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diff --git a/old/14582-h.zip b/old/14582-h.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..7b75bda --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14582-h.zip diff --git a/old/14582-h/14582-h.htm b/old/14582-h/14582-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..30591b1 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14582-h/14582-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,3991 @@ +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="us-ascii"?> + +<!DOCTYPE html + PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd" > + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> + <head> + <meta content="pg2html (binary v0.17)" name="linkgenerator" /> + <title> + Chronicles of Canada, by William Wood + </title> + <style type="text/css" xml:space="preserve"> + + body { margin:5%; background:#faebd0; text-align:justify} + P { text-indent: 1em; margin-top: .25em; margin-bottom: .25em; } + H1,H2,H3,H4,H5,H6 { text-align: center; margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; } + hr { width: 50%; text-align: center;} + .foot { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -3em; font-size: 90%; } + blockquote {font-size: 97%; font-style: italic; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + .mynote {background-color: #DDE; color: #000; padding: .5em; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 95%;} + .toc { margin-left: 10%; margin-bottom: .75em;} + .toc2 { margin-left: 20%;} + .indent5 { margin-left: 5%;} + .indent10 { margin-left: 10%;} + .indent15 { margin-left: 15%;} + .indent20 { margin-left: 20%;} + .indent30 { margin-left: 30%;} + div.fig { display:block; margin:0 auto; text-align:center; } + div.middle { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; } + .figleft {float: left; margin-left: 0%; margin-right: 1%;} + .figright {float: right; margin-right: 0%; margin-left: 1%;} + .pagenum {position: absolute; right: 1%; font-size: 0.6em; + font-variant: normal; font-style: normal; + text-align: right; background-color: #FFFACD; + border: 1px solid; padding: 0.3em;text-indent: 0em;} + .side { float: left; font-size: 75%; width: 25%; padding-left: 0.8em; + border-left: dashed thin; text-align: left; + text-indent: 0; font-weight: bold; font-style: italic; + font-weight: bold; color: black; background: #eeeeee; border: solid 1px;} + p.pfirst, p.noindent {text-indent: 0} + span.dropcap { float: left; margin: 0 0.1em 0 0; line-height: 0.8 } + pre { font-style: italic; font-size: 90%; margin-left: 10%;} + +</style> + </head> + <body> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The War With the United States +A Chronicle of 1812 +Volume 14 (of 32) in the series Chronicles of Canada, by William Wood + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The War With the United States + A Chronicle of 1812 + Volume 14 (of 32) in the series Chronicles of Canada + +Author: William Wood + +Editor: George M. Wrong and H. H. Langton + +Release Date: January 3, 2005 [EBook #14582] +Last Updated: February 6, 2019 + + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WAR WITH THE UNITED STATES *** + + + + +Etext was produced by Gardner Buchanan + +HTML file produced by David Widger + + + + +</pre> + <div style="height: 8em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h1> + CHRONICLES OF CANADA + </h1> + <h2> + Edited by George M. Wrong and H. H. Langton + </h2> + <h3> + In thirty-two volumes + </h3> + <h4> + Volume 14 + </h4> + <h3> + THE WAR WITH THE UNITED STATES + </h3> + <h4> + A Chronicle of 1812 + </h4> + <h2> + By WILLIAM WOOD + </h2> + <h4> + TORONTO, 1915 + </h4> + <hr /> + <p> + <b>CONTENTS</b> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0001"> CHAPTER I — OPPOSING CLAIMS </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0002"> CHAPTER II — OPPOSING FORCES </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0003"> CHAPTER III — 1812: OFF TO THE FRONT </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0004"> CHAPTER IV — 1812: BROCK AT DETROIT AND + QUEENSTON HEIGHTS </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0005"> CHAPTER V — 1813: THE BEAVER DAMS, LAKE + ERIE, AND CHATEAUGUAY </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0006"> CHAPTER VI — 1814: LUNDY'S LANE, + PLATTSBURG, AND THE GREAT BLOCKADE </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0007"> BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE </a> + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0001" id="link2HCH0001"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER I — OPPOSING CLAIMS + </h2> + <p> + International disputes that end in war are not generally questions of + absolute right and wrong. They may quite as well be questions of opposing + rights. But, when there are rights on both sides; it is usually found that + the side which takes the initiative is moved by its national desires as + well as by its claims of right. + </p> + <p> + This could hardly be better exemplified than by the vexed questions which + brought about the War of 1812. The British were fighting for life and + liberty against Napoleon. Napoleon was fighting to master the whole of + Europe. The United States wished to make as much as possible out of + unrestricted trade with both belligerents. But Napoleon's Berlin Decree + forbade all intercourse whatever with the British, while the British + Orders-in-Council forbade all intercourse whatever with Napoleon and his + allies, except on condition that the trade should first pass through + British ports. Between two such desperate antagonists there was no safe + place for an unarmed, independent, 'free-trading' neutral. Every one was + forced to take sides. The British being overwhelmingly strong at sea, + while the French were correspondingly strong on land, American shipping + was bound to suffer more from the British than from the French. The French + seized every American vessel that infringed the Berlin Decree whenever + they could manage to do so. But the British seized so many more for + infringing the Orders-in-Council that the Americans naturally began to + take sides with the French. + </p> + <p> + Worse still, from the American point of view, was the British Right of + Search, which meant the right of searching neutral merchant vessels either + in British waters or on the high seas for deserters from the Royal Navy. + Every other people whose navy could enforce it had always claimed a + similar right. But other peoples' rights had never clashed with American + interests in at all the same way. What really roused the American + government was not the abstract Right of Search, but its enforcement at a + time when so many hands aboard American vessels were British subjects + evading service in their own Navy. The American theory was that the flag + covered the crew wherever the ship might be. Such a theory might well have + been made a question for friendly debate and settlement at any other time. + But it was a new theory, advanced by a new nation, whose peculiar and most + disturbing entrance on the international scene could not be suffered to + upset the accepted state of things during the stress of a life-and-death + war. Under existing circumstances the British could not possibly give up + their long-established Right of Search without committing national + suicide. Neither could they relax their own blockade so long as Napoleon + maintained his. The Right of Search and the double blockade of Europe thus + became two vexed questions which led straight to war. + </p> + <p> + But the American grievances about these two questions were not the only + motives impelling the United States to take up arms. There were two deeply + rooted national desires urging them on in the same direction. A good many + Americans were ready to seize any chance of venting their anti-British + feeling; and most Americans thought they would only be fulfilling their + proper 'destiny' by wresting the whole of Canada from the British crown. + These two national desires worked both ways for war—supporting the + government case against the British Orders-in-Council and Right of Search + on the one hand, while welcoming an alliance with Napoleon on the other. + Americans were far from being unanimous; and the party in favour of peace + was not slow to point out that Napoleon stood for tyranny, while the + British stood for freedom. But the adherents of the war party reminded + each other, as well as the British and the French, that Britain had + wrested Canada from France, while France had helped to wrest the Thirteen + Colonies from the British Empire. + </p> + <p> + As usual in all modern wars, there was much official verbiage about the + national claims and only unofficial talk about the national desires. But, + again as usual, the claims became the more insistent because of the + desires, and the desires became the more patriotically respectable because + of the claims of right. 'Free Trade and Sailors' Rights' was the popular + catchword that best describes the two strong claims of the United States. + 'Down with the British' and 'On to Canada' were the phrases that best + reveal the two impelling national desires. + </p> + <p> + Both the claims and the desires seem quite simple in themselves. But, in + their connection with American politics, international affairs, and + opposing British claims, they are complex to the last degree. Their + complexities, indeed, are so tortuous and so multitudinous that they + baffle description within the limits of the present book. Yet, since + nothing can be understood without some reference to its antecedents, we + must take at least a bird's-eye view of the growing entanglement which + finally resulted in the War of 1812. + </p> + <p> + The relations of the British Empire with the United States passed through + four gradually darkening phases between 1783 and 1812—the phases of + Accommodation, Unfriendliness, Hostility, and War. Accommodation lasted + from the recognition of Independence till the end of the century. + Unfriendliness then began with President Jefferson and the Democrats. + Hostility followed in 1807, during Jefferson's second term, when + Napoleon's Berlin Decree and the British. Orders-in-Council brought + American foreign relations into the five-year crisis which ended with the + three-year war. + </p> + <p> + William Pitt, for the British, and John Jay, the first chief justice of + the United States, are the two principal figures in the Accommodation + period. In 1783 Pitt, who, like his father, the great Earl of Chatham, was + favourably disposed towards the Americans, introduced a temporary measure + in the British House of Commons to regulate trade with what was now a + foreign country 'on the most enlarged principles of reciprocal benefit' as + well as 'on terms of most perfect amity with the United States of + America.' This bill, which showed the influence of Adam Smith's principles + on Pitt's receptive mind, favoured American more than any other foreign + trade in the mother country, and favoured it to a still greater extent in + the West Indies. Alone among foreigners the Americans were to be granted + the privilege of trading between their own ports and the West Indies, in + their own vessels and with their own goods, on exactly the same terms as + the British themselves. The bill was rejected. But in 1794, when the + French Revolution was running its course of wild excesses, and the British + government was even less inclined to trust republics, Jay succeeded in + negotiating a temporary treaty which improved the position of American + sea-borne trade with the West Indies. His government urged him to get + explicit statements of principle inserted, more especially anything that + would make cargoes neutral when under neutral flags. This, however, was + not possible, as Jay himself pointed out. 'That Britain,' he said, 'at + this period, and involved in war, should not admit principles which would + impeach the propriety of her conduct in seizing provisions bound to + France, and enemy's property on board neutral vessels, does not appear to + me extraordinary.' On the whole, Jay did very well to get any treaty + through at such a time; and this mere fact shows that the general attitude + of the mother country towards her independent children was far from being + unfriendly. + </p> + <p> + Unfriendliness began with the new century, when Jefferson first came into + power. He treated the British navigation laws as if they had been invented + on purpose to wrong Americans, though they had been in force for a hundred + and fifty years, and though they had been originally passed, at the zenith + of Cromwell's career, by the only republican government that ever held + sway in England. Jefferson said that British policy was so perverse, that + when he wished to forecast the British line of action on any particular + point he would first consider what it ought to be and then infer the + opposite. His official opinion was written in the following words: 'It is + not to the moderation or justice of others we are to trust for fair and + equal access to market with our productions, or for our due share in the + transportation of them; but to our own means of independence, and the firm + will to use them.' On the subject of impressment, or 'Sailors' Rights,' he + was clearer still: 'The simplest rule will be that the vessel being + American shall be evidence that the seamen on board of her are such.' This + would have prevented the impressment of British seamen, even in British + harbours, if they were under the American merchant flag—a principle + almost as preposterous, at that particular time, as Jefferson's suggestion + that the whole Gulf Stream should be claimed 'as of our waters.' + </p> + <p> + If Jefferson had been backed by a united public, or if his actions had + been suited to his words, war would have certainly broken out during his + second presidential term, which lasted from 1805 to 1809. But he was a + party man, with many political opponents, and without unquestioning + support from all on his own side, and he cordially hated armies, navies, + and even a mercantile marine. His idea of an American Utopia was a + commonwealth with plenty of commerce, but no more shipping than could be + helped: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + I trust [he said] that the good sense of our country + will see that its greatest prosperity depends on a + due balance between agriculture, manufactures, and + commerce; and not on this protuberant navigation, + which has kept us in hot water since the commencement + of our government... It is essentially necessary for + us to have shipping and seamen enough to carry our + surplus products to market, but beyond that I do not + think we are bound to give it encouragement... This + exuberant commerce brings us into collision with other + Powers in every sea. +</pre> + <p> + Notwithstanding such opinions, Jefferson stood firm on the question of + 'Sailors' Rights.' He refused to approve a treaty that had been signed on + the last day of 1806 by his four commissioners in London, chiefly because + it provided no precise guarantee against impressment. The British + ministers had offered, and had sincerely meant, to respect all American + rights, to issue special instructions against molesting American citizens + under any circumstances, and to redress every case of wrong. But, with a + united nation behind them and an implacable enemy in front, they could not + possibly give up the right to take British seamen from neutral vessels + which were sailing the high seas. The Right of Search was the acknowledged + law of nations all round the world; and surrender on this point meant + death to the Empire they were bound to guard. + </p> + <p> + Their 'no surrender' on this vital point was, of course, anathema to + Jefferson. Yet he would not go beyond verbal fulminations. In the + following year, however, he was nearly forced to draw the sword by one of + those incidents that will happen during strained relations. In June 1807 + two French men-of-war were lying off Annapolis, a hundred miles up + Chesapeake Bay. Far down the bay, in Hampton Roads, the American frigate + <i>Chesapeake</i> was fitting out for sea. Twelve miles below her + anchorage a small British squadron lay just within Cape Henry, waiting to + follow the Frenchmen out beyond the three-mile limit. As Jefferson quite + justly said, this squadron was 'enjoying the hospitality of the United + States.' Presently the <i>Chesapeake</i> got under way; whereupon the + British frigate <i>Leopard</i> made sail and cleared the land ahead of + her. Ten miles out the <i>Leopard</i> hailed her, and sent an officer + aboard to show the American commodore the orders from Admiral Berkeley at + Halifax. These orders named certain British deserters as being among the + <i>Chesapeake's</i> crew. The American commodore refused to allow a + search; but submitted after a fight, during which he lost twenty-one men + killed and wounded. Four men were then seized. One was hanged; another + died; and the other two were subsequently returned with the apologies of + the British government. + </p> + <p> + James Monroe, of Monroe Doctrine fame, was then American minister in + London. Canning, the British foreign minister, who heard the news first, + wrote an apology on the spot, and promised to make 'prompt and effectual + reparation' if Berkeley had been wrong. Berkeley was wrong. The Right of + Search did not include the right to search a foreign man-of-war, though, + unlike the modern 'right of search,' which is confined to cargoes, it did + include the right to search a neutral merchantman on the high seas for any + 'national' who was 'wanted.' Canning, however, distinctly stated that the + men's nationality would affect the consideration of restoring them or not. + Monroe now had a good case. But he made the fatal mistake of writing + officially to Canning before he knew the details, and, worse still, of + diluting his argument with other complaints which had nothing to do with + the affair itself. The result was a long and involved correspondence, a + tardy and ungracious reparation, and much justifiable resentment on the + American side. + </p> + <p> + Unfriendliness soon became Hostility after the <i>Chesapeake</i> affair + had sharpened the sting of the Orders-in-Council, which had been issued at + the beginning of the same year, 1807. These celebrated Orders simply meant + that so long as Napoleon tried to blockade the British Isles by enforcing + his Berlin Decree, just so long would the British Navy be employed in + blockading him and his allies. Such decisive action, of course, brought + neutral shipping more than ever under the power of the British Navy, which + commanded all the seaways to the ports of Europe. It accentuated the + differences between the American and British governments, and threw the + shadow of the coming storm over the exposed colony of Canada. + </p> + <p> + Not having succeeded in his struggle for 'Sailors' Rights,' Jefferson now + took up the cudgels for 'Free Trade'; but still without a resort to arms. + His chosen means of warfare was an Embargo Act, forbidding the departure + of vessels from United States ports. This, although nominally aimed + against France as well, was designed to make Great Britain submit by + cutting off both her and her colonies from all intercourse with the United + States. But its actual effect was to hurt Americans, and even Jefferson's + own party, far more than it hurt the British. The Yankee skipper already + had two blockades against 'Free Trade.' The Embargo Act added a third. Of + course it was evaded; and a good deal of shipping went from the United + States and passed into Canadian ports under the Union Jack. Jefferson and + his followers, however, persisted in taking their own way. So Canada + gained from the embargo much of what the Americans were losing. Quebec and + Halifax swarmed with contrabandists, who smuggled back return cargoes into + the New England ports, which were Federalist in party allegiance, and only + too ready to evade or defy the edicts of the Democratic administration. + Jefferson had, it is true, the satisfaction of inflicting much temporary + hardship on cotton-spinning Manchester. But the American cotton-growing + South suffered even more. + </p> + <p> + The American claims of 'Free Trade and Sailors' Rights' were opposed by + the British counter-claims of the Orders-in-Council and the Right of + Search. But 'Down with the British' and 'On to Canada' were without exact + equivalents on the other side. The British at home were a good deal + irritated by so much unfriendliness and hostility behind them while they + were engaged with Napoleon in front. Yet they could hardly be described as + anti-American; and they certainly had no wish to fight, still less to + conquer, the United States. Canada did contain an anti-American element in + the United Empire Loyalists, whom the American Revolution had driven from + their homes. But her general wish was to be left in peace. Failing that, + she was prepared for defence. + </p> + <p> + Anti-British feeling probably animated at least two-thirds of the American + people on every question that caused international friction; and the + Jeffersonian Democrats, who were in power, were anti-British to a man. So + strong was this feeling among them that they continued to side with France + even when she was under the military despotism of Napoleon. He was the + arch-enemy of England in Europe. They were the arch-enemy of England in + America. This alone was enough to overcome their natural repugnance to his + autocratic ways. Their position towards the British was such that they + could not draw back from France, whose change of government had made her a + more efficient anti-British friend. 'Let us unite with France and stand or + fall together' was the cry the Democratic press repeated for years in + different forms. It was strangely prophetic. Jefferson's Embargo Act of + 1808 began its self-injurious career at the same time that the Peninsular + War began to make the first injurious breach in Napoleon's Continental + System. Madison's declaration of war in 1812 coincided with the opening of + Napoleon's disastrous campaign in Russia. + </p> + <p> + The Federalists, the party in favour of peace with the British, included + many of the men who had done most for Independence; and they were all, of + course, above suspicion as patriotic Americans. But they were not unlike + transatlantic, self-governing Englishmen. They had been alienated by the + excesses of the French Revolution; and they could not condone the tyranny + of Napoleon. They preferred American statesmen of the type of Washington + and Hamilton to those of the type of Jefferson and Madison. And they were + not inclined to be more anti-British than the occasion required. They were + strongest in New England and New York. The Democrats were strongest + throughout the South and in what was then the West. The Federalists had + been in power during the Accommodation period. The Democrats began with + Unfriendliness, continued with Hostility, and ended with War. + </p> + <p> + The Federalists did not hesitate to speak their mind. Their loss of power + had sharpened their tongues; and they were often no more generous to the + Democrats and to France than the Democrats were to them and to the + British. But, on the whole, they made for goodwill on both sides; as well + as for a better understanding of each other's rights and difficulties; and + so they made for peace. The general current, however, was against them, + even before the <i>Chesapeake</i> affair; and several additional incidents + helped to quicken it afterwards. In 1808 the toast of the President of the + United States was received with hisses at a great public dinner in London, + given to the leaders of the Spanish revolt against Napoleon by British + admirers. In 1811 the British sloop-of-war <i>Little Belt</i> was + overhauled by the American frigate <i>President</i> fifty miles off-shore + and forced to strike, after losing thirty-two men and being reduced to a + mere battered hulk. The vessels came into range after dark; the British + seem to have fired first; and the Americans had the further excuse that + they were still smarting under the <i>Chesapeake</i> affair. Then, in + 1812, an Irish adventurer called Henry, who had been doing some + secret-service work in the United States at the instance of the Canadian + governor-general, sold the duplicates of his correspondence to President + Madison. These were of little real importance; but they added fuel to the + Democratic fire in Congress just when anti-British feeling was at its + worst. + </p> + <p> + The fourth cause of war, the desire to conquer Canada, was by far the + oldest of all. It was older than Independence, older even than the British + conquest of Canada. In 1689 Peter Schuyler, mayor of Albany, and the + acknowledged leader of the frontier districts, had set forth his 'Glorious + Enterprize' for the conquest and annexation of New France. Phips's + American invasion next year, carried out in complete independence of the + home government, had been an utter failure. So had the second American + invasion, led by Montgomery and Arnold during the Revolutionary War, + nearly a century later. But the Americans had not forgotten their long + desire; and the prospect of another war at once revived their hopes. They + honestly believed that Canada would be much better off as an integral part + of the United States than as a British colony; and most of them believed + that Canadians thought so too. The lesson of the invasion of the + 'Fourteenth Colony' during the Revolution had not been learnt. The + alacrity with which Canadians had stood to arms after the <i>Chesapeake</i> + affair was little heeded. And both the nature and the strength of the + union between the colony and the Empire were almost entirely + misunderstood. + </p> + <p> + Henry Clay, one of the most warlike of the Democrats, said: 'It is absurd + to suppose that we will not succeed in our enterprise against the enemy's + Provinces. I am not for stopping at Quebec or anywhere else; but I would + take the whole continent from them, and ask them no favours. I wish never + to see peace till we do. God has given us the power and the means. We are + to blame if we do not use them.' Eustis, the American Secretary of War, + said: 'We can take Canada without soldiers. We have only to send officers + into the Provinces, and the people, disaffected towards their own + Government, will rally round our standard.' And Jefferson summed it all up + by prophesying that 'the acquisition of Canada this year, as far as the + neighbourhood of Quebec, will be a mere matter of marching.' When the + leaders talked like this, it was no wonder their followers thought that + the long-cherished dream of a conquered Canada was at last about to come + true. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0002" id="link2HCH0002"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER II — OPPOSING FORCES + </h2> + <p> + An armed mob must be very big indeed before it has the slightest chance + against a small but disciplined army. + </p> + <p> + So very obvious a statement might well be taken for granted in the history + of any ordinary war. But '1812' was not an ordinary war. It was a + sprawling and sporadic war; and it was waged over a vast territory by + widely scattered and singularly heterogeneous forces on both sides. For + this reason it is extremely difficult to view and understand as one + connected whole. Partisan misrepresentation has never had a better chance. + Americans have dwelt with justifiable pride on the frigate duels out at + sea and the two flotilla battles on the Lakes. But they have usually + forgotten that, though they won the naval battles, the British won the + purely naval war. The mother-country British, on the other hand, have made + too much of their one important victory at sea, have passed too lightly + over the lessons of the other duels there, and have forgotten how long it + took to sweep the Stars and Stripes away from the Atlantic. Canadians + have, of course, devoted most attention to the British victories won in + the frontier campaigns on land, which the other British have heeded too + little and Americans have been only too anxious to forget. Finally, + neither the Canadians, nor the mother-country British, nor yet the + Americans, have often tried to take a comprehensive view of all the + operations by land and sea together. + </p> + <p> + The character and numbers of the opposing forces have been even less + considered and even more misunderstood. Militia victories have been freely + claimed by both sides, in defiance of the fact that the regulars were the + really decisive factor in every single victory won by either side, afloat + or ashore. The popular notions about the numbers concerned are equally + wrong. The totals were far greater than is generally known. Counting every + man who ever appeared on either side, by land or sea, within the actual + theatre of war, the united grand total reaches seven hundred thousand. + This was most unevenly divided between the two opponents. The Americans + had about 575,000, the British about 125,000. But such a striking + difference in numbers was matched by an equally striking difference in + discipline and training. The Americans had more than four times as many + men. The British had more than four times as much discipline and training. + </p> + <p> + The forces on the American side were a small navy and a swarm of + privateers, a small regular army, a few 'volunteers,' still fewer + 'rangers,' and a vast conglomeration of raw militia. The British had a + detachment from the greatest navy in the world, a very small 'Provincial + Marine' on the Lakes and the St Lawrence, besides various little + subsidiary services afloat, including privateers. Their army consisted of + a very small but latterly much increased contingent of Imperial regulars, + a few Canadian regulars, more Canadian militia, and a very few Indians. + Let us pass all these forces in review. + </p> + <p> + <i>The American Navy</i>. During the Revolution the infant Navy had begun + a career of brilliant promise; and Paul Jones had been a name to conjure + with. British belittlement deprived him of his proper place in history; + but he was really the founder of the regular Navy that fought so gallantly + in '1812.' A tradition had been created and a service had been formed. + Political opinion, however, discouraged proper growth. President Jefferson + laid down the Democratic party's idea of naval policy in his first + Inaugural. 'Beyond the small force which will probably be wanted for + actual service in the Mediterranean, whatever annual sum you may think + proper to appropriate to naval preparations would perhaps be better + employed in providing those articles which may be kept without waste or + consumption, and be in readiness when any exigence calls them into use. + Progress has been made in providing materials for 74-gun ships.' + [Footnote: A ship-of the-line, meaning a battleship or man-of war strong + enough to take a position in the line of battle, was of a different + minimum size at different periods. The tendency towards increase of size + existed a century ago as well as to-day. 'Fourth-rates,' of 50 and 60 + guns, dropped out of the line at the beginning of the Seven Years' War. In + 1812 the 74-gun three-decker was the smallest man-of-war regularly used in + the line of battle.] This 'progress' had been made in 1801. But in 1812, + when Jefferson's disciple, Madison, formally declared war, not a single + keel had been laid. Meanwhile, another idea of naval policy had been + worked out into the ridiculous gunboat system. In 1807, during the crisis + which followed the Berlin Decree, the Orders-in-Council, and the <i>Chesapeake</i> + affair, Jefferson wrote to Thomas Paine: 'Believing, myself; that gunboats + are the only water defence which can be useful to us, and protect us from + the ruinous folly of a navy, I am pleased with everything which promises + to improve them.' Whether 'improved' or not, these gunboats were found + worse than useless as a substitute for 'the ruinous folly of a navy.' They + failed egregiously to stop Jefferson's own countrymen from breaking his + Embargo Act of 1808; and their weatherly qualities were so contemptible + that they did not dare to lose sight of land without putting their guns in + the hold. No wonder the practical men of the Navy called them 'Jeffs.' + </p> + <p> + When President Madison summoned Congress in 1811 war was the main topic of + debate. Yet all he had to say about the Navy was contained in twenty-seven + lukewarm words. Congress followed the presidential lead. The momentous + naval vote of 1812 provided for an expenditure of six hundred thousand + dollars, which was to be spread over three consecutive years and strictly + limited to buying timber. Then, on the outbreak of war, the government, + consistent to the last, decided to lay up the whole of their sea-going + navy lest it should be captured by the British. + </p> + <p> + But this final indignity was more than the Navy could stand in silence. + Some senior officers spoke their minds, and the party politicians gave + way. The result was a series of victories which, of their own peculiar + kind, have never been eclipsed. Not one American ship-of-the-line was ever + afloat during the war; and only twenty-two frigates or smaller naval craft + put out to sea. In addition, there were the three little flotillas on + Lakes Erie, Ontario, and Champlain; and a few minor vessels elsewhere. All + the crews together did not exceed ten thousand men, replacements included. + Yet, even with these niggard means, the American Navy won the command of + two lakes completely, held the command of the third in suspense, won every + important duel out at sea, except the famous fight against the <i>Shannon</i>, + inflicted serious loss on British sea-borne trade, and kept a greatly + superior British naval force employed on constant and harassing duty. + </p> + <p> + <i>The American Privateers</i>. Besides the little Navy, there were 526 + privately owned vessels which were officially authorized to prey on the + enemy's trade. These were manned by forty thousand excellent seamen and + had the chance of plundering the richest sea-borne commerce in the world. + They certainly harassed British commerce, even in its own home waters; and + during the course of the war they captured no less than 1344 prizes. But + they did practically nothing towards reducing the British fighting force + afloat; and even at their own work of commerce-destroying they did less + than one-third as much as the Navy in proportion to their numbers. + </p> + <p> + <i>The American Army</i>. The Army had competed with the Navy for the + lowest place in Jefferson's Inaugural of 1801. 'This is the only + government where every man will meet invasions of the public order as his + own personal concern... A well-disciplined militia is our best reliance + for the first moments of war, till regulars may relieve them.' The Army + was then reduced to three thousand men. 'Such were the results of Mr + Jefferson's low estimate of, or rather contempt for, the military + character,' said General Winfield Scott, the best officer the United + States produced between '1812' and the Civil War. In 1808 'an additional + military force' was authorized. In January 1812, after war had been + virtually decided on, the establishment was raised to thirty-five + thousand. But in June, when war had been declared, less than a quarter of + this total could be called effectives, and more than half were still + wanting to complete.' The grand total of all American regulars, including + those present with the colours on the outbreak of hostilities as well as + those raised during the war, amounted to fifty-six thousand. Yet no + general had six thousand actually in the firing line of any one + engagement. + </p> + <p> + <i>The United States Volunteers</i>. Ten thousand volunteers were raised, + from first to last. They differed from the regulars in being enlisted for + shorter terms of service and in being generally allowed to elect their own + regimental officers. Theoretically they were furnished in fixed quotas by + the different States, according to population. They resembled the regulars + in other respects, especially in being directly under Federal, not State, + authority. + </p> + <p> + <i>The Rangers</i>. Three thousand men with a real or supposed knowledge + of backwoods life served in the war. They operated in groups and formed a + very unequal force—good, bad, and indifferent. Some were under the + Federal authority. Others belonged to the different States. As a distinct + class they had no appreciable influence on the major results of the war. + </p> + <p> + <i>The Militia</i>. The vast bulk of the American forces, more than + three-quarters of the grand total by land and sea, was made up of the + militia belonging to the different States of the Union. These militiamen + could not be moved outside of their respective States without State + authority; and individual consent was also necessary to prolong a term of + enlistment, even if the term should come to an end in the middle of a + battle. Some enlisted for several months; others for no more than one. + Very few had any military knowledge whatever; and most of the officers + were no better trained than the men. The totals from all the different + States amounted to 456,463. Not half of these ever got near the front; and + not nearly half of those who did get there ever came into action at all. + Except at New Orleans, where the conditions were quite abnormal, the + militia never really helped to decide the issue of any battle, except, + indeed, against their own army. 'The militia thereupon broke and fled' + recurs with tiresome frequency in numberless dispatches. Yet the + consequent charges of cowardice are nearly all unjust. The + fellow-countrymen of those sailors who fought the American frigates so + magnificently were no special kind of cowards. But, as a raw militia, they + simply were to well-trained regulars what children are to men. + </p> + <p> + <i>American Non-Combatant Services</i>. There were more than fifty + thousand deaths reported on the American side; yet not ten thousand men + were killed or mortally wounded in all the battles put together. The + medical department, like the commissariat and transport, was only + organized at the very last minute, even among the regulars, and then in a + most haphazard way. Among the militia these indispensable branches of the + service were never really organized at all. + </p> + <p> + Such disastrous shortcomings were not caused by any lack of national + resources. The population o the United States was about eight millions, as + against eighteen millions in the British Isles. Prosperity was general; at + all events, up to the time that it was checked by Jefferson's Embargo Act. + The finances were also thought to be most satisfactory. On the very eve of + war the Secretary of the Treasury reported that the national debt had been + reduced by forty-six million dollars since his party had come into power. + Had this 'war party' spent those millions on its Army and Navy, the war + itself might have had an ending more satisfactory to the United States. + </p> + <p> + Let us now review the forces on the British side. + </p> + <p> + The eighteen million people in the British Isles were naturally anxious to + avoid war with the eight millions in the United States. They had enough on + their hands as it was. The British Navy was being kept at a greater + strength than ever before; though it was none too strong for the vast + amount of work it had to do. The British Army was waging its greatest + Peninsular campaign. All the other naval and military services of what was + already a world-wide empire had to be maintained. One of the most + momentous crises in the world's history was fast approaching; for + Napoleon, arch-enemy of England and mightiest of modern conquerors, was + marching on Russia with five hundred thousand men. Nor was this all. There + were troubles at home as well as dangers abroad. The king had gone mad the + year before. The prime minister had recently been assassinated. The strain + of nearly twenty years of war was telling severely on the nation. It was + no time to take on a new enemy, eight millions strong, especially one who + supplied so many staple products during peace and threatened both the sea + flank of the mother country and the land flank of Canada during war. + </p> + <p> + Canada was then little more than a long, weak line of settlements on the + northern frontier of the United States. Counting in the Maritime + Provinces, the population hardly exceeded five hundred thousand—as + many people, altogether, as there were soldiers in one of Napoleon's + armies, or Americans enlisted for service in this very war. Nearly + two-thirds of this half-million were French Canadians in Lower Canada, now + the province of Quebec. They were loyal to the British cause, knowing they + could not live a French-Canadian life except within the British Empire. + The population of Upper Canada, now Ontario, was less than a hundred + thousand. The Anglo-Canadians in it were of two kinds: British immigrants + and United Empire Loyalists, with sons and grandsons of each. Both kinds + were loyal. But the 'U.E.L.'s' were anti-American through and through, + especially in regard to the war-and-Democratic party then in power. They + could therefore be depended on to fight to the last against an enemy who, + having driven them into exile once, was now coming to wrest their second + New-World home from its allegiance to the British crown. They and their + descendants in all parts of Canada numbered more than half the + Anglo-Canadian population in 1812. The few thousand Indians near the scene + of action naturally sided with the British, who treated them better and + dispossessed them less than the Americans did. The only detrimental part + of the population was the twenty-five thousand Americans, who simply used + Canada as a good ground for exploitation, and who would have preferred to + see it under the Stars and Stripes, provided that the change put no + restriction on their business opportunities. + </p> + <p> + <i>The British Navy</i>. About thirty thousand men of the British Navy, + only a fifth of the whole service, appeared within the American theatre of + war from first to last. This oldest and greatest of all navies had + recently emerged triumphant from an age-long struggle for the command of + the sea. But, partly because of its very numbers and vast heritage of + fame, it was suffering acutely from several forms of weakness. Almost + twenty years of continuous war, with dull blockades during the last seven, + was enough to make any service 'go stale.' Owing to the enormous losses + recruiting had become exceedingly and increasingly difficult, even + compulsory recruiting by press-gang. At the same time, Nelson's victories + had filled the ordinary run of naval men with an over-weening confidence + in their own invincibility; and this over-confidence had become more than + usually dangerous because of neglected gunnery and defective shipbuilding. + The Admiralty had cut down the supply of practice ammunition and had + allowed British ships to lag far behind those of other nations in material + and design. The general inferiority of British shipbuilding was such an + unwelcome truth to the British people that they would not believe it till + the American frigates drove it home with shattering broadsides. But it was + a very old truth, for all that. Nelson's captains, and those of still + earlier wars, had always competed eagerly for the command of the better + built French prizes, which they managed to take only because the + superiority of their crews was great enough to overcome the inferiority of + their ships. There was a different tale to tell when inferior British + vessels with 'run-down' crews met superior American vessels with + first-rate crews. In those days training and discipline were better in the + American mercantile marine than in the British; and the American Navy, of + course, shared in the national efficiency at sea. Thus, with cheap + materials, good designs, and excellent seamen, the Americans started with + great advantages over the British for single-ship actions; and it was some + time before their small collection of ships succumbed to the grinding + pressure of the regularly organized British fleet. + </p> + <p> + <i>The Provincial Marine</i>. Canada had a little local navy on the Lakes + called the Provincial Marine. It dated from the Conquest, and had done + good service again during the Revolution, especially in Carleton's victory + over Arnold on Lake Champlain in 1776. It had not, however, been kept up + as a proper naval force, but had been placed under the + quartermaster-general's department of the Army, where it had been mostly + degraded into a mere branch of the transport service. At one time the + effective force had been reduced to 132 men; though many more were + hurriedly added just before the war. Most of its senior officers were too + old; and none of the juniors had enjoyed any real training for combatant + duties. Still, many of the ships and men did well in the war, though they + never formed a single properly organized squadron. + </p> + <p> + <i>British Privateers</i>. Privateering was not a flourishing business in + the mother country in 1812. Prime seamen were scarce, owing to the great + number needed in the Navy and in the mercantile marine. Many, too, had + deserted to get the higher wages paid in 'Yankees'—'dollars for + shillings,' as the saying went. Besides, there was little foreign trade + left to prey on. Canadian privateers did better. They were nearly all + 'Bluenoses;' that is, they hailed from the Maritime Provinces. During the + three campaigns the Court of Vice-Admiralty at Halifax issued letters of + marque to forty-four privateers, which employed, including replacements, + about three thousand men and reported over two hundred prizes. + </p> + <p> + <i>British Commissariat and Transport</i>. Transport, of course, went + chiefly by water. Reinforcements and supplies from the mother country came + out under convoy, mostly in summer, to Quebec, where bulk was broken, and + whence both men and goods were sent to the front. There were plenty of + experts in Canada to move goods west in ordinary times. The best of all + were the French-Canadian voyageurs who manned the boats of the Hudson's + Bay and North-West Companies. But there were not enough of them to carry + on the work of peace and war together. Great and skilful efforts, however, + were made. Schooners, bateaux, boats, and canoes were all turned to good + account. But the inland line of communications was desperately long and + difficult to work. It was more than twelve hundred miles from Quebec to + Amherstburg on the river Detroit, even by the shortest route. + </p> + <p> + <i>The British Army</i>. The British Army, like the Navy, had to maintain + an exacting world-wide service, besides large contingents in the field, on + resources which had been severely strained by twenty years of war. It was + represented in Canada by only a little over four thousand effective men + when the war began. Reinforcements at first came slowly and in small + numbers. In 1813 some foreign corps in British pay, like the Watteville + and the Meuron regiments, came out. But in 1814 more than sixteen thousand + men, mostly Peninsular veterans, arrived. Altogether, including every man + present in any part of Canada during the whole war, there were over + twenty-five thousand British regulars. In addition to these there were the + troops invading the United States at Washington and Baltimore, with the + reinforcements that joined them for the attack on New Orleans—in + all, nearly nine thousand men. The grand total within the theatre of war + was therefore about thirty-four thousand. + </p> + <p> + <i>The Canadian Regulars</i>. The Canadian regulars were about four + thousand strong. Another two thousand took the place of men who were lost + to the service, making the total six thousand, from first to last. There + were six corps raised for permanent service: the Royal Newfoundland + Regiment, the New Brunswick Regiment, the Canadian Fencibles, the Royal + Veterans, the Canadian Voltigeurs, and the Glengarry Light Infantry. The + Glengarries were mostly Highland Roman Catholics who had settled Glengarry + county on the Ottawa, where Ontario marches with Quebec. The Voltigeurs + were French Canadians under a French-Canadian officer in the Imperial + Army. In the other corps there were many United Empire Loyalists from the + different provinces, including a good stiffening of old soldiers and their + sons. + </p> + <p> + <i>The Canadian Embodied Militia</i>. The Canadian militia by law + comprised every able-bodied man except the few specially exempt, like the + clergy and the judges. A hundred thousand adult males were liable for + service. Various causes, however, combined to prevent half of these from + getting under arms. Those who actually did duty were divided into + 'Embodied' and 'Sedentary' corps. The embodied militia consisted of picked + men, drafted for special service; and they often approximated so closely + to the regulars in discipline and training that they may be classed, at + the very least, as semi-regulars. Counting all those who passed into the + special reserve during the war, as well as those who went to fill up the + ranks after losses, there were nearly ten thousand of these highly + trained, semi-regular militiamen engaged in the war. + </p> + <p> + <i>The Canadian Sedentary Militia</i>. The 'Sedentaries' comprised the + rest of the militia. The number under arms fluctuated greatly; so did the + length of time on duty. There were never ten thousand employed at any one + time all over the country. As a rule, the 'Sedentaries' did duty at the + base, thus releasing the better trained men for service at the front. Many + had the blood of soldiers in their veins; and nearly all had the priceless + advantage of being kept in constant touch with regulars. A passionate + devotion to the cause also helped them to acquire, sooner than most other + men, both military knowledge and that true spirit of discipline which, + after all, is nothing but self-sacrifice in its finest patriotic form. + </p> + <p> + <i>The Indians</i>. Nearly all the Indians sided with the British or else + remained neutral. They were, however, a very uncertain force; and the + total number that actually served at the front throughout the war + certainly fell short of five thousand. + </p> + <p> + This completes the estimate of the opposing forces-of the more than half a + million Americans against the hundred and twenty-five thousand British; + with these great odds entirely reversed whenever the comparison is made + not between mere quantities of men but between their respective degrees of + discipline and training. + </p> + <p> + But it does not complete the comparison between the available resources of + the two opponents in one most important particular—finance. The Army + Bill Act, passed at Quebec on August 1, 1812, was the greatest single + financial event in the history of Canada. It was also full of political + significance; for the parliament of Lower Canada was overwhelmingly + French-Canadian. The million dollars authorized for issue, together with + interest at six per cent, pledged that province to the equivalent of four + years' revenue. The risk was no light one. But it was nobly run and well + rewarded. These Army Bills were the first paper money in the whole New + World that never lost face value for a day, that paid all their statutory + interest, and that were finally redeemed at par. The denominations ran + from one dollar up to four hundred dollars. Bills of one, two, three, and + four dollars could always be cashed at the Army Bill Office in Quebec. + After due notice the whole issue was redeemed in November 1816. A special + feature well worth noting is the fact that Army Bills sometimes commanded + a premium of five per cent over gold itself, because, being convertible + into government bills of exchange on London, they were secure against any + fluctuations in the price of bullion. A special comparison well worth + making is that between their own remarkable stability and the equally + remarkable instability of similar instruments of finance in the United + States, where, after vainly trying to help the government through its + difficulties, every bank outside of New England was forced to suspend + specie payments in 1814, the year of the Great Blockade. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0003" id="link2HCH0003"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER III — 1812: OFF TO THE FRONT + </h2> + <p> + President Madison sent his message to Congress on the 1st of June and + signed the resultant 'war bill' on the 18th following. Congress was as + much divided as the nation on the question of peace or war. The vote in + the House of Representatives was seventy-nine to forty-nine, while in the + Senate it was nineteen to thirteen. The government itself was 'solid.' But + it did little enough to make up for the lack of national whole-heartedness + by any efficiency of its own. Madison was less zealous about the war than + most of his party. He was no Pitt or Lincoln to ride the storm, but a + respectable lawyer-politician, whose forte was writing arguments, not + wielding his country's sword. Nor had he in his Cabinet a single statesman + with a genius for making war. His war secretary, William Eustis, never + grasped the military situation at all, and had to be replaced by John + Armstrong after the egregious failures of the first campaign. During the + war debate in June, Eustis was asked to report to Congress how many of the + 'additional' twenty-five thousand men authorized in January had already + been enlisted. The best answer he could make was a purely 'unofficial + opinion' that the number was believed to exceed five thousand. + </p> + <p> + The first move to the front was made by the Navy. Under very strong + pressure the Cabinet had given up the original idea of putting the ships + under a glass case; and four days after the declaration of war orders were + sent to the senior naval officer, Commodore Rodgers, to 'protect our + returning commerce' by scattering his ships about the American coast just + where the British squadron at Halifax would be most likely to defeat them + one by one. Happily for the United States, these orders were too late. + Rodgers had already sailed. He was a man of action. His little squadron of + three frigates, one sloop, and one brig lay in the port of New York, all + ready waiting for the word. And when news of the declaration arrived, he + sailed within the hour, and set out in pursuit of a British squadron that + was convoying a fleet of merchantmen from the West Indies to England. He + missed the convoy, which worked into Liverpool, Bristol, and London by + getting to the north of him. But, for all that, his sudden dash into + British waters with an active, concentrated squadron produced an excellent + effect. The third day out the British frigate <i>Belvidera</i> met him and + had to run for her life into Halifax. The news of this American squadron's + being at large spread alarm all over the routes between Canada and the + outside world. Rodgers turned south within a few hours' sail of the + English Channel, turned west off Madeira, gave Halifax a wide berth, and + reached Boston ten weeks out from Sandy Hook. 'We have been so completely + occupied in looking out for Commodore Rodgers,' wrote a British naval + officer, 'that we have taken very few prizes.' Even Madison was + constrained to admit that this offensive move had had the defensive + results he had hoped to reach in his own 'defensive' way. 'Our Trade has + reached our ports, having been much favoured by a squadron under Commodore + Rodgers.' + </p> + <p> + The policy of squadron cruising was continued throughout the autumn and + winter of 1812. There were no squadron battles. But there was unity of + purpose; and British convoys were harassed all over the Atlantic till well + on into the next year. During this period there were five famous duels, + which have made the <i>Constitution</i> and the <i>United States</i>, the + <i>Hornet</i> and the <i>Wasp</i>, four names to conjure with wherever the + Stars and Stripes are flown. The <i>Constitution</i> fought the first, + when she took the <i>Guerriere</i> in August, due east of Boston and south + of Newfoundland. The <i>Wasp</i> won the second in September, by taking + the <i>Frolic</i> half-way between Halifax and Bermuda. The <i>United + States</i> won the third in October, by defeating the <i>Macedonian</i> + south-west of Madeira. The <i>Constitution</i> won the fourth in December, + off Bahia in Brazil, by defeating the <i>Java</i>. And the <i>Hornet</i> + won the fifth in February, by taking the <i>Peacock</i>, off Demerara, on + the coast of British Guiana. + </p> + <p> + This closed the first period of the war at sea. The British government had + been so anxious to avoid war, and to patch up peace again after war had + broken out, that they purposely refrained from putting forth their full + available naval strength till 1813. At the same time, they would naturally + have preferred victory to defeat; and the fact that most of the British + Navy was engaged elsewhere, and that what was available was partly held in + leash, by no means dims the glory of those four men-of-war which the + Americans fought with so much bravery and skill, and with such + well-deserved success. No wonder Wellington said peace with the United + States would be worth having at any honourable price, 'if we could only + take some of their damned frigates!' Peace was not to come for another + eighteen months. But though the Americans won a few more duels out at sea, + besides two annihilating flotilla victories on the Lakes, their coast was + blockaded as completely as Napoleon's, once the British Navy had begun its + concerted movements on a comprehensive scale. From that time forward the + British began to win the naval war, although they won no battles and only + one duel that has lived in history. This dramatic duel, fought between the + <i>Shannon</i> and the <i>Chesapeake</i> on June 1, 1813, was not itself a + more decisive victory for the British than previous frigate duels had been + for the Americans. But it serves better than any other special event to + mark the change from the first period, when the Americans roved the sea as + conquerors, to the second, when they were gradually blockaded into utter + impotence. + </p> + <p> + Having now followed the thread of naval events to a point beyond the other + limits of this chapter, we must return to the American movements against + the Canadian frontier and the British counter-movements intended to + checkmate them. + </p> + <p> + Quebec and Halifax, the two great Canadian seaports, were safe from + immediate American attack; though Quebec was the ultimate objective of the + Americans all through the war. But the frontier west of Quebec offered + several tempting chances for a vigorous invasion, if the American naval + and military forces could only be made to work together. The whole life of + Canada there depended absolutely on her inland waterways. If the Americans + could cut the line of the St Lawrence and Great Lakes at any critical + point, the British would lose everything to the west of it; and there were + several critical points of connection along this line. St Joseph's Island, + commanding the straits between Lake Superior and Lake Huron, was a vital + point of contact with all the Indians to the west. It was the British + counterpoise to the American post at Michilimackinac, which commanded the + straits between Lake Huron and Lake Michigan. Detroit commanded the + waterway between Lake Huron and Lake Erie; while the command of the + Niagara peninsula ensured the connection between Lake Erie and Lake + Ontario. At the head of the St Lawrence, guarding the entrance to Lake + Ontario, stood Kingston. Montreal was an important station midway between + Kingston and Quebec, besides being an excellent base for an army thrown + forward against the American frontier. Quebec was the general base from + which all the British forces were directed and supplied. + </p> + <p> + Quick work, by water and land together, was essential for American success + before the winter, even if the Canadians were really so anxious to change + their own flag for the Stars and Stripes. But the American government put + the cart before the horse—the Army before the Navy—and + weakened the military forces of invasion by dividing them into two + independent commands. General Henry Dearborn was appointed + commander-in-chief, but only with control over the north-eastern country, + that is, New England and New York. Thirty years earlier Dearborn had + served in the War of Independence as a junior officer; and he had been + Jefferson's Secretary of War. Yet he was not much better trained as a + leader than his raw men were as followers, and he was now sixty-one. He + established his headquarters at Greenbush, nearly opposite Albany, so that + he could advance on Montreal by the line of the Hudson, Lake Champlain, + and the Richelieu. The intended advance, however, did not take place this + year. Greenbush was rather a recruiting depot and camp of instruction than + the base of an army in the field; and the actual campaign had hardly begun + before the troops went into winter quarters. The commander of the + north-western army was General William Hull. And his headquarters were to + be Detroit, from which Upper Canada was to be quickly overrun without + troubling about the co-operation of the Navy. Like Dearborn, Hull had + served in the War of Independence. But he had been a civilian ever since; + he was now fifty-nine; and his only apparent qualification was his having + been governor of Michigan for seven years. Not until September, after two + defeats on land, was Commodore Chauncey ordered 'to assume command of the + naval force on Lakes Erie and Ontario, and use every exertion to obtain + control of them this fall.' Even then Lake Champlain, an essential link + both in the frontier system and on Dearborn's proposed line of march, was + totally forgotten. + </p> + <p> + To complete the dispersion of force, Eustis forgot all about the military + detachments at the western forts. Fort Dearborn (now Chicago) and + Michilimackinac, important as points of connection with the western + tribes, were left to the devices of their own inadequate garrisons. In + 1801 Dearborn himself, Eustis's predecessor as Secretary of War, had + recommended a peace strength of two hundred men at Michilimackinac, + usually known as 'Mackinaw.' In 1812 there were not so many at Mackinaw + and Chicago put together. + </p> + <p> + It was not a promising outlook to an American military eye—the cart + before the horse, the thick end of the wedge turned towards the enemy, + three incompetent men giving disconnected orders on the northern frontier, + and the western posts neglected. But Eustis was full of self-confidence. + Hull was 'enthusing' his militiamen. And Dearborn was for the moment + surpassing both, by proposing to 'operate, with effect, at the same + moment, against Niagara, Kingston, and Montreal.' + </p> + <p> + From the Canadian side the outlook was also dark enough to the trained + eye; though not for the same reasons. The menace here was from an enemy + whose general resources exceeded those in Canada by almost twenty to one. + The silver lining to the cloud was the ubiquitous British Navy and the + superior training and discipline of the various little military forces + immediately available for defence. + </p> + <p> + The Maritime Provinces formed a subordinate command, based on the strong + naval station of Halifax, where a regular garrison was always maintained + by the Imperial government. They were never invaded, or even seriously + threatened. It was only in 1814 that they came directly into the scene of + action, and then only as the base from which the invasion of Maine was + carried out. + </p> + <p> + We must therefore turn to Quebec as the real centre of Canadian defence, + which, indeed, it was best fitted to be, not only from its strategical + situation, but from the fact that it was the seat of the governor-general + and commander-in-chief, Sir George Prevost. Like Sir John Sherbrooke, the + governor of Nova Scotia, Prevost was a professional soldier with an + unblemished record in the Army. But, though naturally anxious to do well, + and though very suavely diplomatic, he was not the man, as we shall often + see, either to face a military crisis or to stop the Americans from + stealing marches on him by negotiation. On the outbreak of war he was at + headquarters in Quebec, dividing his time between his civil and military + duties, greatly concerned with international diplomacy, and always full of + caution. + </p> + <p> + At York (now Toronto) in Upper Canada a very different man was meanwhile + preparing to checkmate Hull's 'north-western army' of Americans, which was + threatening to invade the province. Isaac Brock was not only a soldier + born and bred, but, alone among the leaders on either side, he had the + priceless gift of genius. He was now forty-two, having been born in + Guernsey on October 6, 1769, in the same year as Napoleon and Wellington. + Like the Wolfes and the Montcalms, the Brocks had followed the noble + profession of arms for many generations. Nor were the De Lisles, his + mother's family, less distinguished for the number of soldiers and sailors + they had been giving to England ever since the Norman Conquest. Brock + himself, when only twenty-nine, had commanded the 49th Foot in Holland + under Sir John Moore, the future hero of Corunna, and Sir Ralph + Abercromby, who was so soon to fall victorious in Egypt. Two years after + this he had stood beside another and still greater man at Copenhagen, + 'mighty Nelson,' who there gave a striking instance of how a subordinate + inspired by genius can win the day by disregarding the over-caution of a + commonplace superior. We may be sure that when Nelson turned his blind eye + on Parker's signal of recall the lesson was not thrown away on Brock. + </p> + <p> + For ten long years of inglorious peace Brock had now been serving on in + Canada, while his comrades in arms were winning distinction on the + battlefields of Europe. This was partly due to his own excellence: he was + too good a man to be spared after his first five years were up in 1807; + for the era of American hostility had then begun. He had always been + observant. But after 1807 he had redoubled his efforts to 'learn Canada,' + and learn her thoroughly. People and natural resources, products and means + of transport, armed strength on both sides of the line and the best plan + of defence, all were studied with unremitting zeal. In 1811 he became the + acting lieutenant-governor and commander of the forces in Upper Canada, + where he soon found out that the members of parliament returned by the + 'American vote' were bent on thwarting every effort he could make to + prepare the province against the impending storm. In 1812, on the very day + he heard that war had been declared, he wished to strike the unready + Americans hard and instantly at one of their three accessible points of + assembly-Fort Niagara, at the upper end of Lake Ontario, opposite Fort + George, which stood on the other side of the Niagara river; Sackett's + Harbour, at the lower end of Lake Ontario, thirty-six miles from Kingston; + and Ogdensburg, on the upper St Lawrence, opposite Fort Prescott. But Sir + George Prevost, the governor-general, was averse from an open act of war + against the Northern States, because they were hostile to Napoleon and in + favour of maintaining peace with the British; while Brock himself was soon + turned from this purpose by news of Hull's American invasion farther west, + as well as by the necessity of assembling his own thwarting little + parliament at York. + </p> + <p> + The nine days' session, from July 27 to August 5, yielded the + indispensable supplies. But the suspension of the Habeas Corpus Act, as a + necessary war measure, was prevented by the disloyal minority, some of + whom wished to see the British defeated and all of whom were ready to + break their oath of allegiance whenever it suited them to do so. The + patriotic majority, returned by the votes of United Empire Loyalists and + all others who were British born and bred, issued an address that echoed + the appeal made by Brock himself in the following words: 'We are engaged + in an awful and eventful contest. By unanimity and despatch in our + councils and by vigour in our operations we may teach the enemy this + lesson: That a country defended by free men, enthusiastically devoted to + the cause of their King and Constitution, can never be conquered.' + </p> + <p> + On August 5, being at last clear of his immediate duties as a civil + governor, Brock threw himself ardently into the work of defeating Hull, + who had crossed over into Canada from Detroit on July 11 and issued a + proclamation at Sandwich the following day. This proclamation shows + admirably the sort of impression which the invaders wished to produce on + Canadians. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + The United States are sufficiently powerful to afford + you every security consistent with their rights and + your expectations. I tender you the invaluable blessings + of Civil, Political, and Religious Liberty... The + arrival of an army of Friends must be hailed by you + with a cordial welcome. You will be emancipated from + Tyranny and Oppression and restored to the dignified + station of Freemen... If, contrary to your own interest + and the just expectation of my country, you should + take part in the approaching contest, you will be + considered and treated as enemies and the horrors and + calamities of war will Stalk before you. If the + barbarous and Savage policy of Great Britain be pursued, + and the savages let loose to murder our Citizens and + butcher our women and children, this war will be a + war of extermination. The first stroke with the + Tomahawk, the first attempt with the Scalping Knife, + will be the Signal for one indiscriminate scene of + desolation. No white man found fighting by the Side + of an Indian will be taken prisoner. Instant destruction + will be his Lot... +</pre> + <p> + This was war with a vengeance. But Hull felt less confidence than his + proclamation was intended to display. He knew that, while the American + government had been warned in January about the necessity of securing the + naval command of Lake Erie, no steps had yet been taken to secure it. Ever + since the beginning of March, when he had written a report based on his + seven years' experience as governor of Michigan, he had been gradually + learning that Eustis was bent on acting in defiance of all sound military + advice. In April he had accepted his new position very much against his + will and better judgment. In May he had taken command of the assembling + militiamen at Dayton in Ohio. In June he had been joined by a battalion of + inexperienced regulars. And now, in July, he was already feeling the ill + effects of having to carry on what should have been an amphibious campaign + without the assistance of any proper force afloat; for on the 2nd ten days + before he issued his proclamation at Sandwich, Lieutenant Rolette, an + enterprising French-Canadian officer in the Provincial Marine, had cut his + line of communication along the Detroit and had taken an American schooner + which contained his official plan of campaign, besides a good deal of + baggage and stores. + </p> + <p> + There were barely six hundred British on the line of the Detroit when Hull + first crossed over to Sandwich with twenty-five hundred men. These six + hundred comprised less than 150 regulars, about 300 militia, and some 150 + Indians. Yet Hull made no decisive effort against the feeble little fort + of Malden, which was the only defence of Amherstburg by land. The distance + was nothing, only twelve miles south from Sandwich. He sent a sort of + flying column against it. But this force went no farther than half-way, + where the Americans were checked at the bridge over the swampy little + Riviere aux Canards by the Indians under Tecumseh, the great War Chief of + whom we shall soon hear more. + </p> + <p> + Hull's failure to take Fort Malden was one fatal mistake. His failure to + secure his communications southward from Detroit was another. Apparently + yielding to the prevalent American idea that a safe base could be created + among friendly Canadians without the trouble of a regular campaign, he + sent off raiding parties up the Thames. According to his own account, + these parties 'penetrated sixty miles into the settled part of the + province.' According to Brock, they 'ravaged the country as far as the + Moravian Town.' But they gained no permanent foothold. By the beginning of + August Hull's position had already become precarious. The Canadians had + not proved friendly. The raid up the Thames and the advance towards + Amherstburg had both failed. And the first British reinforcements had + already begun to arrive. These were very small. But even a few good + regulars helped to discourage Hull; and the new British commander, Colonel + Procter of the 41st, was not yet to be faced by a task beyond his + strength. Worse yet for the Americans, Brock might soon be expected from + the east; the Provincial Marine still held the water line of communication + from the south; and dire news had just come in from the west. + </p> + <p> + The moment Brock had heard of the declaration of war he had sent orders + post-haste to Captain Roberts at St Joseph's Island, either to attack the + Americans at Michilimackinac or stand on his own defence. Roberts received + Brock's orders on the 15th of July. The very next day he started for + Michilimackinac with 45 men of the Royal Veterans, 180 French-Canadian + voyageurs, 400 Indians, and two 'unwieldy' iron six-pounders. Surprise was + essential, to prevent the Americans from destroying their stores; and the + distance was a good fifty miles. But 'by the almost unparalleled exertions + of the Canadians who manned the boats, we arrived at the place of + Rendezvous at 3 o'clock the following morning.' One of the iron + six-pounders was then hauled up the heights, which rise to eight hundred + feet, and trained on the dumbfounded Americans, while the whole British + force took post for storming. The American commandant, Lieutenant Hanks, + who had only fifty-seven effective men, thereupon surrendered without + firing a shot. + </p> + <p> + The news of this bold stroke ran like wildfire through the whole + North-West. The effect on the Indians was tremendous, immediate, and + wholly in favour of the British. In the previous November Tecumseh's + brother, known far and wide as the 'Prophet,' had been defeated on the + banks of the Tippecanoe, a river of Indiana, by General Harrison, of whom + we shall hear in the next campaign. This battle, though small in itself, + was looked upon as the typical victory of the dispossessing Americans; so + the British seizure of Michilimackinac was hailed with great joy as being + a most effective counter-stroke. Nor was this the only reason for + rejoicing. Michilimackinac and St Joseph's commanded the two lines of + communication between the western wilds and the Great Lakes; so the + possession of both by the British was more than a single victory, it was a + promise of victories to come. No wonder Hull lamented this 'opening of the + hive,' which 'let the swarms' loose all over the wilds on his inland flank + and rear. + </p> + <p> + He would have felt more uneasy still if he had known what was to happen + when Captain Heald received his orders at Fort Dearborn (Chicago) on + August 9. Hull had ordered Heald to evacuate the fort as soon as possible + and rejoin headquarters. Heald had only sixty-six men, not nearly enough + to overawe the surrounding Indians. News of the approaching evacuation + spread quickly during the six days of preparation. The Americans failed to + destroy the strong drink in the fort. The Indians got hold of it, became + ungovernably drunk, and killed half of Heald's men before they had gone a + mile. The rest surrendered and were spared. Heald and his wife were then + sent to Mackinaw, where Roberts treated them very kindly and sent them on + to Pittsburg. The whole affair was one between Indians and Americans + alone. But it was naturally used by the war party to inflame American + feeling against all things British. + </p> + <p> + While Hull was writing to Fort Dearborn and hearing bad news from + Michilimackinac, he was also getting more and more anxious about his own + communications to the south. With no safe base in Canada, and no safe line + of transport by water from Lake Erie to the village of Detroit, he decided + to clear the road which ran north and south beside the Detroit river. But + this was now no easy task for his undisciplined forces, as Colonel Procter + was bent on blocking the same road by sending troops and Indians across + the river. On August 5, the day Brock prorogued his parliament at York, + Tecumseh ambushed Hull's first detachment of two hundred men at + Brownstown, eighteen miles south of Detroit. On the 7th Hull began to + withdraw his forces from the Canadian side. On the 8th he ordered six + hundred men to make a second attempt to clear the southern road. But on + the 9th these men were met at Maguaga, only fourteen miles south of + Detroit, by a mixed force of British-regulars, militia, and Indians. The + superior numbers of the Americans enabled them to press the British back + at first. But, on the 10th, when the British showed a firm front in a new + position, the Americans retired discouraged. Next day Hull withdrew the + last of his men from Canadian soil, exactly one month after they had first + set foot upon it. The following day was spent in consulting his staff and + trying to reorganize his now unruly militia. On the evening of the 13th he + made his final effort to clear the one line left, by sending out four + hundred picked men under his two best colonels, McArthur and Cass, who + were ordered to make an inland detour through the woods. + </p> + <p> + That same night Brock stepped ashore at Amherstburg. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0004" id="link2HCH0004"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER IV — 1812: BROCK AT DETROIT AND QUEENSTON HEIGHTS + </h2> + <p> + The prorogation which released Brock from his parliamentary duties on + August 5 had been followed by eight days of the most strenuous military + work, especially on the part of the little reinforcement which he was + taking west to Amherstburg. The Upper Canada militiamen, drawn from the + United Empire Loyalists and from the British-born, had responded with + hearty goodwill, all the way from Glengarry to Niagara. But the population + was so scattered and equipment so scarce that no attempt had been made to + have whole battalions of 'Select Embodied Militia' ready for the beginning + of the war, as in the more thickly peopled province of Lower Canada. The + best that could be done was to embody the two flank companies—the + Light and Grenadier companies—of the most urgently needed + battalions. But as these companies contained all the picked men who were + readiest for immediate service, and as the Americans were very slow in + mobilizing their own still more unready army, Brock found that, for the + time being, York could be left and Detroit attacked with nothing more than + his handful of regulars, backed by the flank-company militiamen and the + Provincial Marine. + </p> + <p> + Leaving York the very day he closed the House there, Brock sailed over to + Burlington Bay, marched across the neck of the Niagara peninsula, and + embarked at Long Point with every man the boats could carry—three + hundred, all told, forty regulars of the 41st and two hundred and sixty + flank-company militiamen. Then, for the next five days, he fought his way, + inch by inch, along the north shore of Lake Erie against a persistent + westerly storm. The news by the way was discouraging. Hull's invasion had + unsettled the Indians as far east as the Niagara peninsula, which the + local militia were consequently afraid to leave defenceless. But once + Brock reached the scene of action, his insight showed him what bold skill + could do to turn the tide of feeling all along the western frontier. + </p> + <p> + It was getting on for one o'clock in the morning of August 14 when + Lieutenant Rolette challenged Brock's leading boat from aboard the + Provincial Marine schooner <i>General Hunter</i>. As Brock stepped ashore + he ordered all commanding officers to meet him within an hour. He then + read Hull's dispatches, which had been taken by Rolette with the captured + schooner and by Tecumseh at Brownstown. By two o'clock all the principal + officers and Indian chiefs had assembled, not as a council of war, but + simply to tell Brock everything they knew. Only Tecumseh and Colonel + Nichol, the quartermaster of the little army, thought that Detroit itself + could be attacked with any prospect of success. Brock listened + attentively; made up his mind; told his officers to get ready for + immediate attack; asked Tecumseh to assemble all the Indians at noon; and + dismissed the meeting at four. Brock and Tecumseh read each other at a + glance; and Tecumseh, turning to the tribal chiefs, said simply, 'This is + a man,' a commendation approved by them all with laconic, deep 'Ho-ho's!' + </p> + <p> + Tecumseh was the last great leader of the Indian race and perhaps the + finest embodiment of all its better qualities. Like Pontiac, fifty years + before, but in a nobler way, he tried to unite the Indians against the + exterminating American advance. He was apparently on the eve of forming + his Indian alliance when he returned home to find that his brother the + Prophet had just been defeated at Tippecanoe. The defeat itself was no + great thing. But it came precisely at a time when it could exert most + influence on the unstable Indian character and be most effective in + breaking up the alliance of the tribes. Tecumseh, divining this at once, + lost no time in vain regrets, but joined the British next year at + Amherstburg. He came with only thirty followers. But stray warriors kept + on arriving; and many of the bolder spirits joined him when war became + imminent. At the time of Brock's arrival there were a thousand effective + Indians under arms. Their arming was only authorized at the last minute; + for Brock's dispatch to Prevost shows how strictly neutral the Canadian + government had been throughout the recent troubles between the Indians and + Americans. He mentions that the chiefs at Amherstburg had long been trying + to obtain the muskets and ammunition 'which for years had been withheld, + agreeably to the instructions received from Sir James Craig, and since + repeated by Your Excellency.' + </p> + <p> + Precisely at noon Brock took his stand beneath a giant oak at Amherstburg + surrounded by his officers. Before him sat Tecumseh. Behind Tecumseh sat + the chiefs; and behind the chiefs a thousand Indians in their war-paint. + Brock then stepped forward to address them. Erect, alert, + broad-shouldered, and magnificently tall; blue-eyed, fair-haired, with + frank and handsome countenance; he looked every inch the champion of a + great and righteous cause. He said the Long Knives had come to take away + the land from both the Indians and the British whites, and that now he + would not be content merely to repulse them, but would follow and beat + them on their own side of the Detroit. After the pause that was usual on + grave occasions, Tecumseh rose and answered for all his followers. He + stood there the ideal of an Indian chief: tall, stately, and commanding; + yet tense, lithe, observant, and always ready for his spring. He the + tiger, Brock the lion; and both unflinchingly at bay. + </p> + <p> + Next morning, August 15, an early start was made for Sandwich, some twelve + miles north, where a five-gun battery was waiting to be unmasked against + Detroit across the river. Arrived at Sandwich, Brock immediately sent + across his aide-de-camp, Colonel Macdonell, with a letter summoning Hull + to surrender. Hull wrote back to say he was prepared to stand his ground. + Brock at once unmasked his battery and made ready to attack next day. With + the men on detachment Hull still had a total of twenty-five hundred. Brock + had only fifteen hundred, including the Provincial Marine. But Hull's men + were losing what discipline they had and were becoming distrustful both of + their leaders and of themselves; while Brock's men were gaining + discipline, zeal, and inspiring confidence with every hour. Besides, the + British were all effectives; while Hull had over five hundred absent from + Detroit and as many more ineffective on the spot; which left him only + fifteen hundred actual combatants. He also had a thousand non-combatants—men, + women, and children—all cowering for shelter from the dangers of + battle, and half dead with the far more terrifying apprehension of an + Indian massacre. + </p> + <p> + Brock's five-gun battery made excellent practice during the afternoon + without suffering any material damage in return. One chance shell produced + a most dismaying effect in Detroit by killing Hanks, the late commandant + of Mackinaw, and three other officers with him. At twilight the firing + ceased on both sides. + </p> + <p> + Immediately after dark Tecumseh led six hundred eager followers down to + their canoes a little way below Sandwich. These Indians were told off by + tribes, as battalions are by companies. There, in silent, dusky groups, + moving soft-foot on their moccasins through the gloom, were Shawnees and + Miamis from Tecumseh's own lost home beside the Wabash, Foxes and Sacs + from the Iowan valley, Ottawas and Wyandots, Chippewas and Potawatomis, + some braves from the middle prairies between the Illinois and the + Mississippi, and even Winnebagoes and Dakotahs from the far North-West. + The flotilla of crowded canoes moved stealthily across the river, with no + louder noise than the rippling current made. As secretly, the Indians + crept ashore, stole inland through the quiet night, and, circling north, + cut off Hull's army from the woods. Little did Hull's anxious sentries + think that some of the familiar cries of night-birds round the fort were + signals being passed along from scout to scout. + </p> + <p> + As the beautiful summer dawn began to break at four o'clock that fateful + Sunday morning, the British force fell in, only seven hundred strong, and + more than half militia. The thirty gunners who had served the Sandwich + battery so well the day before also fell in, with five little + field-pieces, in case Brock could force a battle in the open. Their places + in the battery were ably filled by every man of the Provincial Marine whom + Captain Hall could spare from the <i>Queen Charlotte</i>, the flagship of + the tiny Canadian flotilla. Brock's men and his light artillery were soon + afloat and making for Spring Wells, more than three miles below Detroit. + Then, as the <i>Queen Charlotte</i> ran up her sunrise flag, she and the + Sandwich battery roared out a challenge to which the Americans replied + with random aim. Brock leaped ashore, formed front towards Hull, got into + touch with Tecumseh's Indians on his left, and saw that the British land + and water batteries were protecting his right, as prearranged with Captain + Hall. + </p> + <p> + He had intended to wait in this position, hoping that Hull would march out + to the attack. But, even before his men had finished taking post, the + whole problem was suddenly changed by the arrival of an Indian to say that + McArthur's four hundred picked men, whom Hull had sent south to bring in + the convoy, were returning to Detroit at once. There was now only a moment + to decide whether to retreat across the river, form front against + McArthur, or rush Detroit immediately. But, within that fleeting moment, + Brock divined the true solution and decided to march straight on. With + Tecumseh riding a grey mustang by his side, he led the way in person. He + wore his full-dress gold-and-scarlet uniform and rode his charger Alfred, + the splendid grey which Governor Craig had given him the year before, with + the recommendation that 'the whole continent of America could not furnish + you with so safe and excellent a horse,' and for the good reason that 'I + wish to secure for my old favourite a kind and careful master.' + </p> + <p> + The seven hundred redcoats made a gallant show, all the more imposing + because the militia were wearing some spare uniforms borrowed from the + regulars and because the confident appearance of the whole body led the + discouraged Americans to think that these few could only be the vanguard + of much greater numbers. So strong was this belief that Hull, in sudden + panic, sent over to Sandwich to treat for terms, and was astounded to + learn that Brock and Tecumseh were the two men on the big grey horses + straight in front of him. While Hull's envoys were crossing the river and + returning, the Indians were beginning to raise their war-whoops in the + woods and Brock was reconnoitring within a mile of the fort. This looked + formidable enough, if properly defended, as the ditch was six feet deep + and twelve feet wide, the parapet rose twenty feet, the palisades were of + twenty-inch cedar, and thirty-three guns were pointed through the + embrasures. But Brock correctly estimated the human element inside, and + was just on the point of advancing to the assault when Hull's white flag + went up. + </p> + <p> + The terms were soon agreed upon. Hull's whole army, including all + detachments, surrendered as prisoners of war, while the territory of + Michigan passed into the military possession of King George. Abundance of + food and military stores fell into British hands, together with the <i>Adams</i>, + a fine new brig that had just been completed. She was soon rechristened + the <i>Detroit</i>. The Americans sullenly trooped out. The British + elatedly marched in. The Stars and Stripes came down defeated. The Union + Jack went up victorious and was received with a royal salute from all the + British ordnance, afloat and ashore. The Indians came out of the woods, + yelling with delight and firing their muskets in the air. But, grouped by + tribes, they remained outside the fort and settlement, and not a single + outrage was committed. Tecumseh himself rode in with Brock; and the two + great leaders stood out in front of the British line while the colours + were being changed. Then Brock, in view of all his soldiers, presented his + sash and pistols to Tecumseh. Tecumseh, in turn, gave his many-coloured + Indian sash to Brock, who wore it till the day he died. + </p> + <p> + The effect of the British success at Detroit far exceeded that which had + followed the capture of Mackinaw and the evacuation of Fort Dearborn. + Those, however important to the West, were regarded as mainly Indian + affairs. This was a white man's victory and a white man's defeat. Hull's + proclamation thenceforth became a laughing-stock. The American invasion + had proved a fiasco. The first American army to take the field had failed + at every point. More significant still, the Americans were shown to be + feeble in organization and egregiously mistaken in their expectations. + Canada, on the other hand, had already found her champion and men quite + fit to follow him. + </p> + <p> + Brock left Procter in charge of the West and hurried back to the Niagara + frontier. Arrived at Fort Erie on August 23 he was dismayed to hear of a + dangerously one-sided armistice that had been arranged with the enemy. + This had been first proposed, on even terms, by Prevost, and then eagerly + accepted by Dearborn, after being modified in favour of the Americans. In + proposing an armistice Prevost had rightly interpreted the wishes of the + Imperial government. It was wise to see whether further hostilities could + not be averted altogether; for the obnoxious Orders-in-Council had been + repealed. But Prevost was criminally weak in assenting to the condition + that all movements of men and material should continue on the American + side, when he knew that corresponding movements were impossible on the + British side for lack of transport. Dearborn, the American + commander-in-chief, was only a second-rate general. But he was more than a + match for Prevost at making bargains. + </p> + <p> + Prevost was one of those men who succeed half-way up and fail at the top. + Pure Swiss by blood, he had, like his father, spent his life in the + British Army, and had risen to the rank of lieutenant-general. He had + served with some distinction in the West Indies, and had been made a + baronet for defending Dominica in 1805. In 1808 he became governor of Nova + Scotia, and in 1811, at the age of forty-four, governor-general and + commander-in-chief of Canada. He and his wife were popular both in the + West Indies and in Canada; and he undoubtedly deserved well of the Empire + for having conciliated the French Canadians, who had been irritated by his + predecessor, the abrupt and masterful Craig. The very important Army Bill + Act was greatly due to his diplomatic handling of the French Canadians, + who found him so congenial that they stood by him to the end. His native + tongue was French. He understood French ways and manners to perfection; + and he consequently had far more than the usual sympathy with a people + whose nature and circumstances made them particularly sensitive to real or + fancied slights. All this is more to his credit than his enemies were + willing to admit, either then or afterwards. But, in spite of all these + good qualities, Prevost was not the man to safeguard British honour during + the supreme ordeal of a war; and if he had lived in earlier times, when + nicknames were more apt to become historic, he might well have gone down + to posterity as Prevost the Pusillanimous. + </p> + <p> + Day after day Prevost's armistice kept the British helpless, while + supplies and reinforcements for the Americans poured in at every + advantageous point. Brock was held back from taking either Sackett's + Harbour, which was meanwhile being strongly reinforced from Ogdensburg, or + Fort Niagara, which was being reinforced from Oswego, Procter was held + back from taking Fort Wayne, at the point of the salient angle south of + Lake Michigan and west of Lake Erie—a quite irretrievable loss. For + the moment the British had the command of all the Lakes. But their golden + opportunity passed, never to return. By land their chances were also + quickly disappearing. On September 1, a week before the armistice ended, + there were less than seven hundred Americans directly opposed to Brock, + who commanded in person at Queenston and Fort George. On the day of the + battle in October there were nearly ten times as many along the Niagara + frontier. + </p> + <p> + The very day Brock heard that the disastrous armistice was over he + proposed an immediate attack on Sackett's Harbour. But Prevost refused to + sanction it. Brock then turned his whole attention to the Niagara + frontier, where the Americans were assembling in such numbers that to + attack them was out of the question. The British began to receive a few + supplies and reinforcements. But the Americans had now got such a long + start that, on the fateful 13th of October, they outnumbered Brock's men + four to one—4,000 to 1,000 along the critical fifteen miles between + the Falls and Lake Ontario; and 6,800 to 1,700 along the whole Niagara + river, from lake to lake, a distance of thirty-three miles. The factors + which helped to redress the adverse balance of these odds were Brock + himself, his disciplined regulars, the intense loyalty of the militia, and + the 'telegraph.' This 'telegraph' was a system of visual signalling by + semaphore, much the same as that which Wellington had used along the lines + of Torres Vedras. + </p> + <p> + The immediate moral effects, however, were even more favourable to the + Americans than the mere physical odds; for Prevost's armistice both galled + and chilled the British, who were eager to strike a blow. American + confidence had been much shaken in September by the sight of the prisoners + from Detroit, who had been marched along the river road in full view of + the other side. But it increased rapidly in October as reinforcements + poured in. On the 8th a council of war decided to attack Fort George and + Queenston Heights simultaneously with every available man. But Smyth, the + American general commanding above the Falls, refused to co-operate. This + compelled the adoption of a new plan in which only a feint was to be made + against Fort George, while Queenston Heights were to be carried by storm. + The change entailed a good deal of extra preparation. But when Lieutenant + Elliott, of the American Navy, cut out two British vessels at Fort Erie on + the 9th, the news made the American troops so clamorous for an immediate + invasion that their general, Van Rensselaer, was afraid either to resist + them or to let their ardour cool. + </p> + <p> + In the American camp opposite Queenston all was bustle on the 10th of + October; and at three the next morning the whole army was again astir, + waiting till the vanguard had seized the landing on the British side. But + a wrong leader had been chosen; mistakes were plentiful; and confusion + followed. Nearly all the oars had been put into the first boat, which, + having overshot the mark, was made fast on the British side; whereupon its + commander disappeared. The troops on the American shore shivered in the + drenching autumn rain till after daylight. Then they went back to their + sodden camp, wet, angry, and disgusted. + </p> + <p> + While the rain came down in torrents the principal officers were busy + revising their plans. Smyth was evidently not to be depended on; but it + was thought that, with all the advantages of the initiative, the four + thousand other Americans could overpower the one thousand British and + secure a permanent hold on the Queenston Heights just above the village. + These heights ran back from the Niagara river along Lake Ontario for sixty + miles west, curving north-eastwards round Burlington Bay to Dundas Street, + which was the one regular land line of communication running west from + York. Therefore, if the Americans could hold both the Niagara and the + Heights, they would cut Upper Canada in two. This was, of course, quite + evident to both sides. The only doubtful questions were, How should the + first American attack be made and how should it be met? + </p> + <p> + The American general, Stephen Van Rensselaer, was a civilian who had been + placed at the head of the New York State militia by Governor Tompkins, + both to emphasize the fact that expert regulars were only wanted as + subordinates and to win a cunning move in the game of party politics. Van + Rensselaer was not only one of the greatest of the old 'patroons' who + formed the landed aristocracy of Dutch New York, but he was also a + Federalist. Tompkins, who was a Democrat, therefore hoped to gain his + party ends whatever the result might be. Victory would mean that Van + Rensselaer had been compelled to advance the cause of a war to which he + objected; while defeat would discredit both him and his party, besides + providing Tompkins with the excuse that it would all have happened very + differently if a Democrat had been in charge. + </p> + <p> + Van Rensselaer, a man of sense and honour, took the expert advice of his + cousin, Colonel Solomon Van Rensselaer, who was a regular and the chief of + the staff. It was Solomon Van Rensselaer who had made both plans, the one + of the 8th, for attacking Fort George and the Heights together, and the + one of the 10th, for feinting against Fort George while attacking the + Heights. Brock was puzzled about what was going to happen next. He knew + that the enemy were four to one and that they could certainly attack both + places if Smyth would co-operate. He also knew that they had boats and men + ready to circle round Fort George from the American 'Four Mile Creek' on + the lake shore behind Fort Niagara. Moreover, he was naturally inclined to + think that when the boats prepared for the 11th were left opposite + Queenston all day long, and all the next day too, they were probably + intended to distract his attention from Fort George, where he had fixed + his own headquarters. + </p> + <p> + On the 12th the American plan was matured and concentration begun at + Lewiston, opposite Queenston. Large detachments came in, under perfect + cover, from Four Mile Creek behind Fort Niagara. A smaller number marched + down from the Falls and from Smyth's command still higher up. The camps at + Lewiston and the neighbouring Tuscarora Village were partly concealed from + every point on the opposite bank, so that the British could form no safe + idea of what the Americans were about. Solomon Van Rensselaer was + determined that the advance-guard should do its duty this time; so he took + charge of it himself and picked out 40 gunners, 300 regular infantry, and + 300 of the best militia to make the first attack. These were to be + supported by seven hundred regulars. The rest of the four thousand men + available were to cross over afterwards. The current was strong; but the + river was little more than two hundred yards wide at Queenston and it + could be crossed in less than ten minutes. The Queenston Heights + themselves were a more formidable obstacle, even if defended by only a few + men, as they rose 345 feet above the landing-place. + </p> + <p> + There were only three hundred British in Queenston to meet the first + attack of over thirteen hundred Americans; but they consisted of the two + flank companies of Brock's old regiment, the 49th, supported by some + excellent militia. A single gun stood on the Heights. Another was at + Vrooman's Point a mile below. Two miles farther, at Brown's Point, stood + another gun with another detachment of militia. Four miles farther still + was Fort George, with Brock and his second-in-command, Colonel Sheaffe of + the 49th. About nine miles above the Heights was the little camp at + Chippawa, which, as we shall see, managed to spare 150 men for the second + phase of the battle. The few hundred British above this had to stand by + their own posts, in case Smyth should try an attack on his own account, + somewhere between the Falls and Lake Erie. + </p> + <p> + At half-past three in the dark morning of the 13th of October, Solomon Van + Rensselaer with 225 regulars sprang ashore at the Queenston ferry landing + and began to climb the bank. But hardly had they shown their heads above + the edge before the grenadier company of the 49th, under Captain Dennis, + poured in a stinging volley which sent them back to cover. Van Rensselaer + was badly wounded and was immediately ferried back. The American supports, + under Colonel Christie, had trouble in getting across; and the immediate + command of the invaders devolved upon another regular, Captain Wool. + </p> + <p> + As soon as the rest of the first detachment had landed, Wool took some + three hundred infantry and a few gunners, half of all who were then + present, and led them up-stream, in single file, by a fisherman's path + which curved round and came out on top of the Heights behind the single + British gun there. Progress was very slow in this direction, though the + distance was less than a mile, as it was still pitch-dark and the path was + narrow and dangerous. The three hundred left at the landing were soon + reinforced, and the crossing went on successfully, though some of the + American boats were carried down-stream to the British post at Vrooman's, + where all the men in them were made prisoners and marched off to Fort + George. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile, down at Fort George, Brock had been roused by the cannonade + only three hours after he had finished his dispatches. Twenty-four + American guns were firing hard at Queenston from the opposite shore and + two British guns were replying. Fort Niagara, across the river from Fort + George, then began to speak; whereupon Fort George answered back. Thus the + sound of musketry, five to seven miles away, was drowned; and Brock waited + anxiously to learn whether the real attack was being driven home at + Queenston, or whether the Americans were circling round from their Four + Mile Creek against his own position at Fort George. Four o'clock passed. + The roar of battle still came down from Queenston. But this might be a + feint. Not even Dennis at Queenston could tell as yet whether the main + American army was coming against him or not. But he knew they must be + crossing in considerable force, so he sent a dragoon galloping down to + Brock, who was already in the saddle giving orders to Sheaffe and to the + next senior officer, Evans, when this messenger arrived. Sheaffe was to + follow towards Queenston the very instant the Americans had shown their + hand decisively in that direction; while Evans was to stay at Fort George + and keep down the fire from Fort Niagara. + </p> + <p> + Then Brock set spurs to Alfred and raced for Queenston Heights. It was a + race for more than his life, for more, even, than his own and his army's + honour: it was a race for the honour, integrity, and very life of Canada. + Miles ahead he could see the spurting flashes of the guns, the British two + against the American twenty-four. Presently his quick eye caught the + fitful running flicker of the opposing lines of musketry above the + landing-place at Queenston. As he dashed on he met a second messenger, + Lieutenant Jarvis, who was riding down full-speed to confirm the news + first brought by the dragoon. Brock did not dare draw rein; so he beckoned + Jarvis to gallop back beside him. A couple of minutes sufficed for Brock + to understand the whole situation and make his plan accordingly. Then + Jarvis wheeled back with orders for Sheaffe to bring up every available + man, circle round inland, and get into touch with the Indians. A few + strides more, and Brock was ordering the men on from Brown's Point. He + paused another moment at Vrooman's, to note the practice made by the + single gun there. Then, urging his gallant grey to one last turn of speed, + he burst into Queenston through the misty dawn just where the grenadiers + of his own old regiment stood at bay. + </p> + <p> + In his full-dress red and gold, with the arrow-patterned sash Tecumseh had + given him as a badge of honour at Detroit, he looked, from plume to spur, + a hero who could turn the tide of battle against any odds. A ringing cheer + broke out in greeting. But he paused no longer than just enough to wave a + greeting back and take a quick look round before scaling the Heights to + where eight gunners with their single eighteen-pounder were making a + desperate effort to check the Americans at the landing-place. Here he + dismounted to survey the whole scene of action. The Americans attacking + Queenston seemed to be at least twice as strong as the British. The + artillery odds were twelve to one. And over two thousand Americans were + drawn up on the farther side of the narrow Niagara waiting their turn for + the boats. Nevertheless, the British seemed to be holding their own. The + crucial question was: could they hold it till Sheaffe came up from Fort + George, till Bullock came down from Chippawa, till both had formed front + on the Heights, with Indians on their flanks and artillery support from + below? + </p> + <p> + Suddenly a loud, exultant cheer sounded straight behind him, a crackling + fire broke out, and he saw Wool's Americans coming over the crest and + making straight for the gun. He was astounded; and well he might be, since + the fisherman's path had been reported impassable by troops. But he + instantly changed the order he happened to be giving from 'Try a longer + fuse!' to 'Spike the gun and follow me!' With a sharp clang the spike went + home, and the gunners followed Brock downhill towards Queenston. There was + no time to mount, and Alfred trotted down beside his swiftly running + master. The elated Americans fired hard; but their bullets all flew high. + Wool's three hundred then got into position on the Heights; while Brock in + the village below was collecting the nearest hundred men that could be + spared for an assault on the invaders. + </p> + <p> + Brock rapidly formed his men and led them out of the village at a fast run + to a low stone wall, where he halted and said, 'Take breath, boys; you'll + need it presently!' on which they cheered. He then dismounted and patted + Alfred, whose flanks still heaved from his exertions. The men felt the + sockets of their bayonets; took breath; and then followed Brock, who + presently climbed the wall and drew his sword. He first led them a short + distance inland, with the intention of gaining the Heights at the enemy's + own level before turning riverwards for the final charge. Wool immediately + formed front with his back to the river; and Brock led the one hundred + British straight at the American centre, which gave way before him. Still + he pressed on, waving his sword as an encouragement for the rush that was + to drive the enemy down the cliff. The spiked eighteen-pounder was + recaptured and success seemed certain. But, just as his men were closing + in, an American stepped out of the trees, only thirty yards away, took + deliberate aim, and shot him dead. The nearest men at once clustered round + to help him, and one of the 49th fell dead across his body. The Americans + made the most of this target and hit several more. Then the remaining + British broke their ranks and retired, carrying Brock's body into a house + at Queenston, where it remained throughout the day, while the battle raged + all round. + </p> + <p> + Wool now re-formed his three hundred and ordered his gunners to drill out + the eighteen-pounder and turn it against Queenston, where the British were + themselves re-forming for a second attack. This was made by two hundred + men of the 49th and York militia, led by Colonel John Macdonell, the + attorney-general of Upper Canada, who was acting as aide-de-camp to Brock. + Again the Americans were driven back. Again the gun was recaptured. Again + the British leader was shot at the critical moment. Again the attack + failed. And again the British retreated into Queenston. + </p> + <p> + Wool then hoisted the Stars and Stripes over the fiercely disputed gun; + and several more boatloads of soldiers at once crossed over to the + Canadian side, raising the American total there to sixteen hundred men. + With this force on the Heights, with a still larger force waiting + impatiently to cross, with twenty-four guns in action, and with the heart + of the whole defence known to be lying dead in Queenston, an American + victory seemed to be so well assured that a courier was sent post-haste to + announce the good news both at Albany and at Dearborn's headquarters just + across the Hudson. This done, Stephen Van Rensselaer decided to confirm + his success by going over to the Canadian side of the river himself. + Arrived there, he consulted the senior regulars and ordered the troops to + entrench the Heights, fronting Queenston, while the rest of his army was + crossing. + </p> + <p> + But, just when the action had reached such an apparently victorious stage, + there was, first, a pause, and then a slightly adverse change, which soon + became decidedly ominous. It was as if the flood tide of invasion had + already passed the full and the ebb was setting in. Far off, down-stream, + at Fort Niagara, the American fire began to falter and gradually grow + dumb. But at the British Fort George opposite the guns were served as well + as ever, till they had silenced the enemy completely. While this was + happening, the main garrison, now free to act elsewhere, were marching out + with swinging step and taking the road for Queenston Heights. Near by, at + Lewiston, the American twenty-four-gun battery was slackening its noisy + cannonade, which had been comparatively ineffective from the first; while + the single British gun at Vrooman's, vigorous and effective as before, was + reinforced by two most accurate field-pieces under Holcroft in Queenston + village, where the wounded but undaunted Dennis was rallying his + disciplined regulars and Loyalist militiamen for another fight. On the + Heights themselves the American musketry had slackened while most of the + men were entrenching; but the Indian fire kept growing closer and more + dangerous. Up-stream, on the American side of the Falls, a half-hearted + American detachment had been reluctantly sent down by the egregious Smyth; + while, on the other side, a hundred and fifty eager British were pressing + forward to join Sheaffe's men from Fort George. + </p> + <p> + As the converging British drew near them, the Americans on the Heights + began to feel the ebbing of their victory. The least disciplined soon lost + confidence and began to slink down to the boats; and very few boats + returned when once they had reached their own side safely. These slinkers + naturally made the most of the dangers they had been expecting—a + ruthless Indian massacre included. The boatmen, nearly all civilians, + began to desert. Alarming doubts and rumours quickly spread confusion + through the massed militia, who now perceived that instead of crossing to + celebrate a triumph they would have to fight a battle. John Lovett, who + served with credit in the big American battery, gave a graphic description + of the scene: 'The name of Indian, or the sight of the wounded, or the + Devil, or something else, petrified them. Not a regiment, not a company, + scarcely a man, would go.' Van Rensselaer went through the disintegrating + ranks and did his utmost to revive the ardour which had been so impetuous + only an hour before. But he ordered, swore, and begged in vain. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile the tide of resolution, hope, and coming triumph was rising fast + among the British. They were the attackers now; they had one distinct + objective; and their leaders were men whose lives had been devoted to the + art of war. Sheaffe took his time. Arrived near Queenston, he saw that his + three guns and two hundred muskets there could easily prevent the two + thousand disorganized American militia from crossing the river; so he + wheeled to his right, marched to St David's, and then, wheeling to his + left, gained the Heights two miles beyond the enemy. The men from Chippawa + marched in and joined him. The line of attack was formed, with the Indians + spread out on the flanks and curving forward. The British in Queenston, + seeing the utter impotence of the Americans who refused to cross over, + turned their fire against the Heights; and the invaders at once realized + that their position had now become desperate. + </p> + <p> + When Sheaffe struck inland an immediate change of the American front was + required to meet him. Hitherto the Americans on the Heights had faced + down-stream, towards Queenston, at right angles to the river. Now they + were obliged to face inland, with their backs to the river. Wadsworth, the + American militia brigadier, a very gallant member of a very gallant + family, immediately waived his rank in favour of Colonel Winfield Scott, a + well-trained regular. Scott and Wadsworth then did all that men could do + in such a dire predicament. But most of the militia became unmanageable, + some of the regulars were comparatively raw; there was confusion in front, + desertion in the rear, and no coherent whole to meet the rapidly + approaching shock. + </p> + <p> + On came the steady British line, with the exultant Indians thrown well + forward on the flanks; while the indomitable single gun at Vrooman's Point + backed up Holcroft's two guns in Queenston, and the two hundred muskets + under Dennis joined in this distracting fire against the American right + till the very last moment. The American left was in almost as bad a case, + because it had got entangled in the woods beyond the summit and become + enveloped by the Indians there. The rear was even worse, as men slank off + from it at every opportunity. The front stood fast under Winfield Scott + and Wadsworth. But not for long. The British brought their bayonets down + and charged. The Indians raised the war-whoop and bounded forward. The + Americans fired a hurried, nervous, straggling fusillade; then broke and + fled in wild confusion. A very few climbed down the cliff and swam across. + Not a single boat came over from the 'petrified' militia. Some more + Americans, attempting flight, were killed by falling headlong or by + drowning. Most of them clustered among the trees near the edge and + surrendered at discretion when Winfield Scott, seeing all was lost, waved + his handkerchief on the point of his sword. + </p> + <p> + The American loss was about a hundred killed, two hundred wounded, and + nearly a thousand prisoners. The British loss was trifling by comparison, + only a hundred and fifty altogether. But it included Brock; and his + irreparable death alone was thought, by friend and foe alike, to have more + than redressed the balance. This, indeed, was true in a much more pregnant + sense than those who measure by mere numbers could ever have supposed. For + genius is a thing apart from mere addition and subtraction. It is the + incarnate spirit of great leaders, whose influence raises to its utmost + height the worth of every follower. So when Brock's few stood fast against + the invader's many, they had his soaring spirit to uphold them as well as + the soul and body of their own disciplined strength. + </p> + <p> + Brock's proper fame may seem to be no more than that which can be won by + any conspicuously gallant death at some far outpost of a mighty empire. He + ruled no rich and populous dominions. He commanded no well-marshalled + host. He fell, apparently defeated, just as his first real battle had + begun. And yet, despite of this, he was the undoubted saviour of a British + Canada. Living, he was the heart of her preparation during ten long years + of peace. Dead, he became the inspiration of her defence for two momentous + years of war. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0005" id="link2HCH0005"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER V — 1813: THE BEAVER DAMS, LAKE ERIE, AND CHATEAUGUAY + </h2> + <p> + The remaining operations of 1812 are of quite minor importance. No more + than two are worthy of being mentioned between the greater events before + and after them. Both were abortive attempts at invasion—one across + the upper Niagara, the other across the frontier south of Montreal. + </p> + <p> + After the battle of Queenston Heights Sheaffe succeeded Brock in command + of the British, and Smyth succeeded Van Rensselaer in command of the + Americans. Sheaffe was a harsh martinet and a third-rate commander. Smyth, + a notorious braggart, was no commander at all. He did, however, succeed in + getting Sheaffe to conclude an armistice that fully equalled Prevost's in + its disregard of British interests. After making the most of it for a + month he ended it on November 19, and began manoeuvring round his + headquarters at Black Rock near Buffalo. After another eight days he + decided to attack the British posts at Red House and Frenchman's Creek, + which were respectively two and a half and five miles from Fort Erie. The + whole British line of the upper Niagara, from Fort Erie to Chippawa, a + distance of seventeen miles by the road along the river, was under the + command of an excellent young officer, Colonel Bisshopp, who had between + five and six hundred men to hold his seven posts. Fort Erie had the + largest garrison—only a hundred and thirty men. Some forty men of + the 49th and two small guns were stationed at Red House; while the light + company of the 41st guarded the bridge over Frenchman's Creek. About two + o'clock in the morning of the 28th one party of Americans pulled across to + the ferry a mile below Fort Erie, and then, sheering off after being fired + at by the Canadian militia on guard, made for Red House a mile and a half + lower down. There they landed at three and fought a most confused and + confusing action in the dark. Friend and foe became mixed up together; but + the result was a success for the Americans. Meanwhile, the other party + landed near Frenchman's Creek, reached the bridge, damaged it a little, + and had a fight with the 41st, who could not drive the invaders back till + reinforcements arrived. At daylight the men from Chippawa marched into + action, Indians began to appear, and the whole situation was + re-established. The victorious British lost nearly a hundred, which was + more than a quarter of those engaged. The beaten Americans lost more; but, + being in superior numbers, they could the better afford it. + </p> + <p> + Smyth was greatly disconcerted. But he held a boat review on his own side + of the river, and sent over a summons to Bisshopp demanding the immediate + surrender of Fort Erie 'to spare the effusion of blood.' Bisshopp rejected + the summons. But there was no effusion of blood in consequence. Smyth + planned, talked, and manoeuvred for two days more, and then tried to make + his real effort on the 1st of December. By the time it was light enough + for the British to observe him he had fifteen hundred men in boats, who + all wanted to go back, and three thousand on shore, who all refused to go + forward. He then held a council of war, which advised him to wait for a + better chance. This closed the campaign with what, according to Porter, + one of his own generals, was 'a scene of confusion difficult to describe: + about four thousand men without order or restraint discharging their + muskets in every direction.' Next day 'The Committee of Patriotic + Citizens' undertook to rebuke Smyth. But he retorted, not without reason, + that the affair at Queenston is a caution against relying on crowds who go + to the banks of the Niagara to look at a battle as on a theatrical + exhibition.' + </p> + <p> + The other abortive attempt at invasion was made by the advance-guard of + the commander-in-chief's own army. Dearborn had soon found out that his + disorderly masses at Greenbush were quite unfit to take the field. But, + four months after the declaration of war, a small detachment, thrown + forward from his new headquarters at Plattsburg on Lake Champlain, did + manage to reach St Regis, where the frontier first meets the St Lawrence, + near the upper end of Lake St Francis, sixty miles south-west of Montreal. + Here the Americans killed Lieutenant Rototte and a sergeant, and took the + little post, which was held by a few voyageurs. Exactly a month later, on + November 23, these Americans were themselves defeated and driven back + again. Three days earlier than this a much stronger force of Americans had + crossed the frontier at Odelltown, just north of which there was a British + blockhouse beside the river La Colle, a muddy little western tributary of + the Richelieu, forty-seven miles due south of Montreal. The Americans + fired into each other in the dark, and afterwards retired before the + British reinforcements. Dearborn then put his army into winter quarters at + Plattsburg, thus ending his much-heralded campaign against Montreal before + it had well begun. + </p> + <p> + The American government was much disappointed at the failure of its + efforts to make war without armies. But it found a convenient scapegoat in + Hull, who was far less to blame than his superiors in the Cabinet. These + politicians had been wrong in every important particular —wrong + about the attitude of the Canadians, wrong about the whole plan of + campaign, wrong in separating Hull from Dearborn, wrong in not getting + men-of-war afloat on the Lakes, wrong, above all, in trusting to untrained + and undisciplined levies. To complete their mortification, the ridiculous + gunboats, in which they had so firmly believed, had done nothing but + divert useful resources into useless channels; while, on the other hand, + the frigates, which they had proposed to lay up altogether, so as to save + themselves from 'the ruinous folly of a Navy,' had already won a brilliant + series of duels out at sea. + </p> + <p> + There were some searchings of heart at Washington when all these military + and naval misjudgments stood revealed. Eustis soon followed Hull into + enforced retirement; and great plans were made for the campaign of 1813, + which was designed to wipe out the disgrace of its predecessor and to + effect the conquest of Canada for good and all. + </p> + <p> + John Armstrong, the new war secretary, and William Henry Harrison, the new + general in the West, were great improvements on Eustis and Hull. But, even + now, the American commanders could not decide on a single decisive attack + supported by subsidiary operations elsewhere. Montreal remained their + prime objective. But they only struck at it last of all. Michilimackinac + kept their enemy in touch with the West. But they left it completely + alone. Their general advance ought to have been secured by winning the + command of the Lakes and by the seizure of suitable positions across the + line. But they let the first blows come from the Canadian side; and they + still left Lake Champlain to shift for itself. Their plan was undoubtedly + better than that of 1812. But it was still all parts and no whole. + </p> + <p> + The various events were so complicated by the overlapping of time and + place all along the line that we must begin by taking a bird's-eye view of + them in territorial sequence, starting from the farthest inland flank and + working eastward to the sea. Everything west of Detroit may be left out + altogether, because operations did not recommence in that quarter until + the campaign of the following year. + </p> + <p> + In January the British struck successfully at Frenchtown, more than thirty + miles south of Detroit. They struck unsuccessfully, still farther south, + at Fort Meigs in May and at Fort Stephenson in August; after which they + had to remain on the defensive, all over the Lake Erie region, till their + flotilla was annihilated at Put-in Bay in September and their army was + annihilated at Moravian Town on the Thames in October. In the Lake Ontario + region the situation was reversed. Here the British began badly and ended + well. They surrendered York in April and Fort George, at the mouth of the + Niagara, in May. They were also repulsed in a grossly mismanaged attack on + Sackett's Harbour two days after their defeat at Fort George. The opposing + flotillas meanwhile fought several manoeuvring actions of an indecisive + kind, neither daring to risk battle and possible annihilation. But, as the + season advanced, the British regained their hold on the Niagara peninsula + by defeating the Americans at Stoney Creek and the Beaver Dams in June, + and by clearing both sides of the Niagara river in December. On the upper + St Lawrence they took Ogdensburg in February. They were also completely + successful in their defence of Montreal. In June they took the American + gunboats at Isle-aux-Noix on the Richelieu; in July they raided Lake + Champlain; while in October and November they defeated the two divisions + of the invading army at Chateauguay and Chrystler's Farm. The British news + from sea also improved as the year wore on. The American frigate victories + began to stop. The <i>Shannon</i> beat the <i>Chesapeake</i>. And the + shadow of the Great Blockade began to fall on the coast of the Democratic + South. + </p> + <p> + The operations of 1813 are more easily understood if taken in this purely + territorial way. But in following the progress of the war we must take + them chronologically. No attempt can be made here to describe the + movements on either side in any detail. An outline must suffice. Two + points, however, need special emphasis, as they are both markedly + characteristic of the war in general and of this campaign in particular. + First, the combined effect of the American victories of Lake Erie and the + Thames affords a perfect example of the inseparable connection between the + water and the land. Secondly, the British victories at the Beaver Dams and + Chateauguay are striking examples of the inter-racial connection among the + forces that defended Canada so well. The Indians did all the real fighting + at the Beaver Dams. The French Canadians fought practically alone at + Chateauguay. + </p> + <p> + The first move of the invaders in the West was designed to recover Detroit + and cut off Mackinaw. Harrison, victorious over the Indians at Tippecanoe + in 1811, was now expected to strike terror into them once more, both by + his reputation and by the size of his forces. In midwinter he had one wing + of his army on the Sandusky, under his own command, and the other on the + Maumee, under Winchester, a rather commonplace general. At Frenchtown + stood a little British post defended by fifty Canadians and a hundred + Indians. Winchester moved north to drive these men away from American + soil. But Procter crossed the Detroit from Amherstburg on the ice, and + defeated Winchester's thousand whites with his own five hundred whites and + five hundred Indians at dawn on January 22, making Winchester a prisoner. + Procter was unable to control the Indians, who ran wild. They hated the + Westerners who made up Winchester's force, as the men who had deprived + them of their lands, and they now wreaked their vengeance on them for some + time before they could be again brought within the bounds of civilized + warfare. After the battle Procter retired to Amherstburg; Harrison began + to build Fort Meigs on the Maumee; and a pause of three months followed + all over the western scene. + </p> + <p> + But winter warfare was also going on elsewhere. A month after Procter's + success, Prevost, when passing through Prescott, on the upper St Lawrence, + reluctantly gave Colonel Macdonell of Glengarry provisional leave to + attack Ogdensburg, from which the Americans were forwarding supplies to + Sackett's Harbour, sending out raiding parties, and threatening the + British line of communication to the west. No sooner was Prevost clear of + Prescott than Macdonell led his four hundred regulars and one hundred + militia over the ice against the American fort. His direct assault failed. + But when he had carried the village at the point of the bayonet the + garrison ran. Macdonell then destroyed the fort, the barracks, and four + vessels. He also took seventy prisoners, eleven guns, and a large supply + of stores. + </p> + <p> + With the spring came new movements in the West. On May 9 Procter broke + camp and retired from an unsuccessful siege of Fort Meigs (now Toledo) at + the south-western corner of Lake Erie. He had started this siege a + fortnight earlier with a thousand whites and a thousand Indians under + Tecumseh; and at first had seemed likely to succeed. But after the first + encounter the Indians began to leave; while most of the militia had soon + to be sent home to their farms to prevent the risk of starvation. Thus + Procter presently found himself with only five hundred effectives in face + of a much superior and constantly increasing enemy. In the summer he + returned to the attack, this time against the American position on the + lower Sandusky, nearly thirty miles east of Fort Meigs. There, on August + 2, he tried to take Fort Stephenson. But his light guns could make no + breach; and he lost a hundred men in the assault. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile Dearborn, having first moved up from Plattsburg to Sackett's + Harbour, had attacked York on April 27 with the help of the new American + flotilla on Lake Ontario. This flotilla was under the personal orders of + Commodore Chauncey, an excellent officer, who, in the previous September, + had been promoted from superintendent of the New York Navy Yard to + commander-in-chief on the Lakes. As Chauncey's forte was building and + organization, he found full scope for his peculiar talents at Sackett's + Harbour. He was also a good leader at sea and thus a formidable enemy for + the British forces at York, where the third-rate Sheaffe was now in + charge, and where Prevost had paved the way for a British defeat by + allowing the establishment of an exposed navy yard instead of keeping all + construction safe in Kingston. Sheaffe began his mistakes by neglecting to + mount some of his guns before Dearborn and Chauncey arrived, though he + knew these American commanders might come at any moment, and though he + also knew how important it was to save a new British vessel that was + building at York, because the command of the lake might well depend upon + her. He then made another mistake by standing to fight in an untenable + position against overwhelming odds. He finally retreated with all the + effective regulars left, less than two hundred, burning the ship and yard + as he passed, and leaving behind three hundred militia to make their own + terms with the enemy. He met the light company of the 8th on its way up + from Kingston and turned it back. With this retreat he left the front for + good and became a commandant of bases, a position often occupied by men + whose failures are not bad enough for courts-martial and whose saving + qualities are not good enough for any more appointments in the field. + </p> + <p> + The Americans lost over two hundred men by an explosion in a British + battery at York just as Sheaffe was marching off. Forty British had also + been blown up in one of the forts a little while before. Sheaffe appears + to have been a slack inspector of powder-magazines. But the Americans, who + naturally suspected other things than slack inspection, thought a mine had + been sprung on them after the fight was over. They consequently swore + revenge, burnt the parliament buildings, looted several private houses, + and carried off books from the public library as well as plate from the + church. Chauncey, much to his credit, afterwards sent back all the books + and plate he could recover. + </p> + <p> + Exactly a month later, on May 27, Chauncey and Dearborn appeared off Fort + George, after a run back to Sackett's Harbour in the meantime. Vincent, + Sheaffe's successor in charge of Upper Canada, had only a thousand + regulars and four hundred militia there. Dearborn had more than four times + as many men; and Perry, soon to become famous on Lake Erie, managed the + naval part of landing them. The American men-of-war brought the long, low, + flat ground of Mississauga Point under an irresistible cross-fire while + three thousand troops were landing on the beach below the covering bluffs. + No support could be given to the opposing British force by the fire of + Fort George, as the village of Newark intervened. So Vincent had to fight + it out in the open. On being threatened with annihilation he retired + towards Burlington, withdrawing the garrison of Fort George, and sending + orders for all the other troops on the Niagara to follow by the shortest + line. He had lost a third of the whole force defending the Niagara + frontier, both sides of which were now possessed by the Americans. But by + nightfall on May 29 he was standing at bay, with his remaining sixteen + hundred men, in an excellent strategical position on the Heights, half-way + between York and Fort George, in touch with Dundas Street, the main road + running east and west, and beside Burlington Bay, where he hoped to meet + the British flotilla commanded by Yeo. + </p> + <p> + Captain Sir James Lucas Yeo was an energetic and capable young naval + officer of thirty, whom the Admiralty had sent out with a few seamen to + take command on the Lakes under Prevost's orders. He had been only + seventeen days at Kingston when he sailed out with Prevost, on May 27, to + take advantage of Chauncey's absence at the western end of the lake. + Arrived before Sackett's Harbour, the attack was planned for the 29th. The + landing force of seven hundred and fifty men was put in charge of Baynes, + the adjutant-general, a man only too well fitted to do the 'dirty work' of + the general staff under a weak commander-in-chief like Prevost. All went + wrong at Sackett's Harbour. Prevost was 'present but not in command'; + Baynes landed at the wrong place. Nevertheless, the British regulars + scattered the American militiamen, pressed back the American regulars, set + fire to the barracks, and halted in front of the fort. The Americans, + thinking the day was lost, set fire to their stores and to Chauncey's new + ships. Then Baynes and Prevost suddenly decided to retreat. Baynes + explained to Prevost, and Prevost explained in a covering dispatch to the + British government, that the fleet could not co-operate, that the fort + could not be taken, and that the landing party was not strong enough. But, + if this was true, why did they make an attack at all; and, if it was not + true, why did they draw back when success seemed to be assured? + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile Chauncey, after helping to take Fort George, had started back + for Sackett's Harbour; and Dearborn, left without the fleet, had moved on + slowly and disjointedly, in rear of Vincent, with whom he did not regain + touch for a week. On June 5 the Americans camped at Stoney Creek, five + miles from the site of Hamilton. The steep zigzagging bank of the creek, + which formed their front, was about twenty feet high. Their right rested + on a mile-wide swamp, which ran down to Lake Ontario. Their left touched + the Heights, which ran from Burlington to Queenston. They were also in + superior numbers, and ought to have been quite secure. But they thought so + much more of pursuit than of defence that they were completely taken by + surprise when '704 firelocks' under Colonel Harvey suddenly attacked them + just after midnight. Harvey, chief staff officer to Vincent, was a + first-rate leader for such daring work as this, and his men were all well + disciplined. But the whole enterprise might have failed, for all that. + Some of the men opened fire too soon, and the nearest Americans began to + stand to their arms. But, while Harvey ran along re-forming the line, + Major Plenderleath, with some of Brock's old regiment, the 49th, charged + straight into the American centre, took the guns there, and caused so much + confusion that Harvey's following charge carried all before it. Next + morning, June 6, the Americans began a retreat which was hastened by Yeo's + arrival on their lakeward flank, by the Indians on the Heights, and by + Vincent's reinforcements in their rear. Not till they reached the shelter + of Fort George did they attempt to make a stand. + </p> + <p> + The two armies now faced each other astride of the lake-shore road and the + Heights. The British left advanced post, between Ten and Twelve Mile + Creeks, was under Major de Haren of the 104th, a regiment which, in the + preceding winter, had marched on snow-shoes through the woods all the way + from the middle of New Brunswick to Quebec. The corresponding British post + inland, near the Beaver Dams, was under Lieutenant FitzGibbon of the 49th, + a cool, quick-witted, and adventurous Irishman, who had risen from the + ranks by his own good qualities and Brock's recommendation. Between him + and the Americans at Queenston and St David's was a picked force of Indian + scouts with a son of the great chief Joseph Brant. These Indians never + gave the Americans a minute's rest. They were up at all hours, pressing + round the flanks, sniping the sentries, worrying the outposts, and keeping + four times their own numbers on the perpetual alert. What exasperated the + Americans even more was the wonderfully elusive way in which the Indians + would strike their blow and then be lost to sight and sound the very next + moment, if, indeed, they ever were seen at all. Finally, this endless + skirmish with an invisible foe became so harassing that the Americans sent + out a flying column of six hundred picked men under Colonel Boerstler on + June 24 to break up FitzGibbon's post at the Beaver Dams and drive the + Indians out of the intervening bush altogether. + </p> + <p> + But the American commanders had not succeeded in hiding their preparations + from the vigilant eyes of the Indian scouts or from the equally attentive + ears of Laura Secord, the wife of an ardent U. E. Loyalist, James Secord, + who was still disabled by the wounds he had received when fighting under + Brock's command at Queenston Heights. Early in the morning of the 23rd, + while Laura Secord was going out to milk the cows, she overheard some + Americans talking about the surprise in store for FitzGibbon next day. + Without giving the slightest sign she quietly drove the cattle in behind + the nearest fence, hid her milk-pail, and started to thread her perilous + way through twenty miles of bewildering bypaths to the Beaver Dams. + Keeping off the beaten tracks and always in the shadow of the full-leaved + trees, she stole along through the American lines, crossed the + no-man's-land between the two desperate enemies, and managed to get inside + the ever-shifting fringe of Indian scouts without being seen by friend or + foe. The heat was intense; and the whole forest steamed with it after the + tropical rain. But she held her course without a pause, over the swollen + streams on fallen tree-trunks, through the dense underbrush, and in and + out of the mazes of the forest, where a bullet might come from either side + without a moment's warning. As she neared the end of her journey a savage + yell told her she was at last discovered by the Indians. She and they were + on the same side; but she had hard work to persuade them that she only + wished to warn FitzGibbon. Then came what, to a lesser patriot, would have + been a crowning disappointment. For when, half dead with fatigue, she told + him her story, she found he had already heard it from the scouts. But just + because this forestalment was no real disappointment to her, it makes her + the Anglo-Canadian heroine whose fame for bravery in war is worthiest of + being remembered with that of her French-Canadian sister, Madeleine de + Vercheres. [Footnote: For Madeleine de Vercheres see <i>The fighting + Governor</i> in this Series.] + </p> + <p> + Boerstler's six hundred had only ten miles to go in a straight line. But + all the thickets, woods, creeks, streams, and swamps were closely beset by + a body of expert, persistent Indians, who gradually increased from two + hundred and fifty to four hundred men. The Americans became discouraged + and bewildered; and when FitzGibbon rode up at the head of his redcoats + they were ready to give in. The British posts were all in excellent touch + with each other; and de Haren arrived in time to receive the actual + surrender. He was closely followed by the 2nd Lincoln Militia under + Colonel Clark, and these again by Colonel Bisshopp with the whole of the + advanced guard. But it was the Indians alone who won the fight, as + FitzGibbon generously acknowledged: 'Not a shot was fired on our side by + any but the Indians. They beat the American detachment into a state of + terror, and the only share I claim is taking advantage of a favourable + moment to offer protection from the tomahawk and scalping knife.' + </p> + <p> + June was a lucky month for the British at sea as well as on the land; and + its 'Glorious First,' so called after Howe's victory nineteen years + before, now became doubly glorious in a way which has a special interest + for Canada. The American frigate <i>Chesapeake</i> was under orders to + attack British supply-ships entering Canadian waters; and the victorious + British frigate <i>Shannon</i> was taken out of action and into a Canadian + port by a young Canadian in the Royal Navy. + </p> + <p> + The <i>Chesapeake</i> had a new captain, Lawrence, with new young + officers. She carried fifty more men than the British frigate <i>Shannon</i>. + But many of her ship's company were new to her, on recommissioning in May; + and some were comparatively untrained for service on board a man-of-war. + The frigates themselves were practically equal in size and armament. But + Captain Broke had been in continuous command of the <i>Shannon</i> for + seven years and had trained his crew into the utmost perfection of naval + gunnery. The vessels met off Boston in full view of many thousands of + spectators. Not one British shot flew high. Every day in the Shannon's + seven years of preparation told in that fight of only fifteen minutes; and + when Broke led his boarders over the Chesapeake's side her fate had been + sealed already. The Stars and Stripes were soon replaced by the Union + Jack. Then, with Broke severely wounded and his first lieutenant killed, + the command fell on Lieutenant Wallis, who sailed both vessels into + Halifax. This young Canadian, afterwards known as Admiral-of-the-Fleet Sir + Provo Wallis, lived to become the longest of all human links between the + past and present of the Navy. He was by far the last survivor of those + officers who were specially exempted from technical retirement on account + of having held any ship or fleet command during the Great War that ended + on the field of Waterloo. He was born before Napoleon had been heard of. + He went through a battle before the death of Nelson. He outlived + Wellington by forty years. His name stood on the Active List for all but + the final decade of the nineteenth century. And, as an honoured + centenarian, he is vividly remembered by many who were still called young + a century after the battle that brought him into fame. + </p> + <p> + The summer campaign on the Niagara frontier ended with three minor British + successes. Fort Schlosser was surprised on July 5. On the 11th Bisshopp + lost his life in destroying Black Rock. And on August 24 the Americans + were driven in under the guns of Fort George. After this there was a lull + which lasted throughout the autumn. + </p> + <p> + Down by the Montreal frontier there were three corresponding British + successes. On June 3 Major Taylor of the 100th captured two American + gunboats, the <i>Growler</i> and the <i>Eagle</i>, which had come to + attack Isle-aux-Noix in the Richelieu river, and renamed them the <i>Broke</i> + and the <i>Shannon</i>. Early in August Captains Pring and Everard, of the + Navy, and Colonel Murray with nine hundred soldiers, raided Lake + Champlain. They destroyed the barracks, yard, and stores at Plattsburg and + sent the American militia flying home. But a still more effective blow was + struck on the opposite side of Lake Champlain, at Burlington, where + General Hampton was preparing the right wing of his new army of invasion. + Stores, equipment, barracks, and armaments were destroyed to such an + extent that Hampton's preparations were set back till late in the autumn. + The left wing of the same army was at Sackett's Harbour, under Dearborn's + successor, General Wilkinson, whose plan was to take Kingston, go down the + St Lawrence, meet Hampton, who was to come up from the south, and then + make a joint attack with him on Montreal. + </p> + <p> + In September the scene of action shifted to the West, where the British + were trying to keep the command of Lake Erie, while the Americans were + trying to wrest it from them. Captain Oliver Perry, a first-rate American + naval officer of only twenty-eight, was at Presqu'isle (now Erie) + completing his flotilla. He had his troubles, of course, especially with + the militia garrison, who would not do their proper tour of duty. 'I tell + the boys to go, but the boys won't go,' was the only report forthcoming + from one of several worthless colonels. A still greater trouble for Perry + was getting his vessels over the bar. This had to be done without any guns + on board, and with the cumbrous aid of 'camels,' which are any kind of + air-tanks made fast to the sides low down, in order to raise the hull as + much as possible. But, luckily for Perry, his opponent, Captain Barclay of + the Royal Navy, an energetic and capable young officer of thirty-two, was + called upon to face worse troubles still. Barclay was, indeed, the first + to get afloat. But he had to give up the blockade of Presqu'isle, and so + let Perry out, because he had the rawest of crews, the scantiest of + equipment, and nothing left to eat. Then, when he ran back to Amherstburg, + he found Procter also facing a state of semi-starvation, while thousands + of Indian families were clamouring for food. Thus there was no other + choice but either to fight or starve; for there was not the slightest + chance of replenishing stores unless the line of the lake was clear. + </p> + <p> + So Barclay sailed out with his six little British vessels, armed by the + odds and ends of whatever ordnance could be spared from Amherstburg and + manned by almost any crews but sailors. Even the flagship <i>Detroit</i> + had only ten real seamen, all told. Ammunition was likewise very scarce, + and so defective that the guns had to be fired by the flash of a pistol. + Perry also had a makeshift flotilla, partly manned by drafts from + Harrison's army. But, on the whole, the odds in his favour were fairly + shown by the number of vessels in the respective flotillas, nine American + against the British six. + </p> + <p> + Barclay had only thirty miles to make in a direct south-easterly line from + Amherstburg to reach Perry at Put-in Bay in the Bass Islands, where, on + the morning of September 10, the opposing forces met. The battle raged for + two hours at the very closest quarters till Perry's flagship <i>Lawrence</i> + struck to Barclay's own <i>Detroit</i>. But Perry had previously left the + <i>Lawrence</i> for the fresh <i>Niagara</i>; and he now bore down on the + battered <i>Detroit</i>, which had meanwhile fallen foul of the only other + sizable British vessel, the <i>Queen Charlotte</i>. This was fatal for + Barclay. The whole British flotilla surrendered after a desperate + resistance and an utterly disabling loss. From that time on to the end of + the war Lake Erie remained completely under American control. + </p> + <p> + Procter could hardly help seeing that he was doomed to give up the whole + Lake Erie region. But he lingered and was lost. While Harrison was + advancing with overwhelming numbers Procter was still trying to decide + when and how to abandon Amherstburg. Then, when he did go, he carried with + him an inordinate amount of baggage; and he retired so slowly that + Harrison caught and crushed him near Moravian Town, beside the Thames, on + the 5th of October. Harrison had three thousand exultant Americans in + action; Procter had barely a thousand worn-out, dispirited men, more than + half of them Indians under Tecumseh. The redcoats, spread out in single + rank at open order, were ridden down by Harrison's cavalry, backed by the + mass of his infantry. The Indians on the inland flank stood longer and + fought with great determination against five times their numbers till + Tecumseh fell. Then they broke and fled. This was their last great fight + and Tecumseh was their last great leader. + </p> + <p> + The scene now shifts once more to the Montreal frontier, which was being + threatened by the converging forces of Hampton from the south and + Wilkinson from the west. Each had about seven thousand men; and their + common objective was the island of Montreal. Hampton crossed the line at + Odelltown on September 20. But he presently moved back again; and it was + not till October 21 that he began his definite attack by advancing down + the left bank of the Chateauguay, after opening communications with + Wilkinson, who was still near Sackett's Harbour. Hampton naturally + expected to brush aside all the opposition that could be made by the few + hundred British between him and the St Lawrence. But de Salaberry, the + commander of the British advanced posts, determined to check him near La + Fourche, where several little tributaries of the Chateauguay made a + succession of good positions, if strengthened by abattis and held by + trained defenders. + </p> + <p> + The British force was very small when Hampton began his slow advance; but + 'Red George' Macdonell marched to help it just in time. Macdonell was + commanding a crack corps of French Canadians, all picked from the best + 'Select Embodied Militia,' and now, at the end of six months of extra + service, as good as a battalion of regulars. He had hurried to Kingston + when Wilkinson had threatened it from Sackett's Harbour. Now he was + urgently needed at Chateauguay. 'When can you start?' asked Prevost, who + was himself on the point of leaving Kingston for Chateauguay. 'Directly + the men have finished their dinners, sir!' 'Then follow me as quickly as + you can!' said Prevost as he stepped on board his vessel. There were 210 + miles to go. A day was lost in collecting boats enough for this sudden + emergency. Another day was lost <i>en route</i> by a gale so terrific that + even the French-Canadian voyageurs were unable to face it. The rapids, + where so many of Amherst's men had been drowned in 1760, were at their + very worst; and the final forty miles had to be made overland by marching + all night through dense forest and along a particularly difficult trail. + Yet Macdonell got into touch with de Salaberry long before Prevost, to + whom he had the satisfaction of reporting later in the day: 'All correct + and present, sir; not one man missing!' + </p> + <p> + The advanced British forces under de Salaberry were now, on October 25, + the eve of battle, occupying the left, or north, bank of the Chateauguay, + fifteen miles south of the Cascade Rapids of the St Lawrence, twenty-five + miles south-west of Caughnawaga, and thirty-five miles south-west of + Montreal. Immediately in rear of these men under de Salaberry stood + Macdonell's command; while, in more distant support, nearer to Montreal, + stood various posts under General de Watteville, with whom Prevost spent + that night and most of the 26th, the day on which the battle was fought. + </p> + <p> + As Hampton came on with his cumbrous American thousands de Salaberry felt + justifiable confidence in his own well-disciplined French-Canadian + hundreds. He and his brothers were officers in the Imperial Army. His + Voltigeurs were regulars. The supporting Fencibles were also regulars, and + of ten years' standing. Macdonell's men were practically regulars. The + so-called 'Select Militia' present had been permanently embodied for + eighteen months; and the only real militiamen on the scene of action, most + of whom never came under fire at all, had already been twice embodied for + service in the field. The British total present was 1590, of whom less + than a quarter were militiamen and Indians. But the whole firing line + comprised no more than 460, of whom only 66 were militiamen and only 22 + were Indians. The Indian total was about one-tenth of the whole. The + English-speaking total was about one-twentieth. It is therefore perfectly + right to say that the battle of Chateauguay was practically fought and won + by French-Canadian regulars against American odds of four to one. + </p> + <p> + De Salaberry's position was peculiar. The head of his little column faced + the head of Hampton's big column on a narrow front, bounded on his own + left by the river Chateauguay and on his own right by woods, into which + Hampton was afraid to send his untrained men. But, crossing a right-angled + bend of the river, beyond de Salaberry's left front, was a ford, while in + rear of de Salaberry's own column was another ford which Hampton thought + he could easily take with fifteen hundred men under Purdy, as he had no + idea of Macdonell's march and no doubt of being able to crush de + Salaberry's other troops between his own five thousand attacking from the + front and Purdy's fifteen hundred attacking from the rear. Purdy advanced + overnight, crossed to the right bank of the Chateauguay, by the ford clear + of de Salaberry's front, and made towards the ford in de Salaberry's rear. + But his men lost their way in the dark and found themselves, not in rear + of, but opposite to, and on the left flank of, de Salaberry's column in + the morning. They drove in two of de Salaberry's companies, which were + protecting his left flank on the right, or what was now Purdy's, side of + the river; but they were checked by a third, which Macdonell sent forward, + across the rear ford, at the same time that he occupied this rear ford + himself. Purdy and Hampton had now completely lost touch with one another. + Purdy was astounded to see Macdonell's main body of redcoats behind the + rear ford. He paused, waiting for support from Hampton, who was still + behind the front ford. Hampton paused, waiting for him to take the rear + ford, now occupied by Macdonell. De Salaberry mounted a huge tree-stump + and at once saw his opportunity. Holding back Hampton's crowded column + with his own front, which fought under cover of his first abattis, he + wheeled the rest of his men into line to the left and thus took Purdy in + flank. Macdonell was out of range behind the rear ford; but he played his + part by making his buglers sound the advance from several different + quarters, while his men, joined by de Salaberry's militiamen and by the + Indians in the bush, cheered vociferously and raised the war-whoop. This + was too much for Purdy's fifteen hundred. They broke in confusion, ran + away from the river into the woods under a storm of bullets, fired into + each other, and finally disappeared. Hampton's attack on de Salaberry's + first abattis then came to a full stop; after which the whole American + army retired beaten from the field. + </p> + <p> + Ten days after Chateauguay dilatory Wilkinson, tired of waiting for + defeated Hampton, left the original rendezvous at French Creek, fifty + miles below Sackett's Harbour. Like Dearborn in 1812, he began his + campaign just as the season was closing. But, again like Dearborn, he had + the excuse of being obliged to organize his army in the middle of the war. + Four days later again, on November 9, Brown, the successful defender of + Sackett's Harbour against Prevost's attack in May, was landed at + Williamsburg, on the Canadian side, with two thousand men, to clear the + twenty miles down to Cornwall, opposite the rendezvous at St Regis, where + Wilkinson expected to find Hampton ready to join him for the combined + attack on Montreal. But Brown had to reckon with Dennis, the first + defender of Queenston, who now commanded the little garrison of Cornwall, + and who disputed every inch of the way by breaking the bridges and + resisting each successive advance till Brown was compelled to deploy for + attack. Two days were taken up with these harassing manoeuvres, during + which another two thousand Americans were landed at Williamsburg under + Boyd, who immediately found himself still more harassed in rear than Brown + had been in front. + </p> + <p> + This new British force in Boyd's rear was only a thousand strong; but, as + it included every human element engaged in the defence of Canada, it has a + quite peculiar interest of its own. Afloat, it included bluejackets of the + Royal Navy, men of the Provincial Marine, French-Canadian voyageurs, and + Anglo-Canadian boatmen from the trading-posts, all under a first-rate + fighting seaman, Captain Mulcaster, R.N. Ashore, under a good regimental + leader, Colonel Morrison—whose chief staff officer was Harvey, of + Stoney Creek renown—it included Imperial regulars, Canadian regulars + of both races, French-Canadian and Anglo-Canadian militiamen, and a party + of Indians. + </p> + <p> + Early on the 11th Brown had arrived at Cornwall with his two thousand + Americans; Wilkinson was starting down from Williamsburg in boats with + three thousand more, and Boyd was starting down ashore with eighteen + hundred. But Mulcaster's vessels pressed in on Wilkinson's rear, while + Morrison pressed in on Boyd's. Wilkinson then ordered Boyd to turn about + and drive off Morrison, while he hurried his own men out of reach of + Mulcaster, whose armed vessels could not follow down the rapids. Boyd + thereupon attacked Morrison, and a stubborn fight ensued at Chrystler's + Farm. The field was of the usual type: woods on one flank, water on the + other, and a more or less flat clearing in the centre. Boyd tried hard to + drive his wedge in between the British and the river. But Morrison foiled + him in manoeuvre; and the eight hundred British stood fast against their + eighteen hundred enemies all along the line. Boyd then withdrew, having + lost four hundred men; and Morrison's remaining six hundred effectives + slept on their hard-won ground. + </p> + <p> + Next morning the energetic Morrison resumed his pursuit. But the campaign + against Montreal was already over. Wilkinson had found that Hampton had + started back for Lake Champlain while the battle was in progress; so he + landed at St Regis, just inside his own country, and went into winter + quarters at French Mills on the Salmon river. + </p> + <p> + In December the scene of strife changed back again to the Niagara, where + the American commander, McClure, decided to evacuate Fort George. At dusk + on the 10th he ordered four hundred women and children to be turned out of + their homes at Newark into the biting midwinter cold, and then burnt the + whole settlement down to the ground. If he had intended to hold the + position he might have been justified in burning Newark, under more humane + conditions, because this village undoubtedly interfered with the defensive + fire of Fort George. But, as he was giving up Fort George, his act was an + entirely wanton deed of shame. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile the new British general, Gordon Drummond, second in ability to + Brock alone, was hurrying to the Niagara frontier. He was preceded by + Colonel Murray, who took possession of Fort George on the 12th, the day + McClure crossed the Niagara river. Murray at once made a plan to take the + American Fort Niagara opposite; and Drummond at once approved it for + immediate execution. On the night of the 18th six hundred men were landed + on the American side three miles up the river. At four the next morning + Murray led them down to the fort, rushing the sentries and pickets by the + way with the bayonet in dead silence. He then told off two hundred men to + take a bastion at the same time that he was to lead the other four hundred + straight through the main gate, which he knew would soon be opened to let + the reliefs pass out. Everything worked to perfection. When the reliefs + came out they were immediately charged and bayoneted, as were the first + astonished men off duty who ran out of their quarters to see what the + matter was. A stiff hand-to-hand fight followed. But every American + attempt to form was instantly broken up; and presently the whole place + surrendered. Drummond, who was delighted with such an excellent beginning, + took care to underline the four significant words referring to the enemy's + killed and wounded—<i>all with the bayonet</i>. This was done in no + mere vulgar spirit of bravado, still less in abominable bloody-mindedness. + It was the soldierly recognition of a particularly gallant feat of arms, + carried out with such conspicuously good discipline that its memory is + cherished, even to the present day, by the 100th, afterwards raised again + as the Royal Canadians, and now known as the Prince of Wales's Leinster + regiment. A facsimile of Drummond's underlined order is one of the most + highly honoured souvenirs in the officers' mess. + </p> + <p> + Not a moment was lost in following up this splendid feat of arms. The + Indians drove the American militia out of Lewiston, which the advancing + redcoats burnt to the ground. Fort Schlosser fell next, then Black Rock, + and finally Buffalo. Each was laid in ashes. Thus, before 1813 ended, the + whole American side of the Niagara was nothing but one long, bare line of + blackened desolation, with the sole exception of Fort Niagara, which + remained secure in British hands until the war was over. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0006" id="link2HCH0006"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VI — 1814: LUNDY'S LANE, PLATTSBURG, AND THE GREAT BLOCKADE + </h2> + <p> + In the closing phase of the struggle by land and sea the fortunes of war + may, with the single exception of Plattsburg, be most conveniently + followed territorially, from one point to the next, along the enormous + irregular curve of five thousand miles which was the scene of operations. + This curve begins at Prairie du Chien, where the Wisconsin joins the + Mississippi, and ends at New Orleans, where the Mississippi is about to + join the sea. It runs easterly along the Wisconsin, across to the Fox, + into Lake Michigan, across to Mackinaw, eastwards through Lakes Huron, + Erie, and Ontario, down the St Lawrence, round to Halifax, round from + there to Maine, and thence along the whole Atlantic coast, south and west—about + into the Gulf of Mexico. + </p> + <p> + The blockade of the Gulf of Mexico was an integral part of the British + plan. But the battle of New Orleans, which was a complete disaster for the + British arms, stands quite outside the actual war, since it was fought on + January 8, 1815, more than two weeks after the terms of peace had been + settled by the Treaty of Ghent. This peculiarity about its date, taken in + conjunction with its extreme remoteness from the Canadian frontier, puts + it beyond the purview of the present chronicle. + </p> + <p> + All the decisive actions of the campaign proper were fought within two + months. They began at Prairie du Chien in July and ended at Plattsburg in + September. Plattsburg is the one exception to the order of place. The tide + of war and British fortune flowed east and south to reach its height at + Washington in August. It turned at Plattsburg in September. + </p> + <p> + Neither friend nor foe went west in 1813. But in April 1814 Colonel + McDouall set out with ninety men, mostly of the Newfoundland regiment, to + reinforce Mackinaw. He started from the little depot which had been + established on the Nottawasaga, a river flowing into the Georgian Bay and + accessible by the overland trail from York. + </p> + <p> + After surmounting the many difficulties of the inland route which he had + to take in order to avoid the Americans in the Lake Erie region, and after + much hard work against the Lake Huron ice, he at last reached Mackinaw on + the 18th of May. Some good fighting Indians joined him there; and towards + the end of June he felt strong enough to send Colonel McKay against the + American post at Prairie du Chien. McKay arrived at this post in the + middle of July and captured the whole position—fort, guns, garrison, + and a vessel on the Mississippi. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile seven hundred Americans under Croghan, the American officer who + had repulsed Procter at Fort Stephenson the year before, were making for + Mackinaw itself. They did some private looting at the Sault, burnt the + houses at St Joseph's Island, and landed in full force at Mackinaw on the + 4th of August. McDouall had less than two hundred men, Indians included. + But he at once marched out to the attack and beat the Americans back to + their ships, which immediately sailed away. The British thenceforth + commanded the whole three western lakes until the war was over. + </p> + <p> + The Lake Erie region remained quite as decisively commanded by the + Americans. They actually occupied only the line of the Detroit. But they + had the power to cut any communications which the British might try to + establish along the north side of the lake. They had suffered a minor + reverse at Chatham in the previous December. But in March they more than + turned the tables by defeating Basden's attack in the Longwoods at + Delaware, near London; and in October seven hundred of their mounted men + raided the line of the Thames and only just stopped short of the Grand + River, the western boundary of the Niagara peninsula. + </p> + <p> + The Niagara frontier, as before, was the scene of desperate strife. The + Americans were determined to wrest it from the British, and they carefully + trained their best troops for the effort. Their prospects seemed bright, + as the whole of Upper Canada was suffering from want of men and means, + both civil and military. Drummond, the British commander-in-chief there, + felt very anxious not only about the line of the Niagara but even about + the neck of the whole peninsula, from Burlington westward to Lake Erie. He + had no more than 4,400 troops, all told; and he was obliged to place them + so as to be ready for an attack either from the Niagara or from Lake Erie, + or from both together. Keeping his base at York with a thousand men, he + formed his line with its right on Burlington and its left on Fort Niagara. + He had 500 men at Burlington, 1,000 at Fort George, and 700 at Fort + Niagara. The rest were thrown well forward, so as to get into immediate + touch with any Americans advancing from the south. There were 300 men at + Queenston, 500 at Chippawa, 150 at Fort Erie, and 250 at Long Point on + Lake Erie. + </p> + <p> + Brown, the American general who had beaten Prevost at Sackett's Harbour + and who had now superseded Wilkinson, had made his advanced field base at + Buffalo. His total force was not much more than Drummond's. But it was all + concentrated into a single striking body which possessed the full + initiative of manoeuvre and attack. On July 3 Brown crossed the Niagara to + the Canadian side. The same day he took Fort Erie from its little + garrison; and at once began to make it a really formidable work, as the + British found out to their cost later on. Next day he advanced down the + river road to Street's Creek. On hearing this, General Riall, Drummond's + second-in-command, gathered two thousand men and advanced against Brown, + who had recommenced his own advance with four thousand. They met on the + 5th, between Street's Creek and the Chippawa river. Riall at once sent six + hundred men, including all his Indians and militia, against more than + twice their number of American militia, who were in a strong position on + the inland flank. The Canadians went forward in excellent style and the + Americans broke and fled in wild confusion. Seizing such an apparently + good chance, Riall then attacked the American regulars with his own, + though the odds he had to face here were more than three against two. The + opposing lines met face to face unflinchingly. The Americans, who had now + been trained and disciplined by proper leaders, refused to yield an inch. + Their two regular brigadiers, Winfield Scott and Ripley, kept them well in + hand, manoeuvred their surplus battalions to the best advantage, + overlapped the weaker British flank, and won the day. The British loss was + five hundred, or one in four: the American four hundred, or only one in + ten. + </p> + <p> + Brown then turned Riall's flank, by crossing the Chippawa higher up, and + prepared for the crowning triumph of crushing Drummond. He proposed a + joint attack with Chauncey on Forts Niagara and George. But Chauncey + happened to be ill at the time; he had not yet defeated Yeo; and he + strongly resented being made apparently subordinate to Brown. So the + proposed combination failed at the critical moment. But, for the eighteen + days between the battle of Chippawa on the 5th of July and Brown's receipt + of Chauncey's refusal on the 23rd, the Americans carried all before them, + right up to the British line that ran along the western end of Lake + Ontario, from Fort Niagara to Burlington. During this period no great + operations took place. But two minor incidents served to exasperate + feelings on both sides. Eight Canadian traitors were tried and hanged at + Ancaster near Burlington; and Loyalists openly expressed their regret that + Willcocks and others had escaped the same fate. Willcocks had been the + ring-leader of the parliamentary opposition to Brock in 1812; and had + afterwards been exceedingly active on the American side, harrying every + Loyalist he and his raiders could lay their hands on. He ended by cheating + the gallows, after all, as he fell in a skirmish towards the end of the + present campaign on the Niagara frontier. The other exasperating incident + was the burning of St David's on July 19 by a Colonel Stone; partly + because it was a 'Tory village' and partly because the American militia + mistakenly thought that one of their officers, Brigadier-General Swift, + had been killed by a prisoner to whom he had given quarter. + </p> + <p> + When, on the 23rd of July, Brown at last received Chauncey's disappointing + answer, he immediately stopped manoeuvring along the lower Niagara and + prepared to execute an alternative plan of marching diagonally across the + Niagara peninsula straight for the British position at Burlington. To do + this he concentrated at the Chippawa on the 24th. But by the time he was + ready to put his plan into execution, on the morning of the 25th, he found + himself in close touch with the British in his immediate front. Their + advanced guard of a thousand men, under Colonel Pearson, had just taken + post at Lundy's Lane, near the Falls. Their main body, under Riall, was + clearing both banks of the lower Niagara. And Drummond himself had just + arrived at Fort Niagara. Neither side knew the intentions of the other. + But as the British were clearing the whole country up to the Falls, and as + the Americans were bent on striking diagonally inland from a point beside + the Falls, it inevitably happened that each met the other at Lundy's Lane, + which runs inland from the Canadian side of the Falls, at right angles to + the river, and therefore between the two opposing armies. + </p> + <p> + When Drummond, hurrying across from York, landed at Fort Niagara in the + early morning of the fateful 25th, he found that the orders he had sent + over on the 23rd were already being carried out, though in a slightly + modified form. Colonel Tucker was marching off from Fort Niagara to + Lewiston, which he took without opposition. Then, first making sure that + the heights beyond were also clear, he crossed over the Niagara to + Queenston, where his men had dinner with those who had marched up on the + Canadian side from Fort George. Immediately after dinner half the total + sixteen hundred present marched back to garrison Forts George and Niagara, + while the other half marched forward, up-stream, on the Canadian side, + with Drummond, towards Lundy's Lane, whither Riall had preceded them with + reinforcements for the advanced guard under Colonel Pearson. In the + meantime Brown had heard about the taking of Lewiston, and, fearing that + the British might take Fort Schlosser too, had at once given up all idea + of his diagonal march on Burlington and had decided to advance straight + against Queenston instead. Thus both the American and the British main + bodies were marching on Lundy's Lane from opposite sides and in successive + detachments throughout that long, intensely hot, midsummer afternoon. + </p> + <p> + Presently Riall got a report saying that the Americans were advancing in + one massed force instead of in successive detachments. He thereupon + ordered Pearson to retire from Lundy's Lane to Queenston, sent back orders + that Colonel Hercules Scott, who was marching up twelve hundred men from + near St Catharine's on Twelve Mile Creek, was also to go to Queenston, and + reported both these changes to Drummond, who was hurrying along the + Queenston road towards Lundy's Lane as fast as he could. While the orderly + officers were galloping back to Drummond and Hercules Scott, and while + Pearson was getting his men into their order of march, Winfield Scott's + brigade of American regulars suddenly appeared on the Chippawa road, + deployed for attack, and halted. There was a pause on both sides. Winfield + Scott thought he might have Drummond's whole force in front of him. Riall + thought he was faced by the whole of Brown's. But Winfield Scott, + presently realizing that Pearson was unsupported, resumed his advance; + while Pearson and Riall, not realizing that Winfield Scott was himself + unsupported for the time being, immediately began to retire. + </p> + <p> + At this precise moment Drummond dashed up and drew rein. There was not a + minute to lose. The leading Americans were coming on in excellent order, + only a musket-shot away; Pearson's thousand were just in the act of giving + up the key to the whole position; and Drummond's eight hundred were + plodding along a mile or so in rear. But within that fleeting minute + Drummond made the plan that brought on the most desperately contested + battle of the war. He ordered Pearson's thousand back again. He brought + his own eight hundred forward at full speed. He sent post-haste to Colonel + Scott to change once more and march on Lundy's Lane. And so, by the time + the astonished Americans were about to seize the key themselves, they + found him ready to defend it. + </p> + <p> + Too long for a hillock, too low for a hill, this key to the whole position + in that stern fight has never had a special name. But it may well be known + as Battle Rise. It stood a mile from the Niagara river, and just a step + inland beyond the crossing of two roads. One of these, Lundy's Lane, ran + lengthwise over it, at right angles to the Niagara. The other, which did + not quite touch it, ran in the same direction as the river, all the way + from Fort Erie to Fort George, and, of course, through both Chippawa and + Queenston. The crest of Battle Rise was a few yards on the Chippawa side + of Lundy's Lane; and there Drummond placed his seven field-guns. Round + these guns the thickest of the battle raged, from first to last. The odds + were four thousand Americans against three thousand British, altogether. + But the British were in superior force at first; and neither side had its + full total in action at any one time, as casualties and reinforcements + kept the numbers fluctuating. + </p> + <p> + It was past six in the evening of that stifling 25th of July when Winfield + Scott attacked with the utmost steadiness and gallantry. Though the + British outnumbered his splendid brigade, and though they had the choice + of ground as well, he still succeeded in driving a wedge through their + left flank, a move which threatened to break them away from the road along + the river. But they retired in good order, re-formed, and then drove out + his wedge. + </p> + <p> + By half-past seven the American army had all come into action, and + Drummond was having hard work to hold his own. Brown, like Winfield Scott, + at once saw the supreme importance of taking Battle Rise; so he sent two + complete battalions against it, one of regulars leading, the other, of + militia, in support. At the first salvo from Drummond's seven guns the + American militia broke and ran away. But Colonel Miller worked some of the + American regulars very cleverly along the far side of a creeper-covered + fence, while the rest engaged the battery from a distance. In the heat of + action the British artillerymen never saw their real danger till, on a + given signal, Miller's advanced party all sprang up and fired a + point-blank volley which killed or wounded every man beside the guns. Then + Miller charged and took the battery. But he only held it for a moment. The + British centre charged up their own side of Battle Rise and drove the + intruders back, after a terrific struggle with the bayonet. But again + success was only for the moment. The Americans rallied and pressed the + British back. The British then rallied and returned. And so the desperate + fight swayed back and forth across the coveted position; till finally both + sides retired exhausted, and the guns stood dumb between them. + </p> + <p> + It was now pitch-dark, and the lull that followed seemed almost like the + end of the fight. But, after a considerable pause, the Americans—all + regulars this time—came on once more. This put the British in the + greatest danger. Drummond had lost nearly a third of his men. The + effective American regulars were little less than double his present + twelve hundred effectives of all kinds and were the fresher army of the + two. Miller had taken one of the guns from Battle Rise. The other six + could not be served against close-quarter musketry; and the nearest + Americans were actually resting between the cross-roads and the deserted + Rise. Defeat looked certain for the British. But, just as the attackers + and defenders began to stir again, Colonel Hercules Scott's twelve hundred + weary reinforcements came plodding along the Queenston road, wheeled round + the corner into Lundy's Lane, and stumbled in among these nearest + Americans, who, being the more expectant of the two, drove them back in + confusion. The officers, however, rallied the men at once. Drummond told + off eight hundred of them, including three hundred militia, to the + reserve; prolonged his line to the right with the rest; and thus + re-established the defence. + </p> + <p> + Hardly had the new arrivals taken breath before the final assault began. + Again the Americans took the silent battery. Again the British drove them + back. Again the opposing lines swayed to and fro across the deadly crest + of Battle Rise, with nothing else to guide them through the hot, black + night but their own flaming musketry. The Americans could not have been + more gallant and persistent in attack: the British could not have been + more steadfast in defence. Midnight came; but neither side could keep its + hold on Battle Rise. By this time Drummond was wounded; and Riall was both + wounded and a prisoner. Among the Americans Brown and Winfield Scott were + also wounded, while their men were worn out after being under arms for + nearly eighteen hours. A pause of sheer exhaustion followed. Then, slowly + and sullenly, as if they knew the one more charge they could not make must + carry home, the foiled Americans turned back and felt their way to + Chippawa. + </p> + <p> + The British ranks lay down in the same order as that in which they fought; + and a deep hush fell over the whole, black-shrouded battlefield. The + immemorial voice of those dread Falls to which no combatant gave heed for + six long hours of mortal strife was heard once more. But near at hand + there was no other sound than that which came from the whispered queries + of a few tired officers on duty; from the busy orderlies and surgeons at + their work of mercy; and from the wounded moaning in their pain. So passed + the quiet half of that short, momentous, summer night. Within four hours + the sun shone down on the living and the dead—on that silent battery + whose gunners had fallen to a man—on the unconquered Rise. + </p> + <p> + The tide of war along the Niagara frontier favoured neither side for some + time after Lundy's Lane, though the Americans twice appeared to be + regaining the initiative. On August 15 there was a well-earned American + victory at Fort Erie, where Drummond's assault was beaten off with great + loss to the British. A month later an American sortie was repulsed. On + September 21 Drummond retired beaten; and on October 13 he found himself + again on the defensive at Chippawa, with little more than three thousand + men, while Izard, who had come with American reinforcements from Lake + Champlain and Sackett's Harbour, was facing him with twice as many. But + Yeo's fleet had now come up to the mouth of the Niagara, while Chauncey's + had remained at Sackett's Harbour. Thus the British had the priceless + advantage of a movable naval base at hand, while the Americans had none at + all within supporting distance. Every step towards Lake Ontario hampered + Izard more and more, while it added corresponding strength to Drummond. An + American attempt to work round Drummond's flank, twelve miles inland, was + also foiled by a heavy skirmish on October 19 at Cook's Mills; and Izard's + definite abandonment of the invasion was announced on November 5 by his + blowing up Fort Erie and retiring into winter quarters. This ended the war + along the whole Niagara. + </p> + <p> + The campaign on Lake Ontario was very different. It opened two months + earlier. The naval competition consisted rather in building than in + fighting. The British built ships in Kingston, the Americans in Sackett's + Harbour; and reports of progress soon travelled across the intervening + space of less than forty miles. The initiative of combined operations by + land and water was undertaken by the British instead of by the Americans. + Yeo and Drummond wished to attack Sackett's Harbour with four thousand + men. But Prevost said he could spare them only three thousand; whereupon + they changed their objective to Oswego, which they took in excellent + style, on May 6. The British suffered a serious reverse, though on a very + much smaller scale, on May 30, at Sandy Creek, between Oswego and + Sackett's Harbour, when a party of marines and bluejackets, sent to cut + out some vessels with naval stores for Chauncey, was completely lost, + every man being either killed, wounded, or taken prisoner. + </p> + <p> + From Lake Ontario down to the sea the Canadian frontier was never + seriously threatened; and the only action of any consequence was fought to + the south of Montreal in the early spring. On March 30 the Americans made + a last inglorious attempt in this direction. Wilkinson started with four + thousand men to follow the line of Lake Champlain and the Richelieu river, + the same that was tried by Dearborn in 1812 and by Hampton in 1813. At La + Colle, only four miles across the frontier, he attacked Major Handcock's + post of two hundred men. The result was like a second Chateauguay. + Handcock drew in three hundred reinforcements and two gunboats from + Isle-aux-Noix. Wilkinson's advanced guard lost its way overnight. In the + morning he lacked the resolution to press on, even with his overwhelming + numbers; and so, after a part of his army had executed some disjointed + manoeuvres, he withdrew the whole and gave up in despair. + </p> + <p> + From this point of the Canadian frontier to the very end of the + five-thousand-mile loop, that is, from Montreal to Mexico, the theatre of + operations was directly based upon the sea, where the British Navy was by + this time undisputedly supreme. A very few small American men-of-war were + still at large, together with a much greater number of privateers. But + they had no power whatever even to mitigate the irresistible blockade of + the whole coast-line of the United States. American sea-borne commerce + simply died away; for no mercantile marine could have any independent life + when its trade had to be carried on by a constantly decreasing tonnage; + when, too, it could go to sea at all only by furtive evasion, and when it + had to take cargo at risks so great that they could not be covered either + by insurance or by any attainable profits. The Atlantic being barred by + this Great Blockade, and the Pacific being inaccessible, the only + practical way left open to American trade was through the British lines by + land or sea. Some American seamen shipped in British vessels. Some + American ships sailed under British colours. But the chief external + American trade was done illicitly, by 'underground,' with the British West + Indies and with Canada itself. This was, of course, in direct defiance of + the American government, and to the direct detriment of the United States + as a nation. It was equally to the direct benefit of the British colonies + in general and of Nova Scotia in particular. American harbours had never + been so dull. Quebec and Halifax had never been so prosperous. American + money was drained away from the warlike South and West and either + concentrated in the Northern States—which were opposed to the war—or + paid over into British hands. + </p> + <p> + Nor was this all. The British Navy harried the coast in every convenient + quarter and made effective the work of two most important joint attacks, + one on Maine, the other on Washington itself. The attack on Maine covered + two months, altogether, from July 11 to September 11. It began with the + taking of Moose Island by Sir Thomas Hardy, Nelson's old flag-captain at + Trafalgar, and ended with the surrender, at Machias, of 'about 100 miles + of sea-coast,' together with 'that intermediate tract of country which + separates the province of New Brunswick from Lower Canada.' On September + 21 Sir John Sherbrooke proclaimed at Halifax the formal annexation of 'all + the eastern side of the Penobscot river and all the country lying between + the same river and the boundary of New Brunswick.' + </p> + <p> + The attack on Maine was meant, in one sense at least, to create a partial + counterpoise to the American preponderance on Lake Erie. The attack on + Washington was made in retaliation for the burning of the old and new + capitals of Upper Canada, Newark and York. + </p> + <p> + The naval defence of Washington had been committed to Commodore Barney, a + most expert and gallant veteran of the Revolution, who handled his wholly + inadequate little force with consummate skill and daring, both afloat and + ashore. He was not, strictly speaking, a naval officer, but a + privateersman who had made the unique record of taking eleven prizes in + ten consecutive days with his famous Baltimore schooner <i>Rossie</i>. The + military defence was committed to General Winder, one of the two generals + captured by Harvey's '704 firelocks' at Stoney Creek the year before. + Winder was a good soldier and did his best in the seven weeks at his + disposal. But the American government, which had now enjoyed continuous + party power for no less than thirteen years, gave him no more than four + hundred regulars, backed by Barney's four hundred excellent seamen and the + usual array of militia, with whom to defend the capital in the third + campaign of a war they had themselves declared. There were 93,500 + militiamen within the threatened area. But only fifteen thousand were got + under arms; and only five thousand were brought into action. + </p> + <p> + In the middle of August the British fleet under Admirals Cochrane and + Cockburn sailed into Chesapeake Bay with a detachment of four thousand + troops commanded by General Ross. Barney had no choice but to retire + before this overwhelming force. As the British advanced up the narrowing + waters all chance of escape disappeared; so Barney burnt his boats and + little vessels and marched his seamen in to join Winder's army. On August + 24 Winder's whole six thousand drew up in an exceedingly strong position + at Bladensburg, just north of Washington; and the President rode out with + his Cabinet to see a battle which is best described by its derisive title + of the Bladensburg Races. Ross's four thousand came on and were received + by an accurate checking fire from the regular artillery and from Barney's + seamen gunners. But a total loss of 8 killed and 11 wounded was more than + the 5,000 American militia could stand. All the rest ran for dear life. + The deserted handful of regular soldiers and sailors was then overpowered; + while Barney was severely wounded and taken prisoner. He and they, + however, had saved their honour and won the respect and admiration of both + friend and foe. Ross and Cockburn at once congratulated him on the stand + he had made against them; and he, with equal magnanimity, reported + officially that the British had treated him 'just like a brother.' + </p> + <p> + That night the little British army of four thousand men burnt governmental + Washington, the capital of a country with eight millions of people. Not a + man, not a woman, not a child, was in any way molested; nor was one finger + laid on any private property. The four thousand then marched back to the + fleet, through an area inhabited by 93,500 militiamen on paper, without + having so much as a single musket fired at them. + </p> + <p> + Now, if ever, was Prevost's golden opportunity to end the war with a + victory that would turn the scale decisively in favour of the British + cause. With the one exception of Lake Erie, the British had the upper hand + over the whole five thousand miles of front. A successful British + counter-invasion, across the Montreal frontier, would offset the American + hold on Lake Erie, ensure the control of Lake Champlain, and thus bring + all the scattered parts of the campaign into their proper relation to a + central, crowning triumph. + </p> + <p> + On the other hand, defeat would mean disaster. But the bare possibility of + defeat seemed quite absurd when Prevost set out from his field + headquarters opposite Montreal, between La Prairie and Chambly, with + eleven thousand seasoned veterans, mostly 'Peninsulars,' to attack + Plattsburg, which was no more than twenty-five miles across the frontier, + very weakly fortified, and garrisoned only by the fifteen hundred regulars + whom Izard had 'culled out' when he started for Niagara. + </p> + <p> + The naval odds were not so favourable. But, as they could be decisively + affected by military action, they naturally depended on Prevost, who, with + his overwhelming army, could turn them whichever way he chose. It was true + that Commodore Macdonough's American flotilla had more trained seamen than + Captain Downie's corresponding British force, and that his crews and + vessels possessed the further advantage of having worked together for some + time. Downie, a brave and skilful young officer, had arrived to take + command of his flotilla at the upper end of Lake Champlain only on + September 2, that is, exactly a week before Prevost urged him to attack, + and nine days before the battle actually did take place. He had a fair + proportion of trained seamen; but they consisted of scratch drafts from + different men-of-war, chosen in haste and hurried to the front. Most of + the men and officers were complete strangers to one another; and they made + such short-handed crews that some soldiers had to be wheeled out of the + line of march and put on board at the very last minute. There would have + been grave difficulties with such a flotilla under any circumstances. But + Prevost had increased them tenfold by giving no orders and making no + preparations while trying his hand at another abortive armistice—one, + moreover, which he had no authority even to propose. + </p> + <p> + Yet, in spite of all this, Prevost still had the means of making Downie + superior to Macdonough. Macdonough's vessels were mostly armed with + carronades, Downie's with long guns. Carronades fired masses of small + projectiles with great effect at very short ranges. Long guns, on the + other hand, fired each a single large projectile up to the farthest ranges + known. In fact, it was almost as if the Americans had been armed with + shot-guns and the British armed with rifles. Therefore the Americans had + an overwhelming advantage at close quarters, while the British had a + corresponding advantage at long range. Now, Macdonough had anchored in an + ideal position for close action inside Plattsburg Bay. He required only a + few men to look after his ground tackle; [Footnote: Anchors and cables.] + and his springs [Footnote: Ropes to hold a vessel in position when hauling + or swinging in a harbour. Here, ropes from the stern to the anchors on the + landward side.] were out on the landward side for 'winding ship,' that is, + for turning his vessels completely round, so as to bring their fresh + broadsides into action. There was no sea-room for manoeuvring round him + with any chance of success; so the British would be at a great + disadvantage while standing in to the attack, first because they could be + raked end-on, next because they could only reply with bow fire—the + weakest of all—and, lastly, because their best men would be engaged + with the sails and anchors while their ships were taking station. + </p> + <p> + But Prevost had it fully in his power to prevent Macdonough from fighting + in such an ideal position at all. Macdonough's American flotilla was well + within range of Macomb's long-range American land batteries; while + Prevost's overwhelming British army was easily able to take these land + batteries, turn their guns on Macdonough's helpless vessels—whose + short-range carronades could not possibly reply—and so either + destroy the American flotilla at anchor in the bay or force it out into + the open lake, where it would meet Downie's long-range guns at the + greatest disadvantage. Prevost, after allowing for all other duties, had + at least seven thousand veterans for an assault on Macomb's second-rate + regulars and ordinary militia, both of whom together amounted at most to + thirty-five hundred, including local militiamen who had come in to + reinforce the 'culls' whom Izard had left behind. The Americans, though + working with very creditable zeal, determined to do their best, quite + expected to be beaten out of their little forts and entrenchments, which + were just across the fordable Saranac in front of Prevost's army. They had + tried to delay the British advance. But, in the words of Macomb's own + official report, 'so undaunted was the enemy that he never deployed in his + whole march, always pressing on in column'; that is, the British veterans + simply brushed the Americans aside without deigning to change from their + column of march into a line of battle. Prevost's duty was therefore + perfectly plain. With all the odds in his favour ashore, and with the + power of changing the odds in his favour afloat, he ought to have captured + Macomb's position in the early morning and turned both his own and + Macomb's artillery on Macdonough, who would then have been forced to leave + his moorings for the open lake, where Downie would have had eight hours of + daylight to fight him at long range. + </p> + <p> + What Prevost actually did was something disgracefully different. Having + first wasted time by his attempted armistice, and so hindered preparations + at the base, between La Prairie and Chambly, he next proceeded to cross + the frontier too soon. He reported home that Downie could not be ready + before September 15. But on August 31 he crossed the line himself, only + twenty-five miles from his objective, thus prematurely showing the enemy + his hand. Then he began to goad the unhappy Downie to his doom. Downie's + flagship, the <i>Confiance</i>, named after a French prize which Yeo had + taken, was launched only on August 25, and hauled out into the stream only + on September 7. Her scratch crew could not go to battle quarters till the + 8th; and the shipwrights were working madly at her up to the very moment + that the first shot was fired in her fatal action on the 11th. Yet Prevost + tried to force her into action on the 9th, adding, 'I need not dwell with + you on the evils resulting to both services from delay,' and warning + Downie that he was being watched: 'Captain Watson is directed to remain at + Little Chazy until you are preparing to get under way.' + </p> + <p> + Thus watched and goaded by the governor-general and commander-in-chief, + whose own service was the Army, Downie, a comparative junior in the Navy, + put forth his utmost efforts, against his better judgment, to sail that + very midnight. A baffling head-wind, however, kept him from working out. + He immediately reported to Prevost, giving quite satisfactory reasons. But + Prevost wrote back impatiently: 'The troops have been held in readiness, + since six o'clock this morning [the 10th], to storm the enemy's works at + nearly the same time as the naval action begins in the bay. I ascribe the + disappointment I have experienced to the unfortunate change of wind, and + shall rejoice to learn that my reasonable expectations have been + frustrated by no other cause.' '<i>No other cause</i>.' The innuendo, even + if unintentional, was there. Downie, a junior sailor, was perhaps + suspected of 'shyness' by a very senior soldier. Prevost's poison worked + quickly. 'I will convince him that the Navy won't be backward,' said + Downie to his second, Pring, who gave this evidence, under oath, at the + subsequent court-martial. Pring, whose evidence was corroborated by that + of both the first lieutenant and the master of the <i>Confiance</i>, then + urged the extreme risk of engaging Macdonough inside the bay. But Downie + allayed their anxiety by telling them that Prevost had promised to storm + Macomb's indefensible works simultaneously. This was not nearly so good as + if Prevost had promised to defeat Macomb first and then drive Macdonough + out to sea. But it was better, far better, than what actually was done. + </p> + <p> + With Prevost's written promise in his pocket Downie sailed for Plattsburg + in the early morning of that fatal 11th of September. Punctually to the + minute he fired his preconcerted signal outside Cumberland Head, which + separated the bay from the lake. He next waited exactly the prescribed + time, during which he reconnoitred Macdonough's position from a boat. Then + the hour of battle came. The hammering of the shipwrights stopped at last; + and the ill-starred <i>Confiance</i>, that ship which never had a chance + to 'find herself,' led the little squadron into Prevost's death-trap in + the bay. Every soldier and sailor now realized that the storming of the + works on land ought to have been the first move, and that Prevost's idea + of simultaneous action was faulty, because it meant two independent + fights, with the chance of a naval disaster preceding the military + success. However, Prevost was the commander-in-chief; he had promised + co-operation in his own way; and Downie was determined to show him that + the Navy had stopped for '<i>no other cause</i>' than the head-wind of the + day before. + </p> + <p> + Did <i>no other cause</i> than mistaken judgment affect Prevost that fatal + morning? Did he intend to show Downie that a commander-in-chief could not + suffer the 'disappointment' of 'holding troops in readiness' without + marking his displeasure by some visible return in kind? Or was he no worse + than criminally weak? His motives will never be known. But his actions + throw a sinister light upon them. For when Downie sailed in to the attack + Prevost did nothing whatever to help him. Betrayed, traduced, and goaded + to his ruin, Downie fought a losing battle with the utmost gallantry and + skill. The wind flawed and failed inside the bay, so that the <i>Confiance</i> + could not reach her proper station. Yet her first broadside struck down + forty men aboard the <i>Saratoga</i>. Then the <i>Saratoga</i> fired her + carronades, at point-blank range, cut up the cables aboard the <i>Confiance</i>, + and did great execution among the crew. In fifteen minutes Downie fell. + </p> + <p> + The battle raged two full hours longer; while the odds against the British + continued to increase. Four of their little gunboats fought as well as + gunboats could. But the other seven simply ran away, like their commander + afterwards when summoned for a court-martial that would assuredly have + sentenced him to death. Two of the larger vessels failed to come into + action properly; one went ashore, the other drifted through the American + line and then hauled down her colours. Thus the battle was fought to its + dire conclusion by the British <i>Confiance</i> and <i>Linnet</i> against + the American <i>Saratoga</i>, <i>Eagle</i>, and <i>Ticonderoga</i>. The + gunboats had little to do with the result; though the odds of all those + actually engaged were greatly in favour of Macdonough. The fourth American + vessel of larger size drifted out of action. + </p> + <p> + Macdonough, an officer of whom any navy in the world might well be proud, + then concentrated on the stricken <i>Confiance</i> with his own <i>Saratoga</i>, + greatly aided by the <i>Eagle</i>, which swung round so as to rake the <i>Confiance</i> + with her fresh broadside. The <i>Linnet</i> now drifted off a little and + so could not help the <i>Confiance</i>, both because the American galleys + at once engaged her and because her position was bad in any case. + Presently both flagships slackened fire; whereupon Macdonough took the + opportunity of winding ship. His ground tackle was in perfect order on the + far, or landward, side; so the <i>Saratoga</i> swung round quite easily. + The <i>Confiance</i> now had both the <i>Eagle's</i> and the <i>Saratoga's</i> + fresh carronade broadsides deluging her battered, cannon-armed broadside + with showers of deadly grape. Her one last chance of keeping up a little + longer was to wind ship herself. Her tackle had all been cut; but her + master got out his last spare cables and tried to bring her round, while + some of his toiling men fell dead at every haul. She began to wind round + very slowly; and, when exactly at right angles to Macdonough, was raked + completely, fore and aft. At the same time an ominous list to port, where + her side was torn in over a hundred places, showed that she would sink + quickly if her guns could not be run across to starboard. But more than + half her mixed scratch crew had been already killed or wounded. The most + desperate efforts of her few surviving officers could not prevent the + confusion that followed the fearful raking she now received from both her + superior opponents; and before her fresh broadside could be brought to + bear she was forced to strike her flag. Then every American carronade and + gun was turned upon Pring's undaunted little <i>Linnet</i>, which kept up + the hopeless fight for fifteen minutes longer; so that Prevost might yet + have a chance to carry out his own operations without fear of molestation + from a hostile bay. + </p> + <p> + But Prevost was in no danger of molestation. He was in perfect safety. He + watched the destruction of his fleet from his secure headquarters, well + inland, marched and countermarched his men about, to make a show of + action; and then, as the <i>Linnet</i> fired her last, despairing gun, he + told all ranks to go to dinner. + </p> + <p> + That night he broke camp hurriedly, left all his badly wounded men behind + him, and went back a great deal faster than he came. His shamed, disgusted + veterans deserted in unprecedented numbers. And Macomb's astounded army + found themselves the victors of an unfought field. + </p> + <p> + The American victory at Plattsburg gave the United States the absolute + control of Lake Champlain; and this, reinforcing their similar control of + Lake Erie, counterbalanced the British military advantages all along the + Canadian frontier. The British command of the sea, the destruction of + Washington, and the occupation of Maine told heavily on the other side. + These three British advantages had been won while the mother country was + fighting with her right hand tied behind her back; and in all the elements + of warlike strength the British Empire was vastly superior to the United + States. Thus there cannot be the slightest doubt that if the British had + been free to continue the war they must have triumphed. But they were not + free. Europe was seething with the profound unrest that made her statesmen + feel the volcano heaving under their every step during the portentous year + between Napoleon's abdication and return. The mighty British Navy, the + veteran British Army, could not now be sent across the sea in overwhelming + force. So American diplomacy eagerly seized this chance of profiting by + British needs, and took such good advantage of them that the Treaty of + Ghent, which ended the war on Christmas Eve, left the two opponents in + much the same position towards each other as before. Neither of the main + reasons for which the Americans had fought their three campaigns was even + mentioned in the articles. + </p> + <p> + The war had been an unmitigated curse to the motherland herself; and it + brought the usual curses in its train all over the scene of action. But + some positive good came out of it as well, both in Canada and in the + United States. + </p> + <p> + The benefits conferred on the United States could not be given in apter + words than those used by Gallatin, who, as the finance minister during + four presidential terms, saw quite enough of the seamy side to sober his + opinions, and who, as a prominent member of the war party, shared the + disappointed hopes of his colleagues about the conquest of Canada. His + opinion is, of course, that of a partisan. But it contains much truth, for + all that: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + The war has been productive of evil and of good; but + I think the good preponderates. It has laid the + foundations of permanent taxes and military + establishments, which the Republicans [as the + anti-Federalist Democrats were then called] had deemed + unfavorable to the happiness and free institutions of + the country. Under our former system we were becoming + too selfish, too much attached exclusively to the + acquisition of wealth, above all, too much confined + in our political feelings to local and state objects. + The war has renewed the national feelings and character + which the Revolution had given, and which were daily + lessening. The people are now more American. They feel + and act more as a nation. And I hope that the permanency + of the Union is thereby better secured. +</pre> + <p> + Gallatin did not, of course, foresee that it would take a third conflict + to finish what the Revolution had begun. But this sequel only strengthens + his argument. For that Union which was born in the throes of the + Revolution had to pass through its tumultuous youth in '1812' before + reaching full manhood by means of the Civil War. + </p> + <p> + The benefits conferred on Canada were equally permanent and even greater. + How Gallatin would have rejoiced to see in the United States any approach + to such a financial triumph as that which was won by the Army Bills in + Canada! No public measure was ever more successful at the time or more + full of promise for the future. But mightier problems than even those of + national finance were brought nearer to their desirable solution by this + propitious war. It made Ontario what Quebec had long since been—historic + ground; thus bringing the older and newer provinces together with one + exalting touch. It was also the last, as well as the most convincing, + defeat of the three American invasions of Canada. The first had been led + by Sir William Phips in 1690. This was long before the Revolution. The + American Colonies were then still British and Canada still French. But the + invasion itself was distinctively American, in men, ships, money, and + design. It was undertaken without the consent or knowledge of the home + authorities; and its success would probably have destroyed all chance of + there being any British Canada to-day. The second American invasion had + been that of Montgomery and Arnold in 1775, during the Revolution, when + the very diverse elements of a new Canadian life first began to defend + their common heritage against a common foe. The third invasion—the + War of 1812—united all these elements once more, just when Canada + stood most in need of mutual confidence between them. So there could not + have been a better bond of union than the blood then shed so willingly by + her different races in a single righteous cause. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0007" id="link2H_4_0007"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE + </h2> + <p> + Enough books to fill a small library have been written about the + 'sprawling and sporadic' War of 1812. Most of them deal with particular + phases, localities, or events; and most of them are distinctly partisan. + This is unfortunate, but not surprising. The war was waged over an immense + area, by various forces, and with remarkably various results. The + Americans were victorious on the Lakes and in all but one of the naval + duels fought at sea. Yet their coast was completely sealed up by the Great + Blockade in the last campaign. The balance of victory inclined towards the + British side on land. Yet the annihilating American victories on the Lakes + nullified most of the general military advantages gained by the British + along the Canadian frontier. The fortunes of each campaign were followed + with great interest on both sides of the line. But on the other side of + the Atlantic the British home public had Napoleon to think of at their + very doors; and so, for the most part, they regarded the war with the + States as an untoward and regrettable annoyance, which diverted too much + force and attention from the life-and-death affairs of Europe. + </p> + <p> + All these peculiar influences are reflected in the different patriotic + annals. Americans are voluble about the Lakes and the naval duels out at + sea. But the completely effective British blockade of their coast-line is + a too depressingly scientific factor in the problem to be welcomed by a + general public which would not understand how Yankee ships could win so + many duels while the British Navy won the war. Canadians are equally + voluble about the battles on Canadian soil, where Americans had decidedly + the worst of it. As a rule, Canadian writers have been quite as + controversial as Americans, and not any readier to study their special + subjects as parts of a greater whole. The British Isles have never had an + interested public anxious to read about this remote, distasteful, and + subsidiary war; and books about it there have consequently been very few. + </p> + <p> + The two chief authors who have appealed directly to the readers of the + mother country are William James and Sir Charles Lucas. James was an + industrious naval historian; but he was quite as anti-American as the + earlier American writers were anti-British. Owing to this perverting bias + his two books, the <i>Naval</i> and the <i>Military Occurrences of the + late War between Great Britain and the United States</i>, are not to be + relied upon. Their appendices, however, give a great many documents which + are of much assistance in studying the real history of the war. James + wrote only a few years after the peace. Nearly a century later Sir Charles + Lucas wrote <i>The Canadian War of 1812</i>, which is the work of a man + whose life-long service in the Colonial Office and intimate acquaintance + with Canadian history have both been turned to the best account. The two + chief Canadian authors are Colonel Cruikshank and James Hannay. Colonel + Cruikshank deserves the greatest credit for being a real pioneer with his + <i>Documentary History of the Campaigns upon the Niagara Frontier</i>. + Hannay's <i>History of the War of 1812</i> shows careful study of the + Canadian aspects of the operations; but its generally sound arguments are + weakened by its controversial tone. + </p> + <p> + The four chief American authors to reckon with are, Lossing, Upton, + Roosevelt, and Mahan. They complement rather than correspond with the four + British authors. The best known American work dealing with the military + campaigns is Lossing's <i>Field-Book of the War of 1812</i>. It is an + industrious compilation; but quite uncritical and most misleading. General + Upton's <i>Military Policy of the United States</i> incidentally pricks + all the absurd American militia bubbles with an incontrovertible array of + hard and pointed facts. <i>The Naval War of 1812</i>, by Theodore + Roosevelt, is an excellent sketch which shows a genuine wish to be fair to + both sides. But the best naval work, and the most thorough work of any + kind on either side, is Admiral Mahan's <i>Sea Power in its Relations to + the War of 1812</i>. + </p> + <p> + A good deal of original evidence on the American side is given in + Brannan's <i>Official Letters of the Military and Naval Officers of the + United States during the War with Great Britain in the Years 1812 to 1815</i>. + The original British evidence about the campaigns in Canada is given in + William Wood's <i>Select British Documents of the Canadian War of 1812</i>. + Students who wish to see the actual documents must go to Washington, + London, and Ottawa. The Dominion Archives are of exceptional interest to + all concerned. + </p> + <p> + The present work is based entirely on original evidence, both American and + British. + </p> + <h3> + END + </h3> + <div style="height: 6em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The War With the United States + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WAR WITH THE UNITED STATES *** + +***** This file should be named 14582-h.htm or 14582-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/1/4/5/8/14582/ + +Etext was produced by Gardner Buchanan + +HTML file produced by David Widger + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The War With the United States + A Chronicle of 1812 + Volume 14 (of 32) in the series Chronicles of Canada + +Author: William Wood + +Editor: George M. Wrong and H. H. Langton + +Release Date: January 3, 2005 [EBook #14582] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WAR WITH THE UNITED STATES *** + + + + +This etext was produced by Gardner Buchanan. + + + + +CHRONICLES OF CANADA +Edited by George M. Wrong and H. H. Langton +In thirty-two volumes + +Volume 14 + + +THE WAR WITH THE UNITED STATES +A Chronicle of 1812 + +By WILLIAM WOOD +TORONTO, 1915 + + + + +CONTENTS + +I. OPPOSING CLAIMS +II. OPPOSING FORCES +III. 1812: OFF TO THE FRONT +IV. 1812: BROCK AT DETROIT AND QUEENSTON HEIGHTS +V. 1813: THE BEAVER DAMS, LAKE ERIE, AND CHATEAUGUAY +VI. 1814: LUNDY'S LANE, PLATTSBURG, AND THE GREAT BLOCKADE +BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE + + + + +CHAPTER I + +OPPOSING CLAIMS + +International disputes that end in war are not generally +questions of absolute right and wrong. They may quite as +well be questions of opposing rights. But, when there +are rights on both sides; it is usually found that the +side which takes the initiative is moved by its national +desires as well as by its claims of right. + +This could hardly be better exemplified than by the vexed +questions which brought about the War of 1812. The British +were fighting for life and liberty against Napoleon. +Napoleon was fighting to master the whole of Europe. The +United States wished to make as much as possible out of +unrestricted trade with both belligerents. But Napoleon's +Berlin Decree forbade all intercourse whatever with the +British, while the British Orders-in-Council forbade all +intercourse whatever with Napoleon and his allies, except +on condition that the trade should first pass through +British ports. Between two such desperate antagonists +there was no safe place for an unarmed, independent, +'free-trading' neutral. Every one was forced to take +sides. The British being overwhelmingly strong at sea, +while the French were correspondingly strong on land, +American shipping was bound to suffer more from the +British than from the French. The French seized every +American vessel that infringed the Berlin Decree whenever +they could manage to do so. But the British seized so +many more for infringing the Orders-in-Council that the +Americans naturally began to take sides with the French. + +Worse still, from the American point of view, was the +British Right of Search, which meant the right of searching +neutral merchant vessels either in British waters or on +the high seas for deserters from the Royal Navy. Every +other people whose navy could enforce it had always +claimed a similar right. But other peoples' rights had +never clashed with American interests in at all the same +way. What really roused the American government was not +the abstract Right of Search, but its enforcement at a +time when so many hands aboard American vessels were +British subjects evading service in their own Navy. The +American theory was that the flag covered the crew wherever +the ship might be. Such a theory might well have been +made a question for friendly debate and settlement at +any other time. But it was a new theory, advanced by a +new nation, whose peculiar and most disturbing entrance +on the international scene could not be suffered to upset +the accepted state of things during the stress of a +life-and-death war. Under existing circumstances the +British could not possibly give up their long-established +Right of Search without committing national suicide. +Neither could they relax their own blockade so long as +Napoleon maintained his. The Right of Search and the +double blockade of Europe thus became two vexed questions +which led straight to war. + +But the American grievances about these two questions +were not the only motives impelling the United States to +take up arms. There were two deeply rooted national +desires urging them on in the same direction. A good many +Americans were ready to seize any chance of venting their +anti-British feeling; and most Americans thought they +would only be fulfilling their proper 'destiny' by wresting +the whole of Canada from the British crown. These two +national desires worked both ways for war--supporting +the government case against the British Orders-in-Council +and Right of Search on the one hand, while welcoming an +alliance with Napoleon on the other. Americans were far +from being unanimous; and the party in favour of peace +was not slow to point out that Napoleon stood for tyranny, +while the British stood for freedom. But the adherents +of the war party reminded each other, as well as the +British and the French, that Britain had wrested Canada +from France, while France had helped to wrest the Thirteen +Colonies from the British Empire. + +As usual in all modern wars, there was much official +verbiage about the national claims and only unofficial +talk about the national desires. But, again as usual, +the claims became the more insistent because of the +desires, and the desires became the more patriotically +respectable because of the claims of right. 'Free Trade +and Sailors' Rights' was the popular catchword that best +describes the two strong claims of the United States. +'Down with the British' and 'On to Canada' were the +phrases that best reveal the two impelling national +desires. + +Both the claims and the desires seem quite simple in +themselves. But, in their connection with American +politics, international affairs, and opposing British +claims, they are complex to the last degree. Their +complexities, indeed, are so tortuous and so multitudinous +that they baffle description within the limits of the +present book. Yet, since nothing can be understood without +some reference to its antecedents, we must take at least +a bird's-eye view of the growing entanglement which +finally resulted in the War of 1812. + +The relations of the British Empire with the United States +passed through four gradually darkening phases between +1783 and 1812--the phases of Accommodation, Unfriendliness, +Hostility, and War. Accommodation lasted from the +recognition of Independence till the end of the century. +Unfriendliness then began with President Jefferson and +the Democrats. Hostility followed in 1807, during +Jefferson's second term, when Napoleon's Berlin Decree +and the British. Orders-in-Council brought American +foreign relations into the five-year crisis which ended +with the three-year war. + +William Pitt, for the British, and John Jay, the first +chief justice of the United States, are the two principal +figures in the Accommodation period. In 1783 Pitt, who, +like his father, the great Earl of Chatham, was favourably +disposed towards the Americans, introduced a temporary +measure in the British House of Commons to regulate trade +with what was now a foreign country 'on the most enlarged +principles of reciprocal benefit' as well as 'on terms +of most perfect amity with the United States of America.' +This bill, which showed the influence of Adam Smith's +principles on Pitt's receptive mind, favoured American +more than any other foreign trade in the mother country, +and favoured it to a still greater extent in the West +Indies. Alone among foreigners the Americans were to be +granted the privilege of trading between their own ports +and the West Indies, in their own vessels and with their +own goods, on exactly the same terms as the British +themselves. The bill was rejected. But in 1794, when the +French Revolution was running its course of wild excesses, +and the British government was even less inclined to +trust republics, Jay succeeded in negotiating a temporary +treaty which improved the position of American sea-borne +trade with the West Indies. His government urged him to +get explicit statements of principle inserted, more +especially anything that would make cargoes neutral when +under neutral flags. This, however, was not possible, as +Jay himself pointed out. 'That Britain,' he said, 'at +this period, and involved in war, should not admit +principles which would impeach the propriety of her +conduct in seizing provisions bound to France, and enemy's +property on board neutral vessels, does not appear to me +extraordinary.' On the whole, Jay did very well to get +any treaty through at such a time; and this mere fact +shows that the general attitude of the mother country +towards her independent children was far from being +unfriendly. + +Unfriendliness began with the new century, when Jefferson +first came into power. He treated the British navigation +laws as if they had been invented on purpose to wrong +Americans, though they had been in force for a hundred +and fifty years, and though they had been originally +passed, at the zenith of Cromwell's career, by the only +republican government that ever held sway in England. +Jefferson said that British policy was so perverse, that +when he wished to forecast the British line of action on +any particular point he would first consider what it +ought to be and then infer the opposite. His official +opinion was written in the following words: 'It is not +to the moderation or justice of others we are to trust +for fair and equal access to market with our productions, +or for our due share in the transportation of them; but +to our own means of independence, and the firm will to +use them.' On the subject of impressment, or 'Sailors' +Rights,' he was clearer still: 'The simplest rule will +be that the vessel being American shall be evidence that +the seamen on board of her are such.' This would have +prevented the impressment of British seamen, even in +British harbours, if they were under the American merchant +flag--a principle almost as preposterous, at that particular +time, as Jefferson's suggestion that the whole Gulf Stream +should be claimed 'as of our waters.' + +If Jefferson had been backed by a united public, or if +his actions had been suited to his words, war would have +certainly broken out during his second presidential term, +which lasted from 1805 to 1809. But he was a party man, +with many political opponents, and without unquestioning +support from all on his own side, and he cordially hated +armies, navies, and even a mercantile marine. His idea +of an American Utopia was a commonwealth with plenty of +commerce, but no more shipping than could be helped: + + I trust [he said] that the good sense of our country + will see that its greatest prosperity depends on a + due balance between agriculture, manufactures, and + commerce; and not on this protuberant navigation, + which has kept us in hot water since the commencement + of our government... It is essentially necessary for + us to have shipping and seamen enough to carry our + surplus products to market, but beyond that I do not + think we are bound to give it encouragement... This + exuberant commerce brings us into collision with other + Powers in every sea. + +Notwithstanding such opinions, Jefferson stood firm on +the question of 'Sailors' Rights.' He refused to approve +a treaty that had been signed on the last day of 1806 by +his four commissioners in London, chiefly because it +provided no precise guarantee against impressment. The +British ministers had offered, and had sincerely meant, +to respect all American rights, to issue special +instructions against molesting American citizens under +any circumstances, and to redress every case of wrong. +But, with a united nation behind them and an implacable +enemy in front, they could not possibly give up the right +to take British seamen from neutral vessels which were +sailing the high seas. The Right of Search was the +acknowledged law of nations all round the world; and +surrender on this point meant death to the Empire they +were bound to guard. + +Their 'no surrender' on this vital point was, of course, +anathema to Jefferson. Yet he would not go beyond verbal +fulminations. In the following year, however, he was +nearly forced to draw the sword by one of those incidents +that will happen during strained relations. In June 1807 +two French men-of-war were lying off Annapolis, a hundred +miles up Chesapeake Bay. Far down the bay, in Hampton +Roads, the American frigate _Chesapeake_ was fitting out +for sea. Twelve miles below her anchorage a small British +squadron lay just within Cape Henry, waiting to follow +the Frenchmen out beyond the three-mile limit. As Jefferson +quite justly said, this squadron was 'enjoying the +hospitality of the United States.' Presently the +_Chesapeake_ got under way; whereupon the British frigate +_Leopard_ made sail and cleared the land ahead of her. +Ten miles out the _Leopard_ hailed her, and sent an +officer aboard to show the American commodore the orders +from Admiral Berkeley at Halifax. These orders named +certain British deserters as being among the _Chesapeake's_ +crew. The American commodore refused to allow a search; +but submitted after a fight, during which he lost twenty-one +men killed and wounded. Four men were then seized. One +was hanged; another died; and the other two were +subsequently returned with the apologies of the British +government. + +James Monroe, of Monroe Doctrine fame, was then American +minister in London. Canning, the British foreign minister, +who heard the news first, wrote an apology on the spot, +and promised to make 'prompt and effectual reparation' +if Berkeley had been wrong. Berkeley was wrong. The Right +of Search did not include the right to search a foreign +man-of-war, though, unlike the modern 'right of search,' +which is confined to cargoes, it did include the right +to search a neutral merchantman on the high seas for any +'national' who was 'wanted.' Canning, however, distinctly +stated that the men's nationality would affect the +consideration of restoring them or not. Monroe now had +a good case. But he made the fatal mistake of writing +officially to Canning before he knew the details, and, +worse still, of diluting his argument with other complaints +which had nothing to do with the affair itself. The result +was a long and involved correspondence, a tardy and +ungracious reparation, and much justifiable resentment +on the American side. + +Unfriendliness soon became Hostility after the _Chesapeake_ +affair had sharpened the sting of the Orders-in-Council, +which had been issued at the beginning of the same year, +1807. These celebrated Orders simply meant that so long +as Napoleon tried to blockade the British Isles by +enforcing his Berlin Decree, just so long would the +British Navy be employed in blockading him and his allies. +Such decisive action, of course, brought neutral shipping +more than ever under the power of the British Navy, which +commanded all the seaways to the ports of Europe. It +accentuated the differences between the American and +British governments, and threw the shadow of the coming +storm over the exposed colony of Canada. + +Not having succeeded in his struggle for 'Sailors' Rights,' +Jefferson now took up the cudgels for 'Free Trade'; but +still without a resort to arms. His chosen means of +warfare was an Embargo Act, forbidding the departure of +vessels from United States ports. This, although nominally +aimed against France as well, was designed to make Great +Britain submit by cutting off both her and her colonies +from all intercourse with the United States. But its +actual effect was to hurt Americans, and even Jefferson's +own party, far more than it hurt the British. The Yankee +skipper already had two blockades against 'Free Trade.' +The Embargo Act added a third. Of course it was evaded; +and a good deal of shipping went from the United States +and passed into Canadian ports under the Union Jack. +Jefferson and his followers, however, persisted in taking +their own way. So Canada gained from the embargo much of +what the Americans were losing. Quebec and Halifax swarmed +with contrabandists, who smuggled back return cargoes +into the New England ports, which were Federalist in +party allegiance, and only too ready to evade or defy +the edicts of the Democratic administration. Jefferson +had, it is true, the satisfaction of inflicting much +temporary hardship on cotton-spinning Manchester. But +the American cotton-growing South suffered even more. + +The American claims of 'Free Trade and Sailors' Rights' +were opposed by the British counter-claims of the +Orders-in-Council and the Right of Search. But 'Down with +the British' and 'On to Canada' were without exact +equivalents on the other side. The British at home were +a good deal irritated by so much unfriendliness and +hostility behind them while they were engaged with Napoleon +in front. Yet they could hardly be described as +anti-American; and they certainly had no wish to fight, +still less to conquer, the United States. Canada did +contain an anti-American element in the United Empire +Loyalists, whom the American Revolution had driven from +their homes. But her general wish was to be left in peace. +Failing that, she was prepared for defence. + +Anti-British feeling probably animated at least two-thirds +of the American people on every question that caused +international friction; and the Jeffersonian Democrats, +who were in power, were anti-British to a man. So strong +was this feeling among them that they continued to side +with France even when she was under the military despotism +of Napoleon. He was the arch-enemy of England in Europe. +They were the arch-enemy of England in America. This +alone was enough to overcome their natural repugnance to +his autocratic ways. Their position towards the British +was such that they could not draw back from France, whose +change of government had made her a more efficient +anti-British friend. 'Let us unite with France and stand +or fall together' was the cry the Democratic press repeated +for years in different forms. It was strangely prophetic. +Jefferson's Embargo Act of 1808 began its self-injurious +career at the same time that the Peninsular War began to +make the first injurious breach in Napoleon's Continental +System. Madison's declaration of war in 1812 coincided +with the opening of Napoleon's disastrous campaign in +Russia. + +The Federalists, the party in favour of peace with the +British, included many of the men who had done most for +Independence; and they were all, of course, above suspicion +as patriotic Americans. But they were not unlike +transatlantic, self-governing Englishmen. They had been +alienated by the excesses of the French Revolution; and +they could not condone the tyranny of Napoleon. They +preferred American statesmen of the type of Washington +and Hamilton to those of the type of Jefferson and Madison. +And they were not inclined to be more anti-British than +the occasion required. They were strongest in New England +and New York. The Democrats were strongest throughout +the South and in what was then the West. The Federalists +had been in power during the Accommodation period. The +Democrats began with Unfriendliness, continued with +Hostility, and ended with War. + +The Federalists did not hesitate to speak their mind. +Their loss of power had sharpened their tongues; and they +were often no more generous to the Democrats and to France +than the Democrats were to them and to the British. But, +on the whole, they made for goodwill on both sides; as +well as for a better understanding of each other's rights +and difficulties; and so they made for peace. The general +current, however, was against them, even before the +_Chesapeake_ affair; and several additional incidents +helped to quicken it afterwards. In 1808 the toast of +the President of the United States was received with +hisses at a great public dinner in London, given to the +leaders of the Spanish revolt against Napoleon by British +admirers. In 1811 the British sloop-of-war _Little Belt_ +was overhauled by the American frigate _President_ fifty +miles off-shore and forced to strike, after losing +thirty-two men and being reduced to a mere battered hulk. +The vessels came into range after dark; the British seem +to have fired first; and the Americans had the further +excuse that they were still smarting under the _Chesapeake_ +affair. Then, in 1812, an Irish adventurer called Henry, +who had been doing some secret-service work in the United +States at the instance of the Canadian governor-general, +sold the duplicates of his correspondence to President +Madison. These were of little real importance; but they +added fuel to the Democratic fire in Congress just when +anti-British feeling was at its worst. + +The fourth cause of war, the desire to conquer Canada, +was by far the oldest of all. It was older than +Independence, older even than the British conquest of +Canada. In 1689 Peter Schuyler, mayor of Albany, and the +acknowledged leader of the frontier districts, had set +forth his 'Glorious Enterprize' for the conquest and +annexation of New France. Phips's American invasion next +year, carried out in complete independence of the home +government, had been an utter failure. So had the second +American invasion, led by Montgomery and Arnold during +the Revolutionary War, nearly a century later. But the +Americans had not forgotten their long desire; and the +prospect of another war at once revived their hopes. They +honestly believed that Canada would be much better off +as an integral part of the United States than as a British +colony; and most of them believed that Canadians thought +so too. The lesson of the invasion of the 'Fourteenth +Colony' during the Revolution had not been learnt. The +alacrity with which Canadians had stood to arms after +the _Chesapeake_ affair was little heeded. And both the +nature and the strength of the union between the colony +and the Empire were almost entirely misunderstood. + +Henry Clay, one of the most warlike of the Democrats, +said: 'It is absurd to suppose that we will not succeed +in our enterprise against the enemy's Provinces. I am +not for stopping at Quebec or anywhere else; but I would +take the whole continent from them, and ask them no +favours. I wish never to see peace till we do. God has +given us the power and the means. We are to blame if we +do not use them.' Eustis, the American Secretary of War, +said: 'We can take Canada without soldiers. We have only +to send officers into the Provinces, and the people, +disaffected towards their own Government, will rally +round our standard.' And Jefferson summed it all up by +prophesying that 'the acquisition of Canada this year, +as far as the neighbourhood of Quebec, will be a mere +matter of marching.' When the leaders talked like this, +it was no wonder their followers thought that the +long-cherished dream of a conquered Canada was at last +about to come true. + + + + +CHAPTER II + +OPPOSING FORCES + +An armed mob must be very big indeed before it has the +slightest chance against a small but disciplined army. + +So very obvious a statement might well be taken for +granted in the history of any ordinary war. But '1812' +was not an ordinary war. It was a sprawling and sporadic +war; and it was waged over a vast territory by widely +scattered and singularly heterogeneous forces on both +sides. For this reason it is extremely difficult to view +and understand as one connected whole. Partisan +misrepresentation has never had a better chance. Americans +have dwelt with justifiable pride on the frigate duels +out at sea and the two flotilla battles on the Lakes. +But they have usually forgotten that, though they won +the naval battles, the British won the purely naval war. +The mother-country British, on the other hand, have made +too much of their one important victory at sea, have +passed too lightly over the lessons of the other duels +there, and have forgotten how long it took to sweep the +Stars and Stripes away from the Atlantic. Canadians have, +of course, devoted most attention to the British victories +won in the frontier campaigns on land, which the other +British have heeded too little and Americans have been +only too anxious to forget. Finally, neither the Canadians, +nor the mother-country British, nor yet the Americans, +have often tried to take a comprehensive view of all the +operations by land and sea together. + +The character and numbers of the opposing forces have +been even less considered and even more misunderstood. +Militia victories have been freely claimed by both sides, +in defiance of the fact that the regulars were the really +decisive factor in every single victory won by either +side, afloat or ashore. The popular notions about the +numbers concerned are equally wrong. The totals were far +greater than is generally known. Counting every man who +ever appeared on either side, by land or sea, within the +actual theatre of war, the united grand total reaches +seven hundred thousand. This was most unevenly divided +between the two opponents. The Americans had about 575,000, +the British about 125,000. But such a striking difference +in numbers was matched by an equally striking difference +in discipline and training. The Americans had more than +four times as many men. The British had more than four +times as much discipline and training. + +The forces on the American side were a small navy and a +swarm of privateers, a small regular army, a few +'volunteers,' still fewer 'rangers,' and a vast +conglomeration of raw militia. The British had a detachment +from the greatest navy in the world, a very small +'Provincial Marine' on the Lakes and the St Lawrence, +besides various little subsidiary services afloat, +including privateers. Their army consisted of a very +small but latterly much increased contingent of Imperial +regulars, a few Canadian regulars, more Canadian militia, +and a very few Indians. Let us pass all these forces in +review. + +_The American Navy_. During the Revolution the infant +Navy had begun a career of brilliant promise; and Paul +Jones had been a name to conjure with. British belittlement +deprived him of his proper place in history; but he was +really the founder of the regular Navy that fought so +gallantly in '1812.' A tradition had been created and a +service had been formed. Political opinion, however, +discouraged proper growth. President Jefferson laid down +the Democratic party's idea of naval policy in his first +Inaugural. 'Beyond the small force which will probably +be wanted for actual service in the Mediterranean, whatever +annual sum you may think proper to appropriate to naval +preparations would perhaps be better employed in providing +those articles which may be kept without waste or +consumption, and be in readiness when any exigence calls +them into use. Progress has been made in providing +materials for 74-gun ships.' [Footnote: A ship-of +the-line, meaning a battleship or man-of war strong enough +to take a position in the line of battle, was of a +different minimum size at different periods. The tendency +towards increase of size existed a century ago as well +as to-day. 'Fourth-rates,' of 50 and 60 guns, dropped +out of the line at the beginning of the Seven Years' War. +In 1812 the 74-gun three-decker was the smallest man-of-war +regularly used in the line of battle.] This 'progress' +had been made in 1801. But in 1812, when Jefferson's +disciple, Madison, formally declared war, not a single +keel had been laid. Meanwhile, another idea of naval +policy had been worked out into the ridiculous gunboat +system. In 1807, during the crisis which followed the +Berlin Decree, the Orders-in-Council, and the _Chesapeake_ +affair, Jefferson wrote to Thomas Paine: 'Believing, +myself; that gunboats are the only water defence which +can be useful to us, and protect us from the ruinous +folly of a navy, I am pleased with everything which +promises to improve them.' Whether 'improved' or not, +these gunboats were found worse than useless as a substitute +for 'the ruinous folly of a navy.' They failed egregiously +to stop Jefferson's own countrymen from breaking his +Embargo Act of 1808; and their weatherly qualities were +so contemptible that they did not dare to lose sight of +land without putting their guns in the hold. No wonder +the practical men of the Navy called them 'Jeffs.' + +When President Madison summoned Congress in 1811 war was +the main topic of debate. Yet all he had to say about +the Navy was contained in twenty-seven lukewarm words. +Congress followed the presidential lead. The momentous +naval vote of 1812 provided for an expenditure of six +hundred thousand dollars, which was to be spread over +three consecutive years and strictly limited to buying +timber. Then, on the outbreak of war, the government, +consistent to the last, decided to lay up the whole of +their sea-going navy lest it should be captured by the +British. + +But this final indignity was more than the Navy could +stand in silence. Some senior officers spoke their minds, +and the party politicians gave way. The result was a +series of victories which, of their own peculiar kind, +have never been eclipsed. Not one American ship-of-the-line +was ever afloat during the war; and only twenty-two +frigates or smaller naval craft put out to sea. In +addition, there were the three little flotillas on Lakes +Erie, Ontario, and Champlain; and a few minor vessels +elsewhere. All the crews together did not exceed ten +thousand men, replacements included. Yet, even with these +niggard means, the American Navy won the command of two +lakes completely, held the command of the third in +suspense, won every important duel out at sea, except +the famous fight against the _Shannon_, inflicted serious +loss on British sea-borne trade, and kept a greatly +superior British naval force employed on constant and +harassing duty. + +_The American Privateers_. Besides the little Navy, there +were 526 privately owned vessels which were officially +authorized to prey on the enemy's trade. These were manned +by forty thousand excellent seamen and had the chance of +plundering the richest sea-borne commerce in the world. +They certainly harassed British commerce, even in its +own home waters; and during the course of the war they +captured no less than 1344 prizes. But they did practically +nothing towards reducing the British fighting force +afloat; and even at their own work of commerce-destroying +they did less than one-third as much as the Navy in +proportion to their numbers. + +_The American Army_. The Army had competed with the Navy +for the lowest place in Jefferson's Inaugural of 1801. +'This is the only government where every man will meet +invasions of the public order as his own personal +concern... A well-disciplined militia is our best reliance +for the first moments of war, till regulars may relieve +them.' The Army was then reduced to three thousand men. +'Such were the results of Mr Jefferson's low estimate +of, or rather contempt for, the military character,' said +General Winfield Scott, the best officer the United States +produced between '1812' and the Civil War. In 1808 'an +additional military force' was authorized. In January +1812, after war had been virtually decided on, the +establishment was raised to thirty-five thousand. But in +June, when war had been declared, less than a quarter of +this total could be called effectives, and more than half +were still wanting to complete.' The grand total of all +American regulars, including those present with the +colours on the outbreak of hostilities as well as those +raised during the war, amounted to fifty-six thousand. +Yet no general had six thousand actually in the firing +line of any one engagement. + +_The United States Volunteers_. Ten thousand volunteers +were raised, from first to last. They differed from the +regulars in being enlisted for shorter terms of service +and in being generally allowed to elect their own regimental +officers. Theoretically they were furnished in fixed +quotas by the different States, according to population. +They resembled the regulars in other respects, especially +in being directly under Federal, not State, authority. + +_The Rangers_. Three thousand men with a real or supposed +knowledge of backwoods life served in the war. They +operated in groups and formed a very unequal force--good, +bad, and indifferent. Some were under the Federal authority. +Others belonged to the different States. As a distinct +class they had no appreciable influence on the major +results of the war. + +_The Militia_. The vast bulk of the American forces, more +than three-quarters of the grand total by land and sea, +was made up of the militia belonging to the different +States of the Union. These militiamen could not be moved +outside of their respective States without State authority; +and individual consent was also necessary to prolong a +term of enlistment, even if the term should come to an +end in the middle of a battle. Some enlisted for several +months; others for no more than one. Very few had any +military knowledge whatever; and most of the officers +were no better trained than the men. The totals from all +the different States amounted to 456,463. Not half of +these ever got near the front; and not nearly half of +those who did get there ever came into action at all. +Except at New Orleans, where the conditions were quite +abnormal, the militia never really helped to decide the +issue of any battle, except, indeed, against their own +army. 'The militia thereupon broke and fled' recurs with +tiresome frequency in numberless dispatches. Yet the +consequent charges of cowardice are nearly all unjust. +The fellow-countrymen of those sailors who fought the +American frigates so magnificently were no special kind +of cowards. But, as a raw militia, they simply were to +well-trained regulars what children are to men. + +_American Non-Combatant Services_. There were more than +fifty thousand deaths reported on the American side; yet +not ten thousand men were killed or mortally wounded in +all the battles put together. The medical department, +like the commissariat and transport, was only organized +at the very last minute, even among the regulars, and +then in a most haphazard way. Among the militia these +indispensable branches of the service were never really +organized at all. + +Such disastrous shortcomings were not caused by any lack +of national resources. The population o the United States +was about eight millions, as against eighteen millions +in the British Isles. Prosperity was general; at all +events, up to the time that it was checked by Jefferson's +Embargo Act. The finances were also thought to be most +satisfactory. On the very eve of war the Secretary of +the Treasury reported that the national debt had been +reduced by forty-six million dollars since his party had +come into power. Had this 'war party' spent those millions +on its Army and Navy, the war itself might have had an +ending more satisfactory to the United States. + +Let us now review the forces on the British side. + +The eighteen million people in the British Isles were +naturally anxious to avoid war with the eight millions +in the United States. They had enough on their hands as +it was. The British Navy was being kept at a greater +strength than ever before; though it was none too strong +for the vast amount of work it had to do. The British +Army was waging its greatest Peninsular campaign. All +the other naval and military services of what was already +a world-wide empire had to be maintained. One of the most +momentous crises in the world's history was fast +approaching; for Napoleon, arch-enemy of England and +mightiest of modern conquerors, was marching on Russia +with five hundred thousand men. Nor was this all. There +were troubles at home as well as dangers abroad. The king +had gone mad the year before. The prime minister had +recently been assassinated. The strain of nearly twenty +years of war was telling severely on the nation. It was +no time to take on a new enemy, eight millions strong, +especially one who supplied so many staple products during +peace and threatened both the sea flank of the mother +country and the land flank of Canada during war. + +Canada was then little more than a long, weak line of +settlements on the northern frontier of the United States. +Counting in the Maritime Provinces, the population hardly +exceeded five hundred thousand--as many people, altogether, +as there were soldiers in one of Napoleon's armies, or +Americans enlisted for service in this very war. Nearly +two-thirds of this half-million were French Canadians in +Lower Canada, now the province of Quebec. They were loyal +to the British cause, knowing they could not live a +French-Canadian life except within the British Empire. +The population of Upper Canada, now Ontario, was less +than a hundred thousand. The Anglo-Canadians in it were +of two kinds: British immigrants and United Empire +Loyalists, with sons and grandsons of each. Both kinds +were loyal. But the 'U.E.L.'s' were anti-American through +and through, especially in regard to the war-and-Democratic +party then in power. They could therefore be depended on +to fight to the last against an enemy who, having driven +them into exile once, was now coming to wrest their second +New-World home from its allegiance to the British crown. +They and their descendants in all parts of Canada numbered +more than half the Anglo-Canadian population in 1812. +The few thousand Indians near the scene of action naturally +sided with the British, who treated them better and +dispossessed them less than the Americans did. The only +detrimental part of the population was the twenty-five +thousand Americans, who simply used Canada as a good +ground for exploitation, and who would have preferred to +see it under the Stars and Stripes, provided that the +change put no restriction on their business opportunities. + +_The British Navy_. About thirty thousand men of the +British Navy, only a fifth of the whole service, appeared +within the American theatre of war from first to last. +This oldest and greatest of all navies had recently +emerged triumphant from an age-long struggle for the +command of the sea. But, partly because of its very +numbers and vast heritage of fame, it was suffering +acutely from several forms of weakness. Almost twenty +years of continuous war, with dull blockades during the +last seven, was enough to make any service 'go stale.' +Owing to the enormous losses recruiting had become +exceedingly and increasingly difficult, even compulsory +recruiting by press-gang. At the same time, Nelson's +victories had filled the ordinary run of naval men with +an over-weening confidence in their own invincibility; +and this over-confidence had become more than usually +dangerous because of neglected gunnery and defective +shipbuilding. The Admiralty had cut down the supply of +practice ammunition and had allowed British ships to lag +far behind those of other nations in material and design. +The general inferiority of British shipbuilding was such +an unwelcome truth to the British people that they would +not believe it till the American frigates drove it home +with shattering broadsides. But it was a very old truth, +for all that. Nelson's captains, and those of still +earlier wars, had always competed eagerly for the command +of the better built French prizes, which they managed to +take only because the superiority of their crews was +great enough to overcome the inferiority of their ships. +There was a different tale to tell when inferior British +vessels with 'run-down' crews met superior American +vessels with first-rate crews. In those days training +and discipline were better in the American mercantile +marine than in the British; and the American Navy, of +course, shared in the national efficiency at sea. Thus, +with cheap materials, good designs, and excellent seamen, +the Americans started with great advantages over the +British for single-ship actions; and it was some time +before their small collection of ships succumbed to the +grinding pressure of the regularly organized British +fleet. + +_The Provincial Marine_. Canada had a little local navy +on the Lakes called the Provincial Marine. It dated from +the Conquest, and had done good service again during the +Revolution, especially in Carleton's victory over Arnold +on Lake Champlain in 1776. It had not, however, been kept +up as a proper naval force, but had been placed under +the quartermaster-general's department of the Army, where +it had been mostly degraded into a mere branch of the +transport service. At one time the effective force had +been reduced to 132 men; though many more were hurriedly +added just before the war. Most of its senior officers +were too old; and none of the juniors had enjoyed any +real training for combatant duties. Still, many of the +ships and men did well in the war, though they never +formed a single properly organized squadron. + +_British Privateers_. Privateering was not a flourishing +business in the mother country in 1812. Prime seamen were +scarce, owing to the great number needed in the Navy and +in the mercantile marine. Many, too, had deserted to get +the higher wages paid in 'Yankees'--'dollars for shillings,' +as the saying went. Besides, there was little foreign +trade left to prey on. Canadian privateers did better. +They were nearly all 'Bluenoses;' that is, they hailed +from the Maritime Provinces. During the three campaigns +the Court of Vice-Admiralty at Halifax issued letters of +marque to forty-four privateers, which employed, including +replacements, about three thousand men and reported over +two hundred prizes. + +_British Commissariat and Transport_. Transport, of +course, went chiefly by water. Reinforcements and supplies +from the mother country came out under convoy, mostly in +summer, to Quebec, where bulk was broken, and whence both +men and goods were sent to the front. There were plenty +of experts in Canada to move goods west in ordinary times. +The best of all were the French-Canadian voyageurs who +manned the boats of the Hudson's Bay and North-West +Companies. But there were not enough of them to carry on +the work of peace and war together. Great and skilful +efforts, however, were made. Schooners, bateaux, boats, +and canoes were all turned to good account. But the inland +line of communications was desperately long and difficult to +work. It was more than twelve hundred miles from Quebec to +Amherstburg on the river Detroit, even by the shortest route. + +_The British Army_. The British Army, like the Navy, had +to maintain an exacting world-wide service, besides large +contingents in the field, on resources which had been +severely strained by twenty years of war. It was represented +in Canada by only a little over four thousand effective +men when the war began. Reinforcements at first came +slowly and in small numbers. In 1813 some foreign corps +in British pay, like the Watteville and the Meuron +regiments, came out. But in 1814 more than sixteen thousand +men, mostly Peninsular veterans, arrived. Altogether, +including every man present in any part of Canada during +the whole war, there were over twenty-five thousand +British regulars. In addition to these there were the +troops invading the United States at Washington and +Baltimore, with the reinforcements that joined them for +the attack on New Orleans--in all, nearly nine thousand +men. The grand total within the theatre of war was +therefore about thirty-four thousand. + +_The Canadian Regulars_. The Canadian regulars were about +four thousand strong. Another two thousand took the place +of men who were lost to the service, making the total +six thousand, from first to last. There were six corps +raised for permanent service: the Royal Newfoundland +Regiment, the New Brunswick Regiment, the Canadian +Fencibles, the Royal Veterans, the Canadian Voltigeurs, +and the Glengarry Light Infantry. The Glengarries were +mostly Highland Roman Catholics who had settled Glengarry +county on the Ottawa, where Ontario marches with Quebec. +The Voltigeurs were French Canadians under a French-Canadian +officer in the Imperial Army. In the other corps there +were many United Empire Loyalists from the different +provinces, including a good stiffening of old soldiers +and their sons. + +_The Canadian Embodied Militia_. The Canadian militia by +law comprised every able-bodied man except the few +specially exempt, like the clergy and the judges. A +hundred thousand adult males were liable for service. +Various causes, however, combined to prevent half of +these from getting under arms. Those who actually did +duty were divided into 'Embodied' and 'Sedentary' corps. +The embodied militia consisted of picked men, drafted +for special service; and they often approximated so +closely to the regulars in discipline and training that +they may be classed, at the very least, as semi-regulars. +Counting all those who passed into the special reserve +during the war, as well as those who went to fill up the +ranks after losses, there were nearly ten thousand of +these highly trained, semi-regular militiamen engaged in +the war. + +_The Canadian Sedentary Militia_. The 'Sedentaries' +comprised the rest of the militia. The number under arms +fluctuated greatly; so did the length of time on duty. +There were never ten thousand employed at any one time +all over the country. As a rule, the 'Sedentaries' did +duty at the base, thus releasing the better trained men +for service at the front. Many had the blood of soldiers +in their veins; and nearly all had the priceless advantage +of being kept in constant touch with regulars. A passionate +devotion to the cause also helped them to acquire, sooner +than most other men, both military knowledge and that +true spirit of discipline which, after all, is nothing +but self-sacrifice in its finest patriotic form. + +_The Indians_. Nearly all the Indians sided with the +British or else remained neutral. They were, however, a +very uncertain force; and the total number that actually +served at the front throughout the war certainly fell +short of five thousand. + +This completes the estimate of the opposing forces-of +the more than half a million Americans against the hundred +and twenty-five thousand British; with these great odds +entirely reversed whenever the comparison is made not +between mere quantities of men but between their respective +degrees of discipline and training. + +But it does not complete the comparison between the +available resources of the two opponents in one most +important particular--finance. The Army Bill Act, passed +at Quebec on August 1, 1812, was the greatest single +financial event in the history of Canada. It was also +full of political significance; for the parliament of +Lower Canada was overwhelmingly French-Canadian. The +million dollars authorized for issue, together with +interest at six per cent, pledged that province to the +equivalent of four years' revenue. The risk was no light +one. But it was nobly run and well rewarded. These Army +Bills were the first paper money in the whole New World +that never lost face value for a day, that paid all their +statutory interest, and that were finally redeemed at +par. The denominations ran from one dollar up to four +hundred dollars. Bills of one, two, three, and four +dollars could always be cashed at the Army Bill Office +in Quebec. After due notice the whole issue was redeemed +in November 1816. A special feature well worth noting is +the fact that Army Bills sometimes commanded a premium +of five per cent over gold itself, because, being +convertible into government bills of exchange on London, +they were secure against any fluctuations in the price +of bullion. A special comparison well worth making is +that between their own remarkable stability and the +equally remarkable instability of similar instruments of +finance in the United States, where, after vainly trying +to help the government through its difficulties, every +bank outside of New England was forced to suspend specie +payments in 1814, the year of the Great Blockade. + + + + +CHAPTER III + +1812: OFF TO THE FRONT + +President Madison sent his message to Congress on the +1st of June and signed the resultant 'war bill' on the +18th following. Congress was as much divided as the nation +on the question of peace or war. The vote in the House +of Representatives was seventy-nine to forty-nine, while +in the Senate it was nineteen to thirteen. The government +itself was 'solid.' But it did little enough to make up +for the lack of national whole-heartedness by any efficiency +of its own. Madison was less zealous about the war than +most of his party. He was no Pitt or Lincoln to ride the +storm, but a respectable lawyer-politician, whose forte +was writing arguments, not wielding his country's sword. +Nor had he in his Cabinet a single statesman with a genius +for making war. His war secretary, William Eustis, never +grasped the military situation at all, and had to be +replaced by John Armstrong after the egregious failures +of the first campaign. During the war debate in June, +Eustis was asked to report to Congress how many of the +'additional' twenty-five thousand men authorized in +January had already been enlisted. The best answer he +could make was a purely 'unofficial opinion' that the +number was believed to exceed five thousand. + +The first move to the front was made by the Navy. Under +very strong pressure the Cabinet had given up the original +idea of putting the ships under a glass case; and four +days after the declaration of war orders were sent to +the senior naval officer, Commodore Rodgers, to 'protect +our returning commerce' by scattering his ships about +the American coast just where the British squadron at +Halifax would be most likely to defeat them one by one. +Happily for the United States, these orders were too +late. Rodgers had already sailed. He was a man of action. +His little squadron of three frigates, one sloop, and +one brig lay in the port of New York, all ready waiting +for the word. And when news of the declaration arrived, +he sailed within the hour, and set out in pursuit of a +British squadron that was convoying a fleet of merchantmen +from the West Indies to England. He missed the convoy, +which worked into Liverpool, Bristol, and London by +getting to the north of him. But, for all that, his sudden +dash into British waters with an active, concentrated +squadron produced an excellent effect. The third day out +the British frigate _Belvidera_ met him and had to run +for her life into Halifax. The news of this American +squadron's being at large spread alarm all over the routes +between Canada and the outside world. Rodgers turned +south within a few hours' sail of the English Channel, +turned west off Madeira, gave Halifax a wide berth, and +reached Boston ten weeks out from Sandy Hook. 'We have +been so completely occupied in looking out for Commodore +Rodgers,' wrote a British naval officer, 'that we have +taken very few prizes.' Even Madison was constrained to +admit that this offensive move had had the defensive +results he had hoped to reach in his own 'defensive' way. +'Our Trade has reached our ports, having been much favoured +by a squadron under Commodore Rodgers.' + +The policy of squadron cruising was continued throughout +the autumn and winter of 1812. There were no squadron +battles. But there was unity of purpose; and British +convoys were harassed all over the Atlantic till well on +into the next year. During this period there were five +famous duels, which have made the _Constitution_ and the +_United States_, the _Hornet_ and the _Wasp_, four names +to conjure with wherever the Stars and Stripes are flown. +The _Constitution_ fought the first, when she took the +_Guerriere_ in August, due east of Boston and south of +Newfoundland. The _Wasp_ won the second in September, by +taking the _Frolic_ half-way between Halifax and Bermuda. +The _United States_ won the third in October, by defeating +the _Macedonian_ south-west of Madeira. The _Constitution_ +won the fourth in December, off Bahia in Brazil, by +defeating the _Java_. And the _Hornet_ won the fifth in +February, by taking the _Peacock_, off Demerara, on the +coast of British Guiana. + +This closed the first period of the war at sea. The +British government had been so anxious to avoid war, and +to patch up peace again after war had broken out, that +they purposely refrained from putting forth their full +available naval strength till 1813. At the same time, +they would naturally have preferred victory to defeat; +and the fact that most of the British Navy was engaged +elsewhere, and that what was available was partly held +in leash, by no means dims the glory of those four +men-of-war which the Americans fought with so much bravery +and skill, and with such well-deserved success. No wonder +Wellington said peace with the United States would be +worth having at any honourable price, 'if we could only +take some of their damned frigates!' Peace was not to +come for another eighteen months. But though the Americans +won a few more duels out at sea, besides two annihilating +flotilla victories on the Lakes, their coast was blockaded +as completely as Napoleon's, once the British Navy had +begun its concerted movements on a comprehensive scale. +From that time forward the British began to win the naval +war, although they won no battles and only one duel that +has lived in history. This dramatic duel, fought between +the _Shannon_ and the _Chesapeake_ on June 1, 1813, was +not itself a more decisive victory for the British than +previous frigate duels had been for the Americans. But +it serves better than any other special event to mark +the change from the first period, when the Americans +roved the sea as conquerors, to the second, when they +were gradually blockaded into utter impotence. + +Having now followed the thread of naval events to a point +beyond the other limits of this chapter, we must return to +the American movements against the Canadian frontier and +the British counter-movements intended to checkmate them. + +Quebec and Halifax, the two great Canadian seaports, were +safe from immediate American attack; though Quebec was +the ultimate objective of the Americans all through the +war. But the frontier west of Quebec offered several +tempting chances for a vigorous invasion, if the American +naval and military forces could only be made to work +together. The whole life of Canada there depended absolutely +on her inland waterways. If the Americans could cut the +line of the St Lawrence and Great Lakes at any critical +point, the British would lose everything to the west of +it; and there were several critical points of connection +along this line. St Joseph's Island, commanding the +straits between Lake Superior and Lake Huron, was a vital +point of contact with all the Indians to the west. It +was the British counterpoise to the American post at +Michilimackinac, which commanded the straits between Lake +Huron and Lake Michigan. Detroit commanded the waterway +between Lake Huron and Lake Erie; while the command of +the Niagara peninsula ensured the connection between Lake +Erie and Lake Ontario. At the head of the St Lawrence, +guarding the entrance to Lake Ontario, stood Kingston. +Montreal was an important station midway between Kingston +and Quebec, besides being an excellent base for an army +thrown forward against the American frontier. Quebec was +the general base from which all the British forces were +directed and supplied. + +Quick work, by water and land together, was essential +for American success before the winter, even if the +Canadians were really so anxious to change their own flag +for the Stars and Stripes. But the American government +put the cart before the horse--the Army before the +Navy--and weakened the military forces of invasion by +dividing them into two independent commands. General +Henry Dearborn was appointed commander-in-chief, but only +with control over the north-eastern country, that is, +New England and New York. Thirty years earlier Dearborn +had served in the War of Independence as a junior officer; +and he had been Jefferson's Secretary of War. Yet he was +not much better trained as a leader than his raw men were +as followers, and he was now sixty-one. He established +his headquarters at Greenbush, nearly opposite Albany, +so that he could advance on Montreal by the line of the +Hudson, Lake Champlain, and the Richelieu. The intended +advance, however, did not take place this year. Greenbush +was rather a recruiting depot and camp of instruction +than the base of an army in the field; and the actual +campaign had hardly begun before the troops went into +winter quarters. The commander of the north-western army +was General William Hull. And his headquarters were to +be Detroit, from which Upper Canada was to be quickly +overrun without troubling about the co-operation of the +Navy. Like Dearborn, Hull had served in the War of +Independence. But he had been a civilian ever since; he +was now fifty-nine; and his only apparent qualification +was his having been governor of Michigan for seven years. +Not until September, after two defeats on land, was +Commodore Chauncey ordered 'to assume command of the +naval force on Lakes Erie and Ontario, and use every +exertion to obtain control of them this fall.' Even then +Lake Champlain, an essential link both in the frontier +system and on Dearborn's proposed line of march, was +totally forgotten. + +To complete the dispersion of force, Eustis forgot all +about the military detachments at the western forts. Fort +Dearborn (now Chicago) and Michilimackinac, important as +points of connection with the western tribes, were left +to the devices of their own inadequate garrisons. In 1801 +Dearborn himself, Eustis's predecessor as Secretary of +War, had recommended a peace strength of two hundred men +at Michilimackinac, usually known as 'Mackinaw.' In 1812 +there were not so many at Mackinaw and Chicago put +together. + +It was not a promising outlook to an American military +eye--the cart before the horse, the thick end of the +wedge turned towards the enemy, three incompetent men +giving disconnected orders on the northern frontier, and +the western posts neglected. But Eustis was full of +self-confidence. Hull was 'enthusing' his militiamen. +And Dearborn was for the moment surpassing both, by +proposing to 'operate, with effect, at the same moment, +against Niagara, Kingston, and Montreal.' + +From the Canadian side the outlook was also dark enough +to the trained eye; though not for the same reasons. The +menace here was from an enemy whose general resources +exceeded those in Canada by almost twenty to one. The +silver lining to the cloud was the ubiquitous British +Navy and the superior training and discipline of the +various little military forces immediately available for +defence. + +The Maritime Provinces formed a subordinate command, +based on the strong naval station of Halifax, where a +regular garrison was always maintained by the Imperial +government. They were never invaded, or even seriously +threatened. It was only in 1814 that they came directly +into the scene of action, and then only as the base from +which the invasion of Maine was carried out. + +We must therefore turn to Quebec as the real centre of +Canadian defence, which, indeed, it was best fitted to +be, not only from its strategical situation, but from +the fact that it was the seat of the governor-general +and commander-in-chief, Sir George Prevost. Like Sir John +Sherbrooke, the governor of Nova Scotia, Prevost was a +professional soldier with an unblemished record in the +Army. But, though naturally anxious to do well, and though +very suavely diplomatic, he was not the man, as we shall +often see, either to face a military crisis or to stop +the Americans from stealing marches on him by negotiation. +On the outbreak of war he was at headquarters in Quebec, +dividing his time between his civil and military duties, +greatly concerned with international diplomacy, and always +full of caution. + +At York (now Toronto) in Upper Canada a very different +man was meanwhile preparing to checkmate Hull's +'north-western army' of Americans, which was threatening +to invade the province. Isaac Brock was not only a soldier +born and bred, but, alone among the leaders on either +side, he had the priceless gift of genius. He was now +forty-two, having been born in Guernsey on October 6, +1769, in the same year as Napoleon and Wellington. Like +the Wolfes and the Montcalms, the Brocks had followed +the noble profession of arms for many generations. Nor +were the De Lisles, his mother's family, less distinguished +for the number of soldiers and sailors they had been +giving to England ever since the Norman Conquest. Brock +himself, when only twenty-nine, had commanded the 49th +Foot in Holland under Sir John Moore, the future hero of +Corunna, and Sir Ralph Abercromby, who was so soon to +fall victorious in Egypt. Two years after this he had +stood beside another and still greater man at Copenhagen, +'mighty Nelson,' who there gave a striking instance of +how a subordinate inspired by genius can win the day by +disregarding the over-caution of a commonplace superior. +We may be sure that when Nelson turned his blind eye on +Parker's signal of recall the lesson was not thrown away +on Brock. + +For ten long years of inglorious peace Brock had now been +serving on in Canada, while his comrades in arms were +winning distinction on the battlefields of Europe. This +was partly due to his own excellence: he was too good a +man to be spared after his first five years were up in +1807; for the era of American hostility had then begun. +He had always been observant. But after 1807 he had +redoubled his efforts to 'learn Canada,' and learn her +thoroughly. People and natural resources, products and +means of transport, armed strength on both sides of the +line and the best plan of defence, all were studied with +unremitting zeal. In 1811 he became the acting +lieutenant-governor and commander of the forces in Upper +Canada, where he soon found out that the members of +parliament returned by the 'American vote' were bent on +thwarting every effort he could make to prepare the +province against the impending storm. In 1812, on the +very day he heard that war had been declared, he wished +to strike the unready Americans hard and instantly at +one of their three accessible points of assembly-Fort +Niagara, at the upper end of Lake Ontario, opposite Fort +George, which stood on the other side of the Niagara +river; Sackett's Harbour, at the lower end of Lake Ontario, +thirty-six miles from Kingston; and Ogdensburg, on the +upper St Lawrence, opposite Fort Prescott. But Sir George +Prevost, the governor-general, was averse from an open +act of war against the Northern States, because they were +hostile to Napoleon and in favour of maintaining peace +with the British; while Brock himself was soon turned +from this purpose by news of Hull's American invasion +farther west, as well as by the necessity of assembling +his own thwarting little parliament at York. + +The nine days' session, from July 27 to August 5, yielded +the indispensable supplies. But the suspension of the +Habeas Corpus Act, as a necessary war measure, was +prevented by the disloyal minority, some of whom wished +to see the British defeated and all of whom were ready +to break their oath of allegiance whenever it suited them +to do so. The patriotic majority, returned by the votes +of United Empire Loyalists and all others who were British +born and bred, issued an address that echoed the appeal +made by Brock himself in the following words: 'We are +engaged in an awful and eventful contest. By unanimity +and despatch in our councils and by vigour in our operations +we may teach the enemy this lesson: That a country defended +by free men, enthusiastically devoted to the cause of +their King and Constitution, can never be conquered.' + +On August 5, being at last clear of his immediate duties +as a civil governor, Brock threw himself ardently into +the work of defeating Hull, who had crossed over into +Canada from Detroit on July 11 and issued a proclamation +at Sandwich the following day. This proclamation shows +admirably the sort of impression which the invaders wished +to produce on Canadians. + + The United States are sufficiently powerful to afford + you every security consistent with their rights and + your expectations. I tender you the invaluable blessings + of Civil, Political, and Religious Liberty... The + arrival of an army of Friends must be hailed by you + with a cordial welcome. You will be emancipated from + Tyranny and Oppression and restored to the dignified + station of Freemen... If, contrary to your own interest + and the just expectation of my country, you should + take part in the approaching contest, you will be + considered and treated as enemies and the horrors and + calamities of war will Stalk before you. If the + barbarous and Savage policy of Great Britain be pursued, + and the savages let loose to murder our Citizens and + butcher our women and children, this war will be a + war of extermination. The first stroke with the + Tomahawk, the first attempt with the Scalping Knife, + will be the Signal for one indiscriminate scene of + desolation. No white man found fighting by the Side + of an Indian will be taken prisoner. Instant destruction + will be his Lot... + +This was war with a vengeance. But Hull felt less confidence +than his proclamation was intended to display. He knew +that, while the American government had been warned in +January about the necessity of securing the naval command +of Lake Erie, no steps had yet been taken to secure it. +Ever since the beginning of March, when he had written +a report based on his seven years' experience as governor +of Michigan, he had been gradually learning that Eustis +was bent on acting in defiance of all sound military +advice. In April he had accepted his new position very +much against his will and better judgment. In May he had +taken command of the assembling militiamen at Dayton in +Ohio. In June he had been joined by a battalion of +inexperienced regulars. And now, in July, he was already +feeling the ill effects of having to carry on what should +have been an amphibious campaign without the assistance +of any proper force afloat; for on the 2nd ten days before +he issued his proclamation at Sandwich, Lieutenant Rolette, +an enterprising French-Canadian officer in the Provincial +Marine, had cut his line of communication along the +Detroit and had taken an American schooner which contained +his official plan of campaign, besides a good deal of +baggage and stores. + +There were barely six hundred British on the line of the +Detroit when Hull first crossed over to Sandwich with +twenty-five hundred men. These six hundred comprised less +than 150 regulars, about 300 militia, and some 150 Indians. +Yet Hull made no decisive effort against the feeble little +fort of Malden, which was the only defence of Amherstburg +by land. The distance was nothing, only twelve miles +south from Sandwich. He sent a sort of flying column +against it. But this force went no farther than half-way, +where the Americans were checked at the bridge over the +swampy little Riviere aux Canards by the Indians under +Tecumseh, the great War Chief of whom we shall soon hear +more. + +Hull's failure to take Fort Malden was one fatal mistake. +His failure to secure his communications southward from +Detroit was another. Apparently yielding to the prevalent +American idea that a safe base could be created among +friendly Canadians without the trouble of a regular +campaign, he sent off raiding parties up the Thames. +According to his own account, these parties 'penetrated +sixty miles into the settled part of the province.' +According to Brock, they 'ravaged the country as far as +the Moravian Town.' But they gained no permanent foothold. +By the beginning of August Hull's position had already +become precarious. The Canadians had not proved friendly. +The raid up the Thames and the advance towards Amherstburg +had both failed. And the first British reinforcements +had already begun to arrive. These were very small. But +even a few good regulars helped to discourage Hull; and +the new British commander, Colonel Procter of the 41st, +was not yet to be faced by a task beyond his strength. +Worse yet for the Americans, Brock might soon be expected +from the east; the Provincial Marine still held the water +line of communication from the south; and dire news had +just come in from the west. + +The moment Brock had heard of the declaration of war he +had sent orders post-haste to Captain Roberts at St +Joseph's Island, either to attack the Americans at +Michilimackinac or stand on his own defence. Roberts +received Brock's orders on the 15th of July. The very +next day he started for Michilimackinac with 45 men of +the Royal Veterans, 180 French-Canadian voyageurs, 400 +Indians, and two 'unwieldy' iron six-pounders. Surprise +was essential, to prevent the Americans from destroying +their stores; and the distance was a good fifty miles. +But 'by the almost unparalleled exertions of the Canadians +who manned the boats, we arrived at the place of Rendezvous +at 3 o'clock the following morning.' One of the iron +six-pounders was then hauled up the heights, which rise +to eight hundred feet, and trained on the dumbfounded +Americans, while the whole British force took post for +storming. The American commandant, Lieutenant Hanks, who +had only fifty-seven effective men, thereupon surrendered +without firing a shot. + +The news of this bold stroke ran like wildfire through +the whole North-West. The effect on the Indians was +tremendous, immediate, and wholly in favour of the British. +In the previous November Tecumseh's brother, known far +and wide as the 'Prophet,' had been defeated on the banks +of the Tippecanoe, a river of Indiana, by General Harrison, +of whom we shall hear in the next campaign. This battle, +though small in itself, was looked upon as the typical +victory of the dispossessing Americans; so the British +seizure of Michilimackinac was hailed with great joy as +being a most effective counter-stroke. Nor was this the +only reason for rejoicing. Michilimackinac and St Joseph's +commanded the two lines of communication between the +western wilds and the Great Lakes; so the possession of +both by the British was more than a single victory, it +was a promise of victories to come. No wonder Hull lamented +this 'opening of the hive,' which 'let the swarms' loose +all over the wilds on his inland flank and rear. + +He would have felt more uneasy still if he had known what +was to happen when Captain Heald received his orders at +Fort Dearborn (Chicago) on August 9. Hull had ordered +Heald to evacuate the fort as soon as possible and rejoin +headquarters. Heald had only sixty-six men, not nearly +enough to overawe the surrounding Indians. News of the +approaching evacuation spread quickly during the six days +of preparation. The Americans failed to destroy the strong +drink in the fort. The Indians got hold of it, became +ungovernably drunk, and killed half of Heald's men before +they had gone a mile. The rest surrendered and were +spared. Heald and his wife were then sent to Mackinaw, +where Roberts treated them very kindly and sent them on +to Pittsburg. The whole affair was one between Indians +and Americans alone. But it was naturally used by the +war party to inflame American feeling against all things +British. + +While Hull was writing to Fort Dearborn and hearing bad +news from Michilimackinac, he was also getting more and +more anxious about his own communications to the south. +With no safe base in Canada, and no safe line of transport +by water from Lake Erie to the village of Detroit, he +decided to clear the road which ran north and south beside +the Detroit river. But this was now no easy task for his +undisciplined forces, as Colonel Procter was bent on +blocking the same road by sending troops and Indians +across the river. On August 5, the day Brock prorogued +his parliament at York, Tecumseh ambushed Hull's first +detachment of two hundred men at Brownstown, eighteen +miles south of Detroit. On the 7th Hull began to withdraw +his forces from the Canadian side. On the 8th he ordered +six hundred men to make a second attempt to clear the +southern road. But on the 9th these men were met at +Maguaga, only fourteen miles south of Detroit, by a mixed +force of British-regulars, militia, and Indians. The +superior numbers of the Americans enabled them to press +the British back at first. But, on the 10th, when the +British showed a firm front in a new position, the +Americans retired discouraged. Next day Hull withdrew +the last of his men from Canadian soil, exactly one month +after they had first set foot upon it. The following day +was spent in consulting his staff and trying to reorganize +his now unruly militia. On the evening of the 13th he +made his final effort to clear the one line left, by +sending out four hundred picked men under his two best +colonels, McArthur and Cass, who were ordered to make an +inland detour through the woods. + +That same night Brock stepped ashore at Amherstburg. + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +1812: BROCK AT DETROIT AND QUEENSTON HEIGHTS + +The prorogation which released Brock from his parliamentary +duties on August 5 had been followed by eight days of +the most strenuous military work, especially on the part +of the little reinforcement which he was taking west to +Amherstburg. The Upper Canada militiamen, drawn from the +United Empire Loyalists and from the British-born, had +responded with hearty goodwill, all the way from Glengarry +to Niagara. But the population was so scattered and +equipment so scarce that no attempt had been made to have +whole battalions of 'Select Embodied Militia' ready for +the beginning of the war, as in the more thickly peopled +province of Lower Canada. The best that could be done +was to embody the two flank companies--the Light and +Grenadier companies--of the most urgently needed battalions. +But as these companies contained all the picked men who +were readiest for immediate service, and as the Americans +were very slow in mobilizing their own still more unready +army, Brock found that, for the time being, York could +be left and Detroit attacked with nothing more than his +handful of regulars, backed by the flank-company militiamen +and the Provincial Marine. + +Leaving York the very day he closed the House there, +Brock sailed over to Burlington Bay, marched across the +neck of the Niagara peninsula, and embarked at Long Point +with every man the boats could carry--three hundred, all +told, forty regulars of the 41st and two hundred and +sixty flank-company militiamen. Then, for the next five +days, he fought his way, inch by inch, along the north +shore of Lake Erie against a persistent westerly storm. +The news by the way was discouraging. Hull's invasion +had unsettled the Indians as far east as the Niagara +peninsula, which the local militia were consequently +afraid to leave defenceless. But once Brock reached the +scene of action, his insight showed him what bold skill +could do to turn the tide of feeling all along the western +frontier. + +It was getting on for one o'clock in the morning of August +14 when Lieutenant Rolette challenged Brock's leading +boat from aboard the Provincial Marine schooner _General +Hunter_. As Brock stepped ashore he ordered all commanding +officers to meet him within an hour. He then read Hull's +dispatches, which had been taken by Rolette with the +captured schooner and by Tecumseh at Brownstown. By two +o'clock all the principal officers and Indian chiefs had +assembled, not as a council of war, but simply to tell +Brock everything they knew. Only Tecumseh and Colonel +Nichol, the quartermaster of the little army, thought +that Detroit itself could be attacked with any prospect +of success. Brock listened attentively; made up his mind; +told his officers to get ready for immediate attack; +asked Tecumseh to assemble all the Indians at noon; and +dismissed the meeting at four. Brock and Tecumseh read +each other at a glance; and Tecumseh, turning to the +tribal chiefs, said simply, 'This is a man,' a commendation +approved by them all with laconic, deep 'Ho-ho's!' + +Tecumseh was the last great leader of the Indian race +and perhaps the finest embodiment of all its better +qualities. Like Pontiac, fifty years before, but in a +nobler way, he tried to unite the Indians against the +exterminating American advance. He was apparently on the +eve of forming his Indian alliance when he returned home +to find that his brother the Prophet had just been defeated +at Tippecanoe. The defeat itself was no great thing. But +it came precisely at a time when it could exert most +influence on the unstable Indian character and be most +effective in breaking up the alliance of the tribes. +Tecumseh, divining this at once, lost no time in vain +regrets, but joined the British next year at Amherstburg. +He came with only thirty followers. But stray warriors +kept on arriving; and many of the bolder spirits joined +him when war became imminent. At the time of Brock's +arrival there were a thousand effective Indians under +arms. Their arming was only authorized at the last minute; +for Brock's dispatch to Prevost shows how strictly neutral +the Canadian government had been throughout the recent +troubles between the Indians and Americans. He mentions +that the chiefs at Amherstburg had long been trying to +obtain the muskets and ammunition 'which for years had +been withheld, agreeably to the instructions received +from Sir James Craig, and since repeated by Your +Excellency.' + +Precisely at noon Brock took his stand beneath a giant +oak at Amherstburg surrounded by his officers. Before +him sat Tecumseh. Behind Tecumseh sat the chiefs; and +behind the chiefs a thousand Indians in their war-paint. +Brock then stepped forward to address them. Erect, alert, +broad-shouldered, and magnificently tall; blue-eyed, +fair-haired, with frank and handsome countenance; he +looked every inch the champion of a great and righteous +cause. He said the Long Knives had come to take away the +land from both the Indians and the British whites, and +that now he would not be content merely to repulse them, +but would follow and beat them on their own side of the +Detroit. After the pause that was usual on grave occasions, +Tecumseh rose and answered for all his followers. He +stood there the ideal of an Indian chief: tall, stately, +and commanding; yet tense, lithe, observant, and always +ready for his spring. He the tiger, Brock the lion; and +both unflinchingly at bay. + +Next morning, August 15, an early start was made for +Sandwich, some twelve miles north, where a five-gun +battery was waiting to be unmasked against Detroit across +the river. Arrived at Sandwich, Brock immediately sent +across his aide-de-camp, Colonel Macdonell, with a letter +summoning Hull to surrender. Hull wrote back to say he +was prepared to stand his ground. Brock at once unmasked +his battery and made ready to attack next day. With the +men on detachment Hull still had a total of twenty-five +hundred. Brock had only fifteen hundred, including the +Provincial Marine. But Hull's men were losing what +discipline they had and were becoming distrustful both +of their leaders and of themselves; while Brock's men +were gaining discipline, zeal, and inspiring confidence +with every hour. Besides, the British were all effectives; +while Hull had over five hundred absent from Detroit and +as many more ineffective on the spot; which left him only +fifteen hundred actual combatants. He also had a thousand +non-combatants--men, women, and children--all cowering +for shelter from the dangers of battle, and half dead +with the far more terrifying apprehension of an Indian +massacre. + +Brock's five-gun battery made excellent practice during +the afternoon without suffering any material damage in +return. One chance shell produced a most dismaying effect +in Detroit by killing Hanks, the late commandant of +Mackinaw, and three other officers with him. At twilight +the firing ceased on both sides. + +Immediately after dark Tecumseh led six hundred eager +followers down to their canoes a little way below Sandwich. +These Indians were told off by tribes, as battalions are +by companies. There, in silent, dusky groups, moving +soft-foot on their moccasins through the gloom, were +Shawnees and Miamis from Tecumseh's own lost home beside +the Wabash, Foxes and Sacs from the Iowan valley, Ottawas +and Wyandots, Chippewas and Potawatomis, some braves from +the middle prairies between the Illinois and the +Mississippi, and even Winnebagoes and Dakotahs from the +far North-West. The flotilla of crowded canoes moved +stealthily across the river, with no louder noise than +the rippling current made. As secretly, the Indians crept +ashore, stole inland through the quiet night, and, circling +north, cut off Hull's army from the woods. Little did +Hull's anxious sentries think that some of the familiar +cries of night-birds round the fort were signals being +passed along from scout to scout. + +As the beautiful summer dawn began to break at four +o'clock that fateful Sunday morning, the British force +fell in, only seven hundred strong, and more than half +militia. The thirty gunners who had served the Sandwich +battery so well the day before also fell in, with five +little field-pieces, in case Brock could force a battle +in the open. Their places in the battery were ably filled +by every man of the Provincial Marine whom Captain Hall +could spare from the _Queen Charlotte_, the flagship of +the tiny Canadian flotilla. Brock's men and his light +artillery were soon afloat and making for Spring Wells, +more than three miles below Detroit. Then, as the _Queen +Charlotte_ ran up her sunrise flag, she and the Sandwich +battery roared out a challenge to which the Americans +replied with random aim. Brock leaped ashore, formed +front towards Hull, got into touch with Tecumseh's Indians +on his left, and saw that the British land and water +batteries were protecting his right, as prearranged with +Captain Hall. + +He had intended to wait in this position, hoping that +Hull would march out to the attack. But, even before his +men had finished taking post, the whole problem was +suddenly changed by the arrival of an Indian to say that +McArthur's four hundred picked men, whom Hull had sent +south to bring in the convoy, were returning to Detroit +at once. There was now only a moment to decide whether +to retreat across the river, form front against McArthur, +or rush Detroit immediately. But, within that fleeting +moment, Brock divined the true solution and decided to +march straight on. With Tecumseh riding a grey mustang +by his side, he led the way in person. He wore his +full-dress gold-and-scarlet uniform and rode his charger +Alfred, the splendid grey which Governor Craig had given +him the year before, with the recommendation that 'the +whole continent of America could not furnish you with so +safe and excellent a horse,' and for the good reason that +'I wish to secure for my old favourite a kind and careful +master.' + +The seven hundred redcoats made a gallant show, all the +more imposing because the militia were wearing some spare +uniforms borrowed from the regulars and because the +confident appearance of the whole body led the discouraged +Americans to think that these few could only be the +vanguard of much greater numbers. So strong was this +belief that Hull, in sudden panic, sent over to Sandwich +to treat for terms, and was astounded to learn that Brock +and Tecumseh were the two men on the big grey horses +straight in front of him. While Hull's envoys were crossing +the river and returning, the Indians were beginning to +raise their war-whoops in the woods and Brock was +reconnoitring within a mile of the fort. This looked +formidable enough, if properly defended, as the ditch +was six feet deep and twelve feet wide, the parapet rose +twenty feet, the palisades were of twenty-inch cedar, +and thirty-three guns were pointed through the embrasures. +But Brock correctly estimated the human element inside, +and was just on the point of advancing to the assault +when Hull's white flag went up. + +The terms were soon agreed upon. Hull's whole army, +including all detachments, surrendered as prisoners of +war, while the territory of Michigan passed into the +military possession of King George. Abundance of food +and military stores fell into British hands, together +with the _Adams_, a fine new brig that had just been +completed. She was soon rechristened the _Detroit_. The +Americans sullenly trooped out. The British elatedly +marched in. The Stars and Stripes came down defeated. +The Union Jack went up victorious and was received with +a royal salute from all the British ordnance, afloat and +ashore. The Indians came out of the woods, yelling with +delight and firing their muskets in the air. But, grouped +by tribes, they remained outside the fort and settlement, +and not a single outrage was committed. Tecumseh himself +rode in with Brock; and the two great leaders stood out +in front of the British line while the colours were being +changed. Then Brock, in view of all his soldiers, presented +his sash and pistols to Tecumseh. Tecumseh, in turn, gave +his many-coloured Indian sash to Brock, who wore it till +the day he died. + +The effect of the British success at Detroit far exceeded +that which had followed the capture of Mackinaw and the +evacuation of Fort Dearborn. Those, however important to +the West, were regarded as mainly Indian affairs. This +was a white man's victory and a white man's defeat. Hull's +proclamation thenceforth became a laughing-stock. The +American invasion had proved a fiasco. The first American +army to take the field had failed at every point. More +significant still, the Americans were shown to be feeble +in organization and egregiously mistaken in their +expectations. Canada, on the other hand, had already +found her champion and men quite fit to follow him. + +Brock left Procter in charge of the West and hurried back +to the Niagara frontier. Arrived at Fort Erie on August +23 he was dismayed to hear of a dangerously one-sided +armistice that had been arranged with the enemy. This +had been first proposed, on even terms, by Prevost, and +then eagerly accepted by Dearborn, after being modified +in favour of the Americans. In proposing an armistice +Prevost had rightly interpreted the wishes of the Imperial +government. It was wise to see whether further hostilities +could not be averted altogether; for the obnoxious +Orders-in-Council had been repealed. But Prevost was +criminally weak in assenting to the condition that all +movements of men and material should continue on the +American side, when he knew that corresponding movements +were impossible on the British side for lack of transport. +Dearborn, the American commander-in-chief, was only a +second-rate general. But he was more than a match for +Prevost at making bargains. + +Prevost was one of those men who succeed half-way up and +fail at the top. Pure Swiss by blood, he had, like his +father, spent his life in the British Army, and had risen +to the rank of lieutenant-general. He had served with +some distinction in the West Indies, and had been made +a baronet for defending Dominica in 1805. In 1808 he +became governor of Nova Scotia, and in 1811, at the age +of forty-four, governor-general and commander-in-chief +of Canada. He and his wife were popular both in the West +Indies and in Canada; and he undoubtedly deserved well +of the Empire for having conciliated the French Canadians, +who had been irritated by his predecessor, the abrupt +and masterful Craig. The very important Army Bill Act +was greatly due to his diplomatic handling of the French +Canadians, who found him so congenial that they stood by +him to the end. His native tongue was French. He understood +French ways and manners to perfection; and he consequently +had far more than the usual sympathy with a people whose +nature and circumstances made them particularly sensitive +to real or fancied slights. All this is more to his credit +than his enemies were willing to admit, either then or +afterwards. But, in spite of all these good qualities, +Prevost was not the man to safeguard British honour during +the supreme ordeal of a war; and if he had lived in +earlier times, when nicknames were more apt to become +historic, he might well have gone down to posterity as +Prevost the Pusillanimous. + +Day after day Prevost's armistice kept the British +helpless, while supplies and reinforcements for the +Americans poured in at every advantageous point. Brock +was held back from taking either Sackett's Harbour, which +was meanwhile being strongly reinforced from Ogdensburg, +or Fort Niagara, which was being reinforced from Oswego, +Procter was held back from taking Fort Wayne, at the +point of the salient angle south of Lake Michigan and +west of Lake Erie--a quite irretrievable loss. For the +moment the British had the command of all the Lakes. But +their golden opportunity passed, never to return. By +land their chances were also quickly disappearing. On +September 1, a week before the armistice ended, there +were less than seven hundred Americans directly opposed +to Brock, who commanded in person at Queenston and Fort +George. On the day of the battle in October there were +nearly ten times as many along the Niagara frontier. + +The very day Brock heard that the disastrous armistice +was over he proposed an immediate attack on Sackett's +Harbour. But Prevost refused to sanction it. Brock then +turned his whole attention to the Niagara frontier, where +the Americans were assembling in such numbers that to +attack them was out of the question. The British began +to receive a few supplies and reinforcements. But the +Americans had now got such a long start that, on the +fateful 13th of October, they outnumbered Brock's men +four to one--4,000 to 1,000 along the critical fifteen +miles between the Falls and Lake Ontario; and 6,800 to +1,700 along the whole Niagara river, from lake to lake, +a distance of thirty-three miles. The factors which helped +to redress the adverse balance of these odds were Brock +himself, his disciplined regulars, the intense loyalty +of the militia, and the 'telegraph.' This 'telegraph' +was a system of visual signalling by semaphore, much the +same as that which Wellington had used along the lines +of Torres Vedras. + +The immediate moral effects, however, were even more +favourable to the Americans than the mere physical odds; +for Prevost's armistice both galled and chilled the +British, who were eager to strike a blow. American +confidence had been much shaken in September by the sight +of the prisoners from Detroit, who had been marched along +the river road in full view of the other side. But it +increased rapidly in October as reinforcements poured +in. On the 8th a council of war decided to attack Fort +George and Queenston Heights simultaneously with every +available man. But Smyth, the American general commanding +above the Falls, refused to co-operate. This compelled +the adoption of a new plan in which only a feint was to +be made against Fort George, while Queenston Heights were +to be carried by storm. The change entailed a good deal +of extra preparation. But when Lieutenant Elliott, of +the American Navy, cut out two British vessels at Fort +Erie on the 9th, the news made the American troops so +clamorous for an immediate invasion that their general, +Van Rensselaer, was afraid either to resist them or to +let their ardour cool. + +In the American camp opposite Queenston all was bustle +on the 10th of October; and at three the next morning +the whole army was again astir, waiting till the vanguard +had seized the landing on the British side. But a wrong +leader had been chosen; mistakes were plentiful; and +confusion followed. Nearly all the oars had been put into +the first boat, which, having overshot the mark, was made +fast on the British side; whereupon its commander +disappeared. The troops on the American shore shivered +in the drenching autumn rain till after daylight. Then +they went back to their sodden camp, wet, angry, and +disgusted. + +While the rain came down in torrents the principal officers +were busy revising their plans. Smyth was evidently not +to be depended on; but it was thought that, with all the +advantages of the initiative, the four thousand other +Americans could overpower the one thousand British and +secure a permanent hold on the Queenston Heights just +above the village. These heights ran back from the Niagara +river along Lake Ontario for sixty miles west, curving +north-eastwards round Burlington Bay to Dundas Street, +which was the one regular land line of communication +running west from York. Therefore, if the Americans could +hold both the Niagara and the Heights, they would cut +Upper Canada in two. This was, of course, quite evident +to both sides. The only doubtful questions were, How +should the first American attack be made and how should +it be met? + +The American general, Stephen Van Rensselaer, was a +civilian who had been placed at the head of the New York +State militia by Governor Tompkins, both to emphasize +the fact that expert regulars were only wanted as +subordinates and to win a cunning move in the game of +party politics. Van Rensselaer was not only one of the +greatest of the old 'patroons' who formed the landed +aristocracy of Dutch New York, but he was also a Federalist. +Tompkins, who was a Democrat, therefore hoped to gain +his party ends whatever the result might be. Victory +would mean that Van Rensselaer had been compelled to +advance the cause of a war to which he objected; while +defeat would discredit both him and his party, besides +providing Tompkins with the excuse that it would all have +happened very differently if a Democrat had been in charge. + +Van Rensselaer, a man of sense and honour, took the expert +advice of his cousin, Colonel Solomon Van Rensselaer, +who was a regular and the chief of the staff. It was +Solomon Van Rensselaer who had made both plans, the one +of the 8th, for attacking Fort George and the Heights +together, and the one of the 10th, for feinting against +Fort George while attacking the Heights. Brock was puzzled +about what was going to happen next. He knew that the +enemy were four to one and that they could certainly +attack both places if Smyth would co-operate. He also +knew that they had boats and men ready to circle round +Fort George from the American 'Four Mile Creek' on the +lake shore behind Fort Niagara. Moreover, he was naturally +inclined to think that when the boats prepared for the +11th were left opposite Queenston all day long, and all +the next day too, they were probably intended to distract +his attention from Fort George, where he had fixed his +own headquarters. + +On the 12th the American plan was matured and concentration +begun at Lewiston, opposite Queenston. Large detachments +came in, under perfect cover, from Four Mile Creek behind +Fort Niagara. A smaller number marched down from the +Falls and from Smyth's command still higher up. The camps +at Lewiston and the neighbouring Tuscarora Village were +partly concealed from every point on the opposite bank, +so that the British could form no safe idea of what the +Americans were about. Solomon Van Rensselaer was determined +that the advance-guard should do its duty this time; so +he took charge of it himself and picked out 40 gunners, +300 regular infantry, and 300 of the best militia to make +the first attack. These were to be supported by seven +hundred regulars. The rest of the four thousand men +available were to cross over afterwards. The current was +strong; but the river was little more than two hundred +yards wide at Queenston and it could be crossed in less +than ten minutes. The Queenston Heights themselves were +a more formidable obstacle, even if defended by only a +few men, as they rose 345 feet above the landing-place. + +There were only three hundred British in Queenston to +meet the first attack of over thirteen hundred Americans; +but they consisted of the two flank companies of Brock's +old regiment, the 49th, supported by some excellent +militia. A single gun stood on the Heights. Another was +at Vrooman's Point a mile below. Two miles farther, at +Brown's Point, stood another gun with another detachment +of militia. Four miles farther still was Fort George, +with Brock and his second-in-command, Colonel Sheaffe of +the 49th. About nine miles above the Heights was the +little camp at Chippawa, which, as we shall see, managed +to spare 150 men for the second phase of the battle. The +few hundred British above this had to stand by their own +posts, in case Smyth should try an attack on his own +account, somewhere between the Falls and Lake Erie. + +At half-past three in the dark morning of the 13th of +October, Solomon Van Rensselaer with 225 regulars sprang +ashore at the Queenston ferry landing and began to climb +the bank. But hardly had they shown their heads above +the edge before the grenadier company of the 49th, under +Captain Dennis, poured in a stinging volley which sent +them back to cover. Van Rensselaer was badly wounded and +was immediately ferried back. The American supports, +under Colonel Christie, had trouble in getting across; +and the immediate command of the invaders devolved upon +another regular, Captain Wool. + +As soon as the rest of the first detachment had landed, +Wool took some three hundred infantry and a few gunners, +half of all who were then present, and led them up-stream, +in single file, by a fisherman's path which curved round +and came out on top of the Heights behind the single +British gun there. Progress was very slow in this direction, +though the distance was less than a mile, as it was still +pitch-dark and the path was narrow and dangerous. The +three hundred left at the landing were soon reinforced, +and the crossing went on successfully, though some of +the American boats were carried down-stream to the British +post at Vrooman's, where all the men in them were made +prisoners and marched off to Fort George. + +Meanwhile, down at Fort George, Brock had been roused by +the cannonade only three hours after he had finished his +dispatches. Twenty-four American guns were firing hard +at Queenston from the opposite shore and two British guns +were replying. Fort Niagara, across the river from Fort +George, then began to speak; whereupon Fort George answered +back. Thus the sound of musketry, five to seven miles +away, was drowned; and Brock waited anxiously to learn +whether the real attack was being driven home at Queenston, +or whether the Americans were circling round from their +Four Mile Creek against his own position at Fort George. +Four o'clock passed. The roar of battle still came down +from Queenston. But this might be a feint. Not even Dennis +at Queenston could tell as yet whether the main American +army was coming against him or not. But he knew they must +be crossing in considerable force, so he sent a dragoon +galloping down to Brock, who was already in the saddle +giving orders to Sheaffe and to the next senior officer, +Evans, when this messenger arrived. Sheaffe was to follow +towards Queenston the very instant the Americans had +shown their hand decisively in that direction; while +Evans was to stay at Fort George and keep down the fire +from Fort Niagara. + +Then Brock set spurs to Alfred and raced for Queenston +Heights. It was a race for more than his life, for more, +even, than his own and his army's honour: it was a race +for the honour, integrity, and very life of Canada. Miles +ahead he could see the spurting flashes of the guns, the +British two against the American twenty-four. Presently +his quick eye caught the fitful running flicker of the +opposing lines of musketry above the landing-place at +Queenston. As he dashed on he met a second messenger, +Lieutenant Jarvis, who was riding down full-speed to +confirm the news first brought by the dragoon. Brock did +not dare draw rein; so he beckoned Jarvis to gallop back +beside him. A couple of minutes sufficed for Brock to +understand the whole situation and make his plan +accordingly. Then Jarvis wheeled back with orders for +Sheaffe to bring up every available man, circle round +inland, and get into touch with the Indians. A few strides +more, and Brock was ordering the men on from Brown's +Point. He paused another moment at Vrooman's, to note +the practice made by the single gun there. Then, urging +his gallant grey to one last turn of speed, he burst into +Queenston through the misty dawn just where the grenadiers +of his own old regiment stood at bay. + +In his full-dress red and gold, with the arrow-patterned +sash Tecumseh had given him as a badge of honour at +Detroit, he looked, from plume to spur, a hero who could +turn the tide of battle against any odds. A ringing cheer +broke out in greeting. But he paused no longer than just +enough to wave a greeting back and take a quick look +round before scaling the Heights to where eight gunners +with their single eighteen-pounder were making a desperate +effort to check the Americans at the landing-place. Here +he dismounted to survey the whole scene of action. The +Americans attacking Queenston seemed to be at least twice +as strong as the British. The artillery odds were twelve +to one. And over two thousand Americans were drawn up on +the farther side of the narrow Niagara waiting their turn +for the boats. Nevertheless, the British seemed to be +holding their own. The crucial question was: could they +hold it till Sheaffe came up from Fort George, till +Bullock came down from Chippawa, till both had formed +front on the Heights, with Indians on their flanks and +artillery support from below? + +Suddenly a loud, exultant cheer sounded straight behind +him, a crackling fire broke out, and he saw Wool's +Americans coming over the crest and making straight for +the gun. He was astounded; and well he might be, since +the fisherman's path had been reported impassable by +troops. But he instantly changed the order he happened +to be giving from 'Try a longer fuse!' to 'Spike the gun +and follow me!' With a sharp clang the spike went home, +and the gunners followed Brock downhill towards Queenston. +There was no time to mount, and Alfred trotted down beside +his swiftly running master. The elated Americans fired +hard; but their bullets all flew high. Wool's three +hundred then got into position on the Heights; while +Brock in the village below was collecting the nearest +hundred men that could be spared for an assault on the +invaders. + +Brock rapidly formed his men and led them out of the +village at a fast run to a low stone wall, where he halted +and said, 'Take breath, boys; you'll need it presently!' +on which they cheered. He then dismounted and patted +Alfred, whose flanks still heaved from his exertions. +The men felt the sockets of their bayonets; took breath; +and then followed Brock, who presently climbed the wall +and drew his sword. He first led them a short distance +inland, with the intention of gaining the Heights at the +enemy's own level before turning riverwards for the final +charge. Wool immediately formed front with his back to +the river; and Brock led the one hundred British straight +at the American centre, which gave way before him. Still +he pressed on, waving his sword as an encouragement for +the rush that was to drive the enemy down the cliff. The +spiked eighteen-pounder was recaptured and success seemed +certain. But, just as his men were closing in, an American +stepped out of the trees, only thirty yards away, took +deliberate aim, and shot him dead. The nearest men at +once clustered round to help him, and one of the 49th +fell dead across his body. The Americans made the most +of this target and hit several more. Then the remaining +British broke their ranks and retired, carrying Brock's +body into a house at Queenston, where it remained throughout +the day, while the battle raged all round. + +Wool now re-formed his three hundred and ordered his +gunners to drill out the eighteen-pounder and turn it +against Queenston, where the British were themselves +re-forming for a second attack. This was made by two +hundred men of the 49th and York militia, led by Colonel +John Macdonell, the attorney-general of Upper Canada, +who was acting as aide-de-camp to Brock. Again the +Americans were driven back. Again the gun was recaptured. +Again the British leader was shot at the critical moment. +Again the attack failed. And again the British retreated +into Queenston. + +Wool then hoisted the Stars and Stripes over the fiercely +disputed gun; and several more boatloads of soldiers at +once crossed over to the Canadian side, raising the +American total there to sixteen hundred men. With this +force on the Heights, with a still larger force waiting +impatiently to cross, with twenty-four guns in action, +and with the heart of the whole defence known to be lying +dead in Queenston, an American victory seemed to be so +well assured that a courier was sent post-haste to announce +the good news both at Albany and at Dearborn's headquarters +just across the Hudson. This done, Stephen Van Rensselaer +decided to confirm his success by going over to the +Canadian side of the river himself. Arrived there, he +consulted the senior regulars and ordered the troops to +entrench the Heights, fronting Queenston, while the rest +of his army was crossing. + +But, just when the action had reached such an apparently +victorious stage, there was, first, a pause, and then a +slightly adverse change, which soon became decidedly +ominous. It was as if the flood tide of invasion had +already passed the full and the ebb was setting in. Far +off, down-stream, at Fort Niagara, the American fire +began to falter and gradually grow dumb. But at the +British Fort George opposite the guns were served as well +as ever, till they had silenced the enemy completely. +While this was happening, the main garrison, now free to +act elsewhere, were marching out with swinging step and +taking the road for Queenston Heights. Near by, at +Lewiston, the American twenty-four-gun battery was +slackening its noisy cannonade, which had been comparatively +ineffective from the first; while the single British gun +at Vrooman's, vigorous and effective as before, was +reinforced by two most accurate field-pieces under Holcroft +in Queenston village, where the wounded but undaunted +Dennis was rallying his disciplined regulars and Loyalist +militiamen for another fight. On the Heights themselves +the American musketry had slackened while most of the +men were entrenching; but the Indian fire kept growing +closer and more dangerous. Up-stream, on the American +side of the Falls, a half-hearted American detachment +had been reluctantly sent down by the egregious Smyth; +while, on the other side, a hundred and fifty eager +British were pressing forward to join Sheaffe's men from +Fort George. + +As the converging British drew near them, the Americans +on the Heights began to feel the ebbing of their victory. +The least disciplined soon lost confidence and began to +slink down to the boats; and very few boats returned when +once they had reached their own side safely. These slinkers +naturally made the most of the dangers they had been +expecting--a ruthless Indian massacre included. The +boatmen, nearly all civilians, began to desert. Alarming +doubts and rumours quickly spread confusion through the +massed militia, who now perceived that instead of crossing +to celebrate a triumph they would have to fight a battle. +John Lovett, who served with credit in the big American +battery, gave a graphic description of the scene: 'The +name of Indian, or the sight of the wounded, or the Devil, +or something else, petrified them. Not a regiment, not +a company, scarcely a man, would go.' Van Rensselaer went +through the disintegrating ranks and did his utmost to +revive the ardour which had been so impetuous only an +hour before. But he ordered, swore, and begged in vain. + +Meanwhile the tide of resolution, hope, and coming triumph +was rising fast among the British. They were the attackers +now; they had one distinct objective; and their leaders +were men whose lives had been devoted to the art of war. +Sheaffe took his time. Arrived near Queenston, he saw +that his three guns and two hundred muskets there could +easily prevent the two thousand disorganized American +militia from crossing the river; so he wheeled to his +right, marched to St David's, and then, wheeling to his +left, gained the Heights two miles beyond the enemy. The +men from Chippawa marched in and joined him. The line of +attack was formed, with the Indians spread out on the +flanks and curving forward. The British in Queenston, +seeing the utter impotence of the Americans who refused +to cross over, turned their fire against the Heights; +and the invaders at once realized that their position +had now become desperate. + +When Sheaffe struck inland an immediate change of the +American front was required to meet him. Hitherto the +Americans on the Heights had faced down-stream, towards +Queenston, at right angles to the river. Now they were +obliged to face inland, with their backs to the river. +Wadsworth, the American militia brigadier, a very gallant +member of a very gallant family, immediately waived his +rank in favour of Colonel Winfield Scott, a well-trained +regular. Scott and Wadsworth then did all that men could +do in such a dire predicament. But most of the militia +became unmanageable, some of the regulars were comparatively +raw; there was confusion in front, desertion in the rear, +and no coherent whole to meet the rapidly approaching shock. + +On came the steady British line, with the exultant Indians +thrown well forward on the flanks; while the indomitable +single gun at Vrooman's Point backed up Holcroft's two +guns in Queenston, and the two hundred muskets under +Dennis joined in this distracting fire against the American +right till the very last moment. The American left was +in almost as bad a case, because it had got entangled in +the woods beyond the summit and become enveloped by the +Indians there. The rear was even worse, as men slank off +from it at every opportunity. The front stood fast under +Winfield Scott and Wadsworth. But not for long. The +British brought their bayonets down and charged. The +Indians raised the war-whoop and bounded forward. The +Americans fired a hurried, nervous, straggling fusillade; +then broke and fled in wild confusion. A very few climbed +down the cliff and swam across. Not a single boat came +over from the 'petrified' militia. Some more Americans, +attempting flight, were killed by falling headlong or by +drowning. Most of them clustered among the trees near +the edge and surrendered at discretion when Winfield +Scott, seeing all was lost, waved his handkerchief on +the point of his sword. + +The American loss was about a hundred killed, two hundred +wounded, and nearly a thousand prisoners. The British +loss was trifling by comparison, only a hundred and fifty +altogether. But it included Brock; and his irreparable +death alone was thought, by friend and foe alike, to have +more than redressed the balance. This, indeed, was true +in a much more pregnant sense than those who measure by +mere numbers could ever have supposed. For genius is a +thing apart from mere addition and subtraction. It is +the incarnate spirit of great leaders, whose influence +raises to its utmost height the worth of every follower. +So when Brock's few stood fast against the invader's +many, they had his soaring spirit to uphold them as well +as the soul and body of their own disciplined strength. + +Brock's proper fame may seem to be no more than that +which can be won by any conspicuously gallant death at +some far outpost of a mighty empire. He ruled no rich +and populous dominions. He commanded no well-marshalled +host. He fell, apparently defeated, just as his first +real battle had begun. And yet, despite of this, he was +the undoubted saviour of a British Canada. Living, he +was the heart of her preparation during ten long years +of peace. Dead, he became the inspiration of her defence +for two momentous years of war. + + + + +CHAPTER V + +1813: THE BEAVER DAMS, LAKE ERIE, AND CHATEAUGUAY + +The remaining operations of 1812 are of quite minor +importance. No more than two are worthy of being mentioned +between the greater events before and after them. Both +were abortive attempts at invasion--one across the upper +Niagara, the other across the frontier south of Montreal. + +After the battle of Queenston Heights Sheaffe succeeded +Brock in command of the British, and Smyth succeeded Van +Rensselaer in command of the Americans. Sheaffe was a +harsh martinet and a third-rate commander. Smyth, a +notorious braggart, was no commander at all. He did, +however, succeed in getting Sheaffe to conclude an +armistice that fully equalled Prevost's in its disregard +of British interests. After making the most of it for a +month he ended it on November 19, and began manoeuvring +round his headquarters at Black Rock near Buffalo. After +another eight days he decided to attack the British posts +at Red House and Frenchman's Creek, which were respectively +two and a half and five miles from Fort Erie. The whole +British line of the upper Niagara, from Fort Erie to +Chippawa, a distance of seventeen miles by the road along +the river, was under the command of an excellent young +officer, Colonel Bisshopp, who had between five and six +hundred men to hold his seven posts. Fort Erie had the +largest garrison--only a hundred and thirty men. Some +forty men of the 49th and two small guns were stationed +at Red House; while the light company of the 41st guarded +the bridge over Frenchman's Creek. About two o'clock in +the morning of the 28th one party of Americans pulled +across to the ferry a mile below Fort Erie, and then, +sheering off after being fired at by the Canadian militia +on guard, made for Red House a mile and a half lower +down. There they landed at three and fought a most confused +and confusing action in the dark. Friend and foe became +mixed up together; but the result was a success for the +Americans. Meanwhile, the other party landed near +Frenchman's Creek, reached the bridge, damaged it a +little, and had a fight with the 41st, who could not +drive the invaders back till reinforcements arrived. At +daylight the men from Chippawa marched into action, +Indians began to appear, and the whole situation was +re-established. The victorious British lost nearly a +hundred, which was more than a quarter of those engaged. +The beaten Americans lost more; but, being in superior +numbers, they could the better afford it. + +Smyth was greatly disconcerted. But he held a boat review +on his own side of the river, and sent over a summons to +Bisshopp demanding the immediate surrender of Fort Erie +'to spare the effusion of blood.' Bisshopp rejected the +summons. But there was no effusion of blood in consequence. +Smyth planned, talked, and manoeuvred for two days more, +and then tried to make his real effort on the 1st of +December. By the time it was light enough for the British +to observe him he had fifteen hundred men in boats, who +all wanted to go back, and three thousand on shore, who +all refused to go forward. He then held a council of war, +which advised him to wait for a better chance. This closed +the campaign with what, according to Porter, one of his +own generals, was 'a scene of confusion difficult to +describe: about four thousand men without order or +restraint discharging their muskets in every direction.' +Next day 'The Committee of Patriotic Citizens' undertook +to rebuke Smyth. But he retorted, not without reason, +that the affair at Queenston is a caution against relying +on crowds who go to the banks of the Niagara to look at +a battle as on a theatrical exhibition.' + +The other abortive attempt at invasion was made by the +advance-guard of the commander-in-chief's own army. +Dearborn had soon found out that his disorderly masses +at Greenbush were quite unfit to take the field. But, +four months after the declaration of war, a small +detachment, thrown forward from his new headquarters at +Plattsburg on Lake Champlain, did manage to reach St +Regis, where the frontier first meets the St Lawrence, +near the upper end of Lake St Francis, sixty miles +south-west of Montreal. Here the Americans killed Lieutenant +Rototte and a sergeant, and took the little post, which +was held by a few voyageurs. Exactly a month later, on +November 23, these Americans were themselves defeated +and driven back again. Three days earlier than this a +much stronger force of Americans had crossed the frontier +at Odelltown, just north of which there was a British +blockhouse beside the river La Colle, a muddy little +western tributary of the Richelieu, forty-seven miles +due south of Montreal. The Americans fired into each +other in the dark, and afterwards retired before the +British reinforcements. Dearborn then put his army into +winter quarters at Plattsburg, thus ending his much-heralded +campaign against Montreal before it had well begun. + +The American government was much disappointed at the +failure of its efforts to make war without armies. But +it found a convenient scapegoat in Hull, who was far less +to blame than his superiors in the Cabinet. These +politicians had been wrong in every important particular +--wrong about the attitude of the Canadians, wrong about +the whole plan of campaign, wrong in separating Hull from +Dearborn, wrong in not getting men-of-war afloat on the +Lakes, wrong, above all, in trusting to untrained and +undisciplined levies. To complete their mortification, +the ridiculous gunboats, in which they had so firmly +believed, had done nothing but divert useful resources +into useless channels; while, on the other hand, the +frigates, which they had proposed to lay up altogether, +so as to save themselves from 'the ruinous folly of a +Navy,' had already won a brilliant series of duels out +at sea. + +There were some searchings of heart at Washington when +all these military and naval misjudgments stood revealed. +Eustis soon followed Hull into enforced retirement; and +great plans were made for the campaign of 1813, which +was designed to wipe out the disgrace of its predecessor +and to effect the conquest of Canada for good and all. + +John Armstrong, the new war secretary, and William Henry +Harrison, the new general in the West, were great +improvements on Eustis and Hull. But, even now, the +American commanders could not decide on a single decisive +attack supported by subsidiary operations elsewhere. +Montreal remained their prime objective. But they only +struck at it last of all. Michilimackinac kept their +enemy in touch with the West. But they left it completely +alone. Their general advance ought to have been secured +by winning the command of the Lakes and by the seizure +of suitable positions across the line. But they let the +first blows come from the Canadian side; and they still +left Lake Champlain to shift for itself. Their plan was +undoubtedly better than that of 1812. But it was still +all parts and no whole. + +The various events were so complicated by the overlapping +of time and place all along the line that we must begin +by taking a bird's-eye view of them in territorial +sequence, starting from the farthest inland flank and +working eastward to the sea. Everything west of Detroit +may be left out altogether, because operations did not +recommence in that quarter until the campaign of the +following year. + +In January the British struck successfully at Frenchtown, +more than thirty miles south of Detroit. They struck +unsuccessfully, still farther south, at Fort Meigs in +May and at Fort Stephenson in August; after which they +had to remain on the defensive, all over the Lake Erie +region, till their flotilla was annihilated at Put-in +Bay in September and their army was annihilated at Moravian +Town on the Thames in October. In the Lake Ontario region +the situation was reversed. Here the British began badly +and ended well. They surrendered York in April and Fort +George, at the mouth of the Niagara, in May. They were +also repulsed in a grossly mismanaged attack on Sackett's +Harbour two days after their defeat at Fort George. The +opposing flotillas meanwhile fought several manoeuvring +actions of an indecisive kind, neither daring to risk +battle and possible annihilation. But, as the season +advanced, the British regained their hold on the Niagara +peninsula by defeating the Americans at Stoney Creek and +the Beaver Dams in June, and by clearing both sides of +the Niagara river in December. On the upper St Lawrence +they took Ogdensburg in February. They were also completely +successful in their defence of Montreal. In June they +took the American gunboats at Isle-aux-Noix on the +Richelieu; in July they raided Lake Champlain; while in +October and November they defeated the two divisions of +the invading army at Chateauguay and Chrystler's Farm. +The British news from sea also improved as the year wore +on. The American frigate victories began to stop. The +_Shannon_ beat the _Chesapeake_. And the shadow of the Great +Blockade began to fall on the coast of the Democratic South. + +The operations of 1813 are more easily understood if +taken in this purely territorial way. But in following +the progress of the war we must take them chronologically. +No attempt can be made here to describe the movements on +either side in any detail. An outline must suffice. Two +points, however, need special emphasis, as they are both +markedly characteristic of the war in general and of this +campaign in particular. First, the combined effect of +the American victories of Lake Erie and the Thames affords +a perfect example of the inseparable connection between +the water and the land. Secondly, the British victories +at the Beaver Dams and Chateauguay are striking examples +of the inter-racial connection among the forces that +defended Canada so well. The Indians did all the real +fighting at the Beaver Dams. The French Canadians fought +practically alone at Chateauguay. + +The first move of the invaders in the West was designed +to recover Detroit and cut off Mackinaw. Harrison, +victorious over the Indians at Tippecanoe in 1811, was +now expected to strike terror into them once more, both +by his reputation and by the size of his forces. In +midwinter he had one wing of his army on the Sandusky, +under his own command, and the other on the Maumee, under +Winchester, a rather commonplace general. At Frenchtown +stood a little British post defended by fifty Canadians +and a hundred Indians. Winchester moved north to drive +these men away from American soil. But Procter crossed +the Detroit from Amherstburg on the ice, and defeated +Winchester's thousand whites with his own five hundred +whites and five hundred Indians at dawn on January 22, +making Winchester a prisoner. Procter was unable to +control the Indians, who ran wild. They hated the Westerners +who made up Winchester's force, as the men who had deprived +them of their lands, and they now wreaked their vengeance +on them for some time before they could be again brought +within the bounds of civilized warfare. After the battle +Procter retired to Amherstburg; Harrison began to build +Fort Meigs on the Maumee; and a pause of three months +followed all over the western scene. + +But winter warfare was also going on elsewhere. A month +after Procter's success, Prevost, when passing through +Prescott, on the upper St Lawrence, reluctantly gave +Colonel Macdonell of Glengarry provisional leave to attack +Ogdensburg, from which the Americans were forwarding +supplies to Sackett's Harbour, sending out raiding parties, +and threatening the British line of communication to the +west. No sooner was Prevost clear of Prescott than +Macdonell led his four hundred regulars and one hundred +militia over the ice against the American fort. His direct +assault failed. But when he had carried the village at +the point of the bayonet the garrison ran. Macdonell then +destroyed the fort, the barracks, and four vessels. He +also took seventy prisoners, eleven guns, and a large +supply of stores. + +With the spring came new movements in the West. On May +9 Procter broke camp and retired from an unsuccessful +siege of Fort Meigs (now Toledo) at the south-western +corner of Lake Erie. He had started this siege a fortnight +earlier with a thousand whites and a thousand Indians +under Tecumseh; and at first had seemed likely to succeed. +But after the first encounter the Indians began to leave; +while most of the militia had soon to be sent home to +their farms to prevent the risk of starvation. Thus +Procter presently found himself with only five hundred +effectives in face of a much superior and constantly +increasing enemy. In the summer he returned to the attack, +this time against the American position on the lower +Sandusky, nearly thirty miles east of Fort Meigs. There, +on August 2, he tried to take Fort Stephenson. But his +light guns could make no breach; and he lost a hundred +men in the assault. + +Meanwhile Dearborn, having first moved up from Plattsburg +to Sackett's Harbour, had attacked York on April 27 with +the help of the new American flotilla on Lake Ontario. +This flotilla was under the personal orders of Commodore +Chauncey, an excellent officer, who, in the previous +September, had been promoted from superintendent of the +New York Navy Yard to commander-in-chief on the Lakes. +As Chauncey's forte was building and organization, he +found full scope for his peculiar talents at Sackett's +Harbour. He was also a good leader at sea and thus a +formidable enemy for the British forces at York, where +the third-rate Sheaffe was now in charge, and where +Prevost had paved the way for a British defeat by allowing +the establishment of an exposed navy yard instead of +keeping all construction safe in Kingston. Sheaffe began +his mistakes by neglecting to mount some of his guns +before Dearborn and Chauncey arrived, though he knew +these American commanders might come at any moment, and +though he also knew how important it was to save a new +British vessel that was building at York, because the +command of the lake might well depend upon her. He then +made another mistake by standing to fight in an untenable +position against overwhelming odds. He finally retreated +with all the effective regulars left, less than two +hundred, burning the ship and yard as he passed, and +leaving behind three hundred militia to make their own +terms with the enemy. He met the light company of the +8th on its way up from Kingston and turned it back. With +this retreat he left the front for good and became a +commandant of bases, a position often occupied by men +whose failures are not bad enough for courts-martial and +whose saving qualities are not good enough for any more +appointments in the field. + +The Americans lost over two hundred men by an explosion +in a British battery at York just as Sheaffe was marching +off. Forty British had also been blown up in one of the +forts a little while before. Sheaffe appears to have been +a slack inspector of powder-magazines. But the Americans, +who naturally suspected other things than slack inspection, +thought a mine had been sprung on them after the fight +was over. They consequently swore revenge, burnt the +parliament buildings, looted several private houses, and +carried off books from the public library as well as +plate from the church. Chauncey, much to his credit, +afterwards sent back all the books and plate he could +recover. + +Exactly a month later, on May 27, Chauncey and Dearborn +appeared off Fort George, after a run back to Sackett's +Harbour in the meantime. Vincent, Sheaffe's successor in +charge of Upper Canada, had only a thousand regulars and +four hundred militia there. Dearborn had more than four +times as many men; and Perry, soon to become famous on +Lake Erie, managed the naval part of landing them. The +American men-of-war brought the long, low, flat ground +of Mississauga Point under an irresistible cross-fire +while three thousand troops were landing on the beach +below the covering bluffs. No support could be given to +the opposing British force by the fire of Fort George, +as the village of Newark intervened. So Vincent had to +fight it out in the open. On being threatened with +annihilation he retired towards Burlington, withdrawing +the garrison of Fort George, and sending orders for all +the other troops on the Niagara to follow by the shortest +line. He had lost a third of the whole force defending +the Niagara frontier, both sides of which were now +possessed by the Americans. But by nightfall on May 29 +he was standing at bay, with his remaining sixteen hundred +men, in an excellent strategical position on the Heights, +half-way between York and Fort George, in touch with +Dundas Street, the main road running east and west, and +beside Burlington Bay, where he hoped to meet the British +flotilla commanded by Yeo. + +Captain Sir James Lucas Yeo was an energetic and capable +young naval officer of thirty, whom the Admiralty had +sent out with a few seamen to take command on the Lakes +under Prevost's orders. He had been only seventeen days +at Kingston when he sailed out with Prevost, on May 27, +to take advantage of Chauncey's absence at the western +end of the lake. Arrived before Sackett's Harbour, the +attack was planned for the 29th. The landing force of +seven hundred and fifty men was put in charge of Baynes, +the adjutant-general, a man only too well fitted to do +the 'dirty work' of the general staff under a weak +commander-in-chief like Prevost. All went wrong at +Sackett's Harbour. Prevost was 'present but not in +command'; Baynes landed at the wrong place. Nevertheless, +the British regulars scattered the American militiamen, +pressed back the American regulars, set fire to the +barracks, and halted in front of the fort. The Americans, +thinking the day was lost, set fire to their stores and +to Chauncey's new ships. Then Baynes and Prevost suddenly +decided to retreat. Baynes explained to Prevost, and +Prevost explained in a covering dispatch to the British +government, that the fleet could not co-operate, that +the fort could not be taken, and that the landing party +was not strong enough. But, if this was true, why did +they make an attack at all; and, if it was not true, why +did they draw back when success seemed to be assured? + +Meanwhile Chauncey, after helping to take Fort George, +had started back for Sackett's Harbour; and Dearborn, +left without the fleet, had moved on slowly and +disjointedly, in rear of Vincent, with whom he did not +regain touch for a week. On June 5 the Americans camped +at Stoney Creek, five miles from the site of Hamilton. +The steep zigzagging bank of the creek, which formed +their front, was about twenty feet high. Their right +rested on a mile-wide swamp, which ran down to Lake +Ontario. Their left touched the Heights, which ran from +Burlington to Queenston. They were also in superior +numbers, and ought to have been quite secure. But they +thought so much more of pursuit than of defence that they +were completely taken by surprise when '704 firelocks' +under Colonel Harvey suddenly attacked them just after +midnight. Harvey, chief staff officer to Vincent, was a +first-rate leader for such daring work as this, and his +men were all well disciplined. But the whole enterprise +might have failed, for all that. Some of the men opened +fire too soon, and the nearest Americans began to stand +to their arms. But, while Harvey ran along re-forming +the line, Major Plenderleath, with some of Brock's old +regiment, the 49th, charged straight into the American +centre, took the guns there, and caused so much confusion +that Harvey's following charge carried all before it. +Next morning, June 6, the Americans began a retreat which +was hastened by Yeo's arrival on their lakeward flank, +by the Indians on the Heights, and by Vincent's +reinforcements in their rear. Not till they reached the +shelter of Fort George did they attempt to make a stand. + +The two armies now faced each other astride of the +lake-shore road and the Heights. The British left advanced +post, between Ten and Twelve Mile Creeks, was under Major +de Haren of the 104th, a regiment which, in the preceding +winter, had marched on snow-shoes through the woods all +the way from the middle of New Brunswick to Quebec. The +corresponding British post inland, near the Beaver Dams, +was under Lieutenant FitzGibbon of the 49th, a cool, +quick-witted, and adventurous Irishman, who had risen +from the ranks by his own good qualities and Brock's +recommendation. Between him and the Americans at Queenston +and St David's was a picked force of Indian scouts with +a son of the great chief Joseph Brant. These Indians +never gave the Americans a minute's rest. They were up +at all hours, pressing round the flanks, sniping the +sentries, worrying the outposts, and keeping four times +their own numbers on the perpetual alert. What exasperated +the Americans even more was the wonderfully elusive way +in which the Indians would strike their blow and then be +lost to sight and sound the very next moment, if, indeed, +they ever were seen at all. Finally, this endless skirmish +with an invisible foe became so harassing that the +Americans sent out a flying column of six hundred picked +men under Colonel Boerstler on June 24 to break up +FitzGibbon's post at the Beaver Dams and drive the Indians +out of the intervening bush altogether. + +But the American commanders had not succeeded in hiding +their preparations from the vigilant eyes of the Indian +scouts or from the equally attentive ears of Laura Secord, +the wife of an ardent U. E. Loyalist, James Secord, who +was still disabled by the wounds he had received when +fighting under Brock's command at Queenston Heights. +Early in the morning of the 23rd, while Laura Secord was +going out to milk the cows, she overheard some Americans +talking about the surprise in store for FitzGibbon next +day. Without giving the slightest sign she quietly drove +the cattle in behind the nearest fence, hid her milk-pail, +and started to thread her perilous way through twenty +miles of bewildering bypaths to the Beaver Dams. Keeping +off the beaten tracks and always in the shadow of the +full-leaved trees, she stole along through the American +lines, crossed the no-man's-land between the two desperate +enemies, and managed to get inside the ever-shifting +fringe of Indian scouts without being seen by friend or +foe. The heat was intense; and the whole forest steamed +with it after the tropical rain. But she held her course +without a pause, over the swollen streams on fallen +tree-trunks, through the dense underbrush, and in and +out of the mazes of the forest, where a bullet might come +from either side without a moment's warning. As she neared +the end of her journey a savage yell told her she was at +last discovered by the Indians. She and they were on the +same side; but she had hard work to persuade them that +she only wished to warn FitzGibbon. Then came what, to +a lesser patriot, would have been a crowning disappointment. +For when, half dead with fatigue, she told him her story, +she found he had already heard it from the scouts. But +just because this forestalment was no real disappointment +to her, it makes her the Anglo-Canadian heroine whose +fame for bravery in war is worthiest of being remembered +with that of her French-Canadian sister, Madeleine de +Vercheres. [Footnote: For Madeleine de Vercheres see +_The fighting Governor_ in this Series.] + +Boerstler's six hundred had only ten miles to go in a +straight line. But all the thickets, woods, creeks, +streams, and swamps were closely beset by a body of +expert, persistent Indians, who gradually increased from +two hundred and fifty to four hundred men. The Americans +became discouraged and bewildered; and when FitzGibbon +rode up at the head of his redcoats they were ready to +give in. The British posts were all in excellent touch +with each other; and de Haren arrived in time to receive +the actual surrender. He was closely followed by the 2nd +Lincoln Militia under Colonel Clark, and these again by +Colonel Bisshopp with the whole of the advanced guard. +But it was the Indians alone who won the fight, as +FitzGibbon generously acknowledged: 'Not a shot was fired +on our side by any but the Indians. They beat the American +detachment into a state of terror, and the only share I +claim is taking advantage of a favourable moment to offer +protection from the tomahawk and scalping knife.' + +June was a lucky month for the British at sea as well as +on the land; and its 'Glorious First,' so called after +Howe's victory nineteen years before, now became doubly +glorious in a way which has a special interest for Canada. +The American frigate _Chesapeake_ was under orders to +attack British supply-ships entering Canadian waters; +and the victorious British frigate _Shannon_ was taken +out of action and into a Canadian port by a young Canadian +in the Royal Navy. + +The _Chesapeake_ had a new captain, Lawrence, with new +young officers. She carried fifty more men than the +British frigate _Shannon_. But many of her ship's company +were new to her, on recommissioning in May; and some were +comparatively untrained for service on board a man-of-war. +The frigates themselves were practically equal in size +and armament. But Captain Broke had been in continuous +command of the _Shannon_ for seven years and had trained +his crew into the utmost perfection of naval gunnery. +The vessels met off Boston in full view of many thousands +of spectators. Not one British shot flew high. Every day +in the Shannon's seven years of preparation told in that +fight of only fifteen minutes; and when Broke led his +boarders over the Chesapeake's side her fate had been +sealed already. The Stars and Stripes were soon replaced +by the Union Jack. Then, with Broke severely wounded and +his first lieutenant killed, the command fell on Lieutenant +Wallis, who sailed both vessels into Halifax. This young +Canadian, afterwards known as Admiral-of-the-Fleet Sir +Provo Wallis, lived to become the longest of all human +links between the past and present of the Navy. He was +by far the last survivor of those officers who were +specially exempted from technical retirement on account +of having held any ship or fleet command during the Great +War that ended on the field of Waterloo. He was born +before Napoleon had been heard of. He went through a +battle before the death of Nelson. He outlived Wellington +by forty years. His name stood on the Active List for +all but the final decade of the nineteenth century. And, +as an honoured centenarian, he is vividly remembered by +many who were still called young a century after the +battle that brought him into fame. + +The summer campaign on the Niagara frontier ended with +three minor British successes. Fort Schlosser was surprised +on July 5. On the 11th Bisshopp lost his life in destroying +Black Rock. And on August 24 the Americans were driven +in under the guns of Fort George. After this there was +a lull which lasted throughout the autumn. + +Down by the Montreal frontier there were three corresponding +British successes. On June 3 Major Taylor of the 100th +captured two American gunboats, the _Growler_ and the +_Eagle_, which had come to attack Isle-aux-Noix in the +Richelieu river, and renamed them the _Broke_ and the +_Shannon_. Early in August Captains Pring and Everard, +of the Navy, and Colonel Murray with nine hundred soldiers, +raided Lake Champlain. They destroyed the barracks, yard, +and stores at Plattsburg and sent the American militia +flying home. But a still more effective blow was struck +on the opposite side of Lake Champlain, at Burlington, +where General Hampton was preparing the right wing of +his new army of invasion. Stores, equipment, barracks, +and armaments were destroyed to such an extent that +Hampton's preparations were set back till late in the +autumn. The left wing of the same army was at Sackett's +Harbour, under Dearborn's successor, General Wilkinson, +whose plan was to take Kingston, go down the St Lawrence, +meet Hampton, who was to come up from the south, and then +make a joint attack with him on Montreal. + +In September the scene of action shifted to the West, +where the British were trying to keep the command of Lake +Erie, while the Americans were trying to wrest it from +them. Captain Oliver Perry, a first-rate American naval +officer of only twenty-eight, was at Presqu'isle (now +Erie) completing his flotilla. He had his troubles, of +course, especially with the militia garrison, who would +not do their proper tour of duty. 'I tell the boys to +go, but the boys won't go,' was the only report forthcoming +from one of several worthless colonels. A still greater +trouble for Perry was getting his vessels over the bar. +This had to be done without any guns on board, and with +the cumbrous aid of 'camels,' which are any kind of +air-tanks made fast to the sides low down, in order to +raise the hull as much as possible. But, luckily for +Perry, his opponent, Captain Barclay of the Royal Navy, +an energetic and capable young officer of thirty-two, +was called upon to face worse troubles still. Barclay +was, indeed, the first to get afloat. But he had to give +up the blockade of Presqu'isle, and so let Perry out, +because he had the rawest of crews, the scantiest of +equipment, and nothing left to eat. Then, when he ran +back to Amherstburg, he found Procter also facing a state +of semi-starvation, while thousands of Indian families +were clamouring for food. Thus there was no other choice +but either to fight or starve; for there was not the +slightest chance of replenishing stores unless the line +of the lake was clear. + +So Barclay sailed out with his six little British vessels, +armed by the odds and ends of whatever ordnance could be +spared from Amherstburg and manned by almost any crews +but sailors. Even the flagship _Detroit_ had only ten +real seamen, all told. Ammunition was likewise very +scarce, and so defective that the guns had to be fired +by the flash of a pistol. Perry also had a makeshift +flotilla, partly manned by drafts from Harrison's army. +But, on the whole, the odds in his favour were fairly +shown by the number of vessels in the respective flotillas, +nine American against the British six. + +Barclay had only thirty miles to make in a direct +south-easterly line from Amherstburg to reach Perry at +Put-in Bay in the Bass Islands, where, on the morning of +September 10, the opposing forces met. The battle raged +for two hours at the very closest quarters till Perry's +flagship _Lawrence_ struck to Barclay's own _Detroit_. +But Perry had previously left the _Lawrence_ for the +fresh _Niagara_; and he now bore down on the battered +_Detroit_, which had meanwhile fallen foul of the only +other sizable British vessel, the _Queen Charlotte_. This +was fatal for Barclay. The whole British flotilla +surrendered after a desperate resistance and an utterly +disabling loss. From that time on to the end of the war +Lake Erie remained completely under American control. + +Procter could hardly help seeing that he was doomed to +give up the whole Lake Erie region. But he lingered and +was lost. While Harrison was advancing with overwhelming +numbers Procter was still trying to decide when and how +to abandon Amherstburg. Then, when he did go, he carried +with him an inordinate amount of baggage; and he retired +so slowly that Harrison caught and crushed him near +Moravian Town, beside the Thames, on the 5th of October. +Harrison had three thousand exultant Americans in action; +Procter had barely a thousand worn-out, dispirited men, +more than half of them Indians under Tecumseh. The +redcoats, spread out in single rank at open order, were +ridden down by Harrison's cavalry, backed by the mass of +his infantry. The Indians on the inland flank stood longer +and fought with great determination against five times +their numbers till Tecumseh fell. Then they broke and +fled. This was their last great fight and Tecumseh was +their last great leader. + +The scene now shifts once more to the Montreal frontier, +which was being threatened by the converging forces of +Hampton from the south and Wilkinson from the west. Each +had about seven thousand men; and their common objective +was the island of Montreal. Hampton crossed the line at +Odelltown on September 20. But he presently moved back +again; and it was not till October 21 that he began his +definite attack by advancing down the left bank of the +Chateauguay, after opening communications with Wilkinson, +who was still near Sackett's Harbour. Hampton naturally +expected to brush aside all the opposition that could be +made by the few hundred British between him and the St +Lawrence. But de Salaberry, the commander of the British +advanced posts, determined to check him near La Fourche, +where several little tributaries of the Chateauguay made +a succession of good positions, if strengthened by abattis +and held by trained defenders. + +The British force was very small when Hampton began his +slow advance; but 'Red George' Macdonell marched to help +it just in time. Macdonell was commanding a crack corps +of French Canadians, all picked from the best 'Select +Embodied Militia,' and now, at the end of six months of +extra service, as good as a battalion of regulars. He +had hurried to Kingston when Wilkinson had threatened it +from Sackett's Harbour. Now he was urgently needed at +Chateauguay. 'When can you start?' asked Prevost, who +was himself on the point of leaving Kingston for +Chateauguay. 'Directly the men have finished their dinners, +sir!' 'Then follow me as quickly as you can!' said Prevost +as he stepped on board his vessel. There were 210 miles +to go. A day was lost in collecting boats enough for this +sudden emergency. Another day was lost _en route_ by a +gale so terrific that even the French-Canadian voyageurs +were unable to face it. The rapids, where so many of +Amherst's men had been drowned in 1760, were at their +very worst; and the final forty miles had to be made +overland by marching all night through dense forest and +along a particularly difficult trail. Yet Macdonell got +into touch with de Salaberry long before Prevost, to whom +he had the satisfaction of reporting later in the day: +'All correct and present, sir; not one man missing!' + +The advanced British forces under de Salaberry were now, +on October 25, the eve of battle, occupying the left, or +north, bank of the Chateauguay, fifteen miles south of +the Cascade Rapids of the St Lawrence, twenty-five miles +south-west of Caughnawaga, and thirty-five miles south-west +of Montreal. Immediately in rear of these men under de +Salaberry stood Macdonell's command; while, in more +distant support, nearer to Montreal, stood various posts +under General de Watteville, with whom Prevost spent that +night and most of the 26th, the day on which the battle +was fought. + +As Hampton came on with his cumbrous American thousands +de Salaberry felt justifiable confidence in his own +well-disciplined French-Canadian hundreds. He and his +brothers were officers in the Imperial Army. His Voltigeurs +were regulars. The supporting Fencibles were also regulars, +and of ten years' standing. Macdonell's men were practically +regulars. The so-called 'Select Militia' present had been +permanently embodied for eighteen months; and the only +real militiamen on the scene of action, most of whom +never came under fire at all, had already been twice +embodied for service in the field. The British total +present was 1590, of whom less than a quarter were +militiamen and Indians. But the whole firing line comprised +no more than 460, of whom only 66 were militiamen and +only 22 were Indians. The Indian total was about one-tenth +of the whole. The English-speaking total was about +one-twentieth. It is therefore perfectly right to say +that the battle of Chateauguay was practically fought +and won by French-Canadian regulars against American odds +of four to one. + +De Salaberry's position was peculiar. The head of his +little column faced the head of Hampton's big column on +a narrow front, bounded on his own left by the river +Chateauguay and on his own right by woods, into which +Hampton was afraid to send his untrained men. But, crossing +a right-angled bend of the river, beyond de Salaberry's +left front, was a ford, while in rear of de Salaberry's +own column was another ford which Hampton thought he +could easily take with fifteen hundred men under Purdy, +as he had no idea of Macdonell's march and no doubt of +being able to crush de Salaberry's other troops between +his own five thousand attacking from the front and Purdy's +fifteen hundred attacking from the rear. Purdy advanced +overnight, crossed to the right bank of the Chateauguay, +by the ford clear of de Salaberry's front, and made +towards the ford in de Salaberry's rear. But his men lost +their way in the dark and found themselves, not in rear +of, but opposite to, and on the left flank of, de +Salaberry's column in the morning. They drove in two of +de Salaberry's companies, which were protecting his left +flank on the right, or what was now Purdy's, side of the +river; but they were checked by a third, which Macdonell +sent forward, across the rear ford, at the same time that +he occupied this rear ford himself. Purdy and Hampton +had now completely lost touch with one another. Purdy +was astounded to see Macdonell's main body of redcoats +behind the rear ford. He paused, waiting for support from +Hampton, who was still behind the front ford. Hampton +paused, waiting for him to take the rear ford, now occupied +by Macdonell. De Salaberry mounted a huge tree-stump and +at once saw his opportunity. Holding back Hampton's +crowded column with his own front, which fought under +cover of his first abattis, he wheeled the rest of his +men into line to the left and thus took Purdy in flank. +Macdonell was out of range behind the rear ford; but he +played his part by making his buglers sound the advance +from several different quarters, while his men, joined +by de Salaberry's militiamen and by the Indians in the +bush, cheered vociferously and raised the war-whoop. This +was too much for Purdy's fifteen hundred. They broke in +confusion, ran away from the river into the woods under +a storm of bullets, fired into each other, and finally +disappeared. Hampton's attack on de Salaberry's first +abattis then came to a full stop; after which the whole +American army retired beaten from the field. + +Ten days after Chateauguay dilatory Wilkinson, tired of +waiting for defeated Hampton, left the original rendezvous +at French Creek, fifty miles below Sackett's Harbour. +Like Dearborn in 1812, he began his campaign just as the +season was closing. But, again like Dearborn, he had the +excuse of being obliged to organize his army in the middle +of the war. Four days later again, on November 9, Brown, +the successful defender of Sackett's Harbour against +Prevost's attack in May, was landed at Williamsburg, on +the Canadian side, with two thousand men, to clear the +twenty miles down to Cornwall, opposite the rendezvous +at St Regis, where Wilkinson expected to find Hampton +ready to join him for the combined attack on Montreal. +But Brown had to reckon with Dennis, the first defender +of Queenston, who now commanded the little garrison of +Cornwall, and who disputed every inch of the way by +breaking the bridges and resisting each successive advance +till Brown was compelled to deploy for attack. Two days +were taken up with these harassing manoeuvres, during +which another two thousand Americans were landed at +Williamsburg under Boyd, who immediately found himself +still more harassed in rear than Brown had been in front. + +This new British force in Boyd's rear was only a thousand +strong; but, as it included every human element engaged +in the defence of Canada, it has a quite peculiar interest +of its own. Afloat, it included bluejackets of the Royal +Navy, men of the Provincial Marine, French-Canadian +voyageurs, and Anglo-Canadian boatmen from the +trading-posts, all under a first-rate fighting seaman, +Captain Mulcaster, R.N. Ashore, under a good regimental +leader, Colonel Morrison--whose chief staff officer was +Harvey, of Stoney Creek renown--it included Imperial +regulars, Canadian regulars of both races, French-Canadian +and Anglo-Canadian militiamen, and a party of Indians. + +Early on the 11th Brown had arrived at Cornwall with his +two thousand Americans; Wilkinson was starting down from +Williamsburg in boats with three thousand more, and Boyd +was starting down ashore with eighteen hundred. But +Mulcaster's vessels pressed in on Wilkinson's rear, while +Morrison pressed in on Boyd's. Wilkinson then ordered +Boyd to turn about and drive off Morrison, while he +hurried his own men out of reach of Mulcaster, whose +armed vessels could not follow down the rapids. Boyd +thereupon attacked Morrison, and a stubborn fight ensued +at Chrystler's Farm. The field was of the usual type: +woods on one flank, water on the other, and a more or +less flat clearing in the centre. Boyd tried hard to +drive his wedge in between the British and the river. +But Morrison foiled him in manoeuvre; and the eight +hundred British stood fast against their eighteen hundred +enemies all along the line. Boyd then withdrew, having +lost four hundred men; and Morrison's remaining six +hundred effectives slept on their hard-won ground. + +Next morning the energetic Morrison resumed his pursuit. +But the campaign against Montreal was already over. +Wilkinson had found that Hampton had started back for +Lake Champlain while the battle was in progress; so he +landed at St Regis, just inside his own country, and went +into winter quarters at French Mills on the Salmon river. + +In December the scene of strife changed back again to +the Niagara, where the American commander, McClure, +decided to evacuate Fort George. At dusk on the 10th he +ordered four hundred women and children to be turned out +of their homes at Newark into the biting midwinter cold, +and then burnt the whole settlement down to the ground. +If he had intended to hold the position he might have +been justified in burning Newark, under more humane +conditions, because this village undoubtedly interfered +with the defensive fire of Fort George. But, as he was +giving up Fort George, his act was an entirely wanton +deed of shame. + +Meanwhile the new British general, Gordon Drummond, second +in ability to Brock alone, was hurrying to the Niagara +frontier. He was preceded by Colonel Murray, who took +possession of Fort George on the 12th, the day McClure +crossed the Niagara river. Murray at once made a plan to +take the American Fort Niagara opposite; and Drummond at +once approved it for immediate execution. On the night +of the 18th six hundred men were landed on the American +side three miles up the river. At four the next morning +Murray led them down to the fort, rushing the sentries +and pickets by the way with the bayonet in dead silence. +He then told off two hundred men to take a bastion at +the same time that he was to lead the other four hundred +straight through the main gate, which he knew would soon +be opened to let the reliefs pass out. Everything worked +to perfection. When the reliefs came out they were +immediately charged and bayoneted, as were the first +astonished men off duty who ran out of their quarters to +see what the matter was. A stiff hand-to-hand fight +followed. But every American attempt to form was instantly +broken up; and presently the whole place surrendered. +Drummond, who was delighted with such an excellent +beginning, took care to underline the four significant +words referring to the enemy's killed and wounded--_all +with the bayonet_. This was done in no mere vulgar spirit +of bravado, still less in abominable bloody-mindedness. +It was the soldierly recognition of a particularly gallant +feat of arms, carried out with such conspicuously good +discipline that its memory is cherished, even to the +present day, by the 100th, afterwards raised again as +the Royal Canadians, and now known as the Prince of +Wales's Leinster regiment. A facsimile of Drummond's +underlined order is one of the most highly honoured +souvenirs in the officers' mess. + +Not a moment was lost in following up this splendid feat +of arms. The Indians drove the American militia out of +Lewiston, which the advancing redcoats burnt to the +ground. Fort Schlosser fell next, then Black Rock, and +finally Buffalo. Each was laid in ashes. Thus, before +1813 ended, the whole American side of the Niagara was +nothing but one long, bare line of blackened desolation, +with the sole exception of Fort Niagara, which remained +secure in British hands until the war was over. + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +1814: LUNDY'S LANE, PLATTSBURG, AND THE GREAT BLOCKADE + +In the closing phase of the struggle by land and sea the +fortunes of war may, with the single exception of +Plattsburg, be most conveniently followed territorially, +from one point to the next, along the enormous irregular +curve of five thousand miles which was the scene of +operations. This curve begins at Prairie du Chien, where +the Wisconsin joins the Mississippi, and ends at New +Orleans, where the Mississippi is about to join the sea. +It runs easterly along the Wisconsin, across to the Fox, +into Lake Michigan, across to Mackinaw, eastwards through +Lakes Huron, Erie, and Ontario, down the St Lawrence, +round to Halifax, round from there to Maine, and thence +along the whole Atlantic coast, south and west--about +into the Gulf of Mexico. + +The blockade of the Gulf of Mexico was an integral part +of the British plan. But the battle of New Orleans, which +was a complete disaster for the British arms, stands +quite outside the actual war, since it was fought on +January 8, 1815, more than two weeks after the terms of +peace had been settled by the Treaty of Ghent. This +peculiarity about its date, taken in conjunction with +its extreme remoteness from the Canadian frontier, puts +it beyond the purview of the present chronicle. + +All the decisive actions of the campaign proper were +fought within two months. They began at Prairie du Chien +in July and ended at Plattsburg in September. Plattsburg +is the one exception to the order of place. The tide of +war and British fortune flowed east and south to reach +its height at Washington in August. It turned at Plattsburg +in September. + +Neither friend nor foe went west in 1813. But in April +1814 Colonel McDouall set out with ninety men, mostly of +the Newfoundland regiment, to reinforce Mackinaw. He +started from the little depot which had been established +on the Nottawasaga, a river flowing into the Georgian +Bay and accessible by the overland trail from York. + +After surmounting the many difficulties of the inland +route which he had to take in order to avoid the Americans +in the Lake Erie region, and after much hard work against +the Lake Huron ice, he at last reached Mackinaw on the +18th of May. Some good fighting Indians joined him there; +and towards the end of June he felt strong enough to send +Colonel McKay against the American post at Prairie du +Chien. McKay arrived at this post in the middle of July +and captured the whole position--fort, guns, garrison, +and a vessel on the Mississippi. + +Meanwhile seven hundred Americans under Croghan, the +American officer who had repulsed Procter at Fort Stephenson +the year before, were making for Mackinaw itself. They +did some private looting at the Sault, burnt the houses +at St Joseph's Island, and landed in full force at Mackinaw +on the 4th of August. McDouall had less than two hundred +men, Indians included. But he at once marched out to the +attack and beat the Americans back to their ships, which +immediately sailed away. The British thenceforth commanded +the whole three western lakes until the war was over. + +The Lake Erie region remained quite as decisively commanded +by the Americans. They actually occupied only the line +of the Detroit. But they had the power to cut any +communications which the British might try to establish +along the north side of the lake. They had suffered a +minor reverse at Chatham in the previous December. But +in March they more than turned the tables by defeating +Basden's attack in the Longwoods at Delaware, near London; +and in October seven hundred of their mounted men raided +the line of the Thames and only just stopped short of +the Grand River, the western boundary of the Niagara +peninsula. + +The Niagara frontier, as before, was the scene of desperate +strife. The Americans were determined to wrest it from +the British, and they carefully trained their best troops +for the effort. Their prospects seemed bright, as the +whole of Upper Canada was suffering from want of men and +means, both civil and military. Drummond, the British +commander-in-chief there, felt very anxious not only +about the line of the Niagara but even about the neck of +the whole peninsula, from Burlington westward to Lake +Erie. He had no more than 4,400 troops, all told; and he +was obliged to place them so as to be ready for an attack +either from the Niagara or from Lake Erie, or from both +together. Keeping his base at York with a thousand men, +he formed his line with its right on Burlington and its +left on Fort Niagara. He had 500 men at Burlington, 1,000 +at Fort George, and 700 at Fort Niagara. The rest were +thrown well forward, so as to get into immediate touch +with any Americans advancing from the south. There were +300 men at Queenston, 500 at Chippawa, 150 at Fort Erie, +and 250 at Long Point on Lake Erie. + +Brown, the American general who had beaten Prevost at +Sackett's Harbour and who had now superseded Wilkinson, +had made his advanced field base at Buffalo. His total +force was not much more than Drummond's. But it was all +concentrated into a single striking body which possessed +the full initiative of manoeuvre and attack. On July 3 +Brown crossed the Niagara to the Canadian side. The same +day he took Fort Erie from its little garrison; and at +once began to make it a really formidable work, as the +British found out to their cost later on. Next day he +advanced down the river road to Street's Creek. On hearing +this, General Riall, Drummond's second-in-command, gathered +two thousand men and advanced against Brown, who had +recommenced his own advance with four thousand. They met +on the 5th, between Street's Creek and the Chippawa river. +Riall at once sent six hundred men, including all his +Indians and militia, against more than twice their number +of American militia, who were in a strong position on +the inland flank. The Canadians went forward in excellent +style and the Americans broke and fled in wild confusion. +Seizing such an apparently good chance, Riall then attacked +the American regulars with his own, though the odds he +had to face here were more than three against two. The +opposing lines met face to face unflinchingly. The +Americans, who had now been trained and disciplined by +proper leaders, refused to yield an inch. Their two +regular brigadiers, Winfield Scott and Ripley, kept them +well in hand, manoeuvred their surplus battalions to the +best advantage, overlapped the weaker British flank, and +won the day. The British loss was five hundred, or one +in four: the American four hundred, or only one in ten. + +Brown then turned Riall's flank, by crossing the Chippawa +higher up, and prepared for the crowning triumph of +crushing Drummond. He proposed a joint attack with Chauncey +on Forts Niagara and George. But Chauncey happened to be +ill at the time; he had not yet defeated Yeo; and he +strongly resented being made apparently subordinate to +Brown. So the proposed combination failed at the critical +moment. But, for the eighteen days between the battle of +Chippawa on the 5th of July and Brown's receipt of +Chauncey's refusal on the 23rd, the Americans carried +all before them, right up to the British line that ran +along the western end of Lake Ontario, from Fort Niagara +to Burlington. During this period no great operations +took place. But two minor incidents served to exasperate +feelings on both sides. Eight Canadian traitors were +tried and hanged at Ancaster near Burlington; and Loyalists +openly expressed their regret that Willcocks and others +had escaped the same fate. Willcocks had been the +ring-leader of the parliamentary opposition to Brock in +1812; and had afterwards been exceedingly active on the +American side, harrying every Loyalist he and his raiders +could lay their hands on. He ended by cheating the gallows, +after all, as he fell in a skirmish towards the end of +the present campaign on the Niagara frontier. The other +exasperating incident was the burning of St David's on +July 19 by a Colonel Stone; partly because it was a 'Tory +village' and partly because the American militia mistakenly +thought that one of their officers, Brigadier-General +Swift, had been killed by a prisoner to whom he had given +quarter. + +When, on the 23rd of July, Brown at last received Chauncey's +disappointing answer, he immediately stopped manoeuvring +along the lower Niagara and prepared to execute an +alternative plan of marching diagonally across the Niagara +peninsula straight for the British position at Burlington. +To do this he concentrated at the Chippawa on the 24th. +But by the time he was ready to put his plan into execution, +on the morning of the 25th, he found himself in close +touch with the British in his immediate front. Their +advanced guard of a thousand men, under Colonel Pearson, +had just taken post at Lundy's Lane, near the Falls. +Their main body, under Riall, was clearing both banks of +the lower Niagara. And Drummond himself had just arrived +at Fort Niagara. Neither side knew the intentions of the +other. But as the British were clearing the whole country +up to the Falls, and as the Americans were bent on striking +diagonally inland from a point beside the Falls, it +inevitably happened that each met the other at Lundy's +Lane, which runs inland from the Canadian side of the +Falls, at right angles to the river, and therefore between +the two opposing armies. + +When Drummond, hurrying across from York, landed at Fort +Niagara in the early morning of the fateful 25th, he +found that the orders he had sent over on the 23rd were +already being carried out, though in a slightly modified +form. Colonel Tucker was marching off from Fort Niagara +to Lewiston, which he took without opposition. Then, +first making sure that the heights beyond were also clear, +he crossed over the Niagara to Queenston, where his men +had dinner with those who had marched up on the Canadian +side from Fort George. Immediately after dinner half the +total sixteen hundred present marched back to garrison +Forts George and Niagara, while the other half marched +forward, up-stream, on the Canadian side, with Drummond, +towards Lundy's Lane, whither Riall had preceded them +with reinforcements for the advanced guard under Colonel +Pearson. In the meantime Brown had heard about the taking +of Lewiston, and, fearing that the British might take +Fort Schlosser too, had at once given up all idea of his +diagonal march on Burlington and had decided to advance +straight against Queenston instead. Thus both the American +and the British main bodies were marching on Lundy's Lane +from opposite sides and in successive detachments throughout +that long, intensely hot, midsummer afternoon. + +Presently Riall got a report saying that the Americans +were advancing in one massed force instead of in successive +detachments. He thereupon ordered Pearson to retire from +Lundy's Lane to Queenston, sent back orders that Colonel +Hercules Scott, who was marching up twelve hundred men +from near St Catharine's on Twelve Mile Creek, was also +to go to Queenston, and reported both these changes to +Drummond, who was hurrying along the Queenston road +towards Lundy's Lane as fast as he could. While the +orderly officers were galloping back to Drummond and +Hercules Scott, and while Pearson was getting his men +into their order of march, Winfield Scott's brigade of +American regulars suddenly appeared on the Chippawa road, +deployed for attack, and halted. There was a pause on +both sides. Winfield Scott thought he might have Drummond's +whole force in front of him. Riall thought he was faced +by the whole of Brown's. But Winfield Scott, presently +realizing that Pearson was unsupported, resumed his +advance; while Pearson and Riall, not realizing that +Winfield Scott was himself unsupported for the time being, +immediately began to retire. + +At this precise moment Drummond dashed up and drew rein. +There was not a minute to lose. The leading Americans +were coming on in excellent order, only a musket-shot +away; Pearson's thousand were just in the act of giving +up the key to the whole position; and Drummond's eight +hundred were plodding along a mile or so in rear. But +within that fleeting minute Drummond made the plan that +brought on the most desperately contested battle of the +war. He ordered Pearson's thousand back again. He brought +his own eight hundred forward at full speed. He sent +post-haste to Colonel Scott to change once more and march +on Lundy's Lane. And so, by the time the astonished +Americans were about to seize the key themselves, they +found him ready to defend it. + +Too long for a hillock, too low for a hill, this key to +the whole position in that stern fight has never had a +special name. But it may well be known as Battle Rise. +It stood a mile from the Niagara river, and just a step +inland beyond the crossing of two roads. One of these, +Lundy's Lane, ran lengthwise over it, at right angles to +the Niagara. The other, which did not quite touch it, +ran in the same direction as the river, all the way from +Fort Erie to Fort George, and, of course, through both +Chippawa and Queenston. The crest of Battle Rise was a +few yards on the Chippawa side of Lundy's Lane; and there +Drummond placed his seven field-guns. Round these guns +the thickest of the battle raged, from first to last. +The odds were four thousand Americans against three +thousand British, altogether. But the British were in +superior force at first; and neither side had its full +total in action at any one time, as casualties and +reinforcements kept the numbers fluctuating. + +It was past six in the evening of that stifling 25th of +July when Winfield Scott attacked with the utmost steadiness +and gallantry. Though the British outnumbered his splendid +brigade, and though they had the choice of ground as +well, he still succeeded in driving a wedge through their +left flank, a move which threatened to break them away +from the road along the river. But they retired in good +order, re-formed, and then drove out his wedge. + +By half-past seven the American army had all come into +action, and Drummond was having hard work to hold his +own. Brown, like Winfield Scott, at once saw the supreme +importance of taking Battle Rise; so he sent two complete +battalions against it, one of regulars leading, the other, +of militia, in support. At the first salvo from Drummond's +seven guns the American militia broke and ran away. But +Colonel Miller worked some of the American regulars very +cleverly along the far side of a creeper-covered fence, +while the rest engaged the battery from a distance. In +the heat of action the British artillerymen never saw +their real danger till, on a given signal, Miller's +advanced party all sprang up and fired a point-blank +volley which killed or wounded every man beside the guns. +Then Miller charged and took the battery. But he only +held it for a moment. The British centre charged up their +own side of Battle Rise and drove the intruders back, +after a terrific struggle with the bayonet. But again +success was only for the moment. The Americans rallied +and pressed the British back. The British then rallied +and returned. And so the desperate fight swayed back and +forth across the coveted position; till finally both +sides retired exhausted, and the guns stood dumb between +them. + +It was now pitch-dark, and the lull that followed seemed +almost like the end of the fight. But, after a considerable +pause, the Americans--all regulars this time--came on +once more. This put the British in the greatest danger. +Drummond had lost nearly a third of his men. The effective +American regulars were little less than double his present +twelve hundred effectives of all kinds and were the +fresher army of the two. Miller had taken one of the guns +from Battle Rise. The other six could not be served +against close-quarter musketry; and the nearest Americans +were actually resting between the cross-roads and the +deserted Rise. Defeat looked certain for the British. +But, just as the attackers and defenders began to stir +again, Colonel Hercules Scott's twelve hundred weary +reinforcements came plodding along the Queenston road, +wheeled round the corner into Lundy's Lane, and stumbled +in among these nearest Americans, who, being the more +expectant of the two, drove them back in confusion. The +officers, however, rallied the men at once. Drummond told +off eight hundred of them, including three hundred militia, +to the reserve; prolonged his line to the right with the +rest; and thus re-established the defence. + +Hardly had the new arrivals taken breath before the final +assault began. Again the Americans took the silent battery. +Again the British drove them back. Again the opposing +lines swayed to and fro across the deadly crest of Battle +Rise, with nothing else to guide them through the hot, +black night but their own flaming musketry. The Americans +could not have been more gallant and persistent in attack: +the British could not have been more steadfast in defence. +Midnight came; but neither side could keep its hold on +Battle Rise. By this time Drummond was wounded; and Riall +was both wounded and a prisoner. Among the Americans +Brown and Winfield Scott were also wounded, while their +men were worn out after being under arms for nearly +eighteen hours. A pause of sheer exhaustion followed. +Then, slowly and sullenly, as if they knew the one more +charge they could not make must carry home, the foiled +Americans turned back and felt their way to Chippawa. + +The British ranks lay down in the same order as that in +which they fought; and a deep hush fell over the whole, +black-shrouded battlefield. The immemorial voice of those +dread Falls to which no combatant gave heed for six long +hours of mortal strife was heard once more. But near at +hand there was no other sound than that which came from +the whispered queries of a few tired officers on duty; +from the busy orderlies and surgeons at their work of +mercy; and from the wounded moaning in their pain. So +passed the quiet half of that short, momentous, summer +night. Within four hours the sun shone down on the living +and the dead--on that silent battery whose gunners had +fallen to a man--on the unconquered Rise. + +The tide of war along the Niagara frontier favoured +neither side for some time after Lundy's Lane, though +the Americans twice appeared to be regaining the initiative. +On August 15 there was a well-earned American victory at +Fort Erie, where Drummond's assault was beaten off with +great loss to the British. A month later an American +sortie was repulsed. On September 21 Drummond retired +beaten; and on October 13 he found himself again on the +defensive at Chippawa, with little more than three thousand +men, while Izard, who had come with American reinforcements +from Lake Champlain and Sackett's Harbour, was facing +him with twice as many. But Yeo's fleet had now come up +to the mouth of the Niagara, while Chauncey's had remained +at Sackett's Harbour. Thus the British had the priceless +advantage of a movable naval base at hand, while the +Americans had none at all within supporting distance. +Every step towards Lake Ontario hampered Izard more and +more, while it added corresponding strength to Drummond. +An American attempt to work round Drummond's flank, twelve +miles inland, was also foiled by a heavy skirmish on +October 19 at Cook's Mills; and Izard's definite abandonment +of the invasion was announced on November 5 by his blowing +up Fort Erie and retiring into winter quarters. This +ended the war along the whole Niagara. + +The campaign on Lake Ontario was very different. It opened +two months earlier. The naval competition consisted rather +in building than in fighting. The British built ships in +Kingston, the Americans in Sackett's Harbour; and reports +of progress soon travelled across the intervening space +of less than forty miles. The initiative of combined +operations by land and water was undertaken by the British +instead of by the Americans. Yeo and Drummond wished to +attack Sackett's Harbour with four thousand men. But +Prevost said he could spare them only three thousand; +whereupon they changed their objective to Oswego, which +they took in excellent style, on May 6. The British +suffered a serious reverse, though on a very much smaller +scale, on May 30, at Sandy Creek, between Oswego and +Sackett's Harbour, when a party of marines and bluejackets, +sent to cut out some vessels with naval stores for +Chauncey, was completely lost, every man being either +killed, wounded, or taken prisoner. + +From Lake Ontario down to the sea the Canadian frontier +was never seriously threatened; and the only action of +any consequence was fought to the south of Montreal in +the early spring. On March 30 the Americans made a last +inglorious attempt in this direction. Wilkinson started +with four thousand men to follow the line of Lake Champlain +and the Richelieu river, the same that was tried by +Dearborn in 1812 and by Hampton in 1813. At La Colle, +only four miles across the frontier, he attacked Major +Handcock's post of two hundred men. The result was like +a second Chateauguay. Handcock drew in three hundred +reinforcements and two gunboats from Isle-aux-Noix. +Wilkinson's advanced guard lost its way overnight. In +the morning he lacked the resolution to press on, even +with his overwhelming numbers; and so, after a part of +his army had executed some disjointed manoeuvres, he +withdrew the whole and gave up in despair. + +From this point of the Canadian frontier to the very end +of the five-thousand-mile loop, that is, from Montreal +to Mexico, the theatre of operations was directly based +upon the sea, where the British Navy was by this time +undisputedly supreme. A very few small American men-of-war +were still at large, together with a much greater number +of privateers. But they had no power whatever even to +mitigate the irresistible blockade of the whole coast-line +of the United States. American sea-borne commerce simply +died away; for no mercantile marine could have any +independent life when its trade had to be carried on by +a constantly decreasing tonnage; when, too, it could go +to sea at all only by furtive evasion, and when it had +to take cargo at risks so great that they could not be +covered either by insurance or by any attainable profits. +The Atlantic being barred by this Great Blockade, and +the Pacific being inaccessible, the only practical way +left open to American trade was through the British lines +by land or sea. Some American seamen shipped in British +vessels. Some American ships sailed under British colours. +But the chief external American trade was done illicitly, +by 'underground,' with the British West Indies and with +Canada itself. This was, of course, in direct defiance +of the American government, and to the direct detriment +of the United States as a nation. It was equally to the +direct benefit of the British colonies in general and of +Nova Scotia in particular. American harbours had never +been so dull. Quebec and Halifax had never been so +prosperous. American money was drained away from the +warlike South and West and either concentrated in the +Northern States--which were opposed to the war--or paid +over into British hands. + +Nor was this all. The British Navy harried the coast in +every convenient quarter and made effective the work of +two most important joint attacks, one on Maine, the other +on Washington itself. The attack on Maine covered two +months, altogether, from July 11 to September 11. It +began with the taking of Moose Island by Sir Thomas Hardy, +Nelson's old flag-captain at Trafalgar, and ended with +the surrender, at Machias, of 'about 100 miles of +sea-coast,' together with 'that intermediate tract of +country which separates the province of New Brunswick +from Lower Canada.' On September 21 Sir John Sherbrooke +proclaimed at Halifax the formal annexation of 'all the +eastern side of the Penobscot river and all the country +lying between the same river and the boundary of New +Brunswick.' + +The attack on Maine was meant, in one sense at least, to +create a partial counterpoise to the American preponderance +on Lake Erie. The attack on Washington was made in +retaliation for the burning of the old and new capitals +of Upper Canada, Newark and York. + +The naval defence of Washington had been committed to +Commodore Barney, a most expert and gallant veteran of +the Revolution, who handled his wholly inadequate little +force with consummate skill and daring, both afloat and +ashore. He was not, strictly speaking, a naval officer, +but a privateersman who had made the unique record of +taking eleven prizes in ten consecutive days with his +famous Baltimore schooner _Rossie_. The military defence +was committed to General Winder, one of the two generals +captured by Harvey's '704 firelocks' at Stoney Creek the +year before. Winder was a good soldier and did his best +in the seven weeks at his disposal. But the American +government, which had now enjoyed continuous party power +for no less than thirteen years, gave him no more than +four hundred regulars, backed by Barney's four hundred +excellent seamen and the usual array of militia, with +whom to defend the capital in the third campaign of a +war they had themselves declared. There were 93,500 +militiamen within the threatened area. But only fifteen +thousand were got under arms; and only five thousand were +brought into action. + +In the middle of August the British fleet under Admirals +Cochrane and Cockburn sailed into Chesapeake Bay with a +detachment of four thousand troops commanded by General +Ross. Barney had no choice but to retire before this +overwhelming force. As the British advanced up the +narrowing waters all chance of escape disappeared; so +Barney burnt his boats and little vessels and marched +his seamen in to join Winder's army. On August 24 Winder's +whole six thousand drew up in an exceedingly strong +position at Bladensburg, just north of Washington; and +the President rode out with his Cabinet to see a battle +which is best described by its derisive title of the +Bladensburg Races. Ross's four thousand came on and were +received by an accurate checking fire from the regular +artillery and from Barney's seamen gunners. But a total +loss of 8 killed and 11 wounded was more than the 5,000 +American militia could stand. All the rest ran for dear +life. The deserted handful of regular soldiers and sailors +was then overpowered; while Barney was severely wounded +and taken prisoner. He and they, however, had saved their +honour and won the respect and admiration of both friend +and foe. Ross and Cockburn at once congratulated him on +the stand he had made against them; and he, with equal +magnanimity, reported officially that the British had +treated him 'just like a brother.' + +That night the little British army of four thousand men +burnt governmental Washington, the capital of a country +with eight millions of people. Not a man, not a woman, +not a child, was in any way molested; nor was one finger +laid on any private property. The four thousand then +marched back to the fleet, through an area inhabited by +93,500 militiamen on paper, without having so much as a +single musket fired at them. + +Now, if ever, was Prevost's golden opportunity to end +the war with a victory that would turn the scale decisively +in favour of the British cause. With the one exception +of Lake Erie, the British had the upper hand over the +whole five thousand miles of front. A successful British +counter-invasion, across the Montreal frontier, would +offset the American hold on Lake Erie, ensure the control +of Lake Champlain, and thus bring all the scattered parts +of the campaign into their proper relation to a central, +crowning triumph. + +On the other hand, defeat would mean disaster. But the +bare possibility of defeat seemed quite absurd when +Prevost set out from his field headquarters opposite +Montreal, between La Prairie and Chambly, with eleven +thousand seasoned veterans, mostly 'Peninsulars,' to +attack Plattsburg, which was no more than twenty-five +miles across the frontier, very weakly fortified, and +garrisoned only by the fifteen hundred regulars whom +Izard had 'culled out' when he started for Niagara. + +The naval odds were not so favourable. But, as they could +be decisively affected by military action, they naturally +depended on Prevost, who, with his overwhelming army, +could turn them whichever way he chose. It was true that +Commodore Macdonough's American flotilla had more trained +seamen than Captain Downie's corresponding British force, +and that his crews and vessels possessed the further +advantage of having worked together for some time. Downie, +a brave and skilful young officer, had arrived to take +command of his flotilla at the upper end of Lake Champlain +only on September 2, that is, exactly a week before +Prevost urged him to attack, and nine days before the +battle actually did take place. He had a fair proportion +of trained seamen; but they consisted of scratch drafts +from different men-of-war, chosen in haste and hurried +to the front. Most of the men and officers were complete +strangers to one another; and they made such short-handed +crews that some soldiers had to be wheeled out of the +line of march and put on board at the very last minute. +There would have been grave difficulties with such a +flotilla under any circumstances. But Prevost had increased +them tenfold by giving no orders and making no preparations +while trying his hand at another abortive armistice--one, +moreover, which he had no authority even to propose. + +Yet, in spite of all this, Prevost still had the means +of making Downie superior to Macdonough. Macdonough's +vessels were mostly armed with carronades, Downie's with +long guns. Carronades fired masses of small projectiles +with great effect at very short ranges. Long guns, on +the other hand, fired each a single large projectile up +to the farthest ranges known. In fact, it was almost as +if the Americans had been armed with shot-guns and the +British armed with rifles. Therefore the Americans had +an overwhelming advantage at close quarters, while the +British had a corresponding advantage at long range. Now, +Macdonough had anchored in an ideal position for close +action inside Plattsburg Bay. He required only a few men +to look after his ground tackle; [Footnote: Anchors and +cables.] and his springs [Footnote: Ropes to hold a vessel +in position when hauling or swinging in a harbour. Here, +ropes from the stern to the anchors on the landward side.] +were out on the landward side for 'winding ship,' that +is, for turning his vessels completely round, so as to +bring their fresh broadsides into action. There was no +sea-room for manoeuvring round him with any chance of +success; so the British would be at a great disadvantage +while standing in to the attack, first because they could +be raked end-on, next because they could only reply with +bow fire--the weakest of all--and, lastly, because their +best men would be engaged with the sails and anchors +while their ships were taking station. + +But Prevost had it fully in his power to prevent Macdonough +from fighting in such an ideal position at all. Macdonough's +American flotilla was well within range of Macomb's +long-range American land batteries; while Prevost's +overwhelming British army was easily able to take these +land batteries, turn their guns on Macdonough's helpless +vessels--whose short-range carronades could not possibly +reply--and so either destroy the American flotilla at +anchor in the bay or force it out into the open lake, +where it would meet Downie's long-range guns at the +greatest disadvantage. Prevost, after allowing for all +other duties, had at least seven thousand veterans for +an assault on Macomb's second-rate regulars and ordinary +militia, both of whom together amounted at most to +thirty-five hundred, including local militiamen who had +come in to reinforce the 'culls' whom Izard had left +behind. The Americans, though working with very creditable +zeal, determined to do their best, quite expected to be +beaten out of their little forts and entrenchments, which +were just across the fordable Saranac in front of Prevost's +army. They had tried to delay the British advance. But, +in the words of Macomb's own official report, 'so undaunted +was the enemy that he never deployed in his whole march, +always pressing on in column'; that is, the British +veterans simply brushed the Americans aside without +deigning to change from their column of march into a line +of battle. Prevost's duty was therefore perfectly plain. +With all the odds in his favour ashore, and with the +power of changing the odds in his favour afloat, he ought +to have captured Macomb's position in the early morning +and turned both his own and Macomb's artillery on +Macdonough, who would then have been forced to leave his +moorings for the open lake, where Downie would have had +eight hours of daylight to fight him at long range. + +What Prevost actually did was something disgracefully +different. Having first wasted time by his attempted +armistice, and so hindered preparations at the base, +between La Prairie and Chambly, he next proceeded to +cross the frontier too soon. He reported home that Downie +could not be ready before September 15. But on August 31 +he crossed the line himself, only twenty-five miles from +his objective, thus prematurely showing the enemy his +hand. Then he began to goad the unhappy Downie to his +doom. Downie's flagship, the _Confiance_, named after a +French prize which Yeo had taken, was launched only on +August 25, and hauled out into the stream only on September +7. Her scratch crew could not go to battle quarters till +the 8th; and the shipwrights were working madly at her +up to the very moment that the first shot was fired in +her fatal action on the 11th. Yet Prevost tried to force +her into action on the 9th, adding, 'I need not dwell +with you on the evils resulting to both services from +delay,' and warning Downie that he was being watched: +'Captain Watson is directed to remain at Little Chazy +until you are preparing to get under way.' + +Thus watched and goaded by the governor-general and +commander-in-chief, whose own service was the Army, +Downie, a comparative junior in the Navy, put forth his +utmost efforts, against his better judgment, to sail that +very midnight. A baffling head-wind, however, kept him +from working out. He immediately reported to Prevost, +giving quite satisfactory reasons. But Prevost wrote back +impatiently: 'The troops have been held in readiness, +since six o'clock this morning [the 10th], to storm the +enemy's works at nearly the same time as the naval action +begins in the bay. I ascribe the disappointment I have +experienced to the unfortunate change of wind, and shall +rejoice to learn that my reasonable expectations have +been frustrated by no other cause.' '_No other cause_.' +The innuendo, even if unintentional, was there. Downie, +a junior sailor, was perhaps suspected of 'shyness' by +a very senior soldier. Prevost's poison worked quickly. +'I will convince him that the Navy won't be backward,' +said Downie to his second, Pring, who gave this evidence, +under oath, at the subsequent court-martial. Pring, whose +evidence was corroborated by that of both the first +lieutenant and the master of the _Confiance_, then urged +the extreme risk of engaging Macdonough inside the bay. +But Downie allayed their anxiety by telling them that +Prevost had promised to storm Macomb's indefensible works +simultaneously. This was not nearly so good as if Prevost +had promised to defeat Macomb first and then drive +Macdonough out to sea. But it was better, far better, +than what actually was done. + +With Prevost's written promise in his pocket Downie sailed +for Plattsburg in the early morning of that fatal 11th +of September. Punctually to the minute he fired his +preconcerted signal outside Cumberland Head, which +separated the bay from the lake. He next waited exactly +the prescribed time, during which he reconnoitred +Macdonough's position from a boat. Then the hour of battle +came. The hammering of the shipwrights stopped at last; +and the ill-starred _Confiance_, that ship which never +had a chance to 'find herself,' led the little squadron +into Prevost's death-trap in the bay. Every soldier and +sailor now realized that the storming of the works on +land ought to have been the first move, and that Prevost's +idea of simultaneous action was faulty, because it meant +two independent fights, with the chance of a naval disaster +preceding the military success. However, Prevost was the +commander-in-chief; he had promised co-operation in his +own way; and Downie was determined to show him that the +Navy had stopped for '_no other cause_' than the head-wind +of the day before. + +Did _no other cause_ than mistaken judgment affect Prevost +that fatal morning? Did he intend to show Downie that a +commander-in-chief could not suffer the 'disappointment' +of 'holding troops in readiness' without marking his +displeasure by some visible return in kind? Or was he no +worse than criminally weak? His motives will never be +known. But his actions throw a sinister light upon them. +For when Downie sailed in to the attack Prevost did +nothing whatever to help him. Betrayed, traduced, and +goaded to his ruin, Downie fought a losing battle with +the utmost gallantry and skill. The wind flawed and failed +inside the bay, so that the _Confiance_ could not reach +her proper station. Yet her first broadside struck down +forty men aboard the _Saratoga_. Then the _Saratoga_ +fired her carronades, at point-blank range, cut up the +cables aboard the _Confiance_, and did great execution +among the crew. In fifteen minutes Downie fell. + +The battle raged two full hours longer; while the odds +against the British continued to increase. Four of their +little gunboats fought as well as gunboats could. But +the other seven simply ran away, like their commander +afterwards when summoned for a court-martial that would +assuredly have sentenced him to death. Two of the larger +vessels failed to come into action properly; one went +ashore, the other drifted through the American line and +then hauled down her colours. Thus the battle was fought +to its dire conclusion by the British _Confiance_ and +_Linnet_ against the American _Saratoga_, _Eagle_, and +_Ticonderoga_. The gunboats had little to do with the +result; though the odds of all those actually engaged +were greatly in favour of Macdonough. The fourth American +vessel of larger size drifted out of action. + +Macdonough, an officer of whom any navy in the world +might well be proud, then concentrated on the stricken +_Confiance_ with his own _Saratoga_, greatly aided by +the _Eagle_, which swung round so as to rake the _Confiance_ +with her fresh broadside. The _Linnet_ now drifted off +a little and so could not help the _Confiance_, both +because the American galleys at once engaged her and +because her position was bad in any case. Presently both +flagships slackened fire; whereupon Macdonough took the +opportunity of winding ship. His ground tackle was in +perfect order on the far, or landward, side; so the +_Saratoga_ swung round quite easily. The _Confiance_ now +had both the _Eagle's_ and the _Saratoga's_ fresh carronade +broadsides deluging her battered, cannon-armed broadside +with showers of deadly grape. Her one last chance of +keeping up a little longer was to wind ship herself. Her +tackle had all been cut; but her master got out his last +spare cables and tried to bring her round, while some of +his toiling men fell dead at every haul. She began to +wind round very slowly; and, when exactly at right angles +to Macdonough, was raked completely, fore and aft. At +the same time an ominous list to port, where her side +was torn in over a hundred places, showed that she would +sink quickly if her guns could not be run across to +starboard. But more than half her mixed scratch crew had +been already killed or wounded. The most desperate efforts +of her few surviving officers could not prevent the +confusion that followed the fearful raking she now received +from both her superior opponents; and before her fresh +broadside could be brought to bear she was forced to +strike her flag. Then every American carronade and gun +was turned upon Pring's undaunted little _Linnet_, which +kept up the hopeless fight for fifteen minutes longer; +so that Prevost might yet have a chance to carry out his +own operations without fear of molestation from a hostile +bay. + +But Prevost was in no danger of molestation. He was in +perfect safety. He watched the destruction of his fleet +from his secure headquarters, well inland, marched and +countermarched his men about, to make a show of action; +and then, as the _Linnet_ fired her last, despairing gun, +he told all ranks to go to dinner. + +That night he broke camp hurriedly, left all his badly +wounded men behind him, and went back a great deal faster +than he came. His shamed, disgusted veterans deserted in +unprecedented numbers. And Macomb's astounded army found +themselves the victors of an unfought field. + +The American victory at Plattsburg gave the United States +the absolute control of Lake Champlain; and this, +reinforcing their similar control of Lake Erie, +counterbalanced the British military advantages all along +the Canadian frontier. The British command of the sea, +the destruction of Washington, and the occupation of +Maine told heavily on the other side. These three British +advantages had been won while the mother country was +fighting with her right hand tied behind her back; and +in all the elements of warlike strength the British Empire +was vastly superior to the United States. Thus there +cannot be the slightest doubt that if the British had +been free to continue the war they must have triumphed. +But they were not free. Europe was seething with the +profound unrest that made her statesmen feel the volcano +heaving under their every step during the portentous year +between Napoleon's abdication and return. The mighty +British Navy, the veteran British Army, could not now be +sent across the sea in overwhelming force. So American +diplomacy eagerly seized this chance of profiting by +British needs, and took such good advantage of them that +the Treaty of Ghent, which ended the war on Christmas +Eve, left the two opponents in much the same position +towards each other as before. Neither of the main reasons +for which the Americans had fought their three campaigns +was even mentioned in the articles. + +The war had been an unmitigated curse to the motherland +herself; and it brought the usual curses in its train +all over the scene of action. But some positive good came +out of it as well, both in Canada and in the United +States. + +The benefits conferred on the United States could not be +given in apter words than those used by Gallatin, who, +as the finance minister during four presidential terms, +saw quite enough of the seamy side to sober his opinions, +and who, as a prominent member of the war party, shared +the disappointed hopes of his colleagues about the conquest +of Canada. His opinion is, of course, that of a partisan. +But it contains much truth, for all that: + + The war has been productive of evil and of good; but + I think the good preponderates. It has laid the + foundations of permanent taxes and military + establishments, which the Republicans [as the + anti-Federalist Democrats were then called] had deemed + unfavorable to the happiness and free institutions of + the country. Under our former system we were becoming + too selfish, too much attached exclusively to the + acquisition of wealth, above all, too much confined + in our political feelings to local and state objects. + The war has renewed the national feelings and character + which the Revolution had given, and which were daily + lessening. The people are now more American. They feel + and act more as a nation. And I hope that the permanency + of the Union is thereby better secured. + +Gallatin did not, of course, foresee that it would take +a third conflict to finish what the Revolution had begun. +But this sequel only strengthens his argument. For that +Union which was born in the throes of the Revolution had +to pass through its tumultuous youth in '1812' before +reaching full manhood by means of the Civil War. + +The benefits conferred on Canada were equally permanent +and even greater. How Gallatin would have rejoiced to +see in the United States any approach to such a financial +triumph as that which was won by the Army Bills in Canada! +No public measure was ever more successful at the time +or more full of promise for the future. But mightier +problems than even those of national finance were brought +nearer to their desirable solution by this propitious +war. It made Ontario what Quebec had long since +been--historic ground; thus bringing the older and newer +provinces together with one exalting touch. It was also +the last, as well as the most convincing, defeat of the +three American invasions of Canada. The first had been +led by Sir William Phips in 1690. This was long before +the Revolution. The American Colonies were then still +British and Canada still French. But the invasion itself +was distinctively American, in men, ships, money, and +design. It was undertaken without the consent or knowledge +of the home authorities; and its success would probably +have destroyed all chance of there being any British +Canada to-day. The second American invasion had been that +of Montgomery and Arnold in 1775, during the Revolution, +when the very diverse elements of a new Canadian life +first began to defend their common heritage against a +common foe. The third invasion--the War of 1812--united +all these elements once more, just when Canada stood most +in need of mutual confidence between them. So there could +not have been a better bond of union than the blood then +shed so willingly by her different races in a single +righteous cause. + + + + +BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE + +Enough books to fill a small library have been written +about the 'sprawling and sporadic' War of 1812. Most of +them deal with particular phases, localities, or events; +and most of them are distinctly partisan. This is +unfortunate, but not surprising. The war was waged over +an immense area, by various forces, and with remarkably +various results. The Americans were victorious on the +Lakes and in all but one of the naval duels fought at +sea. Yet their coast was completely sealed up by the +Great Blockade in the last campaign. The balance of +victory inclined towards the British side on land. Yet +the annihilating American victories on the Lakes nullified +most of the general military advantages gained by the +British along the Canadian frontier. The fortunes of each +campaign were followed with great interest on both sides +of the line. But on the other side of the Atlantic the +British home public had Napoleon to think of at their +very doors; and so, for the most part, they regarded the +war with the States as an untoward and regrettable +annoyance, which diverted too much force and attention +from the life-and-death affairs of Europe. + +All these peculiar influences are reflected in the +different patriotic annals. Americans are voluble about +the Lakes and the naval duels out at sea. But the completely +effective British blockade of their coast-line is a too +depressingly scientific factor in the problem to be +welcomed by a general public which would not understand +how Yankee ships could win so many duels while the British +Navy won the war. Canadians are equally voluble about +the battles on Canadian soil, where Americans had decidedly +the worst of it. As a rule, Canadian writers have been +quite as controversial as Americans, and not any readier +to study their special subjects as parts of a greater +whole. The British Isles have never had an interested +public anxious to read about this remote, distasteful, +and subsidiary war; and books about it there have +consequently been very few. + +The two chief authors who have appealed directly to the +readers of the mother country are William James and Sir +Charles Lucas. James was an industrious naval historian; +but he was quite as anti-American as the earlier American +writers were anti-British. Owing to this perverting bias +his two books, the _Naval_ and the _Military Occurrences +of the late War between Great Britain and the United +States_, are not to be relied upon. Their appendices, +however, give a great many documents which are of much +assistance in studying the real history of the war. James +wrote only a few years after the peace. Nearly a century +later Sir Charles Lucas wrote _The Canadian War of 1812_, +which is the work of a man whose life-long service in +the Colonial Office and intimate acquaintance with Canadian +history have both been turned to the best account. The +two chief Canadian authors are Colonel Cruikshank and +James Hannay. Colonel Cruikshank deserves the greatest +credit for being a real pioneer with his _Documentary +History of the Campaigns upon the Niagara Frontier_. +Hannay's _History of the War of 1812_ shows careful study +of the Canadian aspects of the operations; but its +generally sound arguments are weakened by its controversial +tone. + +The four chief American authors to reckon with are, +Lossing, Upton, Roosevelt, and Mahan. They complement +rather than correspond with the four British authors. +The best known American work dealing with the military +campaigns is Lossing's _Field-Book of the War of 1812_. +It is an industrious compilation; but quite uncritical +and most misleading. General Upton's _Military Policy of +the United States_ incidentally pricks all the absurd +American militia bubbles with an incontrovertible array +of hard and pointed facts. _The Naval War of 1812_, by +Theodore Roosevelt, is an excellent sketch which shows +a genuine wish to be fair to both sides. But the best +naval work, and the most thorough work of any kind on +either side, is Admiral Mahan's _Sea Power in its Relations +to the War of 1812_. + +A good deal of original evidence on the American side is +given in Brannan's _Official Letters of the Military and +Naval Officers of the United States during the War with +Great Britain in the Years 1812 to 1815_. The original +British evidence about the campaigns in Canada is given +in William Wood's _Select British Documents of the Canadian +War of 1812_. Students who wish to see the actual documents +must go to Washington, London, and Ottawa. The Dominion +Archives are of exceptional interest to all concerned. + +The present work is based entirely on original evidence, +both American and British. + + + +END + + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The War With the United States + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WAR WITH THE UNITED STATES *** + +***** This file should be named 14582.txt or 14582.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/1/4/5/8/14582/ + +This etext was produced by Gardner Buchanan. + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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