sooty
+brown all over, and becomes momentarily darker and darker, or mottled
+with dark and pale patches of a most unpleasing aspect. Presently,
+however, the mental emotion, what, ever it was--anger, or fear, or
+dislike--has passed away, and the lovely green hue sparkles in the
+glancing sunlight as before.
+
+He lifts the window-sash; and instantly there run out on the sill two
+or three minute lizards of a new kind, allied to the gecko, the common
+palette-tip (_Sphoeriodactylus argus_.) It is scarcely more than two
+inches long, more nimble than fleet in its movement, and not very
+attractive.
+
+In the woods he would meet with other kinds. On the trunks of the
+trees he might frequently see the Venus (_Dactyloa Edwardsii_), as it
+is provincially called; a lizard much like the anoles of the houses,
+of a rich grass-green colour, with orange throat-disk, but much larger
+and fiercer; or, in the eastern parts of the island, the great iguana
+(_Cyclura lophoma_), with it dorsal crest like the teeth of a saw
+running down all its back, might be seen lying out on the branches of
+the trees, or playing bo-peep from a hole in the trunk; or, in the
+swamps and morasses of Westmoreland, the yellow galliwasp (_Celestus
+occiduus_), so much dreaded and abhorred, yet without reason, might be
+observed sitting idly in the mouth of its burrow, or feeding on the
+wild fruits and marshy plants that constitute its food.--_Gosse's
+Naturalist's Sojourn_.
+
+
+
+
+A SCENE IN NEW ENGLAND.
+
+
+I leave Boston sometimes in the evening by rail, get thirty miles off,
+then strike away into byways, ramble for an hour or two, and get back
+to the rail. I was out yesterday, and nothing can equal the colour of
+the foliage: if it was painted, it would look like fancy. In the
+course of my stroll, I came upon a lake entirely surrounded with
+forest, and containing, as I was informed, about four square miles of
+water, studded with islands varying in size from one to twenty acres.
+I would describe a point of view which enchanted me. I was on one side
+of the lake, where it is about half a mile in width: about half-way
+across, for the foreground of my picture, is a small island, about two
+acres, covered with trees, looking as if they grew out of the lake,
+with a central one of at least eighty feet high, and of the purest
+orange colour. The opposite shore is of a crescent shape, with the
+forest rising like an amphitheatre behind, glowing with every
+imaginable colour, from the intense crimson to the pale pink, and
+looking exactly like an enormous flower-garden stretching away to the
+distance, and the colour so strongly reflected in the water, that it
+is difficult to tell the reality from the reflection. At home in
+England, I would have gone far to see such scenes; but they are here
+at every turn. I enclose you some leaves, but the purity of the colour
+is gone after a few hours. I am sure many valuable additions might be
+made to the European stock of flowers: there are thousands of
+species--some extremely beautiful; but how they are propagated, or
+whether they could be transplanted, I cannot tell, being no
+horticulturist. Among the millions here, one plant would be much
+admired with you. It grows wild about three feet high, with long,
+curiously-formed leaves, and surmounted by bunches of bright scarlet
+blossoms, exactly like the geranium. In the course of my stroll, I
+came upon a genuine shanty of a new settler, full of fine children.
+The husband away at work--a little patch cleared for Indian corn and a
+few vegetables, the sturdy trees enclosing all. Truly the pair have
+their work before them, but they have likewise hope and comfort. I
+chatted a little while with the wife, a genuine specimen of the
+Anglo-Saxon race--clean, industrious, and hopeful: left home to avoid
+being starved, and sat down here, in rude comfort, with her ruddy
+children growing up about her--to be a joy and a support, instead of
+the drag and vexation they would have proved at home.--_Private Letter
+from an English Artist settled at Boston_.
+
+
+
+
+WOMEN.
+
+
+Christianity freed woman, because it opened to her the long-closed
+world of spiritual knowledge. Sublime and speculative theories,
+hitherto confined to the few, became, when once they were quickened by
+faith, things for which thousands were eager to die. Simple women
+meditated in their homes on questions which had long troubled
+philosophers in the groves of academies. They knew this well; and felt
+that from her who had sat at the feet of the Master, listening to the
+divine teaching, down to the poorest slave who heard the tidings of
+spiritual liberty, they had all become daughters of a great and
+immortal faith. Of that faith women were the earliest adherents,
+disciples, and martyrs. Women followed Jesus, entertained the
+wandering apostles, worshipped in the catacombs, or died in the arena.
+The _Acts of the Apostles_ bear record to the charity of Dorcas and
+the hospitality of Lydia; and tradition has preserved the memory of
+Praxedes and Pudentiana, daughters of a Roman senator, in whose house
+the earliest Christian meetings were held in Rome.--_Women of
+Christianity, by Julia Kavanagh_.
+
+
+
+
+'WHARE'ER THERE'S A WILL THERE IS ALWAYS A WAY.'
+
+
+    Langsyne, when I first gaed to schule, I was glaiket,
+    In books and in learning nae pleasure had I;
+    And when for my fauts wi' the taws I was paiket,
+    'I canna do better,' was aye my reply.
+    'Deed Rab,' quo my mither, 'for daffn' and playin'
+    There 's nocht ye can manage by nicht or by day;
+    But this let me tell ye, and mind what I'm sayin'--
+    Whare'er there's a will there is always a way.
+
+    'Just look at our preacher, when but a bit callan,
+    The ills o' cauld poortith he aft had to dree,
+    But to better his lot the poor chiel aye was willin'--
+    At schule and at wark ever eident was he:
+    Sage books he wad read, and their truths he wad cherish,
+    And earnestly sprauchle up learning's steep brae;
+    And noo he's Mess John o' his ain native parish--
+    Sae whare there's a will there is always a way.
+
+    'And man, if ye saw how his manse is bedecket!
+    Ilk room's like a palace, it's plenished sae fine;
+    And then wi' the best in the land he's respecket,
+    And aft wi' My Lord is invited to dine.
+    O Rab, then, be active; frae him tak' example;
+    His case speaks mair powerfu' than ocht I can say;
+    And soon ye will find that your talents are ample;
+    For whare there's a will there is always a way.
+
+    'What though we are cotters?--the poorest may flourish,
+    And wha wadna rise wi' the glorious few?
+    Industry works wonders--its spirit aye nourish--
+    It isna the drone gathers hinney, I trew.
+    Then onward, my laddie! ye canna regret it;
+    What wrecks and what tears have been caused by delay!
+    If noble your wish is, press on, ye will get it!
+    For whare there's a will there is always a way.'
+
+    Thus spak my auld mither: ilk word seemed a sermon,
+    But just rather warldly, as ane micht alloo;
+    But, haith, it inspired me, and made me determine
+    To haud to the _lair_ and keep _progress_ in view.
+    Sae I tried ilka project instruction to gather:
+    When herdin' the sheep for our laird, Ringan Gray,
+    The Bible and Bunyan, I read 'mang the heather--
+    Aye whare there's a will there is always a way.
+
+    But my father he dee'd, and to help my auld mither
+    I noo had to struggle wi' hardship and care;
+    And aften I thocht I wad stick a'thegither,
+    But something within me said: 'Never despair!'
+    At last I grew bein, for I toiled late and early,
+    Syne to College I gaed, and was made a D.D.
+    And noo I'm Mess John in the Kirk o' Glenfairly--
+    Sae whare there's a will there is always a way.
+
+    The manse--but I shouldna wi' vainity crack o't--
+    Is as cozie a beil as a body could see;
+    Hauf-hid 'mang auld trees, wi' braw parks at the back o't,
+    Whare lambs, 'mang the gowans, are sporting wi' glee.
+    I've got a bit wife too, a rich winsome lady--
+    In short, I hae a' that a mortal could hae:
+    Sae onward, ye youths! as my auld mither said aye--
+    Whare'er there's a will there is always a way.
+                                                A. M'KAY.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Printed and Published by W. and R. CHAMBERS, High Street, Edinburgh.
+Also sold by W.S. ORR, Amen Corner, London; D.N. CHAMBERS, 55 West
+Nile Street, Glasgow; and J. M'GLASHAN, 50 Upper Sackville Street,
+Dublin.--Advertisements for Monthly Parts are requested to be sent to
+MAXWELL & Co., 31 Nicholas Lane, Lombard Street, London, to whom all
+applications respecting their insertion must be made.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Chambers' Edinburgh Journal, No. 421,
+New Series,  Jan. 24, 1852, by Various
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CHAMBERS' EDINBURGH JOURNAL, ***
+
+***** This file should be named 14612.txt or 14612.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        https://www.gutenberg.org/1/4/6/1/14612/
+
+Produced by Malcolm Farmer, Richard J. Shiffer and the PG Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+https://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+https://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at https://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit https://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including including checks, online payments and credit card
+donations.  To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     https://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
diff --git a/old/14612.zip b/old/14612.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..17cf21a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14612.zip