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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 14577 ***
+
+THE TEACHING OF HISTORY
+
+by
+
+ERNEST C. HARTWELL, M.A.
+
+Superintendent of Schools, Petoskey, Mich.
+
+Riverside Educational Monographs
+Edited by Henry Suzzallo
+Professor of the Philosophy of Education
+Teachers College, Columbia University
+
+Houghton Mifflin Company
+Boston, New York and Chicago
+The Riverside Press Cambridge
+
+1913
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION
+
+  I. SOME PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS
+
+ II. HOW TO BEGIN THE COURSE
+
+III. THE ASSIGNMENT OF THE LESSON
+
+ IV. THE METHOD OF THE RECITATION
+
+  V. VARIOUS MODES OF REVIEW
+
+ VI. THE USE OF WRITTEN REPORTS
+
+VII. EXAMINATIONS AS TESTS OF PROGRESS
+
+OUTLINE
+
+
+
+
+EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION
+
+
+This volume is offered as a guide to history teachers of the high school
+and the upper grammar grades. It is directly concerned with the teaching
+methods to be employed in the history period. The author assumes the
+limiting conditions that surround classroom instruction of the present
+day; he also takes for granted the teacher's sympathy with modern aims
+in history instruction. All discussions of purpose and content are
+therefore subordinated to a clear presentation of the details of
+effective teaching technique.
+
+The reader into whose hands this volume falls will be deeply interested
+in the ideals of teaching implied in the concrete suggestions given in
+the following pages, for after all the value of any system of special
+methods rests, not merely on its apparent and immediate psychological
+effectiveness, but also on the social purposes which it is devised to
+serve. It must be recognized at the outset that history has a social
+purpose. However much university teaching may be interested in truth for
+its own sake, an interest necessarily basic to the service of all other
+ends, the teaching of the lower public schools must take into account
+the relevancy of historical fact to current and future problems which
+concern men and women engaged in the common social life. So the
+elementary and secondary school teachers of the more progressive sort
+recognize that the way in which historical truths are selected and
+related to one another determines two things: (1) Whether our group
+experiences as interpreted in history will have any intelligent effect
+upon men's appreciations of current social difficulties, and (2) whether
+history will make a more vital appeal to youth at school.
+
+Certainly children, whose interests arise not alone from their innate
+impulses, but also from the world in which they have lived from the
+beginning, will be eager to know the past that is of dominant concern to
+the present. It is clear gain in the psychology of instruction if
+history is a socially live thing. The children will be more eager to
+acquire knowledge; they will hold it longer, because it is significant;
+and they will keep it fresh after school days are over because life will
+recall and review pertinent knowledge again and again. There can be no
+separation between the dominant social interests of community life and
+effective pedagogical procedure; the former in large part determines the
+latter.
+
+Such educational reforms in history teaching as have already won
+acceptance confirm the existence of this vital relation between current
+social interests and the learning process. The barren learning of names
+and dates has long since been supplanted by a study of sequences among
+events. The technical details of wars and political administrations have
+given way to a study of wide economic and social movements in which
+battles and laws are merely overt results reinforcing the current of
+change. History, once a self-inclosed school discipline, has undergone
+an intellectual expansion which takes into account all the aspects of
+life which influence it, making geographical, economic, and biographical
+materials its aids. All these and many other minor changes attest the
+fact that a vital mode of instruction always tends to accompany that
+view of history which regards the study of the past as a revelation of
+real social life.
+
+The author's suggestions will, therefore, be of distinct value to at
+least two groups of history teachers. Those who believe in the larger
+uses of history teaching, so much argued of late, will find here the
+procedures that will express the ideals and obtain the results they
+seek. Those who are not yet ready to accept modern doctrine, but who
+feel a keen discontent with the older procedure, will find in these
+pages many suggestions that will appeal to them as worthy of
+experimental use. It may be that the successful use of many methods here
+suggested may be the easy way for them to come into an acceptance of the
+larger principles of current educational reform.
+
+
+
+
+THE TEACHING OF HISTORY
+
+I
+
+SOME PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS
+
+
+_Assumptions as to the teacher of history_
+
+This monograph will make no attempt to analyze the personality of the
+ideal teacher. It is assumed that the teacher of history has an adequate
+preparation to teach his subject, that he is in good health, and that
+his usefulness is unimpaired by discontent with his work or cynicism
+about the world. It is presupposed that he understands the wisdom of
+correlating in his instruction the geography, social progress, and
+economic development of the people which his class are studying. He is
+aware that the pupil should experience something more than a
+kaleidoscopic view of isolated facts. He recognizes the folly of
+requiring four years of high school English for the purpose of
+cultivating clear, fluent, and accurate expression, only to relax the
+effort when the student comes into the history class. He knows that the
+precision, logic, and habit of definite thinking exacted by the pursuit
+of the scientific subjects should not be laid aside when the student
+attempts to trace the rise of nations. Let us go so far as to assume a
+teacher who is both pedagogical and practical; scholarly without being
+musty; imbued with a love for his subject and yet familiar with actual
+human experience.
+
+
+_Actual conditions confronted by the teacher_
+
+There are from one hundred and eighty to two hundred recitation periods
+of forty-five minutes each, minus the holidays, opening exercises,
+athletic mass meetings, and other respites, in which to teach a thousand
+years of ancient history, twenty centuries of English history, or the
+story of our own people. The age of the student will be from thirteen to
+eighteen. His judgment is immature; his knowledge of books, small; his
+interest, far from zealous. He will have three other subjects to prepare
+and his time is limited. Also, he is a citizen of the Republic and by
+his vote will shortly influence, for good or ill, the destinies of the
+nation.
+
+The purpose of this monograph is to discuss the means by which the
+teacher can engender in this student a genuine enthusiasm for the
+subject, stimulate research and historical judgment, correlate history,
+geography, literature, and the arts, cultivate proper ideals of
+government, establish a habit of systematic note-taking, and possibly
+prepare the student for college entrance examinations.
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+HOW TO BEGIN THE COURSE
+
+
+Very obviously each moment of the child's time and preparation should be
+wisely directed. Each recitation should perform its full measure of
+usefulness, in testing, drilling, and teaching. There will be no time
+for valueless note-taking, duplication of map-book work, ambiguous or
+foolish questioning, aimless argument, or junketing excursions.
+
+
+_What should be done on the day of enrollment_
+
+The day that the child enrolls in class should begin his assigned work.
+In the first ten minutes of the first meeting of the class, while the
+teacher is collecting the enrollment cards, he should also gather some
+data as to his students' previous work in history. This information will
+be of considerable assistance to the teacher in letting him know what he
+may reasonably expect of his new pupils. The class should not depart
+without a definite assignment for the next day. Let the preparation for
+the first recitation consist in answering such questions as:--
+
+     1. What is the name of the text you are to use? (Know its precise
+        title.)
+
+     2. What is the name, reputation, and position of the author?
+
+     3. Of what other books is he the author?
+
+     4. Read the preface of the book.
+
+     5. What do you think are the purposes of the subject you are about
+        to take up?
+
+     6. Give the titles and authors of other books on the same period of
+        history.
+
+     7. What has been your method of study in other courses of history?
+
+
+_What should be done at the first meeting of the class_
+
+On the second day when the class assembles, let as many of the students
+as possible be sent to the board to answer questions on the day's
+assignment. The pupil will immediately discover that the teacher
+purposes to hold the class strictly responsible for the preparation of
+assigned work. The teacher will face a class prepared to ask intelligent
+questions about the course they are entering upon. The class will
+discover that work is to begin at once. The inertia of the vacation will
+be immediately overcome.
+
+
+_Necessity for definite instruction in methods of preparing a lesson_
+
+Having secured, by class discussion and the work at the board,
+satisfactory answers to the first six questions, and having assigned the
+lesson for the next day, the remainder of the hour and, if necessary,
+the rest of the week should be spent in outlining for the student a
+method of study. That very few students of high school age possess
+habits of systematic study, needs no discussion. In spite of all that
+their grade teachers may have done for them, their tendency is to pass
+over unfamiliar words, allusions, and expressions, without troubling to
+use a dictionary. The average high school student will not read the fine
+print at the bottom of the page, or use a map for the location of places
+mentioned in the text without special instruction to do so. He will set
+himself no unassigned tasks in memory work. It is the first business of
+the good instructor to teach the student _how_ to study. The first step
+in this process is to impress on the student's mind that systematic
+preparation in the history class is as necessary as in Latin, physics,
+or geometry. Then let the following or similar instructions be given
+him:--
+
+     1. Provide yourself with an envelope of small cards or pieces of
+        note paper. Label each with the subject of the lesson and the
+        date of its preparation. These envelopes should be always at
+        hand during your study and preparation. They should be preserved
+        and filed from day to day.
+
+     2. Read the lesson assigned for the day in the textbook, including
+        all notes and fine print.
+
+     3. Write on a sheet of note paper all the unfamiliar words,
+        allusions, or expressions. Later, look these up in the
+        dictionary or other reference.
+
+     4. Record the dates which you think worthy to be remembered.
+
+     5. Discover and make a note of all the apparent contradictions,
+        inconsistencies, or inaccuracies in the author's statements.
+
+     6. Use the map for all the places mentioned in the lesson. Be able
+        to locate them when you come to class.
+
+     7. In nearly every text there is a list of books for library use,
+        given at the beginning or end of each chapter. Make yourself
+        familiar with this bibliography.
+
+     8. Read the special questions assigned for the day by the teacher.
+
+     9. Go to the library. If the book for which you are in search is
+        not to be found, try another.
+
+    10. Learn to use an index. If the topic for which you are looking
+        does not appear in the index, try looking for the same thing
+        under another name; or under some related topic.
+
+    11. Having found the material in one book, use more than one if
+        your time permits. When you feel that you have secured the
+        material which will make a complete answer to the question,
+        _write the answer on one of your cards for keeping notes._
+
+    12. Remember that the teacher will ask constantly _what_ was done,
+        _when_ was it done, and, most important of all, _why_ it was
+        done. Make a list of the questions which you think most likely
+        to be asked on the lesson and ascertain whether you can answer
+        them without the use of your notes or text.
+
+    13. If possible practice your answers aloud. It will make you the
+        more ready when called on in class.
+
+    14. Keep a list of things which are not clear to you and about
+        which you wish to ask questions.
+
+    15. Before completing your preparation, read over these instructions
+        and be sure that you have complied with them.
+
+
+It may be claimed that no high school student can be expected to follow
+such instructions and that to secure such a daily preparation is
+impossible; in answer to which it must be admitted that merely a
+perfunctory talk on methods of preparation will accomplish little. If
+the instruction just suggested is to bear fruit, the teacher must take
+pains to see that it is followed. Carefully to prepare his lesson
+according to a definite plan must become a _habit_ with the student.
+Facility, accuracy, and thoroughness are impossible otherwise. Haphazard
+methods are wasteful of time and unproductive of results. The teacher
+can afford to emphasize method during the first few weeks of the course.
+The time thus spent in assisting the pupil to develop definite habits of
+study will pay rich dividends for the remainder of the student's life.
+Daily inquiry as to the method of study pursued, frequent examination of
+the student's notes, questions on the important dates selected, the
+books used for preparation, new words discovered, and so on, will keep
+the importance of the plan before the class and do much to foster the
+habit of systematic preparation.
+
+
+_The question of note-taking_
+
+On the question of notebook work, there will always be a considerable
+difference of opinion. It is much easier to state what notebook work
+should not be than to outline precisely how it should be conducted.
+Certainly it should not be overdone. It should not be an exercise
+usurping time disproportionate to its value. It should not be required
+primarily for exhibition purposes, although such notes as are kept
+should be kept neatly and spelled correctly.
+
+Students should be encouraged to keep their envelope of note paper
+always at hand during recitation and while reading. The habit of jotting
+down facts, opinions, statistics, comparisons, and contradictions _while
+they are being read_ is most desirable and worthy of cultivation. The
+student should be taught the wisdom of keeping his notes in a neat,
+legible, and easily available form. Shorthand methods should be
+discouraged. With a little tactful direction early in the year, the
+student may be led to form a most useful habit. The greater the
+proportion of intelligent note-taking that is done without compulsion,
+the better. No more notes should be _required_ than the teacher can
+honestly look over, correct, and grade. It is better to require no notes
+at all than to accept careless, superficial inaccuracies as honest work.
+One curse of high school history teaching is the tendency of young
+teachers trained in college history classes to assign more work than the
+student can honestly do or the teacher properly correct.
+
+As has already been intimated, history notes should not be kept in a
+book. The required notes should be kept on separate sheets of paper. The
+topics should be clearly indicated at the top of each sheet. The
+authorities used in arriving at the answer should always be given, with
+the volume, chapter, and page. The notes on related topics should be put
+into an envelope and properly labeled. After the recitation the student
+can make any necessary corrections in his notes without spoiling their
+appearance. He will simply substitute a new sheet for the old. If the
+teacher discovers in his periodic examination of the notes that some of
+the matter asked for has not been properly covered or that errors have
+not been corrected, the notes needing revision can be detained for use
+in a conference with the student, while the others are returned. If at
+any time after completing his high school work the student desires to
+use the data contained in his notes or to add to them matter which he
+may later read, they are in available form. For convenience and
+neatness, for present use, and future reference this device is far
+superior to the formal notebook. It has the further advantage of
+accustoming the student to the method of note-taking which will be
+required of those who go to college.
+
+It would save much valuable time, at present frequently wasted in
+writing useless notes, if the teacher constantly squared his notebook
+requirements with questions such as these:--
+
+     1. Is the notebook work as I am conducting it calculated to develop
+        the habit of critical reading?
+
+     2. Does the time spent in writing up notes justify itself by fixing
+        in the child's mind new and really relevant information not
+        given in the text?
+
+     3. Is it teaching students to combine facts, opinions, and
+        statistics, to form conclusions really their own?
+
+     4. Is the amount of work required reasonable when it is remembered
+        that the child has three other subjects to prepare, that he is
+        from thirteen to eighteen years of age, and more or less
+        unfamiliar with a library?
+
+     5. Am I able carefully and punctually to correct all the notes
+        required?
+
+Whatever the method the teacher thinks best to be used should be
+explained early in the course and thereafter the student should be held
+scrupulously responsible for such requirements as are made.
+
+
+_Instruction in the use of the library and indexes_
+
+Having discussed with the class the questions assigned on the day of
+enrollment and explained the method of study recommended for their use,
+it will be well for the teacher to devote some time to instruction in
+the use of the library. It is possible that the older classes will
+require very little of this, but there are few classes where an hour, at
+least, cannot well be spent in a discussion of indexes, titles, and
+relative value of the works on various subjects. This hour need not be
+the regular recitation period. A session before or after school could be
+devoted to the purpose. The teacher's instruction, however, will be
+greatly assisted if the students are asked to prepare answers before
+coming to class to such questions as the following:--
+
+     1. How much previous work have you done in the library?
+
+     2. Of what use do you think the library should be to you in the
+        course you are just entering?
+
+     3. What is a source book? Of what use are source books?
+
+     4. What source books on this period of history are in the library?
+
+     5. What do you think will be the best references for questions on
+        the artistic, industrial, political, social, economic, and
+        military phases of the history you are about to study?
+
+     6. What encyclopedias and works of general reference are in your
+        library?
+
+The preparation of answers to such questions as these will present to
+the student some of the difficulties inevitable to his future library
+work and will send him to class prepared to ask intelligent questions.
+It will enable the teacher accurately to gauge how much his students
+already know about a library and its uses.
+
+The value and advantage of library work should be carefully explained to
+the class. It is a great error to allow pupils to think of their
+library work as drudgery, assigned solely to keep them busy or to make
+the course difficult. There are too few boys to-day with a genuine love
+of books, partly no doubt due to the fact that a reference library has
+become for them, not a rich mine of interesting matter, but a
+hydra-headed interrogation point. A great good has been done the student
+who has been taught the pleasure of using books. Nor is such a thing
+impossible. Nothing gives greater satisfaction to the normal high school
+boy than to find an error in the text, the teacher's statements, or the
+map. He takes pleasure in confuting the statistics or judgments quoted
+in class, by others of opposite trend, encountered in his reading. He
+enjoys asking keen questions. If the student is told that the library
+work is for the purpose of cultivating his powers of investigation and
+adding to the matter in the text many interesting details; if the
+library requirements are reasonable and wisely directed; if he is given
+an opportunity to _use_ the information he has gathered from his
+reading, his interest in books will steadily increase.
+
+The teacher should explain the value of remembering accurately the
+titles and the authors of books used for reference. The silly habit of
+referring to an authority as "the book bound in green" or "the large
+book by what's his name" is easily prevented if taken in time.
+
+The teacher should discover by assignments made in class what degree of
+proficiency in the use of an index is already possessed by his pupils.
+There are few classes where the use of an index is thoroughly
+understood. Time should be taken to demonstrate the quickest possible
+methods of finding what a book contains. The use of the catalogue and
+card index should be carefully explained and illustrated.
+
+Attention should be called to the best sources on the various phases of
+the history to be studied. There ought to be no poor histories in the
+library, but if there are any to which the students have access, warning
+should be given against their use.
+
+The value of periodicals and current literature for work in history
+should be illustrated and the use of _Poole's Index_ and the _Readers
+Guide_ explained.
+
+The class should be acquainted with the rules of the library and
+cautioned against the misuse of books. The necessity of leaving
+reference books where all the class can use them should be made
+apparent.
+
+Direction in the use of the library, like instruction in the method of
+study, is a prerequisite to the best results in high school history
+classes, for no matter how conscientious the teacher, the recitation
+will be deadly if the student has no working knowledge of the library
+nor proper method of preparation. A class unable to ask intelligent
+questions about the work is not ready for the presentation of additional
+matter by the teacher. It is no difficult matter for a teacher to
+entertain his class for an hour with interesting incidents of the period
+in which the lesson occurs. A history teacher who cannot talk
+interestingly for an hour on any of the great periods of history has
+surely missed his calling. But to keep a class quiet, to retain their
+attention, to amuse and entertain, is far from making history vital. If
+the recitation is to be really vital, the students must do most of the
+talking, the criticizing, and the questioning. There can be none of
+these worth while without proper preparation.
+
+
+
+
+III
+
+THE ASSIGNMENT OF THE LESSON
+
+
+_Careful assignment will reveal to the student the relation of geography
+and history_
+
+The recitation can never hope to achieve its maximum helpfulness unless
+the lesson be intelligently assigned. The work required must be
+reasonable in amount, and not so exacting as to discourage interest.
+Daily direction to look up unfamiliar words, expressions, and allusions
+must be given until the habit becomes fixed. Warning against possible
+geographical misconceptions should be given when necessary, together
+with directions to use the map for places, routes, and boundaries. A few
+questions asked in advance, with the purpose of bringing out the
+relation of the geography to the history in the lesson, will be of great
+assistance. For example, if the class are to study the Louisiana
+Purchase, the full significance of that revolutionary event will be made
+much clearer if the student is asked to prepare answers before coming to
+class to such questions as the following:--
+
+     1. What States are included in the purchase?
+
+     2. What is its area? How does it compare with the area of the
+        original thirteen States?
+
+     3. What geographical reasons caused Napoleon to sell it?
+
+     4. What influence did the purchase have on our retention of the
+        territory east of the Mississippi? Why?
+
+     5. How many people live to-day in the territory included in the
+        purchase?
+
+
+_His power of analysis and criticism will be stimulated_
+
+A lesson should be so assigned that the student will read the text with
+his eye critically open to inconsistencies, contradictions, and
+inaccuracies. With a text of six hundred pages, and with a hundred and
+eighty recitations in which to cover them, it is not too much to expect
+that the average of three or four pages daily shall be studied so
+thoroughly that the student can analyze and summarize each day's lesson.
+The teacher should not make such analysis in advance of the recitation,
+but he should so assign the lesson that the student will be prepared to
+give one when he comes to class. A word in advance by the teacher will
+prompt the student who is studying the American Revolution, to classify
+its causes as direct and indirect, economic and political, social and
+religious. There is no difficulty in finding good authorities who
+disagree as to the effect on America of the English trade restrictions.
+Callendar's _Economic History of the United States_ quotes five of the
+best authorities on this point, and covers the case in a few pages. A
+reference by the teacher to this or some other authority will bring out
+a lively discussion on the justice of the American resistance. Let the
+class be asked to account for the colonial opposition to the Townshend
+Acts, when the Stamp Act Congress had declared that the regulation of
+the Colonies' external trade was properly within the powers of
+Parliament. Let the class be asked to explain a statement that the
+Declaration of Independence does not mention the real underlying causes
+of the Revolution. A few suggestions and advanced questions of this sort
+will stimulate a critical analysis of the statements in the text, and
+send the student to class keen for an intelligent discussion.
+
+Ordinarily, when a class is averaging three or four pages of the text
+daily, it is an error for the teacher to point out in advance certain
+dates and statistics that need not be memorized. Such selection should
+be left to the student. During the recitation the teacher will discover
+what dates, statistics, and other matter the student has selected as
+worthy to be memorized, and if correction is necessary it may then be
+made. It dulls the edge of the pupil's enthusiasm to be told in advance
+that some of the text is not worthy to be remembered. Furthermore such
+instruction does nothing to develop the student's sense of historical
+proportion, for it substitutes the judgment of the teacher for that of
+the pupil.
+
+Advance questions asking explanation of statements made in the text, or
+by other authors dealing with the same period, insure that the lesson
+will be read understandingly and that the author's statements will be
+carefully analyzed. Such declarations as the following are illustrations
+of statements whose explanation might profitably be required in
+advance:--
+
+     1. "The Constitution was extracted by necessity from a reluctant
+        people."
+
+     2. "Oregon was a make-weight for Texas."
+
+     3. "The greatest evil of slavery was that it prevented the South
+        from accumulating capital."
+
+     4. "The day that France possesses New Orleans we must marry
+        ourselves to the British fleet."
+
+     5. "The cause of free labor won a substantial triumph in the
+        Missouri Compromise."
+
+     6. "The second war with England was not one of necessity, policy,
+        or interest on the part of the Americans; it was rather one of
+        party prejudice and passion."
+
+
+_The conditions in other countries will add to his comprehension of the
+facts in the lesson_
+
+In so far as the next lesson requires an understanding of the history or
+conditions of another country, the attention of the class should be
+directed in advance to such necessity. Special references or brief
+reports may be advisable. A few well-selected advance questions will
+send the class to recitation prepared to discuss what otherwise the
+teacher must explain. A few questions on the character of James II, his
+ideals of government, the chief causes of the revolution of 1688, and
+its most important results will do much to explain the colonial
+resistance to Andros. A few questions designed to bring out the
+imperative necessity of English resistance to Napoleon will make clear
+the hostile commercial decrees, impressment, and interference with the
+rights of neutral ships. Such questions reduce the necessity of
+explanation by the teacher to a minimum.
+
+
+_His disposition to study intensively will be encouraged_
+
+If the teacher expects the class to deal more intensively than the text
+with the matters discussed in the lesson, a few advance questions will
+be of great assistance. Suppose, for example, that the text contents
+itself with saying that for political reasons the first United States
+Bank was not rechartered, and shortly after informs the reader that the
+second United States Bank was rechartered because the State banks had
+suspended specie payments. The student may or may not be curious about
+the failure of the first bank to receive a new charter, the operation of
+State banks, or why they suspended payment in 1814. If he has been
+properly taught, he probably will be, but if the teacher wishes to
+discuss these considerations in detail at the next recitation it will be
+infinitely better to have the facts contributed by the class than for
+the teacher to do the reciting. It is quite possible that the individual
+answers to advance questions assigned with such a purpose will be
+incomplete, but the interest of the class will be incalculably greater
+if they themselves furnish the bulk of the additional matter required.
+Collectively the class will usually secure complete answers to
+reasonable questions. The teacher has his opportunity in supplying such
+important facts as the students fail to find.
+
+Until the student may reasonably be expected to know the books of the
+library having to do with his subject, the teacher in giving out an
+advance lesson should mention by author and title the books most helpful
+in the preparation of assigned questions; otherwise the student in a
+perfectly sincere effort to do the work assigned may spend an hour in
+search of the proper book.
+
+It may be urged that this search is a valuable experience, but it is
+obviously too costly. As the year advances and the pupil learns more and
+more about the uses of books and methods of investigation increasingly
+less specific instruction as to sources should be given by the teacher.
+Early in the year, with four lessons to prepare daily, the pupil cannot
+afford an hour simply to search for a book. He needs that hour for
+preparation of other work, and if by some fortunate conjunction of
+circumstances his other work is not sufficiently exacting to require it,
+he cannot hope to appear in history class with a well-prepared lesson
+if an hour of his time has been spent in simply looking for a book.
+
+It is frequently worth while to spend a few minutes of the recitation in
+characterizing the epoch in which the events of the lesson take place or
+in listening to a brief character sketch of the men contributing to
+these events. Care should of course be taken that biography does not
+usurp the place of history, but it materially adds to the interest of
+the recitation if the kings, generals, and statesmen cease to be merely
+historical characters and become human beings.
+
+
+_His acquaintance with the great men and women of history will be
+vitalized_
+
+It is needless to say that characterizations of men or epochs should not
+be assigned without instruction as to how they should be prepared. In
+the case of a great historical character, what is needed for class
+purposes is not a biography with the dry facts of birth, marriage,
+death, etc. The report should be brief, but bristling with adjectives
+supported in each case by at least one fact of the man's life. These may
+be selected from his personal appearance, private life, amusements,
+education, obstacles overcome, public services, political sagacity, or
+military prowess. The sketch may close with a few brief estimates by
+biographers or historians of his proper place in history.
+
+If a characterization of a period of history is to be required, the
+teacher should explain that such a characterization should be an
+exercise in the selection of brief statements of fact reflecting the
+ideals, institutions, and conditions of the period being described. From
+histories, source books, fiction, and literature, let the student select
+facts illustrating such things as the spirit of the laws, conditions at
+court, public education, amusements of the people, social progress,
+position of religion, etc. A little time spent in characterizing a
+period of history and a few of its great men will assist in changing the
+recital of the bare facts given in the text to an intelligent
+understanding of conditions and a vital discussion of events. For
+instance, the ordinary high school text, in dealing with the French and
+Indian war, speaks briefly of the lack of English success during the
+early part of the struggle and then says that with the coming of Pitt to
+the ministry the whole course of events was changed because of the great
+statesman's wonderful personality. The teacher who wishes to make such a
+dramatic circumstance really vital to his class must have more
+information with which to work. A picture of the coarse, vulgar England
+with its incompetent army and navy, apathetic church, and corrupt
+government, followed by a stirring character sketch of the great Pitt,
+will cost but a few minutes of the recitation and will metamorphose a
+moribund attention to a vital interest.
+
+Care should be taken that the characterizations given in class be
+properly prepared. To this end it will be well to assign the preparation
+of these sketches at least a week in advance, at the same time arranging
+a conference with the student a day or two before the recitation. In
+this conference the teacher should make such corrections in the pupil's
+method of preparation and selection of matter as seem necessary. The
+characterizations should not be read, but delivered by the student
+facing the class, precisely for the moment as though he were the
+teacher. Future tests and examinations should hold the class responsible
+for the facts thus presented. If, as is too often the case in work of
+this sort, the student giving the report is the sole beneficiary of the
+exercise, the time required is disproportionate to the benefit derived.
+
+
+_He will correlate the past and the present_
+
+If there are facts recounted in the lesson that may be clinched in the
+student's mind by showing the relation of those facts to present-day
+conditions or institutions, a few advance questions calculated to bring
+out this relationship may well be assigned.
+
+It is generally conceded that one chief purpose of history instruction
+is to enable us to interpret the present and the future in the light of
+the past, but it all too often happens that current history is forgotten
+in the recital of facts that are centuries old. Candidates for teachers'
+certificates in their examinations in United States history show far
+less knowledge about the great problems and events of the present day
+than they do of colonial history. The student in English history in our
+high schools to-day knows all about the Domesday Book, but almost
+nothing of the recent history of England. Quite possibly the text has
+nothing to say about it, and it is equally likely that the class may
+fail to cover the text and miss the little that is actually given. No
+opportunity should be missed to indicate the bearing of the past on
+present-day conditions. Even if the events of the lesson exert no direct
+influence on affairs to-day, their significance may be brought home to
+the student by an illustration from current history. The account of the
+Black Death gives excellent occasion for a brief discussion of modern
+sanitation and the war on the White Plague. The efforts of Parliament to
+fix wages can be illustrated by some of the minimum wage laws passed by
+recent legislatures. John Ball's teachings suggest a brief discussion of
+modern socialism, daily becoming more active in its influence. The
+medieval trade guilds and modern labor unions; the monopolies of
+Elizabeth's time and the anti-trust law of to-day; George the Third's
+two hundred capital crimes and modern methods of penology; the jealousy
+of Athens in guarding the privilege of citizenship and the facility with
+which immigrants at present become American citizens are only a few
+illustrations, indicating the ease with which the past and the present
+may be correlated.
+
+
+_He will be required to memorize a limited amount of matter verbatim_
+
+In assigning a lesson it is sometimes desirable to require certain
+matter to be learned _verbatim_. In American history the Preamble to the
+Constitution, the principles of government contained in the Declaration
+of Independence, the essential doctrine in the Virginia and Kentucky
+Resolutions, certain clauses of the Constitution, and extracts from
+other historical documents may well be required to be memorized
+accurately. It is scarcely to be supposed that the student can improve
+on the clarity and definiteness of the English in such documents. He is
+expected to understand the principles which they assert. He may well be
+required to train his memory to accuracy by learning certain assignments
+_verbatim_. If memory work received a little more attention in our high
+schools to-day, we should be less likely to hear the statement of a
+political creed neutralized by the omission of an important word. We
+should be less likely to see the classic words of Lincoln mangled beyond
+recognition by messy misquotation.
+
+The assignment of advance questions such as have been suggested
+possesses several advantages. It makes it possible for the teacher to
+hold the class responsible for definite preparation, very much as the
+teacher in algebra is able to do with the problems assigned in advance.
+It forces the students to do most of the talking. It encourages an
+intelligent use of the library in a manner calculated to develop the
+student's powers of investigation. If the pupil forgets most of his
+history, but retains the ability to investigate carefully, thoroughly,
+and critically, the plan has more than justified itself. The plan
+enables the teacher to spend his time in explanation of what the pupil
+has been unable to do for herself, and thus effects a considerable
+saving in time. It would be interesting to secure a statement of how
+much of the teacher's time is ordinarily spent in doing for the student
+in recitation what he should have done for himself before coming to
+class. It substitutes for the pupil's snap judgment, given without much
+thought and too frequently influenced by the inflection of the teacher's
+voice, an opinion that has resulted from research and deliberation
+unbiased by the teacher's personal views.
+
+It is too much to expect high school pupils to solve historical problems
+extemporaneously. If inferences and contrasts other than those given in
+the text are to be drawn, if statements are to be defended or opposed,
+the high school student should be given time to prepare his answer.
+Aside from the injustice of any other procedure, it is a hopeless waste
+of time to spend the precious minutes of the recitation in gathering
+negative replies and worthless judgments.
+
+
+_Methods of preparing questions assigned in advance_
+
+It may be urged that such an assignment of a lesson as that proposed is
+too ambitious and that it exacts too much of the teacher's time. In
+answer it should be said that specialists in history ought surely to
+have read widely enough and studied deeply enough to be _able_ to select
+intelligent questions of the sort suggested. We have assumed that the
+teacher has made adequate preparation for his work. Certainly, then, he
+should be ready to explain the social, geographical, and economic
+relation of the events mentioned in the lesson. He should know their
+bearing on current history. He should always have ready a fund of
+information, additional to that given in the text. In preparing advance
+questions for distribution to the class the teacher is preparing his own
+lesson. He may be doing it a day or two earlier than he would otherwise
+do, but surely he is performing no labor additional to what may
+reasonably be expected of him. As to the time required to prepare copies
+of the questions for distribution when the class convenes, it may be
+said that a neostyle or mimeograph, with which all large schools and
+many small ones are equipped, makes short work of preparing as many
+copies of the questions as desired. If there is a commercial department
+in connection with the school, an available stenographer, or a willing
+student helper, the teacher may easily relieve himself of the work of
+supplying the copies. If none of these expedients are possible, it is no
+Herculean task to write each day on the board the few questions for the
+next lesson. It will entail no great loss of time if the class are asked
+to copy them when they first come to recitation. If it is possible to
+copy them after the recitation, so much the better. And beyond the
+obvious advantages of a carefully assigned lesson it must be remembered
+that in the assignment of special topics, in private conferences with
+the student, in the correction of notes, in giving assistance in the
+library, the teacher has an opportunity to cultivate a sympathetic
+relation between himself and the class of inestimable service in
+securing the best results.
+
+
+
+
+IV
+
+THE METHOD OF THE RECITATION
+
+
+_Assumptions as to the recitation room_
+
+Let us now assume that the recitation will be held in a quiet room free
+from the distracting influence of poor light, poor ventilation, and
+inadequate seating capacity. The blackboard space is ample for the whole
+class, the erasers and chalk are at hand, the maps, charts, and globe
+are where they can be used without stumbling over them. The teacher can
+give his whole attention to the class. Discipline should take care of
+itself. The pupil who is interested will not be seriously out of order.
+
+
+_What the teacher should aim to accomplish_
+
+The problem, then, is so to expend the forty-five minutes in which the
+teacher and class are together that:--
+
+     1. So far as possible the atmosphere and setting of the period
+        being studied may be reproduced.
+
+     2. The great historical characters spoken of in the lesson may
+        become for the student real men and women with whom he will
+        afterwards feel a personal acquaintance.
+
+     3. The events described will be understood and properly interpreted
+        in their relation to geography, and the economic and social
+        progress of the world.
+
+     4. Causes and effects shall be properly analyzed.
+
+     5. And that there shall be left sufficient time for the occasional
+        review necessary to any good instruction.
+
+
+_Work at the blackboard_
+
+The first five minutes may profitably be spent at the board, each member
+of the class being asked to write a complete answer to one of the
+assigned questions. Whatever may happen later in the recitation each
+student has had at least this much of an opportunity for
+self-expression, and his work should be neat, workmanlike, complete, and
+accurate. By this device the alert teacher will secure in the first five
+minutes of the recitation hour a fairly accurate idea of each student's
+preparation, the weak spots in his understanding of the lesson, and the
+errors to be corrected. He may even be able to record a grade for the
+work done.
+
+
+_Special reports_
+
+The class having taken their seats, the next order of business should be
+the reports on special topics assigned for the purpose of making the
+period of history under discussion more interesting and vital. As has
+been said, these reports should not be read, but delivered by the pupil
+facing the class. The class should be encouraged to ask questions on the
+report when finished and the student responsible for the report should
+be expected to answer any reasonable inquiry. If other students are able
+to contribute to the topics reported on, they should be encouraged to do
+so. Let the teacher be sure that he has sounded the depths of the
+students' information and curiosity before he himself discusses the
+report. If the device of reports delivered in class is to justify
+itself, the matter contained in them must be so arranged and discussed
+that the whole class receives real benefit. The ingenious teacher will
+be able to establish a tradition in his course for a careful preparation
+and critical discussion of these reports. The rivalry of students for
+excellence in this work is not difficult to stimulate. A premium should
+be put on criticism which finds mentioned in the characterization
+qualities inconsistent with the facts recorded in the text, or omissions
+which the facts of the text seem to justify.
+
+
+_Fundamental principles of good questioning_
+
+It is not likely that the teacher will find it advisable to require
+reports at every recitation nor that the reports and their discussion
+will consume, at the most, longer than ten or fifteen minutes of any
+class period. There must always be time for direct oral questioning on
+the facts of the lesson; questioning that will test the student's
+memory, ability to analyze, and powers of expression. Certain principles
+are fundamental to good questioning in any recitation.
+
+     1. The questions should be brief.
+
+     2. They should be prepared by the teacher before coming to
+        recitation. This will insure rapidity. A vast deal of time is
+        lost by the unfortunate habit possessed by many teachers of
+        never having the next question ready to use.
+
+     3. They should precede the name of the pupil required to answer it.
+
+     4. They should not be leading questions to which the pupil can
+        guess the answers.
+
+     5. They should be grammatically stated with but one possible
+        interpretation.
+
+     6. Except for purposes of rapid review they should not be
+        answerable with yes or no.
+
+     7. They should be asked in a voice loud enough to be heard by all
+        the class, and only once.
+
+     8. They should be asked in no regular order, but nevertheless in
+        such a way that every member of the class will have a chance to
+        recite.
+
+
+
+_Some additional suggestions for teachers of history_
+
+There are additional suggestions particularly applicable to the teacher
+of history.
+
+     1. In all the questioning remember the purposes of the recitation.
+        Ask questions knowing exactly what you wish as an answer. There
+        is no time for aimless or idle questioning.
+
+     2. Inquire frequently as to the books used in preparation of the
+        lesson. Let no allusion or statement in the text go unexplained.
+        Let none of the author's conclusions or opinions go
+        unchallenged. Ask the student for inconsistencies, inaccuracies,
+        or contradictions in the text. Put a premium on their discovery.
+        Insist on the student's authority for statements other than
+        those given in the text.
+
+     3. Do not use the heavy-typed words frequently found at the head of
+        the paragraph or the topical heads furnished by the text, if it
+        can be avoided. The pupil should not be allowed to remember his
+        history by its location in the text.
+
+     4. Be sure that the class have an opportunity to recite on the
+        questions assigned for their advance preparation. Nothing is
+        more discouraging to a student than carefully to prepare the
+        work required and then fail of an opportunity either to recite
+        upon or to discuss it.
+
+     5. Discover the tastes, shortcomings, and abilities of your
+        individual students and direct your future questions
+        accordingly. There will usually be in the class the boy who is
+        glib without being accurate. He should be questioned on definite
+        facts. There will be the student whose analysis of events is
+        good, but whose powers of description are poor. Adapt your
+        questions to his special need. There will be the pupil with the
+        tendency to memorize the text _verbatim_. There will be the
+        student who knows the facts of the lesson, but who fails to
+        remember the sequence of events--the kind who never can tell
+        whether the Exclusion Bill came before or after the Restoration.
+        There will be the usual amount of specialized tastes, curiosity,
+        timidity, laziness, and rattle-brained thinking. The questioning
+        should probe these peculiarities, and stimulate the pupil's
+        ambition to improve his preparation at its weakest point.
+        Needless to say the questions should not be asked with the daily
+        idea of making the pupil fail. Like any other surgical
+        instrument the question probe should be used skillfully and with
+        a proper motive. It would be as great an error to bend your
+        questions continually away from the student's special tastes and
+        abilities as to be perpetually guided by them.
+
+     6. The bulk of the teacher's attention should be given neither to
+        the few exceptionally able students nor to the few very poor
+        pupils. It is to the average normal boy and girl that the most
+        of the questioning should be directed. The brilliant student
+        should be called on sufficiently to retain his interest and to
+        set a standard of excellence for the class. He should be given
+        the most difficult of the assignments of outside work and if
+        necessary an additional number of them. As to the few pupils
+        whom the teacher deems exceptionally poor, it may be said that
+        the effect of questioning should never be to discourage the
+        pupil who has made an honest effort at preparation. During the
+        early part of the course the efforts of the teacher may well be
+        directed to asking the backward student questions to which he
+        can make reasonably satisfactory answers. By saving the student
+        from the daily humiliation of failure before the class, and by
+        tactfully encouraging him to greater effort, the teacher may
+        shortly discover that the poor pupil is far from hopeless.
+
+     7. Do not allow your questions to consume a disproportionate amount
+        of time with details. Until very recently in all our history
+        teaching, battles have been exalted to a place immeasurably
+        greater than their importance. We are coming to see that the
+        fighting is one of the least important things in the war. The
+        causes and results, the financial, political, and social effects
+        now absorb our attention. One or two battles in a course may
+        profitably be studied in detail, particularly in the history of
+        our own country, but in the press of considerations far more
+        interesting and vital, it is a waste of time to give more than a
+        moment's notice to the remainder. Student descriptions of
+        battles are bound to be stereotyped. The ordinary textbook
+        describes each of the thousand battles of the world in about the
+        same fifty words.
+
+     8. Let some of the questions be directed towards cultivating the
+        student's powers of oral description. History is not altogether
+        a matter of analysis or generalization. There can scarcely be
+        assigned a lesson in history that does not contain events which
+        lend themselves to dramatic description. Their recital should be
+        made the occasion of the student's best efforts in this
+        direction. Let the pupils be taught to use adjectives and
+        adverbs. Break down the barrier of listlessness or fear or
+        self-consciousness which keeps the student from rendering a
+        graphic and thrilling account of great events.
+
+     9. Let the questions from day to day develop the continuity of
+        history. Avoid questioning that fails to unite the events of
+        previous lessons with the one being studied. Bring out the
+        connection of the past and the present. Slavery existed in
+        America for two hundred years before the Civil War was fought.
+        Your teaching of those two centuries of history should be so
+        conducted that when the Civil War is finally reached, the class
+        can tell the process by which anti-slavery sentiment was finally
+        crystallized. The hiatus between the mobbing of Garrison in
+        Boston and the extraordinary contribution of Massachusetts to
+        the Northern army should be bridged, not by a heroic question or
+        two when the war is finally reached, but by a daily attention to
+        the events which effected the metamorphosis.
+
+    10. If the answer to your question requires the use of a map, ask
+        it in such a way that the student can talk and use the map at
+        the same time. The geographical provisions of a treaty, the
+        routes of explorers, the grants of commercial companies,
+        campaigns, or military frontiers should all be recited in this
+        way. A wall map with simply the outline of the territory, with
+        its rivers, will be of considerable assistance in testing the
+        accuracy of the student's geographical knowledge. While
+        reciting, let him locate with chalk or pointer the cities,
+        arbitrary boundary lines, and routes he finds it necessary to
+        mention in his recitation. It will require special attention
+        early in the course to teach students the necessity for
+        preparation of this sort. Like everything else, map work should
+        be reasonable in its requirements. A knowledge of geography is
+        imperative to the correct understanding of history, and the
+        indifference or ignorance of teachers should never excuse
+        inattention to this vital necessity. On the other hand, however,
+        it is equally reprehensible to require of high school students
+        the labored preparation of maps in the drawing of which hours of
+        valuable time are spent in searching for places of trivial
+        importance and small historical value. Map work in a high school
+        history course should require no more than geographical accuracy
+        in locating boundaries, routes, and places really vital to the
+        history of the people being studied. If it does more than this
+        it usurps time disproportionate to its value.
+
+
+
+
+V
+
+VARIOUS MODES OF REVIEW
+
+
+_The place of drill in the history recitation_
+
+We have long since learned the folly of spending very many of the
+minutes of a recitation in drilling students in dates, outlines, and
+charts. Work of this sort never made a recitation vital; never inspired
+a student with enthusiasm for historical inquiry; never really dispelled
+the fog which surrounds, for the student, the cabinets and
+constitutions, battles and boundaries, declarations and decrees, so
+briefly treated in the text.
+
+
+_Good reviews will develop a knowledge of the sequence of events_
+
+But it may be seriously questioned whether many teachers, in their zeal
+to escape the over-emphasis of dates, have not gone to the extreme of
+neglecting them altogether. That a student should remember sufficient
+dates to fix in his mind the sequence of important events is hardly open
+to question. That he can never do so without some special attention to
+dates is equally indisputable. Without doubt, drill in important dates
+is necessary, but it should be so conducted as to take but little time.
+Each day the teacher has indicated the dates worthy to be remembered and
+has been careful to select the landmarks of history. He has called
+attention to the various collateral circumstances which might assist to
+fix the dates in the child's mind. The student has kept his list of
+dates in the back of his text or in some convenient place of reference.
+Once a week for three minutes the teacher gives the class a rapid review
+on the dates contained in the list. Occasionally the class are sent to
+the board and asked to write the dates of the reigns of the English
+monarchs from William down to the point which the class has reached, or
+the Presidents in their order, or some other similar exercise calculated
+to give a backbone to the history being studied. The class will know
+that such a review is liable to be given at any time. They will endeavor
+to be prepared. The result will be that with the expenditure of a few
+minutes at intervals in rapid review, history will cease to be a
+spineless narrative and become for the student an orderly procession of
+events. Drill in dates is only one method to this end. There may be a
+rapid review in battles, generals, wars, treaties, proclamations, and
+inventions. Such exercises encourage the classification of facts and
+stimulate fluency of expression. It is of the highest importance for the
+student so to arrange in his mind what he has learned in recitation that
+he can call to his command at a second's notice the fact, date, or
+illustration he desires. There will be many times in his school and
+college career when such an ability will be indispensable; in business
+or the professions it is an invaluable asset, infinitely more useful
+than the history itself. It will be well for the teacher to inquire:
+"What am I doing to cultivate such an ability in my students?"
+
+
+_They will give a view of the whole subject_
+
+Few teachers will deny that too little time is spent in giving the
+student a general view of the whole subject, either in its entirety or
+in its various phases. The text has been studied by chapters or by
+months or by movements. The history as a whole has never been seen. By
+the time the student has reached the "Aldrich Currency Plan" in American
+history he has forgotten all about the experiments with the first United
+States Bank. He could no more outline the financial history of the
+United States as given in his text than he could outline the industrial
+or political history of the American people. And yet he has studied the
+facts given in his textbook; he has supplemented the text by his work in
+the library, and in the recitation; he has done everything that may
+reasonably be expected of him, except to assemble his historical
+information and review it as a whole.
+
+If the student in American history is asked to go to the board at
+intervals and write an outline for the work covered on such topics as
+the following, he will come much nearer understanding the progress of
+our people:--
+
+     1. History of the tariff.
+
+     2. Political parties and principles for which they stood.
+
+     3. Things that crystallized Northern sentiment against slavery.
+
+     4. Reasons for the unification of the South.
+
+     5. Diplomatic relations of the United States.
+
+     6. Additions of territory.
+
+     7. Financial legislation.
+
+     8. Growth of humanitarian spirit.
+
+There will easily be sufficient topics so that each member of the class
+will have a different one. They can all work at the board,
+simultaneously. The amount of time used for exercises of this sort need
+not be great, and the value received is incalculable.
+
+If the teacher wishes to review briefly on the military, diplomatic,
+social, political, or economic history of the people the class have been
+studying, it is no difficult matter to arrange a set of questions, the
+occasional review in which will clinch in the student's mind what
+otherwise would surely be forgotten. Such questions as the following on
+the financial history of the United States are each answerable with a
+few words and will serve as an illustration of the method which may be
+employed in reviewing any other phase of history:--
+
+     1. By what means was trade accomplished before the use of money?
+
+     2. What are the functions of money?
+
+     3. What determines the amount of money needed in a country?
+
+     4. What has been used for money at various periods of our history?
+
+     5. What is meant by doing business on credit?
+
+     6. What is cheap money?
+
+     7. What is Gresham's Law?
+
+     8. What is the effect of large issues of paper money on prices?
+
+     9. What is the effect of large issues of paper money on wages?
+
+    10. Why does the wage-earner suffer?
+
+    11. At what periods in American history have large issues of paper
+        money been emitted?
+
+    12. What were the objects of the first United States Bank?
+
+    13. Did the bank accomplish them?
+
+    14. Why was it not rechartered?
+
+    15. When was the second United States Bank chartered?
+
+    16. Why?
+
+    17. What case decided the constitutionality of the bank?
+
+    18. Did the second United States Bank accomplish the purpose for
+        which it was formed?
+
+    19. Why was the second United States Bank rechartered?
+
+    20. What is meant by "Wildcat Banking"?
+
+    21. What are the dates of our greatest panics?
+
+    22. What were the chief causes?
+
+    23. What was the effect on prices?
+
+    24. What on wages?
+
+    25. Under what President was the independent treasury first
+        established?
+
+    26. Is it in existence to-day?
+
+    27. When were greenbacks issued?
+
+    28. To what amount?
+
+    29. Who was responsible for the issue?
+
+    30. Were they legal tender for private debts contracted before
+        their issue?
+
+    31. When was the Resumption Act passed?
+
+    32. Are the greenbacks in circulation to-day?
+
+    33. What is free silver?
+
+    34. What was the "Crime of '73"?
+
+    35. What was the "Bland-Allison Act"?
+
+    36. What was the Currency Act of 1900?
+
+    37. What is Bimetallism?
+
+    38. What is meant by "Mint Ratio"?
+
+    39. What is meant by "Market Ratio"?
+
+    40. What is meant by "Free Coinage"?
+
+    41. What is meant by "Gratuitous Coinage"?
+
+    42. What is meant by "Standard Money"?
+
+    43. With the market ratio at 30 to 1 and the mint ratio at 16 to 1,
+        which money would tend to disappear from circulation if both
+        metals are freely coined and made full legal tender?
+
+    44. Why is silver not the standard to-day?
+
+    45. What is the "Aldrich Plan"?
+
+    46. What is a United States bond?
+
+    47. Is it a secure investment?
+
+    48. What is its average rate of interest?
+
+    49. By whom is a national bank chartered?
+
+    50. May it issue paper money?
+
+    51. When was the first National Banking Act passed?
+
+    52. Why?
+
+    53. Why should banking business be profitable under the act?
+
+    54. What advantage did the Government expect to receive in passing
+        the act?
+
+    55. Are deposits guaranteed?
+
+    56. May States emit bills of credit?
+
+    57. Is it constitutional for banks chartered by the State to emit
+        bills of credit?
+
+    58. Do they do so to-day?
+
+    59. Why?
+
+Obviously as the year advances, the list of questions for review grows
+longer. An increasing amount of time should therefore be devoted to work
+of this sort.
+
+
+_They will insure a better acquaintance with great men and women_
+
+The most superficial observation will suffice to convince anyone that
+high school graduates know very little about the great men and women of
+history. The character sketches suggested earlier in the chapter,
+supplemented with occasional reviews, will do much to improve this
+condition. These drills may be conducted by asking for brief statements
+on the greatest service or the most distinguishing characteristic of the
+great men and women met with in the course. The same thing is
+accomplished by reversing the process and asking such questions
+as,--"Who was the American Fabius"? or "The Great Compromiser"? or the
+"Sage of Menlo Park"? etc. Questions on the authorship of great
+documents, the founders of institutions, the organizers of movements,
+reformers, philosophers, artists, statesmen, generals, accomplish the
+same purpose.
+
+
+_They will be economical of time_
+
+There are a vast number of review questions answerable with _yes_ or
+_no_. The student's knowledge of the subject may be quickly discovered
+and a rapid review conducted by a series of such questions. The
+following list on American history will illustrate the method:--
+
+     1. Was Cromwell's colonial policy helpful to the American colonies?
+
+     2. Did the Revolution of 1688 have any effect on the colonies?
+
+     3. Were the Huguenots excluded from Canada?
+
+     4. Were the Writs of Assistance used in England?
+
+     5. Did America ever have a theocracy?
+
+     6. Did the rule of 1756 affect the people of the colonies?
+
+     7. Was the Sugar Act legal?
+
+     8. Was there any effort to amend the Articles of Confederation?
+
+     9. Does funding a debt lessen it?
+
+    10. Did Hamilton's measures tend to centralize power?
+
+    11. Did the members of the Constitutional Convention exceed their
+        instructions?
+
+    12. Is a cabinet provided for in the Constitution?
+
+    13. Does the Constitution of the United States prevent a State from
+        establishing a religion?
+
+    14. Is it possible for a State to repudiate its debts?
+
+    15. Does the constitutional provision for uniform duties protect
+        the Territories?
+
+    16. Was impressment practiced in England?
+
+    17. Did the Whigs favor internal improvements?
+
+    18. Did the North favor the Force Bill of 1833?
+
+    19. Did Massachusetts favor the Tariff of 1816?
+
+    20. Did the Republican party stand for the abolition of slavery in
+        1860?
+
+    21. Did the Emancipation Proclamation free all the slaves in the
+        United States?
+
+    22. Did the working-men of England favor the South during the Civil
+        War?
+
+    23. Was it necessary for the South to resort to the draft?
+
+    24. Could a man in 1860 consistently accept both the Dred Scott
+        decision and the doctrine of popular sovereignty?
+
+    25. Did Lincoln's assassination have any effect on the
+        reconstruction policy?
+
+    26. Does the Federal Constitution compel negro suffrage?
+
+    27. Was the Anaconda System successful?
+
+    28. Was a President of the United States ever impeached?
+
+    29. Were the claims for indirect damages in the Alabama claims
+        allowed?
+
+    30. Did Calhoun favor the Compromise of 1850?
+
+    31. Did Thaddeus Stevens favor the Fifteenth Amendment to the
+        Constitution?
+
+    32. Did Lincoln favor the social equality of the white and black
+        races?
+
+    33. Did Grant favor the Tenure of Office Act?
+
+    34. Did Lee make more than one attempt to invade the North?
+
+    35. Was the "Ohio Idea" ever strong enough to affect legislation?
+
+    36. Did Spain have any part in calling out the Monroe Doctrine?
+
+    37. Has the United States any control over the debts of Cuba?
+
+    38. Has a joint resolution ever been used to acquire territory
+        other than that included in Texas?
+
+    39. Has the United States ever resorted to a tax on incomes?
+
+    40. Has the Federal Government ever attempted to restrict the power
+        of the press?
+
+    41. Is it illegal to-day for a railway to give a cheaper rate to
+        one shipper than to another?
+
+    42. Has the Republican party ever reduced the protective tariffs of
+        the war?
+
+    43. Did the Civil Service Act passed in 1883 include postmasters?
+
+    44. Did the Wilson-Gorman Act reduce the tariff to a revenue basis?
+
+    45. Can a railway engaged solely in intra-state business carry a
+        case, involving a reduction of their rates by the State
+        legislature, to the Supreme Court of the United States?
+
+    46. Is Utah a part of the Louisiana Purchase?
+
+    47. If the mint ratio is 16 to 1 and the market ratio is 17 to 1,
+        will the gold dollar be the standard if there is full legal
+        tender and free coinage for both gold and silver?
+
+    48. Is the Canadian frontier fortified?
+
+    49. Are the functions of government in this country increasing?
+
+    50. Is it possible for a man to be defeated for the Presidency if a
+        majority of the people vote for him?
+
+The great disadvantage of this kind of review is that the students have
+for their answer a choice between two words, one of which is bound to be
+correct. Knowing nothing whatever of the subject, they will still stand
+a fifty per cent chance of answering correctly. The alert teacher should
+be able to reduce this haphazard answering to a minimum, while still
+reaping the advantages of rapidity and thoroughness which the plan
+possesses. Few other methods will cover as much ground in as short time.
+On the Federal Constitution there are infinite possibilities for "yes
+and no" questioning, which afford a brief and effective means of review
+in the principles of American government.
+
+
+_They will secure fluency_
+
+Review for the purpose of securing fluency is a consideration frequently
+lost sight of by high school history teachers. It may be too sanguine to
+expect fluency of the average student reciting on a topic for the first
+time. But when it is considered how very many important questions are
+never recited on but once, the wisdom of an occasional review to secure
+rapid, fluent, and complete answers to topics previously discussed is
+readily seen. Select a list of topics that will at one and the same time
+cultivate fluency and strengthen the memory for the important
+considerations of history. Fluency in itself does not possess sufficient
+value to justify the expenditure of recitation time. Facility of
+expression needs to be cultivated in discussion of the conclusions
+reached in class which need to be clinched in the student's mind. Such
+questions as the following will serve as illustrations of the kind
+adaptable for such purpose, at the middle of a year course in American
+history:--
+
+     1. Give three distinct characteristics of French colonization in
+        America; three of Spanish; three of English.
+
+     2. What things did the English colonies possess in common?
+
+     3. What were the results to the colonies of the French and Indian
+        War?
+
+     4. To what extent was the Revolution brought about by economic
+        causes?
+
+     5. What were the defects in the Articles of Confederation?
+
+     6. Account for the downfall of the Federalist party.
+
+     7. In what ways has democracy advanced since 1789?
+
+     8. What were the results of the struggle over the admission of
+        Missouri?
+
+     9. Discuss the growth of the sentiment for internal improvements?
+
+    10. Describe the social life of the Western pioneer?
+
+
+_What the student may do with "problems" in history_
+
+Still another kind of review of great value in strengthening the
+student's ability to generalize and analyze, consists of what might be
+called "problems in history." They are given out in much the same way as
+original problems in geometry, assuming that the student is acquainted
+with the facts from which to deduce the answers to the question. The
+object of such a review is to give the student practice in original
+thinking. He is not supposed to use a library, but only the facts which
+are in his text or which have been previously brought out in class
+recitations.
+
+The following are examples of questions adaptable for this purpose:--
+
+     1. Why can the American people be regarded as the world's greatest
+        colonizers?
+
+     2. Why could Washington be regarded as only an Englishman living in
+        America?
+
+     3. Is it true that the South lost the Civil War because of slavery?
+
+     4. In what particulars did Andrew Jackson accurately reflect the
+        spirit or the ideals of the new West?
+
+     5. What is illustrated by the attempt to found the State of
+        Franklin?
+
+     6. What considerations made the secession of the West in our early
+        history a likely possibility?
+
+Questions of this kind, not answered directly in class or in the text,
+may be given out a day in advance and the answers collected at the next
+recitation.
+
+
+
+
+VI
+
+THE USE OF WRITTEN REPORTS
+
+
+_The purpose of theme work should change as the course continues_
+
+A method frequently employed by teachers of history is to require
+written reports or themes on various phases of the history as the work
+progresses. This plan is particularly valuable for the students in the
+first two years of high school history, for the reason that their
+library requirements are less exacting and their need of fluency greater
+during that time than later in their course. The objects of theme work
+in history courses are usually to arouse the pupil's powers of
+observation, description, and narration, and to provide means of drill
+in the exercise of these powers. These should not be the sole purposes
+of theme work, however. As the year advances, an increasing amount of
+the written work should be on subjects requiring some generalization or
+analysis of the facts brought out in the text or in the recitation. The
+pupil who has written a theme describing the appearance of the Pyramids
+has completed an exercise in history less valuable than that of the
+student who writes a theme on the errors of the Athenian Democracy.
+
+To summarize, reviews in history should consist of both oral and written
+work; they should be rapid enough to insure quick thinking, alert
+attention, and small expenditure of time; they should occur with
+increasing frequency as the year advances; they should stock the memory,
+fix in the student's mind the order of events, stimulate fluency, insure
+a permanent acquaintance with the personnel of history, and give to the
+student a better view of the subject as a whole and in its various
+phases.
+
+
+
+
+VII
+
+EXAMINATIONS AS TESTS OF PROGRESS
+
+
+_The examination should determine how much the student has progressed_
+
+The time is coming, if it is not already here, when the public will cry out
+against the nervous fear and sleepless nights with which their children
+approach the semi-annual torture of our inquisitorial examinations. That
+reasonable examinations are essential and beneficial is hardly open to
+question. That a student should be expected correctly to answer a fair
+percentage of reasonable questions on work which has been properly
+taught is not a cause of complaint from anyone. But that children should
+be frightened into a state of nervous terror by the bugaboo of an
+impending examination, and then be forced to attempt a series of
+conundrums propounded by a teacher who takes pride in maintaining a high
+percentage of failures, is indefensible. An examination should not be
+conducted with the primary object of making it a thing to be feared.
+However desirable such a questionable asset may seem to certain college
+professors, it is a serious fault in a high school teacher to have any
+considerable number of normal children fail. The ambition of the good
+instructor is to give an examination which shall at once be thorough,
+reasonable, and intelligently directed toward finding what the student
+has really learned. His purpose is to test accurately the various
+abilities which he has endeavored to encourage in the student during his
+course. He wishes to ascertain how much the student has really
+progressed.
+
+
+_Specific suggestions on formulating questions_
+
+In order to do this the examination must be on the really material
+considerations of the history. Questions on unimportant details should
+be omitted. The student should not be expected to burden his memory with
+the limitless mass of petty isolated facts contained in the average
+history text. The questions should be on considerations that have been
+carefully discussed, and not on facts that have received but cursory
+attention.
+
+The examination should not require too much time for writing. The
+several hours' continuous nervous tension sometimes exacted by too
+ambitious teachers does the average child more harm than the
+examination can possibly do him good.
+
+The examination should consist of questions that will jointly or
+severally test the student's powers of description, generalization, and
+analysis. They should test his knowledge of the sequence of events, his
+ability to use a library or a map, his knowledge of the various phases
+and the various periods of the history studied. In every examination
+there should be at least one question dealing with the time and the
+order of events, one each on the geographical, political, and social
+history, one that is analytical, one that requires generalization, one
+that will test his knowledge of the library, and one that will test his
+powers of description. It is not necessary to limit the questions to the
+customary number of ten. It is frequently advisable to give a class some
+degree of choice in the selection of their questions by requiring any
+ten out of a larger number asked. Certainly such a plan gives the
+student a more favorable opportunity to demonstrate his ability without
+in the least diminishing the value of the examination.
+
+Examination questions, like all other questions, should be definite,
+clean-cut, and reasonable. If possible, each student should be supplied
+with a copy, instead of having the set written on the board. They
+should cover only those portions of the subject that have been properly
+taught. The teacher should not expect the boy who has kept no useful
+notes, whose library work has been haphazard, and whose methods of study
+have not been supervised, to perform at examination time the miracle of
+accurately remembering what he has never been properly taught.
+
+
+
+
+OUTLINE
+
+
+I. SOME PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS
+
+1. Assumptions as to the teacher of history
+
+2. Actual conditions confronted by the teacher
+
+
+II. HOW TO BEGIN THE COURSE
+
+1. What should be done on the day of enrollment
+
+2. What should be done at the first meeting of the class
+
+3. Necessity for definite instruction in methods of preparing a lesson
+
+4. The question of note-taking
+
+5. Instruction in the use of the library and indexes
+
+
+III. THE ASSIGNMENT OF THE LESSON
+
+1. Careful assignment will reveal to the student the relation of
+geography and history
+
+2. His power of analysis and criticism will be stimulated
+
+3. The conditions in other countries will add to his comprehension of
+the facts in the lesson
+
+4. His disposition to study intensively will be encouraged
+
+5. His acquaintance with the great men and women of history will be
+vitalized
+
+6. He will correlate the past and the present
+
+7. He will be required to memorize a limited amount of matter verbatim
+
+8. Methods of preparing questions assigned in advance
+
+
+IV. THE METHOD OF THE RECITATION
+
+1. Assumptions as to the recitation room
+
+2. What the teacher should aim to accomplish
+
+3. Work at the blackboard
+
+4. Special reports
+
+5. Fundamental principles of good questioning
+
+6. Some additional suggestions for teachers of history
+
+
+V. VARIOUS MODES OF REVIEW
+
+1. The place of drill in the history recitation
+
+2. Good reviews will develop a knowledge of the sequence of events
+
+3. They will give a view of the whole subject
+
+4. They will insure a better acquaintance with great men and women
+
+5. They will be economical of time
+
+6. They will secure fluency
+
+7. What the student may do with "problems" in history
+
+
+VI. THE USE OF WRITTEN REPORTS
+
+1. The purpose of theme work should change as the course continues
+
+
+VII. EXAMINATIONS AS TESTS OF PROGRESS
+
+1. The examination should determine how much the student has progressed
+
+2. Specific suggestions on formulating questions
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 14577 ***
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+<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 14577 ***</div>
+<h1>The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Teaching of History, by Ernest C. Hartwell</h1>
+<hr class="full" />
+<br />
+<br />
+<h3>Riverside Educational Monographs</h3>
+
+<h4>EDITED BY HENRY SUZZALLO</h4>
+
+<h6>PROFESSOR OF THE PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION<br />
+TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY</h6>
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+
+<h1>THE TEACHING OF HISTORY</h1>
+
+<h3>BY</h3>
+
+<h2>ERNEST C. HARTWELL, M.A.</h2>
+<h3>SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, PETOSKEY, MICH.</h3>
+
+<br />
+<center><img alt="logo" width="71" height="99" src="images/logo.png" /></center>
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+
+<h6>Houghton Mifflin Company<br />
+Boston, New York and Chicago<br />
+The Riverside Press Cambridge</h6>
+
+<h3>1913</h3>
+
+
+
+<hr style='width: 65%;' />
+<h2>CONTENTS</h2>
+
+<center>
+<!-- Autogenerated TOC. Modify or delete as required. -->
+ <a href='#EDITORS_INTRODUCTION'><b>EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION</b></a><br />
+ <a href='#THE_TEACHING_OF_HISTORY'><b>I. SOME PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS</b></a><br />
+ <a href='#II'><b>II. HOW TO BEGIN THE COURSE</b></a><br />
+ <a href='#III'><b>III. THE ASSIGNMENT OF THE LESSON</b></a><br />
+ <a href='#IV'><b>IV. THE METHOD OF THE RECITATION</b></a><br />
+ <a href='#V'><b>V. VARIOUS MODES OF REVIEW</b></a><br />
+ <a href='#VI'><b>VI. THE USE OF WRITTEN REPORTS</b></a><br />
+ <a href='#VII'><b>VII. EXAMINATIONS AS TESTS OF PROGRESS</b></a><br />
+ <a href='#OUTLINE'><b>OUTLINE</b></a><br />
+</center>
+<!-- End Autogenerated TOC. -->
+
+
+<hr style='width: 65%;' />
+<a name='EDITORS_INTRODUCTION'></a><h2>EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION</h2>
+<br />
+
+<p>This volume is offered as a guide to history teachers of the high school
+and the upper grammar grades. It is directly concerned with the teaching
+methods to be employed in the history period. The author assumes the
+limiting conditions that surround classroom instruction of the present
+day; he also takes for granted the teacher's sympathy with modern aims
+in history instruction. All discussions of purpose and content are
+therefore subordinated to a clear presentation of the details of
+effective teaching technique.</p>
+
+<p>The reader into whose hands this volume falls will be deeply interested
+in the ideals of teaching implied in the concrete suggestions given in
+the following pages, for after all the value of any system of special
+methods rests, not merely on its apparent and immediate psychological
+effectiveness, but also on the social purposes which it is devised to
+serve. It must be recognized at the outset that history has a social
+purpose. However much university teaching may be interested in truth for
+its own sake, an interest necessarily basic to the service of all other
+ends, the teaching of the lower public schools must take into account
+the relevancy of historical fact to current and future problems which
+concern men and women engaged in the common social life. So the
+elementary and secondary school teachers of the more progressive sort
+recognize that the way in which historical truths are selected and
+related to one another determines two things: (1) Whether our group
+experiences as interpreted in history will have any intelligent effect
+upon men's appreciations of current social difficulties, and (2) whether
+history will make a more vital appeal to youth at school.</p>
+
+<p>Certainly children, whose interests arise not alone from their innate
+impulses, but also from the world in which they have lived from the
+beginning, will be eager to know the past that is of dominant concern to
+the present. It is clear gain in the psychology of instruction if
+history is a socially live thing. The children will be more eager to
+acquire knowledge; they will hold it longer, because it is significant;
+and they will keep it fresh after school days are over because life will
+recall and review pertinent knowledge again and again. There can be no
+separation between the dominant social interests of community life and
+effective pedagogical procedure; the former in large part determines the
+latter.</p>
+
+<p>Such educational reforms in history teaching as have already won
+acceptance confirm the existence of this vital relation between current
+social interests and the learning process. The barren learning of names
+and dates has long since been supplanted by a study of sequences among
+events. The technical details of wars and political administrations have
+given way to a study of wide economic and social movements in which
+battles and laws are merely overt results reinforcing the current of
+change. History, once a self-inclosed school discipline, has undergone
+an intellectual expansion which takes into account all the aspects of
+life which influence it, making geographical, economic, and biographical
+materials its aids. All these and many other minor changes attest the
+fact that a vital mode of instruction always tends to accompany that
+view of history which regards the study of the past as a revelation of
+real social life.</p>
+
+<p>The author's suggestions will, therefore, be of distinct value to at
+least two groups of history teachers. Those who believe in the larger
+uses of history teaching, so much argued of late, will find here the
+procedures that will express the ideals and obtain the results they
+seek. Those who are not yet ready to accept modern doctrine, but who
+feel a keen discontent with the older procedure, will find in these
+pages many suggestions that will appeal to them as worthy of
+experimental use. It may be that the successful use of many methods here
+suggested may be the easy way for them to come into an acceptance of the
+larger principles of current educational reform.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style='width: 65%;' />
+<a name='THE_TEACHING_OF_HISTORY'></a><h2>THE TEACHING OF HISTORY</h2>
+
+<h2>I</h2>
+
+<h3>SOME PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS</h3>
+
+<a name='sec1-1'></a>
+<p class='sheader'>Assumptions as to the teacher of history</p>
+
+<p>This monograph will make no attempt to analyze the personality of the
+ideal teacher. It is assumed that the teacher of history has an adequate
+preparation to teach his subject, that he is in good health, and that
+his usefulness is unimpaired by discontent with his work or cynicism
+about the world. It is presupposed that he understands the wisdom of
+correlating in his instruction the geography, social progress, and
+economic development of the people which his class are studying. He is
+aware that the pupil should experience something more than a
+kaleidoscopic view of isolated facts. He recognizes the folly of
+requiring four years of high school English for the purpose of
+cultivating clear, fluent, and accurate expression, only to relax the
+effort when the student comes into the history class. He knows that the
+precision, logic, and habit of definite thinking exacted by the pursuit
+of the scientific subjects should not be laid aside when the student
+attempts to trace the rise of nations. Let us go so far as to assume a
+teacher who is both pedagogical and practical; scholarly without being
+musty; imbued with a love for his subject and yet familiar with actual
+human experience.</p>
+<br />
+
+<a name='sec1-2'></a>
+<p class='sheader'>Actual conditions confronted by the teacher</p>
+
+<p>There are from one hundred and eighty to two hundred recitation periods
+of forty-five minutes each, minus the holidays, opening exercises,
+athletic mass meetings, and other respites, in which to teach a thousand
+years of ancient history, twenty centuries of English history, or the
+story of our own people. The age of the student will be from thirteen to
+eighteen. His judgment is immature; his knowledge of books, small; his
+interest, far from zealous. He will have three other subjects to prepare
+and his time is limited. Also, he is a citizen of the Republic and by
+his vote will shortly influence, for good or ill, the destinies of the
+nation.</p>
+
+<p>The purpose of this monograph is to discuss the means by which the
+teacher can engender in this student a genuine enthusiasm for the
+subject, stimulate research and historical judgment, correlate history,
+geography, literature, and the arts, cultivate proper ideals of
+government, establish a habit of systematic note-taking, and possibly
+prepare the student for college entrance examinations.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style='width: 65%;' />
+<a name='II'></a><h2>II</h2>
+
+<h3>HOW TO BEGIN THE COURSE</h3>
+<br />
+
+<p>Very obviously each moment of the child's time and preparation should be
+wisely directed. Each recitation should perform its full measure of
+usefulness, in testing, drilling, and teaching. There will be no time
+for valueless note-taking, duplication of map-book work, ambiguous or
+foolish questioning, aimless argument, or junketing excursions.</p>
+<br />
+
+<a name='sec2-1'></a>
+<p class='sheader'>What should be done on the day of enrollment</p>
+
+<p>The day that the child enrolls in class should begin his assigned work.
+In the first ten minutes of the first meeting of the class, while the
+teacher is collecting the enrollment cards, he should also gather some
+data as to his students' previous work in history. This information will
+be of considerable assistance to the teacher in letting him know what he
+may reasonably expect of his new pupils. The class should not depart
+without a definite assignment for the next day. Let the preparation for
+the first recitation consist in answering such questions as:&mdash;</p>
+
+<ol>
+<li>What is the name of the text you are to use? (Know its precise
+title.)</li>
+<li>What is the name, reputation, and position of the author?</li>
+<li>Of what other books is he the author?</li>
+<li>Read the preface of the book.</li>
+<li>What do you think are the purposes of the subject you are about
+to take up?</li>
+<li>Give the titles and authors of other books on the same period of
+history.</li>
+<li>What has been your method of study in other courses of history?</li>
+</ol>
+<br />
+
+<a name='sec2-2'></a>
+<p class='sheader'>What should be done at the first meeting of the class</p>
+
+<p>On the second day when the class assembles, let as many of the students
+as possible be sent to the board to answer questions on the day's
+assignment. The pupil will immediately discover that the teacher
+purposes to hold the class strictly responsible for the preparation of
+assigned work. The teacher will face a class prepared to ask intelligent
+questions about the course they are entering upon. The class will
+discover that work is to begin at once. The inertia of the vacation will
+be immediately overcome.</p>
+<br />
+
+<a name='sec2-3'></a>
+<p class='sheader'>Necessity for definite instruction in methods of preparing a lesson</p>
+
+<p>Having secured, by class discussion and the work at the board,
+satisfactory answers to the first six questions, and having assigned the
+lesson for the next day, the remainder of the hour and, if necessary,
+the rest of the week should be spent in outlining for the student a
+method of study. That very few students of high school age possess
+habits of systematic study, needs no discussion. In spite of all that
+their grade teachers may have done for them, their tendency is to pass
+over unfamiliar words, allusions, and expressions, without troubling to
+use a dictionary. The average high school student will not read the fine
+print at the bottom of the page, or use a map for the location of places
+mentioned in the text without special instruction to do so. He will set
+himself no unassigned tasks in memory work. It is the first business of
+the good instructor to teach the student <i>how</i> to study. The first step
+in this process is to impress on the student's mind that systematic
+preparation in the history class is as necessary as in Latin, physics,
+or geometry. Then let the following or similar instructions be given
+him:&mdash;</p>
+
+<ol>
+<li>Provide yourself with an envelope of small cards or pieces of
+note paper. Label each with the subject of the lesson and the
+date of its preparation. These envelopes should be always at
+hand during your study and preparation. They should be preserved
+and filed from day to day.</li>
+<li>Read the lesson assigned for the day in the textbook, including
+all notes and fine print.</li>
+<li>Write on a sheet of note paper all the unfamiliar words,
+allusions, or expressions. Later, look these up in the
+dictionary or other reference.</li>
+<li>Record the dates which you think worthy to be remembered.</li>
+<li>Discover and make a note of all the apparent contradictions,
+inconsistencies, or inaccuracies in the author's statements.</li>
+<li>Use the map for all the places mentioned in the lesson. Be able
+to locate them when you come to class.</li>
+<li>In nearly every text there is a list of books for library use,
+given at the beginning or end of each chapter. Make yourself
+familiar with this bibliography.</li>
+<li>Read the special questions assigned for the day by the teacher.</li>
+<li>Go to the library. If the book for which you are in search is
+not to be found, try another.</li>
+<li>Learn to use an index. If the topic for which you are looking
+does not appear in the index, try looking for the same thing
+under another name; or under some related topic.</li>
+<li>Having found the material in one book, use more than one if
+your time permits. When you feel that you have secured the
+material which will make a complete answer to the question,
+<i>write the answer on one of your cards for keeping notes.</i></li>
+<li>Remember that the teacher will ask constantly <i>what</i> was done,
+<i>when</i> was it done, and, most important of all, <i>why</i> it was
+done. Make a list of the questions which you think most likely
+to be asked on the lesson and ascertain whether you can answer
+them without the use of your notes or text.</li>
+<li>If possible practice your answers aloud. It will make you the
+more ready when called on in class.</li>
+<li>Keep a list of things which are not clear to you and about
+which you wish to ask questions.</li>
+<li>Before completing your preparation, read over these instructions
+and be sure that you have complied with them.</li>
+</ol>
+
+<p>It may be claimed that no high school student can be expected to follow
+such instructions and that to secure such a daily preparation is
+impossible; in answer to which it must be admitted that merely a
+perfunctory talk on methods of preparation will accomplish little. If
+the instruction just suggested is to bear fruit, the teacher must take
+pains to see that it is followed. Carefully to prepare his lesson
+according to a definite plan must become a <i>habit</i> with the student.
+Facility, accuracy, and thoroughness are impossible otherwise. Haphazard
+methods are wasteful of time and unproductive of results. The teacher
+can afford to emphasize method during the first few weeks of the course.
+The time thus spent in assisting the pupil to develop definite habits of
+study will pay rich dividends for the remainder of the student's life.
+Daily inquiry as to the method of study pursued, frequent examination of
+the student's notes, questions on the important dates selected, the
+books used for preparation, new words discovered, and so on, will keep
+the importance of the plan before the class and do much to foster the
+habit of systematic preparation.</p>
+<br />
+
+<a name='sec2-4'></a>
+<p class='sheader'>The question of note-taking</p>
+
+<p>On the question of notebook work, there will always be a considerable
+difference of opinion. It is much easier to state what notebook work
+should not be than to outline precisely how it should be conducted.
+Certainly it should not be overdone. It should not be an exercise
+usurping time disproportionate to its value. It should not be required
+primarily for exhibition purposes, although such notes as are kept
+should be kept neatly and spelled correctly.</p>
+
+<p>Students should be encouraged to keep their envelope of note paper
+always at hand during recitation and while reading. The habit of jotting
+down facts, opinions, statistics, comparisons, and contradictions <i>while
+they are being read</i> is most desirable and worthy of cultivation. The
+student should be taught the wisdom of keeping his notes in a neat,
+legible, and easily available form. Shorthand methods should be
+discouraged. With a little tactful direction early in the year, the
+student may be led to form a most useful habit. The greater the
+proportion of intelligent note-taking that is done without compulsion,
+the better. No more notes should be <i>required</i> than the teacher can
+honestly look over, correct, and grade. It is better to require no notes
+at all than to accept careless, superficial inaccuracies as honest work.
+One curse of high school history teaching is the tendency of young
+teachers trained in college history classes to assign more work than the
+student can honestly do or the teacher properly correct.</p>
+
+<p>As has already been intimated, history notes should not be kept in a
+book. The required notes should be kept on separate sheets of paper. The
+topics should be clearly indicated at the top of each sheet. The
+authorities used in arriving at the answer should always be given, with
+the volume, chapter, and page. The notes on related topics should be put
+into an envelope and properly labeled. After the recitation the student
+can make any necessary corrections in his notes without spoiling their
+appearance. He will simply substitute a new sheet for the old. If the
+teacher discovers in his periodic examination of the notes that some of
+the matter asked for has not been properly covered or that errors have
+not been corrected, the notes needing revision can be detained for use
+in a conference with the student, while the others are returned. If at
+any time after completing his high school work the student desires to
+use the data contained in his notes or to add to them matter which he
+may later read, they are in available form. For convenience and
+neatness, for present use, and future reference this device is far
+superior to the formal notebook. It has the further advantage of
+accustoming the student to the method of note-taking which will be
+required of those who go to college.</p>
+
+<p>It would save much valuable time, at present frequently wasted in
+writing useless notes, if the teacher constantly squared his notebook
+requirements with questions such as these:&mdash;</p>
+
+<ol>
+<li>Is the notebook work as I am conducting it calculated to develop
+the habit of critical reading?</li>
+<li>Does the time spent in writing up notes justify itself by fixing
+in the child's mind new and really relevant information not
+given in the text?</li>
+<li>Is it teaching students to combine facts, opinions, and
+statistics, to form conclusions really their own?</li>
+<li>Is the amount of work required reasonable when it is remembered
+that the child has three other subjects to prepare, that he is
+from thirteen to eighteen years of age, and more or less
+unfamiliar with a library?</li>
+<li>Am I able carefully and punctually to correct all the notes
+required?</li>
+</ol>
+
+<p>Whatever the method the teacher thinks best to be used should be
+explained early in the course and thereafter the student should be held
+scrupulously responsible for such requirements as are made.</p>
+<br />
+
+<a name='sec2-5'></a>
+<p class='sheader'>Instruction in the use of the library and indexes</p>
+
+<p>Having discussed with the class the questions assigned on the day of
+enrollment and explained the method of study recommended for their use,
+it will be well for the teacher to devote some time to instruction in
+the use of the library. It is possible that the older classes will
+require very little of this, but there are few classes where an hour, at
+least, cannot well be spent in a discussion of indexes, titles, and
+relative value of the works on various subjects. This hour need not be
+the regular recitation period. A session before or after school could be
+devoted to the purpose. The teacher's instruction, however, will be
+greatly assisted if the students are asked to prepare answers before
+coming to class to such questions as the following:&mdash;</p>
+
+<ol>
+<li>How much previous work have you done in the library?</li>
+<li>Of what use do you think the library should be to you in the
+course you are just entering?</li>
+<li>What is a source book? Of what use are source books?</li>
+<li>What source books on this period of history are in the library?</li>
+<li>What do you think will be the best references for questions on
+the artistic, industrial, political, social, economic, and
+military phases of the history you are about to study?</li>
+<li>What encyclopedias and works of general reference are in your
+library?</li>
+</ol>
+
+<p>The preparation of answers to such questions as these will present to
+the student some of the difficulties inevitable to his future library
+work and will send him to class prepared to ask intelligent questions.
+It will enable the teacher accurately to gauge how much his students
+already know about a library and its uses.</p>
+
+<p>The value and advantage of library work should be carefully explained to
+the class. It is a great error to allow pupils to think of their
+library work as drudgery, assigned solely to keep them busy or to make
+the course difficult. There are too few boys to-day with a genuine love
+of books, partly no doubt due to the fact that a reference library has
+become for them, not a rich mine of interesting matter, but a
+hydra-headed interrogation point. A great good has been done the student
+who has been taught the pleasure of using books. Nor is such a thing
+impossible. Nothing gives greater satisfaction to the normal high school
+boy than to find an error in the text, the teacher's statements, or the
+map. He takes pleasure in confuting the statistics or judgments quoted
+in class, by others of opposite trend, encountered in his reading. He
+enjoys asking keen questions. If the student is told that the library
+work is for the purpose of cultivating his powers of investigation and
+adding to the matter in the text many interesting details; if the
+library requirements are reasonable and wisely directed; if he is given
+an opportunity to <i>use</i> the information he has gathered from his
+reading, his interest in books will steadily increase.</p>
+
+<p>The teacher should explain the value of remembering accurately the
+titles and the authors of books used for reference. The silly habit of
+referring to an authority as &quot;the book bound in green&quot; or &quot;the large
+book by what's his name&quot; is easily prevented if taken in time.</p>
+
+<p>The teacher should discover by assignments made in class what degree of
+proficiency in the use of an index is already possessed by his pupils.
+There are few classes where the use of an index is thoroughly
+understood. Time should be taken to demonstrate the quickest possible
+methods of finding what a book contains. The use of the catalogue and
+card index should be carefully explained and illustrated.</p>
+
+<p>Attention should be called to the best sources on the various phases of
+the history to be studied. There ought to be no poor histories in the
+library, but if there are any to which the students have access, warning
+should be given against their use.</p>
+
+<p>The value of periodicals and current literature for work in history
+should be illustrated and the use of <i>Poole's Index</i> and the <i>Readers
+Guide</i> explained.</p>
+
+<p>The class should be acquainted with the rules of the library and
+cautioned against the misuse of books. The necessity of leaving
+reference books where all the class can use them should be made
+apparent.</p>
+
+<p>Direction in the use of the library, like instruction in the method of
+study, is a prerequisite to the best results in high school history
+classes, for no matter how conscientious the teacher, the recitation
+will be deadly if the student has no working knowledge of the library
+nor proper method of preparation. A class unable to ask intelligent
+questions about the work is not ready for the presentation of additional
+matter by the teacher. It is no difficult matter for a teacher to
+entertain his class for an hour with interesting incidents of the period
+in which the lesson occurs. A history teacher who cannot talk
+interestingly for an hour on any of the great periods of history has
+surely missed his calling. But to keep a class quiet, to retain their
+attention, to amuse and entertain, is far from making history vital. If
+the recitation is to be really vital, the students must do most of the
+talking, the criticizing, and the questioning. There can be none of
+these worth while without proper preparation.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style='width: 65%;' />
+<a name='III'></a><h2>III</h2>
+
+<h3>THE ASSIGNMENT OF THE LESSON</h3>
+
+<a name='sec3-1'></a>
+<p class='sheader'>Careful assignment will reveal to the student the relation of geography
+and history</p>
+
+<p>The recitation can never hope to achieve its maximum helpfulness unless
+the lesson be intelligently assigned. The work required must be
+reasonable in amount, and not so exacting as to discourage interest.
+Daily direction to look up unfamiliar words, expressions, and allusions
+must be given until the habit becomes fixed. Warning against possible
+geographical misconceptions should be given when necessary, together
+with directions to use the map for places, routes, and boundaries. A few
+questions asked in advance, with the purpose of bringing out the
+relation of the geography to the history in the lesson, will be of great
+assistance. For example, if the class are to study the Louisiana
+Purchase, the full significance of that revolutionary event will be made
+much clearer if the student is asked to prepare answers before coming to
+class to such questions as the following:&mdash;</p>
+
+<ol>
+<li>What States are included in the purchase?</li>
+<li>What is its area? How does it compare with the area of the
+original thirteen States?</li>
+<li>What geographical reasons caused Napoleon to sell it?</li>
+<li>What influence did the purchase have on our retention of the
+territory east of the Mississippi? Why?</li>
+<li>How many people live to-day in the territory included in the
+purchase?</li>
+</ol>
+<br />
+
+<a name='sec3-2'></a>
+<p class='sheader'>His power of analysis and criticism will be stimulated</p>
+
+<p>A lesson should be so assigned that the student will read the text with
+his eye critically open to inconsistencies, contradictions, and
+inaccuracies. With a text of six hundred pages, and with a hundred and
+eighty recitations in which to cover them, it is not too much to expect
+that the average of three or four pages daily shall be studied so
+thoroughly that the student can analyze and summarize each day's lesson.
+The teacher should not make such analysis in advance of the recitation,
+but he should so assign the lesson that the student will be prepared to
+give one when he comes to class. A word in advance by the teacher will
+prompt the student who is studying the American Revolution, to classify
+its causes as direct and indirect, economic and political, social and
+religious. There is no difficulty in finding good authorities who
+disagree as to the effect on America of the English trade restrictions.
+Callendar's <i>Economic History of the United States</i> quotes five of the
+best authorities on this point, and covers the case in a few pages. A
+reference by the teacher to this or some other authority will bring out
+a lively discussion on the justice of the American resistance. Let the
+class be asked to account for the colonial opposition to the Townshend
+Acts, when the Stamp Act Congress had declared that the regulation of
+the Colonies' external trade was properly within the powers of
+Parliament. Let the class be asked to explain a statement that the
+Declaration of Independence does not mention the real underlying causes
+of the Revolution. A few suggestions and advanced questions of this sort
+will stimulate a critical analysis of the statements in the text, and
+send the student to class keen for an intelligent discussion.</p>
+
+<p>Ordinarily, when a class is averaging three or four pages of the text
+daily, it is an error for the teacher to point out in advance certain
+dates and statistics that need not be memorized. Such selection should
+be left to the student. During the recitation the teacher will discover
+what dates, statistics, and other matter the student has selected as
+worthy to be memorized, and if correction is necessary it may then be
+made. It dulls the edge of the pupil's enthusiasm to be told in advance
+that some of the text is not worthy to be remembered. Furthermore such
+instruction does nothing to develop the student's sense of historical
+proportion, for it substitutes the judgment of the teacher for that of
+the pupil.</p>
+
+<p>Advance questions asking explanation of statements made in the text, or
+by other authors dealing with the same period, insure that the lesson
+will be read understandingly and that the author's statements will be
+carefully analyzed. Such declarations as the following are illustrations
+of statements whose explanation might profitably be required in
+advance:&mdash;</p>
+
+<ol>
+<li>&quot;The Constitution was extracted by necessity from a reluctant
+people.&quot;</li>
+<li>&quot;Oregon was a make-weight for Texas.&quot;</li>
+<li>&quot;The greatest evil of slavery was that it prevented the South
+from accumulating capital.&quot;</li>
+<li>&quot;The day that France possesses New Orleans we must marry
+ourselves to the British fleet.&quot;</li>
+<li>&quot;The cause of free labor won a substantial triumph in the
+Missouri Compromise.&quot;</li>
+<li>&quot;The second war with England was not one of necessity, policy,
+or interest on the part of the Americans; it was rather one of
+party prejudice and passion.&quot;</li>
+</ol>
+<br />
+
+<a name='sec3-3'></a>
+<p class='sheader'>The conditions in other countries will add to his comprehension of the
+facts in the lesson</p>
+
+<p>In so far as the next lesson requires an understanding of the history or
+conditions of another country, the attention of the class should be
+directed in advance to such necessity. Special references or brief
+reports may be advisable. A few well-selected advance questions will
+send the class to recitation prepared to discuss what otherwise the
+teacher must explain. A few questions on the character of James II, his
+ideals of government, the chief causes of the revolution of 1688, and
+its most important results will do much to explain the colonial
+resistance to Andros. A few questions designed to bring out the
+imperative necessity of English resistance to Napoleon will make clear
+the hostile commercial decrees, impressment, and interference with the
+rights of neutral ships. Such questions reduce the necessity of
+explanation by the teacher to a minimum.</p>
+<br />
+
+<a name='sec3-4'></a>
+<p class='sheader'>His disposition to study intensively will be encouraged</p>
+
+<p>If the teacher expects the class to deal more intensively than the text
+with the matters discussed in the lesson, a few advance questions will
+be of great assistance. Suppose, for example, that the text contents
+itself with saying that for political reasons the first United States
+Bank was not rechartered, and shortly after informs the reader that the
+second United States Bank was rechartered because the State banks had
+suspended specie payments. The student may or may not be curious about
+the failure of the first bank to receive a new charter, the operation of
+State banks, or why they suspended payment in 1814. If he has been
+properly taught, he probably will be, but if the teacher wishes to
+discuss these considerations in detail at the next recitation it will be
+infinitely better to have the facts contributed by the class than for
+the teacher to do the reciting. It is quite possible that the individual
+answers to advance questions assigned with such a purpose will be
+incomplete, but the interest of the class will be incalculably greater
+if they themselves furnish the bulk of the additional matter required.
+Collectively the class will usually secure complete answers to
+reasonable questions. The teacher has his opportunity in supplying such
+important facts as the students fail to find.</p>
+
+<p>Until the student may reasonably be expected to know the books of the
+library having to do with his subject, the teacher in giving out an
+advance lesson should mention by author and title the books most helpful
+in the preparation of assigned questions; otherwise the student in a
+perfectly sincere effort to do the work assigned may spend an hour in
+search of the proper book.</p>
+
+<p>It may be urged that this search is a valuable experience, but it is
+obviously too costly. As the year advances and the pupil learns more and
+more about the uses of books and methods of investigation increasingly
+less specific instruction as to sources should be given by the teacher.
+Early in the year, with four lessons to prepare daily, the pupil cannot
+afford an hour simply to search for a book. He needs that hour for
+preparation of other work, and if by some fortunate conjunction of
+circumstances his other work is not sufficiently exacting to require it,
+he cannot hope to appear in history class with a well-prepared lesson
+if an hour of his time has been spent in simply looking for a book.</p>
+
+<p>It is frequently worth while to spend a few minutes of the recitation in
+characterizing the epoch in which the events of the lesson take place or
+in listening to a brief character sketch of the men contributing to
+these events. Care should of course be taken that biography does not
+usurp the place of history, but it materially adds to the interest of
+the recitation if the kings, generals, and statesmen cease to be merely
+historical characters and become human beings.</p>
+<br />
+
+<a name='sec3-5'></a>
+<p class='sheader'>His acquaintance with the great men and women of history will be
+vitalized</p>
+
+<p>It is needless to say that characterizations of men or epochs should not
+be assigned without instruction as to how they should be prepared. In
+the case of a great historical character, what is needed for class
+purposes is not a biography with the dry facts of birth, marriage,
+death, etc. The report should be brief, but bristling with adjectives
+supported in each case by at least one fact of the man's life. These may
+be selected from his personal appearance, private life, amusements,
+education, obstacles overcome, public services, political sagacity, or
+military prowess. The sketch may close with a few brief estimates by
+biographers or historians of his proper place in history.</p>
+
+<p>If a characterization of a period of history is to be required, the
+teacher should explain that such a characterization should be an
+exercise in the selection of brief statements of fact reflecting the
+ideals, institutions, and conditions of the period being described. From
+histories, source books, fiction, and literature, let the student select
+facts illustrating such things as the spirit of the laws, conditions at
+court, public education, amusements of the people, social progress,
+position of religion, etc. A little time spent in characterizing a
+period of history and a few of its great men will assist in changing the
+recital of the bare facts given in the text to an intelligent
+understanding of conditions and a vital discussion of events. For
+instance, the ordinary high school text, in dealing with the French and
+Indian war, speaks briefly of the lack of English success during the
+early part of the struggle and then says that with the coming of Pitt to
+the ministry the whole course of events was changed because of the great
+statesman's wonderful personality. The teacher who wishes to make such a
+dramatic circumstance really vital to his class must have more
+information with which to work. A picture of the coarse, vulgar England
+with its incompetent army and navy, apathetic church, and corrupt
+government, followed by a stirring character sketch of the great Pitt,
+will cost but a few minutes of the recitation and will metamorphose a
+moribund attention to a vital interest.</p>
+
+<p>Care should be taken that the characterizations given in class be
+properly prepared. To this end it will be well to assign the preparation
+of these sketches at least a week in advance, at the same time arranging
+a conference with the student a day or two before the recitation. In
+this conference the teacher should make such corrections in the pupil's
+method of preparation and selection of matter as seem necessary. The
+characterizations should not be read, but delivered by the student
+facing the class, precisely for the moment as though he were the
+teacher. Future tests and examinations should hold the class responsible
+for the facts thus presented. If, as is too often the case in work of
+this sort, the student giving the report is the sole beneficiary of the
+exercise, the time required is disproportionate to the benefit derived.</p>
+<br />
+
+<a name='sec3-6'></a>
+<p class='sheader'>He will correlate the past and the present</p>
+
+<p>If there are facts recounted in the lesson that may be clinched in the
+student's mind by showing the relation of those facts to present-day
+conditions or institutions, a few advance questions calculated to bring
+out this relationship may well be assigned.</p>
+
+<p>It is generally conceded that one chief purpose of history instruction
+is to enable us to interpret the present and the future in the light of
+the past, but it all too often happens that current history is forgotten
+in the recital of facts that are centuries old. Candidates for teachers'
+certificates in their examinations in United States history show far
+less knowledge about the great problems and events of the present day
+than they do of colonial history. The student in English history in our
+high schools to-day knows all about the Domesday Book, but almost
+nothing of the recent history of England. Quite possibly the text has
+nothing to say about it, and it is equally likely that the class may
+fail to cover the text and miss the little that is actually given. No
+opportunity should be missed to indicate the bearing of the past on
+present-day conditions. Even if the events of the lesson exert no direct
+influence on affairs to-day, their significance may be brought home to
+the student by an illustration from current history. The account of the
+Black Death gives excellent occasion for a brief discussion of modern
+sanitation and the war on the White Plague. The efforts of Parliament to
+fix wages can be illustrated by some of the minimum wage laws passed by
+recent legislatures. John Ball's teachings suggest a brief discussion of
+modern socialism, daily becoming more active in its influence. The
+medieval trade guilds and modern labor unions; the monopolies of
+Elizabeth's time and the anti-trust law of to-day; George the Third's
+two hundred capital crimes and modern methods of penology; the jealousy
+of Athens in guarding the privilege of citizenship and the facility with
+which immigrants at present become American citizens are only a few
+illustrations, indicating the ease with which the past and the present
+may be correlated.</p>
+<br />
+
+<a name='sec3-7'></a>
+<p class='sheader'>He will be required to memorize a limited amount of matter verbatim</p>
+
+<p>In assigning a lesson it is sometimes desirable to require certain
+matter to be learned <i>verbatim</i>. In American history the Preamble to the
+Constitution, the principles of government contained in the Declaration
+of Independence, the essential doctrine in the Virginia and Kentucky
+Resolutions, certain clauses of the Constitution, and extracts from
+other historical documents may well be required to be memorized
+accurately. It is scarcely to be supposed that the student can improve
+on the clarity and definiteness of the English in such documents. He is
+expected to understand the principles which they assert. He may well be
+required to train his memory to accuracy by learning certain assignments
+<i>verbatim</i>. If memory work received a little more attention in our high
+schools to-day, we should be less likely to hear the statement of a
+political creed neutralized by the omission of an important word. We
+should be less likely to see the classic words of Lincoln mangled beyond
+recognition by messy misquotation.</p>
+
+<p>The assignment of advance questions such as have been suggested
+possesses several advantages. It makes it possible for the teacher to
+hold the class responsible for definite preparation, very much as the
+teacher in algebra is able to do with the problems assigned in advance.
+It forces the students to do most of the talking. It encourages an
+intelligent use of the library in a manner calculated to develop the
+student's powers of investigation. If the pupil forgets most of his
+history, but retains the ability to investigate carefully, thoroughly,
+and critically, the plan has more than justified itself. The plan
+enables the teacher to spend his time in explanation of what the pupil
+has been unable to do for herself, and thus effects a considerable
+saving in time. It would be interesting to secure a statement of how
+much of the teacher's time is ordinarily spent in doing for the student
+in recitation what he should have done for himself before coming to
+class. It substitutes for the pupil's snap judgment, given without much
+thought and too frequently influenced by the inflection of the teacher's
+voice, an opinion that has resulted from research and deliberation
+unbiased by the teacher's personal views.</p>
+
+<p>It is too much to expect high school pupils to solve historical problems
+extemporaneously. If inferences and contrasts other than those given in
+the text are to be drawn, if statements are to be defended or opposed,
+the high school student should be given time to prepare his answer.
+Aside from the injustice of any other procedure, it is a hopeless waste
+of time to spend the precious minutes of the recitation in gathering
+negative replies and worthless judgments.</p>
+<br />
+
+<a name='sec3-8'></a>
+<p class='sheader'>Methods of preparing questions assigned in advance</p>
+
+<p>It may be urged that such an assignment of a lesson as that proposed is
+too ambitious and that it exacts too much of the teacher's time. In
+answer it should be said that specialists in history ought surely to
+have read widely enough and studied deeply enough to be <i>able</i> to select
+intelligent questions of the sort suggested. We have assumed that the
+teacher has made adequate preparation for his work. Certainly, then, he
+should be ready to explain the social, geographical, and economic
+relation of the events mentioned in the lesson. He should know their
+bearing on current history. He should always have ready a fund of
+information, additional to that given in the text. In preparing advance
+questions for distribution to the class the teacher is preparing his own
+lesson. He may be doing it a day or two earlier than he would otherwise
+do, but surely he is performing no labor additional to what may
+reasonably be expected of him. As to the time required to prepare copies
+of the questions for distribution when the class convenes, it may be
+said that a neostyle or mimeograph, with which all large schools and
+many small ones are equipped, makes short work of preparing as many
+copies of the questions as desired. If there is a commercial department
+in connection with the school, an available stenographer, or a willing
+student helper, the teacher may easily relieve himself of the work of
+supplying the copies. If none of these expedients are possible, it is no
+Herculean task to write each day on the board the few questions for the
+next lesson. It will entail no great loss of time if the class are asked
+to copy them when they first come to recitation. If it is possible to
+copy them after the recitation, so much the better. And beyond the
+obvious advantages of a carefully assigned lesson it must be remembered
+that in the assignment of special topics, in private conferences with
+the student, in the correction of notes, in giving assistance in the
+library, the teacher has an opportunity to cultivate a sympathetic
+relation between himself and the class of inestimable service in
+securing the best results.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style='width: 65%;' />
+<a name='IV'></a><h2>IV</h2>
+
+<h3>THE METHOD OF THE RECITATION</h3>
+
+<a name='sec4-1'></a>
+<p class='sheader'>Assumptions as to the recitation room</p>
+
+<p>Let us now assume that the recitation will be held in a quiet room free
+from the distracting influence of poor light, poor ventilation, and
+inadequate seating capacity. The blackboard space is ample for the whole
+class, the erasers and chalk are at hand, the maps, charts, and globe
+are where they can be used without stumbling over them. The teacher can
+give his whole attention to the class. Discipline should take care of
+itself. The pupil who is interested will not be seriously out of order.</p>
+<br />
+
+<a name='sec4-2'></a>
+<p class='sheader'>What the teacher should aim to accomplish</p>
+
+<p>The problem, then, is so to expend the forty-five minutes in which the
+teacher and class are together that:&mdash;</p>
+
+<ol>
+<li>So far as possible the atmosphere and setting of the period
+being studied may be reproduced.</li>
+<li>The great historical characters spoken of in the lesson may
+become for the student real men and women with whom he will
+afterwards feel a personal acquaintance.</li>
+<li>The events described will be understood and properly interpreted
+in their relation to geography, and the economic and social
+progress of the world.</li>
+<li>Causes and effects shall be properly analyzed.</li>
+<li>And that there shall be left sufficient time for the occasional
+review necessary to any good instruction.</li>
+</ol>
+<br />
+
+<a name='sec4-3'></a>
+<p class='sheader'>Work at the blackboard</p>
+
+<p>The first five minutes may profitably be spent at the board, each member
+of the class being asked to write a complete answer to one of the
+assigned questions. Whatever may happen later in the recitation each
+student has had at least this much of an opportunity for
+self-expression, and his work should be neat, workmanlike, complete, and
+accurate. By this device the alert teacher will secure in the first five
+minutes of the recitation hour a fairly accurate idea of each student's
+preparation, the weak spots in his understanding of the lesson, and the
+errors to be corrected. He may even be able to record a grade for the
+work done.</p>
+<br />
+
+<a name='sec4-4'></a>
+<p class='sheader'>Special reports</p>
+
+<p>The class having taken their seats, the next order of business should be
+the reports on special topics assigned for the purpose of making the
+period of history under discussion more interesting and vital. As has
+been said, these reports should not be read, but delivered by the pupil
+facing the class. The class should be encouraged to ask questions on the
+report when finished and the student responsible for the report should
+be expected to answer any reasonable inquiry. If other students are able
+to contribute to the topics reported on, they should be encouraged to do
+so. Let the teacher be sure that he has sounded the depths of the
+students' information and curiosity before he himself discusses the
+report. If the device of reports delivered in class is to justify
+itself, the matter contained in them must be so arranged and discussed
+that the whole class receives real benefit. The ingenious teacher will
+be able to establish a tradition in his course for a careful preparation
+and critical discussion of these reports. The rivalry of students for
+excellence in this work is not difficult to stimulate. A premium should
+be put on criticism which finds mentioned in the characterization
+qualities inconsistent with the facts recorded in the text, or omissions
+which the facts of the text seem to justify.</p>
+<br />
+
+<a name='sec4-5'></a>
+<p class='sheader'>Fundamental principles of good questioning</p>
+
+<p>It is not likely that the teacher will find it advisable to require
+reports at every recitation nor that the reports and their discussion
+will consume, at the most, longer than ten or fifteen minutes of any
+class period. There must always be time for direct oral questioning on
+the facts of the lesson; questioning that will test the student's
+memory, ability to analyze, and powers of expression. Certain principles
+are fundamental to good questioning in any recitation.</p>
+
+<ol>
+<li>The questions should be brief.</li>
+<li>They should be prepared by the teacher before coming to
+recitation. This will insure rapidity. A vast deal of time is
+lost by the unfortunate habit possessed by many teachers of
+never having the next question ready to use.</li>
+<li>They should precede the name of the pupil required to answer it.</li>
+<li>They should not be leading questions to which the pupil can
+guess the answers.</li>
+<li>They should be grammatically stated with but one possible
+interpretation.</li>
+<li>Except for purposes of rapid review they should not be
+answerable with yes or no.</li>
+<li>They should be asked in a voice loud enough to be heard by all
+the class, and only once.</li>
+<li>They should be asked in no regular order, but nevertheless in
+such a way that every member of the class will have a chance to
+recite.</li>
+</ol>
+<br />
+
+<a name='sec4-6'></a>
+<p class='sheader'>Some additional suggestions for teachers of history</p>
+
+<p>There are additional suggestions particularly applicable to the teacher
+of history.</p>
+
+<ol>
+<li>In all the questioning remember the purposes of the recitation.
+Ask questions knowing exactly what you wish as an answer. There
+is no time for aimless or idle questioning.</li>
+<li>Inquire frequently as to the books used in preparation of the
+lesson. Let no allusion or statement in the text go unexplained.
+Let none of the author's conclusions or opinions go
+unchallenged. Ask the student for inconsistencies, inaccuracies,
+or contradictions in the text. Put a premium on their discovery.
+Insist on the student's authority for statements other than
+those given in the text.</li>
+<li>Do not use the heavy-typed words frequently found at the head of
+the paragraph or the topical heads furnished by the text, if it
+can be avoided. The pupil should not be allowed to remember his
+history by its location in the text.</li>
+<li>Be sure that the class have an opportunity to recite on the
+questions assigned for their advance preparation. Nothing is
+more discouraging to a student than carefully to prepare the
+work required and then fail of an opportunity either to recite
+upon or to discuss it.</li>
+<li>Discover the tastes, shortcomings, and abilities of your
+individual students and direct your future questions
+accordingly. There will usually be in the class the boy who is
+glib without being accurate. He should be questioned on definite
+facts. There will be the student whose analysis of events is
+good, but whose powers of description are poor. Adapt your
+questions to his special need. There will be the pupil with the
+tendency to memorize the text <i>verbatim</i>. There will be the
+student who knows the facts of the lesson, but who fails to
+remember the sequence of events&mdash;the kind who never can tell
+whether the Exclusion Bill came before or after the Restoration.
+There will be the usual amount of specialized tastes, curiosity,
+timidity, laziness, and rattle-brained thinking. The questioning
+should probe these peculiarities, and stimulate the pupil's
+ambition to improve his preparation at its weakest point.
+Needless to say the questions should not be asked with the daily
+idea of making the pupil fail. Like any other surgical
+instrument the question probe should be used skillfully and with
+a proper motive. It would be as great an error to bend your
+questions continually away from the student's special tastes and
+abilities as to be perpetually guided by them.</li>
+<li>The bulk of the teacher's attention should be given neither to
+the few exceptionally able students nor to the few very poor
+pupils. It is to the average normal boy and girl that the most
+of the questioning should be directed. The brilliant student
+should be called on sufficiently to retain his interest and to
+set a standard of excellence for the class. He should be given
+the most difficult of the assignments of outside work and if
+necessary an additional number of them. As to the few pupils
+whom the teacher deems exceptionally poor, it may be said that
+the effect of questioning should never be to discourage the
+pupil who has made an honest effort at preparation. During the
+early part of the course the efforts of the teacher may well be
+directed to asking the backward student questions to which he
+can make reasonably satisfactory answers. By saving the student
+from the daily humiliation of failure before the class, and by
+tactfully encouraging him to greater effort, the teacher may
+shortly discover that the poor pupil is far from hopeless.</li>
+<li>Do not allow your questions to consume a disproportionate amount
+of time with details. Until very recently in all our history
+teaching, battles have been exalted to a place immeasurably
+greater than their importance. We are coming to see that the
+fighting is one of the least important things in the war. The
+causes and results, the financial, political, and social effects
+now absorb our attention. One or two battles in a course may
+profitably be studied in detail, particularly in the history of
+our own country, but in the press of considerations far more
+interesting and vital, it is a waste of time to give more than a
+moment's notice to the remainder. Student descriptions of
+battles are bound to be stereotyped. The ordinary textbook
+describes each of the thousand battles of the world in about the
+same fifty words.</li>
+<li>Let some of the questions be directed towards cultivating the
+student's powers of oral description. History is not altogether
+a matter of analysis or generalization. There can scarcely be
+assigned a lesson in history that does not contain events which
+lend themselves to dramatic description. Their recital should be
+made the occasion of the student's best efforts in this
+direction. Let the pupils be taught to use adjectives and
+adverbs. Break down the barrier of listlessness or fear or
+self-consciousness which keeps the student from rendering a
+graphic and thrilling account of great events.</li>
+<li>Let the questions from day to day develop the continuity of
+history. Avoid questioning that fails to unite the events of
+previous lessons with the one being studied. Bring out the
+connection of the past and the present. Slavery existed in
+America for two hundred years before the Civil War was fought.
+Your teaching of those two centuries of history should be so
+conducted that when the Civil War is finally reached, the class
+can tell the process by which anti-slavery sentiment was finally
+crystallized. The hiatus between the mobbing of Garrison in
+Boston and the extraordinary contribution of Massachusetts to
+the Northern army should be bridged, not by a heroic question or
+two when the war is finally reached, but by a daily attention to
+the events which effected the metamorphosis.</li>
+<li>If the answer to your question requires the use of a map, ask
+it in such a way that the student can talk and use the map at
+the same time. The geographical provisions of a treaty, the
+routes of explorers, the grants of commercial companies,
+campaigns, or military frontiers should all be recited in this
+way. A wall map with simply the outline of the territory, with
+its rivers, will be of considerable assistance in testing the
+accuracy of the student's geographical knowledge. While
+reciting, let him locate with chalk or pointer the cities,
+arbitrary boundary lines, and routes he finds it necessary to
+mention in his recitation. It will require special attention
+early in the course to teach students the necessity for
+preparation of this sort. Like everything else, map work should
+be reasonable in its requirements. A knowledge of geography is
+imperative to the correct understanding of history, and the
+indifference or ignorance of teachers should never excuse
+inattention to this vital necessity. On the other hand, however,
+it is equally reprehensible to require of high school students
+the labored preparation of maps in the drawing of which hours of
+valuable time are spent in searching for places of trivial
+importance and small historical value. Map work in a high school
+history course should require no more than geographical accuracy
+in locating boundaries, routes, and places really vital to the
+history of the people being studied. If it does more than this
+it usurps time disproportionate to its value.</li>
+</ol>
+
+
+<hr style='width: 65%;' />
+<a name='V'></a><h2>V</h2>
+
+<h3>VARIOUS MODES OF REVIEW</h3>
+
+<a name='sec5-1'></a>
+<p class='sheader'>The place of drill in the history recitation</p>
+
+<p>We have long since learned the folly of spending very many of the
+minutes of a recitation in drilling students in dates, outlines, and
+charts. Work of this sort never made a recitation vital; never inspired
+a student with enthusiasm for historical inquiry; never really dispelled
+the fog which surrounds, for the student, the cabinets and
+constitutions, battles and boundaries, declarations and decrees, so
+briefly treated in the text.</p>
+<br />
+
+<a name='sec5-2'></a>
+<p class='sheader'>Good reviews will develop a knowledge of the sequence of events</p>
+
+<p>But it may be seriously questioned whether many teachers, in their zeal
+to escape the over-emphasis of dates, have not gone to the extreme of
+neglecting them altogether. That a student should remember sufficient
+dates to fix in his mind the sequence of important events is hardly open
+to question. That he can never do so without some special attention to
+dates is equally indisputable. Without doubt, drill in important dates
+is necessary, but it should be so conducted as to take but little time.
+Each day the teacher has indicated the dates worthy to be remembered and
+has been careful to select the landmarks of history. He has called
+attention to the various collateral circumstances which might assist to
+fix the dates in the child's mind. The student has kept his list of
+dates in the back of his text or in some convenient place of reference.
+Once a week for three minutes the teacher gives the class a rapid review
+on the dates contained in the list. Occasionally the class are sent to
+the board and asked to write the dates of the reigns of the English
+monarchs from William down to the point which the class has reached, or
+the Presidents in their order, or some other similar exercise calculated
+to give a backbone to the history being studied. The class will know
+that such a review is liable to be given at any time. They will endeavor
+to be prepared. The result will be that with the expenditure of a few
+minutes at intervals in rapid review, history will cease to be a
+spineless narrative and become for the student an orderly procession of
+events. Drill in dates is only one method to this end. There may be a
+rapid review in battles, generals, wars, treaties, proclamations, and
+inventions. Such exercises encourage the classification of facts and
+stimulate fluency of expression. It is of the highest importance for the
+student so to arrange in his mind what he has learned in recitation that
+he can call to his command at a second's notice the fact, date, or
+illustration he desires. There will be many times in his school and
+college career when such an ability will be indispensable; in business
+or the professions it is an invaluable asset, infinitely more useful
+than the history itself. It will be well for the teacher to inquire:
+&quot;What am I doing to cultivate such an ability in my students?&quot;</p>
+<br />
+
+<a name='sec5-3'></a>
+<p class='sheader'>They will give a view of the whole subject</p>
+
+<p>Few teachers will deny that too little time is spent in giving the
+student a general view of the whole subject, either in its entirety or
+in its various phases. The text has been studied by chapters or by
+months or by movements. The history as a whole has never been seen. By
+the time the student has reached the &quot;Aldrich Currency Plan&quot; in American
+history he has forgotten all about the experiments with the first United
+States Bank. He could no more outline the financial history of the
+United States as given in his text than he could outline the industrial
+or political history of the American people. And yet he has studied the
+facts given in his textbook; he has supplemented the text by his work in
+the library, and in the recitation; he has done everything that may
+reasonably be expected of him, except to assemble his historical
+information and review it as a whole.</p>
+
+<p>If the student in American history is asked to go to the board at
+intervals and write an outline for the work covered on such topics as
+the following, he will come much nearer understanding the progress of
+our people:&mdash;</p>
+
+<ol>
+<li>History of the tariff.</li>
+<li>Political parties and principles for which they stood.</li>
+<li>Things that crystallized Northern sentiment against slavery.</li>
+<li>Reasons for the unification of the South.</li>
+<li>Diplomatic relations of the United States.</li>
+<li>Additions of territory.</li>
+<li>Financial legislation.</li>
+<li>Growth of humanitarian spirit.</li>
+</ol>
+
+<p>There will easily be sufficient topics so that each member of the class
+will have a different one. They can all work at the board,
+simultaneously. The amount of time used for exercises of this sort need
+not be great, and the value received is incalculable.</p>
+
+<p>If the teacher wishes to review briefly on the military, diplomatic,
+social, political, or economic history of the people the class have been
+studying, it is no difficult matter to arrange a set of questions, the
+occasional review in which will clinch in the student's mind what
+otherwise would surely be forgotten. Such questions as the following on
+the financial history of the United States are each answerable with a
+few words and will serve as an illustration of the method which may be
+employed in reviewing any other phase of history:&mdash;</p>
+
+<ol>
+<li>By what means was trade accomplished before the use of money?</li>
+<li>What are the functions of money?</li>
+<li>What determines the amount of money needed in a country?</li>
+<li>What has been used for money at various periods of our history?</li>
+<li>What is meant by doing business on credit?</li>
+<li>What is cheap money?</li>
+<li>What is Gresham's Law?</li>
+<li>What is the effect of large issues of paper money on prices?</li>
+<li>What is the effect of large issues of paper money on wages?</li>
+<li>Why does the wage-earner suffer?</li>
+<li>At what periods in American history have large issues of paper
+money been emitted?</li>
+<li>What were the objects of the first United States Bank?</li>
+<li>Did the bank accomplish them?</li>
+<li>Why was it not rechartered?</li>
+<li>When was the second United States Bank chartered?</li>
+<li>Why?</li>
+<li>What case decided the constitutionality of the bank?</li>
+<li>Did the second United States Bank accomplish the purpose for
+which it was formed?</li>
+<li>Why was the second United States Bank rechartered?</li>
+<li>What is meant by &quot;Wildcat Banking&quot;?</li>
+<li>What are the dates of our greatest panics?</li>
+<li>What were the chief causes?</li>
+<li>What was the effect on prices?</li>
+<li>What on wages?</li>
+<li>Under what President was the independent treasury first
+established?</li>
+<li>Is it in existence to-day?</li>
+<li>When were greenbacks issued?</li>
+<li>To what amount?</li>
+<li>Who was responsible for the issue?</li>
+<li>Were they legal tender for private debts contracted before
+their issue?</li>
+<li>When was the Resumption Act passed?</li>
+<li>Are the greenbacks in circulation to-day?</li>
+<li>What is free silver?</li>
+<li>What was the &quot;Crime of '73&quot;?</li>
+<li>What was the &quot;Bland-Allison Act&quot;?</li>
+<li>What was the Currency Act of 1900?</li>
+<li>What is Bimetallism?</li>
+<li>What is meant by &quot;Mint Ratio&quot;?</li>
+<li>What is meant by &quot;Market Ratio&quot;?</li>
+<li>What is meant by &quot;Free Coinage&quot;?</li>
+<li>What is meant by &quot;Gratuitous Coinage&quot;?</li>
+<li>What is meant by &quot;Standard Money&quot;?</li>
+<li>With the market ratio at 30 to 1 and the mint ratio at 16 to 1,
+which money would tend to disappear from circulation if both
+metals are freely coined and made full legal tender?</li>
+<li>Why is silver not the standard to-day?</li>
+<li>What is the &quot;Aldrich Plan&quot;?</li>
+<li>What is a United States bond?</li>
+<li>Is it a secure investment?</li>
+<li>What is its average rate of interest?</li>
+<li>By whom is a national bank chartered?</li>
+<li>May it issue paper money?</li>
+<li>When was the first National Banking Act passed?</li>
+<li>Why?</li>
+<li>Why should banking business be profitable under the act?</li>
+<li>What advantage did the Government expect to receive in passing
+the act?</li>
+<li>Are deposits guaranteed?</li>
+<li>May States emit bills of credit?</li>
+<li>Is it constitutional for banks chartered by the State to emit
+bills of credit?</li>
+<li>Do they do so to-day?</li>
+<li>Why?</li>
+</ol>
+
+<p>Obviously as the year advances, the list of questions for review grows
+longer. An increasing amount of time should therefore be devoted to work
+of this sort.</p>
+<br />
+
+<a name='sec5-4'></a>
+<p class='sheader'>They will insure a better acquaintance with great men and women</p>
+
+<p>The most superficial observation will suffice to convince anyone that
+high school graduates know very little about the great men and women of
+history. The character sketches suggested earlier in the chapter,
+supplemented with occasional reviews, will do much to improve this
+condition. These drills may be conducted by asking for brief statements
+on the greatest service or the most distinguishing characteristic of the
+great men and women met with in the course. The same thing is
+accomplished by reversing the process and asking such questions
+as,&mdash;&quot;Who was the American Fabius&quot;? or &quot;The Great Compromiser&quot;? or the
+&quot;Sage of Menlo Park&quot;? etc. Questions on the authorship of great
+documents, the founders of institutions, the organizers of movements,
+reformers, philosophers, artists, statesmen, generals, accomplish the
+same purpose.</p>
+<br />
+
+<a name='sec5-5'></a>
+<p class='sheader'>They will be economical of time</p>
+
+<p>There are a vast number of review questions answerable with <i>yes</i> or
+<i>no</i>. The student's knowledge of the subject may be quickly discovered
+and a rapid review conducted by a series of such questions. The
+following list on American history will illustrate the method:&mdash;</p>
+
+<ol>
+<li>Was Cromwell's colonial policy helpful to the American colonies?</li>
+<li>Did the Revolution of 1688 have any effect on the colonies?</li>
+<li>Were the Huguenots excluded from Canada?</li>
+<li>Were the Writs of Assistance used in England?</li>
+<li>Did America ever have a theocracy?</li>
+<li>Did the rule of 1756 affect the people of the colonies?</li>
+<li>Was the Sugar Act legal?</li>
+<li>Was there any effort to amend the Articles of Confederation?</li>
+<li>Does funding a debt lessen it?</li>
+<li>Did Hamilton's measures tend to centralize power?</li>
+<li>Did the members of the Constitutional Convention exceed their
+instructions?</li>
+<li>Is a cabinet provided for in the Constitution?</li>
+<li>Does the Constitution of the United States prevent a State from
+establishing a religion?</li>
+<li>Is it possible for a State to repudiate its debts?</li>
+<li>Does the constitutional provision for uniform duties protect
+the Territories?</li>
+<li>Was impressment practiced in England?</li>
+<li>Did the Whigs favor internal improvements?</li>
+<li>Did the North favor the Force Bill of 1833?</li>
+<li>Did Massachusetts favor the Tariff of 1816?</li>
+<li>Did the Republican party stand for the abolition of slavery in
+1860?</li>
+<li>Did the Emancipation Proclamation free all the slaves in the
+United States?</li>
+<li>Did the working-men of England favor the South during the Civil
+War?</li>
+<li>Was it necessary for the South to resort to the draft?</li>
+<li>Could a man in 1860 consistently accept both the Dred Scott
+decision and the doctrine of popular sovereignty?</li>
+<li>Did Lincoln's assassination have any effect on the
+reconstruction policy?</li>
+<li>Does the Federal Constitution compel negro suffrage?</li>
+<li>Was the Anaconda System successful?</li>
+<li>Was a President of the United States ever impeached?</li>
+<li>Were the claims for indirect damages in the Alabama claims
+allowed?</li>
+<li>Did Calhoun favor the Compromise of 1850?</li>
+<li>Did Thaddeus Stevens favor the Fifteenth Amendment to the
+Constitution?</li>
+<li>Did Lincoln favor the social equality of the white and black
+races?</li>
+<li>Did Grant favor the Tenure of Office Act?</li>
+<li>Did Lee make more than one attempt to invade the North?</li>
+<li>Was the &quot;Ohio Idea&quot; ever strong enough to affect legislation?</li>
+<li>Did Spain have any part in calling out the Monroe Doctrine?</li>
+<li>Has the United States any control over the debts of Cuba?</li>
+<li>Has a joint resolution ever been used to acquire territory
+other than that included in Texas?</li>
+<li>Has the United States ever resorted to a tax on incomes?</li>
+<li>Has the Federal Government ever attempted to restrict the power
+of the press?</li>
+<li>Is it illegal to-day for a railway to give a cheaper rate to
+one shipper than to another?</li>
+<li>Has the Republican party ever reduced the protective tariffs of
+the war?</li>
+<li>Did the Civil Service Act passed in 1883 include postmasters?</li>
+<li>Did the Wilson-Gorman Act reduce the tariff to a revenue basis?</li>
+<li>Can a railway engaged solely in intra-state business carry a
+case, involving a reduction of their rates by the State
+legislature, to the Supreme Court of the United States?</li>
+<li>Is Utah a part of the Louisiana Purchase?</li>
+<li>If the mint ratio is 16 to 1 and the market ratio is 17 to 1,
+will the gold dollar be the standard if there is full legal
+tender and free coinage for both gold and silver?</li>
+<li>Is the Canadian frontier fortified?</li>
+<li>Are the functions of government in this country increasing?</li>
+<li>Is it possible for a man to be defeated for the Presidency if a
+majority of the people vote for him?</li>
+</ol>
+
+<p>The great disadvantage of this kind of review is that the students have
+for their answer a choice between two words, one of which is bound to be
+correct. Knowing nothing whatever of the subject, they will still stand
+a fifty per cent chance of answering correctly. The alert teacher should
+be able to reduce this haphazard answering to a minimum, while still
+reaping the advantages of rapidity and thoroughness which the plan
+possesses. Few other methods will cover as much ground in as short time.
+On the Federal Constitution there are infinite possibilities for &quot;yes
+and no&quot; questioning, which afford a brief and effective means of review
+in the principles of American government.</p>
+<br />
+
+<a name='sec5-6'></a>
+<p class='sheader'>They will secure fluency</p>
+
+<p>Review for the purpose of securing fluency is a consideration frequently
+lost sight of by high school history teachers. It may be too sanguine to
+expect fluency of the average student reciting on a topic for the first
+time. But when it is considered how very many important questions are
+never recited on but once, the wisdom of an occasional review to secure
+rapid, fluent, and complete answers to topics previously discussed is
+readily seen. Select a list of topics that will at one and the same time
+cultivate fluency and strengthen the memory for the important
+considerations of history. Fluency in itself does not possess sufficient
+value to justify the expenditure of recitation time. Facility of
+expression needs to be cultivated in discussion of the conclusions
+reached in class which need to be clinched in the student's mind. Such
+questions as the following will serve as illustrations of the kind
+adaptable for such purpose, at the middle of a year course in American
+history:&mdash;</p>
+
+<ol>
+<li>Give three distinct characteristics of French colonization in
+America; three of Spanish; three of English.</li>
+<li>What things did the English colonies possess in common?</li>
+<li>What were the results to the colonies of the French and Indian
+War?</li>
+<li>To what extent was the Revolution brought about by economic
+causes?</li>
+<li>What were the defects in the Articles of Confederation?</li>
+<li>Account for the downfall of the Federalist party.</li>
+<li>In what ways has democracy advanced since 1789?</li>
+<li>What were the results of the struggle over the admission of
+Missouri?</li>
+<li>Discuss the growth of the sentiment for internal improvements?</li>
+<li>Describe the social life of the Western pioneer?</li>
+</ol>
+<br />
+
+<a name='sec5-7'></a>
+<p class='sheader'>What the student may do with &quot;problems&quot; in history</p>
+
+<p>Still another kind of review of great value in strengthening the
+student's ability to generalize and analyze, consists of what might be
+called &quot;problems in history.&quot; They are given out in much the same way as
+original problems in geometry, assuming that the student is acquainted
+with the facts from which to deduce the answers to the question. The
+object of such a review is to give the student practice in original
+thinking. He is not supposed to use a library, but only the facts which
+are in his text or which have been previously brought out in class
+recitations.</p>
+
+<p>The following are examples of questions adaptable for this purpose:&mdash;</p>
+
+<ol>
+<li>Why can the American people be regarded as the world's greatest
+colonizers?</li>
+<li>Why could Washington be regarded as only an Englishman living in
+America?</li>
+<li>Is it true that the South lost the Civil War because of slavery?</li>
+<li>In what particulars did Andrew Jackson accurately reflect the
+spirit or the ideals of the new West?</li>
+<li>What is illustrated by the attempt to found the State of
+Franklin?</li>
+<li>What considerations made the secession of the West in our early
+history a likely possibility?</li>
+</ol>
+
+<p>Questions of this kind, not answered directly in class or in the text,
+may be given out a day in advance and the answers collected at the next
+recitation.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style='width: 65%;' />
+<a name='VI'></a><h2>VI</h2>
+
+<h3>THE USE OF WRITTEN REPORTS</h3>
+
+<a name='sec6-1'></a>
+<p class='sheader'>The purpose of theme work should change as the course continues</p>
+
+<p>A method frequently employed by teachers of history is to require
+written reports or themes on various phases of the history as the work
+progresses. This plan is particularly valuable for the students in the
+first two years of high school history, for the reason that their
+library requirements are less exacting and their need of fluency greater
+during that time than later in their course. The objects of theme work
+in history courses are usually to arouse the pupil's powers of
+observation, description, and narration, and to provide means of drill
+in the exercise of these powers. These should not be the sole purposes
+of theme work, however. As the year advances, an increasing amount of
+the written work should be on subjects requiring some generalization or
+analysis of the facts brought out in the text or in the recitation. The
+pupil who has written a theme describing the appearance of the Pyramids
+has completed an exercise in history less valuable than that of the
+student who writes a theme on the errors of the Athenian Democracy.</p>
+
+<p>To summarize, reviews in history should consist of both oral and written
+work; they should be rapid enough to insure quick thinking, alert
+attention, and small expenditure of time; they should occur with
+increasing frequency as the year advances; they should stock the memory,
+fix in the student's mind the order of events, stimulate fluency, insure
+a permanent acquaintance with the personnel of history, and give to the
+student a better view of the subject as a whole and in its various
+phases.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style='width: 65%;' />
+<a name='VII'></a><h2>VII</h2>
+
+<h3>EXAMINATIONS AS TESTS OF PROGRESS</h3>
+
+<a name='sec7-1'></a>
+<p class='sheader'>The examination should determine how much the student has progressed</p>
+
+<p>The time is coming, if it is not already here, when the public will cry out
+against the nervous fear and sleepless nights with which their children
+approach the semi-annual torture of our inquisitorial examinations. That
+reasonable examinations are essential and beneficial is hardly open to
+question. That a student should be expected correctly to answer a fair
+percentage of reasonable questions on work which has been properly
+taught is not a cause of complaint from anyone. But that children should
+be frightened into a state of nervous terror by the bugaboo of an
+impending examination, and then be forced to attempt a series of
+conundrums propounded by a teacher who takes pride in maintaining a high
+percentage of failures, is indefensible. An examination should not be
+conducted with the primary object of making it a thing to be feared.
+However desirable such a questionable asset may seem to certain college
+professors, it is a serious fault in a high school teacher to have any
+considerable number of normal children fail. The ambition of the good
+instructor is to give an examination which shall at once be thorough,
+reasonable, and intelligently directed toward finding what the student
+has really learned. His purpose is to test accurately the various
+abilities which he has endeavored to encourage in the student during his
+course. He wishes to ascertain how much the student has really
+progressed.</p>
+<br />
+
+<a name='sec7-2'></a>
+<p class='sheader'>Specific suggestions on formulating questions</p>
+
+<p>In order to do this the examination must be on the really material
+considerations of the history. Questions on unimportant details should
+be omitted. The student should not be expected to burden his memory with
+the limitless mass of petty isolated facts contained in the average
+history text. The questions should be on considerations that have been
+carefully discussed, and not on facts that have received but cursory
+attention.</p>
+
+<p>The examination should not require too much time for writing. The
+several hours' continuous nervous tension sometimes exacted by too
+ambitious teachers does the average child more harm than the
+examination can possibly do him good.</p>
+
+<p>The examination should consist of questions that will jointly or
+severally test the student's powers of description, generalization, and
+analysis. They should test his knowledge of the sequence of events, his
+ability to use a library or a map, his knowledge of the various phases
+and the various periods of the history studied. In every examination
+there should be at least one question dealing with the time and the
+order of events, one each on the geographical, political, and social
+history, one that is analytical, one that requires generalization, one
+that will test his knowledge of the library, and one that will test his
+powers of description. It is not necessary to limit the questions to the
+customary number of ten. It is frequently advisable to give a class some
+degree of choice in the selection of their questions by requiring any
+ten out of a larger number asked. Certainly such a plan gives the
+student a more favorable opportunity to demonstrate his ability without
+in the least diminishing the value of the examination.</p>
+
+<p>Examination questions, like all other questions, should be definite,
+clean-cut, and reasonable. If possible, each student should be supplied
+with a copy, instead of having the set written on the board. They
+should cover only those portions of the subject that have been properly
+taught. The teacher should not expect the boy who has kept no useful
+notes, whose library work has been haphazard, and whose methods of study
+have not been supervised, to perform at examination time the miracle of
+accurately remembering what he has never been properly taught.</p>
+
+
+<hr style='width: 65%;' />
+<a name='OUTLINE'></a><h2>OUTLINE</h2>
+
+<h3><a href='#THE_TEACHING_OF_HISTORY'>I. SOME PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS</a></h3>
+<ol>
+<li><a href='#sec1-1'>Assumptions as to the teacher of history</a></li>
+<li><a href='#sec1-2'>Actual conditions confronted by the teacher</a></li>
+</ol>
+<h3><a href='#II'>II. HOW TO BEGIN THE COURSE</a></h3>
+<ol>
+<li><a href='#sec2-1'>What should be done on the day of enrollment</a></li>
+<li><a href='#sec2-2'>What should be done at the first meeting of the class</a></li>
+<li><a href='#sec2-3'>Necessity for definite instruction in methods of
+preparing a lesson</a></li>
+<li><a href='#sec2-4'>The question of note-taking</a></li>
+<li><a href='#sec2-5'>Instruction in the use of the library and indexes</a></li>
+</ol>
+<h3><a href='#III'>III. THE ASSIGNMENT OF THE LESSON</a></h3>
+<ol>
+<li><a href='#sec3-1'>Careful assignment will reveal to the student the
+relation of geography and history</a></li>
+<li><a href='#sec3-2'>His power of analysis and criticism will be stimulated</a></li>
+<li><a href='#sec3-3'>The conditions in other countries will add to his
+comprehension of the facts in the lesson</a></li>
+<li><a href='#sec3-4'>His disposition to study intensively will be encouraged</a></li>
+<li><a href='#sec3-5'>His acquaintance with the great men and women
+of history will be vitalized</a></li>
+<li><a href='#sec3-6'>He will correlate the past and the present</a></li>
+<li><a href='#sec3-7'>He will be required to memorize a limited amount
+of matter verbatim</a></li>
+<li><a href='#sec3-8'>Methods of preparing questions assigned in advance</a></li>
+</ol>
+<h3><a href='#IV'>IV. THE METHOD OF THE RECITATION</a></h3>
+<ol>
+<li><a href='#sec4-1'>Assumptions as to the recitation room</a></li>
+<li><a href='#sec4-2'>What the teacher should aim to accomplish</a></li>
+<li><a href='#sec4-3'>Work at the blackboard</a></li>
+<li><a href='#sec4-4'>Special reports</a></li>
+<li><a href='#sec4-5'>Fundamental principles of good questioning</a></li>
+<li><a href='#sec4-6'>Some additional suggestions for teachers of history</a></li>
+</ol>
+<h3><a href='#V'>V. VARIOUS MODES OF REVIEW</a></h3>
+<ol>
+<li><a href='#sec5-1'>The place of drill in the history recitation</a></li>
+<li><a href='#sec5-2'>Good reviews will develop a knowledge of the sequence
+of events</a></li>
+<li><a href='#sec5-3'>They will give a view of the whole subject</a></li>
+<li><a href='#sec5-4'>They will insure a better acquaintance with great
+men and women</a></li>
+<li><a href='#sec5-5'>They will be economical of time</a></li>
+<li><a href='#sec5-6'>They will secure fluency</a></li>
+<li><a href='#sec5-7'>What the student may do with &quot;problems&quot;
+in history</a></li>
+</ol>
+<h3><a href='#VI'>VI. THE USE OF WRITTEN REPORTS</a></h3>
+<ol>
+<li><a href='#sec6-1'>The purpose of theme work should change as the
+course continues</a></li>
+</ol>
+<h3><a href='#VII'>VII. EXAMINATIONS AS TESTS OF PROGRESS</a></h3>
+<ol>
+<li><a href='#sec7-1'>The examination should determine how much the
+student has progressed</a></li>
+<li><a href='#sec7-2'>Specific suggestions on formulating questions</a></li>
+</ol>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 14577 ***</div>
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+<h1>The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Teaching of History, by Ernest C. Hartwell</h1>
+<pre>
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at <a href = "https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></pre>
+<p>Title: The Teaching of History</p>
+<p>Author: Ernest C. Hartwell</p>
+<p>Release Date: January 3, 2005  [eBook #14577]</p>
+<p>Language: English</p>
+<p>Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1</p>
+<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE TEACHING OF HISTORY***</p>
+<br /><br /><h3>E-text prepared by Kathryn Lybarger<br />
+                and the Project Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team<br />
+                (https://www.pgdp.net)</h3><br /><br />
+<hr class="full" />
+<br />
+<br />
+<h3>Riverside Educational Monographs</h3>
+
+<h4>EDITED BY HENRY SUZZALLO</h4>
+
+<h6>PROFESSOR OF THE PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION<br />
+TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY</h6>
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+
+<h1>THE TEACHING OF HISTORY</h1>
+
+<h3>BY</h3>
+
+<h2>ERNEST C. HARTWELL, M.A.</h2>
+<h3>SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, PETOSKEY, MICH.</h3>
+
+<br />
+<center><img alt="logo" width="71" height="99" src="images/logo.png" /></center>
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+
+<h6>Houghton Mifflin Company<br />
+Boston, New York and Chicago<br />
+The Riverside Press Cambridge</h6>
+
+<h3>1913</h3>
+
+
+
+<hr style='width: 65%;' />
+<h2>CONTENTS</h2>
+
+<center>
+<!-- Autogenerated TOC. Modify or delete as required. -->
+ <a href='#EDITORS_INTRODUCTION'><b>EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION</b></a><br />
+ <a href='#THE_TEACHING_OF_HISTORY'><b>I. SOME PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS</b></a><br />
+ <a href='#II'><b>II. HOW TO BEGIN THE COURSE</b></a><br />
+ <a href='#III'><b>III. THE ASSIGNMENT OF THE LESSON</b></a><br />
+ <a href='#IV'><b>IV. THE METHOD OF THE RECITATION</b></a><br />
+ <a href='#V'><b>V. VARIOUS MODES OF REVIEW</b></a><br />
+ <a href='#VI'><b>VI. THE USE OF WRITTEN REPORTS</b></a><br />
+ <a href='#VII'><b>VII. EXAMINATIONS AS TESTS OF PROGRESS</b></a><br />
+ <a href='#OUTLINE'><b>OUTLINE</b></a><br />
+</center>
+<!-- End Autogenerated TOC. -->
+
+
+<hr style='width: 65%;' />
+<a name='EDITORS_INTRODUCTION'></a><h2>EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION</h2>
+<br />
+
+<p>This volume is offered as a guide to history teachers of the high school
+and the upper grammar grades. It is directly concerned with the teaching
+methods to be employed in the history period. The author assumes the
+limiting conditions that surround classroom instruction of the present
+day; he also takes for granted the teacher's sympathy with modern aims
+in history instruction. All discussions of purpose and content are
+therefore subordinated to a clear presentation of the details of
+effective teaching technique.</p>
+
+<p>The reader into whose hands this volume falls will be deeply interested
+in the ideals of teaching implied in the concrete suggestions given in
+the following pages, for after all the value of any system of special
+methods rests, not merely on its apparent and immediate psychological
+effectiveness, but also on the social purposes which it is devised to
+serve. It must be recognized at the outset that history has a social
+purpose. However much university teaching may be interested in truth for
+its own sake, an interest necessarily basic to the service of all other
+ends, the teaching of the lower public schools must take into account
+the relevancy of historical fact to current and future problems which
+concern men and women engaged in the common social life. So the
+elementary and secondary school teachers of the more progressive sort
+recognize that the way in which historical truths are selected and
+related to one another determines two things: (1) Whether our group
+experiences as interpreted in history will have any intelligent effect
+upon men's appreciations of current social difficulties, and (2) whether
+history will make a more vital appeal to youth at school.</p>
+
+<p>Certainly children, whose interests arise not alone from their innate
+impulses, but also from the world in which they have lived from the
+beginning, will be eager to know the past that is of dominant concern to
+the present. It is clear gain in the psychology of instruction if
+history is a socially live thing. The children will be more eager to
+acquire knowledge; they will hold it longer, because it is significant;
+and they will keep it fresh after school days are over because life will
+recall and review pertinent knowledge again and again. There can be no
+separation between the dominant social interests of community life and
+effective pedagogical procedure; the former in large part determines the
+latter.</p>
+
+<p>Such educational reforms in history teaching as have already won
+acceptance confirm the existence of this vital relation between current
+social interests and the learning process. The barren learning of names
+and dates has long since been supplanted by a study of sequences among
+events. The technical details of wars and political administrations have
+given way to a study of wide economic and social movements in which
+battles and laws are merely overt results reinforcing the current of
+change. History, once a self-inclosed school discipline, has undergone
+an intellectual expansion which takes into account all the aspects of
+life which influence it, making geographical, economic, and biographical
+materials its aids. All these and many other minor changes attest the
+fact that a vital mode of instruction always tends to accompany that
+view of history which regards the study of the past as a revelation of
+real social life.</p>
+
+<p>The author's suggestions will, therefore, be of distinct value to at
+least two groups of history teachers. Those who believe in the larger
+uses of history teaching, so much argued of late, will find here the
+procedures that will express the ideals and obtain the results they
+seek. Those who are not yet ready to accept modern doctrine, but who
+feel a keen discontent with the older procedure, will find in these
+pages many suggestions that will appeal to them as worthy of
+experimental use. It may be that the successful use of many methods here
+suggested may be the easy way for them to come into an acceptance of the
+larger principles of current educational reform.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style='width: 65%;' />
+<a name='THE_TEACHING_OF_HISTORY'></a><h2>THE TEACHING OF HISTORY</h2>
+
+<h2>I</h2>
+
+<h3>SOME PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS</h3>
+
+<a name='sec1-1'></a>
+<p class='sheader'>Assumptions as to the teacher of history</p>
+
+<p>This monograph will make no attempt to analyze the personality of the
+ideal teacher. It is assumed that the teacher of history has an adequate
+preparation to teach his subject, that he is in good health, and that
+his usefulness is unimpaired by discontent with his work or cynicism
+about the world. It is presupposed that he understands the wisdom of
+correlating in his instruction the geography, social progress, and
+economic development of the people which his class are studying. He is
+aware that the pupil should experience something more than a
+kaleidoscopic view of isolated facts. He recognizes the folly of
+requiring four years of high school English for the purpose of
+cultivating clear, fluent, and accurate expression, only to relax the
+effort when the student comes into the history class. He knows that the
+precision, logic, and habit of definite thinking exacted by the pursuit
+of the scientific subjects should not be laid aside when the student
+attempts to trace the rise of nations. Let us go so far as to assume a
+teacher who is both pedagogical and practical; scholarly without being
+musty; imbued with a love for his subject and yet familiar with actual
+human experience.</p>
+<br />
+
+<a name='sec1-2'></a>
+<p class='sheader'>Actual conditions confronted by the teacher</p>
+
+<p>There are from one hundred and eighty to two hundred recitation periods
+of forty-five minutes each, minus the holidays, opening exercises,
+athletic mass meetings, and other respites, in which to teach a thousand
+years of ancient history, twenty centuries of English history, or the
+story of our own people. The age of the student will be from thirteen to
+eighteen. His judgment is immature; his knowledge of books, small; his
+interest, far from zealous. He will have three other subjects to prepare
+and his time is limited. Also, he is a citizen of the Republic and by
+his vote will shortly influence, for good or ill, the destinies of the
+nation.</p>
+
+<p>The purpose of this monograph is to discuss the means by which the
+teacher can engender in this student a genuine enthusiasm for the
+subject, stimulate research and historical judgment, correlate history,
+geography, literature, and the arts, cultivate proper ideals of
+government, establish a habit of systematic note-taking, and possibly
+prepare the student for college entrance examinations.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style='width: 65%;' />
+<a name='II'></a><h2>II</h2>
+
+<h3>HOW TO BEGIN THE COURSE</h3>
+<br />
+
+<p>Very obviously each moment of the child's time and preparation should be
+wisely directed. Each recitation should perform its full measure of
+usefulness, in testing, drilling, and teaching. There will be no time
+for valueless note-taking, duplication of map-book work, ambiguous or
+foolish questioning, aimless argument, or junketing excursions.</p>
+<br />
+
+<a name='sec2-1'></a>
+<p class='sheader'>What should be done on the day of enrollment</p>
+
+<p>The day that the child enrolls in class should begin his assigned work.
+In the first ten minutes of the first meeting of the class, while the
+teacher is collecting the enrollment cards, he should also gather some
+data as to his students' previous work in history. This information will
+be of considerable assistance to the teacher in letting him know what he
+may reasonably expect of his new pupils. The class should not depart
+without a definite assignment for the next day. Let the preparation for
+the first recitation consist in answering such questions as:&mdash;</p>
+
+<ol>
+<li>What is the name of the text you are to use? (Know its precise
+title.)</li>
+<li>What is the name, reputation, and position of the author?</li>
+<li>Of what other books is he the author?</li>
+<li>Read the preface of the book.</li>
+<li>What do you think are the purposes of the subject you are about
+to take up?</li>
+<li>Give the titles and authors of other books on the same period of
+history.</li>
+<li>What has been your method of study in other courses of history?</li>
+</ol>
+<br />
+
+<a name='sec2-2'></a>
+<p class='sheader'>What should be done at the first meeting of the class</p>
+
+<p>On the second day when the class assembles, let as many of the students
+as possible be sent to the board to answer questions on the day's
+assignment. The pupil will immediately discover that the teacher
+purposes to hold the class strictly responsible for the preparation of
+assigned work. The teacher will face a class prepared to ask intelligent
+questions about the course they are entering upon. The class will
+discover that work is to begin at once. The inertia of the vacation will
+be immediately overcome.</p>
+<br />
+
+<a name='sec2-3'></a>
+<p class='sheader'>Necessity for definite instruction in methods of preparing a lesson</p>
+
+<p>Having secured, by class discussion and the work at the board,
+satisfactory answers to the first six questions, and having assigned the
+lesson for the next day, the remainder of the hour and, if necessary,
+the rest of the week should be spent in outlining for the student a
+method of study. That very few students of high school age possess
+habits of systematic study, needs no discussion. In spite of all that
+their grade teachers may have done for them, their tendency is to pass
+over unfamiliar words, allusions, and expressions, without troubling to
+use a dictionary. The average high school student will not read the fine
+print at the bottom of the page, or use a map for the location of places
+mentioned in the text without special instruction to do so. He will set
+himself no unassigned tasks in memory work. It is the first business of
+the good instructor to teach the student <i>how</i> to study. The first step
+in this process is to impress on the student's mind that systematic
+preparation in the history class is as necessary as in Latin, physics,
+or geometry. Then let the following or similar instructions be given
+him:&mdash;</p>
+
+<ol>
+<li>Provide yourself with an envelope of small cards or pieces of
+note paper. Label each with the subject of the lesson and the
+date of its preparation. These envelopes should be always at
+hand during your study and preparation. They should be preserved
+and filed from day to day.</li>
+<li>Read the lesson assigned for the day in the textbook, including
+all notes and fine print.</li>
+<li>Write on a sheet of note paper all the unfamiliar words,
+allusions, or expressions. Later, look these up in the
+dictionary or other reference.</li>
+<li>Record the dates which you think worthy to be remembered.</li>
+<li>Discover and make a note of all the apparent contradictions,
+inconsistencies, or inaccuracies in the author's statements.</li>
+<li>Use the map for all the places mentioned in the lesson. Be able
+to locate them when you come to class.</li>
+<li>In nearly every text there is a list of books for library use,
+given at the beginning or end of each chapter. Make yourself
+familiar with this bibliography.</li>
+<li>Read the special questions assigned for the day by the teacher.</li>
+<li>Go to the library. If the book for which you are in search is
+not to be found, try another.</li>
+<li>Learn to use an index. If the topic for which you are looking
+does not appear in the index, try looking for the same thing
+under another name; or under some related topic.</li>
+<li>Having found the material in one book, use more than one if
+your time permits. When you feel that you have secured the
+material which will make a complete answer to the question,
+<i>write the answer on one of your cards for keeping notes.</i></li>
+<li>Remember that the teacher will ask constantly <i>what</i> was done,
+<i>when</i> was it done, and, most important of all, <i>why</i> it was
+done. Make a list of the questions which you think most likely
+to be asked on the lesson and ascertain whether you can answer
+them without the use of your notes or text.</li>
+<li>If possible practice your answers aloud. It will make you the
+more ready when called on in class.</li>
+<li>Keep a list of things which are not clear to you and about
+which you wish to ask questions.</li>
+<li>Before completing your preparation, read over these instructions
+and be sure that you have complied with them.</li>
+</ol>
+
+<p>It may be claimed that no high school student can be expected to follow
+such instructions and that to secure such a daily preparation is
+impossible; in answer to which it must be admitted that merely a
+perfunctory talk on methods of preparation will accomplish little. If
+the instruction just suggested is to bear fruit, the teacher must take
+pains to see that it is followed. Carefully to prepare his lesson
+according to a definite plan must become a <i>habit</i> with the student.
+Facility, accuracy, and thoroughness are impossible otherwise. Haphazard
+methods are wasteful of time and unproductive of results. The teacher
+can afford to emphasize method during the first few weeks of the course.
+The time thus spent in assisting the pupil to develop definite habits of
+study will pay rich dividends for the remainder of the student's life.
+Daily inquiry as to the method of study pursued, frequent examination of
+the student's notes, questions on the important dates selected, the
+books used for preparation, new words discovered, and so on, will keep
+the importance of the plan before the class and do much to foster the
+habit of systematic preparation.</p>
+<br />
+
+<a name='sec2-4'></a>
+<p class='sheader'>The question of note-taking</p>
+
+<p>On the question of notebook work, there will always be a considerable
+difference of opinion. It is much easier to state what notebook work
+should not be than to outline precisely how it should be conducted.
+Certainly it should not be overdone. It should not be an exercise
+usurping time disproportionate to its value. It should not be required
+primarily for exhibition purposes, although such notes as are kept
+should be kept neatly and spelled correctly.</p>
+
+<p>Students should be encouraged to keep their envelope of note paper
+always at hand during recitation and while reading. The habit of jotting
+down facts, opinions, statistics, comparisons, and contradictions <i>while
+they are being read</i> is most desirable and worthy of cultivation. The
+student should be taught the wisdom of keeping his notes in a neat,
+legible, and easily available form. Shorthand methods should be
+discouraged. With a little tactful direction early in the year, the
+student may be led to form a most useful habit. The greater the
+proportion of intelligent note-taking that is done without compulsion,
+the better. No more notes should be <i>required</i> than the teacher can
+honestly look over, correct, and grade. It is better to require no notes
+at all than to accept careless, superficial inaccuracies as honest work.
+One curse of high school history teaching is the tendency of young
+teachers trained in college history classes to assign more work than the
+student can honestly do or the teacher properly correct.</p>
+
+<p>As has already been intimated, history notes should not be kept in a
+book. The required notes should be kept on separate sheets of paper. The
+topics should be clearly indicated at the top of each sheet. The
+authorities used in arriving at the answer should always be given, with
+the volume, chapter, and page. The notes on related topics should be put
+into an envelope and properly labeled. After the recitation the student
+can make any necessary corrections in his notes without spoiling their
+appearance. He will simply substitute a new sheet for the old. If the
+teacher discovers in his periodic examination of the notes that some of
+the matter asked for has not been properly covered or that errors have
+not been corrected, the notes needing revision can be detained for use
+in a conference with the student, while the others are returned. If at
+any time after completing his high school work the student desires to
+use the data contained in his notes or to add to them matter which he
+may later read, they are in available form. For convenience and
+neatness, for present use, and future reference this device is far
+superior to the formal notebook. It has the further advantage of
+accustoming the student to the method of note-taking which will be
+required of those who go to college.</p>
+
+<p>It would save much valuable time, at present frequently wasted in
+writing useless notes, if the teacher constantly squared his notebook
+requirements with questions such as these:&mdash;</p>
+
+<ol>
+<li>Is the notebook work as I am conducting it calculated to develop
+the habit of critical reading?</li>
+<li>Does the time spent in writing up notes justify itself by fixing
+in the child's mind new and really relevant information not
+given in the text?</li>
+<li>Is it teaching students to combine facts, opinions, and
+statistics, to form conclusions really their own?</li>
+<li>Is the amount of work required reasonable when it is remembered
+that the child has three other subjects to prepare, that he is
+from thirteen to eighteen years of age, and more or less
+unfamiliar with a library?</li>
+<li>Am I able carefully and punctually to correct all the notes
+required?</li>
+</ol>
+
+<p>Whatever the method the teacher thinks best to be used should be
+explained early in the course and thereafter the student should be held
+scrupulously responsible for such requirements as are made.</p>
+<br />
+
+<a name='sec2-5'></a>
+<p class='sheader'>Instruction in the use of the library and indexes</p>
+
+<p>Having discussed with the class the questions assigned on the day of
+enrollment and explained the method of study recommended for their use,
+it will be well for the teacher to devote some time to instruction in
+the use of the library. It is possible that the older classes will
+require very little of this, but there are few classes where an hour, at
+least, cannot well be spent in a discussion of indexes, titles, and
+relative value of the works on various subjects. This hour need not be
+the regular recitation period. A session before or after school could be
+devoted to the purpose. The teacher's instruction, however, will be
+greatly assisted if the students are asked to prepare answers before
+coming to class to such questions as the following:&mdash;</p>
+
+<ol>
+<li>How much previous work have you done in the library?</li>
+<li>Of what use do you think the library should be to you in the
+course you are just entering?</li>
+<li>What is a source book? Of what use are source books?</li>
+<li>What source books on this period of history are in the library?</li>
+<li>What do you think will be the best references for questions on
+the artistic, industrial, political, social, economic, and
+military phases of the history you are about to study?</li>
+<li>What encyclopedias and works of general reference are in your
+library?</li>
+</ol>
+
+<p>The preparation of answers to such questions as these will present to
+the student some of the difficulties inevitable to his future library
+work and will send him to class prepared to ask intelligent questions.
+It will enable the teacher accurately to gauge how much his students
+already know about a library and its uses.</p>
+
+<p>The value and advantage of library work should be carefully explained to
+the class. It is a great error to allow pupils to think of their
+library work as drudgery, assigned solely to keep them busy or to make
+the course difficult. There are too few boys to-day with a genuine love
+of books, partly no doubt due to the fact that a reference library has
+become for them, not a rich mine of interesting matter, but a
+hydra-headed interrogation point. A great good has been done the student
+who has been taught the pleasure of using books. Nor is such a thing
+impossible. Nothing gives greater satisfaction to the normal high school
+boy than to find an error in the text, the teacher's statements, or the
+map. He takes pleasure in confuting the statistics or judgments quoted
+in class, by others of opposite trend, encountered in his reading. He
+enjoys asking keen questions. If the student is told that the library
+work is for the purpose of cultivating his powers of investigation and
+adding to the matter in the text many interesting details; if the
+library requirements are reasonable and wisely directed; if he is given
+an opportunity to <i>use</i> the information he has gathered from his
+reading, his interest in books will steadily increase.</p>
+
+<p>The teacher should explain the value of remembering accurately the
+titles and the authors of books used for reference. The silly habit of
+referring to an authority as &quot;the book bound in green&quot; or &quot;the large
+book by what's his name&quot; is easily prevented if taken in time.</p>
+
+<p>The teacher should discover by assignments made in class what degree of
+proficiency in the use of an index is already possessed by his pupils.
+There are few classes where the use of an index is thoroughly
+understood. Time should be taken to demonstrate the quickest possible
+methods of finding what a book contains. The use of the catalogue and
+card index should be carefully explained and illustrated.</p>
+
+<p>Attention should be called to the best sources on the various phases of
+the history to be studied. There ought to be no poor histories in the
+library, but if there are any to which the students have access, warning
+should be given against their use.</p>
+
+<p>The value of periodicals and current literature for work in history
+should be illustrated and the use of <i>Poole's Index</i> and the <i>Readers
+Guide</i> explained.</p>
+
+<p>The class should be acquainted with the rules of the library and
+cautioned against the misuse of books. The necessity of leaving
+reference books where all the class can use them should be made
+apparent.</p>
+
+<p>Direction in the use of the library, like instruction in the method of
+study, is a prerequisite to the best results in high school history
+classes, for no matter how conscientious the teacher, the recitation
+will be deadly if the student has no working knowledge of the library
+nor proper method of preparation. A class unable to ask intelligent
+questions about the work is not ready for the presentation of additional
+matter by the teacher. It is no difficult matter for a teacher to
+entertain his class for an hour with interesting incidents of the period
+in which the lesson occurs. A history teacher who cannot talk
+interestingly for an hour on any of the great periods of history has
+surely missed his calling. But to keep a class quiet, to retain their
+attention, to amuse and entertain, is far from making history vital. If
+the recitation is to be really vital, the students must do most of the
+talking, the criticizing, and the questioning. There can be none of
+these worth while without proper preparation.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style='width: 65%;' />
+<a name='III'></a><h2>III</h2>
+
+<h3>THE ASSIGNMENT OF THE LESSON</h3>
+
+<a name='sec3-1'></a>
+<p class='sheader'>Careful assignment will reveal to the student the relation of geography
+and history</p>
+
+<p>The recitation can never hope to achieve its maximum helpfulness unless
+the lesson be intelligently assigned. The work required must be
+reasonable in amount, and not so exacting as to discourage interest.
+Daily direction to look up unfamiliar words, expressions, and allusions
+must be given until the habit becomes fixed. Warning against possible
+geographical misconceptions should be given when necessary, together
+with directions to use the map for places, routes, and boundaries. A few
+questions asked in advance, with the purpose of bringing out the
+relation of the geography to the history in the lesson, will be of great
+assistance. For example, if the class are to study the Louisiana
+Purchase, the full significance of that revolutionary event will be made
+much clearer if the student is asked to prepare answers before coming to
+class to such questions as the following:&mdash;</p>
+
+<ol>
+<li>What States are included in the purchase?</li>
+<li>What is its area? How does it compare with the area of the
+original thirteen States?</li>
+<li>What geographical reasons caused Napoleon to sell it?</li>
+<li>What influence did the purchase have on our retention of the
+territory east of the Mississippi? Why?</li>
+<li>How many people live to-day in the territory included in the
+purchase?</li>
+</ol>
+<br />
+
+<a name='sec3-2'></a>
+<p class='sheader'>His power of analysis and criticism will be stimulated</p>
+
+<p>A lesson should be so assigned that the student will read the text with
+his eye critically open to inconsistencies, contradictions, and
+inaccuracies. With a text of six hundred pages, and with a hundred and
+eighty recitations in which to cover them, it is not too much to expect
+that the average of three or four pages daily shall be studied so
+thoroughly that the student can analyze and summarize each day's lesson.
+The teacher should not make such analysis in advance of the recitation,
+but he should so assign the lesson that the student will be prepared to
+give one when he comes to class. A word in advance by the teacher will
+prompt the student who is studying the American Revolution, to classify
+its causes as direct and indirect, economic and political, social and
+religious. There is no difficulty in finding good authorities who
+disagree as to the effect on America of the English trade restrictions.
+Callendar's <i>Economic History of the United States</i> quotes five of the
+best authorities on this point, and covers the case in a few pages. A
+reference by the teacher to this or some other authority will bring out
+a lively discussion on the justice of the American resistance. Let the
+class be asked to account for the colonial opposition to the Townshend
+Acts, when the Stamp Act Congress had declared that the regulation of
+the Colonies' external trade was properly within the powers of
+Parliament. Let the class be asked to explain a statement that the
+Declaration of Independence does not mention the real underlying causes
+of the Revolution. A few suggestions and advanced questions of this sort
+will stimulate a critical analysis of the statements in the text, and
+send the student to class keen for an intelligent discussion.</p>
+
+<p>Ordinarily, when a class is averaging three or four pages of the text
+daily, it is an error for the teacher to point out in advance certain
+dates and statistics that need not be memorized. Such selection should
+be left to the student. During the recitation the teacher will discover
+what dates, statistics, and other matter the student has selected as
+worthy to be memorized, and if correction is necessary it may then be
+made. It dulls the edge of the pupil's enthusiasm to be told in advance
+that some of the text is not worthy to be remembered. Furthermore such
+instruction does nothing to develop the student's sense of historical
+proportion, for it substitutes the judgment of the teacher for that of
+the pupil.</p>
+
+<p>Advance questions asking explanation of statements made in the text, or
+by other authors dealing with the same period, insure that the lesson
+will be read understandingly and that the author's statements will be
+carefully analyzed. Such declarations as the following are illustrations
+of statements whose explanation might profitably be required in
+advance:&mdash;</p>
+
+<ol>
+<li>&quot;The Constitution was extracted by necessity from a reluctant
+people.&quot;</li>
+<li>&quot;Oregon was a make-weight for Texas.&quot;</li>
+<li>&quot;The greatest evil of slavery was that it prevented the South
+from accumulating capital.&quot;</li>
+<li>&quot;The day that France possesses New Orleans we must marry
+ourselves to the British fleet.&quot;</li>
+<li>&quot;The cause of free labor won a substantial triumph in the
+Missouri Compromise.&quot;</li>
+<li>&quot;The second war with England was not one of necessity, policy,
+or interest on the part of the Americans; it was rather one of
+party prejudice and passion.&quot;</li>
+</ol>
+<br />
+
+<a name='sec3-3'></a>
+<p class='sheader'>The conditions in other countries will add to his comprehension of the
+facts in the lesson</p>
+
+<p>In so far as the next lesson requires an understanding of the history or
+conditions of another country, the attention of the class should be
+directed in advance to such necessity. Special references or brief
+reports may be advisable. A few well-selected advance questions will
+send the class to recitation prepared to discuss what otherwise the
+teacher must explain. A few questions on the character of James II, his
+ideals of government, the chief causes of the revolution of 1688, and
+its most important results will do much to explain the colonial
+resistance to Andros. A few questions designed to bring out the
+imperative necessity of English resistance to Napoleon will make clear
+the hostile commercial decrees, impressment, and interference with the
+rights of neutral ships. Such questions reduce the necessity of
+explanation by the teacher to a minimum.</p>
+<br />
+
+<a name='sec3-4'></a>
+<p class='sheader'>His disposition to study intensively will be encouraged</p>
+
+<p>If the teacher expects the class to deal more intensively than the text
+with the matters discussed in the lesson, a few advance questions will
+be of great assistance. Suppose, for example, that the text contents
+itself with saying that for political reasons the first United States
+Bank was not rechartered, and shortly after informs the reader that the
+second United States Bank was rechartered because the State banks had
+suspended specie payments. The student may or may not be curious about
+the failure of the first bank to receive a new charter, the operation of
+State banks, or why they suspended payment in 1814. If he has been
+properly taught, he probably will be, but if the teacher wishes to
+discuss these considerations in detail at the next recitation it will be
+infinitely better to have the facts contributed by the class than for
+the teacher to do the reciting. It is quite possible that the individual
+answers to advance questions assigned with such a purpose will be
+incomplete, but the interest of the class will be incalculably greater
+if they themselves furnish the bulk of the additional matter required.
+Collectively the class will usually secure complete answers to
+reasonable questions. The teacher has his opportunity in supplying such
+important facts as the students fail to find.</p>
+
+<p>Until the student may reasonably be expected to know the books of the
+library having to do with his subject, the teacher in giving out an
+advance lesson should mention by author and title the books most helpful
+in the preparation of assigned questions; otherwise the student in a
+perfectly sincere effort to do the work assigned may spend an hour in
+search of the proper book.</p>
+
+<p>It may be urged that this search is a valuable experience, but it is
+obviously too costly. As the year advances and the pupil learns more and
+more about the uses of books and methods of investigation increasingly
+less specific instruction as to sources should be given by the teacher.
+Early in the year, with four lessons to prepare daily, the pupil cannot
+afford an hour simply to search for a book. He needs that hour for
+preparation of other work, and if by some fortunate conjunction of
+circumstances his other work is not sufficiently exacting to require it,
+he cannot hope to appear in history class with a well-prepared lesson
+if an hour of his time has been spent in simply looking for a book.</p>
+
+<p>It is frequently worth while to spend a few minutes of the recitation in
+characterizing the epoch in which the events of the lesson take place or
+in listening to a brief character sketch of the men contributing to
+these events. Care should of course be taken that biography does not
+usurp the place of history, but it materially adds to the interest of
+the recitation if the kings, generals, and statesmen cease to be merely
+historical characters and become human beings.</p>
+<br />
+
+<a name='sec3-5'></a>
+<p class='sheader'>His acquaintance with the great men and women of history will be
+vitalized</p>
+
+<p>It is needless to say that characterizations of men or epochs should not
+be assigned without instruction as to how they should be prepared. In
+the case of a great historical character, what is needed for class
+purposes is not a biography with the dry facts of birth, marriage,
+death, etc. The report should be brief, but bristling with adjectives
+supported in each case by at least one fact of the man's life. These may
+be selected from his personal appearance, private life, amusements,
+education, obstacles overcome, public services, political sagacity, or
+military prowess. The sketch may close with a few brief estimates by
+biographers or historians of his proper place in history.</p>
+
+<p>If a characterization of a period of history is to be required, the
+teacher should explain that such a characterization should be an
+exercise in the selection of brief statements of fact reflecting the
+ideals, institutions, and conditions of the period being described. From
+histories, source books, fiction, and literature, let the student select
+facts illustrating such things as the spirit of the laws, conditions at
+court, public education, amusements of the people, social progress,
+position of religion, etc. A little time spent in characterizing a
+period of history and a few of its great men will assist in changing the
+recital of the bare facts given in the text to an intelligent
+understanding of conditions and a vital discussion of events. For
+instance, the ordinary high school text, in dealing with the French and
+Indian war, speaks briefly of the lack of English success during the
+early part of the struggle and then says that with the coming of Pitt to
+the ministry the whole course of events was changed because of the great
+statesman's wonderful personality. The teacher who wishes to make such a
+dramatic circumstance really vital to his class must have more
+information with which to work. A picture of the coarse, vulgar England
+with its incompetent army and navy, apathetic church, and corrupt
+government, followed by a stirring character sketch of the great Pitt,
+will cost but a few minutes of the recitation and will metamorphose a
+moribund attention to a vital interest.</p>
+
+<p>Care should be taken that the characterizations given in class be
+properly prepared. To this end it will be well to assign the preparation
+of these sketches at least a week in advance, at the same time arranging
+a conference with the student a day or two before the recitation. In
+this conference the teacher should make such corrections in the pupil's
+method of preparation and selection of matter as seem necessary. The
+characterizations should not be read, but delivered by the student
+facing the class, precisely for the moment as though he were the
+teacher. Future tests and examinations should hold the class responsible
+for the facts thus presented. If, as is too often the case in work of
+this sort, the student giving the report is the sole beneficiary of the
+exercise, the time required is disproportionate to the benefit derived.</p>
+<br />
+
+<a name='sec3-6'></a>
+<p class='sheader'>He will correlate the past and the present</p>
+
+<p>If there are facts recounted in the lesson that may be clinched in the
+student's mind by showing the relation of those facts to present-day
+conditions or institutions, a few advance questions calculated to bring
+out this relationship may well be assigned.</p>
+
+<p>It is generally conceded that one chief purpose of history instruction
+is to enable us to interpret the present and the future in the light of
+the past, but it all too often happens that current history is forgotten
+in the recital of facts that are centuries old. Candidates for teachers'
+certificates in their examinations in United States history show far
+less knowledge about the great problems and events of the present day
+than they do of colonial history. The student in English history in our
+high schools to-day knows all about the Domesday Book, but almost
+nothing of the recent history of England. Quite possibly the text has
+nothing to say about it, and it is equally likely that the class may
+fail to cover the text and miss the little that is actually given. No
+opportunity should be missed to indicate the bearing of the past on
+present-day conditions. Even if the events of the lesson exert no direct
+influence on affairs to-day, their significance may be brought home to
+the student by an illustration from current history. The account of the
+Black Death gives excellent occasion for a brief discussion of modern
+sanitation and the war on the White Plague. The efforts of Parliament to
+fix wages can be illustrated by some of the minimum wage laws passed by
+recent legislatures. John Ball's teachings suggest a brief discussion of
+modern socialism, daily becoming more active in its influence. The
+medieval trade guilds and modern labor unions; the monopolies of
+Elizabeth's time and the anti-trust law of to-day; George the Third's
+two hundred capital crimes and modern methods of penology; the jealousy
+of Athens in guarding the privilege of citizenship and the facility with
+which immigrants at present become American citizens are only a few
+illustrations, indicating the ease with which the past and the present
+may be correlated.</p>
+<br />
+
+<a name='sec3-7'></a>
+<p class='sheader'>He will be required to memorize a limited amount of matter verbatim</p>
+
+<p>In assigning a lesson it is sometimes desirable to require certain
+matter to be learned <i>verbatim</i>. In American history the Preamble to the
+Constitution, the principles of government contained in the Declaration
+of Independence, the essential doctrine in the Virginia and Kentucky
+Resolutions, certain clauses of the Constitution, and extracts from
+other historical documents may well be required to be memorized
+accurately. It is scarcely to be supposed that the student can improve
+on the clarity and definiteness of the English in such documents. He is
+expected to understand the principles which they assert. He may well be
+required to train his memory to accuracy by learning certain assignments
+<i>verbatim</i>. If memory work received a little more attention in our high
+schools to-day, we should be less likely to hear the statement of a
+political creed neutralized by the omission of an important word. We
+should be less likely to see the classic words of Lincoln mangled beyond
+recognition by messy misquotation.</p>
+
+<p>The assignment of advance questions such as have been suggested
+possesses several advantages. It makes it possible for the teacher to
+hold the class responsible for definite preparation, very much as the
+teacher in algebra is able to do with the problems assigned in advance.
+It forces the students to do most of the talking. It encourages an
+intelligent use of the library in a manner calculated to develop the
+student's powers of investigation. If the pupil forgets most of his
+history, but retains the ability to investigate carefully, thoroughly,
+and critically, the plan has more than justified itself. The plan
+enables the teacher to spend his time in explanation of what the pupil
+has been unable to do for herself, and thus effects a considerable
+saving in time. It would be interesting to secure a statement of how
+much of the teacher's time is ordinarily spent in doing for the student
+in recitation what he should have done for himself before coming to
+class. It substitutes for the pupil's snap judgment, given without much
+thought and too frequently influenced by the inflection of the teacher's
+voice, an opinion that has resulted from research and deliberation
+unbiased by the teacher's personal views.</p>
+
+<p>It is too much to expect high school pupils to solve historical problems
+extemporaneously. If inferences and contrasts other than those given in
+the text are to be drawn, if statements are to be defended or opposed,
+the high school student should be given time to prepare his answer.
+Aside from the injustice of any other procedure, it is a hopeless waste
+of time to spend the precious minutes of the recitation in gathering
+negative replies and worthless judgments.</p>
+<br />
+
+<a name='sec3-8'></a>
+<p class='sheader'>Methods of preparing questions assigned in advance</p>
+
+<p>It may be urged that such an assignment of a lesson as that proposed is
+too ambitious and that it exacts too much of the teacher's time. In
+answer it should be said that specialists in history ought surely to
+have read widely enough and studied deeply enough to be <i>able</i> to select
+intelligent questions of the sort suggested. We have assumed that the
+teacher has made adequate preparation for his work. Certainly, then, he
+should be ready to explain the social, geographical, and economic
+relation of the events mentioned in the lesson. He should know their
+bearing on current history. He should always have ready a fund of
+information, additional to that given in the text. In preparing advance
+questions for distribution to the class the teacher is preparing his own
+lesson. He may be doing it a day or two earlier than he would otherwise
+do, but surely he is performing no labor additional to what may
+reasonably be expected of him. As to the time required to prepare copies
+of the questions for distribution when the class convenes, it may be
+said that a neostyle or mimeograph, with which all large schools and
+many small ones are equipped, makes short work of preparing as many
+copies of the questions as desired. If there is a commercial department
+in connection with the school, an available stenographer, or a willing
+student helper, the teacher may easily relieve himself of the work of
+supplying the copies. If none of these expedients are possible, it is no
+Herculean task to write each day on the board the few questions for the
+next lesson. It will entail no great loss of time if the class are asked
+to copy them when they first come to recitation. If it is possible to
+copy them after the recitation, so much the better. And beyond the
+obvious advantages of a carefully assigned lesson it must be remembered
+that in the assignment of special topics, in private conferences with
+the student, in the correction of notes, in giving assistance in the
+library, the teacher has an opportunity to cultivate a sympathetic
+relation between himself and the class of inestimable service in
+securing the best results.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style='width: 65%;' />
+<a name='IV'></a><h2>IV</h2>
+
+<h3>THE METHOD OF THE RECITATION</h3>
+
+<a name='sec4-1'></a>
+<p class='sheader'>Assumptions as to the recitation room</p>
+
+<p>Let us now assume that the recitation will be held in a quiet room free
+from the distracting influence of poor light, poor ventilation, and
+inadequate seating capacity. The blackboard space is ample for the whole
+class, the erasers and chalk are at hand, the maps, charts, and globe
+are where they can be used without stumbling over them. The teacher can
+give his whole attention to the class. Discipline should take care of
+itself. The pupil who is interested will not be seriously out of order.</p>
+<br />
+
+<a name='sec4-2'></a>
+<p class='sheader'>What the teacher should aim to accomplish</p>
+
+<p>The problem, then, is so to expend the forty-five minutes in which the
+teacher and class are together that:&mdash;</p>
+
+<ol>
+<li>So far as possible the atmosphere and setting of the period
+being studied may be reproduced.</li>
+<li>The great historical characters spoken of in the lesson may
+become for the student real men and women with whom he will
+afterwards feel a personal acquaintance.</li>
+<li>The events described will be understood and properly interpreted
+in their relation to geography, and the economic and social
+progress of the world.</li>
+<li>Causes and effects shall be properly analyzed.</li>
+<li>And that there shall be left sufficient time for the occasional
+review necessary to any good instruction.</li>
+</ol>
+<br />
+
+<a name='sec4-3'></a>
+<p class='sheader'>Work at the blackboard</p>
+
+<p>The first five minutes may profitably be spent at the board, each member
+of the class being asked to write a complete answer to one of the
+assigned questions. Whatever may happen later in the recitation each
+student has had at least this much of an opportunity for
+self-expression, and his work should be neat, workmanlike, complete, and
+accurate. By this device the alert teacher will secure in the first five
+minutes of the recitation hour a fairly accurate idea of each student's
+preparation, the weak spots in his understanding of the lesson, and the
+errors to be corrected. He may even be able to record a grade for the
+work done.</p>
+<br />
+
+<a name='sec4-4'></a>
+<p class='sheader'>Special reports</p>
+
+<p>The class having taken their seats, the next order of business should be
+the reports on special topics assigned for the purpose of making the
+period of history under discussion more interesting and vital. As has
+been said, these reports should not be read, but delivered by the pupil
+facing the class. The class should be encouraged to ask questions on the
+report when finished and the student responsible for the report should
+be expected to answer any reasonable inquiry. If other students are able
+to contribute to the topics reported on, they should be encouraged to do
+so. Let the teacher be sure that he has sounded the depths of the
+students' information and curiosity before he himself discusses the
+report. If the device of reports delivered in class is to justify
+itself, the matter contained in them must be so arranged and discussed
+that the whole class receives real benefit. The ingenious teacher will
+be able to establish a tradition in his course for a careful preparation
+and critical discussion of these reports. The rivalry of students for
+excellence in this work is not difficult to stimulate. A premium should
+be put on criticism which finds mentioned in the characterization
+qualities inconsistent with the facts recorded in the text, or omissions
+which the facts of the text seem to justify.</p>
+<br />
+
+<a name='sec4-5'></a>
+<p class='sheader'>Fundamental principles of good questioning</p>
+
+<p>It is not likely that the teacher will find it advisable to require
+reports at every recitation nor that the reports and their discussion
+will consume, at the most, longer than ten or fifteen minutes of any
+class period. There must always be time for direct oral questioning on
+the facts of the lesson; questioning that will test the student's
+memory, ability to analyze, and powers of expression. Certain principles
+are fundamental to good questioning in any recitation.</p>
+
+<ol>
+<li>The questions should be brief.</li>
+<li>They should be prepared by the teacher before coming to
+recitation. This will insure rapidity. A vast deal of time is
+lost by the unfortunate habit possessed by many teachers of
+never having the next question ready to use.</li>
+<li>They should precede the name of the pupil required to answer it.</li>
+<li>They should not be leading questions to which the pupil can
+guess the answers.</li>
+<li>They should be grammatically stated with but one possible
+interpretation.</li>
+<li>Except for purposes of rapid review they should not be
+answerable with yes or no.</li>
+<li>They should be asked in a voice loud enough to be heard by all
+the class, and only once.</li>
+<li>They should be asked in no regular order, but nevertheless in
+such a way that every member of the class will have a chance to
+recite.</li>
+</ol>
+<br />
+
+<a name='sec4-6'></a>
+<p class='sheader'>Some additional suggestions for teachers of history</p>
+
+<p>There are additional suggestions particularly applicable to the teacher
+of history.</p>
+
+<ol>
+<li>In all the questioning remember the purposes of the recitation.
+Ask questions knowing exactly what you wish as an answer. There
+is no time for aimless or idle questioning.</li>
+<li>Inquire frequently as to the books used in preparation of the
+lesson. Let no allusion or statement in the text go unexplained.
+Let none of the author's conclusions or opinions go
+unchallenged. Ask the student for inconsistencies, inaccuracies,
+or contradictions in the text. Put a premium on their discovery.
+Insist on the student's authority for statements other than
+those given in the text.</li>
+<li>Do not use the heavy-typed words frequently found at the head of
+the paragraph or the topical heads furnished by the text, if it
+can be avoided. The pupil should not be allowed to remember his
+history by its location in the text.</li>
+<li>Be sure that the class have an opportunity to recite on the
+questions assigned for their advance preparation. Nothing is
+more discouraging to a student than carefully to prepare the
+work required and then fail of an opportunity either to recite
+upon or to discuss it.</li>
+<li>Discover the tastes, shortcomings, and abilities of your
+individual students and direct your future questions
+accordingly. There will usually be in the class the boy who is
+glib without being accurate. He should be questioned on definite
+facts. There will be the student whose analysis of events is
+good, but whose powers of description are poor. Adapt your
+questions to his special need. There will be the pupil with the
+tendency to memorize the text <i>verbatim</i>. There will be the
+student who knows the facts of the lesson, but who fails to
+remember the sequence of events&mdash;the kind who never can tell
+whether the Exclusion Bill came before or after the Restoration.
+There will be the usual amount of specialized tastes, curiosity,
+timidity, laziness, and rattle-brained thinking. The questioning
+should probe these peculiarities, and stimulate the pupil's
+ambition to improve his preparation at its weakest point.
+Needless to say the questions should not be asked with the daily
+idea of making the pupil fail. Like any other surgical
+instrument the question probe should be used skillfully and with
+a proper motive. It would be as great an error to bend your
+questions continually away from the student's special tastes and
+abilities as to be perpetually guided by them.</li>
+<li>The bulk of the teacher's attention should be given neither to
+the few exceptionally able students nor to the few very poor
+pupils. It is to the average normal boy and girl that the most
+of the questioning should be directed. The brilliant student
+should be called on sufficiently to retain his interest and to
+set a standard of excellence for the class. He should be given
+the most difficult of the assignments of outside work and if
+necessary an additional number of them. As to the few pupils
+whom the teacher deems exceptionally poor, it may be said that
+the effect of questioning should never be to discourage the
+pupil who has made an honest effort at preparation. During the
+early part of the course the efforts of the teacher may well be
+directed to asking the backward student questions to which he
+can make reasonably satisfactory answers. By saving the student
+from the daily humiliation of failure before the class, and by
+tactfully encouraging him to greater effort, the teacher may
+shortly discover that the poor pupil is far from hopeless.</li>
+<li>Do not allow your questions to consume a disproportionate amount
+of time with details. Until very recently in all our history
+teaching, battles have been exalted to a place immeasurably
+greater than their importance. We are coming to see that the
+fighting is one of the least important things in the war. The
+causes and results, the financial, political, and social effects
+now absorb our attention. One or two battles in a course may
+profitably be studied in detail, particularly in the history of
+our own country, but in the press of considerations far more
+interesting and vital, it is a waste of time to give more than a
+moment's notice to the remainder. Student descriptions of
+battles are bound to be stereotyped. The ordinary textbook
+describes each of the thousand battles of the world in about the
+same fifty words.</li>
+<li>Let some of the questions be directed towards cultivating the
+student's powers of oral description. History is not altogether
+a matter of analysis or generalization. There can scarcely be
+assigned a lesson in history that does not contain events which
+lend themselves to dramatic description. Their recital should be
+made the occasion of the student's best efforts in this
+direction. Let the pupils be taught to use adjectives and
+adverbs. Break down the barrier of listlessness or fear or
+self-consciousness which keeps the student from rendering a
+graphic and thrilling account of great events.</li>
+<li>Let the questions from day to day develop the continuity of
+history. Avoid questioning that fails to unite the events of
+previous lessons with the one being studied. Bring out the
+connection of the past and the present. Slavery existed in
+America for two hundred years before the Civil War was fought.
+Your teaching of those two centuries of history should be so
+conducted that when the Civil War is finally reached, the class
+can tell the process by which anti-slavery sentiment was finally
+crystallized. The hiatus between the mobbing of Garrison in
+Boston and the extraordinary contribution of Massachusetts to
+the Northern army should be bridged, not by a heroic question or
+two when the war is finally reached, but by a daily attention to
+the events which effected the metamorphosis.</li>
+<li>If the answer to your question requires the use of a map, ask
+it in such a way that the student can talk and use the map at
+the same time. The geographical provisions of a treaty, the
+routes of explorers, the grants of commercial companies,
+campaigns, or military frontiers should all be recited in this
+way. A wall map with simply the outline of the territory, with
+its rivers, will be of considerable assistance in testing the
+accuracy of the student's geographical knowledge. While
+reciting, let him locate with chalk or pointer the cities,
+arbitrary boundary lines, and routes he finds it necessary to
+mention in his recitation. It will require special attention
+early in the course to teach students the necessity for
+preparation of this sort. Like everything else, map work should
+be reasonable in its requirements. A knowledge of geography is
+imperative to the correct understanding of history, and the
+indifference or ignorance of teachers should never excuse
+inattention to this vital necessity. On the other hand, however,
+it is equally reprehensible to require of high school students
+the labored preparation of maps in the drawing of which hours of
+valuable time are spent in searching for places of trivial
+importance and small historical value. Map work in a high school
+history course should require no more than geographical accuracy
+in locating boundaries, routes, and places really vital to the
+history of the people being studied. If it does more than this
+it usurps time disproportionate to its value.</li>
+</ol>
+
+
+<hr style='width: 65%;' />
+<a name='V'></a><h2>V</h2>
+
+<h3>VARIOUS MODES OF REVIEW</h3>
+
+<a name='sec5-1'></a>
+<p class='sheader'>The place of drill in the history recitation</p>
+
+<p>We have long since learned the folly of spending very many of the
+minutes of a recitation in drilling students in dates, outlines, and
+charts. Work of this sort never made a recitation vital; never inspired
+a student with enthusiasm for historical inquiry; never really dispelled
+the fog which surrounds, for the student, the cabinets and
+constitutions, battles and boundaries, declarations and decrees, so
+briefly treated in the text.</p>
+<br />
+
+<a name='sec5-2'></a>
+<p class='sheader'>Good reviews will develop a knowledge of the sequence of events</p>
+
+<p>But it may be seriously questioned whether many teachers, in their zeal
+to escape the over-emphasis of dates, have not gone to the extreme of
+neglecting them altogether. That a student should remember sufficient
+dates to fix in his mind the sequence of important events is hardly open
+to question. That he can never do so without some special attention to
+dates is equally indisputable. Without doubt, drill in important dates
+is necessary, but it should be so conducted as to take but little time.
+Each day the teacher has indicated the dates worthy to be remembered and
+has been careful to select the landmarks of history. He has called
+attention to the various collateral circumstances which might assist to
+fix the dates in the child's mind. The student has kept his list of
+dates in the back of his text or in some convenient place of reference.
+Once a week for three minutes the teacher gives the class a rapid review
+on the dates contained in the list. Occasionally the class are sent to
+the board and asked to write the dates of the reigns of the English
+monarchs from William down to the point which the class has reached, or
+the Presidents in their order, or some other similar exercise calculated
+to give a backbone to the history being studied. The class will know
+that such a review is liable to be given at any time. They will endeavor
+to be prepared. The result will be that with the expenditure of a few
+minutes at intervals in rapid review, history will cease to be a
+spineless narrative and become for the student an orderly procession of
+events. Drill in dates is only one method to this end. There may be a
+rapid review in battles, generals, wars, treaties, proclamations, and
+inventions. Such exercises encourage the classification of facts and
+stimulate fluency of expression. It is of the highest importance for the
+student so to arrange in his mind what he has learned in recitation that
+he can call to his command at a second's notice the fact, date, or
+illustration he desires. There will be many times in his school and
+college career when such an ability will be indispensable; in business
+or the professions it is an invaluable asset, infinitely more useful
+than the history itself. It will be well for the teacher to inquire:
+&quot;What am I doing to cultivate such an ability in my students?&quot;</p>
+<br />
+
+<a name='sec5-3'></a>
+<p class='sheader'>They will give a view of the whole subject</p>
+
+<p>Few teachers will deny that too little time is spent in giving the
+student a general view of the whole subject, either in its entirety or
+in its various phases. The text has been studied by chapters or by
+months or by movements. The history as a whole has never been seen. By
+the time the student has reached the &quot;Aldrich Currency Plan&quot; in American
+history he has forgotten all about the experiments with the first United
+States Bank. He could no more outline the financial history of the
+United States as given in his text than he could outline the industrial
+or political history of the American people. And yet he has studied the
+facts given in his textbook; he has supplemented the text by his work in
+the library, and in the recitation; he has done everything that may
+reasonably be expected of him, except to assemble his historical
+information and review it as a whole.</p>
+
+<p>If the student in American history is asked to go to the board at
+intervals and write an outline for the work covered on such topics as
+the following, he will come much nearer understanding the progress of
+our people:&mdash;</p>
+
+<ol>
+<li>History of the tariff.</li>
+<li>Political parties and principles for which they stood.</li>
+<li>Things that crystallized Northern sentiment against slavery.</li>
+<li>Reasons for the unification of the South.</li>
+<li>Diplomatic relations of the United States.</li>
+<li>Additions of territory.</li>
+<li>Financial legislation.</li>
+<li>Growth of humanitarian spirit.</li>
+</ol>
+
+<p>There will easily be sufficient topics so that each member of the class
+will have a different one. They can all work at the board,
+simultaneously. The amount of time used for exercises of this sort need
+not be great, and the value received is incalculable.</p>
+
+<p>If the teacher wishes to review briefly on the military, diplomatic,
+social, political, or economic history of the people the class have been
+studying, it is no difficult matter to arrange a set of questions, the
+occasional review in which will clinch in the student's mind what
+otherwise would surely be forgotten. Such questions as the following on
+the financial history of the United States are each answerable with a
+few words and will serve as an illustration of the method which may be
+employed in reviewing any other phase of history:&mdash;</p>
+
+<ol>
+<li>By what means was trade accomplished before the use of money?</li>
+<li>What are the functions of money?</li>
+<li>What determines the amount of money needed in a country?</li>
+<li>What has been used for money at various periods of our history?</li>
+<li>What is meant by doing business on credit?</li>
+<li>What is cheap money?</li>
+<li>What is Gresham's Law?</li>
+<li>What is the effect of large issues of paper money on prices?</li>
+<li>What is the effect of large issues of paper money on wages?</li>
+<li>Why does the wage-earner suffer?</li>
+<li>At what periods in American history have large issues of paper
+money been emitted?</li>
+<li>What were the objects of the first United States Bank?</li>
+<li>Did the bank accomplish them?</li>
+<li>Why was it not rechartered?</li>
+<li>When was the second United States Bank chartered?</li>
+<li>Why?</li>
+<li>What case decided the constitutionality of the bank?</li>
+<li>Did the second United States Bank accomplish the purpose for
+which it was formed?</li>
+<li>Why was the second United States Bank rechartered?</li>
+<li>What is meant by &quot;Wildcat Banking&quot;?</li>
+<li>What are the dates of our greatest panics?</li>
+<li>What were the chief causes?</li>
+<li>What was the effect on prices?</li>
+<li>What on wages?</li>
+<li>Under what President was the independent treasury first
+established?</li>
+<li>Is it in existence to-day?</li>
+<li>When were greenbacks issued?</li>
+<li>To what amount?</li>
+<li>Who was responsible for the issue?</li>
+<li>Were they legal tender for private debts contracted before
+their issue?</li>
+<li>When was the Resumption Act passed?</li>
+<li>Are the greenbacks in circulation to-day?</li>
+<li>What is free silver?</li>
+<li>What was the &quot;Crime of '73&quot;?</li>
+<li>What was the &quot;Bland-Allison Act&quot;?</li>
+<li>What was the Currency Act of 1900?</li>
+<li>What is Bimetallism?</li>
+<li>What is meant by &quot;Mint Ratio&quot;?</li>
+<li>What is meant by &quot;Market Ratio&quot;?</li>
+<li>What is meant by &quot;Free Coinage&quot;?</li>
+<li>What is meant by &quot;Gratuitous Coinage&quot;?</li>
+<li>What is meant by &quot;Standard Money&quot;?</li>
+<li>With the market ratio at 30 to 1 and the mint ratio at 16 to 1,
+which money would tend to disappear from circulation if both
+metals are freely coined and made full legal tender?</li>
+<li>Why is silver not the standard to-day?</li>
+<li>What is the &quot;Aldrich Plan&quot;?</li>
+<li>What is a United States bond?</li>
+<li>Is it a secure investment?</li>
+<li>What is its average rate of interest?</li>
+<li>By whom is a national bank chartered?</li>
+<li>May it issue paper money?</li>
+<li>When was the first National Banking Act passed?</li>
+<li>Why?</li>
+<li>Why should banking business be profitable under the act?</li>
+<li>What advantage did the Government expect to receive in passing
+the act?</li>
+<li>Are deposits guaranteed?</li>
+<li>May States emit bills of credit?</li>
+<li>Is it constitutional for banks chartered by the State to emit
+bills of credit?</li>
+<li>Do they do so to-day?</li>
+<li>Why?</li>
+</ol>
+
+<p>Obviously as the year advances, the list of questions for review grows
+longer. An increasing amount of time should therefore be devoted to work
+of this sort.</p>
+<br />
+
+<a name='sec5-4'></a>
+<p class='sheader'>They will insure a better acquaintance with great men and women</p>
+
+<p>The most superficial observation will suffice to convince anyone that
+high school graduates know very little about the great men and women of
+history. The character sketches suggested earlier in the chapter,
+supplemented with occasional reviews, will do much to improve this
+condition. These drills may be conducted by asking for brief statements
+on the greatest service or the most distinguishing characteristic of the
+great men and women met with in the course. The same thing is
+accomplished by reversing the process and asking such questions
+as,&mdash;&quot;Who was the American Fabius&quot;? or &quot;The Great Compromiser&quot;? or the
+&quot;Sage of Menlo Park&quot;? etc. Questions on the authorship of great
+documents, the founders of institutions, the organizers of movements,
+reformers, philosophers, artists, statesmen, generals, accomplish the
+same purpose.</p>
+<br />
+
+<a name='sec5-5'></a>
+<p class='sheader'>They will be economical of time</p>
+
+<p>There are a vast number of review questions answerable with <i>yes</i> or
+<i>no</i>. The student's knowledge of the subject may be quickly discovered
+and a rapid review conducted by a series of such questions. The
+following list on American history will illustrate the method:&mdash;</p>
+
+<ol>
+<li>Was Cromwell's colonial policy helpful to the American colonies?</li>
+<li>Did the Revolution of 1688 have any effect on the colonies?</li>
+<li>Were the Huguenots excluded from Canada?</li>
+<li>Were the Writs of Assistance used in England?</li>
+<li>Did America ever have a theocracy?</li>
+<li>Did the rule of 1756 affect the people of the colonies?</li>
+<li>Was the Sugar Act legal?</li>
+<li>Was there any effort to amend the Articles of Confederation?</li>
+<li>Does funding a debt lessen it?</li>
+<li>Did Hamilton's measures tend to centralize power?</li>
+<li>Did the members of the Constitutional Convention exceed their
+instructions?</li>
+<li>Is a cabinet provided for in the Constitution?</li>
+<li>Does the Constitution of the United States prevent a State from
+establishing a religion?</li>
+<li>Is it possible for a State to repudiate its debts?</li>
+<li>Does the constitutional provision for uniform duties protect
+the Territories?</li>
+<li>Was impressment practiced in England?</li>
+<li>Did the Whigs favor internal improvements?</li>
+<li>Did the North favor the Force Bill of 1833?</li>
+<li>Did Massachusetts favor the Tariff of 1816?</li>
+<li>Did the Republican party stand for the abolition of slavery in
+1860?</li>
+<li>Did the Emancipation Proclamation free all the slaves in the
+United States?</li>
+<li>Did the working-men of England favor the South during the Civil
+War?</li>
+<li>Was it necessary for the South to resort to the draft?</li>
+<li>Could a man in 1860 consistently accept both the Dred Scott
+decision and the doctrine of popular sovereignty?</li>
+<li>Did Lincoln's assassination have any effect on the
+reconstruction policy?</li>
+<li>Does the Federal Constitution compel negro suffrage?</li>
+<li>Was the Anaconda System successful?</li>
+<li>Was a President of the United States ever impeached?</li>
+<li>Were the claims for indirect damages in the Alabama claims
+allowed?</li>
+<li>Did Calhoun favor the Compromise of 1850?</li>
+<li>Did Thaddeus Stevens favor the Fifteenth Amendment to the
+Constitution?</li>
+<li>Did Lincoln favor the social equality of the white and black
+races?</li>
+<li>Did Grant favor the Tenure of Office Act?</li>
+<li>Did Lee make more than one attempt to invade the North?</li>
+<li>Was the &quot;Ohio Idea&quot; ever strong enough to affect legislation?</li>
+<li>Did Spain have any part in calling out the Monroe Doctrine?</li>
+<li>Has the United States any control over the debts of Cuba?</li>
+<li>Has a joint resolution ever been used to acquire territory
+other than that included in Texas?</li>
+<li>Has the United States ever resorted to a tax on incomes?</li>
+<li>Has the Federal Government ever attempted to restrict the power
+of the press?</li>
+<li>Is it illegal to-day for a railway to give a cheaper rate to
+one shipper than to another?</li>
+<li>Has the Republican party ever reduced the protective tariffs of
+the war?</li>
+<li>Did the Civil Service Act passed in 1883 include postmasters?</li>
+<li>Did the Wilson-Gorman Act reduce the tariff to a revenue basis?</li>
+<li>Can a railway engaged solely in intra-state business carry a
+case, involving a reduction of their rates by the State
+legislature, to the Supreme Court of the United States?</li>
+<li>Is Utah a part of the Louisiana Purchase?</li>
+<li>If the mint ratio is 16 to 1 and the market ratio is 17 to 1,
+will the gold dollar be the standard if there is full legal
+tender and free coinage for both gold and silver?</li>
+<li>Is the Canadian frontier fortified?</li>
+<li>Are the functions of government in this country increasing?</li>
+<li>Is it possible for a man to be defeated for the Presidency if a
+majority of the people vote for him?</li>
+</ol>
+
+<p>The great disadvantage of this kind of review is that the students have
+for their answer a choice between two words, one of which is bound to be
+correct. Knowing nothing whatever of the subject, they will still stand
+a fifty per cent chance of answering correctly. The alert teacher should
+be able to reduce this haphazard answering to a minimum, while still
+reaping the advantages of rapidity and thoroughness which the plan
+possesses. Few other methods will cover as much ground in as short time.
+On the Federal Constitution there are infinite possibilities for &quot;yes
+and no&quot; questioning, which afford a brief and effective means of review
+in the principles of American government.</p>
+<br />
+
+<a name='sec5-6'></a>
+<p class='sheader'>They will secure fluency</p>
+
+<p>Review for the purpose of securing fluency is a consideration frequently
+lost sight of by high school history teachers. It may be too sanguine to
+expect fluency of the average student reciting on a topic for the first
+time. But when it is considered how very many important questions are
+never recited on but once, the wisdom of an occasional review to secure
+rapid, fluent, and complete answers to topics previously discussed is
+readily seen. Select a list of topics that will at one and the same time
+cultivate fluency and strengthen the memory for the important
+considerations of history. Fluency in itself does not possess sufficient
+value to justify the expenditure of recitation time. Facility of
+expression needs to be cultivated in discussion of the conclusions
+reached in class which need to be clinched in the student's mind. Such
+questions as the following will serve as illustrations of the kind
+adaptable for such purpose, at the middle of a year course in American
+history:&mdash;</p>
+
+<ol>
+<li>Give three distinct characteristics of French colonization in
+America; three of Spanish; three of English.</li>
+<li>What things did the English colonies possess in common?</li>
+<li>What were the results to the colonies of the French and Indian
+War?</li>
+<li>To what extent was the Revolution brought about by economic
+causes?</li>
+<li>What were the defects in the Articles of Confederation?</li>
+<li>Account for the downfall of the Federalist party.</li>
+<li>In what ways has democracy advanced since 1789?</li>
+<li>What were the results of the struggle over the admission of
+Missouri?</li>
+<li>Discuss the growth of the sentiment for internal improvements?</li>
+<li>Describe the social life of the Western pioneer?</li>
+</ol>
+<br />
+
+<a name='sec5-7'></a>
+<p class='sheader'>What the student may do with &quot;problems&quot; in history</p>
+
+<p>Still another kind of review of great value in strengthening the
+student's ability to generalize and analyze, consists of what might be
+called &quot;problems in history.&quot; They are given out in much the same way as
+original problems in geometry, assuming that the student is acquainted
+with the facts from which to deduce the answers to the question. The
+object of such a review is to give the student practice in original
+thinking. He is not supposed to use a library, but only the facts which
+are in his text or which have been previously brought out in class
+recitations.</p>
+
+<p>The following are examples of questions adaptable for this purpose:&mdash;</p>
+
+<ol>
+<li>Why can the American people be regarded as the world's greatest
+colonizers?</li>
+<li>Why could Washington be regarded as only an Englishman living in
+America?</li>
+<li>Is it true that the South lost the Civil War because of slavery?</li>
+<li>In what particulars did Andrew Jackson accurately reflect the
+spirit or the ideals of the new West?</li>
+<li>What is illustrated by the attempt to found the State of
+Franklin?</li>
+<li>What considerations made the secession of the West in our early
+history a likely possibility?</li>
+</ol>
+
+<p>Questions of this kind, not answered directly in class or in the text,
+may be given out a day in advance and the answers collected at the next
+recitation.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style='width: 65%;' />
+<a name='VI'></a><h2>VI</h2>
+
+<h3>THE USE OF WRITTEN REPORTS</h3>
+
+<a name='sec6-1'></a>
+<p class='sheader'>The purpose of theme work should change as the course continues</p>
+
+<p>A method frequently employed by teachers of history is to require
+written reports or themes on various phases of the history as the work
+progresses. This plan is particularly valuable for the students in the
+first two years of high school history, for the reason that their
+library requirements are less exacting and their need of fluency greater
+during that time than later in their course. The objects of theme work
+in history courses are usually to arouse the pupil's powers of
+observation, description, and narration, and to provide means of drill
+in the exercise of these powers. These should not be the sole purposes
+of theme work, however. As the year advances, an increasing amount of
+the written work should be on subjects requiring some generalization or
+analysis of the facts brought out in the text or in the recitation. The
+pupil who has written a theme describing the appearance of the Pyramids
+has completed an exercise in history less valuable than that of the
+student who writes a theme on the errors of the Athenian Democracy.</p>
+
+<p>To summarize, reviews in history should consist of both oral and written
+work; they should be rapid enough to insure quick thinking, alert
+attention, and small expenditure of time; they should occur with
+increasing frequency as the year advances; they should stock the memory,
+fix in the student's mind the order of events, stimulate fluency, insure
+a permanent acquaintance with the personnel of history, and give to the
+student a better view of the subject as a whole and in its various
+phases.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style='width: 65%;' />
+<a name='VII'></a><h2>VII</h2>
+
+<h3>EXAMINATIONS AS TESTS OF PROGRESS</h3>
+
+<a name='sec7-1'></a>
+<p class='sheader'>The examination should determine how much the student has progressed</p>
+
+<p>The time is coming, if it is not already here, when the public will cry out
+against the nervous fear and sleepless nights with which their children
+approach the semi-annual torture of our inquisitorial examinations. That
+reasonable examinations are essential and beneficial is hardly open to
+question. That a student should be expected correctly to answer a fair
+percentage of reasonable questions on work which has been properly
+taught is not a cause of complaint from anyone. But that children should
+be frightened into a state of nervous terror by the bugaboo of an
+impending examination, and then be forced to attempt a series of
+conundrums propounded by a teacher who takes pride in maintaining a high
+percentage of failures, is indefensible. An examination should not be
+conducted with the primary object of making it a thing to be feared.
+However desirable such a questionable asset may seem to certain college
+professors, it is a serious fault in a high school teacher to have any
+considerable number of normal children fail. The ambition of the good
+instructor is to give an examination which shall at once be thorough,
+reasonable, and intelligently directed toward finding what the student
+has really learned. His purpose is to test accurately the various
+abilities which he has endeavored to encourage in the student during his
+course. He wishes to ascertain how much the student has really
+progressed.</p>
+<br />
+
+<a name='sec7-2'></a>
+<p class='sheader'>Specific suggestions on formulating questions</p>
+
+<p>In order to do this the examination must be on the really material
+considerations of the history. Questions on unimportant details should
+be omitted. The student should not be expected to burden his memory with
+the limitless mass of petty isolated facts contained in the average
+history text. The questions should be on considerations that have been
+carefully discussed, and not on facts that have received but cursory
+attention.</p>
+
+<p>The examination should not require too much time for writing. The
+several hours' continuous nervous tension sometimes exacted by too
+ambitious teachers does the average child more harm than the
+examination can possibly do him good.</p>
+
+<p>The examination should consist of questions that will jointly or
+severally test the student's powers of description, generalization, and
+analysis. They should test his knowledge of the sequence of events, his
+ability to use a library or a map, his knowledge of the various phases
+and the various periods of the history studied. In every examination
+there should be at least one question dealing with the time and the
+order of events, one each on the geographical, political, and social
+history, one that is analytical, one that requires generalization, one
+that will test his knowledge of the library, and one that will test his
+powers of description. It is not necessary to limit the questions to the
+customary number of ten. It is frequently advisable to give a class some
+degree of choice in the selection of their questions by requiring any
+ten out of a larger number asked. Certainly such a plan gives the
+student a more favorable opportunity to demonstrate his ability without
+in the least diminishing the value of the examination.</p>
+
+<p>Examination questions, like all other questions, should be definite,
+clean-cut, and reasonable. If possible, each student should be supplied
+with a copy, instead of having the set written on the board. They
+should cover only those portions of the subject that have been properly
+taught. The teacher should not expect the boy who has kept no useful
+notes, whose library work has been haphazard, and whose methods of study
+have not been supervised, to perform at examination time the miracle of
+accurately remembering what he has never been properly taught.</p>
+
+
+<hr style='width: 65%;' />
+<a name='OUTLINE'></a><h2>OUTLINE</h2>
+
+<h3><a href='#THE_TEACHING_OF_HISTORY'>I. SOME PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS</a></h3>
+<ol>
+<li><a href='#sec1-1'>Assumptions as to the teacher of history</a></li>
+<li><a href='#sec1-2'>Actual conditions confronted by the teacher</a></li>
+</ol>
+<h3><a href='#II'>II. HOW TO BEGIN THE COURSE</a></h3>
+<ol>
+<li><a href='#sec2-1'>What should be done on the day of enrollment</a></li>
+<li><a href='#sec2-2'>What should be done at the first meeting of the class</a></li>
+<li><a href='#sec2-3'>Necessity for definite instruction in methods of
+preparing a lesson</a></li>
+<li><a href='#sec2-4'>The question of note-taking</a></li>
+<li><a href='#sec2-5'>Instruction in the use of the library and indexes</a></li>
+</ol>
+<h3><a href='#III'>III. THE ASSIGNMENT OF THE LESSON</a></h3>
+<ol>
+<li><a href='#sec3-1'>Careful assignment will reveal to the student the
+relation of geography and history</a></li>
+<li><a href='#sec3-2'>His power of analysis and criticism will be stimulated</a></li>
+<li><a href='#sec3-3'>The conditions in other countries will add to his
+comprehension of the facts in the lesson</a></li>
+<li><a href='#sec3-4'>His disposition to study intensively will be encouraged</a></li>
+<li><a href='#sec3-5'>His acquaintance with the great men and women
+of history will be vitalized</a></li>
+<li><a href='#sec3-6'>He will correlate the past and the present</a></li>
+<li><a href='#sec3-7'>He will be required to memorize a limited amount
+of matter verbatim</a></li>
+<li><a href='#sec3-8'>Methods of preparing questions assigned in advance</a></li>
+</ol>
+<h3><a href='#IV'>IV. THE METHOD OF THE RECITATION</a></h3>
+<ol>
+<li><a href='#sec4-1'>Assumptions as to the recitation room</a></li>
+<li><a href='#sec4-2'>What the teacher should aim to accomplish</a></li>
+<li><a href='#sec4-3'>Work at the blackboard</a></li>
+<li><a href='#sec4-4'>Special reports</a></li>
+<li><a href='#sec4-5'>Fundamental principles of good questioning</a></li>
+<li><a href='#sec4-6'>Some additional suggestions for teachers of history</a></li>
+</ol>
+<h3><a href='#V'>V. VARIOUS MODES OF REVIEW</a></h3>
+<ol>
+<li><a href='#sec5-1'>The place of drill in the history recitation</a></li>
+<li><a href='#sec5-2'>Good reviews will develop a knowledge of the sequence
+of events</a></li>
+<li><a href='#sec5-3'>They will give a view of the whole subject</a></li>
+<li><a href='#sec5-4'>They will insure a better acquaintance with great
+men and women</a></li>
+<li><a href='#sec5-5'>They will be economical of time</a></li>
+<li><a href='#sec5-6'>They will secure fluency</a></li>
+<li><a href='#sec5-7'>What the student may do with &quot;problems&quot;
+in history</a></li>
+</ol>
+<h3><a href='#VI'>VI. THE USE OF WRITTEN REPORTS</a></h3>
+<ol>
+<li><a href='#sec6-1'>The purpose of theme work should change as the
+course continues</a></li>
+</ol>
+<h3><a href='#VII'>VII. EXAMINATIONS AS TESTS OF PROGRESS</a></h3>
+<ol>
+<li><a href='#sec7-1'>The examination should determine how much the
+student has progressed</a></li>
+<li><a href='#sec7-2'>Specific suggestions on formulating questions</a></li>
+</ol>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<hr class="full" />
+<p>***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE TEACHING OF HISTORY***</p>
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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Teaching of History, by Ernest C. Hartwell
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: The Teaching of History
+
+Author: Ernest C. Hartwell
+
+Release Date: January 3, 2005  [eBook #14577]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII)
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE TEACHING OF HISTORY***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Kathryn Lybarger and the Project Gutenberg Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team (https://www.pgdp.net)
+
+
+
+THE TEACHING OF HISTORY
+
+by
+
+ERNEST C. HARTWELL, M.A.
+
+Superintendent of Schools, Petoskey, Mich.
+
+Riverside Educational Monographs
+Edited by Henry Suzzallo
+Professor of the Philosophy of Education
+Teachers College, Columbia University
+
+Houghton Mifflin Company
+Boston, New York and Chicago
+The Riverside Press Cambridge
+
+1913
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION
+
+  I. SOME PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS
+
+ II. HOW TO BEGIN THE COURSE
+
+III. THE ASSIGNMENT OF THE LESSON
+
+ IV. THE METHOD OF THE RECITATION
+
+  V. VARIOUS MODES OF REVIEW
+
+ VI. THE USE OF WRITTEN REPORTS
+
+VII. EXAMINATIONS AS TESTS OF PROGRESS
+
+OUTLINE
+
+
+
+
+EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION
+
+
+This volume is offered as a guide to history teachers of the high school
+and the upper grammar grades. It is directly concerned with the teaching
+methods to be employed in the history period. The author assumes the
+limiting conditions that surround classroom instruction of the present
+day; he also takes for granted the teacher's sympathy with modern aims
+in history instruction. All discussions of purpose and content are
+therefore subordinated to a clear presentation of the details of
+effective teaching technique.
+
+The reader into whose hands this volume falls will be deeply interested
+in the ideals of teaching implied in the concrete suggestions given in
+the following pages, for after all the value of any system of special
+methods rests, not merely on its apparent and immediate psychological
+effectiveness, but also on the social purposes which it is devised to
+serve. It must be recognized at the outset that history has a social
+purpose. However much university teaching may be interested in truth for
+its own sake, an interest necessarily basic to the service of all other
+ends, the teaching of the lower public schools must take into account
+the relevancy of historical fact to current and future problems which
+concern men and women engaged in the common social life. So the
+elementary and secondary school teachers of the more progressive sort
+recognize that the way in which historical truths are selected and
+related to one another determines two things: (1) Whether our group
+experiences as interpreted in history will have any intelligent effect
+upon men's appreciations of current social difficulties, and (2) whether
+history will make a more vital appeal to youth at school.
+
+Certainly children, whose interests arise not alone from their innate
+impulses, but also from the world in which they have lived from the
+beginning, will be eager to know the past that is of dominant concern to
+the present. It is clear gain in the psychology of instruction if
+history is a socially live thing. The children will be more eager to
+acquire knowledge; they will hold it longer, because it is significant;
+and they will keep it fresh after school days are over because life will
+recall and review pertinent knowledge again and again. There can be no
+separation between the dominant social interests of community life and
+effective pedagogical procedure; the former in large part determines the
+latter.
+
+Such educational reforms in history teaching as have already won
+acceptance confirm the existence of this vital relation between current
+social interests and the learning process. The barren learning of names
+and dates has long since been supplanted by a study of sequences among
+events. The technical details of wars and political administrations have
+given way to a study of wide economic and social movements in which
+battles and laws are merely overt results reinforcing the current of
+change. History, once a self-inclosed school discipline, has undergone
+an intellectual expansion which takes into account all the aspects of
+life which influence it, making geographical, economic, and biographical
+materials its aids. All these and many other minor changes attest the
+fact that a vital mode of instruction always tends to accompany that
+view of history which regards the study of the past as a revelation of
+real social life.
+
+The author's suggestions will, therefore, be of distinct value to at
+least two groups of history teachers. Those who believe in the larger
+uses of history teaching, so much argued of late, will find here the
+procedures that will express the ideals and obtain the results they
+seek. Those who are not yet ready to accept modern doctrine, but who
+feel a keen discontent with the older procedure, will find in these
+pages many suggestions that will appeal to them as worthy of
+experimental use. It may be that the successful use of many methods here
+suggested may be the easy way for them to come into an acceptance of the
+larger principles of current educational reform.
+
+
+
+
+THE TEACHING OF HISTORY
+
+I
+
+SOME PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS
+
+
+_Assumptions as to the teacher of history_
+
+This monograph will make no attempt to analyze the personality of the
+ideal teacher. It is assumed that the teacher of history has an adequate
+preparation to teach his subject, that he is in good health, and that
+his usefulness is unimpaired by discontent with his work or cynicism
+about the world. It is presupposed that he understands the wisdom of
+correlating in his instruction the geography, social progress, and
+economic development of the people which his class are studying. He is
+aware that the pupil should experience something more than a
+kaleidoscopic view of isolated facts. He recognizes the folly of
+requiring four years of high school English for the purpose of
+cultivating clear, fluent, and accurate expression, only to relax the
+effort when the student comes into the history class. He knows that the
+precision, logic, and habit of definite thinking exacted by the pursuit
+of the scientific subjects should not be laid aside when the student
+attempts to trace the rise of nations. Let us go so far as to assume a
+teacher who is both pedagogical and practical; scholarly without being
+musty; imbued with a love for his subject and yet familiar with actual
+human experience.
+
+
+_Actual conditions confronted by the teacher_
+
+There are from one hundred and eighty to two hundred recitation periods
+of forty-five minutes each, minus the holidays, opening exercises,
+athletic mass meetings, and other respites, in which to teach a thousand
+years of ancient history, twenty centuries of English history, or the
+story of our own people. The age of the student will be from thirteen to
+eighteen. His judgment is immature; his knowledge of books, small; his
+interest, far from zealous. He will have three other subjects to prepare
+and his time is limited. Also, he is a citizen of the Republic and by
+his vote will shortly influence, for good or ill, the destinies of the
+nation.
+
+The purpose of this monograph is to discuss the means by which the
+teacher can engender in this student a genuine enthusiasm for the
+subject, stimulate research and historical judgment, correlate history,
+geography, literature, and the arts, cultivate proper ideals of
+government, establish a habit of systematic note-taking, and possibly
+prepare the student for college entrance examinations.
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+HOW TO BEGIN THE COURSE
+
+
+Very obviously each moment of the child's time and preparation should be
+wisely directed. Each recitation should perform its full measure of
+usefulness, in testing, drilling, and teaching. There will be no time
+for valueless note-taking, duplication of map-book work, ambiguous or
+foolish questioning, aimless argument, or junketing excursions.
+
+
+_What should be done on the day of enrollment_
+
+The day that the child enrolls in class should begin his assigned work.
+In the first ten minutes of the first meeting of the class, while the
+teacher is collecting the enrollment cards, he should also gather some
+data as to his students' previous work in history. This information will
+be of considerable assistance to the teacher in letting him know what he
+may reasonably expect of his new pupils. The class should not depart
+without a definite assignment for the next day. Let the preparation for
+the first recitation consist in answering such questions as:--
+
+     1. What is the name of the text you are to use? (Know its precise
+        title.)
+
+     2. What is the name, reputation, and position of the author?
+
+     3. Of what other books is he the author?
+
+     4. Read the preface of the book.
+
+     5. What do you think are the purposes of the subject you are about
+        to take up?
+
+     6. Give the titles and authors of other books on the same period of
+        history.
+
+     7. What has been your method of study in other courses of history?
+
+
+_What should be done at the first meeting of the class_
+
+On the second day when the class assembles, let as many of the students
+as possible be sent to the board to answer questions on the day's
+assignment. The pupil will immediately discover that the teacher
+purposes to hold the class strictly responsible for the preparation of
+assigned work. The teacher will face a class prepared to ask intelligent
+questions about the course they are entering upon. The class will
+discover that work is to begin at once. The inertia of the vacation will
+be immediately overcome.
+
+
+_Necessity for definite instruction in methods of preparing a lesson_
+
+Having secured, by class discussion and the work at the board,
+satisfactory answers to the first six questions, and having assigned the
+lesson for the next day, the remainder of the hour and, if necessary,
+the rest of the week should be spent in outlining for the student a
+method of study. That very few students of high school age possess
+habits of systematic study, needs no discussion. In spite of all that
+their grade teachers may have done for them, their tendency is to pass
+over unfamiliar words, allusions, and expressions, without troubling to
+use a dictionary. The average high school student will not read the fine
+print at the bottom of the page, or use a map for the location of places
+mentioned in the text without special instruction to do so. He will set
+himself no unassigned tasks in memory work. It is the first business of
+the good instructor to teach the student _how_ to study. The first step
+in this process is to impress on the student's mind that systematic
+preparation in the history class is as necessary as in Latin, physics,
+or geometry. Then let the following or similar instructions be given
+him:--
+
+     1. Provide yourself with an envelope of small cards or pieces of
+        note paper. Label each with the subject of the lesson and the
+        date of its preparation. These envelopes should be always at
+        hand during your study and preparation. They should be preserved
+        and filed from day to day.
+
+     2. Read the lesson assigned for the day in the textbook, including
+        all notes and fine print.
+
+     3. Write on a sheet of note paper all the unfamiliar words,
+        allusions, or expressions. Later, look these up in the
+        dictionary or other reference.
+
+     4. Record the dates which you think worthy to be remembered.
+
+     5. Discover and make a note of all the apparent contradictions,
+        inconsistencies, or inaccuracies in the author's statements.
+
+     6. Use the map for all the places mentioned in the lesson. Be able
+        to locate them when you come to class.
+
+     7. In nearly every text there is a list of books for library use,
+        given at the beginning or end of each chapter. Make yourself
+        familiar with this bibliography.
+
+     8. Read the special questions assigned for the day by the teacher.
+
+     9. Go to the library. If the book for which you are in search is
+        not to be found, try another.
+
+    10. Learn to use an index. If the topic for which you are looking
+        does not appear in the index, try looking for the same thing
+        under another name; or under some related topic.
+
+    11. Having found the material in one book, use more than one if
+        your time permits. When you feel that you have secured the
+        material which will make a complete answer to the question,
+        _write the answer on one of your cards for keeping notes._
+
+    12. Remember that the teacher will ask constantly _what_ was done,
+        _when_ was it done, and, most important of all, _why_ it was
+        done. Make a list of the questions which you think most likely
+        to be asked on the lesson and ascertain whether you can answer
+        them without the use of your notes or text.
+
+    13. If possible practice your answers aloud. It will make you the
+        more ready when called on in class.
+
+    14. Keep a list of things which are not clear to you and about
+        which you wish to ask questions.
+
+    15. Before completing your preparation, read over these instructions
+        and be sure that you have complied with them.
+
+
+It may be claimed that no high school student can be expected to follow
+such instructions and that to secure such a daily preparation is
+impossible; in answer to which it must be admitted that merely a
+perfunctory talk on methods of preparation will accomplish little. If
+the instruction just suggested is to bear fruit, the teacher must take
+pains to see that it is followed. Carefully to prepare his lesson
+according to a definite plan must become a _habit_ with the student.
+Facility, accuracy, and thoroughness are impossible otherwise. Haphazard
+methods are wasteful of time and unproductive of results. The teacher
+can afford to emphasize method during the first few weeks of the course.
+The time thus spent in assisting the pupil to develop definite habits of
+study will pay rich dividends for the remainder of the student's life.
+Daily inquiry as to the method of study pursued, frequent examination of
+the student's notes, questions on the important dates selected, the
+books used for preparation, new words discovered, and so on, will keep
+the importance of the plan before the class and do much to foster the
+habit of systematic preparation.
+
+
+_The question of note-taking_
+
+On the question of notebook work, there will always be a considerable
+difference of opinion. It is much easier to state what notebook work
+should not be than to outline precisely how it should be conducted.
+Certainly it should not be overdone. It should not be an exercise
+usurping time disproportionate to its value. It should not be required
+primarily for exhibition purposes, although such notes as are kept
+should be kept neatly and spelled correctly.
+
+Students should be encouraged to keep their envelope of note paper
+always at hand during recitation and while reading. The habit of jotting
+down facts, opinions, statistics, comparisons, and contradictions _while
+they are being read_ is most desirable and worthy of cultivation. The
+student should be taught the wisdom of keeping his notes in a neat,
+legible, and easily available form. Shorthand methods should be
+discouraged. With a little tactful direction early in the year, the
+student may be led to form a most useful habit. The greater the
+proportion of intelligent note-taking that is done without compulsion,
+the better. No more notes should be _required_ than the teacher can
+honestly look over, correct, and grade. It is better to require no notes
+at all than to accept careless, superficial inaccuracies as honest work.
+One curse of high school history teaching is the tendency of young
+teachers trained in college history classes to assign more work than the
+student can honestly do or the teacher properly correct.
+
+As has already been intimated, history notes should not be kept in a
+book. The required notes should be kept on separate sheets of paper. The
+topics should be clearly indicated at the top of each sheet. The
+authorities used in arriving at the answer should always be given, with
+the volume, chapter, and page. The notes on related topics should be put
+into an envelope and properly labeled. After the recitation the student
+can make any necessary corrections in his notes without spoiling their
+appearance. He will simply substitute a new sheet for the old. If the
+teacher discovers in his periodic examination of the notes that some of
+the matter asked for has not been properly covered or that errors have
+not been corrected, the notes needing revision can be detained for use
+in a conference with the student, while the others are returned. If at
+any time after completing his high school work the student desires to
+use the data contained in his notes or to add to them matter which he
+may later read, they are in available form. For convenience and
+neatness, for present use, and future reference this device is far
+superior to the formal notebook. It has the further advantage of
+accustoming the student to the method of note-taking which will be
+required of those who go to college.
+
+It would save much valuable time, at present frequently wasted in
+writing useless notes, if the teacher constantly squared his notebook
+requirements with questions such as these:--
+
+     1. Is the notebook work as I am conducting it calculated to develop
+        the habit of critical reading?
+
+     2. Does the time spent in writing up notes justify itself by fixing
+        in the child's mind new and really relevant information not
+        given in the text?
+
+     3. Is it teaching students to combine facts, opinions, and
+        statistics, to form conclusions really their own?
+
+     4. Is the amount of work required reasonable when it is remembered
+        that the child has three other subjects to prepare, that he is
+        from thirteen to eighteen years of age, and more or less
+        unfamiliar with a library?
+
+     5. Am I able carefully and punctually to correct all the notes
+        required?
+
+Whatever the method the teacher thinks best to be used should be
+explained early in the course and thereafter the student should be held
+scrupulously responsible for such requirements as are made.
+
+
+_Instruction in the use of the library and indexes_
+
+Having discussed with the class the questions assigned on the day of
+enrollment and explained the method of study recommended for their use,
+it will be well for the teacher to devote some time to instruction in
+the use of the library. It is possible that the older classes will
+require very little of this, but there are few classes where an hour, at
+least, cannot well be spent in a discussion of indexes, titles, and
+relative value of the works on various subjects. This hour need not be
+the regular recitation period. A session before or after school could be
+devoted to the purpose. The teacher's instruction, however, will be
+greatly assisted if the students are asked to prepare answers before
+coming to class to such questions as the following:--
+
+     1. How much previous work have you done in the library?
+
+     2. Of what use do you think the library should be to you in the
+        course you are just entering?
+
+     3. What is a source book? Of what use are source books?
+
+     4. What source books on this period of history are in the library?
+
+     5. What do you think will be the best references for questions on
+        the artistic, industrial, political, social, economic, and
+        military phases of the history you are about to study?
+
+     6. What encyclopedias and works of general reference are in your
+        library?
+
+The preparation of answers to such questions as these will present to
+the student some of the difficulties inevitable to his future library
+work and will send him to class prepared to ask intelligent questions.
+It will enable the teacher accurately to gauge how much his students
+already know about a library and its uses.
+
+The value and advantage of library work should be carefully explained to
+the class. It is a great error to allow pupils to think of their
+library work as drudgery, assigned solely to keep them busy or to make
+the course difficult. There are too few boys to-day with a genuine love
+of books, partly no doubt due to the fact that a reference library has
+become for them, not a rich mine of interesting matter, but a
+hydra-headed interrogation point. A great good has been done the student
+who has been taught the pleasure of using books. Nor is such a thing
+impossible. Nothing gives greater satisfaction to the normal high school
+boy than to find an error in the text, the teacher's statements, or the
+map. He takes pleasure in confuting the statistics or judgments quoted
+in class, by others of opposite trend, encountered in his reading. He
+enjoys asking keen questions. If the student is told that the library
+work is for the purpose of cultivating his powers of investigation and
+adding to the matter in the text many interesting details; if the
+library requirements are reasonable and wisely directed; if he is given
+an opportunity to _use_ the information he has gathered from his
+reading, his interest in books will steadily increase.
+
+The teacher should explain the value of remembering accurately the
+titles and the authors of books used for reference. The silly habit of
+referring to an authority as "the book bound in green" or "the large
+book by what's his name" is easily prevented if taken in time.
+
+The teacher should discover by assignments made in class what degree of
+proficiency in the use of an index is already possessed by his pupils.
+There are few classes where the use of an index is thoroughly
+understood. Time should be taken to demonstrate the quickest possible
+methods of finding what a book contains. The use of the catalogue and
+card index should be carefully explained and illustrated.
+
+Attention should be called to the best sources on the various phases of
+the history to be studied. There ought to be no poor histories in the
+library, but if there are any to which the students have access, warning
+should be given against their use.
+
+The value of periodicals and current literature for work in history
+should be illustrated and the use of _Poole's Index_ and the _Readers
+Guide_ explained.
+
+The class should be acquainted with the rules of the library and
+cautioned against the misuse of books. The necessity of leaving
+reference books where all the class can use them should be made
+apparent.
+
+Direction in the use of the library, like instruction in the method of
+study, is a prerequisite to the best results in high school history
+classes, for no matter how conscientious the teacher, the recitation
+will be deadly if the student has no working knowledge of the library
+nor proper method of preparation. A class unable to ask intelligent
+questions about the work is not ready for the presentation of additional
+matter by the teacher. It is no difficult matter for a teacher to
+entertain his class for an hour with interesting incidents of the period
+in which the lesson occurs. A history teacher who cannot talk
+interestingly for an hour on any of the great periods of history has
+surely missed his calling. But to keep a class quiet, to retain their
+attention, to amuse and entertain, is far from making history vital. If
+the recitation is to be really vital, the students must do most of the
+talking, the criticizing, and the questioning. There can be none of
+these worth while without proper preparation.
+
+
+
+
+III
+
+THE ASSIGNMENT OF THE LESSON
+
+
+_Careful assignment will reveal to the student the relation of geography
+and history_
+
+The recitation can never hope to achieve its maximum helpfulness unless
+the lesson be intelligently assigned. The work required must be
+reasonable in amount, and not so exacting as to discourage interest.
+Daily direction to look up unfamiliar words, expressions, and allusions
+must be given until the habit becomes fixed. Warning against possible
+geographical misconceptions should be given when necessary, together
+with directions to use the map for places, routes, and boundaries. A few
+questions asked in advance, with the purpose of bringing out the
+relation of the geography to the history in the lesson, will be of great
+assistance. For example, if the class are to study the Louisiana
+Purchase, the full significance of that revolutionary event will be made
+much clearer if the student is asked to prepare answers before coming to
+class to such questions as the following:--
+
+     1. What States are included in the purchase?
+
+     2. What is its area? How does it compare with the area of the
+        original thirteen States?
+
+     3. What geographical reasons caused Napoleon to sell it?
+
+     4. What influence did the purchase have on our retention of the
+        territory east of the Mississippi? Why?
+
+     5. How many people live to-day in the territory included in the
+        purchase?
+
+
+_His power of analysis and criticism will be stimulated_
+
+A lesson should be so assigned that the student will read the text with
+his eye critically open to inconsistencies, contradictions, and
+inaccuracies. With a text of six hundred pages, and with a hundred and
+eighty recitations in which to cover them, it is not too much to expect
+that the average of three or four pages daily shall be studied so
+thoroughly that the student can analyze and summarize each day's lesson.
+The teacher should not make such analysis in advance of the recitation,
+but he should so assign the lesson that the student will be prepared to
+give one when he comes to class. A word in advance by the teacher will
+prompt the student who is studying the American Revolution, to classify
+its causes as direct and indirect, economic and political, social and
+religious. There is no difficulty in finding good authorities who
+disagree as to the effect on America of the English trade restrictions.
+Callendar's _Economic History of the United States_ quotes five of the
+best authorities on this point, and covers the case in a few pages. A
+reference by the teacher to this or some other authority will bring out
+a lively discussion on the justice of the American resistance. Let the
+class be asked to account for the colonial opposition to the Townshend
+Acts, when the Stamp Act Congress had declared that the regulation of
+the Colonies' external trade was properly within the powers of
+Parliament. Let the class be asked to explain a statement that the
+Declaration of Independence does not mention the real underlying causes
+of the Revolution. A few suggestions and advanced questions of this sort
+will stimulate a critical analysis of the statements in the text, and
+send the student to class keen for an intelligent discussion.
+
+Ordinarily, when a class is averaging three or four pages of the text
+daily, it is an error for the teacher to point out in advance certain
+dates and statistics that need not be memorized. Such selection should
+be left to the student. During the recitation the teacher will discover
+what dates, statistics, and other matter the student has selected as
+worthy to be memorized, and if correction is necessary it may then be
+made. It dulls the edge of the pupil's enthusiasm to be told in advance
+that some of the text is not worthy to be remembered. Furthermore such
+instruction does nothing to develop the student's sense of historical
+proportion, for it substitutes the judgment of the teacher for that of
+the pupil.
+
+Advance questions asking explanation of statements made in the text, or
+by other authors dealing with the same period, insure that the lesson
+will be read understandingly and that the author's statements will be
+carefully analyzed. Such declarations as the following are illustrations
+of statements whose explanation might profitably be required in
+advance:--
+
+     1. "The Constitution was extracted by necessity from a reluctant
+        people."
+
+     2. "Oregon was a make-weight for Texas."
+
+     3. "The greatest evil of slavery was that it prevented the South
+        from accumulating capital."
+
+     4. "The day that France possesses New Orleans we must marry
+        ourselves to the British fleet."
+
+     5. "The cause of free labor won a substantial triumph in the
+        Missouri Compromise."
+
+     6. "The second war with England was not one of necessity, policy,
+        or interest on the part of the Americans; it was rather one of
+        party prejudice and passion."
+
+
+_The conditions in other countries will add to his comprehension of the
+facts in the lesson_
+
+In so far as the next lesson requires an understanding of the history or
+conditions of another country, the attention of the class should be
+directed in advance to such necessity. Special references or brief
+reports may be advisable. A few well-selected advance questions will
+send the class to recitation prepared to discuss what otherwise the
+teacher must explain. A few questions on the character of James II, his
+ideals of government, the chief causes of the revolution of 1688, and
+its most important results will do much to explain the colonial
+resistance to Andros. A few questions designed to bring out the
+imperative necessity of English resistance to Napoleon will make clear
+the hostile commercial decrees, impressment, and interference with the
+rights of neutral ships. Such questions reduce the necessity of
+explanation by the teacher to a minimum.
+
+
+_His disposition to study intensively will be encouraged_
+
+If the teacher expects the class to deal more intensively than the text
+with the matters discussed in the lesson, a few advance questions will
+be of great assistance. Suppose, for example, that the text contents
+itself with saying that for political reasons the first United States
+Bank was not rechartered, and shortly after informs the reader that the
+second United States Bank was rechartered because the State banks had
+suspended specie payments. The student may or may not be curious about
+the failure of the first bank to receive a new charter, the operation of
+State banks, or why they suspended payment in 1814. If he has been
+properly taught, he probably will be, but if the teacher wishes to
+discuss these considerations in detail at the next recitation it will be
+infinitely better to have the facts contributed by the class than for
+the teacher to do the reciting. It is quite possible that the individual
+answers to advance questions assigned with such a purpose will be
+incomplete, but the interest of the class will be incalculably greater
+if they themselves furnish the bulk of the additional matter required.
+Collectively the class will usually secure complete answers to
+reasonable questions. The teacher has his opportunity in supplying such
+important facts as the students fail to find.
+
+Until the student may reasonably be expected to know the books of the
+library having to do with his subject, the teacher in giving out an
+advance lesson should mention by author and title the books most helpful
+in the preparation of assigned questions; otherwise the student in a
+perfectly sincere effort to do the work assigned may spend an hour in
+search of the proper book.
+
+It may be urged that this search is a valuable experience, but it is
+obviously too costly. As the year advances and the pupil learns more and
+more about the uses of books and methods of investigation increasingly
+less specific instruction as to sources should be given by the teacher.
+Early in the year, with four lessons to prepare daily, the pupil cannot
+afford an hour simply to search for a book. He needs that hour for
+preparation of other work, and if by some fortunate conjunction of
+circumstances his other work is not sufficiently exacting to require it,
+he cannot hope to appear in history class with a well-prepared lesson
+if an hour of his time has been spent in simply looking for a book.
+
+It is frequently worth while to spend a few minutes of the recitation in
+characterizing the epoch in which the events of the lesson take place or
+in listening to a brief character sketch of the men contributing to
+these events. Care should of course be taken that biography does not
+usurp the place of history, but it materially adds to the interest of
+the recitation if the kings, generals, and statesmen cease to be merely
+historical characters and become human beings.
+
+
+_His acquaintance with the great men and women of history will be
+vitalized_
+
+It is needless to say that characterizations of men or epochs should not
+be assigned without instruction as to how they should be prepared. In
+the case of a great historical character, what is needed for class
+purposes is not a biography with the dry facts of birth, marriage,
+death, etc. The report should be brief, but bristling with adjectives
+supported in each case by at least one fact of the man's life. These may
+be selected from his personal appearance, private life, amusements,
+education, obstacles overcome, public services, political sagacity, or
+military prowess. The sketch may close with a few brief estimates by
+biographers or historians of his proper place in history.
+
+If a characterization of a period of history is to be required, the
+teacher should explain that such a characterization should be an
+exercise in the selection of brief statements of fact reflecting the
+ideals, institutions, and conditions of the period being described. From
+histories, source books, fiction, and literature, let the student select
+facts illustrating such things as the spirit of the laws, conditions at
+court, public education, amusements of the people, social progress,
+position of religion, etc. A little time spent in characterizing a
+period of history and a few of its great men will assist in changing the
+recital of the bare facts given in the text to an intelligent
+understanding of conditions and a vital discussion of events. For
+instance, the ordinary high school text, in dealing with the French and
+Indian war, speaks briefly of the lack of English success during the
+early part of the struggle and then says that with the coming of Pitt to
+the ministry the whole course of events was changed because of the great
+statesman's wonderful personality. The teacher who wishes to make such a
+dramatic circumstance really vital to his class must have more
+information with which to work. A picture of the coarse, vulgar England
+with its incompetent army and navy, apathetic church, and corrupt
+government, followed by a stirring character sketch of the great Pitt,
+will cost but a few minutes of the recitation and will metamorphose a
+moribund attention to a vital interest.
+
+Care should be taken that the characterizations given in class be
+properly prepared. To this end it will be well to assign the preparation
+of these sketches at least a week in advance, at the same time arranging
+a conference with the student a day or two before the recitation. In
+this conference the teacher should make such corrections in the pupil's
+method of preparation and selection of matter as seem necessary. The
+characterizations should not be read, but delivered by the student
+facing the class, precisely for the moment as though he were the
+teacher. Future tests and examinations should hold the class responsible
+for the facts thus presented. If, as is too often the case in work of
+this sort, the student giving the report is the sole beneficiary of the
+exercise, the time required is disproportionate to the benefit derived.
+
+
+_He will correlate the past and the present_
+
+If there are facts recounted in the lesson that may be clinched in the
+student's mind by showing the relation of those facts to present-day
+conditions or institutions, a few advance questions calculated to bring
+out this relationship may well be assigned.
+
+It is generally conceded that one chief purpose of history instruction
+is to enable us to interpret the present and the future in the light of
+the past, but it all too often happens that current history is forgotten
+in the recital of facts that are centuries old. Candidates for teachers'
+certificates in their examinations in United States history show far
+less knowledge about the great problems and events of the present day
+than they do of colonial history. The student in English history in our
+high schools to-day knows all about the Domesday Book, but almost
+nothing of the recent history of England. Quite possibly the text has
+nothing to say about it, and it is equally likely that the class may
+fail to cover the text and miss the little that is actually given. No
+opportunity should be missed to indicate the bearing of the past on
+present-day conditions. Even if the events of the lesson exert no direct
+influence on affairs to-day, their significance may be brought home to
+the student by an illustration from current history. The account of the
+Black Death gives excellent occasion for a brief discussion of modern
+sanitation and the war on the White Plague. The efforts of Parliament to
+fix wages can be illustrated by some of the minimum wage laws passed by
+recent legislatures. John Ball's teachings suggest a brief discussion of
+modern socialism, daily becoming more active in its influence. The
+medieval trade guilds and modern labor unions; the monopolies of
+Elizabeth's time and the anti-trust law of to-day; George the Third's
+two hundred capital crimes and modern methods of penology; the jealousy
+of Athens in guarding the privilege of citizenship and the facility with
+which immigrants at present become American citizens are only a few
+illustrations, indicating the ease with which the past and the present
+may be correlated.
+
+
+_He will be required to memorize a limited amount of matter verbatim_
+
+In assigning a lesson it is sometimes desirable to require certain
+matter to be learned _verbatim_. In American history the Preamble to the
+Constitution, the principles of government contained in the Declaration
+of Independence, the essential doctrine in the Virginia and Kentucky
+Resolutions, certain clauses of the Constitution, and extracts from
+other historical documents may well be required to be memorized
+accurately. It is scarcely to be supposed that the student can improve
+on the clarity and definiteness of the English in such documents. He is
+expected to understand the principles which they assert. He may well be
+required to train his memory to accuracy by learning certain assignments
+_verbatim_. If memory work received a little more attention in our high
+schools to-day, we should be less likely to hear the statement of a
+political creed neutralized by the omission of an important word. We
+should be less likely to see the classic words of Lincoln mangled beyond
+recognition by messy misquotation.
+
+The assignment of advance questions such as have been suggested
+possesses several advantages. It makes it possible for the teacher to
+hold the class responsible for definite preparation, very much as the
+teacher in algebra is able to do with the problems assigned in advance.
+It forces the students to do most of the talking. It encourages an
+intelligent use of the library in a manner calculated to develop the
+student's powers of investigation. If the pupil forgets most of his
+history, but retains the ability to investigate carefully, thoroughly,
+and critically, the plan has more than justified itself. The plan
+enables the teacher to spend his time in explanation of what the pupil
+has been unable to do for herself, and thus effects a considerable
+saving in time. It would be interesting to secure a statement of how
+much of the teacher's time is ordinarily spent in doing for the student
+in recitation what he should have done for himself before coming to
+class. It substitutes for the pupil's snap judgment, given without much
+thought and too frequently influenced by the inflection of the teacher's
+voice, an opinion that has resulted from research and deliberation
+unbiased by the teacher's personal views.
+
+It is too much to expect high school pupils to solve historical problems
+extemporaneously. If inferences and contrasts other than those given in
+the text are to be drawn, if statements are to be defended or opposed,
+the high school student should be given time to prepare his answer.
+Aside from the injustice of any other procedure, it is a hopeless waste
+of time to spend the precious minutes of the recitation in gathering
+negative replies and worthless judgments.
+
+
+_Methods of preparing questions assigned in advance_
+
+It may be urged that such an assignment of a lesson as that proposed is
+too ambitious and that it exacts too much of the teacher's time. In
+answer it should be said that specialists in history ought surely to
+have read widely enough and studied deeply enough to be _able_ to select
+intelligent questions of the sort suggested. We have assumed that the
+teacher has made adequate preparation for his work. Certainly, then, he
+should be ready to explain the social, geographical, and economic
+relation of the events mentioned in the lesson. He should know their
+bearing on current history. He should always have ready a fund of
+information, additional to that given in the text. In preparing advance
+questions for distribution to the class the teacher is preparing his own
+lesson. He may be doing it a day or two earlier than he would otherwise
+do, but surely he is performing no labor additional to what may
+reasonably be expected of him. As to the time required to prepare copies
+of the questions for distribution when the class convenes, it may be
+said that a neostyle or mimeograph, with which all large schools and
+many small ones are equipped, makes short work of preparing as many
+copies of the questions as desired. If there is a commercial department
+in connection with the school, an available stenographer, or a willing
+student helper, the teacher may easily relieve himself of the work of
+supplying the copies. If none of these expedients are possible, it is no
+Herculean task to write each day on the board the few questions for the
+next lesson. It will entail no great loss of time if the class are asked
+to copy them when they first come to recitation. If it is possible to
+copy them after the recitation, so much the better. And beyond the
+obvious advantages of a carefully assigned lesson it must be remembered
+that in the assignment of special topics, in private conferences with
+the student, in the correction of notes, in giving assistance in the
+library, the teacher has an opportunity to cultivate a sympathetic
+relation between himself and the class of inestimable service in
+securing the best results.
+
+
+
+
+IV
+
+THE METHOD OF THE RECITATION
+
+
+_Assumptions as to the recitation room_
+
+Let us now assume that the recitation will be held in a quiet room free
+from the distracting influence of poor light, poor ventilation, and
+inadequate seating capacity. The blackboard space is ample for the whole
+class, the erasers and chalk are at hand, the maps, charts, and globe
+are where they can be used without stumbling over them. The teacher can
+give his whole attention to the class. Discipline should take care of
+itself. The pupil who is interested will not be seriously out of order.
+
+
+_What the teacher should aim to accomplish_
+
+The problem, then, is so to expend the forty-five minutes in which the
+teacher and class are together that:--
+
+     1. So far as possible the atmosphere and setting of the period
+        being studied may be reproduced.
+
+     2. The great historical characters spoken of in the lesson may
+        become for the student real men and women with whom he will
+        afterwards feel a personal acquaintance.
+
+     3. The events described will be understood and properly interpreted
+        in their relation to geography, and the economic and social
+        progress of the world.
+
+     4. Causes and effects shall be properly analyzed.
+
+     5. And that there shall be left sufficient time for the occasional
+        review necessary to any good instruction.
+
+
+_Work at the blackboard_
+
+The first five minutes may profitably be spent at the board, each member
+of the class being asked to write a complete answer to one of the
+assigned questions. Whatever may happen later in the recitation each
+student has had at least this much of an opportunity for
+self-expression, and his work should be neat, workmanlike, complete, and
+accurate. By this device the alert teacher will secure in the first five
+minutes of the recitation hour a fairly accurate idea of each student's
+preparation, the weak spots in his understanding of the lesson, and the
+errors to be corrected. He may even be able to record a grade for the
+work done.
+
+
+_Special reports_
+
+The class having taken their seats, the next order of business should be
+the reports on special topics assigned for the purpose of making the
+period of history under discussion more interesting and vital. As has
+been said, these reports should not be read, but delivered by the pupil
+facing the class. The class should be encouraged to ask questions on the
+report when finished and the student responsible for the report should
+be expected to answer any reasonable inquiry. If other students are able
+to contribute to the topics reported on, they should be encouraged to do
+so. Let the teacher be sure that he has sounded the depths of the
+students' information and curiosity before he himself discusses the
+report. If the device of reports delivered in class is to justify
+itself, the matter contained in them must be so arranged and discussed
+that the whole class receives real benefit. The ingenious teacher will
+be able to establish a tradition in his course for a careful preparation
+and critical discussion of these reports. The rivalry of students for
+excellence in this work is not difficult to stimulate. A premium should
+be put on criticism which finds mentioned in the characterization
+qualities inconsistent with the facts recorded in the text, or omissions
+which the facts of the text seem to justify.
+
+
+_Fundamental principles of good questioning_
+
+It is not likely that the teacher will find it advisable to require
+reports at every recitation nor that the reports and their discussion
+will consume, at the most, longer than ten or fifteen minutes of any
+class period. There must always be time for direct oral questioning on
+the facts of the lesson; questioning that will test the student's
+memory, ability to analyze, and powers of expression. Certain principles
+are fundamental to good questioning in any recitation.
+
+     1. The questions should be brief.
+
+     2. They should be prepared by the teacher before coming to
+        recitation. This will insure rapidity. A vast deal of time is
+        lost by the unfortunate habit possessed by many teachers of
+        never having the next question ready to use.
+
+     3. They should precede the name of the pupil required to answer it.
+
+     4. They should not be leading questions to which the pupil can
+        guess the answers.
+
+     5. They should be grammatically stated with but one possible
+        interpretation.
+
+     6. Except for purposes of rapid review they should not be
+        answerable with yes or no.
+
+     7. They should be asked in a voice loud enough to be heard by all
+        the class, and only once.
+
+     8. They should be asked in no regular order, but nevertheless in
+        such a way that every member of the class will have a chance to
+        recite.
+
+
+
+_Some additional suggestions for teachers of history_
+
+There are additional suggestions particularly applicable to the teacher
+of history.
+
+     1. In all the questioning remember the purposes of the recitation.
+        Ask questions knowing exactly what you wish as an answer. There
+        is no time for aimless or idle questioning.
+
+     2. Inquire frequently as to the books used in preparation of the
+        lesson. Let no allusion or statement in the text go unexplained.
+        Let none of the author's conclusions or opinions go
+        unchallenged. Ask the student for inconsistencies, inaccuracies,
+        or contradictions in the text. Put a premium on their discovery.
+        Insist on the student's authority for statements other than
+        those given in the text.
+
+     3. Do not use the heavy-typed words frequently found at the head of
+        the paragraph or the topical heads furnished by the text, if it
+        can be avoided. The pupil should not be allowed to remember his
+        history by its location in the text.
+
+     4. Be sure that the class have an opportunity to recite on the
+        questions assigned for their advance preparation. Nothing is
+        more discouraging to a student than carefully to prepare the
+        work required and then fail of an opportunity either to recite
+        upon or to discuss it.
+
+     5. Discover the tastes, shortcomings, and abilities of your
+        individual students and direct your future questions
+        accordingly. There will usually be in the class the boy who is
+        glib without being accurate. He should be questioned on definite
+        facts. There will be the student whose analysis of events is
+        good, but whose powers of description are poor. Adapt your
+        questions to his special need. There will be the pupil with the
+        tendency to memorize the text _verbatim_. There will be the
+        student who knows the facts of the lesson, but who fails to
+        remember the sequence of events--the kind who never can tell
+        whether the Exclusion Bill came before or after the Restoration.
+        There will be the usual amount of specialized tastes, curiosity,
+        timidity, laziness, and rattle-brained thinking. The questioning
+        should probe these peculiarities, and stimulate the pupil's
+        ambition to improve his preparation at its weakest point.
+        Needless to say the questions should not be asked with the daily
+        idea of making the pupil fail. Like any other surgical
+        instrument the question probe should be used skillfully and with
+        a proper motive. It would be as great an error to bend your
+        questions continually away from the student's special tastes and
+        abilities as to be perpetually guided by them.
+
+     6. The bulk of the teacher's attention should be given neither to
+        the few exceptionally able students nor to the few very poor
+        pupils. It is to the average normal boy and girl that the most
+        of the questioning should be directed. The brilliant student
+        should be called on sufficiently to retain his interest and to
+        set a standard of excellence for the class. He should be given
+        the most difficult of the assignments of outside work and if
+        necessary an additional number of them. As to the few pupils
+        whom the teacher deems exceptionally poor, it may be said that
+        the effect of questioning should never be to discourage the
+        pupil who has made an honest effort at preparation. During the
+        early part of the course the efforts of the teacher may well be
+        directed to asking the backward student questions to which he
+        can make reasonably satisfactory answers. By saving the student
+        from the daily humiliation of failure before the class, and by
+        tactfully encouraging him to greater effort, the teacher may
+        shortly discover that the poor pupil is far from hopeless.
+
+     7. Do not allow your questions to consume a disproportionate amount
+        of time with details. Until very recently in all our history
+        teaching, battles have been exalted to a place immeasurably
+        greater than their importance. We are coming to see that the
+        fighting is one of the least important things in the war. The
+        causes and results, the financial, political, and social effects
+        now absorb our attention. One or two battles in a course may
+        profitably be studied in detail, particularly in the history of
+        our own country, but in the press of considerations far more
+        interesting and vital, it is a waste of time to give more than a
+        moment's notice to the remainder. Student descriptions of
+        battles are bound to be stereotyped. The ordinary textbook
+        describes each of the thousand battles of the world in about the
+        same fifty words.
+
+     8. Let some of the questions be directed towards cultivating the
+        student's powers of oral description. History is not altogether
+        a matter of analysis or generalization. There can scarcely be
+        assigned a lesson in history that does not contain events which
+        lend themselves to dramatic description. Their recital should be
+        made the occasion of the student's best efforts in this
+        direction. Let the pupils be taught to use adjectives and
+        adverbs. Break down the barrier of listlessness or fear or
+        self-consciousness which keeps the student from rendering a
+        graphic and thrilling account of great events.
+
+     9. Let the questions from day to day develop the continuity of
+        history. Avoid questioning that fails to unite the events of
+        previous lessons with the one being studied. Bring out the
+        connection of the past and the present. Slavery existed in
+        America for two hundred years before the Civil War was fought.
+        Your teaching of those two centuries of history should be so
+        conducted that when the Civil War is finally reached, the class
+        can tell the process by which anti-slavery sentiment was finally
+        crystallized. The hiatus between the mobbing of Garrison in
+        Boston and the extraordinary contribution of Massachusetts to
+        the Northern army should be bridged, not by a heroic question or
+        two when the war is finally reached, but by a daily attention to
+        the events which effected the metamorphosis.
+
+    10. If the answer to your question requires the use of a map, ask
+        it in such a way that the student can talk and use the map at
+        the same time. The geographical provisions of a treaty, the
+        routes of explorers, the grants of commercial companies,
+        campaigns, or military frontiers should all be recited in this
+        way. A wall map with simply the outline of the territory, with
+        its rivers, will be of considerable assistance in testing the
+        accuracy of the student's geographical knowledge. While
+        reciting, let him locate with chalk or pointer the cities,
+        arbitrary boundary lines, and routes he finds it necessary to
+        mention in his recitation. It will require special attention
+        early in the course to teach students the necessity for
+        preparation of this sort. Like everything else, map work should
+        be reasonable in its requirements. A knowledge of geography is
+        imperative to the correct understanding of history, and the
+        indifference or ignorance of teachers should never excuse
+        inattention to this vital necessity. On the other hand, however,
+        it is equally reprehensible to require of high school students
+        the labored preparation of maps in the drawing of which hours of
+        valuable time are spent in searching for places of trivial
+        importance and small historical value. Map work in a high school
+        history course should require no more than geographical accuracy
+        in locating boundaries, routes, and places really vital to the
+        history of the people being studied. If it does more than this
+        it usurps time disproportionate to its value.
+
+
+
+
+V
+
+VARIOUS MODES OF REVIEW
+
+
+_The place of drill in the history recitation_
+
+We have long since learned the folly of spending very many of the
+minutes of a recitation in drilling students in dates, outlines, and
+charts. Work of this sort never made a recitation vital; never inspired
+a student with enthusiasm for historical inquiry; never really dispelled
+the fog which surrounds, for the student, the cabinets and
+constitutions, battles and boundaries, declarations and decrees, so
+briefly treated in the text.
+
+
+_Good reviews will develop a knowledge of the sequence of events_
+
+But it may be seriously questioned whether many teachers, in their zeal
+to escape the over-emphasis of dates, have not gone to the extreme of
+neglecting them altogether. That a student should remember sufficient
+dates to fix in his mind the sequence of important events is hardly open
+to question. That he can never do so without some special attention to
+dates is equally indisputable. Without doubt, drill in important dates
+is necessary, but it should be so conducted as to take but little time.
+Each day the teacher has indicated the dates worthy to be remembered and
+has been careful to select the landmarks of history. He has called
+attention to the various collateral circumstances which might assist to
+fix the dates in the child's mind. The student has kept his list of
+dates in the back of his text or in some convenient place of reference.
+Once a week for three minutes the teacher gives the class a rapid review
+on the dates contained in the list. Occasionally the class are sent to
+the board and asked to write the dates of the reigns of the English
+monarchs from William down to the point which the class has reached, or
+the Presidents in their order, or some other similar exercise calculated
+to give a backbone to the history being studied. The class will know
+that such a review is liable to be given at any time. They will endeavor
+to be prepared. The result will be that with the expenditure of a few
+minutes at intervals in rapid review, history will cease to be a
+spineless narrative and become for the student an orderly procession of
+events. Drill in dates is only one method to this end. There may be a
+rapid review in battles, generals, wars, treaties, proclamations, and
+inventions. Such exercises encourage the classification of facts and
+stimulate fluency of expression. It is of the highest importance for the
+student so to arrange in his mind what he has learned in recitation that
+he can call to his command at a second's notice the fact, date, or
+illustration he desires. There will be many times in his school and
+college career when such an ability will be indispensable; in business
+or the professions it is an invaluable asset, infinitely more useful
+than the history itself. It will be well for the teacher to inquire:
+"What am I doing to cultivate such an ability in my students?"
+
+
+_They will give a view of the whole subject_
+
+Few teachers will deny that too little time is spent in giving the
+student a general view of the whole subject, either in its entirety or
+in its various phases. The text has been studied by chapters or by
+months or by movements. The history as a whole has never been seen. By
+the time the student has reached the "Aldrich Currency Plan" in American
+history he has forgotten all about the experiments with the first United
+States Bank. He could no more outline the financial history of the
+United States as given in his text than he could outline the industrial
+or political history of the American people. And yet he has studied the
+facts given in his textbook; he has supplemented the text by his work in
+the library, and in the recitation; he has done everything that may
+reasonably be expected of him, except to assemble his historical
+information and review it as a whole.
+
+If the student in American history is asked to go to the board at
+intervals and write an outline for the work covered on such topics as
+the following, he will come much nearer understanding the progress of
+our people:--
+
+     1. History of the tariff.
+
+     2. Political parties and principles for which they stood.
+
+     3. Things that crystallized Northern sentiment against slavery.
+
+     4. Reasons for the unification of the South.
+
+     5. Diplomatic relations of the United States.
+
+     6. Additions of territory.
+
+     7. Financial legislation.
+
+     8. Growth of humanitarian spirit.
+
+There will easily be sufficient topics so that each member of the class
+will have a different one. They can all work at the board,
+simultaneously. The amount of time used for exercises of this sort need
+not be great, and the value received is incalculable.
+
+If the teacher wishes to review briefly on the military, diplomatic,
+social, political, or economic history of the people the class have been
+studying, it is no difficult matter to arrange a set of questions, the
+occasional review in which will clinch in the student's mind what
+otherwise would surely be forgotten. Such questions as the following on
+the financial history of the United States are each answerable with a
+few words and will serve as an illustration of the method which may be
+employed in reviewing any other phase of history:--
+
+     1. By what means was trade accomplished before the use of money?
+
+     2. What are the functions of money?
+
+     3. What determines the amount of money needed in a country?
+
+     4. What has been used for money at various periods of our history?
+
+     5. What is meant by doing business on credit?
+
+     6. What is cheap money?
+
+     7. What is Gresham's Law?
+
+     8. What is the effect of large issues of paper money on prices?
+
+     9. What is the effect of large issues of paper money on wages?
+
+    10. Why does the wage-earner suffer?
+
+    11. At what periods in American history have large issues of paper
+        money been emitted?
+
+    12. What were the objects of the first United States Bank?
+
+    13. Did the bank accomplish them?
+
+    14. Why was it not rechartered?
+
+    15. When was the second United States Bank chartered?
+
+    16. Why?
+
+    17. What case decided the constitutionality of the bank?
+
+    18. Did the second United States Bank accomplish the purpose for
+        which it was formed?
+
+    19. Why was the second United States Bank rechartered?
+
+    20. What is meant by "Wildcat Banking"?
+
+    21. What are the dates of our greatest panics?
+
+    22. What were the chief causes?
+
+    23. What was the effect on prices?
+
+    24. What on wages?
+
+    25. Under what President was the independent treasury first
+        established?
+
+    26. Is it in existence to-day?
+
+    27. When were greenbacks issued?
+
+    28. To what amount?
+
+    29. Who was responsible for the issue?
+
+    30. Were they legal tender for private debts contracted before
+        their issue?
+
+    31. When was the Resumption Act passed?
+
+    32. Are the greenbacks in circulation to-day?
+
+    33. What is free silver?
+
+    34. What was the "Crime of '73"?
+
+    35. What was the "Bland-Allison Act"?
+
+    36. What was the Currency Act of 1900?
+
+    37. What is Bimetallism?
+
+    38. What is meant by "Mint Ratio"?
+
+    39. What is meant by "Market Ratio"?
+
+    40. What is meant by "Free Coinage"?
+
+    41. What is meant by "Gratuitous Coinage"?
+
+    42. What is meant by "Standard Money"?
+
+    43. With the market ratio at 30 to 1 and the mint ratio at 16 to 1,
+        which money would tend to disappear from circulation if both
+        metals are freely coined and made full legal tender?
+
+    44. Why is silver not the standard to-day?
+
+    45. What is the "Aldrich Plan"?
+
+    46. What is a United States bond?
+
+    47. Is it a secure investment?
+
+    48. What is its average rate of interest?
+
+    49. By whom is a national bank chartered?
+
+    50. May it issue paper money?
+
+    51. When was the first National Banking Act passed?
+
+    52. Why?
+
+    53. Why should banking business be profitable under the act?
+
+    54. What advantage did the Government expect to receive in passing
+        the act?
+
+    55. Are deposits guaranteed?
+
+    56. May States emit bills of credit?
+
+    57. Is it constitutional for banks chartered by the State to emit
+        bills of credit?
+
+    58. Do they do so to-day?
+
+    59. Why?
+
+Obviously as the year advances, the list of questions for review grows
+longer. An increasing amount of time should therefore be devoted to work
+of this sort.
+
+
+_They will insure a better acquaintance with great men and women_
+
+The most superficial observation will suffice to convince anyone that
+high school graduates know very little about the great men and women of
+history. The character sketches suggested earlier in the chapter,
+supplemented with occasional reviews, will do much to improve this
+condition. These drills may be conducted by asking for brief statements
+on the greatest service or the most distinguishing characteristic of the
+great men and women met with in the course. The same thing is
+accomplished by reversing the process and asking such questions
+as,--"Who was the American Fabius"? or "The Great Compromiser"? or the
+"Sage of Menlo Park"? etc. Questions on the authorship of great
+documents, the founders of institutions, the organizers of movements,
+reformers, philosophers, artists, statesmen, generals, accomplish the
+same purpose.
+
+
+_They will be economical of time_
+
+There are a vast number of review questions answerable with _yes_ or
+_no_. The student's knowledge of the subject may be quickly discovered
+and a rapid review conducted by a series of such questions. The
+following list on American history will illustrate the method:--
+
+     1. Was Cromwell's colonial policy helpful to the American colonies?
+
+     2. Did the Revolution of 1688 have any effect on the colonies?
+
+     3. Were the Huguenots excluded from Canada?
+
+     4. Were the Writs of Assistance used in England?
+
+     5. Did America ever have a theocracy?
+
+     6. Did the rule of 1756 affect the people of the colonies?
+
+     7. Was the Sugar Act legal?
+
+     8. Was there any effort to amend the Articles of Confederation?
+
+     9. Does funding a debt lessen it?
+
+    10. Did Hamilton's measures tend to centralize power?
+
+    11. Did the members of the Constitutional Convention exceed their
+        instructions?
+
+    12. Is a cabinet provided for in the Constitution?
+
+    13. Does the Constitution of the United States prevent a State from
+        establishing a religion?
+
+    14. Is it possible for a State to repudiate its debts?
+
+    15. Does the constitutional provision for uniform duties protect
+        the Territories?
+
+    16. Was impressment practiced in England?
+
+    17. Did the Whigs favor internal improvements?
+
+    18. Did the North favor the Force Bill of 1833?
+
+    19. Did Massachusetts favor the Tariff of 1816?
+
+    20. Did the Republican party stand for the abolition of slavery in
+        1860?
+
+    21. Did the Emancipation Proclamation free all the slaves in the
+        United States?
+
+    22. Did the working-men of England favor the South during the Civil
+        War?
+
+    23. Was it necessary for the South to resort to the draft?
+
+    24. Could a man in 1860 consistently accept both the Dred Scott
+        decision and the doctrine of popular sovereignty?
+
+    25. Did Lincoln's assassination have any effect on the
+        reconstruction policy?
+
+    26. Does the Federal Constitution compel negro suffrage?
+
+    27. Was the Anaconda System successful?
+
+    28. Was a President of the United States ever impeached?
+
+    29. Were the claims for indirect damages in the Alabama claims
+        allowed?
+
+    30. Did Calhoun favor the Compromise of 1850?
+
+    31. Did Thaddeus Stevens favor the Fifteenth Amendment to the
+        Constitution?
+
+    32. Did Lincoln favor the social equality of the white and black
+        races?
+
+    33. Did Grant favor the Tenure of Office Act?
+
+    34. Did Lee make more than one attempt to invade the North?
+
+    35. Was the "Ohio Idea" ever strong enough to affect legislation?
+
+    36. Did Spain have any part in calling out the Monroe Doctrine?
+
+    37. Has the United States any control over the debts of Cuba?
+
+    38. Has a joint resolution ever been used to acquire territory
+        other than that included in Texas?
+
+    39. Has the United States ever resorted to a tax on incomes?
+
+    40. Has the Federal Government ever attempted to restrict the power
+        of the press?
+
+    41. Is it illegal to-day for a railway to give a cheaper rate to
+        one shipper than to another?
+
+    42. Has the Republican party ever reduced the protective tariffs of
+        the war?
+
+    43. Did the Civil Service Act passed in 1883 include postmasters?
+
+    44. Did the Wilson-Gorman Act reduce the tariff to a revenue basis?
+
+    45. Can a railway engaged solely in intra-state business carry a
+        case, involving a reduction of their rates by the State
+        legislature, to the Supreme Court of the United States?
+
+    46. Is Utah a part of the Louisiana Purchase?
+
+    47. If the mint ratio is 16 to 1 and the market ratio is 17 to 1,
+        will the gold dollar be the standard if there is full legal
+        tender and free coinage for both gold and silver?
+
+    48. Is the Canadian frontier fortified?
+
+    49. Are the functions of government in this country increasing?
+
+    50. Is it possible for a man to be defeated for the Presidency if a
+        majority of the people vote for him?
+
+The great disadvantage of this kind of review is that the students have
+for their answer a choice between two words, one of which is bound to be
+correct. Knowing nothing whatever of the subject, they will still stand
+a fifty per cent chance of answering correctly. The alert teacher should
+be able to reduce this haphazard answering to a minimum, while still
+reaping the advantages of rapidity and thoroughness which the plan
+possesses. Few other methods will cover as much ground in as short time.
+On the Federal Constitution there are infinite possibilities for "yes
+and no" questioning, which afford a brief and effective means of review
+in the principles of American government.
+
+
+_They will secure fluency_
+
+Review for the purpose of securing fluency is a consideration frequently
+lost sight of by high school history teachers. It may be too sanguine to
+expect fluency of the average student reciting on a topic for the first
+time. But when it is considered how very many important questions are
+never recited on but once, the wisdom of an occasional review to secure
+rapid, fluent, and complete answers to topics previously discussed is
+readily seen. Select a list of topics that will at one and the same time
+cultivate fluency and strengthen the memory for the important
+considerations of history. Fluency in itself does not possess sufficient
+value to justify the expenditure of recitation time. Facility of
+expression needs to be cultivated in discussion of the conclusions
+reached in class which need to be clinched in the student's mind. Such
+questions as the following will serve as illustrations of the kind
+adaptable for such purpose, at the middle of a year course in American
+history:--
+
+     1. Give three distinct characteristics of French colonization in
+        America; three of Spanish; three of English.
+
+     2. What things did the English colonies possess in common?
+
+     3. What were the results to the colonies of the French and Indian
+        War?
+
+     4. To what extent was the Revolution brought about by economic
+        causes?
+
+     5. What were the defects in the Articles of Confederation?
+
+     6. Account for the downfall of the Federalist party.
+
+     7. In what ways has democracy advanced since 1789?
+
+     8. What were the results of the struggle over the admission of
+        Missouri?
+
+     9. Discuss the growth of the sentiment for internal improvements?
+
+    10. Describe the social life of the Western pioneer?
+
+
+_What the student may do with "problems" in history_
+
+Still another kind of review of great value in strengthening the
+student's ability to generalize and analyze, consists of what might be
+called "problems in history." They are given out in much the same way as
+original problems in geometry, assuming that the student is acquainted
+with the facts from which to deduce the answers to the question. The
+object of such a review is to give the student practice in original
+thinking. He is not supposed to use a library, but only the facts which
+are in his text or which have been previously brought out in class
+recitations.
+
+The following are examples of questions adaptable for this purpose:--
+
+     1. Why can the American people be regarded as the world's greatest
+        colonizers?
+
+     2. Why could Washington be regarded as only an Englishman living in
+        America?
+
+     3. Is it true that the South lost the Civil War because of slavery?
+
+     4. In what particulars did Andrew Jackson accurately reflect the
+        spirit or the ideals of the new West?
+
+     5. What is illustrated by the attempt to found the State of
+        Franklin?
+
+     6. What considerations made the secession of the West in our early
+        history a likely possibility?
+
+Questions of this kind, not answered directly in class or in the text,
+may be given out a day in advance and the answers collected at the next
+recitation.
+
+
+
+
+VI
+
+THE USE OF WRITTEN REPORTS
+
+
+_The purpose of theme work should change as the course continues_
+
+A method frequently employed by teachers of history is to require
+written reports or themes on various phases of the history as the work
+progresses. This plan is particularly valuable for the students in the
+first two years of high school history, for the reason that their
+library requirements are less exacting and their need of fluency greater
+during that time than later in their course. The objects of theme work
+in history courses are usually to arouse the pupil's powers of
+observation, description, and narration, and to provide means of drill
+in the exercise of these powers. These should not be the sole purposes
+of theme work, however. As the year advances, an increasing amount of
+the written work should be on subjects requiring some generalization or
+analysis of the facts brought out in the text or in the recitation. The
+pupil who has written a theme describing the appearance of the Pyramids
+has completed an exercise in history less valuable than that of the
+student who writes a theme on the errors of the Athenian Democracy.
+
+To summarize, reviews in history should consist of both oral and written
+work; they should be rapid enough to insure quick thinking, alert
+attention, and small expenditure of time; they should occur with
+increasing frequency as the year advances; they should stock the memory,
+fix in the student's mind the order of events, stimulate fluency, insure
+a permanent acquaintance with the personnel of history, and give to the
+student a better view of the subject as a whole and in its various
+phases.
+
+
+
+
+VII
+
+EXAMINATIONS AS TESTS OF PROGRESS
+
+
+_The examination should determine how much the student has progressed_
+
+The time is coming, if it is not already here, when the public will cry out
+against the nervous fear and sleepless nights with which their children
+approach the semi-annual torture of our inquisitorial examinations. That
+reasonable examinations are essential and beneficial is hardly open to
+question. That a student should be expected correctly to answer a fair
+percentage of reasonable questions on work which has been properly
+taught is not a cause of complaint from anyone. But that children should
+be frightened into a state of nervous terror by the bugaboo of an
+impending examination, and then be forced to attempt a series of
+conundrums propounded by a teacher who takes pride in maintaining a high
+percentage of failures, is indefensible. An examination should not be
+conducted with the primary object of making it a thing to be feared.
+However desirable such a questionable asset may seem to certain college
+professors, it is a serious fault in a high school teacher to have any
+considerable number of normal children fail. The ambition of the good
+instructor is to give an examination which shall at once be thorough,
+reasonable, and intelligently directed toward finding what the student
+has really learned. His purpose is to test accurately the various
+abilities which he has endeavored to encourage in the student during his
+course. He wishes to ascertain how much the student has really
+progressed.
+
+
+_Specific suggestions on formulating questions_
+
+In order to do this the examination must be on the really material
+considerations of the history. Questions on unimportant details should
+be omitted. The student should not be expected to burden his memory with
+the limitless mass of petty isolated facts contained in the average
+history text. The questions should be on considerations that have been
+carefully discussed, and not on facts that have received but cursory
+attention.
+
+The examination should not require too much time for writing. The
+several hours' continuous nervous tension sometimes exacted by too
+ambitious teachers does the average child more harm than the
+examination can possibly do him good.
+
+The examination should consist of questions that will jointly or
+severally test the student's powers of description, generalization, and
+analysis. They should test his knowledge of the sequence of events, his
+ability to use a library or a map, his knowledge of the various phases
+and the various periods of the history studied. In every examination
+there should be at least one question dealing with the time and the
+order of events, one each on the geographical, political, and social
+history, one that is analytical, one that requires generalization, one
+that will test his knowledge of the library, and one that will test his
+powers of description. It is not necessary to limit the questions to the
+customary number of ten. It is frequently advisable to give a class some
+degree of choice in the selection of their questions by requiring any
+ten out of a larger number asked. Certainly such a plan gives the
+student a more favorable opportunity to demonstrate his ability without
+in the least diminishing the value of the examination.
+
+Examination questions, like all other questions, should be definite,
+clean-cut, and reasonable. If possible, each student should be supplied
+with a copy, instead of having the set written on the board. They
+should cover only those portions of the subject that have been properly
+taught. The teacher should not expect the boy who has kept no useful
+notes, whose library work has been haphazard, and whose methods of study
+have not been supervised, to perform at examination time the miracle of
+accurately remembering what he has never been properly taught.
+
+
+
+
+OUTLINE
+
+
+I. SOME PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS
+
+1. Assumptions as to the teacher of history
+
+2. Actual conditions confronted by the teacher
+
+
+II. HOW TO BEGIN THE COURSE
+
+1. What should be done on the day of enrollment
+
+2. What should be done at the first meeting of the class
+
+3. Necessity for definite instruction in methods of preparing a lesson
+
+4. The question of note-taking
+
+5. Instruction in the use of the library and indexes
+
+
+III. THE ASSIGNMENT OF THE LESSON
+
+1. Careful assignment will reveal to the student the relation of
+geography and history
+
+2. His power of analysis and criticism will be stimulated
+
+3. The conditions in other countries will add to his comprehension of
+the facts in the lesson
+
+4. His disposition to study intensively will be encouraged
+
+5. His acquaintance with the great men and women of history will be
+vitalized
+
+6. He will correlate the past and the present
+
+7. He will be required to memorize a limited amount of matter verbatim
+
+8. Methods of preparing questions assigned in advance
+
+
+IV. THE METHOD OF THE RECITATION
+
+1. Assumptions as to the recitation room
+
+2. What the teacher should aim to accomplish
+
+3. Work at the blackboard
+
+4. Special reports
+
+5. Fundamental principles of good questioning
+
+6. Some additional suggestions for teachers of history
+
+
+V. VARIOUS MODES OF REVIEW
+
+1. The place of drill in the history recitation
+
+2. Good reviews will develop a knowledge of the sequence of events
+
+3. They will give a view of the whole subject
+
+4. They will insure a better acquaintance with great men and women
+
+5. They will be economical of time
+
+6. They will secure fluency
+
+7. What the student may do with "problems" in history
+
+
+VI. THE USE OF WRITTEN REPORTS
+
+1. The purpose of theme work should change as the course continues
+
+
+VII. EXAMINATIONS AS TESTS OF PROGRESS
+
+1. The examination should determine how much the student has progressed
+
+2. Specific suggestions on formulating questions
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE TEACHING OF HISTORY***
+
+
+******* This file should be named 14577.txt or 14577.zip *******
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